Input: Claim: Language apps alone provide everything needed to achieve fluency. [SEP] Text: Second, the contrast between the picture narrative task and both RtoS and RwLtoS tasks may offer insights into how the CF-UF link is affected by the preemptively enhanced activation of linguistic items by means of the source text presentation. Third, the impact of the availability of phonological information on the CF-UF link can be examined by contrasting the RtoS and RwLtoS tasks. previous studies, we targeted three major aspects of UF—speed, breakdown, and repair fluency (Tavakoli & Skehan, Reference Tavakoli, Skehan and Ellis2005). There is one measure that only taps into the construct of speed fluency, that is, articulation rate, or its inverse measure, mean duration of syllables (Tavakoli et al. , Reference Tavakoli, Nakatsuhara and Hunter2020). However, to construct a latent variable, more than two observed variables are ideally loaded onto the latent variable to avoid an underidentified model (Brown, Reference Brown2006). We thus included two composite measures—speech rate and mean length of run—as the measures of speed fluency. The selected UF measures are listed as follows: Speed fluency 1. Articulation rate (AR). The mean number of syllables produced per second, divided by total phonation time (i. e. , total speech duration excluding pauses). Composite measures 2. Speech rate (SR). The mean number of syllables produced per second, divided by total speech duration time, including pauses. 3. Mean length of run (MLR). The mean number of syllables produced in utterances between pauses. Breakdown fluency 4. Mid-clause pause ratio (MCPR). The mean number of silent pauses within clauses, divided by the total number of syllables produced. 5. End-clause pause ratio (ECPR). The mean number of silent pauses between clauses, divided by the total number of syllables produced. 6. Filled pause ratio (FPR). The mean number of filled pauses, divided by the total number of syllables produced. 7. Mid-clause pause duration (MCPD). Mean duration of pauses within clauses. 8. End-clause pause duration (ECPD). Mean duration of pauses between clauses. Repair fluency 9. Self-correction ratio (SCR).

Output: pass


Input: Claim: Functional MRI can measure brain activity by detecting changes in blood flow. [SEP] Text: Positron emission tomography was performed with a high-resolution scanner (-. S. A. ), which provided 47 contiguous transaxial slices through the brain with a center-to-center distance of 3. 125 mm and a spatial resolution (full width-half maximum of point-spread function) of 3. 6 mm transaxially and 4 mm axially (Wienhard et al. , 1994). After bolus injection of 185 MBq 18F-2-fluoro-2-deoxy-D-glucose, six frames of 10 minutes each were recorded. Images were reconstructed on a 128 × 128 matrix with 2. 17-mm pixel size by applying a Hanning filter with a cutoff frequency of 0. 4 cycles per pixel. This procedure included corrections for random coincidences, scatter, and attenuation; with regard to attenuation, a threshold algorithm was used to define the contour of the head. Images of the regional cerebral metabolic rate of glucose were calculated based on frames 3 to 6 and multiple arterialized blood samples using the autoradiographic model with adjustment of rate constants K1 and k3 to measured activity, as previously described (Wienhard et al. , 1985). Two PET studies were performed in each individual within 1 week. In the first PET study, the individuals were examined in a resting condition, with eyes closed and ears unplugged, in a room with low ambient noise (Heiss et al. , 1984). The second PET study was performed under the same condition but during verbal stimulation. The subject had to repeat German nouns that one of the investigators randomly presented aloud. The total amount of presented nouns, which was adapted to the individual repetition pace, was 1,224 (SD, 242) words in this study. The period of stimulus presentation and the number of presented and repeated words clearly exceeded the range in which the number of presented stimuli correlates with the degree of regional cortical activation (Price et al. , 1992). Thus, the number of presented words did not correlate significantly with the regional metabolic activation. The 30-minute period of stimulation started immediately before 18F-2-fluoro-2-deoxy-D-glucose injection. The MRI and PET images were coregistered in parallel to the intercommissural line as defined on the three-dimensional MRI display by using the Multi-Program. The uncertainties from the coregistration were found to be less than 1.

Output: pass


Input: Claim: Climate change has contributed to more frequent and intense heatwaves. [SEP] Text: There is a need for long-term and proactive arrangements in many aspects of risk responses, particularly in terms of extreme weather events, infrastructure resilience, and preparedness for people’s needs, in order to minimize losses from various risks. 3 Governance for AdaptationWhen advancing the process of achieving carbon neutrality in response to climate change, the impacts of more frequent and intense extreme weather events have forced us to think soberly about developing smarter climate governance strategies for sustainable development. While climate mitigation actions contribute to the slowdown of climate warming, climate adaptation is of great importance and is a more direct approach to reducing disaster risk and protecting people (Robbert and Lesnikowski 2018). The key to climate change adaptation (CCA) is the reduction of climate risks. This needs to include reducing the impacts of rapidly changing or slow-onset extreme events, to lower the vulnerabilities of infrastructures that already exist or are under construction, and to limit the combination effects on the population and society due to extra health burdens originating from other sources (for example, air pollution). The goal of CCA is to achieve climate-resilient development in the near future. Although more than 170 countries have already taken adaptation into account in their climate policies and planning, which has generated benefits in areas such as health, food security, and biodiversity conservation, there are still large gaps between actions already taken and the needs of society in response to the climate change impacts (IPCC 2022). Moreover, progress towards adaptation is unevenly distributed across regions, and most implemented adaptation measures have been small-scale, fragmented, incremental, or sector-specific. Despite the general advocation of CCA in the 2015 and the earlier on (), there is a lack of a comprehensive and systematic guiding framework for countries’ CCA actions, as well as a unified and coordinated operational framework for collaborative deployment within the UN system. Here, we present several suggestions and recommendations for resilience building through collaborative governance for CCA (Fig. 3). Fig. 3Recommendations for climate resilient development (CRD) through collaborative governance for climate change adaptation (CCA), with the support of multi-stakeholder partnershipsFull size imageNations (UN) should take the lead in promoting CCA at the global level. Although the importance of CCA was highlighted in the (2022. Exceeding 1. 5°C global warming could trigger multiple climate tipping points. Science 377(6611): 7950.

Output: corroborate


Input: Claim: Language apps alone provide everything needed to achieve fluency. [SEP] Text: Meanwhile, breakdown fluency was overall consistently related to both linguistic resource and processing speed across tasks. Despite the lack of significant differences, the latent variable of breakdown fluency seemed to show slightly stronger associations with processing speed (β =. 376–. 502) than with linguistic resource (β =. 221–. 345). As for repair fluency, linguistic resource significantly contributed to the construct of repair fluency only in speaking tasks where the content of speech was predefined (the picture narrative task, the RtoS task, the RwLtoS task). Meanwhile, processing speed was not related to repair fluency in any of the speaking tasks. The SEM model suggested that the relative importance of linguistic dimensions differed between the latent variables of CF in terms of their range of confidence intervals (see Supplementary Information). Regarding linguistic resource, the regression coefficients of PVLT (β =. 845–. 879) were significantly higher than those of Accuracy, except for the picture narrative task (β =. 675–. 691). As regards processing speed, the highest regression coefficients were found in RT (β =. 794–. 821). According to the 95% confidence intervals, the strengths of coefficients between RT and (β =. 607–. 620) did not reach statistical significance in any of the speaking tasks. Significant differences in the regression coefficients were only found between RT and RT (β =. 436–. 453). The latent variables of linguistic resource and processing speed were strongly associated with each other consistently across tasks (β =. 664–. 676). Looking closely at the measurement models of UF constructs, the regression coefficients of articulation rate (β =. 876–. 905) to the latent variable of speed fluency seemed to be slightly higher than those of mean length of run (β =. 721–. 882). Regarding breakdown fluency, the coefficients of mid-clause pause ratio (β =. 919–. 963) were significantly higher than those of the other measures—mean pause duration (β =. 528–. 690), end-clause pause ratio (β =. 373–. 515), and filled pause ratio (β =. 545–. 628). As regards repair fluency, the regression coefficients of self-repetition ratio were significantly higher than those of self-correction ratio (except for the RtoS task) and false start ratio.

Output: contrast


Input: Claim: Functional MRI can measure brain activity by detecting changes in blood flow. [SEP] Text: 5 mm in any direction (Pietrzyk et al. , 1994). The original three-dimensional-registered MRI and PET images were interpolated to 1-mm3 voxels. Sagittal, coronal, and transaxial 1-mm slices were created from the 1-mm3 voxels. A software program written in-house allowed a simultaneous, three-dimensional display of MRI and PET images. Regions of interest were placed subsequently on several adjacent MRI slices in one plane. The software program automatically superimposed the regions on the corresponding PET images and simultaneously displayed them on the two other planes so that the three-dimensional extent of a region could immediately be seen (Herholz et al. , 1996). Thus metabolic changes were measured in regions based on the individual brain morphology. We analyzed cortical activity in the main regions of language processing, i. e. , in the left BA 44, which is the core of Broca's area, in the left BA 22, which is the core of Wernicke's area, in their right-hemispheric mates, and in the entire corpus callosum. The regions of interest were outlined as follows:1. The sulcal area of BA 22, i. e. , that part of BA 22 that is buried in the superior temporal sulcus. The anterior and posterior borders of BA 22 (sulcus) coincided with the anterior border of Heschl's gyrus and with the posterior border of the planum temporale, respectively. The medial border was defined by the medial fold of the superior temporal sulcus; the lateral border coincided with the lateral border of the planum temporale (Karbe et al. , 1995). 2. The part of BA 22 that is located on the surface of the superior temporal gyrus. Brodmann's area 22 (surface) medially started at the lateral border of the Sylvian fissure and stretched to the lateral surface of the superior temporal gyrus (Karbe et al. , 1995). 3. Brodmann's area 44, which was defined as the convolution posterior to the ascending ramus of the Sylvian fissure (Foundas et al. , 1995). 4. The corpus callosum. The contour of the corpus callosum was delineated on seven sagittal 1-mm slices starting midsagittally on MRI scans.

Output: pass


Input: Claim: Climate change has contributed to more frequent and intense heatwaves. [SEP] Text: 1748-9326/10/12/121001 video Recent years have witnessed unprecedented interest in how the burning of fossil fuels may impact on the global climate system. Such visibility of this issue is in part due to the increasing frequency of key international summits to debate emissions levels, including the 2015 21st Conference of Parties meeting in Paris. In this perspective we plot a timeline of significant climate meetings and reports, and against metrics of atmospheric greenhouse gas changes and global temperature. One powerful metric is cumulative CO2 emissions that can be related to past and future warming levels. That quantity is analysed in detail through a set of papers in this ERL focus issue. We suggest it is an open question as to whether our timeline implies a lack of progress in constraining climate change despite multiple recent keynote meetings—or alternatively—that the increasing level of debate is encouragement that solutions will be found to prevent any dangerous warming levels? Export citation and abstract 3. 0 licence. Any further distribution of this work must maintain attribution to the author(s) and the title of the work, journal citation and DOI. Nations (UN) 2015 (Conference of Parties, COP 21) will focus on action to lower risks of dangerous climate change as a consequence of greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions. This is one of a series of major reports and meetings, marked bottom of figure 1, which can be compared (panel a) to emissions timeline of carbon dioxide (CO2), methane (CH4) and nitrous oxide (N2O). Plotted are total annual CO2 emissions from fossil fuel burning and cement production (Boden et al 2010) updated to 2013, and also including land use change (Houghton et al 2012). Emissions of CH4 and N2O are those estimated to match concentration changes, from pre-industrial to year 2005 (Lamarque et al 2011, Meinshausen et al 2011). Panel b shows atmospheric CO2 concentrations (IPCC 2013a), extended to 2014 by NOAA/ESRL (www. esrl. noaa. gov/gmd/ccgg/trends/global. html), and is currently just below 400 ppm. When the 1st IPCC report was published in 1990, atmospheric CO2 had a value of approximately 354 ppm. Reset image size Figure 1. (a) Annual historical emissions of carbon dioxide (red), methane (orange) and nitrous oxide (green).

Output: corroborate


Input: Claim: Language apps alone provide everything needed to achieve fluency. [SEP] Text: 963) were significantly higher than those of other breakdown fluency measures—end-clause pause ratio (β =. 373–. 515), filled pause ratio (β =. 545–. 628), and mean pause duration (β =. 528–. 690; except for the RtoS task). There were no significant differences in the regression coefficients among these three measures of mean pause duration, end-clause pause ratio, and filled pause ratio. Therefore, the representative component of breakdown fluency is the frequency of breakdowns in the middle of utterances, whereas the length of pauses and the frequency of pauses at clausal boundaries and filled pauses might be secondary (Bosker et al. , Reference Bosker, Pinget, Quené, Sanders and de Jong2013). Mid-clause pauses are reflective of disruptions to L2-specific processing, such as lexical retrieval and sentence construction (De Jong, Jong2016; Tavakoli, Reference Tavakoli2011). Accordingly, the construct of breakdown fluency may represent L2 users’ ability to continue speaking without disruptions to L2-specific speech processing. As regards repair fluency, the regression coefficients of self-repetition ratio to the latent variable of repair fluency (β =. 787–. 860) tended, overall, to be significantly higher than those of false start ratio (β =. 289–. 459) and self-correction ratio (β =. 487–. 632). Accordingly, the frequency of self-repetitions can be regarded as the primary component of repair fluency, whereas both self-corrections and false starts are of secondary importance. The frequency of self-repetitions may be independent of L2 proficiency (Tavakoli et al. , Reference Tavakoli, Nakatsuhara and Hunter2020) and reflective of learners’ speaking style (et al. , Jong, Groenhout, Schoonen and Hulstijn2015). Alternatively, self-repetition can be used as a fluency strategy or problem-solving mechanism (Dörnyei & Kormos, Reference Dörnyei and Kormos1998). Specifically, the use of self-repetitions can buy time for monitoring or retrieval processes, as lexicalized fillers do.

Output: contrast


Input: Claim: Functional MRI can measure brain activity by detecting changes in blood flow. [SEP] Text: The outer contour of 1-mm3 voxels was excluded from metabolic measurements to reduce partial volume effects. We divided the corpus callosum into three parts on the midsagittal plane: the anterior third (rostrum, genu, rostral body), the middle half (midbody and isthmus), and the posterior sixth (splenium). The metabolic changes of the anatomically defined regions (Cregional) were calculated from:Cregional= (CMRglc,regional,activated/CMRglc,regional,rest)×100(CMRglc,global,activated/CMRglc,global,rest)−100(1)where CMRglc,regional,activated is the CMRglc during activation, CMRglc,regional,rest is the CMRglc at rest, and CMRglc,global,activated and CMRglc,global,rest are the CMRglc of the entire brain during activation and at rest, respectively. The global CMRglc value of the entire brain included all brain structures except for the cerebrospinal fluid space, i. e. , ventricles and cisterns were excluded from the calculation. SPSS for Windows, Version 6. 0 was used for all statistical calculations. 1 lists the mean metabolic changes of the callosal and cortical regions of interest. Table 2 gives the Pearson correlation coefficients between the three callosal and the six cortical regions. The 18 correlations clearly show a tendency to be different from zero. step-down adjustment of Holm (Holm, 1979) was used to provide overall protection against reporting significant results that are false. Using this adjustment, two correlations are statistically significant, i. e. , the correlations of the callosal midbody/isthmus with the left BA 44 and right BA 22 (surface). Interestingly, both correlations are negative. That means that the callosal activity decreases as the cortical activity increases. Figure 1 shows both significant inverse corticocallosal correlations in a schematic lateral view; Fig. 2 shows the relationship between the right BA 22 (surface part) and the callosal midbody/isthmus in a correlation plot. Table 1 Mean metabolic changes with standard deviation during single word repetition Mean metabolic change (%)Left BA 22 (sulcus)5. 8 (4.

Output: pass


Input: Claim: Climate change has contributed to more frequent and intense heatwaves. [SEP] Text: (b) Atmospheric CO2 concentrations (red) and cumulative C emissions (brown). Two brown dashed lines, 1. 0 TtC and 0. 79 TtC minus cumulative emissions (see text). (c) Global temperature record anomalies. (d) Fractional occurrence of words 'climate change' or 'global warming' anywhere in books and number of occurrences in research paper titles. Dates of five IPCC reports as arrows above panels, with quotations of significant statements made in them. Other major research findings and climate-related meetings at base. Download figure:Standard image High-resolution image Warming is presented (panel c) as globally averaged surface temperature anomalies relative to the 1960–1990 baseline (Morice et al 2012). Comparing the increases in greenhouse gas emissions and global temperature rise does not imply direct causality. However, based on assessment by multiple climate research centres of temperature variations that might be expected for an unperturbed atmosphere, the five IPCC reports have made increasingly strong statements that an anthropogenic influence is detectable on such observed warming. These are represented by IPCC report quotations, top of figure (for detailed timeline specific to activities of on Climate Change, see Continued warming from 'business-as-usual' emissions could increase sea levels significantly (IPCC 2013b, Rahmstorf 2007) leading to major inundation to low-lying regions. Intensification of the hydrological cycle is also expected. This could cause more frequent extreme rain and flood events. However that signal is presently offset by raised counteracting cooling atmospheric aerosol concentrations (Wu et al 2013); these may fall through clean-air acts. Furthermore oceans are currently absorbing much thermal energy and so contemporary transient warming may be up to 50% lower than equilibrium 'committed' warming for present-day GHG concentration levels (e. g. Schlesinger 1986). Against this backdrop of potential dangerous change, stabilisation at (or below) two-degrees temperature rise since pre-industrial times is often presented as a maximum acceptable warming threshold. This would need major emissions reductions starting soon, with delays imposing even higher reductions on future generations (e. g. Huntingford et al 2012). However the long atmospheric lifetime of carbon dioxide, together with the high inertia of the climate response largely driven by the rate of ocean heat uptake, allows a simple characterisation of such generational exchanges.

Output: corroborate


Input: Claim: Language apps alone provide everything needed to achieve fluency. [SEP] Text: From the perspective of speech production, another important assumption is that repair fluency is in a complementary relationship with breakdown fluency (Tavakoli & Wright, and Wright2020). When a speaker experiences disruption to speech processing and is required to repair their utterance, the speaker can engage with the repairing process either by producing no speech (i. e. , silent pauses) or repeating the previous utterance (i. e. , self-repetition). The strategic use of self-repetition may be determined by the speaker’s individual preference and might consequently obscure the association with L2 competence. Taken together, the construct of repair fluency reflects the ability to produce L2 speech without disfluency features. Contribution of to model revealed the multidimensional interrelationship between CF and UF with some variations across four speaking tasks. The latent variable of processing speed of CF contributed to that of speed fluency consistently across speaking tasks (β =. 431–. 609). Meanwhile, the latent variable of linguistic resource made significant contributions to that of speed fluency only in the RtoS task (β =. 234) and the RwLtoS task (β =. 276). Therefore, the overall efficiency of speech production (speed fluency) can be primarily supported by the speed of linguistic processing skills. The consistent contributions of the speed dimension of CF to speed fluency in the current study may provide some supporting evidence for Segalowitz’s (Reference Segalowitz2016) claim that CF is mainly characterized by the speed of L2-specific linguistic processing. Meanwhile, the task-dependent role of linguistic resource in speed fluency can be interpreted with regard to the characteristics of RtoS and RwLtoS tasks, that is, the enhanced activation of relevant linguistic items by the source texts. If students have acquired those activated items for productive use, the enhanced activation of those items can assist students to use the items rapidly (cf. priming effects, McDonough & Trofimovich, Reference McDonough and Trofimovich2008), subsequently increasing their overall efficiency of speech production (i. e. , speed fluency). Therefore, the contributions of linguistic resources to speed fluency may increase when the mastery of relevant linguistic items plays a particularly important role in the completion of a given task.

Output: contrast


Input: Claim: Functional MRI can measure brain activity by detecting changes in blood flow. [SEP] Text: 2)†Left BA 22 (surface)9. 9 (3. 1)‡Left BA 442. 3 (3. 0)*Right BA 22 (sulcus)8. 6 (2. 9)†Right BA 22 (surface)11. 6 (6. 1)‡Right BA 441. 2 (3. 3)Entire corpus callosum−1. 4 (5. 3)Rostrum, genu, rostral body−1. 5 (6. 9)Midbody, isthmus−1. 1 (10. 6)Splenium. 1 (6. 1)BA, Brodmann's area. The asterisks indicate the significance level of the metabolic increase during word repetition in comparison to the resting state (∗P =. 05, †P =. 01, ‡P =. 001; 2-tailed t-test). Table 2 Pearson correlation coefficients (with P value) of the cortical and callosal regions of interest Corpus callosum Rostrum/genu rostral body (P)Midbody/isthmus (P)Splenium (P)Left BA 22 (sulcus)−. 12 (>. 05)−. 78 (. 008)−. 69 (. 03)Left BA 22 (surface)−. 37 (>. 05)−. 41 (>. 05)−. 40 (>. 05)Left BA 44−. 13 (>. 05)−. 85 (. 002)∗−. 80 (. 006)Right BA 22 (sulcus). 39 (>. 05). 052 (>. 05). 30 (>. 05)Right BA 22 (surface)−. 21 (>. 05)−. 91 (<. 001)∗−. 71 (. 02)Right BA 44−. 54 (>. 05)−0. 37 (>. 05)−. 05 (>. 05)BA, Brodmann's area. ∗Significant correlations. P =. 05 with Bonferroni step-down procedure of Holm for 18 correlations is. 003 (Holm, 1979)FIG. 1. Right Brodmann's area (BA) 22 (surface part) (22sf) and left BA 44 on schematic lateral views of the brain hemispheres.

Output: pass


Input: Claim: Climate change has contributed to more frequent and intense heatwaves. [SEP] Text: This is because peak warming can be simply related to the single quantity of cumulative CO2 emissions (Allen et al 2009, Matthews et al 2009). Cumulative historical carbon (C) emissions are also shown in panel b (units of Trillion tonnes of C). The 5th IPCC report (IPCC 2013b) estimates that if CO2 was the only GHG perturbed, then burning 1000 GtC i. e. one Trillion tonnes of C (Allen et al 2009) would likely (66% probability) limit surface warming to 2 °C relative to pre-industrial. Upper dash curve (figure 1(b)) shows remaining 'allowed' emissions, if a trillion tonnes was accepted as an upper limit on total C usage. If the ratio of C emissions to non-CO2 gas emissions is kept similar to the ratio implicit in RCP8. 5, then to stay below two degrees—again with 66% probability but accounting for these additional GHGs—then total 'allowed' C emissions becomes 790GtC (IPCC 2013b). Lower brown dashed line is remaining emissions on that basis, highlighting that we have already emitted roughly two thirds of that overall quota, and at current emissions levels the remaining budget would be exhausted in about 25 years. Against that backdrop, this special issue 'Focus on Cumulative Emissions, Budgets and the Implications for Targets' refines and investigates in depth the relationship between anthropogenic emissions and climate target. This considers models' responses to cumulative emissions (Frölicher and Paynter 2015, LoPresti et al 2015, Nohara et al 2015); role of non-CO2 forcing in modulating the relationship between cumulative CO2 emissions and climate response (Rogelj et al 2015a); historical and future contribution from major emitters, in the context of pledges i. e. (INDCs) (Gignac and Matthews 2015, Peters et al 2015); and implications of emissions mitigations on the global economy (Rogelj et al 2015b, Rozenberg et al 2015). To provide historical context to the current climate debate, we mark on figure 1 past key events. The potential for raised CO2 concentrations to cause surface level temperature warming was first identified in 1896 (Arrhenius 1896).

Output: corroborate


Input: Claim: Language apps alone provide everything needed to achieve fluency. [SEP] Text: The latent variable of breakdown fluency was associated with both dimensions of CF consistently across speaking tasks, despite the marginally significant contribution of linguistic resource in the RwLtoS task (p =. 061). The results indicated that the ability to continue speaking without disruption may be underpinned by both the availability of linguistic resources and the speed of linguistic processing. This finding is in line with the broad definition of CF, which assumes that breakdowns in speech production can be caused by either lack of linguistic resources or slow processing speed (see Kormos, Reference Kormos2006; see also the “Cognitive Fluency” section). Moreover, the association of breakdown fluency with both dimensions of CF may give some insights into how the constructs of speed fluency and breakdown fluency are theoretically distinguishable, despite the strong correlation between them. Speed fluency was mainly related to the speed dimension of CF, whereas breakdown fluency was connected to the linguistic resource of CF as well as the processing speed component. The significant contribution of linguistic resource to repair fluency was only found in the picture narrative task, the RtoS task, and the RwLtoS task (β =. 330–. 375). Meanwhile, the processing speed of CF was not associated with the latent variable of repair fluency in any of the speaking tasks. Previous studies have shown that the construct of repair fluency is relatively independent of L2 proficiency (Tavakoli et al. , Reference Tavakoli, Nakatsuhara and Hunter2020) and reflective of individual speakers’ speaking styles (et al. , Jong, Groenhout, Schoonen and Hulstijn2015; Peltonen, Reference Peltonen2018). However, the current result may suggest that repair fluency is not entirely independent of L2-specific linguistic knowledge in some communicative situations where the content of speech is mostly predefined (i. e. , closed task; see Pallotti, Reference Pallotti2009). One essential characteristic of closed tasks is that students cannot avoid expressing some information to achieve the given task, even if they have not fully acquired the necessary linguistic items to convey the intended information. Students are thus required to engage with modifying the intended message or search for some alternative expressions using their own resources.

Output: contrast


Input: Claim: Functional MRI can measure brain activity by detecting changes in blood flow. [SEP] Text: Below is a midsagittal cut through the corpus callosum with the subunits rostrum/genu/rostral body, midbody/isthmus, splenium. The speech-induced activity of both cortical areas has a significant inverse correlation with the activity of the callosal midbody/isthmus. FIG. 2. Correlation plot of metabolic changes (%) of the callosal midbody/isthmus and the right Brodmann's area 22 (surface) during word repetition with 95% confidence interval (dotted lines) (r = −0. 91, P < 0. 001). matter metabolism has rarely been analyzed with PET in humans, although animal studies indicate that white matter glucose consumption depends on the level of brain functional activity. In their basic description of the deoxyglucose method, Sokoloff et al. (1977) established that the corpus callosum metabolism is 29% higher in conscious than in anesthetized rats. Furthermore, animal studies of neuropeptide-induced hypermetabolism clearly demonstrate that neuroexcitatory effects also involve connecting white matter tracts, especially the corpus callosum (Gross et al. , 1992). Using radiolabeled deoxyglucose and PET, our study demonstrates for the first time in humans a significant inverse relationship between cortical gray matter activation and white matter metabolic changes during a mental operation. We identified the callosal midbody and isthmus as a white matter region that mediates functional brain asymmetry between key regions of auditory and language processing. We have to emphasize, however, that the resolution even of the new generation of PET scanners did not allow us to identify single fiber tracts within the callosal midbody. The metabolic changes that we found in this study therefore point to a modulation of intercerebral activity that predominantly, but not exclusively, involves key regions of functional brain asymmetry. Studies of dichotic listening indicate substantial transfer of lateralized information between the human auditory cortices, on the basic level of word perception (Kimura, 1967). Neuroanatomic studies of animals (Cipolloni and Pandya, 1985) and neuropsychological studies of patients with partial versus complete callosotomy (Musiek and Reeves, 1986) consistently indicate that this transfer between the auditory cortices uses specific fiber tracts of the callosal midbody and isthmus, i. e.

Output: pass


Input: Claim: Deforestation contributes to habitat loss and climate change. [SEP] Text: Email Us: info@lupinepublishers. com Call Us: +1 (914) 407-6109 57 West 57th Street, 3rd floor, - NY 10019, 10. 32474/CIACR. 2019. 06. 000236 to Results and 1. 2 billion people living in extreme poverty depend on forests for some part of their livelihood. Half of the wood used in the world currently used for cooking, heat and light. Results and to Results and 50. It must be taken into account that about 70 percent of the Earth’s surface is taken up by water, whereas area covered by forests is only 30 percent. So, the area of all marine plants (including Phytoplanktons) is about two times more than forests. Besides, forests not only produce oxygen, but also use themselves for breathing. On the forest’s ability and amount of oxygen production adversely influence constant decrease of forests and their degradation. Consequently, decrease of forest area induce diminution of oxygen contribution to the atmosphere that negatively affected on all living organisms. and are the most important repositories of the terrestrial biological biodiversity. Tropical, temperate and boreal forests contain most diverse habitats for plants, animals and microorganisms. Forests’ biodiversity provides variety of goods and services [4]. They play a vital role in daily life of the most rural communities in the world. They are the repositories of aesthetic, ethic, cultural and spiritual wealth for different religious groups in the world in spite of their confession. Unfortunately, forests area and biodiversity gradually diminish in the world for last decades. Deforestation and forest degradation through agricultural expansion, conversion of forest lands to pastures, infrastructure development, distractive loggings, wild fires and insect pests and diseases outbreaks, accelerate biodiversity and forest loss. Forum’s Survey in 2017, climate change and destruction of nature placed on the first place with 48. 8% [5] with nearly 20% of global greenhouse gas emissions, more than the entire global transportation, forest loss is the second largest contributor after energy sector (Table 1). The major Green- (GHG) in the atmosphere today are: Carbon dioxide (Co2), Methane (CH4), and nitrous oxide (N2o).

Output: corroborate


Input: Claim: Language apps alone provide everything needed to achieve fluency. [SEP] Text: As discussed previously, students can strategically or subconsciously use self-repetition to buy time to repair their utterances (Dörnyei & Kormos, Reference Dörnyei and Kormos1998). Therefore, the contribution of linguistic resource to repair fluency may reflect engagement with repair due to the lack of linguistic resources needed to express task-essential information. study is the first one to examine the CF-UF link at the level of constructs and offers novel insights into how the subconstructs of CF contribute to those of UF across different speaking tasks. Our research has demonstrated that the construct of CF consists of two dimensions—linguistic resource and processing speed—and confirmed the robustness of Tavakoli and Skehan’s (Reference Tavakoli, Skehan and Ellis2005) three-dimensional model of UF (speed, breakdown, and repair fluency) across tasks. Based on our analyses, we have argued that key components of linguistic resource in CF are the breadth and depth of linguistic knowledge needed for encoding speakers’ intended message. This suggests that similar to L1 speech production (Levelt, Reference Levelt1989, Reference Levelt, Brown and Hagoort1999), semantic knowledge is essential to ensure the efficiency of encoding L2 speech. We also found that the speed of sentence construction was a key component of the construct of processing speed, which highlights the important role of automaticity of syntactic encoding processes in L2 spoken performance (cf. Kormos, Reference Kormos2006). The SEM analysis also revealed a complex interplay between the multidimensionality of CF and UF and speaking task types. Speed fluency was primarily associated with processing speed, whereas linguistic resource might only play a role when relevant linguistic items are activated in advance by the input task (i. e. , RtoS and RwLtoS tasks). Meanwhile, both linguistic resource and processing speed contributed to breakdown fluency consistently across speaking tasks, suggesting that linguistic encoding problems can occur due to both lack of resources or challenges in accessing and processing linguistic knowledge in real time. Finally, the contribution of linguistic resource to repair fluency was significant only when the content of speech was predefined (i. e. , picture narrative task, RtoS task, RwLtoS task), whereas repair fluency was generally independent of processing speed.

Output: contrast


Input: Claim: Functional MRI can measure brain activity by detecting changes in blood flow. [SEP] Text: , that part of the corpus callosum that we identified as speech-relevant in this study. More interesting than the localization of the callosal metabolic changes, however, are the organization and direction of callosal information transfer that our data imply. If the transcallosal auditory communication was a direct projection and simply excitatory, the metabolic increase of callosal fibers would parallel the activation of cortical neurons. We found, however, a negative correlation between callosal and cortical energy consumption during word repetition, i. e. , the cortical metabolism of functionally asymmetric areas increased as the callosal metabolism decreased. It has to be emphasized in this context that our sample of individuals only included consistent right-handers, predominantly men, i. e. , individuals with presumably left-dominant, asymmetrically organized brains (Shaywitz et al. , 1995; Geschwind and Galaburda, 1984). In these brains, we found significant negative corticocallosal correlations. Because the deoxyglucose method directly reflects the local energy utilization accompanying membrane depolarization (Mata et al. , 1980), our findings suggest that the activation of specially asymmetric cortex areas reduces the overall number of activated callosal fibers. Finding a modification of activity in such a large part of the corpus callosum, furthermore, indicates that key regions of brain functional asymmetry may be able basically to adjust the interhemispheric information exchange beyond a simple one-to-one talk with their contralateral mate. That means that lateralized mental operations can only be executed when the transcallosal activity is reduced to the actual operational needs, or in other words, that the orchestra has to decrease in volume when the soloist is playing. Figure 3 schematically illustrates this concept of transcallosal mediation of functional brain asymmetry. FIG. 3. Schematic diagrams of symmetric and asymmetric interhemispheric information processing. The left diagram shows the symmetric transmission of nonlateralized information. Neurons of both hemispheres (filled circles) reciprocally excite neurons in their contralateral projection field. Inhibitory neurons (crossed circles) and specific neurons with functional dominance (large circle) are not involved. The right diagram shows the excitation of a functionally dominant neuron of the left hemisphere (large circle) during specific information processing.

Output: pass


Input: Claim: Deforestation contributes to habitat loss and climate change. [SEP] Text: less prevalent but very powerful greenhouse gases are hydrofluorocarbons (HFCs), perfluorocarbons (PFCs) and sulphur hexafluoride (SF6). Table 1: Countries with Loss 2011-2013*. Source: https:// global forest watch. Org 2018. *Tree cover Deforestation and Losses. The leading country in greenhouse gas emissions from 2005 until now is China. It’s GHG emissions from 2005 to 2014 increased from 6. 9 G. T. to 12 G. T. Then come U. S and E. U. The least and stable GHG emissions in these years had only Canada and Mexico (Table 2). Presently there are about 390,900 plants known to science, of which about 369,400 are flowering. Over 96,000 species have been assessed for their conservation status with the latest update to the. 96,951, including 27,514 plant species i. e. around 26 % from them are threatened with extinction. Scientists believe that these threats come from climate change, habitat loss, diseases and invasive species. Climate change commonly refers to influences on climate resulting from human practices. Increases in the concentration of so-called greenhouse gasses in the atmosphere resulting greatly from burning of fossil fuels and deforestation, have led to observed and projected warming of the earth, known as greenhouse effect. But it isn’t easy to distinguish this anthropogenic climate threats of climate change from the natural variations of the climate change drivers described above. In the 5th Assessment Report, the IPCC (intergovernmental panel on Climate Change), a group of 1,300 independent scientific experts from countries all over the world under the auspices of the United Nations, concluded that there is more than 95 percent probability that human activities over the last 50 years have warmed our planet [6]. Table 2: Emissions. Source:. 2017. Gas Emissions. Washington, D. C. . 2017 It is obvious that in order to constrain the impacts of climate change within limits that the society will reasonably be able to tolerate the global average temperatures must be kept below two degrees Celsius. At the 48th session of the IPCC (on Climate Change) in Incheon, South Korea, in 2018, was underlined that global warming is already reaching 1. 5 degrees Celsius above pre-industrial levels. They warned that the planet is already on two/thirds of the way to there.

Output: corroborate


Input: Claim: Language apps alone provide everything needed to achieve fluency. [SEP] Text: These results confirmed that the processing speed of CF showed a consistent pattern of contributions to UF across speaking task types, whereas the role of linguistic resource of CF in UF tends to vary, depending on task characteristics. The current findings offer some insights into what linguistic objectives should be prioritized in relation to L2 fluency development. The CFA model of CF showed that vocabulary size was found to be the primary component of linguistic resource, whereas sentence construction speed was the primary component of processing speed. Accordingly, vocabulary instruction should emphasize widening students’ lexical repertoires for productive use (Webb et al. , Reference Webb, Yanagisawa and Uchihara2020), and grammar instruction should focus not only on accuracy but also on the speed and efficiency of grammatical encoding which can be enhanced through meaningful and engaging practice activities (Y. Suzuki & DeKeyser, and DeKeyser2017). Articulatory speed was also found to be another component of the processing speed of CF, indicating that training on some suprasegmental features, such as linking and vowel reduction, may also facilitate students’ fluent speech production (Saito et al. , Reference Saito, Suzukida and Sun2019). In addition, our SEM model showed that the construct of breakdown fluency may be consistent across tasks, whereas that of speed fluency and repair fluency could vary, depending on task characteristics. Therefore, breakdown fluency measures, such as mid-clause pause ratio (for predictive validity in perceived fluency, see S. Suzuki et al. , Reference Suzuki, Kormos and Uchihara2021), could be adopted as a representative feature in automated scoring systems for oral proficiency. Two significant methodological limitations need to be acknowledged in interpreting the current findings. First, we did not include measures of multiword sequences and pronunciation accuracy (cf. et al. , and Hulstijn2013; Kahng, Reference Kahng2020). The processing advantage of multiword sequences in L2 speech production has been advocated in L2 fluency research (Tavakoli & Uchihara, and Uchihara2020). Similarly, despite the substantive difficulty in identifying targetlike pronunciation, previous studies have found some unique contributions of pronunciation, such as syllable structure errors, to listener-based judgments of fluency (S. Suzuki & Kormos, and Kormos2020).

Output: contrast


Input: Claim: Functional MRI can measure brain activity by detecting changes in blood flow. [SEP] Text: The excitation of the dominant neuron is transmitted to local inhibitory interneurons, ipsilaterally and contralaterally. The information transfer to the contralateral projection field uses a disynaptic feed-forward circuit of excitatory/inhibitory transcallosal transmission. Thus inhibitory neurons bilaterally suppress the background activity of symmetric interhemispheric information exchange. Because the excitation of inhibitory neurons is also energy consuming, the activation of the dominant neuron (large filled circle) induces a significant bilateral metabolic increase that is closely correlated. Callosal metabolism decreases at the same time because the overall number of excited transcallosal fibers decreases in favor of the transmission of excitatory/inhibitory information through the specific transcallosal axon. Interestingly, callosal metabolism increased to some extent in 4 of 10 individuals during word repetition in comparison with the resting state (Fig. 2). Moreover, this finding smoothly fits our model of collateral inhibition proposed in Fig. 3, because the corpus callosum presumably includes fibers that transmit specific, task-related information and others that transmit unrelated activity. In asymmetrically organized brains, a few callosal fibers that transmit specific information may suppress unrelated interhemispheric activity through the corpus callosum to such an extent that the overall callosal activity is reduced in comparison with the resting state. In more symmetrically organized brains, however, both hemispheres actively contribute to the mental processing. Thus, the bilateral execution of mental operations needs less energy-consuming activation of inhibitory neurons in the cortex but more specific information exchange through the corpus callosum. The callosal energy consumption because of the task-related information transmission may therefore exceed the reduction of unrelated transcallosal activity in individuals with minor functional lateralization. Our results bear direct relevance to the debate on the ontogenic development and function of callosal fibers with respect to cerebral hemisphere dominance (Witelson, 1985; Kertesz et al. , 1987). Studies of human and mammalian brains suggest that the more asymmetric a region is, the smaller the number of neurons and callosal axons (Galaburda et al. , 1990; Aboitiz, 1992). This decrease of neuronal density is probably caused by specific neuronal degeneration, which adjusts the magnitude of each neuronal population to the size of functional needs of its projection field during brain development (Cowan et al. , 1984). The concept shown in Fig.

Output: pass


Input: Claim: Deforestation contributes to habitat loss and climate change. [SEP] Text: Presently the average global temperature already increased on one degree Celsius. According to the report, the planet will reach this crucial threshold as early as 2030 based on the calculations of current levels of greenhouse gas emissions. The global net emissions of carbon dioxide would need to fall by 45% from 2010 levels by 2030 and reach net zero around 2050 in order to keep the warming around 1. 5 degrees Celsius. But they also noted that even if warming will be able to keep at 1. 5 degrees Celsius, the adverse impacts will be widespread and significant on many regions of the world. This goal will be impossible to achieve without reduction of emissions from the forest sector, in addition to other mitigation actions. The REDD+ (from Deforestation and Forest Degradation) program goes beyond deforestation and forest degradation and includes the role of conservation, sustainable management of forests and enhancement of forest carbon stocks. Forestry offers potential mitigation through sequestration in growing forests and use of forest biomass for bio-energy. There is potential for bio-fuels to reduce emissions from the transport sector. Reforestation can also contribute to mitigation of greenhouse gas emissions though sequestration of carbon from the atmosphere. Forests sequester carbon as they grow, until they reach maturity, after which carbon stock remains essentially constant unless they are disturbed by harvest or fire. The sequestration rate of planted forests depends on climate, soil factors and forest sustainable management. Forests’ 3: Summery of the data on forest species from the 25 countries. Source: FAO, of Pests and Diseases. FAO, Forestry Paper. 156. Rome, Italy [21]. Forests have always been under different threats by variety of destructive natural disasters, like fires, hurricanes, droughts, ice-storms and insect pests and diseases outbreaks. But today all these threats shifting aside by the result of human activities and the global climate change making forest ecosystems more vulnerable for damage. Among forest threats are natural and human-induced once. Major natural forest threats are natural destructive wild fires, climate change, insect pests and diseases epidemics, loss of plant biodiversity. Anthropogenic drivers are considered: overexploitation, human induced fires, invasive plant species, illegal loggings, non-sustainable forest management, agricultural expansion, infrastructure development, enlargement of towns [5,7].

Output: corroborate


Input: Claim: Language apps alone provide everything needed to achieve fluency. [SEP] Text: Longitudinal development of second language utterance fluency, cognitive fluency, and their relationship Published online by Press: 26 February 2024 [Opens in a new window] Show author details Jimin Kahng* Affiliation: Department of Modern Languages, University of * Email: jkahng@olemiss. edu 0. 16 mb) View PDF [Opens in a new window] Save to to Save to & Permissions [Opens in a new window] development of L2 utterance fluency has been extensively researched, whereas that of cognitive fluency has rarely been examined. This study investigated the longitudinal development of L2 utterance and cognitive fluency and their relationship. Thirty-one Chinese learners of English completed speaking tasks and a set of tasks for cognitive fluency before and after 5 months’ study abroad. The results showed that participants made a significant improvement in mean syllable duration, end-clause pause frequency, and the speed of syntactic encoding and articulation but not in mid-clause pause frequency or lexical retrieval speed. Mixed-effects modeling confirmed a significant relationship between syntactic encoding speed and mean syllable duration and mid-clause pausing. Furthermore, the significant relationships were maintained over time. The findings highlight (a) the differences between mid-clause and end-clause pausing in terms of their developmental patterns and relationship with cognitive fluency and (b) a significant role of syntactic encoding speed in L2 utterance fluency. Studies in Acquisition Issue 2 May 2024 10. 1017/S0272263123000591 [Opens in a new window] This is an 4. 0), which permits unrestricted re-use, distribution and reproduction, provided the original 2024. Published by fluency can be defined various ways (e. g. , Fillmore, Reference Fillmore, Fillmore, Kempler and Wang1979; Freed, and Riggenbach2000), a narrow sense of fluency—how smoothly oral speech is delivered (Lennon, Reference Lennon1990)—has recently been examined extensively based on its significance in understanding of second language (L2) proficiency (Iwashita et al. , Reference Iwashita, Brown, McNamara and O’Hagan2008). Segalowitz (Reference Segalowitz2010) further distinguishes three facets of fluency—utterance, cognitive, and perceived fluency.

Output: contrast


Input: Claim: Functional MRI can measure brain activity by detecting changes in blood flow. [SEP] Text: 5 mins). Combined CBF and BOLD measurements were made using the continuous arterial spin-labeling technique with single-shot, gradient-echo, EPI acquisition. Paired images were acquired alternately—one with arterial spin labeling and the other without (control). MR parameters were as follows: data matrix = 64 × 64, FOV = 2. 56 cm × 2. 56 cm, eight 1. 5-mm slices, TE=20 ms, and TR=2 secs (90° flip angle). Continuous arterial spin labeling employed a 1. 78-s square radiofrequency pulse to the labeling coil in the presence of 1. 0 G/cm gradient along the flow direction such that the condition of adiabatic inversion was satisfied. The sign of the frequency offset was switched for control (nonlabeled) images. For each set of CBF and BOLD measurements, 60 pairs of images (4 mins) were acquired during baseline and 30 pairs (2 mins) during hypercapnic challenge or forepaw stimulation. Data AnalysisData analysis used codes written in Matlab (MathWorks Inc. , ) and the (University of Minnesota) software. Coregistration of images obtained during the acute phase and at 24 h used an in-house software, which involved both manual and automatic alignment without spatial interpolation, as described previously (Liu et al, 2004a). Calculation of basal ADC and CBF maps: Apparent diffusion coefficient maps with intensity in unit of mm2/sec were calculated pixel-by-pixel by using (Stejskal and Tanner, 1965), ADC = –ln (S1/S0)/(b1–b0) where bi = γ2G2i δ2(Δ–δ/3), where ln is the natural logarithm, S0 and S1 are the signal intensities obtained with b0 and b1, respectively. The b-value is proportional to the gradient strength (G), magnetogyric ratio (γ), duration of each gradient pulse (δ), and the time (Δ) between applications of the two gradient pulses. Apparent diffusion coefficient maps were calculated at each time point.

Output: pass


Input: Claim: Deforestation contributes to habitat loss and climate change. [SEP] Text: The increase in carbon stock is primarily due to plantations and the quality of plantations from the ecological point of view cannot match the composition of a natural forests. The other cause of the degradation and poor quality of forests is the raging annual forest fires. Though the involvement of communities in forest management through India’s famous Management definitely prevented rapid degradation of forests, it however, failed to elicit the cooperation of villagers in controlling the forest fires as more than 90% fires are manmade and lit by villagers. Though this author was responsible for setting up of the national fire fighting and monitoring mechanism during 2001–2002 in the country due to policy deficiencies administrative commitments and also due to extreme heat caused by climatic changes the forest fires are causing huge damages to the forest and bio–diversity. This year alone in the of Uttarakhand 35,000 ha areas are affected by fires with 3000 ha completely destroyed by raging fires due to intense heat waves. Thus the regeneration of the dominant species in natural forests is deficient in many forest types leading to heavy loss of bio–diversity. The government of India in the year 2006 in the midst of political heat had enacted Act 20069 under which the traditional rights of the forest dwellers mainly of tribal people were recognized. If seen purely on professional ground it was an attempt to regularise encroachments on forest lands. So far as on January 2018; around 5. 7 million ha forest land has been vested with 4 million people. According to records at hand in 2004 in the government of India when this writer as of Forests compiled the data on encroachments around 1. 2 million ha forest land was under encroachments and only around 3,00,000 ha genuinely belonged to the disputed settlement category the buzz for which led to the creation of this Act. But four times more land was released for settlement of rights and the process is still on. Though the land has been vested with the people, it is a herculean task to make it productive to retain the tribal on the land and prevent further encroachments. (TERI), Delhi scrutinized about 66,300 on 10, 7897 ha are spread across 19 Maharashtra districts. Based on this study till 2012, Maharashtra has emitted 5, 70881 tonnes of Gases (GHG) on account of deforestation due to recognition of rights under the ACT. Thus carbon sequestration has been lost in 14,669 ha of forests.

Output: corroborate


Input: Claim: Language apps alone provide everything needed to achieve fluency. [SEP] Text: Utterance fluency (UF) refers to the temporal and repair features of speech, whereas cognitive fluency (CF) refers to the underlying cognitive processes responsible for fluent speech production. The current study investigates the development of utterance and cognitive fluency, and its interrelationship in L2. L2 utterance fluency and its development Compared with L1 speech, L2 speech tends to be slower and have more pauses and repairs (e. g. , Kahng, Reference Kahng2014; Riazantseva, Reference Riazantseva2001). Importantly, L2 speech often has more pauses within clauses (Kahng, Reference Kahng2014; Tavakoli, Reference Tavakoli2011) and within analysis of speech (AS) unitsFootnote 1 (De Jong, Jong2016) than L1 speech does. L2 UF has been found to exhibit significant correlations with L2 oral proficiency. Among various linguistic measures (e. g. , grammatical accuracy, complexity, pronunciation), speech rate exhibited the strongest influence on distinguishing a range of L2 speaking proficiency levels (Iwashita et al. , Reference Iwashita, Brown, McNamara and O’Hagan2008). Speech rate, articulation rate, and mean length of run in Ginther et al. (Reference Ginther, Dimova and Yang2010) and mean syllable duration and mid-clause silent pause ratio in Kahng (Reference Kahng2014) were moderately to strongly correlated with speaking scores. In longitudinal studies, O’Brien et al. (Reference O’Brien, Segalowitz, Freed and Collentine2007) found that the L1-English L2-Spanish learners improved speech rate and mean length of run without fillers after a semester of study abroad. and Valls-Ferrer (and Valls-Ferrer2012), Catalan-Spanish bilingual learners of English showed gains in speech rate, mean length of run, and pause frequency and duration after a 3-month stay abroad. In their 2-year-long study with L1-English L2-Spanish learners, Huensch and Tracy-Ventura (and Tracy-Ventura2017) reported gains in mean syllable duration appeared quickly and were maintained after return from 9 months’ study abroad, whereas gains in pause frequency appeared later and were sensitive to attrition after return home.

Output: contrast


Input: Claim: Functional MRI can measure brain activity by detecting changes in blood flow. [SEP] Text: Errors in CBF MeasurementsAlthough consistent with many established techniques, the accuracy of this CBF technique could be subject to errors from magnetization-transfer (Silva et al, 1995), transit-time (Calamante et al, 1996; Zhou et al, 2001), and water-exchange (Silva et al, 1997; Zhou et al, 2001; Parkes and Tofts, 2002) effects. The magnetization-transfer effect was not an issue with the actively decoupled two-coil system (Duong et al, 2000; Silva et al, 2000). Transit-time effect in small animals and water-exchange effect are small (Silva et al, 1997; Zhou et al, 2001; Parkes and Tofts, 2002) and unlikely to alter the conclusions of this study. Ischemia-induced changes in transit time, however, could result in significant errors and remains to be vigorously validated. In the control experiments in which the CCA was occluded, it was estimated that the upper limit of CBF error was ~20% (whole brain). Despite the potential error associated with delayed transit time in stroke, quantitative CBF fMRI arguably is a better measure considering the alternative fMRI percent changes, which incorrectly reflect neural activity because of the marked changes in baseline values under ischemic conditions. Advantages and Disadvantages of fMRI of stimulation is a good model for assessing the functional integrity in the rat stroke model herein because the primary somatosensory cortices generally experience an evolving perfusion—diffusion mismatch, most of which will inevitably become infarcted if left untreated. Although widely used in fMRI studies of normal animals, α-chloralose is less suited for fMRI studies of both acute and chronic ischemic brain injury. In this study, we chose to use isoflurane under spontaneously breathing condition which has been previously optimized to yield robust responses (Liu et al, 2004a). As this study shows, fMRI studies could be performed during the acute and chronic phase of ischemic brain injury. The disadvantage is that isoflurane is a potent vasodilator and a strong neural suppressant, which could attenuate the hemodynamic and neural responses, respectively.

Output: pass


Input: Claim: Deforestation contributes to habitat loss and climate change. [SEP] Text: The wrong implementation of this ACT is encouraging encroachments and depriving the tribal population of life sustaining resource for which it was enacted. This is a serious matter for sustainable forest management in India as so far no cut off date has been finalized by the government to settle the rights. What is a matter of ecological concern is the fact that the very people who are responsible for the encroachments will be deciding their own case as members of the village council. The land vested must yield productive resources for livelihood in a planned manner. Impact of climate change India being a tropical country has started feeling the heat of global warming during the five years with increasing intensity every year. This author had headed the of India task force constituted by the of and Education (ICFRE) during 2011–2013 to assess the impact of management interventions, climate change and anthropogenic factors on the forests of the country. After 18 months field work by more than 2500 scientific and technical staff a change matrix was prepared on the status of vegetation to compare the present status with the last reassessment done by Champion and Seth in 1968. Impact of climate change on the vegetation was critically examined to see the species level responses to the changes in the rainfall and temperature regimes over the past years. For assessing the impact of climate change over more than 90 years (from 1931 to 2010 in three time series) meteorological data on temperature and rainfall over 83 meteorological stations in the forest type’s areas was compared. The results indicated a clear climate change impact on the forests. The changes were more pronounced and discernible especially during the last 30 years from 1991 to 2010. There has been on an average 0. 7 degree Celsius increase in the temperature and in some localities even more up to 1 degree Celsius. As for the rainfall, it was noticed that in most part of the country’s forests both the quantity and number of rainy days have decreased (rainfall reduced by 241 mm and 5 days on an average). There have been erratic rainfall (excess rainfall in few days with prolong draught for many days during the monsoon period) and intense heat waves engulfing the large part of the country. Now after publication of the report in 2013 during last five years the intensity of heat wave, moisture variations and consequent climatic disturbances storms and gusty winds with devastating effects on life from have become a routine now in India during pre–monsoon season.

Output: corroborate


Input: Claim: Language apps alone provide everything needed to achieve fluency. [SEP] Text: L2 cognitive fluency and its relation to utterance fluency Although L2 CF and its relation to UF has been underexamined, a couple of proposals (Kormos, Reference Kormos2006; Skehan et al. , Reference Skehan, Foster and Shum2016) have been made regarding the connection between different UF measures and speech production stages. According to Levelt (Reference Levelt1989), speech production consists of three main stages. First, a preverbal message is generated using world knowledge (conceptualization). Second, this message is put into words through lexical, grammatical, morphophonological, and phonetic encoding (formulation). Third, the generated utterance is articulated (articulation). During speech planning and after speech articulation, one’s own speech is monitored. Kormos (Reference Kormos2006) proposed that end-clause pausing can reflect L2 speaker’s conceptualization, mid-clause pausing relates to formulation, repairs may reflect speech monitoring, and speed measures can involve all dimensions of L2 speech production. The proposal has been used by Saito et al. (Reference Saito, Ilkan, Magne, Tran and Suzuki2018) in interpreting their cross-sectional findings on UF correlates of different levels of perceived fluency. Based on the distinctive length of residence profile of their fluency groups, they argued that L2 fluency development could initially be observed in end-clause pause frequency (relating to conceptualization), followed by mid-clause pause frequency (relating to formulation), and articulation rate. On the other hand, in examining UF–CF relationship, only a handful of studies have measured CF and related them to UF measures. and Freed (and Freed2004), L1-English L2-Spanish speakers completed an oral proficiency interview, a semantic classification task, and an attention control test before and after a semester either at a home university (AH) or a study-abroad (SA) setting. They found both groups improved in the speed and efficiency of L2 lexical access but only the SA group made gains in UF (e. g. , speech rate, mean length of run without fillers).

Output: contrast


Input: Claim: Functional MRI can measure brain activity by detecting changes in blood flow. [SEP] Text: Differences in Hypercapnic and Functional ResponsesIn some animals, there was persistent mismatch at 180 mins and the RH forepaw somatosensory cortex did not show ADC lesions at 180 mins and 24 h. It was also noted that the RH forepaw somatosensory cortices did respond to CO2 challenge but did not respond to forepaw stimulation (Figures 1A and Figure 2B) in some animals. One potential explanation is that the RH forepaw somatosensory cortex was functional silence because of the systemic ischemic shock although the RH forepaw somatosensory cortex was not injured. The other potential explanation is that the functional connection from which the cortex receives its inputs (i. e. , thalamus) was severed, although both vascular coupling and functions of the RH forepaw somatosensory cortex were intact. As such, no forepaw-stimulation fMRI responses in the RH somatosensory cortices were detected despite their normal ADC and CO2 fMRI responses. This notion is supported by the extended subcortical injury but remains to be validated. Differences between CBF and BOLD fMRI ResponsesIn the ischemic RH, the CO2 BOLD activated areas were larger than the CO2 CBF activated areas (Figure 1A) and the CO2 and forepaw BOLD responses were attenuated less than the CO2 and forepaw CBF responses (Figure 2B). This observation suggests uncoupling of metabolism, CBV and/or CBF associated with ischemia. For example, CMRO2 could be reduced, leading to a larger BOLD increase. There is evident that basal CBV elevates in ischemic injury (Roussel et al, 1995; van der Toorn et al, 1995), which could modulate the BOLD percent changes. It should be noted that activated areas in Figure 1B are dependent on the precise thresholds used. Because the BOLD and CBF contrast-to-noise ratios were different, different thresholds were used which could potentially lead to bias. 1B, thresholds in the CO2 challenge studies were judicially set for display such that the central ischemic core showed no activated pixels. 2B, however, ROI analysis of the primary forepaw somatosensory cortices was performed without using thresholds and thus there was no bias.

Output: pass


Input: Claim: Deforestation contributes to habitat loss and climate change. [SEP] Text: The study had revealed that a big change has occurred in the composition of forests and the old classification of 16 major Types and 200 types and sub–types is no longer relevant. The new classification of forest types was proposed by the task force reflecting the present ecological, climatic, bio–geographic and edaphic influences on the vegetation composition and stand formation. In the proposed new classification, 10 major groups and 44 sub–groups were identified. There have been considerable impacts on the vegetation particularly in Alpine flora in the higher Himalayas the hot spot of Bio–diversity. The study has indicated many changes occurring at species and forest subtypes levels. The species level changes were observed largely in Shorea robusta (Sal), Tectona grandis (Teak) and Bamboo forests with regard to their distribution and species density. The study has indicated the absence of teak from very moist and moist teak sub–type and occurrence of many moist deciduous and semi–evergreen species. In central India, the low rainfall regime has shown the decline of Sal and occurrence of dry deciduous species. The study revealed that both positive and negative changes have been witnessed in various forest types. have both remained as climatic climax without any disturbances, while the semi–evergreen and all types of deciduous forest have shown changes in species composition. The study had further revealed that most of the forests specially the Himalayan forests are turning xeric as the hydrology is being massively impacted by the climate and consequent vegetation changes. The mineral and forests map together with tribal population overlap each other. Further, the overlapping mineral, forests and tribal/poverty map poses serious challenges. sustainable forest management in India is in the eyes of vortex as the changing dimensions of forests are posing a great challenge for the foresters, policy makers and people at large. Any complacency and ignoring the ecological consequences of poor management of forests will deal a body blow to the India’s (INDCs) in Paris deal and more so to its quest for water and food for the ever increasing population. The sector needs reforms and national consensus on the management of forests for achieving millennium development goals. One of the greatest challenges before the planners is to balance the needs of development with conservation especially the requirement of industry for infrastructure of minerals, water and electricity. Acknowledgements None. Conflict of interest The author declares there is no conflict of interest. 404. of 2017.

Output: corroborate


Input: Claim: Language apps alone provide everything needed to achieve fluency. [SEP] Text: A few recent studies on L2 CF discussed above have started revealing its complex relationships with L2 UF, suggesting mean syllable duration and mid-clause pause frequency be potential correlates of L2 CF. However, the seminal research by Segalowitz and Freed (and Freed2004) appears to be the only study that investigated the development of CF along with that of UF. We need more empirical research to examine the proposals on UF–CF relationship (Kormos, Reference Kormos2006; Skehan et al. , Reference Skehan, Foster and Shum2016) and the development of CF, which can contribute to the development of L2 speech-production model. Therefore, the current study investigated the development of UF and CF and their relationship with the following research questions: RQ1. Which aspects of L2 utterance and cognitive fluency demonstrate changes after 5 months’ study abroad? RQ2. Which aspects of L2 utterance and cognitive fluency have significant relationships? Are the relationships maintained over time? Regarding UF, although it has been extensively researched, the selection of UF measures has often not been comparable across studies. In particular, pause location has rarely been examined in the longitudinal development of UF. As discussed earlier, pauses between clauses and within clauses have been proposed to involve different stages of speech production (e. g. , Kormos, Reference Kormos2006; Skehan et al. , Reference Skehan, Foster and Shum2016). Considering that pause location has been suggested to be an important indicator of development (Kahng, Reference Kahng2014; Saito et al. , Reference Saito, Ilkan, Magne, Tran and Suzuki2018) and be closely related to CF (Kahng, Reference Kahng2020; Kormos, Reference Kormos2006; Skehan et al. , Reference Skehan, Foster and Shum2016), the current study categorized pauses into mid-clause versus end-clause pauses and examined their relationship with CF measures. Furthermore, as the oft-cited UF measures in the previous studies such as speech rate and mean length of run involve multiple fluency features (e. g. , speed and frequency and/or duration of pauses), even if gains are observed it is difficult to identify to which aspect of UF the gains are attributable.

Output: contrast


Input: Claim: Functional MRI can measure brain activity by detecting changes in blood flow. [SEP] Text: Each subject performed the Valsalva maneuver at varying durations and pressures by forcibly exhaling into a custom-built mechanism that provided real-time feedback regarding pressure. Subjects exhaled into an apparatus consisting of a noncompliant tube (polyethylene tubing, 1/16” internal diameter), connected to a Honeywell 142PC05G pressure sensor () outside the MRI scanner room. The transducer interfaced with a computer using a analog-to-digital converter (). During breathing challenges, a visual display changed from red to green when the target pressure range was reached (-2 to +5 mm Hg of the target pressure), and a scale continuously displayed the pressure attained in the tube. Stimulus presentation and pressure data recordings were implemented in LabVIEW (www. ni. com/labview). In addition to the pressure data, task compliance was monitored using a pneumatic belt around the chest to measure relative thoracic circumference, and a pulse oximeter on a finger was used to record the heartbeat. Pressure trials. Volunteers performed the Valsalva maneuver at varying pressures and constant duration. At each pressure level, five total Valsalva holds were performed, and each Valsalva hold began and ended with a paced breathing period. During hold periods, subjects held their breath for 20 seconds while exhaling into the tube to maintain a pressure of 10, 20, 30, or 40 mm Hg after inhalation. During the breathing periods before and after hold periods, subjects received instructions to breathe in and out at 1/6 Hz for 39 seconds, starting and ending on inspiration. Instructed pacing of the breathing cycle helped subjects enter the Valsalva hold more calmly, and with less head motion. Each breathing challenge run lasted 334 seconds (835 fMRI volumes). The first 29. 2 seconds (73 fMRI volumes) of the first paced-breathing period of each pressure challenge were excluded from all analyses so that the volunteers' MRI signal changes represented a steady breathing rate. Each of the five trials included 146 volumes (58. 4 seconds). Duration trials. To isolate the effect of breath hold duration, the Valsalva maneuver was also performed at varying durations at a constant pressure of 30 mm Hg. As with pressure runs, each run included five breathing challenges that began and ended with a 39-second paced-breathing period.

Output: pass


Input: Claim: Deforestation contributes to habitat loss and climate change. [SEP] Text: AbstractThe paper estimates and compares the level of from Deforestation and Degradation (REDD+) payments required to compensate for the opportunity costs (OCs) of stopping the conversion of montane forest and miombo woodlands into cropland in two agro-ecological zones in in Tanzania. Data collected from 250 households were used for OC estimation. REDD+ payment was estimated as the net present value (NPV) of agricultural rent and forest rent during land clearing, minus net returns from sustainable wood harvest, divided by the corresponding reduction in carbon stock. The median compensation required to protect the current carbon stock in the two vegetation types ranged from USD 1 tCO2e−1 for the montane forest to USD 39 tCO2e−1 for the degraded miombo woodlands, of which up to 70 % and 16 %, respectively, were for compensating OCs from forest rent during land clearing. The figures were significantly higher when the cost of farmers’ own labor was not taken into account in NPV calculations. The results also highlighted that incentives in the form of sustainable harvests could offset up to 55 % of the total median OC to protect the montane forest and up to 45 % to protect the miombo woodlands, depending on the wage rates. The findings suggest that given the possible factors that can potentially affect estimates of REDD+ payments, avoiding deforestation of the montane forest would be feasible under the REDD+ scheme. However, implementation of the policy in villages around the miombo area would require very high compensation levels. Similar content being viewed by others Potential effects of future adoption of the REDD mechanism as a preventive measure against deforestation and forest degradation in 1. 6 billion people depend on tropical forests for their daily needs (2004), and about 13 million ha of forest are cleared annually to provide livelihoods, incomes, and employment for millions of people in the tropics (FAO 2010; Kissinger et al. 2012). REDD+ will therefore impose considerable opportunity costs (OCs) on local communities (Wollenberg and Springate-Baginski 2009; Springate-Baginski and Wollenberg 2010). The OCs refer to the net benefits forgone by landowners/users as a result of not deforesting or degrading forests. The idea behind the REDD+ scheme is that such costs should be compensated in order to eliminate or reduce deforestation and forest degradation without affecting the livelihoods of local communities.

Output: corroborate


Input: Claim: Language apps alone provide everything needed to achieve fluency. [SEP] Text: Task for speaking proficiency: Elicited imitation task (EIT) The EIT consisted of 29 sentences with a wide range of syllables (M syllable = 13, range = 8–20 syllables) to achieve a high discriminability. The EIT was individually administered using PsychoPy (Peirce et al. , öchenberger, Sogo, Kastman and Lindeløv2019) with a laptop and a headset in a quiet room. First, participants heard stimulus sentences in a random order, repeated each of the sentences, and pressed a spacebar to move on to the next sentence. Participants’ responses were transcribed and coded for the percentage of accurately repeated words. Randomly selected 30% of the data was transcribed by an additional coder, and interrater reliability was high (Cronbach’s alpha = 0. 97). There was a significant positive correlation between the EIT scores and the composite scores of the grammar and vocabulary sections of r =. 51, p <. 05 (see Kahng & Otonya, and Otonya2021, for the instrument and analysis). recordings of the speaking tasks and picture-naming tasks were first transcribed, annotated, and measured by a research assistant. Next, the accuracy of the transcription, annotation, and measures was checked by another research assistant and corrections were made when necessary. The two research questions were examined using two sets of linear mixed-effects modeling using the lme4 (Bates et al. , Reference Bates, Mächler, Bolker and Walker2015), parameters (Lüdecke, et al. , Reference Lüdecke, Ben-Shachar, Patil and Makowski2020), and MuMln (Bartoń, Reference Bartoń2022) packages in R (R Core Team, 2020). The data satisfied the assumptions in linear mixed models including linearity, normality of the residuals, homoscedasticity, and multicollinearity. When fitting models, once significant random intercepts to each model have been established, each set of fixed variables (e. g. , time, CF, and Time × CF) was incorporated into the baseline model.

Output: contrast


Input: Claim: Functional MRI can measure brain activity by detecting changes in blood flow. [SEP] Text: Hold durations lasted for 5, 10, 15, or 25 seconds. Responses during these durations were compared against the 20-second trial collected at 30 mm Hg described earlier. Breath hold only. Volunteers were also asked to perform the breath hold with no pressure feedback. Breath holds were performed after a final exhalation, as well as after a final inhalation. For the breath hold after exhalation, a 3-second exhalation preceded a 17-second breath hold, so that the total time between inhalation of air was 20 seconds. Breath hold, duration, and pressure runs were randomized for each subject. When describing results, the breath hold trials without pressure feedback are called ‘breath hold,’ and the breath hold trials with pressure feedback are called ‘Valsalva’. Data AnalysisPreprocessing. The echo planar imaging (EPI) time series data were corrected for head motion via a rigid-body volume registration, time shifted to align slices in each volume to the same temporal origin, and converted to percent change from the mean. Low frequency drifts were removed using 0 to 3rd order polynomials. For each condition, the MRI time series were averaged across the five trials, starting 9. 8 seconds before the hold period. Signal change maps were calculated for each breathing challenge within the regions-of-interest (ROIs) of each tissue type. The trial-averaged data were temporally smoothed (0. 5 Hz low-pass filter) to increase the temporal signal-to-noise ratio and to decrease the effect of fluctuations that are faster than hemodynamic responses on estimates of response timing and magnitudes. AFNI ( an open source software package for the analysis and display of functional MRI data, was used for image processing and brain image visualization. 11Regions of interest. Region-of-interest maps were created from the T1- weighted anatomic images using Freesurfer ( to produce masks for cortical gray matter, subcortical gray matter, white matter, and cerebral spinal fluid (ventricles) areas. The T1-weighted anatomic images were registered to the EPI data using a 12-parameter affine transformation. The tissue ROI masks were transformed and down-sampled to the voxel resolution of the EPI data.

Output: pass


Input: Claim: Deforestation contributes to habitat loss and climate change. [SEP] Text: About 52 % of the forests and woodlands in the country are within protected areas, and the remaining percentage is on village or general (de facto open access) lands (Zahabu et al. 2007; Mbwambo et al. 2012). Tanzania is one of a number of countries currently experiencing a high rate of deforestation and is planning to implement a REDD+ policy. It has been estimated that the country lost an average of 403,000 ha (about 1. 02 %) of its forests and woodlands per year during the period 1990–2000 (FAO 2010). During the same period, the percentage loss was higher for miombo woodlands (13 %) compared to the coastal forest mosaic (7 %), mangrove forest (2 %), and forests of the Mountains (EAM) (1 %) (Burgess et al. 2010). Between 2000 and 2010, the annual forest loss increased to 1. 1 % (FAO 2010). Agricultural expansion has been identified as one of the main drivers of deforestation in Tanzania (Makundi and Okiting’ati 1995; Angelsen et al. 1999; Burgess et al. 2002; Luoga et al. 2005; Kissinger et al. 2012). In addition, particularly the miombo woodlands have been subject to extensive extraction of wood for charcoal making (Monela et al. 1993; Luoga et al. 2005; Nduwamungu et al. 2008). It has been suggested that REDD+ monetary incentives may help to reduce the problem of deforestation and degradation in the Tanzania (Zahabu et al. 2007). 3 Materials and methods3. 1 Study sitesOur socioeconomic survey was conducted in seven villages within Morogoro Region: Kunke, Maseyu, Mlimbilo, Ng’ungulu, Nyandira, Tchenzema, and Vinile (Fig. 1). The first three aforementioned villages are located at an average altitude of 400 m a. s. l. , hereafter referred to as the lowland zone. The remaining four villages are located between 1,000 m a. s. l. and 2,668 m a. s. l. , hereafter referred to as the highland zone. The two agro-ecological zones comprise two distinct vegetation types: miombo woodlands in the lowland zone and montane forest in the highland zone. Fig.

Output: corroborate


Input: Claim: Language apps alone provide everything needed to achieve fluency. [SEP] Text: Based on previous studies on the development of L2 UF and its relationship with proficiency (Huensch & Tracy-Ventura, and Tracy-Ventura2017; Kahng, Reference Kahng2014), gains found in mean syllable duration are expected. On the other hand, a lack of changes in mid-clause pause frequency and an improvement in end-clause pause frequency may appear somewhat unexpected. Considering that most previous studies on the relationship between L2 UF and proficiency were cross-sectional including participants with a range of proficiency levels, the current findings may suggest that improvement in mid-clause pausing can take longer (e. g. , more than 5 months) than those in end-clause pausing. Saito et al. (Reference Saito, Ilkan, Magne, Tran and Suzuki2018) also suggest that the frequency of end-clause pauses reaches native-like levels before that of mid-clause pauses and is the first aspect of UF that L2 learners develop. In addition, the lack of changes in the number of mid-clause pauses seem to align with a lack of changes in lexical-retrieval speed, which has been associated with mid-clause and mid-AS pausing (e. g. , De Jong, Jong2016, Kahng, Reference Kahng2014, Reference Kahng2020). With respect to CF, the current study is one of the first to investigate the development of the syntactic-encoding speed and articulation speed, and the findings captured L2 speakers’ improvement after 5-months’ study abroad. For lexical retrieval speed, in Segalowitz and Freed (and Freed2004) speed and efficiency of L2 lexical access improved after a semester of study abroad. On the other hand, in this study statistical changes were not observed, which might partly be related to the materials. Although the picture-naming tasks used oft-cited standardized pictures (Snodgrass & Vanderwart, and Vanderwart1980), some of the words such as animals may not have been ideal for some Chinese undergraduate/graduate student participants, who grew up in large cities and have been learning English for academic purpose. Even if they had known the words, their mental representation of those words might not have been as robust as that for other words they used more often.

Output: contrast


Input: Claim: Functional MRI can measure brain activity by detecting changes in blood flow. [SEP] Text: To account for partial volume effects and potential misregistration due to spatial distortion in the EPI images, voxels that included more than 25% of two types of tissue were excluded from analysis. The cortical gray, subcortical gray, white, and cerebrospinal fluid (CSF) masks across volunteers had a range of 2,413 to 3,884, 165 to 775, 3,857 to 4,905, and 94 to 759 voxels (3. 75 × 3. 75 × 4 mm3), respectively. Region-of-interest analyses were conducted in native spatial orientation and resolution. Some analyses averaged measures across the population. For these analyses, the T1-weighted anatomic images were aligned to a common space that was mapped to the Talairach-Tournoux atlas. All values were calculated in native spatial orientation and then warped to the common space. Data analysis. The global fMRI response to the Valsalva included a decline below baseline during the Valsalva-hold period (response valley), followed by an increase above baseline soon after the end of the hold (response peak). The minimal response during valleys and the maximal response during peaks were calculated on a voxel-wise basis. For 20-second breathing challenges, the valley response was defined as the minimum response magnitude in the first 15 seconds of the breath hold onset, and the maximum amplitude between 5 and 39 seconds after the hold onset was selected as the peak signal response. These windows were adjusted accordingly for longer and shorter duration trials. Valley and peak response magnitudes were calculated as the difference between maximal or minimal response amplitudes and the magnitude during the 13-second breathing period before the hold period or the baseline period. For ROI analyses, response magnitudes and timings were calculated using the average time series for all voxels within each ROI. In addition, the slopes of peak and valley magnitude changes versus chest pressure were also calculated, using linear regression. These slopes were calculated on a voxelwise basis for the whole brain, or within the average signal in an ROI. Heart rate calculations. Heart rate was calculated as the inverse of time between arterial oxygen saturation (SaO2) peaks from pulse oximeter traces using a custom script. Since hand movement and other factors added noise in automatic peak detection, detected peaks were manually examined and edited to confirm accuracy.

Output: pass


Input: Claim: Deforestation contributes to habitat loss and climate change. [SEP] Text: 1Tanzania (a), the location of Morogoro region (b), and the study villages and protected forests within the region (c)Full size image Kunke and Mlimbilo are located in Mtibwa Ward, 120 km north of Morogoro town. The villages cover an area of about 24,000 and 13,600 ha and have about 3,500 and 2,000 inhabitants, respectively. The climate of the area is sub-humid tropical, with a mean annual rainfall in the range of 800–1,200 mm. There are two rainy seasons, the short rains from October to December and the long rains from March to June. Mean annual temperature varies between 28 °C and 31 °C. The area includes settlements, a sugar factory, croplands, sugarcane (Saccharum officinarum L. ) and teak (Tectona grandis L. leaf) plantations, grazing land, open scattered miombo woodlands, and part of a protected miombo woodland known as the Wami-Mbiki wild animals management area (WMA). The inhabitants depend mainly on agriculture for their livelihoods. They practice small-scale and medium-scale farming and cultivate crops for subsistence [maize (Zea mays L. )] and for marketing [rice (Oryza glaberrima S. ), sesame (Sesamum indicum L. ), and sugarcane]. WMA is a community-based conservation area that was established in 1999. The area is located in two regions,. It covers a core area of about 3,000 km2 and a buffer area of about 1,200 km2 (Madulu 2005). The WMA is surrounded by 24 villages including Kunke and Mlimbilo, and houses about 65,000 people in total; it covers 65 % of Kunke and 47 % of Mlimbilo. The woodlands inside the WMA have suffered from extensive tree cutting for charcoal production, and agricultural expansion and encroachment. Maseyu is located in Gwata Ward, about 50 km northeast of Morogoro town and 150 km west of Dar es Salaam (Fig. 1). The climatic conditions and rainfall pattern in are similar to those in Mtibwa Ward. The village of Maseyu covers approximately 36,000 ha and has about 2,000 inhabitants.

Output: corroborate


Input: Claim: Language apps alone provide everything needed to achieve fluency. [SEP] Text: “No one has done it, and there's no known technology that appears to be able to do it. ” But, he added, “I don't think it's impossible in the future with better technology that it might be achieved. ”Skeptics previously doubted that recording from the surface of the brain could produce sufficiently accurate decoding, because the distance to the underlying neurons results in a noisy blur from hundreds to thousands of neurons at once. “We basically proved the skeptics wrong,” Dr. Chang told Neurology Today. “A lot of those assumptions were based on using far fewer electrodes than the 253 we use now. ”It may be five to 10 years before a fully implantable wireless system is capable of decoding speech in a person's home rather than only at a laboratory, Dr. Chang said, adding, however, that neurologists need to prepare themselves for the BCI revolution. “There is no known way right now to record thoughts. No one has done it, and there's no known technology that appears to be able to do it. [But] I don't think it's impossible in the future with better technology that it might be achieved. ”—DR. “Our field is about to change dramatically with the use of AI to help many of our patients living with disability,” he said. “There is great hope to restore function. ”A video of the system, including its use of a face avatar, can be viewed online at ElectrodesThe second study used two devices known as Utah Arrays—each the size of an aspirin pill and carrying a total of 128 electrodes that penetrated a couple of millimeters into the left sensorimotor face area. The participant in their study had bulbar-onset ALS that had eventually left her unable to speak intelligibly. Lead author Frank Willett, PhD, a research scientist in the at Stanford University, and his colleagues also used an RNN combined with a language model to decode their participant's intended speech. The program eventually was able to decode the speech at an average rate of 62 decoded words per minute. With a 50-word vocabulary, the system had a word-error rate of 9. 1 percent. With a vocabulary of 125,000 words, the error rate was 23. 8 percent.

Output: contrast


Input: Claim: Functional MRI can measure brain activity by detecting changes in blood flow. [SEP] Text: If a few-second span was too noisy to clearly detect peaks, then peak locations were estimated based on neighboring peak spacing. To decrease the potential of experimenter bias, the review and editing processes were blinded to task condition for each time course, and without checks whether errors occurred during breathing or hold periods. Under normal conditions, the typical pulse oximeter heart beat trace included a peak in SaO2 during left ventricular systolic ejection, followed by the dicrotic notch, and a dip in SaO2 caused by the closure of the aortic valve. A second peak then occurs in SaO2 after the dicrotic notch. 13 In some volunteers, peaks after the dicrotic notch were falsely labeled as ‘true’ heart beats when the heart rate increased and ventricular systolic ejection volume probably decreased during the Valsalva challenge. Manual edits were able to accurately distinguish true SaO2 peaks. all subjects successfully completed the tasks (Figures 2A, Figures 2B, 2H and 2I). One subject was unable to maintain the target pressure during the 40 mm Hg 20-second run and the 30 mm Hg 25-second run. Another subject failed to reach 30 mm Hg for one of five 10-second duration trials. Based on the respiratory belt data, five subjects may have taken a breath during 1 to 3 trials of the 40 total trials, with no more than one possible breath during each task condition. Head motion was calculated as the Euclidian norm of the six motion parameters. The maximum head motion in any single run in any subject was only 1. 8 mm. In some subjects, there was a slight trend toward increased head motion with increasing pressure, but this was small, and not consistent across the group. Figure 2. Group averaged responses during Valsalva and breath hold challenges. (A–G) Responses when the breath hold duration is always 20 seconds, but intrathoracic pressure is changing. The vertical dashed lines show the onset and offset of the hold, and the inset shows the signals after the breath hold after the exhalation response is subtracted from the other responses. The inset boxes are proportionally scaled from the larger figures. (H–N) Responses when intrathoracic pressure is always 30 mm Hg, but the breath hold duration is changing.

Output: pass


Input: Claim: Deforestation contributes to habitat loss and climate change. [SEP] Text: It comprises settlements, croplands, open miombo woodlands, village reserves, part of Reserve (KFR), and a part of the WMA. About 80 % of the households depend on crop production (Nduwamungu et al. 2008). The local farming system is characterized by small-scale rain-fed crop cultivation for both subsistence consumption [maize, millet (Eleusine coracana L. ), and sorghum (Sorghum bicolor L. )] and for marketing (sesame). The inhabitants are highly dependent on forest resources in protected and unprotected woodlands, both for their own consumption (firewood, fruit and vegetables, and wood for poles) and for commercial purposes (charcoal). The KFR spans two villages: Gwata and Maseyu. The reserve covers an area of about 435 ha in Gwata and 1,705 ha in Maseyu. The vegetation type is generally characterized as open, dry miombo that is dominated by the tree species Julbernadia globiflora, Brachystegia boehmii, and Pterocarpus rotundifolius (Luoga et al. 2000). The part of the forest reserve located in Maseyu is managed jointly by the central government and the village, while the part in Gwata is managed by the central government through of Agriculture in Morogoro town. The KFR was established in 1985 (Luoga et al. 2002). However, the current management systems have been practiced since 1995 in Gwata and since 2000 in Maseyu. The reserve is formally protected, but in practice, tree cutting is common practice and there have been some cases of conversion into agricultural land. An estimated 1. 2 m3 ha−1 of wood is illegally harvested from the reserve annually (Luoga et al. 2002). Moreover, in the period 1975–2000, closed woodland in the reserve and the surrounding area declined by 45 %, while open woodland in the surrounding area increased by 42 % (Nduwamungu et al. 2008). Ng’ungulu, Nyandira, Tchenzema, and Vinile are located in Mgeta Division, about 200 km west of Dar es Salaam (Fig. 1). covers an area of 1,800 km2 and includes four wards and 28 villages with a total population of about 46,000.

Output: corroborate