Input: Claim: Climate change has contributed to more frequent and intense heatwaves. [SEP] Text: 1, top panels) resembles the record-breaking heatwave distribution over western NA in June-July 2021 (Fig. 1 in Lin et al. 2022). The PC1 index from ERA5 shows pronounced anomalies of 1. 64 in June and 2. 83 in July 2021, the latter of which is the maximum over 1959–2021 (Fig. 1, bottom). By contrast, the predominantly positive TX90 anomalies in negative PC1 extreme months, such as July 1980 and June–August 2010, occur in the southern U. S. (not shown). In addition, the amplitude of PC1 increases in recent summers. The standard deviations of the PC1 index are 0. 76 over 1959–2000 and 1. 14 over 2001–2021, reflecting a stronger fluctuation of the dipole pattern in recent summers. For example, high PC1 values in the summers of 2007 and 2009 also correspond to remarkable heatwaves recorded over northwestern NA (e. g. , Goodrich et al. 2011). Hence, the PC1 from ERA5 that includes the up-to-date summer series over 1959–2021 is used as an index of the heatwave variability over NA in the following calculation. 4 Physical diagnostics of the heatwave variabilityTo explore the generation and maintenance of the NA heatwave variability, we examine the PC1 associated anomalies of large-scale atmospheric circulation, surface energy balance, and relevant dynamical and thermodynamic processes. (a) Large-scale circulation and moisture anomalies We first calculate correlations between the PC1 index and several indices of prominent modes of climate variability in the Northern Hemisphere, which are associated with monthly/seasonal mean surface temperature anomalies over NA as demonstrated in previous studies (e. g. , Higgins et al. 2002; Yu et al. 2019). PC1 correlates with the NAO and AO indices, with correlation coefficients of 0. 34 and 0. 24 over the 63 summers, respectively, statistically significant at the 5% level (Table 1). This indicates that the PC1 associated atmospheric circulation anomalies bear some resemblance to the NAO and AO patterns. In association with a positive phase of the PC1 index, the 500-hPa geopotential (Φ500) and MSLP anomalies reveal below-normal geopotentials and pressure across the high latitude and above-normal anomalies over the central (Fig.

Output: corroborate


Input: Claim: Offshore wind farms require no environmental assessments or planning. [SEP] Text: Τέλος, το 64% των ερωτηθέντων απάντησε θετικά όσον αφορά την εκμετάλλευση των ανανεώσιμων πηγών ενέργειας, ενώ μόνο ένα μικρό ποσοστό της τάξεως του 11% απάντησε αρνητικά, ανεξαρτήτως ηλικίας. περισσότερα Περίληψη σε άλλη γλώσσα A major global goal is to reduce the carbon footprint of energy power generation. There will be a significant role for offshore wind farms (OWFs) in the new era of renewable energy. Land-use conflicts, together with the growing demand for green energy and the untapped offshore wind potential, contribute to the development of OWFs. It remains an open research question regarding their sustainable siting. This is because: (i) there is a need for the islands to generate energy on their own; (ii) there are long distances to the mainland; and (iii) there is a high potential for offshore wind. In most cases, wind power potential is located at sea and primarily in areas with significant depth, making it impossible to install fixed wind turbines. Clean energy could be produced by floating wind farms, which can be deployed in deep waters. As part of the next stage, it is essential to consider both the potential visual impact of the emerging sites as well as the techno-economic assessment to ensu. . A major global goal is to reduce the carbon footprint of energy power generation. There will be a significant role for offshore wind farms (OWFs) in the new era of renewable energy.

Output: contrast


Input: Claim: Functional MRI can measure brain activity by detecting changes in blood flow. [SEP] Text: The TTP is the latency to reach peak value averaged across all subjects, whereas the delay (‘Delay’) is the difference between the respective vascular and central latency time averaged across all subjects. Because the latter value is measured with respect to the central compartment, the ‘Delay’ fields under ‘Central’ are blank. Differences between compartments are more likely to be revealed with the delay measure, since it preserves temporal differences within each subject that might be washed out after averaging TTP values across all subjects. Table 1 Temporal characteristics across parenchymal and vascular compartments HbO26. 75 ± 1. 193. 99 ± 0. 825. 51 ± 1. 16−5. 19 ± 1. 23−3. 51 ± 1. 01−5. 02 ± 1. 433. 25 ± 0. 552. 39 ± 0. 391. 82 ± 0. 33TTP2. 94 ± 0. 213. 03 ± 0. 253. 08 ± 0. 262. 42 ± 0. 452. 53 ± 0. 533. 56 ± 0. 462. 92 ± 0. 343. 08 ± 0. 303. 17 ± 0. 29Delay 0. 08 ± 0. 120. 14 ± 0. 08 0. 11 ± 0. 221. 14 ± 0. 50 0. 17 ± 0. 140. 25 ± 0. 39Peak response magnitude (‘Peak’, measured in fractional change x 10−2), time to peak (‘TTP’, measured in seconds from stimulation onset), and the difference between vascular and central TTP (‘Delay’, measured in seconds) are shown for each hemodynamic parameter in the central parenchymal (‘Center’), arteriolar (‘Arteriole’), and venous (‘Vein’) compartments. Values are averages across all nine subjects. Oxygenation changes in arterioles occur simultaneously with or immediately after central changes. The delay between the parenchymal and arteriolar peak was 80 to 110 ms, but the error bars include zero, making the difference not statistically significant. The magnitude of these upstream arteriolar oxygenation changes is smaller than that of HbO2 and Hbr changes in the central parenchyma and veins.

Output: pass


Input: Claim: Climate change has contributed to more frequent and intense heatwaves. [SEP] Text: wave train consists of alternative cyclones and anticyclones, which forms a favorable weather pattern for the northeastward moisture transport from the subtropical western Pacific towards the west coast of NA (e. g. , Mo et al. 2022). Hence, the NP-NA wave train pattern and the northeastward transport of moisture are correlated. To quantitatively analyze the linkage between the TCWV anomaly pattern and the NP-NA teleconnection, we have projected the Φ500 anomalies onto the NP-NA pattern (Fig. 2, top) over (20–80° N, 120° E–90° W) to create a NP-NA pattern index, and projected the TCWV anomalies onto the moisture pattern (Fig. 3, bottom) over the same domain as a TCWV pattern index. The two indices obtained are not sensitive to a slight change of the projected domain. Figure 4 shows the normalized JJAS monthly time series of the projected Φ500 and TCWV pattern indices, superimposed on the PC1 index, over 1959–2021. The correlation between PC1 and the NP-NA (TCWV) pattern index is 0. 71 (0. 64), implying the good relations between the NA heatwave variability and the two patterns. The correlation between the NP-NA and TCWV indices is 0. 75, significant at the 1% level. It also indicates that the two series have over 55% variance in common. In addition, most of the extreme values in the NP-NA index are well corresponding to the extremes in the TCWV pattern index (Fig. 4), indicating that the significant correlation between them is not due to a few extreme events. Fig. 4Normalized JJAS monthly time series of the PC1 index (bar) and the projected Φ500 (red) and TCWV (blue) over 1959–2021Full size imageThe PC1 associated atmospheric circulation and water vapor anomalies across the towards NA, as well as the precipitation anomalies over NA, bear resemblance to those occurred in the extreme heatwave event in June-July 2021 (see Figs. 1 and 4 in Lin et al. 2022, and Figs. 1, 2 in Mo et al. 2022).

Output: corroborate


Input: Claim: Offshore wind farms require no environmental assessments or planning. [SEP] Text: Land-use conflicts, together with the growing demand for green energy and the untapped offshore wind potential, contribute to the development of OWFs. It remains an open research question regarding their sustainable siting. This is because: (i) there is a need for the islands to generate energy on their own; (ii) there are long distances to the mainland; and (iii) there is a high potential for offshore wind. In most cases, wind power potential is located at sea and primarily in areas with significant depth, making it impossible to install fixed wind turbines. Clean energy could be produced by floating wind farms, which can be deployed in deep waters. As part of the next stage, it is essential to consider both the potential visual impact of the emerging sites as well as the techno-economic assessment to ensure their acceptability. In the first stage of this study, the objective was to examine the most commonly used methods and to identify what suggestions might be made to improve this approach. The aim was to evaluate already published methodologies in peer-reviewed papers during the last eight years, compare them, and identify them according to their geographical location, journal type, foundation type, and methodology dimension. The reviewed 205. 5 km2; 126. 25 km2 of high suitability with a potential of 620 to 900 MW. Additionally, the role floating wind farms can play in the case of Crete is emphasized, as they can cover up to 56% of the island's energy needs and provide electricity for 396,000 households. The techno-economic analysis revealed a range of values for energy, focusing on the middle and highest values. As a result of this observation, it was possible to determine the most ideal scenario for investment efficiency. Through its analytical approach, this thesis examined the factors that affect the efficiency, sustainability, and competitiveness of offshore wind energy in this special region, highlighting the opportunities and challenges associated with the adoption of this technology. As a final step, a strategic direction for political, economic, and environmental decision-making is provided. Lastly, the results of visual impact methodologies indicated that the original Spanish method deviated by 88. 0% from the public opinion, and, therefore, that the method needs to be improved considering current data. On the contrary, one of the new suggested scenarios was verified to be more concise and accurate, reaching a deviation of 19. 7%.

Output: contrast


Input: Claim: Functional MRI can measure brain activity by detecting changes in blood flow. [SEP] Text: Skip to main content Intended for healthcare professionals Search this journalSearch all journalsEnter search terms. . . Searchsearch Enter search terms. . . Searchsearch Search Access/ProfileAccessView access optionsView profileCreate profile Cart 0 by discipline Select discipline: All disciplines All disciplines Life & & Sciences & HumanitiesSelect subject: All subjects All subjects Cardiology & Medicine & Endocrinology & -legal & Orthopaedics & Medicine & & & & Methods & & & & & Criminology & Economics & & & Management & Marketing & & & & & & & & PlanningBrowse journals Sage publishes a diverse portfolio of fully journals in a variety of disciplines. you can explore our Disciplines Hubs, including: Journal portfolios in each of our subject areas. Links to Books and content from across Sage. for/ Reviewers SocietiesFrequently asked questions In this journal Journal of Flow & Factor: 4. 9 5-Factor: 6. 1 email alertsYou are adding the following journal to your email alertsNew contentJournal of Flow & MetabolismCreate email alert Free accessResearch 10. 1038/jcbfm. 2011. 15ContentsAbstractIntroductionMaterials and methodsResultsDiscussionAcknowledgementsFootnote0. 61), whereas and TTP failed (accuracy < 0. 60). On the basis of our findings, PW-MRI at 1. 5 T is not suited to depict CCD after stroke. IntroductionCrossed cerebellar diaschisis (CCD) is characterized by a reduction in cerebral blood flow (CBF) and metabolism in the cerebellar hemisphere contralateral to a supratentorial lesion (Baron et al, 1981; Feeney and Baron, 1986). This is attributed to a disruption of the cortico-ponto-cerebellar pathways with consecutive cerebellar functional inactivation (Gold and Lauritzen, 2002). Crossed cerebellar diaschisis is consistently reported as a result of sudden circuit inactivation, such as stroke (Infeld et al, 1995; Sobesky et al, 2005a), but it is also found in chronic diseases, such as brain tumors (Kajimoto et al, 2007).

Output: pass


Input: Claim: Climate change has contributed to more frequent and intense heatwaves. [SEP] Text: This indicates that the NP-NA atmospheric teleconnection and moisture anomalies can be seen in both the 2021 heatwave event and variations of NA heatwaves from a climatological point of view, and suggests that they are key factors in supporting the NA heatwave. Nevertheless, it is worth noting that the geopotential anomaly associated with the PC1 index covers a wider area of north-central NA compared to the 2021 heatwave event. As will be discussed below in Sect. 4. c, a combination of above-normal (below-normal) temperature and below-normal (above-normal) precipitation tends to be a consequence of a positive (negative) geopotential anomaly over NA. (b) Maintenance of the circulation anomalies Similar geopotential anomalies associated with the PC1 index are apparent at 200-hPa and 500-hPa (c. f. contours in the top panel of Fig. 5 with Fig. 2), with differences mainly in magnitude of the anomalies. Diagnosis of the wave activity flux (WAF, Eq. (1)) for stationary Rossby waves (vectors in the top panel of Fig. 5) reveals the propagation of the NP-NA wave train. The WAF analysis also suggests that the main source of wave activity associated with the NA heatwave variability may be traced back to the western North Pacific. Fig. 5(top) Regressions of Φ200 anomalies (contours with an interval of 100 m2s−2) onto the PC1 index, and corresponding wave activity fluxes (vectors in m2s−2, flux values less than 0. 5 m2s−2 are omitted). The vector scale is shown at the lower right. (bottom) Anomalies of Φ200 (shading with an interval of 50 m2s−2) and Fv200 (contours with an interval of 5. 0 × 10–5 m2s−3) regressed upon the PC1 indexFull size imageThe centers of action of the NP-NA wave train are located near the mid-latitude jet stream and storm tracks, suggesting that the generation of this wave train may be related to local dynamical processes such as transient eddy variations and jet instabilities. Interaction of synoptic eddies and low-frequency airflow is critical for the formation of atmospheric circulation variability in mid-latitudes (e. g.

Output: corroborate


Input: Claim: Offshore wind farms require no environmental assessments or planning. [SEP] Text: In addition, according to the results of the methodology (Greek legislation), the first limitation is met in both examined scenarios, resulting in minimal or no visual impact. In addition, respondents stated that they would not experience any optical disturbances as a result of an offshore wind farm in their region. In addition, 64% of respondents are positive or very positive about renewable energy exploitation, while only 11% are against it, regardless of their age. περισσότερα Η διατριβή είναι δεσμευμένη από τον συγγραφέα (μέχρι και: 4/2026) DOI10. 12681/eadd/56344 Διεύθυνση Handle ND56344 Εναλλακτικός τίτλοςSustainable siting of offshore wind farms ΣυγγραφέαςΓκέκα-Σερπετσιδάκη, Πανδώρα (Πατρώνυμο: Θεόδωρος) Ημερομηνία2024 ΊδρυμαΠολυτεχνείο Κρήτης. Σχολή Χημικών Μηχανικών και Μηχανικών Περιβάλλοντος.

Output: contrast


Input: Claim: Functional MRI can measure brain activity by detecting changes in blood flow. [SEP] Text: In the initial hours after stroke, diaschisis is potentially reversible in case of supratentorial reperfusion (Hung et al, 2010; Sobesky et al, 2005a); however, persistent CCD (>24 hours) is associated with irreversible supratentorial tissue damage and poor clinical outcome (Sobesky et al, 2005a). Positron emission tomography (PET), single photon emission computed tomography, and xenon computed tomography are used as reference methods for perfusion imaging and thus for detection of CCD, but are not available in routine clinical care. Perfusion-weighted magnetic resonance imaging (PW-MRI), in contrast, is widely available and yields a surrogate of CBF using the bolus-tracking technique. Preliminary results suggest that PW-MRI may show CCD after stroke (Lin et al, 2009; Yamada et al, 1999), but the findings were not validated against a reference method, e. g. , PET. In our study, we aimed to assess the detection of CCD after supratentorial stroke by PW-MRI at 1. 5T in comparison with PET. Materials and methodsIn a retrospective analysis of a prospective imaging study (Zaro-Weber et al, 2009, 2010), we included patients who received comparative imaging by MR and PET after acute or subacute hemispheric stroke. We excluded patients with (1) incomplete coverage of the posterior fossa in PET or MRI imaging, (2) supratentorial hyperperfusion, (3) lesions restricted to the white matter, (4) thrombolysis, (5) a change in their NIHSS (of Scale) of >2 points during the imaging procedure, and (6) abnormalities in the posterior fossa on T1, T2, and diffusion-weighted MR images. was assessed at inclusion into the study, before both MRI and PET imaging. An experienced stroke neurologist supervised the patients during imaging under permanent monitoring according to stroke unit standards. All patients gave their informed consent. This study was approved by the local ethics board. ImagingMagnetic resonance imaging was performed on a 1. 5 T whole-body scanner (). Perfusion-weighted images were acquired in axial directions (20 slices, 6-mm slice thickness, 0.

Output: pass


Input: Claim: Climate change has contributed to more frequent and intense heatwaves. [SEP] Text: The heatwave variability, represented by the corresponding PC1 index, is associated with a large-scale atmospheric wave train extending from the to North America, together with a northeastward injection of moisture from the subtropical western Pacific towards western NA. The NP-NA atmospheric teleconnection and moisture anomalies are key factors in supporting the NA heatwave variability. The generation of the NP-NA wave train is related to internal dynamical processes such as transient eddy variations and jet instabilities. In particular, synoptic-scale eddies can systematically reinforce and support the wave train. The anomalous convection over the tropical-subtropical western Pacific, which is related to a northward propagation of the summer monsoon system, may also act as a forcing to trigger the NP-NA teleconnection. Surface heat fluxes associated with the heatwave variability are dominated by downward shortwave and upward longwave radiation anomalies. Surface radiation heating directly contributes to surface temperature anomalies and is dominated by anomalous downward shortwave and longwave radiations. In association with a positive phase of the PC1 index, the NP-NA wave train brings positive (negative) geopotential anomalies over the northern (southern) part of NA, leading to anomalous descent, reduced total cloud cover and below-normal precipitation over northern NA, and opposite anomalies over southern NA. Over northwestern NA, the anomalous subsidence causes air to warm through compression. Reduced cloud cover results in increased downward shortwave radiation. In addition, the increase in vertically-integrated water vapour over the total column is consistent with vertically averaged tropospheric warming over northwestern NA, where the troposphere has more water vapor holding capability and acts as a greenhouse gas to absorb longwave radiation, leading to increased downward longwave radiation. The dominant mode of TX90 anomalies over NA, as well as its associated atmospheric wave train and moisture anomalies from the to North America, are also clearly evident in the NCEP/NCAR reanalysis over the same period (not shown). This increases confidence in the results reported here, since ERA5 and NCEP/NCAR reanalyses are generated from two different climate centers. Wu et al. (2012) identified the interdecadal and interannual modes of the NA heatwave frequency variability. The interannual mode shares some features with the dipole pattern identified here, especially for the anomalies over northwestern NA and the southern U. S.

Output: corroborate


Input: Claim: Offshore wind farms require no environmental assessments or planning. [SEP] Text: Τομέας Διαχείρισης Περιβάλλοντος και Ενέργειας, Βιώσιμης Ανάπτυξης και Κλιματικής Αλλαγής Εξεταστική επιτροπήΤσούτσος ΘεοχάρηςΔούκας ΧρυσόστομοςΠαρτσινέβελος ΠαναγιώτηςΒαγιωνιά ΔήμητραΙψάκης ΔημήτριοςNizetic SandroΧαραλαμπίδης Αλέξανδρος Επιστημονικό πεδίοΕπιστήμες Μηχανικού και Τεχνολογία ➨ Περιβαλλοντική Μηχανική ➨ Ανανεώσιμη ενέργεια, Αειφορία και Περιβάλλον Λέξεις-κλειδιάΘαλάσσια αιολικά πάρκα (ΘΑΠ); Βιώσιμη χωροθέτηση;

Output: contrast


Input: Claim: Functional MRI can measure brain activity by detecting changes in blood flow. [SEP] Text: 6-mm interslice gap, field of view 23 cm) and multishot three-dimensional T2*-weighted gradient echo-planar imaging sequences (; effective echo time 25 milliseconds, flip angle 9°, echo-planar imaging factor 17, matrix 64 × 51, resulting voxel size 3. 6 × 3. 6 × 6 mm3) were used. The perfusion-weighted imaging (PWI) protocol included 60 measurements at intervals of 1. 3 seconds after a standardized intravenous injection of 20 mL gadolinium-DTPA (diethylenetriamine pentaacetic acid Magnevist®, Schering AG, Berlin, Germany; 10 mL/sec, followed by rapid infusion of 20 mL saline). TomographyPositron emission tomography was performed in a resting state on an or scanner (Siemens/). Cerebral blood flow was acquired with 15O-water according to the intravenous bolus method in a two-dimensional data acquisition mode providing 47 contiguous 3-mm slices of 5 mm full-width at half-maximum in plane-reconstructed resolution. The scan duration was 90 seconds with 60 mCi (= 2. 2 GBq). Continuous arterial blood sampling (radial artery) was used to calculate absolute CBF values (Raichle et al, 1983). Image analysis was performed blinded to clinical data, and postprocessing of PW images was performed using (Solutions, Frechen, Germany), Version 2. 3 (Seitz et al, 2005; Wittsack et al, 2002) as described in detail in the study by Zaro-Weber et al (2009). Volumetric and region of interest (ROI)-based analyses were performed using VINCI (Institute for Neurological Research, Cologne, Germany), Version 2. 59 (Cízek et al, 2004). Supratentorial lesion volume was defined on diffusion-weighted images by all voxels with a signal intensity > 120% of the reference value, i. e. , the mean value of a ROI covering the unaffected middle cerebral artery territory on a transaxial slice through the basal ganglia (Heiss et al, 2004). Supratentorial hypoperfusion volume was defined on PET-CBF images by all voxels with CBF values <20 mL/100 g per min.

Output: pass


Input: Claim: Climate change has contributed to more frequent and intense heatwaves. [SEP] Text: 1748-9326/16/9/094013 heatwaves—prolonged periods of hot surface water temperature in lakes—have recently been shown to increase in intensity and duration, with numerous potential implications for aquatic ecosystems. However, an important physical attribute of lake heatwaves that has not yet been investigated is their spatial extent, and how it varies within a warming world. Here, we show that the spatial extent of lake heatwaves, defined as contiguous regions within a lake that simultaneously experience extreme warm conditions, is increasing in the largest group of freshwater lakes on Earth, Great Lakes. We show that the maximum spatial extent of lake heatwaves is sensitive to inter-annual variations in winter ice cover and the timing of stratification onset in spring. Notably, we find that a lengthening of the warm summer season and, in turn, an overall increase in surface water temperature, stimulates the development of larger lake heatwaves. On average, our results suggest that the mean spatial extent of lake heatwaves has increased two-fold since 1995. We anticipate this rapid expansion of lake heatwaves to have widespread implications for heat-related impacts on aquatic species. Export citation and abstract 4. 0 license. Any further distribution of this work must maintain attribution to the author(s) and the title of the work, journal citation and DOI. Supplementary data 1. IntroductionMuch of the focus of global warming impacts on lakes have concentrated on seasonal or annual changes in mean lake surface water temperature, with previous studies suggesting a long-term warming of lakes worldwide (Schneider and Hook 2010, Zhang et al 2014, O'Reilly et al 2015, Woolway and Maberly 2020, Dokulil et al 2021). In comparison, little is known about lake heatwaves—periods of warm lake surface water temperature—and how they respond to climatic variations. One notable exception is the study of Woolway et al (2021a) which, using a one-dimensional lake model, suggested that lake heatwaves become more intense and longer lasting within a warming world. The rise of unprecedented temperatures, as occur during lake heatwaves, represents a potential trigger for catastrophic mass mortality events, such as fish die-offs, as lake temperatures exceed organismal physiological thresholds (Till et al 2019).

Output: corroborate


Input: Claim: Language immersion can significantly accelerate language acquisition. [SEP] Text: in Contact 25th Conflict & & Issues in the Denmark-& & &. to Activation: ’ Kircher & 2023-10-23 Still of a video from the language promotion campaign; this traditional speaker says “I think it's great that you want to invest time and effort in the Frisian language and that you want to learn Frisian” *** The blog posts are prepared by the authors in their personal capacity. The views expressed in the blog posts are the sole responsibility of the authors concerned and do not necessarily reflect the view of the for Minority Issues. ***Authors: & | (PhD, University of London) is principal researcher at the ECMI. While working on the project presented in this blog post, she was a researcher at the on Multilingualism and Language Learning/in the Netherlands. Her research focuses on minority language communities in multilingual societies – with a particular interest in language attitudes and ideologies, language practices, and language policy and planning. * (MA, Rijksuniversiteit Groningen) works at Afûk, formerly known as the Ûnderrjocht Kommisje (Education Commission) – the organisation that promotes Frisian language and culture in Fryslân, Netherlands. She is head of the marketing division and manager of the language promotion division. Moreover, she is in charge of Afûk’s international projects. Around the world, minority languages face endangerment as their speakers shift to the socially, politically, and economically more powerful tongues of majority populations. It is generally acknowledged that benign neglect – doing nothing and hoping that the problem will solve itself – is effectively support for majority language groups. notes: “Laissez-faire policies mean that the languages of power and prestige will eventually take over in all situations of contact”. So, what can be done to maintain and revitalise minority languages? From acquisition to activationIn many contexts, the focus is on acquisition planning – that is, measures to promote knowledge of minority languages, typically through the education system. Notably, one thing that almost all acquisition planning strategies have in common is the assumption that learning a minority language will somehow turn people into frequent minority language users. However, studies from various contexts demonstrate that this is not actually the case. puts it: “Potential does not necessarily lead to production”.

Output: contrast


Input: Claim: Functional MRI can measure brain activity by detecting changes in blood flow. [SEP] Text: To avoid inclusion of the white matter, hypoperfusion volume was analyzed on an individual T1-based brain mask, which excluded the ventricles and most parts of the white matter. Positron emission tomography images were resized to the MR images in the z axis and then realigned by an automated observer-independent algorithm. To assess the degree of CCD, circular ROIs, measuring 33 mm in diameter, were placed in the cerebellar hemispheres ipsilateral (I) and contralateral (C) to the hemispheric stroke. The degree of CCD was measured on one axial cut representing the highest cerebellar asymmetry and was expressed as an asymmetry index (AI = C/I) for PET-CBF and on a corresponding slide for MRI-based maps of CBF, cerebral blood volume (CBV), mean transit time (MTT), and time to peak (TTP) (Figure 1). Figure 1 Assessment of CCD by regions of interest (ROIs) in the cerebellar hemispheres ipsilateral (I) and contralateral (C) to the supratentorial lesion (arrow). Asymmetry indices (C/I) were calculated for (A) PET-CBF images and for (B) perfusion-weighted maps of and TTP. CBF, cerebral blood flow; CBV, cerebral blood volume; CCD, crossed cerebellar diaschisis; MTT, mean transit time; TTP, time to peak. Statistical AnalysisOwing to skewed distribution of most study variables, results were presented as median and interquartile range (IQR), if not indicated otherwise. For correlation analysis, Spearman's rank correlation was used. The ability of PW-MRI to show the degree of CCD was compared with PET by Bland-Altman (BA) plots of the respective PW-MRI and PET-CBF AIs. Logarithmic BA plots were used, when measurement errors seemed to be proportional to the mean. Positron emission tomography-CBF data obtained from 10 volunteers without any history of a neurologic or psychiatric disease and with normal MRI served as a reference group to determine AI values representing significant CCD in PET imaging. However, PET is highly sensitive to subtle perfusion asymmetries, which might be statistically significant but not clinically relevant.

Output: pass


Input: Claim: Climate change has contributed to more frequent and intense heatwaves. [SEP] Text: Over time, an increase in the exposure of lake ecosystems to extreme temperatures may lead to an irreversible loss of species, as has already been observed in the oceans due to the increased frequency of marine heatwaves (Smale et al 2019, Straub et al 2019). Lake heatwaves could also promote the growth of harmful cyanobacteria, which are adapted to endure warmer and irregular temperatures (Jöhnk et al 2008, Duan et al 2009, Zhang et al 2016, Rasconi et al 2017, Baker and Geider 2021), thus having negative impacts on some of the key benefits that lakes provide to society, such as the provision of safe water for drinking and irrigation. Given the vulnerability of aquatic ecosystems to thermal extremes, an understanding of lake heatwaves has taken on new and critical importance. An important physical attribute of lake heatwaves that has not previously been investigated is their spatial extent, specifically, the spatial extent of contiguous regions within a lake that simultaneously experience heatwave conditions. The physical size of such regions has important implications for heat-related impacts on aquatic species, including their exposure to extreme warm water temperature. Here, we address this critical knowledge gap by investigating the spatial extent of heatwaves in the largest group of freshwater lakes on Earth, Great Lakes. In this study we calculate the spatial extent of lake heatwaves observed each year since 1995 and investigate how they respond to climatic variations. We also relate these observed changes to the inter-annual variability in winter ice cover and the onset of thermal stratification (i. e. the time of year in which the positively stratified season starts), two key metrics known to influence the thermal response of to climate change (Austin and Colman 2007, 2008, Anderson et al 2021). 2. Methods2. 1. Study system(situated in the upper mid-east region of North America; figure S1 (available online at stacks. iop. org/ERL/16/094013/mmedia)), hereafter referred to as the Great Lakes, are the largest freshwater system on Earth with respect to surface area and contain approximately 21% of the world's unfrozen surface freshwater. Lake Michigan-Huron, when considered as a single system, and make up the two largest lakes by surface area, but as a whole the contain over 7000 km of coastline that stretches across the border between Canada and the United States.

Output: corroborate


Input: Claim: Language immersion can significantly accelerate language acquisition. [SEP] Text: In a further project component, we found that many participants were keen to learn the socially and geographically grounded Frisian varieties that are commonly used by traditional speakers – most likely to facilitate their desired ingroup membership in traditional speaker communities. The participants were thus certainly inclined to become active and habitual Frisian speakers. But how often and with whom did they actually use the minority language? Our study focused on one specific aspect of activation: namely how new speakers’ use of the minority language was affected by traditional speakers’ behaviours. Specifically, we set out to answer three questions. (1) What are the language use patterns of new speakers of Frisian? The quantitative data showed that new speakers’ language use patterns included very little Frisian. Regardless of how proficient they were in the minority language, participants used it less than 20% of the time during a typical week, and the only context in which (at least some) new speakers used Frisian more than Dutch was in the Afûk classroom. Minority language interactions outside the classroom, with traditional speakers, consisted merely of a few tokenistic words or phrases. The qualitative data revealed linguistic insecurity as a reason for this, as exemplified by the following comment: “Ik heb het Fries geleerd om het te kunnen spreken, maar ik doe het nooit want ik durf het niet” (I learnt Frisian to be able to speak it, but I never do, because I do not dare to speak it). The findings thus demonstrate that knowledge of Frisian does not automatically entail its use – thereby highlighting the necessity for language planning to promote the activation of new speakers. (2) What behaviour by traditional speakers discourages new speakers from using Frisian? To answer this question, we investigated the effect of four potentially discouraging behaviours, all of which had been reported as frequent reactions to new speakers’ minority language use in other contexts. These behaviours were: traditional speakers refusing to engage with new speakers in the minority language, switching to the majority language during conversations, correcting new speakers’ mistakes without having been asked to do so, and laughing at new speakers. Our quantitative data revealed that participants found all four of these behaviours discouraging – but the correction of mistakes significantly less so than the others.

Output: contrast


Input: Claim: Functional MRI can measure brain activity by detecting changes in blood flow. [SEP] Text: Hence, for receiver operating characteristic curve analysis of sensitivity, specificity, and positive and negative predictive values of MRI-based AIs to detect CCD, we used a predefined threshold of 0. 90 to group patients as CCD + (AI <0. 90) or CCD- (AI ≥0. 90). ResultsOf 25 patients (12 women, median age 57 years, IQR 53 to 66), 1 received comparative imaging twice after stroke, resulting in 26 imaging procedures. Overall, 20 comparative imaging procedures were performed within 48 hours after stroke (median 13 hours, IQR 7 to 26) and 6 beyond 48 hours (median 330 hours, IQR 245 to 640). The median time delay between MRI and PET was 68 minutes (IQR 52 to 135). The median supratentorial diffusion-weighted image-lesion volume was 31. 4 mL (IQR 18. 4 to 159. 2), and the median supratentorial hypoperfusion volume was 57. 9 mL (IQR 21. 9 to 118. 8). Detailed patient data are shown in Table 1. The median AI values for PET-CBF, PW-CBF, PW-CBV, PW-MTT and PW-TTP were 0. 85, 0. 84, 0. 88, 1. 00, and 1. 01, respectively (Table 1). In the reference group of healthy volunteers, a mean PET-CBF AI value of 0. 98 (s. d. ±0. 01) was found. Therefore, CCD was found to be statistically significant in AI values below 0. 96, which represents values <2 s. d. of the mean of the reference group. Crossed cerebellar diaschisis was found in 22 of 26 PET imaging procedures (85%). Table 1 Clinical data, volumetric data, individual asymmetry indices for PET-CBF, and MRI-based maps of and TTPImaging procedure no. Age (years)SexSite of stroketo imaging (hours)MRI to PET (minutes)DWI volume (mL)PET-CBF <20mL/ 100g per min (mL)AI PET-----TTP 166mMCA L212. 55415. 275. 00. 71*0. 990. 810. 850. 98 257mMCA L 925. 052161. 8274. 90.

Output: pass


Input: Claim: Climate change has contributed to more frequent and intense heatwaves. [SEP] Text: (a) Temporal evolution and spatial expansion of heatwaves in each of the in 1995, with the individual markers representing the maximum spatial extent per lake; (b) the calculated mean and (c) maximum (i. e. from panel (a)) spatial extent of the largest heatwaves; and (d) the spatial coverage of the largest heatwave in each lake at the time of their maximum extent, with the colors representing the heatwave intensity (i. e. the temperature anomaly relative to the long-term average at that time of year). The gray regions in panel (d) illustrate that the heatwave did not reach that region of the lake. The spatial extent of lake heatwaves is shown as percentages, calculated relative to the total surface area of each lake. Download figure:Standard image High-resolution image By repeating the approach described above for each year with observational data we explore, for all lakes, the inter-annual variability in the mean and maximum spatial extent of lake heatwaves. As expected, the spatial extent of lake heatwaves varies from one year to the next (figures S6–S8). In some years, heatwaves can occupy a relatively small surface area, such as in 1997 where the average spatial extent across the Great lakes was 1% (figure S6; table S1). In other years, lake heatwaves can occupy a vast proportion of the total lake surface area. For example, in 2012, approximately 99% of the surface area of Lakes Superior, Michigan and Ontario was occupied by a lake heatwave at its peak extent (figure 2; table 1). On average, across the Great Lakes, ∼98% of the total surface area experienced a heatwave in 2012 (table 1). According to their maximum spatial extent, five of the largest lake heatwaves averaged across the have occurred since 2010 (table 1). However, some exceptions can be noted in individual lakes, such as the anomalously large (covering 92% of the lake surface area) heatwave observed in in 1998 (figure S6; table 1). Reset image size Figure 2. Maximum spatial extent of the biggest heatwaves observed in the in 2012. Shown is the spatial coverage of the largest heatwave observed in each of the in 2012, at the time of their maximum spatial extent. Colors illustrate the heatwave intensity (i. e. temperature anomaly). Gray regions illustrate that the lake heatwave did not reach that region of the lake.

Output: corroborate


Input: Claim: Many language learners use apps to supplement formal study. [SEP] Text: Τμήμα Αγγλικής Γλώσσας και Φιλολογίας Εξεταστική επιτροπήΨάλτου-Τζόυσυ ΑγγελικήΜατθαιουδάκη ΜαρίναΣουγάρη Αρετή-ΜαρίαΜητακίδου ΧριστοδούλαΓαβριηλίδου ΖωήΓρίβα ΕλένηΑλεξίου Θωμαή Επιστημονικό πεδίοΑνθρωπιστικές Επιστήμες και Τέχνες ➨ Γλώσσα και Λογοτεχνία Λέξεις-κλειδιάΓλωσσικές στρατηγικές μάθησης; Μαθητές, Νεαροί; Γλωσσομάθεια, Επίπεδο; Κίνητρα για την εκμάθηση της αγγλικής; Φύλο ΧώραΕλλάδα Γλώσσα�

Output: pass


Input: Claim: Functional MRI can measure brain activity by detecting changes in blood flow. [SEP] Text: 71*0. 630. 570. 680. 74 364fMCA R 99. 547265. 2284. 00. 72*0. 900. 991. 001. 01 463mPCA R 69. 213924. 124. 00. 73*0. 740. 851. 101. 23 572fMCA R 98. 5572119. 10. 73*0. 900. 870. 971. 03 656mMCA L 317. 025102. 1161. 40. 75*0. 690. 400. 711. 01 765fMCA L2116. 0161230. 4210. 80. 77*0. 790. 901. 271. 02 843mMCA L1324. 067211. 9122. 60. 78*0. 690. 711. 000. 83 969mMCA R139. 552135. 4174. 60. 78*0. 580. 631. 071. 001054mMCA R16260. 062260. 782. 20. 79*0. 821. 560. 951. 301160mMCA L113. 513439. 640. 70. 81*0. 770. 810. 901. 111266fMCA L 830. 063227. 1234. 80. 81*1. 021. 071. 010. 981351fMCA L191. 515339. 6117. 50. 84*0. 700. 981. 351. 041469mMCA L 2192. 09223. 5186. 30. 86*0. 940. 911. 051. 001562fMCA R 6900. 031722. 212. 70. 87*0. 810. 811. 221. 031653mMCA L 67. 05217. 514. 10. 87*1. 061. 081. 041. 001745fMCA L 3400. 07910. 1113. 80. 88*0. 990. 880. 901. 011873fMCA L 87. 04528. 216. 00. 91*0. 601. 220. 801. 021924fMCA L 540. 04309. 60. 91*0. 760. 580. 751. 012056mMCA R2033. 069198.

Output: pass


Input: Claim: Climate change has contributed to more frequent and intense heatwaves. [SEP] Text: Download figure:Standard image High-resolution image Table 1. The largest heatwaves observed in the since 1995. Shown are the maximum percentage coverage of the largest heatwaves observed in each of the Great Lakes. The spatial extent of lake heatwaves is shown as percentages, calculated relative to the total surface area of each lake. The maximum heatwave percentages are shown for the five years with the largest events and ranked according to their spatial extent. All years are shown in table S1. %Year%Year%Year%Year%Year%201299. 932020100. 00201799. 19200795. 53201699. 33201698. 02201698. 14201699. 96202099. 00201795. 52202099. 33201297. 58201095. 01201298. 98201098. 48201095. 50201799. 32201096. 66199891. 65201798. 79201697. 17201695. 49201299. 31201793. 99200081. 04201096. 14201897. 01202095. 49201098. 19202082. 06To explore the mechanistic drivers of lake heatwaves, we now compare the inter-annual variability of their maximum spatial extent, averaged across the Great Lakes, to the inter-annual variability in the percentage of maximum winter ice cover and the subsequent date of stratification onset (figure 3). Here, we observe a statistically significant (r2 = 0. 3; p = 0. 003) negative relationship between the inter-annual variability in the maximum heatwave extent and the percentage of winter ice cover (figure 3(a)). Specifically, during years when ice cover is low, the maximum spatial extent of lake heatwaves is high. This association is driven by the fact that less winter ice cover, in addition to warmer surface air temperatures in spring, contributes to an earlier onset of thermal stratification (figure 3(b)). An earlier stratification onset, as well as higher surface air temperatures during the open-water season, likewise promotes warmer surface water temperature (figure 3(c)). Higher surface water temperatures, in turn, stimulate the development of large lake heatwaves (figure 3(d)).

Output: corroborate


Input: Claim: Language apps alone provide everything needed to achieve fluency. [SEP] Text: The multidimensionality of second language oral fluency: Interfacing cognitive fluency and utterance fluency Published online by Press: 08 March 2022 [Opens in a new window] and[Opens in a new window] Show author details Affiliation: * Affiliation: of Vienna, Vienna, Austria * *Corresponding author. E-mail: j. kormos@lancaster. ac. uk 0. 51 mb) View PDF [Opens in a new window] Save to to Save to & Permissions [Opens in a new window] current study examined the extent to which cognitive fluency (CF) contributes to utterance fluency (UF) at the level of constructs. A total of 128 Japanese-speaking learners of English completed four speaking tasks—argumentative task, picture narrative task, reading-to-speaking task, and reading-while-listening-to-speaking task—and a battery of linguistic knowledge tests, capturing vocabulary size, lexical retrieval speed, sentence construction skills, grammaticality judgments, and articulatory speed. Their speaking performance was analyzed in terms of speed, breakdown, and repair fluency (i. e. , UF), and scores on linguistic knowledge tests were used to assess students’ L2 linguistic resources and processing skills (i. e. , CF). Structural equation modeling revealed a complex interplay between the multidimensionality of CF and UF and speaking task types. L2 processing speed consistently contributed to all aspects of UF across speaking tasks, whereas the role of linguistic resources in speed and repair fluency varied, depending on task characteristics. 10. 1017/S0272263121000899 [Opens in a new window] This is an 4. 0), which permits unrestricted re-use, distribution and reproduction, provided the original 2022. Published by Oral fluency is one of the most robust indicators of second language (L2) proficiency (Tavakoli et al. , Reference Tavakoli, Nakatsuhara and Hunter2020). In the context of learning, teaching, and assessment of L2 speaking skills, oral fluency is thus commonly regarded as one of the major learning goals. For a better understanding of L2 fluency as a construct and as an important language learning target, it is essential to examine how underlying linguistic knowledge contributes to students’ fluent speech production.

Output: contrast


Input: Claim: Functional MRI can measure brain activity by detecting changes in blood flow. [SEP] Text: 4103. 40. 91*1. 131. 371. 011. 002148mMCA L 248. 03718. 015. 60. 92*0. 921. 001. 040. 972256fMCA R 3240. 07315. 527. 90. 93*0. 931. 051. 181. 0123Same patient as no. 10 1420. 0252151. 2191. 60. 960. 910. 921. 680. 972449fMCA L 3720. 013522. 523. 90. 971. 000. 770. 861. 012585fMCA L135. 013034. 526. 60. 970. 790. 730. 841. 002655mMCA L 834. 04716. 60. 00. 990. 860. 710. 691. 01Median57 922. 06831. 457. 90. 850. 840. 881. 001. 01IQR53–66 5–138. 7–46. 052–13518. 4–159. 221. 9–118. 80. 77–0. 910. 75–0. 940. 74–0. 990. 86–1. 071. 00–1. 02Minimum24 21. 5250. 00. 00. 710. 580. 400. 680. 74Maximum85 21900371265. 2247. 90. 991. 131. 561. 681. 30AI, asymmetry index; CBF, cerebral blood flow; CBV, cerebral blood volume; CCD, crossed cerebellar diaschisis; DWI, diffusion-weighted image; f, female; IQR, interquartile range; L, left; m, male; MCA, middle cerebral artery; MRI, magnetic resonance imaging; MRI to PET, time between the scans; MTT, mean transit time; of Scale; PCA, posterior cerebral artery; PET, positron emission tomography; PW, perfusion weighted; R, right; stroke to imaging, time delay between stroke onset and MRI scan; TTP, time to peak. Asterisk indicates significant CCD. For all patients, the correlation of PWI-based AI values with the corresponding PET-CBF AI values was weak (Spearman's rho: PW-CBF 0.

Output: pass


Input: Claim: Climate change has contributed to more frequent and intense heatwaves. [SEP] Text: We also find that the deepest lakes experience the greatest association between stratification onset and the maximum spatial extent of lake heatwaves, evaluated via a linear regression model between the inter-annual variability in the date of stratification onset and the heatwave maximum spatial extent. Notably, the proportionate amount of variation in the maximum spatial extent explained by the onset of stratification is lowest in the shallowest lake (Erie) and highest in the deepest lake (Superior) (figure S9). Reset image size Figure 3. Inter-annual variability in the maximum spatial extent of lake heatwaves and their drivers. Shown are the relationships between the inter-annual variability in (a) the maximum spatial extent of lake heatwaves and the maximum percentage of winter ice cover; (b) stratification onset and the maximum winter ice cover, with the colored points representing the spring (March–May) average air temperature anomalies; (c) the average open-water surface temperature and stratification onset, with the colored points representing the May–November average air temperature anomalies; and (d) the maximum heatwave extent and the average open-water surface temperature. The spatial extent of lake heatwaves is shown as percentages, calculated relative to the total surface area of each lake. All results shown are averaged across the Great Lakes. All variables are shown as anomalies, calculated relative to the average of a specific variable for the day/month of year evaluated over the 1995–2020 base period. Download figure:Standard image High-resolution image The average spatial extent of lake heatwaves across the demonstrates a noticeable increase since 1995, albeit with considerable inter-annual variability (figure 4(a)). Most notably, our observations suggest that the spatial extent of lake heatwaves in the has increased two-fold between the first and last decade (1995–2004 and 2011–2020, respectively) of the study period, from 10. 8% to 26. 0% on average. However, we also highlight that the average spatial extent is much greater in some specific years. For example, in 2016 the average spatial extent of lake heatwaves across the was 62%, meaning that almost two thirds of the Great Lakes' surface area were occupied by a heatwave. Here, we also calculate that the rate of change in the average spatial extent of lake heatwaves across the is 7. 3% decade−1. The rate of change is greatest in the shallowest of the (Erie) at 11.

Output: corroborate


Input: Claim: Language apps alone provide everything needed to achieve fluency. [SEP] Text: Insights into how L2 users’ linguistic resources and processing mechanisms contribute to the efficiency of speech production may also assist language teachers and materials designers and inform language teaching policy makers what linguistic knowledge areas and skills to develop so that L2 learners may become fluent speakers. In L2 fluency research, underlying linguistic knowledge and temporal characteristics of speech are termed cognitive fluency (CF) and utterance fluency (UF), respectively (Segalowitz, Reference Segalowitz2010, Reference Segalowitz2016). Specifically, CF refers to “the efficiency of the speaker’s underlying processes responsible for fluency-relevant features of utterance” (Segalowitz, Reference Segalowitz2010, p. 50). UF is concerned with “the oral features of utterances that reflect the operation of underlying cognitive processes” (ibid. ), including speed of delivery and hesitations. Although few in number, previous studies have examined the relationship between CF and UF (henceforth, CF-UF link), providing important insights into the CF-UF link (et al. , and Hulstijn2013; Kahng, Reference Kahng2020). However, previous studies analyzed the measures of CF and UF only at the level of observed variables, meaning that the findings may entail measurement errors. As any observable phenomena are produced not only by the underlying target constructs but also by some unpredictable random factors (i. e. , measurement error), scholars in the human sciences have adopted the concept of latent variables and calculate them based on the covariance of multiple observed variables (for an overview, see Bollen, Reference Bollen2002; Kline, Reference Kline2016). To further clarify the CF-UF link, the current study, therefore, examines the CF-UF link at the level of constructs by means of latent variable analyses. is concerned with how efficiently L2 speakers operate their systems of speech production (Segalowitz, Reference Segalowitz2010). The validity of operationalization of CF can thus be discussed in terms of how different cognitive and linguistic processes in L2 speech production are reflected in utterances.

Output: contrast


Input: Claim: Functional MRI can measure brain activity by detecting changes in blood flow. [SEP] Text: Figure 3 Receiver operating characteristics (ROC) analysis of PW-CBF, PW-CBV, PW-MTT, and PW-TTP asymmetry indices (AIs) for the detection of CCD + (AI < 0. 9) patients. On the basis of the area under the curve (A), CBF (0. 61) performed poorly, whereas CBV (0. 56), MTT (0. 41), and TTP (0. 40) failed to detect CCD. CBF, cerebral blood flow; CBV, cerebral blood volume; CCD, crossed cerebellar diaschisis; MTT, mean transit time; TTP, time to peak. Table 2 By ROC analysis for the detection of CCD+ patients (Figure), thresholds and respective sensitivity, specificity, positive and negative predictive values, and accuracy for PW-MRI map AIs were identifiedThresholdSensitivity (%)Specificity (%)Positive predictive value (%)Negative predictive value (%)AccuracyPW-CBF AIs0. 91715675500. 61PW-CBV AIs0. 91715675500. 56PW-MTT AIs1. 01594371580. 41PW-TTP AIs1. 01475567640. 40AI, asymmetry index; CBF, cerebral blood flow; CBV, cerebral blood volume; CCD, crossed cerebellar diaschisis; MTT, mean transit time; PW-MRI, perfusion-weighted magnetic resonance imaging; ROC, receiver operating characteristic; TTP, time to peak. Based on accuracy, PW-CBF was poorly suited for detection of CCD. PW-CBV, PW-MTT, and PW-TTP failed in the detection of CCD+ patients. DiscussionWe report on a direct comparison of PWI at 1. 5 T with 15O-water-PET-based CCD measurement. In a unique patient sample of acute and subacute human stroke, patients received comparative imaging within a narrow timeframe. We found that the quality of MRI-based assessment of CCD differed between PW-MRI maps. However, even PW-CBF as the best-performing map could not reliably depict the degree of CCD and performed poorly in the detection of CCD-positive patients.

Output: pass


Input: Claim: Climate change has contributed to more frequent and intense heatwaves. [SEP] Text: 4% decade−1, and is least in the deepest lake (Superior) at 3. 5% decade−1. While the number of studied lakes included in this investigation does not allow for a comprehensive analysis of this depth dependence, we do find a clear relationship between the rate of change in the average spatial extent of lake heatwaves and depth of the (figure S10). Intuitively, the average spatial extent of the observed heatwaves across the is also strongly related to their average duration (figure 4(b)). Thus, as lake heatwaves become increasingly long-lived within a warming world, their average spatial extent will likely increase further. Reset image size Figure 4. Inter-annual variability in the mean spatial extent of lake heatwaves. Shown for each lake, as well as the average across the Great Lakes, is (a) the inter-annual variability in the mean spatial extent of lake heatwaves, calculated as the average heatwave coverage over the duration of the heatwave event. We also show (b) the relationship between the mean spatial extent of lake heatwaves (i. e. across the Great Lakes) and the average duration of these lake heatwaves. The spatial extent of lake heatwaves is shown as percentages, calculated relative to the total surface area of each lake. Download figure:Standard image High-resolution image 4. DiscussionFor the first time, we investigated the spatial extent of lake heatwaves and how they respond to climate change. Our analysis suggests that the mean spatial extent of heatwaves in the largest group of freshwater lakes on Earth has increased since 1995, by up to two-fold in the most recent decade. This increase in average spatial extent is driven primarily by an increase in the duration of lake heatwaves which, ultimately, allows them to grow to unprecedented levels in recent years. During some extreme warm years, lake heatwaves can occupy almost the entire surface area of the for a sustained period but, in contrast, can cover a relatively small area during other, notably cooler, years. The inter-annual variability in the maximum spatial extent of lake heatwaves is driven primarily by the inter-annual variability in the date of stratification onset as well as the magnitude of air temperature anomalies during the open-water season.

Output: corroborate


Input: Claim: Language apps alone provide everything needed to achieve fluency. [SEP] Text: L2 speech production models (Kormos, Reference Kormos2006; Segalowitz, Reference Segalowitz2010) are commonly based on Levelt’s (Reference Levelt1989, Reference Levelt, Brown and Hagoort1999) work and assume that L2 speech production entails three major phases—conceptualization, formulation, and articulation—which are executed serially in this order. Conceptualization is responsible for the generation of the preverbal message that includes selected information to convey and its manner of communication. Formulation transforms the preverbal message into corresponding linguistic forms through different linguistic encoding processes (e. g. , lexical retrieval, syntactic procedures). Articulation proceeds by moving the speech organs to produce speech sounds. In addition to these major processes of speech production, the self-monitoring function examines the interim content and eventual outcome of the preceding processes in terms of appropriacy and linguistic correctness. Among these speech production processes, conceptualization is assumed to be relatively independent of L2 proficiency because conceptualization is responsible for the manipulation of conceptual information prior to linguistic encoding processes (Kormos, Reference Kormos2006). In contrast, formulation and articulation draw on L2 knowledge and skills and thus are categorized as L2-specific components of CF (Kahng, Reference Kahng2020; Segalowitz, Reference Segalowitz2016). One clear distinction between formulation and articulation is the level of representations of processing. Formulation involves several linguistic encoding modules, all of which manipulate different types of linguistic representations (e. g. , lexical and phonological representations). Articulation is considered to be purely motoric, meaning that the execution of articulation involves the use of gestural movements rather than information processing. Meanwhile, the self-monitoring function is related to both conceptual and L2-specific aspects of L2 speech production because it is driven by either content accuracy or linguistic errors identified in the course of speech production. Building on the notion of L2-specific CF (Kahng, Reference Kahng2020; Segalowitz, Reference Segalowitz2016), valid measurements of CF should therefore tap into formulation and articulation processes and self-monitoring processes triggered by language-related problems. Looking closely at the literature on CF research, one may argue that previous studies have used both broad and narrow definitions of CF.

Output: contrast


Input: Claim: Functional MRI can measure brain activity by detecting changes in blood flow. [SEP] Text: Positron emission tomography-based measurement of brain perfusion differs from the MRI-based bolus-tracking technique. 15O-water, as used in PET, is a highly diffusible tracer. Regional perfusion is calculated by summing up the counts of several measurements over a predefined time, resulting in a time-voxel-count curve. Conversely, in PW-MRI, a paramagnetic contrast agent is used, which is strictly confined to the intravascular compartment provided the blood-brain barrier is intact. Perfusion is measured by repetitive imaging during the first brain passage of the contrast agent bolus, resulting in a time-voxel-intensity curve. Despite these methodological differences, direct comparison with PET (next to xenon computed tomography) is still considered the best available in vivo validation of PWI measurements. Several studies have described the validation of PWI-based measurement of supratentorial hypoperfusion (Sobesky et al, 2005b; Takasawa et al, 2008; Zaro-Weber et al, 2010). Only few data are available on PWI in the posterior fossa focusing exclusively on stroke in the posterior circulation (Förster et al, 2010; Kim et al, 2010). In this context, our study is the first validation of PWI against PET in a condition of functional hypoperfusion as seen in CCD in the posterior fossa. In PW stroke imaging, in which the tracer arrival is delayed owing to vessel occlusion, both nondeconvoluted and deconvoluted parameter maps are generated from the time-intensity curve. TTP, a composite correlate of hemodynamic parameters such as arrival time of the contrast bolus, transit time through the tissue, and arterial dispersion, has proven to be a useful nondeconvoluted parameter (Christensen et al, 2009; Zaro-Weber et al, 2010). and CBF maps are generated by deconvolution, which is believed to uncouple the hemodynamic information into different maps reflecting distinct hemodynamic parameters. These maps have formerly been considered to be superior to nondeconvoluted maps to identify penumbral hypoperfusion. This notion has been questioned recently (Christensen et al, 2009; Zaro-Weber et al, 2010).

Output: pass


Input: Claim: Climate change has contributed to more frequent and intense heatwaves. [SEP] Text: An earlier onset of stratification, which can occur following mild winters and/or anomalously warm spring/summer air temperatures (Woolway et al 2021b), can result in a lengthening of the summer stratified season and, in turn, warmer surface water temperatures (Austin and Colman 2007, Piccolroaz et al 2015, Zhong et al 2016, Woolway and Merchant 2017). Most notably, the rate of surface warming in seasonally stratifying lakes is substantially greater after the onset of thermal stratification when the volume of water that participates directly in air-water surface heat exchange is smaller. Thus, an earlier stratification onset in lakes can result in an increase in the time during which the shallow upper mixed layer is present and, in turn, result in warmer lake surface temperatures which, subsequently, promotes the development of larger lake heatwaves. This is clearly evident in in 1998, where warmer than average surface water temperatures driven by the aforementioned mechanisms (et al 2014, Piccolroaz et al 2015, Zhong et al 2016), contributed to the development of an anomalously large lake heatwave. Our analysis also identified a depth effect on the association between stratification onset and the maximum spatial extent of lake heatwaves. The maximum spatial extent of lake heatwaves is more strongly correlated with the date of stratification onset in the deepest lakes, which is due to temperature anomalies associated with stratification onset persisting for longer in deeper lakes where thermal inertia is large (Toffolon et al 2014, Woolway and Merchant 2017). We expect other seasonally stratifying lakes globally to experience a similar increase in the spatial extent of heatwaves in recent decades, if the mechanistic drivers described above, notably an earlier onset of stratification (Woolway et al 2021b), or an increase in surface water temperature due to other atmospheric of within-lake drivers (Woolway et al 2020), are changing in line with those observed in our studied sites. Ultimately, an increase in lake surface water temperature will result in the occurrence of longer lasting lake heatwaves, which will result in an increase in their spatial extent. In lakes that mix frequently, at daily to weekly intervals (i. e.

Output: corroborate


Input: Claim: Language apps alone provide everything needed to achieve fluency. [SEP] Text: In a narrow sense, in accordance with Segalowitz’s (Reference Segalowitz2016) original conceptualization, CF refers to the speed and efficiency of linguistic encoding processes. In a broad sense, often adopted in empirical studies (e. g. , et al. , and Hulstijn2013; Kahng, Reference Kahng2020), CF may include linguistic knowledge resources as well as the speed of processing skills. For instance, lexical processing in L2 speech production is related to the range of available lexical resources (i. e. , breadth and depth of vocabulary knowledge) as well as the speed of lexical retrieval (i. e. , lexical fluency) (see Kormos, Reference Kormos2006). Following the narrow sense, only lexical fluency is regarded as a lexical component of CF, whereas the broad definition of CF concerns both the breadth and depth of vocabulary knowledge and lexical fluency as the lexical component of CF. According to Segalowitz’s (Reference Segalowitz2010, Reference Segalowitz2016) framework, CF is conceptualized as a construct that can explain observable temporal features of utterances (i. e. , UF). From the perspective of L2 speech production mechanisms, breakdowns in utterances can be caused by both lack of linguistic resources and slow processing speed. The valid operationalization of CF may thus involve both linguistic resources and processing speed. Therefore, the current study follows the broad definition of CF and subsequently operationalizes CF as linguistic resources and processing efficiency at the level of vocabulary, grammar, and pronunciation (for a similar methodological decision, see et al. , and Hulstijn2013; Kahng, Reference Kahng2020). However, to the best of our knowledge, the dimensionality of CF (i. e. , the number of subconstructs) has not yet been empirically examined. Accordingly, the current study also aims to test different factor structures of L2-specific CF. Within Segalowitz’s (Reference Segalowitz2010, Reference Segalowitz2016) framework, UF refers to observable temporal features, such as speed of delivery, pauses, and hesitations, which reflect the speaker’s CF.

Output: contrast


Input: Claim: Functional MRI can measure brain activity by detecting changes in blood flow. [SEP] Text: However, in case of CCD, a pathophysiological condition with distinct hemodynamic changes is investigated. In this study, cerebellar vessels are patent and CBF is reduced because of functional inactivation. This reduction in CBF is usually less pronounced than in areas of stroke. In consequence, depiction of the more subtle perfusion changes in CCD requires higher sensitivity from the imaging method. It is known that PWI has methodical limitations in the posterior fossa, e. g. , sinus artifacts and susceptibility artifacts attributed to the skull. Such limitations are less pronounced in PET-based perfusion measurements. This difference may explain why PW-MRI failed to detect CCD in comparison with the gold standard PET. Method comparison by the BA plot can be considered the statistical gold standard overcoming limitations of a mere correlation analysis (Bland and Altman, 1986). When measurement differences in the plot are intolerably high, the compared methods are not exchangeable. In this study, a 4% perfusion asymmetry between the cerebellar hemispheres in PET-CBF was already significant and a 10% difference was defined as clinically relevant. However, differences in the BA plots between PET-CBF and PW maps were between 30% and 80%, clearly indicating that the methods are not exchangeable. This explains why in the following receiver operating characteristic analysis, even the best-performing MRI map, i. e. , PW-CBF, was only poorly suited to detect CCD-positive patients. However, in these analyses, exclusively individual values were compared. Assuming a random scattering of the error, the median AI values should in theory reflect the correct AI value of the whole group. This is probably true in our case. First, the median AI value of PW-CBF (0. 84) was almost equal to the median AI value of PET-CBF (0. 85). Second, the asymmetry shown by PW-CBV values and the lack of asymmetry shown by PW-MTT values are in good accordance with previous data. In a multitracer PET study, the authors found significantly correlated asymmetries of CBF and CBV, whereas plasma MTT showed no hemispheric difference (Yamauchi et al, 1999).

Output: pass


Input: Claim: Climate change has contributed to more frequent and intense heatwaves. [SEP] Text: A potential consequence of this rapid expansion is a reduction of habitat for cold-waters species, which may also result in a compositional shift to warmer-water species that are potentially non-native (Cline et al 2013, Elliott et al 2015). However, gaps in our current understanding of how lake heatwaves will affect aquatic organisms and communities limit our ability to forecast the precise effects of this anticipated spatial expansion, notably due to the complex interactions that occur within a lake in response to climate change. In addition, during summer stratification, cooler water at depth could provide a potential thermal refuge (Kraemer et al 2021), thus allowing aquatic organisms to escape the extreme conditions associated with lake heatwaves. However, we must also consider that environmental conditions in the deeper waters during a lake heatwave event may not always be suitable with, for example, many lakes worldwide experiencing oxygen depletion at depth during the summer season (Jane et al 2021). While the exact negative impacts of lake heatwaves under climate change is unknown, it is likely that when combined with the host of other human effects, such as eutrophication, aquatic ecosystems will be adversely affected by the spatial expansion of lake heatwaves. 5. ConclusionsWe analyzed spatially resolved surface water temperatures from the to investigate how the spatial extent of lake heatwaves—defined as contiguous regions within a lake that simultaneously experience extreme warm conditions—vary under climate change. Our analysis revealed that the maximum spatial extent of lake heatwaves is sensitive to inter-annual variations in winter ice cover and the timing of stratification onset. Notably, our findings suggest that a lengthening of the warm summer season and, in turn, an overall increase in surface water temperature, results in the development of larger spatiotemporally connected heatwaves. Furthermore, our analysis suggests that the mean spatial extent of lake heatwaves has increased two-fold, from 10. 8% to 26. 0% on average, between the first and last decade of the study period. The rate at which the mean spatial extent of lake heatwaves is increasing varies across the from 3. 5% decade−1 in to 11. 4% decade−1 in Lake Erie. On average, the spatial extent of lake heatwaves is increasing at a rate of 7. 3% decade−1. Given the sensitivity of lake ecosystems to hot temperature extremes, we anticipate this observed expansion of lake heatwaves to have widespread implications for heat-related impacts on aquatic species. 10.

Output: corroborate


Input: Claim: Language apps alone provide everything needed to achieve fluency. [SEP] Text: There has been a consensus that UF is composed of three subcomponents—speed, breakdown, and repair fluency (Skehan, Reference Skehan2003; Tavakoli & Skehan, Reference Tavakoli, Skehan and Ellis2005). Speed fluency is concerned with the density of information or speed of delivery and thus is typically measured by articulation rate (i. e. , the number of syllables produced over speech duration excluding pauses). Breakdown fluency refers to pausing behavior and is commonly operationalized in terms of the frequency, duration, type, and location of pauses (S. Suzuki et al. , Reference Suzuki, Kormos and Uchihara2021; Tavakoli & Wright, and Wright2020). Among the different dimensions of pausing behavior, recent studies have recognized the importance of pause location as an indicator of underlying speech processing. Pauses in the middle of utterances are hypothesized to reflect disruptions in L2-specific linguistic processing, whereas pauses at clausal boundaries are supposed to capture breakdowns in conceptualization-related processes, such as content planning (De Jong, Jong2016; Tavakoli, Reference Tavakoli2011). Finally, repair fluency covers, by definition, a range of disfluency phenomena, including self-corrections, false starts, and verbatim repetitions. Some scholars argue that repair fluency is in a supplementary relationship with breakdown fluency because both breakdown and repair fluency are assumed to reflect the operation of self-monitoring processes (i. e. , covert and overt repairs; see Kormos, Reference Kormos2000, Reference Kormos2006) and are regarded as opportunities for speakers to buy time to deal with disruptions in speech processing (et al. , Jong, Groenhout, Schoonen and Hulstijn2015). As such, some studies even examine breakdown and repair fluency as inseparable phenomena (e. g. , Williams & Korko, and Korko2019). L2 fluency research has conventionally measured temporal features of speech, following Tavakoli and Skehan’s (Reference Tavakoli, Skehan and Ellis2005) triad model of UF (speed, breakdown, and repair fluency).

Output: contrast


Input: Claim: Functional MRI can measure brain activity by detecting changes in blood flow. [SEP] Text: Therefore, our congruent results may support the pathophysiological model, after which CBF and CBV are both decreased in deafferentation in contrast to ischemia, in which CBF is reduced, but CBV is increased. Using nuclear medicine methods, usually a CCD incidence of >50% is found. With 85%, the occurrence of significant CCD after stroke in our study is quite high, but still in line with the literature. For example, PET-based studies reported incidence of CCD in 67% (Yamauchi et al, 1992) and 89% of patients (Miura et al, 1994). Two previous studies dealt with MRI-based detection of CCD: Yamada et al (1999) found an incidence of 80%, whereas Lin et al (2009) reported CCD in only 16% of patients. How could these differences in the incidence of CCD in MRI studies be explained? In the study by Lin et al, the assessment of CCD was based on visual inspection of TTP maps. In 16% (47 patients), TTP showed asymmetry. However, we found TTP to perform worst of all tested maps to depict CCD. This might explain the low incidence with use of TTP maps and highlights the importance of comparison with reference methods, especially in conditions resulting from less well-understood pathophysiological mechanisms, such as CCD. In their small study of 10 patients, Yamada et al based their assessment of CCD on CBV maps, which we found to perform better than TTP maps, but still failed in the detection of CCD. This might be explained by methodological differences. Changes in hemodynamic parameters as a result of functional activity are not only regulated by astrocytes on the level of arterioles. Recruitment of capillaries may have an even more important role (Paulson et al, 2010). In our study, gradient echo-based echo-planar imaging sequences were used for PWI. These sequences also include supplying and draining macrovessels, i. e. , total blood volume, in the maps of CBV. This results in a decreased sensitivity to show regional changes of capillary blood volume (Boxerman et al, 1995). However, Yamada et al used a spin echo-based PWI sequence.

Output: pass


Input: Claim: Climate change has contributed to more frequent and intense heatwaves. [SEP] Text: AbstractThe weather conditions of the summer of 2022 were very unusual, particularly in Eastern Asia, Europe, and North America. The devasting impact of climate change has come to our attention, with much hotter and drier conditions, and with more frequent and intense flooding events. Some extreme events have reached a dangerous level, increasingly threatening human lives. The interconnected risks caused by these extreme disaster events are triggering a chain effect, forcing us to respond to these crises through changes in our living environment, which affect the atmosphere, the biosphere, the economy including the availability of energy, our cities, and our global society. Moreover, we have to confront the abnormal consequences of untypical, rapid changes of extreme events and fast switches between extreme states, such as from severe drought to devastating flooding. Recognizing this new situation, it is crucial to improve the adaptation capacity of our societies in order to reduce the risks associated with climate change, and to develop smarter strategies for climate governance. High-quality development must be science-based, balanced, safe, sustainable, and climate-resilient, supported by the collaborative governance of climate mitigation and adaptation. This 2020. Service/ECMWF at and size imageThe hottest summer on record for Europe paired with unusually dry conditions reduced some of Europe’s main rivers to extremely low water levels, for example, threatening vital economic thoroughfares and exacerbating the continent’s energy shortages. The heat also led to record-breaking fire activities in many European countries. More than 2500 fires were recorded, and more than 772,000 ha were burned in European countries in 2022, compared to an average of 900 fires and 318,000 ha burned between 2016 and 2021 (EFFIS 2022). Most parts of China experienced the longest and most intense heatwave on record (CMA 2022) that lasted for 72 days—10 days longer (16% more) than the previous record of 62 days in 2013. More than 1 billion people suffered temperatures higher than 35 °C, and at least 360 million people faced exceptional temperatures higher than 40 °C, making medical attention to heat strokes a new normal in these regions. The accompanying long-lasting drought led to the drying up of rivers, lakes, and reservoirs, affecting the water and electrical power supplies. While heatwaves gripped parts of Europe and Asia, some other places experienced extreme rainfall and flooding.

Output: corroborate


Input: Claim: Language apps alone provide everything needed to achieve fluency. [SEP] Text: The triad model was empirically validated to examine the extent to which fluency is distinguishable from other constructs of L2 oral proficiency such as accuracy and complexity, and to establish the robustness of the model across four different prompts of picture narrative tasks. The results of factor analysis in Tavakoli and Skehan’s (Reference Tavakoli, Skehan and Ellis2005) study indicated two separate factors of UF: one including both speed and breakdown fluency and the other repair fluency. The finding that speed and breakdown fluency were indistinguishable might have been due to the lack of the measure that taps solely into speed fluency, that is, articulation rate. and Skehan’s (Reference Tavakoli, Skehan and Ellis2005) study, different UF measures with high construct validity, such as articulation rate and mid-clause pause frequency, have been developed in L2 fluency research. In addition, even though the triad model of UF was validated only with speech data from picture narrative tasks, the model has been applied to a variety of speaking tasks, going beyond picture narratives. Therefore, to test the validity of Tavakoli and Skehan’s (Reference Tavakoli, Skehan and Ellis2005) model of UF in diverse research contexts, it is essential to revisit the dimensionality of UF, using a comprehensive set of UF measures based on different speaking tasks. The Cognitive-to Segalowitz’s (Reference Segalowitz2010, Reference Segalowitz2016) framework, a speaker’s CF is assumed to underlie the UF of their speech. Although few in number, previous studies have examined what cognitive and linguistic processes can explain variability in UF. Even before Segalowitz’s (Reference Segalowitz2010) work, Segalowitz and Freed’s (and Freed2004) pioneering research investigated the role of L2-specific cognitive ability in L2 oral fluency with English-speaking learners of Spanish (N = 40). Using a semantic classification task and a repeat-and-shift task in both L1 and L2, they computed L2-specific cognitive measures for lexical access and attention control by partialing out corresponding L1 measures. They found that the length of run without fillers in L2 speech was positively associated with the speed of L2 lexical access.

Output: contrast


Input: Claim: Functional MRI can measure brain activity by detecting changes in blood flow. [SEP] Text: In contrast to gradient echo sequences, these sequences are more sensitive to show capillary blood volume changes (Boxerman et al, 1995). This may be a reason why CBV seemed to be a viable surrogate of CCD in spin echo-based PW imaging, but not in our study. Other methodological differences might also account for the differing results. Yamada et al used no arterial input function to calculate CBV maps. Lin et al used an automated arterial input function, whereas in our study, arterial input function was calculated by manually defining voxels in the middle cerebral artery. In the study by Yamada et al, the patient sample consisted of patients in subacute to chronic stages (6 to 120 days), and in the study by Lin et al, only acute and subacute patients (up to 5 days after stroke) were included, whereas we examined a patient sample with mixed stages after stroke (1. 5 hours to 38 days). Our study has some limitations. First, this was a retrospective study with the largest sample of comparative MRI and PET imaging available. However, it still had a modest sample size. Second, perfusion changes between the imaging procedures cannot be ruled out, although the time between MRI and PET in our study is one of the shortest available in the literature (median 68 minutes), and changes in the clinical presentation of patients were monitored. Third, ROI-based approaches as in our study may be less accurate than voxel-based comparisons. However, we chose the ROI-based approach because of known spatial distortion of echo-planar imaging-PW images, which makes coregistration on a voxel level difficult, especially in the posterior fossa. Fourth, only PWI at 1. 5-T field strength was compared with PET in this study. Although susceptibility artifacts tend to increase with higher field strengths, advantages of PWI at 3 T over 1. 5 T have been shown to date (Kosior et al, 2007). In conclusion, PWI at 1. 5 T is not suited to show CCD after stroke. However, the MRI-based detection of CCD needs further investigation. The possibility of (serial) imaging of CCD without radiation exposure could lead to a better understanding of functional flow changes after stroke, which are important epiphenomena following focal ischemia.

Output: pass


Input: Claim: Climate change has contributed to more frequent and intense heatwaves. [SEP] Text: In the southwest of the United States, for example, California’s hot and dry experienced a “once-in-a-thousand-year” extreme rainfall, with nearly a year’s total worth of rain in 3 hours (37. 1 mm). In Pakistan, one-third of the country was completely submerged by a devastating historic flood, causing more than 1100 deaths and billions of dollars in losses. Although devastating, the extreme weather events that occurred in the summer of 2022 were not altogether unexpected. Observations have shown that extreme events including heatwaves, heavy precipitation, droughts, and tropical cyclones have been increasing in recent years and their attribution to human activities has strengthened since last assessment in 2014 (IPCC 2021). Scientists have warned that exceeding 1. 5 °C global warming could trigger multiple climate tipping points, with irreversible and catastrophic consequences (et al. 2022). Although climate tipping points for the Earth system have not been activated yet at the current global warming level of 1. 1 °C, some extreme events intensified by climate change have reached the tipping point of human survival. Heatwaves are a good example of how extreme weather events threaten human health. The maximum temperature a human can withstand is generally within the range of 40–42 °C. In the summer of 2022, the highest temperature in many areas exceeded this limit (Fig. 2a). But human temperature tolerance depends not only on the temperature but also on the humidity—represented by the wet-bulb temperature in meteorology—as well as on concomitant atmospheric pollutants, such as ozone. Studies have shown that even healthy people with strong climate adaptability cannot withstand a wet-bulb temperature higher than 32 °C. Once the wet-bulb temperature reaches 35 °C, we are no longer able to cool ourselves through sweating, leading to heat stroke, which means shocks to multiple organs and even permanent damage (Raymond et al. 2020). Extreme heatwaves over central Europe and especially the Paris region in the summer of 2003 demonstrated that the main health impacts and mortality cases were due to a combination of high temperature, humidity, and episodes of very high levels of ozone (Kovats et al. 2004; Schär et al. 2004). Continued exposure above this threshold can quickly lead to death by overheating. Some areas have already experienced wet-bulb temperatures close to humans’ survival threshold (Fig. 2b).

Output: corroborate


Input: Claim: Language apps alone provide everything needed to achieve fluency. [SEP] Text: Meanwhile, L2 speech rate correlated negatively with the processing stability of L2 attention control, measured by the coefficient of variance (CV) index. Despite the narrow range of cognitive processing measures, these findings confirmed the role of cognitive ability in L2 UF. Building on Segalowitz’s (Reference Segalowitz2010) framework of oral fluency, et al. (and Hulstijn2013) employed a range of linguistic resource and processing measures to predict different UF measures. Their data were collected from 179 learners of L2 Dutch from various L1 backgrounds. Their CF measures covered vocabulary knowledge (vocabulary size, lexical retrieval speed), grammatical knowledge (grammatical knowledge, sentence construction speed), and pronunciation knowledge (phonetic accuracy, articulatory speed). Their UF measures captured speed, breakdown, and repair fluency. Correlational analyses showed that relevant components of CF varied across UF measures. For instance, mean syllable duration, that is, the inverse measure of articulation rate (speed fluency), correlated with a whole range of CF measures. Meanwhile, breakdown fluency measures were related to more specific dimensions of CF. Mean duration of pauses correlated weakly with lexical retrieval speed only. Moreover, both silent and filled pause ratio measures correlated with lexical and grammatical measures. In addition, their linear mixed-effects modeling included a random slope of speaking task types for all UF measures, except self-repetition ratio, indicating the moderating role of task type in the CF-UF link. Kahng (Reference Kahng2020) examined the predictive power of CF measures for UF measures, using a personal narrative task with Chinese learners of English (N = 44). Uniquely, Kahng (Reference Kahng2020) included corresponding L1 UF measures as another predictor variable to partial out the covariance between L1 and L2 UF measures. In her study, CF measures covered vocabulary size for single words and multiword phrases, lexical retrieval speed, grammatical resources and processing speed, and articulatory speed, largely following et al. (and Hulstijn2013). The stepwise multiple regression analyses resulted in three major findings. First, although mean syllable duration (speed fluency) and mid-clause pause ratio (breakdown fluency) correlated with both lexical and syntactic measures of CF, different CF measures were identified as predictor variables in the regression models.

Output: contrast


Input: Claim: Functional MRI can measure brain activity by detecting changes in blood flow. [SEP] Text: Skip to main content Intended for healthcare professionals Search this journalSearch all journalsEnter search terms. . . Searchsearch Enter search terms. . . Searchsearch Search Access/ProfileAccessView access optionsView profileCreate profile Cart 0 by discipline Select discipline: All disciplines All disciplines Life & & Sciences & HumanitiesSelect subject: All subjects All subjects Cardiology & Medicine & Endocrinology & -legal & Orthopaedics & Medicine & & & & Methods & & & & & Criminology & Economics & & & Management & Marketing & & & & & & & & PlanningBrowse journals Sage publishes a diverse portfolio of fully journals in a variety of disciplines. you can explore our Disciplines Hubs, including: Journal portfolios in each of our subject areas. Links to Books and content from across Sage. for/ Reviewers SocietiesFrequently asked questions In this journal Journal of Flow & Factor: 4. 9 5-Factor: 6. 1 email alertsYou are adding the following journal to your email alertsNew contentJournal of Flow & MetabolismCreate email alert Free accessResearch 10. 1097/00004647-199810000-000120. 91, P < 0. 001). The study indicates that language processing in asymmetrically organized cortical areas inhibits the reciprocal transcallosal information exchange in favor of the lateralized mental operation. Our data agree with anatomic, electrophysiologic, and pharmacologic experiments that point to the important role of collateral inhibition for the transcallosal information exchange. The two hemispheres … speak as a unit in that the right hemisphere during speech is not idling or diverted but is actively focused to aid and sustain the cerebral processing involved in speech, to add tone and expression and to inhibit unrelated activity (Sperry, 1986). The language dominance of the left cerebral hemisphere requires the reciprocal adjustment of neuronal activity in both cerebral cortices. The corpus callosum is the largest interhemispheric fiber tract that connects the left and right cortical networks. Studies of split-brain patients demonstrate that lateralized cognitive operations, such as language processing, involve interhemispheric information transfer through the corpus callosum (Gazzaniga, 1970). Morphometric studies of human postmortem brains, however, indicate that the interhemispheric information exchange is not equally organized in all humans, but that it varies considerably with the degree of the individual brain functional asymmetry.

Output: pass


Input: Claim: Climate change has contributed to more frequent and intense heatwaves. [SEP] Text: As global warming continues, strengthened evaporation is anticipated to increase the proportion of water in the atmosphere, and high-temperature days will become more intolerable (Raymond et al. 2020). Fig. 2Source NOAA website at Image provided by the NOAA/OAR/from their Web site at with default setting except that “Date” was changed to “2022 Aug 1,” “Contour Lines” changed to “No,” “Plot Units” changed to “Celsius,” and “Projection” changed to “Robinson. ” b Top 0. 1% of wet-bulb temperatures at different locations between 1979 and 2017. Full size imageAs global warming has progressed, hotter and drier conditions and more extreme flooding events have become the new state and the new normal. On the one hand, we need to adapt to this new state and deal with the negative consequences on energy, ecosystems, economies, societies, and public health. On the other hand, we need to be prepared for the untypical and rapid reversal of extreme events, such as the shift from extreme drought to extreme flooding, and from heatwaves to cold spells. As highlighted in the recently published report United in Science (WMO 2022a), adaptation is crucial to lowering the risks of climate impacts. Therefore, it is important, urgent, and crucial to act now to improve our adaptation capacity to reduce the risks of climate change, especially of extreme events. 2 Understanding the Emergence of Learned in the Process of NeutralityIn response to climate change, the whole world is working towards carbon neutrality to limit global warming. Cutting down the carbon emissions in the energy sector is essential, which requires remarkable transition from fossil fuel energies to clean and renewable energies. Recently, the energy crisis accompanying extreme weather events has brought our attentions to the emergence of new risks during the energy transition process. 2. 1 from the 2021 to WeatherThe electricity resources of the state of Texas, United States, are dominated by natural gas (52%), followed by coal (20%), wind (17%), nuclear (9%), and other sources (2%) (Statista 2022a). 2021, the impact of extreme cold weather on the energy supply of the state caused significant blackouts and left more than 10 million people without electricity.

Output: corroborate


Input: Claim: Language apps alone provide everything needed to achieve fluency. [SEP] Text: Given the mechanisms of speech production as theoretical underpinnings of CF (Segalowitz, Reference Segalowitz2010, Reference Segalowitz2016), we selected task design features based on the framework of speech processing demands (e. g. , Préfontaine & Kormos, Reference Préfontaine and Kormos2015; Skehan, Reference Skehan2009), targeting three speech processing characteristics: content planning (i. e. , conceptualization), the preemptive activation of relevant linguistic items, and the availability of phonological information. To manipulate these speech processing components, the study employed four speaking tasks: (a) an argumentative speech task, (b) a related picture narrative task, (c) a reading-to-speaking (RtoS) task, and (d) a reading-while-listening-to-speaking (RwLtoS) task. All the task prompts are available using OSF ( In the argumentative task, students were provided with a statement and argued to what extent they agree/disagree with it (S. Suzuki & Kormos, and Kormos2020), while in the picture narrative task, they were asked to describe an 11-frame cartoon adopted from Préfontaine and Kormos (Reference Préfontaine and Kormos2015; available in the IRIS database, In both RtoS and RwLtoS tasks, students were instructed to read a 300-word long expository text written in English and to retell the content of the text. However, these tasks differed in the modality of the source text presentation. The RtoS task offered a written text (i. e. , reading-only), while a bimodal text (reading-while-listening) was provided in the RwLtoS task. To minimize the effects of source texts, we prepared two comparable texts adapted from Millington (Reference Millington2019), and the audio-input for the bimodal source text was recorded by a L1 speaker with 15 years of English teaching experience at universities in Japan. There are three intended contrasts between these tasks. First, comparing the argumentative task with the other three tasks, the moderating role of the necessity for content planning in the CF-UF link can be examined.

Output: contrast


Input: Claim: Functional MRI can measure brain activity by detecting changes in blood flow. [SEP] Text: Taking handedness as a measure of functional lateralization, these studies have found that the midsagittal size of the human corpus callosum and, consequently, the number of transcallosal fibers are larger in left-handed and ambidextrous people than in those with consistent right-hand preference (Witelson, 1989; Cowell et al. , 1993). Neuroimaging with positron emission tomography (PET) can provide information about the functional interactions within entire neural networks. Two major strategies exist by which such PET data are currently analyzed. One strategy compares the pattern of activity between two or more tasks, looking for those areas that show significant changes. The second determines the functional relationships between regional activities in an attempt to find the neural network that mediates the task (McIntosh et al. , 1994; Horwitz et al. , 1995). Using this second, correlational approach, previous studies of regional brain metabolism revealed that a widespread network of significant connections orchestrates the speech-relevant areas of both cerebral hemispheres according to the actual needs of speech processing (Karbe et al. , 1998). Within this large bilateral network of functionally intercorrelated cortex areas, specially close interhemispheric correlations connect relatively small portions of the left and right auditory association cortex that are situated in that part of the left Brodmann's area (BA) 22 that is buried in the superior temporal sulcus and in the surface aspects of the right BA 22 (Karbe et al. , 1995). The present study explores whether the energy consumption of the corpus callosum reflects the dynamics of the presumed interhemispheric transmission of language information. studied 10 normal individuals (9 men, 1 woman, mean age 39 years, SD 14 years) with three-dimensional-registered magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) and with high-resolution PET using the 18F-2-fluoro-2-deoxy-D-glucose method. A laterality questionnaire and standardized tests of skilled motor performance classified all subjects as consistent right-handers (Oldfield, 1971). All subjects gave their informed consent. Magnetic resonance imaging was performed in all individuals with a superconducting 1-T instrument (Magnetom, Siemens, Erlangen, Germany). The MRI scanner produced 64 adjacent transaxial T1-weighted tomograms with a slice thickness of 2. 5 mm and a pixel size of 0. 98 × 0. 98 mm.

Output: pass


Input: Claim: Climate change has contributed to more frequent and intense heatwaves. [SEP] Text: All types of electricity generation technologies were impaired by the heavy winter storm, especially the natural gas and wind energy supplies due to damaged pipes that limited the natural gas supply and frozen wind turbines that shut down the wind energy supply. Other power plants also failed to operate at their best generation output levels. Moreover, the dramatically increased demand for heating during this extreme cold weather period caused a further collapse of the power supply (Busby et al. 2021). Under extreme conditions, the reduced reliability of the power generating infrastructure has become an emerging risk that threatens the stability of the energy supply. The winterization of the reliability standards for the infrastructure should be developed and implemented to ensure that generators are prepared for extreme events in the future. Moreover, in the process of achieving carbon neutrality, clean and renewable energy sources, especially solar and wind energy will make great progress in large-scale and commercial uses. But their energy networks and supplies are more sensitive to weather conditions. Therefore, a portfolio of multiple energy sources and special fusion techniques are required to overcome the fragmentation and instability of renewable energy sources, and to establish resilience capabilities such as improving energy source reliability and safety to ensure energy supply in extreme situations. In addition, the development of powerful freezing-resistant turbines for wind energy, and the preparation of redundant reserves of fossil fuel energy should be fully considered. 2. 2 from the Response to the 2021 to a Record HeatwaveThe electricity resources of the state of California, United States, are dominated by natural gas (47. 3%), followed by solar (15. 7%), hydropower (11%), nuclear (8. 4%), wind (7%), and other sources (10%) (Statista 2022b). 2021, a record-breaking heatwave swept the state and lasted for days with a maximum extreme temperature of 50. 5 °C, causing record-breaking power shortages, and some households experienced rolling blackouts. In contrast to the power shortages at peak times, there was a relatively abundant amount of grid electricity during effective solar radiation periods owing to the significant development of solar power. In response to the high fluctuations in power demand during the day, customers were urged to curtail electricity use as much as possible between 3 and 10 p. m. and shift energy use such as charging electric vehicles and using large appliances to the morning or early afternoon hours (CAISO 2021). Power shortages during heatwaves have become a new normal in recent years.

Output: corroborate