Input: Claim: Some claim that life on Earth could have originated from extraterrestrial sources. [SEP] Text: It was assumed that there were 200 people in the canteen at the time of the incident. Media reports point to the canteen being the worst hit in terms of fatalities. In addition, it was assumed that there were 10 people in each of the other site buildings, most of which were located near to the canteen, giving a total of 400 people on the site. The number and location of residential buildings at risk was estimated from remote sensing data and the maximum observed mudflow extent. It was estimated that there were 51 houses at risk and that at the time of the dam collapse each house was assumed to have had two people in it. The LSM has a function which relates the damage and possible collapse of buildings to the velocity and depth of the flow. The majority of buildings in the LSM model were considered to be of an average masonry construction, which means that significant damage and collapse will only commence after the combination of the maximum velocity and depth of the flow exceeds 10 m2 s−1. The mine buildings were assumed to be constructed of “average concrete”, which means that significant damage and failure will commence after the combination of the maximum velocity and depth of the flow exceeds 20 m2 s−1. At the location of the mine buildings, the maximum combination of mudflow depth and velocity was in excess of 50 m2 s−1, meaning that all the buildings would have collapsed. In the LSM it is assumed that when a building collapses, anybody still inside it dies instantaneously. The LSM modelling considered evacuation routes both by vehicle and on foot. These possible evacuation routes were digitized from remote sensing data. The pathways and trails were set up in the LSM to only allow pedestrian access, and only existing roads were set up to take vehicles. The evacuation routes used in the LSM were based on existing paths and roads. In the LSM the evacuation route from each building is determined by the shortest route to a safe location (i. e. the “least-cost path”). However, the LSM is dynamic, and so when evacuation routes are inundated and become impassable, this leads to a recalculation of the least-cost path. People evacuating are then directed to the next-closest safe location. Safe locations were placed at heights above the maximum flood depth at the end of each evacuation route. The location of the buildings, evacuation routes and safe locations are shown in Fig. 8.

Output: pass


Input: Claim: Deforestation threatens the biodiversity of rainforest ecosystems. [SEP] Text: 9% of Nigeria’s forest cover consist of primary forest which is relatively intact, and the bulk of it is in Nigeria (State). shares common boundaries with the Republic of Cameroon in the East, of Nigeria in the North, Ebonyi and of Nigeria in the West, State of Nigeria in the South West, and the in the South. 2. 2. study was cross sectional, cutting across government forest reserves and community forests in State. The methods used for data collection comprise document research at Commission (CRSFC) and (CRNP), and participatory rural appraisal exercises (e. g. historical timeline assessment of deforestation, focus group discussions, interviews and field observations), and GIS (System) reports. For the quantitative data, responses from administered questionnaire were entered into SPSS (version 17) for statistical analysis. All variables were coded with measurements defined as nominal, ordinal and scale. Based on the nature of research questions for the study, descriptive statistics were used in the analysis, to look for patterns in the data set. 3. reveal that tropical deforestation in the rainforest (Nigeria) has over the years been exacerbated by a combination of human factors. 3. 1. Government and the Failure of was discovered that the nationalization of forest territories hitherto belonging to communities as Reserves in the 1930s (during Rule), and subsequent commercialization (approval of logging concessions) in government forest reserves (from the 1950s), marked the beginning of tropical deforestation in State. (ODA assisted) of 1991 carried out a proper scientific assessment of the forest still remaining in State. Remotely sensed photos/maps, GIS mechanisms, land use surveys, and statistical calculations were carried out which provided information about the status of primary forest left in government forest reserves in the state (see Table 1). The forest vegetation map of State (see Figure 1) produced by the ―DFID assisted), in 2002 shows the level of deforestation in the state. The above map is now 16 years old, thus further deforestation must have occurred. GIS report on Change in of CRNP/region also offer useful insight on the levels of deforestation in the rainforest. The analysis by WCS/Okeke (2013), carried out on Table 1. Deforestation in government forest reserves in cross river state. Source: Project (1994) (ODA-Assisted)―Report. Figure 1.

Output: corroborate


Input: Claim: Smart city technology is completely secure and immune to cybersecurity threats. [SEP] Text: The implication is that it will be difficult to compare the sufficiency of the information conveyed in the IDS logs and short text messages that are extracted from different segments of the perimeters of the same organization if they have heterogeneous formats. In essence, the above sample of the raw alerts explains the link between research on smart IDSs and IDS audit. 4. 2 Issues with detection rules or policies of smart IDSs in SystemsPractical experience shows that the formats of detection rules vary from System to another. The rules within the detection engine of smart IDSs are many and they are mostly protected by copyright. The rules usually instruct smart IDSs to discriminate by logging and raising alerts on specific packets that migrate from specific networks into local subnets. Some rules are also designed to instruct smart IDSs to indiscriminately log and raise alerts on all suspicious packets that migrate from any network into local subnets [9]. These rules can also instruct the toolkit to always trigger an alert whenever the device observes any TCP packet that contains “USER root” in its header [8]. Rules can be localized, designed or configure such that they will report suspicious packets heading towards a computer in the subnets of Systems [10]. Several audit issues arise regarding to best strategies to audit rules or policies of IDSs. These toolkits have several inbuilt rules or policies. There may be some discrepancies between the rules or policies that have been implemented in the organization and the security policy driving the implementation of rules or policies of the smart IDSs in the system. Discrepancies can also occur if some IDSs in the networks are not configured to operate as smart toolkits. Professionalism is required in adapting framework for auditing smart IDSs to audit IDSs that are not configured as smart toolkits in other to adequately safeguard the entire components of cyber physical resources in the organization. One of the reasons behind these challenges is that the security policy of the organization might not fully reflect the totality of the rules or policies in the detection engines of all smart IDSs in the networks. The IS auditor needs to evaluate if the IDS policy actually states specific rules or policies that should be activated or deactivated during implementations of smart IDSs. It is also necessary for auditors to establish the level of compliance of the organization with best security practice on the detection rules or policies approved by the management of the organization [8, 24].

Output: contrast


Input: Claim: Some claim that life on Earth could have originated from extraterrestrial sources. [SEP] Text: More information on the technical details of the LSM are available in Lumbroso and Davison (2018) together with various other publications available at (last access: 4 January 2021). Figure 8Location of buildings, safe locations and evacuation routes downstream of the Brumadinho tailings dams. Figure 9Schematic diagram showing how results from a two-dimensional fully hydrodynamic mudflow model are linked to the LSM. evacuation scenarios were considered in the modelling as follows: Everybody at risk evacuates from the area at risk on foot. Half of the 400 mine workers evacuate by vehicle and half by foot, with villagers downstream evacuating on foot. In this scenario it was assumed that there were 40 pickup trucks available and that each one had the capacity for five mine workers. Velocities and depths from the two-dimensional mudflow model were used to provide the hazard posed to the modelled agents (e. g. people, vehicles and buildings) in the LSM. Figure 9 shows how the results of the external hydraulic model are linked to the LSM. Figure 10An example of an output from the LSM emergency planning modelling 90 s after the Brumadinho tailings dam failure assuming a warning is issued at the time of the breach. When developing the two-dimensional mudflow model and the LSM, both models need to be discretized at suitable, regular temporal (Δt) and spatial intervals (Δx), as shown in Fig. 9. This is because as the mudflow evolves, the interaction of people and vehicles with the mudflow at each time step affects the loss of life and the evacuation times. For this modelling a time step of 5 s was used. This is considerably smaller than the time step to meet the mudflow modelling stability criteria; however, a time step that is too large (e. g. 5 min) will result in people moving a large distance (e. g. ∼250 to ∼500 m on foot and several kilometres in a vehicle) during each temporal interval, thus escaping the advancing mudflow, which may not be the case if a shorter time step is used. Similarly if the spatial discretization (Δx) of the mudflow model is too large (e. g.

Output: pass


Input: Claim: Deforestation threatens the biodiversity of rainforest ecosystems. [SEP] Text: Map of cross river state showing the level of deforestation in the state. multi-temporal change for two periods (1986-2000 and 2000-2010), demonstrate that there is significant increase in deforestation rate in the 2000-2010 period (2. 22%) when compared with the rate seen in the 1986-2000 period (0. 09%). Overall, the result shows a staggering loss of 21. 15% of the forest in the Afi-Mbe-Okwangwo landscape from 1986 to 2010. Deforestation appears to be highest in the (ARFR) where annual deforestation increased twelve-fold from only 227 ha between 1986 and 2000 to 2760 ha from 2000 to 2010, followed by (AMWS) where annual deforestation doubled for the same period. Mountains had the lowest rate of deforestation (0. 04% and 0. 19% for the two time periods respectively), followed by Okwangwo (0. 04% and 0. 27%). As the was only designated a community forest in 2005, its protection effort by the community with support from WCS may explain this low rate. However, given the double-fold increase in the deforestation rate from one time period to the next, it seems that the is becoming vulnerable to increased pressure in the area (Figure 2). Figure 2. Comparison of Land cover change in of CRNP and region for 1986 (Landsat TM data), 2000 (Landsat ETM + data) and 2010 (Landsat ETM + data). Source: WCS/Okeke, 2013. 3. 2. Establishment of the colonial days up to the present period, several tree crops such as rubber, cocoa, palm trees, cashew, cotton, etc. , and non-tree crop plantations such as banana, plantain, cassava, pineapple, etc. , were established by government all over Nigeria. River State, examples include oil palm estates at Calaro, Ibiae, Oban, Borum and Nsadop; rubber plantations at Uyanga―Akamkpa, Nko, Biakpan, Ikot Okpora, and Agoi; cocoa plantations at at Ikom and Etung group of estates; and Gmelina arborea plantations at Awi and Edondon group of communities/estates. These plantations were established to broaden or diversify the revenue base of government which resulted in massive primary forest clearance across several Areas (Local Counties) in Nigeria. 3. 3.

Output: corroborate


Input: Claim: Smart city technology is completely secure and immune to cybersecurity threats. [SEP] Text: New rules or policies can be added to the smart IDSs in other to improve their efficacies. However, some rules or policies may generate redundant alerts. Hence, it is often difficult to immediately establish the criticality of new and old rules or policies without a critical exploration of log analyzers that process alerts that correspond to these rules or policies. Also, session printable policies or rules are difficult to recommend for deactivation because they enable the detector to log everything attackers have typed [8, 10]. It is possible that all sections of the IDS policy will not fully capture the sensitivity of detection rules or policies in organizations. The 4. 3 Issues with maintenance of smart IDSs in must undergo regular maintenance so that they can adequately monitor very high traffic rates migrating into or outside the organization [15, 16, 23]. The maintenance of smart IDSs is the process of performing system tuning and routine checks on all smart Systems in the organization; the directory of each configuration file, logs, text messages; available storage size, available disk space, disk space each toolkit has already utilized and the last time each toolkit was debugged to establish their readiness to promptly report intrusions that aim to exploit features of Systems that provide opportunities for intruders to cause havoc without corrupting data or leaking sensitive information from Networks. Furthermore, constant maintenance of smart IDSs will enable their operators to correct new and past errors that were not recognized during the installations, configurations and testing phases of these devices. Usually, corrective maintenance is desirable because it will enable the operators of smart IDSs to perfect and improve the operations and performance of smart IDSs [15]. Intruders can compromise the mobile phones and email accounts of operators of smart IDSs [11, 21]. Therefore, the above maintenance will equally help operators of smart IDSs to fine-tune the toolkits so that they can effectively work in new environments and whenever the operators replace their mobile devices or renounce old email accounts. However, maintenance of smart IDSs requires extra efforts than the efforts required to configure and analyze their logs. Hence, most operators of smart IDSs often shy away from carrying out IDS porting, corrective and adaptive maintenance of these toolkits. From experience, IS auditor can perceive series of audit issues whenever the IDS policy does not recognize the significance of maintenance of smart IDSs in the enterprise networks. 4.

Output: contrast


Input: Claim: Some claim that life on Earth could have originated from extraterrestrial sources. [SEP] Text: >15 m), then the velocities and depths at each time step are averaged over a large area leading to a loss of resolution of the hazard, which also adversely impacts the accuracy of the results (Lumbroso and Davison, 2018). Each person (i. e. agent) in the LSM can have six states as follows: “unaware” – the person does not know that the mudflow is happening either because it has not reached them or because they have not received a warning; “aware” – the person is conscious that the dam break has occurred either because they have received a warning in advance or the mudflow has reached them; “evacuating” – the person is making a conscious effort to reach safety (i. e. a defined location outside the area at risk) by a designated evacuation route; “safe” – the person has reached safety and is no longer at risk; “injured” – the person has been knocked over by the flow but is not fatally injured; however, they are immobile; “deceased” – the person has died as a result of the mudflow. Further details on the LSM model can be found in Lumbroso and Davison (2018), Lumbroso et al. (2011), and Lumbroso (2008), and Johnstone (2012). Figure 10 shows an example of the output from one time step of the Brumadinho LSM modelling. Table 3 provides the results of the LSM modelling showing people's different states. Five scenarios were modelled, including the actual event together with scenarios where warnings were exactly at the point of failure and 5, 10 and 15 min before the dam failed. Animations of the LSM modelling for three of the modelled scenarios and some of the GIS (geographic information system) files used in the modelling are available to download (see Lumbroso, 2020). Two methods of evacuation were considered, (i) on foot only and (ii) a combination of vehicles and on foot. Figure 11Results of the LSM modelling showing the distribution of modelled fatalities for the January 2019 incident. Table 3Results of the Model (LSM). Version | reported number of fatalities as a result of the Brumadinho tailings dam failure was probably between ∼270 and ∼310 (Mining Journal, 2020; Keaveny, 2019).

Output: pass


Input: Claim: Deforestation threatens the biodiversity of rainforest ecosystems. [SEP] Text: Slash and Practices in wide practice of slash and burn agriculture in all local communities in the region, with no legal restrictions over the years, has culminated in perpetual destruction of the rainforest by local people. There are no land use plans guiding land use practices. There are over 2500 local communities with a population of 2. 1 million people in State. This high population has resulted in the continuous establishment and government recognition of new village settlements. Migrant populations from other parts of the country where forest has been exhausted are also adding to the pressure on the remaining forest resources in the area. 3. 4. Construction of Highways and Government development plans and determination to link all forest/local communities with good roads has impacted negatively on forest resources exploitation. For instance, the opening of the Calabar―Ikom―Ogoja―Obudu road (from north to south of the state), and a network of adjoining feeder roads have exposed hitherto inaccessible and intact forest to reckless illegal logging activities and hunting of wild animals. The ubiquity of logging roads, opened by logging companies is further attracting farmers and migrant populations to open new farm lands and hunting grounds in biodiversity rich pristine forest areas. In 2016, the government of State came up with a new proposal to construct a superhighway across the core area of the remaining pristine rainforest in the state. Ministry of Environment has on three occasions rejected all EIA (Assessment) reports on the superhighway, and NGOs, forest communities, and the international community have all protested against the project in different ways. So far the government of State is still determined to carry on with the project. The proposed superhighway poses the greatest threat to the rainforest of State in recent time. 3. 5. Mining and Granite quarrying activities in places like Old Nnetim, Obung, Nsan, Akamkpa urban, Awi, Mbarakom, Uyanga, Ojor, etc. ; and mining of limestone for the cement factory at Mfamosing, Aningeje, Mbobui, Abiati, and other Ojuk clan villages, have contributed immensely towards serious deforestation and depletion of valuable flora and fauna species in the affected communities. The absence of official regulations controlling ecological abuses by the quarrying and mining companies involved, have also aided rapid deforestation in the region. Government is hardly committed to the strict enforcement of environmental impacts assessment laws of Nigeria across the state.

Output: corroborate


Input: Claim: Smart city technology is completely secure and immune to cybersecurity threats. [SEP] Text: 4 Issues with configurations of smart IDSs in SystemsThere are hardware and software requirements for each smart IDS to exhibit performance that will always conform to best security practices. For NIDSs like Snort, the toolkit works on operating System like Linux, Windows 2003 Edition and XP and hardware like Compaq 1600 Pentium III with dual V workstation. as an example [7, 10], this premises that components such as Apache, Page (PHP), WinPcap and for (ACID) must be audited to ascertain their levels of compliance to best industrial practice [28]. The combination of Snort, Apache, database and ACID enable the NIDS to log alerts into a database. Two or more toolkits can be configured to centrally log alerts to unified database. Conversely, each toolkit may be setup to log its alerts to a different database. The above components also enable analysts to visualize and analyze alerts on web interface [8, 10]. Hence, the database (back-end) that may be MySQL must also be audited. IS auditors must always refer to the IDS policy for guidance. It is a good practice to complement the audit process by referring to the security policy of the organization to gain insightful evidence on degree of compliance and conformity of both documents. The dangers are enormous whenever intruders compromise the back-end of the toolkit. Intruders can crash the entire toolkit, alter its cryptographic keys and render it bad and unintelligent [21]. Subsequently, they can illegally reconfigure the smart IDS to log no alerts or to suppress useful alerts [21]. New waves of stealthy attacks can shutdown IDSs; enable triggers and disable or re-start the back-end databases of the detectors. In the case of Snort, attackers can suddenly shutdown the Apache upon which the smart IDS runs. Hence, auditors must establish the level of control that safeguards all the components of smart IDSs in the firm. Usually, in Snort, Apache’s server uses configuration file that is stored in theetc/apache2/apche2. conf [8, 24]. Therefore, auditors must also establish the last date the configuration’s file was updated. Nonetheless, the above ideas are plausible whenever the auditors possess the needed skills to critically explore them. 4.

Output: contrast


Input: Claim: Some claim that life on Earth could have originated from extraterrestrial sources. [SEP] Text: The results of the LSM model indicated that with no warning there would 456 fatalities out of the 502 people assumed to be at risk, a 91 % fatality rate; with a warning at the exact time the dam failed there would have been 354 fatalities. Figure 11 shows the distribution of the fatalities and the status of the people at risk for the representation of the January 2019 disaster with no warning. The diameter of each circle in Fig. 11 is in proportion to the number of people at each of the specific locations. The actual event is probably best represented by a combination of a no-warning scenario on the mining site and a warning at the time of breach because the people in the villages further downstream became aware of the disaster without an official warning, and many of them escaped the mudflow. There is some indication from media that there were between 5 and 20 deaths in the village of Parque da Cacheira and evidence that 66 buildings were destroyed in this location (Nordeste, 2020; Terra, 2020). The LSM model indicated that there would be 42 fatalities with no warning in the village of Parque da Cacheira and that 43 houses collapsed or were badly damaged. Producing “accurate” estimates of fatalities caused by tailings dam failures is challenging to achieve given the uncertainty associated with natural variability, dependent on chance (US Department of Homeland Security, 2011), together with the spatial location of people when the event occurs. In the case of the Brumadinho event there was only anecdotal evidence available with respect to the number of mine workers in the canteen and other buildings, as well as the number of people in houses downstream that were at risk. The value of using complex loss-of-life models is not to estimate the exact number of deaths but to assess if emergency management interventions can make a significant difference in reducing the likely fatalities should the worst happen (Lumbroso and Davison, 2018). This information can then be used to inform emergency plans to make them more effective. If a warning had been received at the exact time the dam failed and assuming that people took 1 min to react and knew where to evacuate to, the number of fatalities could have been reduced from a total of 456 to 354 or 299 depending on the method via which people were assumed to have evacuated. This is a reduction in the death toll of between 102 to 157.

Output: pass


Input: Claim: Deforestation threatens the biodiversity of rainforest ecosystems. [SEP] Text: Hardly are quarrying and mining companies engaging in forest ecological restoration activities to address their negative environmental impacts. 3. 6. Hunting by The practice of some local people and communities setting large portions of primary forest ablaze for hunting purposes (to kill wild animals), has also impacted negatively on the integrity of State’s rainforest. The tragedy of the foregoing deforestation and loss of biodiversity problems in State, lies not in the excesses of the perpetrators, but in the failure of government to enforce the appropriate forestry and wildlife management laws of the state. 3. 7. Regimes and The communal ownership of forest lands designated as have also not helped matters. Such forests belong to all citizens of the affected communities, and so everybody have rights to go into the forest and undertake the extraction of timber and non timber forest products as they like. One can clear primary forest for new farm lands as much as what one desires. This free for all approach to forest resources management has culminated seriously in the present level of deforestation in the region. 3. 8. of Deforestation on the Flora and of the strength of the foregoing deforestation activities in State, there are serious consequences on the flora and fauna resources of the region. On the floral side of the coin, certain government forest reserves have either become seriously depleted, or wiped out almost completely. Dunn & Otu (1996: p. 35) report the case of in of the State: “Ekinta, an 11,000 hectares forest reserve in the of the State, provides a good example of accelerated high forest loss as a consequence of forest policy that favored forest exploitation and the establishment of fast growing exotic species. The reserve was good quality high forest until the late 1970s. The government owned logging company―cleared much of the forest in a salvage cut and opened up the entire reserve with a network of roads. A large number of farmers (from the then south-west of CRS, now the neighboring State of Akwa Ibom) were permitted to move into the area to establish plantations of Gmelina arborea using the taungya system. However, due to a shortage of funds for seedlings and supervision, virtually no plantations were established. In less than a decade, 90% of the forest reserve had become cassava farms instead of forest plantations, with hardly a tree standing.

Output: corroborate


Input: Claim: Smart city technology is completely secure and immune to cybersecurity threats. [SEP] Text: 5 Issues with IDS policy and security policy in policy is a document that is approved by top management in an organization [8]. This document reflects and states how all IDSs in the organization are implemented and managed. The document further reveals types of IDSs and their versions, configurations, license fees and expiry date and vendors. The document defines activities that managements of the organization have agreed to be regarded as normal and intrusive activities in their Systems. It is expected to reflect the approved connectivity between log analyzers and logs of smart IDSs. It might be uneconomical to send overwhelming alerts directly to the operators of smart IDSs. Additionally, some smart IDSs can encrypt the email reports or alerts they intend to send to the operators or recipients. However, operators or recipients must install suitable tool in their mobile phones or computers to decrypt them. Thus, IDS policy should categorically state how the email addresses and mobile phones of operators of smart IDSs will receive concise and helpful alerts. The security policy of an organization is the totality of security mechanisms that is approved by top management of the organization. This broad document usually states how the security’s architecture of the organization should be deployed, monitored and managed annually. IDS policy is a segment of security policy. Auditors may find it difficult to challenge operators of smart IDSs in an organization whereby IDS policy is subsumed in security policy. In addition, the appropriateness of time that the organization must review their IDS policy will be difficult to criticize in this circumstance. Most often, some intruders prefer to launch attacks that can probe or scan cyber networks to compensate for their inabilities to have access to the above policy’s frameworks [7, 9, 10]. auditors need to assess the security of the above policies in the organization to establish how they are kept, the custodian of both documents, access and procedures for granting approvals to the employees that have the rights to use and rights to know these documents. 4. 6 Research and audit issues with log analyzers in SystemsThe quality of information that various log analyzers can derive from different formats of alerts that smart IDSs generate depend on many factors. Some analyzers of logs that originate from smart IDSs can process specific attributes such as Protocol (TCP), (ICMP), Type of Service (TOS) and (IP) length.

Output: contrast


Input: Claim: Some claim that life on Earth could have originated from extraterrestrial sources. [SEP] Text: A warning 5 min before the dam failed could have reduced the number of fatalities by between 200 and 270, and a warning received 15 min before the failure could have reduced the number of deaths to zero. Table 4Results of the Model (LSM) showing how the delay in response time affects the number of fatalities downstream of the Brumadinho tailings dam assuming a warning is issued at the time of its failure. Version | tailings dam was monitored using in situ instruments. Whether additional instrumentation of the dam could have provided a 15 min warning time is debatable. However, Rotta et al. (2020) in a paper entitled “tailings dam collapse: Possible cause and impacts of the worst human and environmental disaster in Brazil” published in April 2020 found that “A time series analysis of satellite-driven soil moisture index showed that the water accumulated over the Brumadinho dam surface during a protracted period increased its moisture contents and accelerated seepage erosion (piping) through the fill. We provide solid evidence of the seepage erosion from the top through the fill, which chronically weakened the structure and likely led to the collapse of the dam”. Remote sensing data could have potentially flagged up issues with the structure several weeks or even months in advance of the failure (see Lumbroso et al. , 2019, 2020), allowing people to have been put on a high state of alert or to be moved out of the danger zone. However, the main reason for running the LSM with a 15 min warning time was to find the warning time required in order for there to be no fatalities. As part of the research a sensitivity analysis was undertaken of the time it takes people to respond to a warning. The results of this sensitivity analysis are shown in Table 4. Although the results in Table 4 are intuitively obvious (i. e. the longer it takes people to respond to a warning, the higher the number of fatalities) they are useful to formulate emergency management plans. For example, people in the village of Parque da Cachoeira could have delayed their response for over 45 min after the dam had failed and avoided any fatalities. The number of people at risk in the village of Parque da Cachoeira is relatively low; however, there are many cases worldwide where there are tailings dams with a significant number of people at risk living 5 to 10 km downstream.

Output: pass


Input: Claim: Deforestation threatens the biodiversity of rainforest ecosystems. [SEP] Text: ” Valuable timber species such as Iroko (Milicia excels), Mahogany (Khaya spp), (Terminalia ivorensis), Mimusups (Baillonella toxisperma), (Terminalia superba), Cedar (Lovoa trichilloides), Ebony, etc. that used to be very common in State, are now extremely scarce and difficult to find. If available, the prices are so astronomical that only those at the upper echelon of society can afford to buy them. In some local communities, people are beginning to roof their houses with Gmelina arborea, a thing that now surprise the local people themselves. Some people who are crazy of the above high profile timber species are beginning to import wood from the neighboring Republic of Cameroon for domestic furniture use. On the fauna side, several wild animal species have become extinct, some critically endangered, and some that were hitherto common have also become endangered. Extinct species include among others Leopards, Bush cow, African giant pangolin, etc. Critically endangered include Chimpanzee (Pan troglodytes), Drill (Mandrillus leucophaeus), Gorilla (Gorilla gorilla diehli), Preuss’s monkey (Cercopithecus preussi), Red bellied monkey (Cercopithecus erythrogaster), Sclater’s guenon (Cercopithecus sclateri―endemic to Nigeria), Wild dog (Lycaon pictus). The endangered list include African elephant (Loxodonta Africana), Cheeta (Acinonyx jubatus), Red eared guenon (Cercopithecus erythrotis), Pygmy hippopotamus (Hexaprotodon liberiensis), African pygmy squirrel (Myosciurus pumilio), mantee (Trichechus senegalensis), Spotted-necked otter (Lutra maculicollis), etc. (Enuoh, 2012: p. 221). 4. paper assesses the major factors underpinning tropical deforestation and biodiversity loss in the rainforest of Nigeria―a global biodiversity hotspot and region of species endemism.

Output: corroborate


Input: Claim: Smart city technology is completely secure and immune to cybersecurity threats. [SEP] Text: Intruders that compromise the TCP and IP of computer networks will distort network conversations or communications and the exchange of data through application programs [10]. The attacks will also affect apps that send packets of data from one computer to another. Similarly, the values held in the flags of parameters or attributes of alerts also differ from one attribute to another. For instance, log analyzer that analysis the parameters of ICMP in Systems intend to discover actions of intruders that have requested for certain details about the systems [29]. The intention of the intruder may be to establish computers or mobile devices that signify echo reply and destination unreachable. The attack may also reveal weaknesses in the configurations of router within Systems (CPSs). The attack can publicize details of routers, timestamp, timestamp reply; redirect message headers, domain name request, domain name reply, mobile registration request, mobile registration reply, errors in the conversion of datagram; address mask request and address mask reply. Intrusions on trace route can provide trodden paths for of Service (DDoS) attacks in Systems (CPSs) [29]. In addition, TOS is designed to categorize and prioritize networks’ data so that digital devices will process critical data packets before they will process data packets that of less significant. However, intruders have many ways they can check the reliability of the networks. Attacks on TOS intend to undermine the quality of services rendered by the host and routers in the networks. This category of attacks can indiscriminately affect the migrations of different kinds of inbound and outbound data within the networks of Systems (CPSs) [2, 7]. Intruders can insert fake data into the networks given the knowledge of TOS in the networks. The impacts of this attack can be severe if it occurs at the peak of operations whereby it coincidentally hinders the priority and migrations of data of higher importance than data of less importance in the networks. Moreover, attack on TOS can increase the numbers of fragmented packets that lost in transit. It can also cause significant delay of packets to complete computer and mobile communications, reassembling of fragmented packets and routing of multimedia data. Each of the above attributes of alerts conveys different meanings to different organizations [9]. The mode that every log analyzer adopts to write their results into the output files (folders) is very important.

Output: contrast


Input: Claim: Some claim that life on Earth could have originated from extraterrestrial sources. [SEP] Text: The richness in the data output from the LSM means that they can help to inform and improve emergency plans. 5 probability of a tailings dam failing is relatively high compared to other pieces of infrastructure that pose similar risks to people and for which the consequences of a failure are also high. In addition, even if there are no people directly at risk, the pollutants released into the environment can have health implications for those living further downstream, as well as impact the environment and people's livelihoods. For example, in 1998 the failure of a tailings dam at Boliden Apirsa's mine in southern Spain led to over 40 km river being polluted and 2600 ha of agricultural land being covered with tailings (Emery, 2005). The lack of an emergency plan addressing this particular situation meant that the clean-up operation was not effective as it could have been because responsibilities and objectives were established after the event (Emery, 2005). The lack of a coherent plan led directly to five fatalities on public roads during the clean-up operation (Emery, 2005). It is often not possible to reduce the risk posed by a tailings dam to zero. In many countries the philosophy adopted to risk is reducing risks to as low as reasonably practicable (ALARP). principle is founded on the obligation of tailings dam owners to reduce risks to the point that additional risk reduction would “cost” “disproportionally” more than the risk reduction (i. e. benefit) achieved (Bowles, 2003). To evaluate if the ALARP principle has been met for a tailings dam it is necessary to firstly quantify the risk and then to assess any “physically possible” structural or non-structural options that could further reduce the risk (Bowles, 2003). principle is an important consideration in the US Bureau of Reclamation's Guidelines (USBR, 2003) and an important factor in the UK's Health and Safety Executive's decision-making process (HSE, 2001) with respect to societal risk. Figure 12Graphs showing the acceptable risk in terms of the annual probability of failure and loss of life for dams in Australia and the USA and major hazards in the UK (sources: 2003; HSE, 2001; NSW Department of Planning, 2011; USACE, 2011).

Output: pass


Input: Claim: Deforestation threatens the biodiversity of rainforest ecosystems. [SEP] Text: The results indicate that government, the private sector and rural communities are responsible for the alarming rate of tropical deforestation hinging on forest policy and forest management failures (e. g. forest nationalization and subsequent approval of logging concessions in hitherto intact government forest reserves), establishment of government agricultural plantations on government forest reserve lands, construction of highways and rural feeder roads, pursuit of solid minerals mining activities, non-commitment to afforestation or reforestation activities, and the ubiquitous practice of slash and burn agriculture in all rural communities in Nigeria. Forest landscape fragmentation and decrease of land under forest cover (due to a myriad of unsustainable human land use practices), implies serious impacts on flora and fauna species depletion and extinctions in the region. (2002) and Alonso (2004) agree that wherever there is decrease in land under forest cover, the concomitant effect is biodiversity loss or negative change in species evenness and richness. Similarly, Lord & Norton (1990) are in support that agricultural land clearing activities culminate in biological species extermination and scarcity. Stephanie Flasse, one of the DFID consultants (GIS specialist) involved in the second phase of a DFID-assisted Project (1999-2002), commented in the DFID final project report (prepared in 2003), that State forests (under current rate of deforestation) will be exhausted by 2033. This has serious implications on the region’s biodiversity and the sustainability or survival of endemic primate species like the Gorilla (Gorilla gorilla diehli), Chimpanzees (Pan troglodytes), Drills (Mandrillus leucophaeus, and other assorted monkey species. It is important that the remaining tropical rainforest in Nigeria (the Rainforest) be protected in view of its global biodiversity hotspot status and ecological importance. Agbogidi (2011) and Sale et al. (2008) comment that unsustainable human land use activities and the disappearance of many ecologically valued tree species across Nigeria is a well known phenomenon. There is however an urgent need for all stakeholders to reverse this culture and trend. It is instructive to note Edet et al. (2015: p. 491) that “if forests are indiscriminately depleted, the various global uses and roles associated with them (economically and ecologically) would be lost. ” Such loss has huge implications on the quest for global sustainable development and the ecological sustainability of planet Earth itself.

Output: corroborate


Input: Claim: Smart city technology is completely secure and immune to cybersecurity threats. [SEP] Text: Programs that append new records with old records would require enough disk space than programs that always clear all the content of old records in the output files during execution. For these reasons, IDS auditors often face many challenges from company to company in conducting thorough investigations on outputs of log analyzers and establish the significance of the output files in accordance to best practice. 4. 7 Issues with theoretical frameworks for designing log analyzers in SystemsThere are several theoretical frameworks that programmers can adopt to design log analyzers to analyze logs of smart IDSs within networks. Studies show that Statistical techniques, subjective logic, Visualization, (AI), (NNs), Ensemble techniques and data mining have been used to design log analyzers in recent years [23]. Some analyzers may adopt priority of alerts, similarity of values held in the attributes of alerts, human observations, attack scenarios, hierarchical graphs, attacks that overlap, subjective reasoning and evidence of the damage the attack has caused as underpinning philosophies to design log analyzers [23]. Auditors must be thorough in this regards because features of non-related attacks may overlap and this will lead to mismatch of intrusions [26, 27]. The maximum error of log analyzer will increase if it mismatches intrusions. In other words, reports from log analyzer that mismatches intrusions are misleading and ineffective to design strong counter measures against intrusions in progress. In addition, it is necessary for auditors to establish how each analyzer select minimum similarity and expectation of similarity in other to establish how the toolkits merge related alerts together. Also, different algorithms and metrics can compute weighted average of related alerts in different ways. Hence, it is challenging for auditors to be vast in different algorithms for comparing overall similarity of the alerts and how various algorithms isolate patterns of alerts that are false positives from real positives. 4. 8 Issues with metrics for designing log analyzers in SystemsProgrammers can design log analyzers that adopt multiple metrics and different data mining concepts to analyze logs of smart IDSs [14]. It is easy to compare outputs of closely related metrics together. IDS auditors must conduct routine research to ascertain strengths and weaknesses of statistical metrics that programmers have used to support intrusion detections in corporate organization that is under review. There are different ways to interpret and improve the quality of alerts from smart IDSs. Hence, the interface between log analyzer and logs of smart IDSs must be reviewed.

Output: contrast


Input: Claim: Some claim that life on Earth could have originated from extraterrestrial sources. [SEP] Text: Societal risk is defined as the relationship between frequency (or probability) of an event occurring and the number of people suffering from a specified level of harm in a given population from the realization of specified hazards (Jones, 1992). The assessment of societal risk is concerned with the estimation of the probabilities of more than one individual being harmed simultaneously by an incident (HSE, 2009). Societal risk can be represented by “F–N curves”, which are plots of the cumulative frequency (F) or probability of various accident scenarios occurring against the number (N) of fatalities associated with the modelled incidents (HSE, 2009). Figure 12 shows four F–N curves for the acceptable societal risk for dam failures and major accidents in Australia, the UK and the USA. Given that the annual probability of failure of a tailings dam is approximately 1×10-2 and that when these structures do fail they often lead to at least one direct or indirect fatality, it can be seen that the risks they pose to society are “unacceptable” and ”intolerable”. Effective emergency plans can help to reduce the risks posed by tailings dam failures. The effectiveness of an emergency plan depends on the scenarios studied and how well the plan is disseminated. Dam owners in Brazil are responsible for preparing the emergency action plans; however, these are often not checked by the relevant government authorities (Sampaio, 2016). It is important that an emergency plan is based on evidence-based dam break scenarios and inundation maps of possible extents of the mudflow, as well as the social, economic and environmental impacts (Sampaio, 2016). Plans need to be revised periodically, and procedures should be established so that if a failure is likely to or has occurred, a warning can be effectively disseminated to the people affected and the area can be evacuated to minimize the number of victims. a federal law related to emergency planning for dams only came into effect in 2010 (Sampaio, 2016). This law established a and created the System (Sampaio, 2016). Tailings dam owners in Brazil have to produce an Plan for each of their dams (Sampaio, 2016). There is a real danger that emergency plans for tailings dams are not realistic or effective.

Output: pass


Input: Claim: Deforestation threatens the biodiversity of rainforest ecosystems. [SEP] Text: Through the of Environment, the Government of State applied and got approval in 2009 for Nigeria’s participation in the (Reduction of emissions from deforestation and forest degradation) programme, with the rainforest as pilot site. The tenure of the governor of State that spearheaded the programme came to an end in 2015. The new governor that took over on May 29th 2015, was however not impressed with the fact that money from forest carbon (carbon credits), as envisaged in the above programme, had not started accruing to State since 2009 when the programme was launched. Without openly telling the world that he was pulling State out of the programme, the new governor decided to introduce a super highway project in the state, which was designed in 2016 to pass through the core area of the rainforest. The project will thus open up the biodiversity rich, intact and Nigeria’s last remaining rainforest for exploitation. NGOs, forest communities, and the international community have all protested in different ways against the proposed superhighway project. The government of State should do the needful by re-routing the superhighway project to leave the rainforest and biodiversity hotspot areas alone. 5. Conclusion and has lost over 90% of her pristine rainforest with an annual deforestation rate of 3. 5% or 400,000 hectares per annum. River Rainforest, a biodiversity hotspot and Nigeria’s last remaining area of pristine rainforest is also experiencing severe threats through various human deforestation mechanisms. These mechanisms comprise colonial forest policy failures, poor public forest management practices, unsustainable/illegal logging activities, establishment of government agricultural plantations, slash and burn agricultural practices in local communities, population explosion/influx of migrants to forest areas, establishment of new rural settlements, construction of highways/feeder rural roads, opening of logging roads, quarrying/mining activities, common property regime/open access to forest resources, and unrestricted hunting of wild animals and other extractive activities. As a consequence, several flora and fauna species have become seriously endangered, and some extinct. Nigeria’s deforestation thus has local, national, regional and global ecological implications if current trends are not reversed. To reverse the above deforestation trend, the following measures should be taken: 1) Change in forest policy―from current centralization/government monopoly of forest management to decentralized/community-based forest and other natural resources management.

Output: corroborate


Input: Claim: Smart city technology is completely secure and immune to cybersecurity threats. [SEP] Text: These will enable auditors to establish suitable metrics for cross-correlation of alerts rather than interpreting uncorrelated attacks with heuristic methods. The instant that the design will update email addresses and mobile phones of operators of smart IDSs with new alerts should immediately IDS detects every suspicious event. Security issues begin to build up whenever there are networks failures such as poor Internet connection and poor mobile signals. Auditors must review operational logbooks to determine whether operators of smart IDSs keep track of cases of networks failures such as poor Internet connections, inability to access emails and poor mobile signals in the organization. These will give insightful evidence into the effectiveness of Internet and mobile service providers that are supporting the organization. The findings in this case may also guide the auditor in recommending to the organization to sustain or review the Agreements (SLAs) they agreed with their service providers. The new threats to cyber physical resources how to mitigate intrusions that can co-occur together without sharing the same impacts on the targets. Outputs of log analyzers may indicate graphical illustrations of alerts [8]. Some operators of smart IDSs may prefer to adopt visualizations to interpret alerts in the form of histogram, pie charts, bar charts and simple correlation graphs [8]. Figures 4 and 5 demonstrate graphical illustrations of alerts from Snort whenever the valued held in the TCP and TOS are used to analyze alerts from the same dataset. For these reasons, IDS audit must be able to establish audit issues concerning attributes and metrics the organization are adopting to differentiate sequences or patterns of alerts that have tendencies to possess different interpretations from alerts that have regular patterns even if these alerts are analyzed with different attributes. Some interpretations of alerts may not impact directly on business operations that human element of Systems (CPSs) transacts on daily basis. In addition, it is plausible that some intrusions are seasonal threats to Systems (CPSs). Figure 4 illustrates log analysis of alerts on the basis of the values held in TCP of intrusive alerts. Figure 4. Log analysis of alerts by values held in TCP of alerts. Figure 5. Log analysis of alerts by values held in TOS and Protocol of alerts. A seasonal rise in successful cases of cyber-attacks on corporate elements of Systems (CPSs) can co-occur with a seasonal rise in unemployment and suspension of skilled workers.

Output: contrast


Input: Claim: Some claim that life on Earth could have originated from extraterrestrial sources. [SEP] Text: In his book Mission improbable: Using fantasy documents to tame disasters, points out that for many emergency planners, it can be easier to produce symbolic, “fantasy” documents than to engage in forthright admissions of the real dangers and the uncertainties that they create (Clarke, 1999). Fantasy emergency planning documents are characterized by the following: they make statements or promises which will never be fulfilled; they make claims that the event being planned for is understood and can be controlled; there is a failure to consider human factors, for example how age, gender, culture, disability and socio-economic status affect people's response to different emergencies; the risks are not fully or sufficiently well assessed and described; the coherence of the organizational coordination and the simplicity of society are often overstated; the plan describes a rational sequence of events during a disaster which is not necessarily the case. 2015 a tailings dam near the town of in the state of in Brazil failed, releasing more than 30×106 m3 of water and mine waste, killing 19 people and polluting water for hundreds of kilometres (Agurto-Detzel et al. , 2016). An emergency plan had been developed for the dam. However, the risks that were incorporated in the plan were not sufficiently assessed. The emergency plan for the dam, submitted to the Brazilian environmental authorities, stated that in the event of a failure the mudflow would only reach the town of 2. 5 km downstream of the dam (De Carvalho, 2019). In reality the tailings released from the dam polluted some 700 km of watercourses downstream of the mine (De Carvalho, 2019). The production of ineffective emergency plans is not something that is unique to Brazil, as numerous disasters worldwide have shown. For emergency plans for tailings dams to be effective they need to be realistic and meaningful to regulators and stakeholders. In preparing emergency plans there is sometimes a philosophy of “this will never happen, so why do we need to care? ”. This is especially true for events that are perceived to have a low probability of occurrence. This can lead to some organizations suffering from a “it can't happen here” mentality (McConnell and Drennan, 2006) and for the “worst-case scenarios” not to be considered because they are perceived to be purely “hypothetical” (Clarke, 2006).

Output: pass


Input: Claim: Deforestation threatens the biodiversity of rainforest ecosystems. [SEP] Text: 2) Ban further logging activities in the remaining rainforest and pursue aggressive reforestation programs in degraded forest reserves. 3) (Reduction of emissions from deforestation and forest degradation) programme in Nigeria, introduced in 2009, with State/rainforest as pilot site, should be effectively implemented. 4) Ensure effective management and proper funding of National Parks, especially in view of its global biodiversity hotspot status and region of species endemism. 5) In-situ conservation initiatives such as captive breeding and re-introduction of extinct or critically endangered fauna species into the wild. 6) Promote agroforestry initiatives and poverty alleviation programs in buffer zone communities of National Park. 7) Impose hunting restrictions on the hunting of wild animals in the state. 8) Introduce programs to control population explosion (e. g. family planning and birth control) in local communities. While the above recommendations may not provide all the answers, it is hoped that careful and aggressive implementation will go a long way in charting a new course for effective forest management and biodiversity conservation in State (Nigeria). Conflicts of authors declare no conflicts of interest regarding the publication of this paper. Conflicts of authors declare no conflicts of interest. 149. [2] Alonso, D. (2004). Nature of Ecological Interactions: Communities, Metapopulations, and Epidemies. Ph. D. Thesis, Barcelona: of Catalonia. [3] Besong, J. B. (1997). for Securing the Future of African Rainforests. Rainforests and the Conservation of Biodiversity—Proceedings of the Limbe Conference. Limbe: Garden. [4] Bisong, F. E. (1994). Farming Systems, in the Rainforest of Nigeria. No. 8 Prepared by the Project (ODA Assisted). Calabar: Headquarters. [5] Brandler, J. L. (1993). Out of Nigeria: Witness to a Giant’s Toils. London: Press. [6] Bromley, D. W. (1992). The Commons, Common Property, and Environmental Policy. (2nd ed. , 10. 1007/BF00324686 [7] Burley, J. (1997). Foreword. Rainforests and the Conservation of Biodiversity—Proceedings of the Limbe Conference. Limbe: Garden.

Output: corroborate


Input: Claim: Smart city technology is completely secure and immune to cybersecurity threats. [SEP] Text: Therefore, IDS audit must establish the availability of inbuilt functionalities and capability of log analyzers in the organization to enable operators of smart IDSs to timely detect and mine frequent alerts from multiple sensors. Some IDS auditors can face challenges in recommending simple methods for graphical interpretations of IDS logs to organizations that do not include methods they prefer to illustrate intrusions against their Systems in their IDS policy. Figure 5 describes log analysis of alerts on the basis of the values held in the type of service (TOS) and Protocol of intrusive alerts. Advertisement 5. Methodology for auditing smart IDSs and log analyzers in Systems (CPSs)Log analyzers are defined in this 6. A sample of execution of log analyzer of alerts. The results from the above enquiry can determine log analyzers that should be recommended for upgrade and new development that should be incorporated to improve intrusion detection in the organization. Figure 6 illustrates samples of execution of four categories of log analyzers that are designed to support the aruments raised in this 3. The second log analyzer explores the sources of the intrusions and all the addresses of computers they attacked and categorize them on the basis of date, time, sequence number, source IP address, source port number, destination IP address and port number of destination address. The third log analyzer explores the sources and destinations of the intrusions captured in the dataset. To ascertain the variability and quality of the alerts, the analyzer went further to compute on the basis of sources and destnations of the attacks to further classify the alerts as shown in Table 1. Given the probability of each cluster [p(ct)] and for each attribute (SIP or DIP), the is expressed as [14]:GIndexSIP/DIP=1−∑t=1n(pct)2E1The fourth analyzer uses alerts from DATA01 and DATA02 to compute the lengths of alerts and the pattern within them. 5. 1 A model for auditing smart IDSs and log analyzers in SystemsThe auditors of smart IDSs must have audit plan and feasible audit time table. The audit time table should categorically state the annual frequency proposes for conducting audit of smart IDSs and log analyzers in the organization [4, 24, 25, 27]. Figure 7 describes a model for auditing Smart IDSs and Log analyzers in CPSs. Figure 7.

Output: contrast


Input: Claim: Some claim that life on Earth could have originated from extraterrestrial sources. [SEP] Text: However, things that have never happened before happen all the time (Sagan, 1993). Research has found that in France and the UK tools to assess evacuation times and loss of life for floods appear to be rarely used by emergency planners (Lumbroso and Vinet, 2012). This means that these risks and the way they can be reduced are rarely evaluated in a quantitative manner using a phenological, rather than empirical, approach that provides a transparent basis for making and interpreting the various outcomes. and in many other countries emergency plans for tailings dam are often not a high priority. The inadequate planning for the 2015 tailings dam disaster, included the absence of response planning and the lack of an effective alarm system, as well as no quantitative or qualitative description of the worst-case scenarios (De Carvalho, 2019). there has been a lack of clarity about the minimum contents required for emergency plans, and rather than being an essential tool for risk management and response planning they end up being “a mere bureaucratic formality” (De Carvalho, 2019). The level of detail and aspects addressed in an emergency plan for a tailings dam need to be commensurate with the potential consequences if an emergency occurs. For tailings dams with potentially large consequences, such as ones constructed using the upstream method, the risks should be comprehensively assessed in a transparent manner via active engagement with the potentially affected stakeholders. 139 on improving the safety of tailings dams states that the “the consequential damage from a tailings dam failure [should be] generally assessed in terms of its potential effect on the four categories of: 1. Loss of life; 2. Environmental damage; 3. Cost of physical damage; and 4. Social impact including public perception” (ICOLD, 2011). The employment of models of breach, inundation and agent-based risk to people (i. e. the Model – LSM) allow for the risks to people from tailings dam failures to be quantified and, more importantly, strategies for reducing this risk to be evaluated in an evidence-based manner. Work on tsunamis has shown that, despite the short lead time for a near-field tsunami, there is still value in providing rapid warnings to the people at risk providing that people know where to evacuate to (Council, 2011), and these are useful for saving lives. This research has shown that this is also the case for tailings dam.

Output: pass


Input: Claim: All species contribute equally to ecosystem balance. [SEP] Text: Correction 18 Sep 2007: (2007) Correction: All ß Equally to and Maintenance. PLOS Biology 5(9): e240. View correction Figures AbstractIn healthy adult mice, the β cell population is not maintained by stem cells but instead by the replication of differentiated β cells. It is not known, however, whether all β cells contribute equally to growth and maintenance, as it may be that some cells replicate while others do not. Understanding precisely which cells are responsible for β cell replication will inform attempts to expand β cells in vitro, a potential source for cell replacement therapy to treat diabetes. Two experiments were performed to address this issue. First, the level of fluorescence generated by a pulse of histone 2B–green fluorescent protein (H2BGFP) expression was followed over time to determine how this marker is diluted with cell division; a uniform loss of label across the entire β cell population was observed. Second, clonal analysis of dividing β cells was completed; all clones were of comparable size. These results support the conclusion that the β cell pool is homogeneous with respect to replicative capacity and suggest that all β cells are candidates for in vitro expansion. Given similar observations in the hepatocyte population, we speculate that for tissues lacking an adult stem cell, they are replenished equally by replication of all differentiated cells. The β cells of the pancreas are responsible for insulin production and their destruction results in type I diabetes. β cell maintenance, growth, and regenerative repair is thought to occur predominately, if not exclusively, through the replication of existing β cells, not via an adult stem cell. It was previously unknown, however, whether all β cells divide at the same rate, or if multiple subpopulations of β cells exist, some highly replicative and others very slowly dividing, possibly postmitotic. We performed two types of experiments to determine whether all β cells are alike: label-retaining analysis and clonal analysis. Our results indicate that all β cells contribute equally to islet growth and maintenance. Citation: (2007) All β Equally to and Maintenance. PLoS Biol 5(7): e163. Editor: Margaret A. Goodell, of Medicine, of AmericaReceived: January 26, 2007; Accepted: April 16, 2007; Published: May 29, 2007Copyright: © 2007 Brennand et al. This is an open-access 1.

Output: corroborate


Input: Claim: Smart city technology is completely secure and immune to cybersecurity threats. [SEP] Text: A model for auditing smart IDSs and log analyzers in CPSs. The audit plans can be an annual arrangement or a short-term plan that itemize the procedures the auditors will adopt to conduct IDS audit in the organization at the due dates. Figure 7 illustrates the schematic diagram of a new framework for auditing smart Systems (IDSs) and log analyzers in this 5. 2 Results and discussionsThe attacks illustrated with the DDOS-1 and DDOS-2 datasets in Table 1 did not vary on the basis of their respective destinations’ IP addresses when compared with the sources’ IP addresses of the attacks. The results sugest that the entire alerts that originate from the dataset are mostly repeated information that belongs to one group of destination’s IP address. Hence, the was 0. 000. Figure 8 illustrates log analysis of lengths of alerts in DATA01 dataset. Figure 8. Log analysis of lengths of alerts (DATA01). Therefore, IDS auditors must as well audit codes and Log analyzers to establish the input data, their functions and capabilities in other to establish the strenghts and limitations of each analyzer. Such systematic review will enable the auditor to establish Log analyzers that analysts should optimize either by splitting them or by merging two or more codes together. Table 2 illustrates cumulative length of attributes that Snort has used to report 4919 and 75,390 alerts on DATA01 and DATA02 respectively. Table 3 interprets the attacks from the above evaluation and the rules that detected them. Thus, auditors can adopt information in Tables 2 and 3 to conduct risk assessments and identify strategies of some intruders in Systems (CPSs). DatasetAttributeNumber of cluster-1-4080. 998DDOS-1-10. 000DDOS-2-2650. 996DDOS-2-10. 000Table 1. Log analysis of online trace files. DatasetTotal alertsTotal attributesDATA014919345375DATA02753902893183Table 2. Log analysis of components of alerts. Sig_generatorSig_idSig_revDescription of alert/attackSummary of attack11921Double decoding attackThe attack was an http exploit. The intuder inllegally inspected HyperProtocol (http) to gather information about application protocol for distributing hypermedia data in the networks119181Webroot directory traversalThe attack was an http exploit.

Output: contrast


Input: Claim: Some claim that life on Earth could have originated from extraterrestrial sources. [SEP] Text: The sirens designed to warn nearby communities and workers of any problems with the Brumadinho dam did not sound. However, if they had sounded as the dam failed, this research has shown that even a warning just as the dam was failing could have saved between 100 and 150 lives. On the morning of 27 January 2019, 2 d after the disaster, sirens were sounded at the site because there were concerns regarding the stability of Dam VI (location B in Fig. 4), a process water reservoir, adjacent to the structure which had failed, owing to the detection of increased water levels. As a result of the risk posed by this structure, approximately 24 000 residents downstream of the site were successfully evacuated (Vale, 2020). There is a large body of evidence showing that sirens are an effective method of warning of possible dam failures provided that they are tested regularly, that the test soundings are different from the emergency signal and that people know where to evacuate to when they hear them (Graham, 2008; Tudor et al. , 2012). 6 Conclusions and recommendations For emergency plans to be effective it is important that they incorporate foresight about the changing nature of risk and facilitate evidence-based action, before people are harmed. There have been a number of models and frameworks developed (see Tagg et al. , 2012) that can be employed to estimate risks to people from dam failures. For example, there are some simple, empirically based equations which allow elementary estimates of the risks to people from tailings dam failures to be made. Although these equations may be suitable for simple risk-screening exercises, they do not provide the ability to model each individual person, how they interact with the mudflow and the effects of measures such as improvements in early warnings, as well as improvements to evacuation routes. Agent-based models, such as the LSM, provide the ability to simulate each person, building and vehicle at risk and their interaction with the mudflow based on fundamental physical equations. Often agent-based models are seen by government regulators and mine owners as being “expensive” to implement compared to simple empirical methods. However, agent-based models can be an effective tool in helping to reduce the loss of life and injuries to people caused by tailings dams by making evidence-based contributions to emergency plans, especially with respect to evacuation planning and risk management.

Output: pass


Input: Claim: All species contribute equally to ecosystem balance. [SEP] Text: Labeled cells found within a single islet are of clonal origin: the probability that three or more labeled cells found within the same islet are not clonal is 1. 8 × 10−2 (based on Poisson distribution analysis assuming labeling frequency of 0. 1% and islet size of 500–1,000 cells). This clonal analysis supports the model that the growth and maintenance of β cell mass in the adult pancreas is achieved by the replication of individual β cells that have similar replicative capacities. DiscussionOur experiments were designed to address the mechanism of growth and maintenance of mature β cells. To determine whether all β cells divide at the same rate in the adult mouse, two experiments were undertaken. The tetracycline-inducible H2BGFP and MADM systems are complementary approaches: whereas tetO-H2BGFP labels most β cells and provides a broad view of the population dynamic, MADM labels single cells and provides an accurate clonal analysis of the progeny of individual cells within the β cell pool. Both the uniform loss of the H2BGFP label with time in the β cell population and the comparable β cell clone sizes generated through MADM analysis indicate homogeneity exists within the β cell pool. Stated otherwise, all β cells appear to contribute equally to growth and maintenance. The β cell mass is dynamic and can respond to environmental cues such insulin and glucose [25]. The β cell number increases dramatically in the first year of rodent life [12,26], up to 10-fold in cases of insulin resistance [27], and up to 1. 5-fold during pregnancy [28,29]. Recent experiments suggest that when not hindered by persistent autoimmune attack or the toxicity of high blood glucose levels [30], β cells have the capacity to regenerate. While the mechanism regulating β cell expansion remains unclear, our findings indicate that all β cells are capable of replication and are therefore viable targets for in vitro or in vivo expansion. Seaberg et al. recently reported that single-cell clones derived from adult islets generated colonies of 2,000–10,000 cells that expressed markers of neural, glial, pancreatic endocrine, exocrine, and duct identities [31]. These clones were generated from ~0. 02% of islet cells, though their identity and relationship to in vivo growth is yet to be determined.

Output: corroborate


Input: Claim: Smart city technology is completely secure and immune to cybersecurity threats. [SEP] Text: The intuder possibly accessed data, codes, files, etc via root directory of the web server in the networks12210TCP portscanThe intuder inllegally scanned a computer port with intention to gather information about open ports, close ports and services running in the computer12521Invalid FTP commandThe intuder used invalid FTP command to possibly transfer files in the networks12531FTP command parameters were too longThe attack was buffer overflow exploits with FTP client. The intruder used telnet’s client to possibly transfer files that exceeded maximum length in the networks12541FTP command parameters were malformedThe intruder used badly formed FTP command to possibly transfer files on FTP clientTable 3. Log analysis of rules that generate alerts. Figure 9 is a description of log analysis of lengths of alerts in DATA02 dataset. Figure 9. Log analysis of lengths of alerts (DATA02). Essentially, Figures 8 and 9 illustrate the patterns that lengths of alerts from both datasets can generate. Thus, the chance that intruders can overload smart IDSs over time depends on the quantity of alerts the detectors can trigger on daily basis. The results further suggest that automated strategy for forecasting length of alerts smart IDSs generate is critical to auditors in conducting audit of smart IDSs in the context of Systems (CPSs). This can assist operators to forecast patterns of attacks, workload and how human aspects of security and privacy can link to Systems (CPSs). 5. 3 Suggestions for improving security in SystemsThe above models have practical implementations in protecting computational, human, mechanical and physical components that are fundamental to Systems (CPSs). IDS policy must state the configurations and various types of smart IDSs in the above settings. This document should state the vendors of (NIDs) and Host-based Systems (HIDSs) installed to safeguard all entities in Systems (CPSs). Auditors must verify whether the policy approves software-based IDSSs or hardware-based IDSs, or combinations of both detectors. Among other things, auditors should further investigate this document to ascertain if it contains information regarding license fees, number of users, expiration date for the payment of license fees and bank accounts of the vendors of smart IDSs procured in these settings. IDS policy must reflect operators of smart IDSs responsible for the administration and monitoring of various smart IDSs and Log analyzers in the organization.

Output: contrast


Input: Claim: Some claim that life on Earth could have originated from extraterrestrial sources. [SEP] Text: The LSM agent-based model provides a useful tool via which this can be done and provides an evidence-based way of exploring ways of reducing risks to people and improving emergency planning. Recent tailings dam tragedies, such as Brumadinho, have prompted institutional investors active in extractive industries, including major asset owners and asset managers, to call for an improvement in the safety of tailings dams (Church of England, 2020). As part of a review, led by institutional investors, a new independent and publicly accessible international standard for tailings dams, based upon the consequences of failure, has been called for (Church of England, 2020). In the future, for high-risk tailings dams, it is recommended that agent-based models, such as the LSM, should be used to gain a better understanding of how the dangers posed by these facilities to downstream communities can be reduced. Data availability Animations of the LSM and mudflow modelling outputs, together with GIS files of the mudflow extent and files used in the LSM modelling such as roads and building locations can be downloaded from (see Lumbroso, 2020). supplement related to this 10. 5194/nhess-21-21-2021-supplement. Author contributions All authors contributed to the research carried out as part of this study. MD developed and ran the Model. RB developed and ran the mudflow model. GP provided advice on tailings dam breaching and ran the -MUD model. DL co-ordinated the research, provided advice on loss-of-life and hydraulic modelling, and wrote the text. Competing interests The authors declare that they have no conflict of interest. authors would like to acknowledge the Catapult in the UK and the UK Space Agency's Programme for supporting this work. Review statement This paper was edited by and reviewed by Derek Sakamoto, Bruce Feinberg, and da Silva Junior. 10. 1002/2016GL069257, 2016. – : Guidelines on risk assessment, published by the Committee on Large Dams, Tatura, Victoria, Australia, 2003. Assaf, H. and Hartford, D. N. D. : Physically-based modelling of life safety considerations in water resource decision-making, Congress, 20 to 24 May 2001, 2001. Azam, S. and Li, Q.

Output: pass


Input: Claim: Smartphones are the primary internet access device for over half of the global population. # factual [SEP] Text: As stated by the AHA on the issue of mobile health for CVD prevention “the current absence of evidence should not be used as evidence of an absence of effectiveness. Instead we need to embrace the challenge of producing this needed evidence on how effective these new technologies are and how we can best adopt them in our practice to promote better patient care. ”42 A series of initiatives and grants to address gaps in digital health science are currently underway in the USA and many other countries. As to the educational component of the apps (eg, stroke warning signs, risk factors and how to control them based on the well-acknowledged international guidelines), this component of the apps needs no further evidence to be used as widely as possible. Short usage of the app during the lifetimeThis is probably the greatest challenge of the app development that needs to be addressed. To be used regularly for primary prevention, the app needs to be pro-actively requested by the user and meet several criteria, including to be easy-to-use, user-friendly, culturally appropriate, interactive and motivate the users to use it with the right periodicity as long as possible. Distraction from more effective population-wide prevention strategiesWe believe that mobile technologies for primary prevention should not be presented as alternatives for population-wide or even high-risk strategies but as an add-on tool to enhance primary prevention. Focusing on healthy behavioural modification, appropriate mobile technologies do not have an issue of medicalisation associated with high-risk approach. Widening inequalities between those who can afford smartphones and those who cannotThis concern was correct when smartphones had only just entered the market and were not affordable for the majority of the population. Even in emerging and developing nations, smartphone ownership rates are rising at an extraordinary rate, climbing from a median of 21% in 2013 to 37% in 2015. 40 The number of smartphone users in the world is projected to reach 6. 1 billion by 2020. 53 Thus, delivering primary prevention information via affordable (ideally free to download) mobile platforms, especially culturally appropriate and translated into the world's most spoken languages, may be the most efficient strategy to reduce inequalities in health education and primary prevention. Low efficacy of ‘individual health education’In his 1981 paper, emphasised the importance of motivation in achieving and sustaining healthy behaviour, but he looked at the issue from societal perspective.

Output: corroborate


Input: Claim: Smart city technology is completely secure and immune to cybersecurity threats. [SEP] Text: Recently, intruders keenly probe source codes to establish their limitations. Therefore, it is imperative for IDS auditors to carefully scrutinize IDS policy. The document must categorically state allowable length of time to train supervised learning algorithms as well as the acceptable level that log analyzers must reduce workload due to IDS alerts in other to undermine the generality of intrusions IDSs have warned. What is the acceptable way to classify similar alerts and similar intrusions? Should similar intrusions be classified on the basis of temporal relationships, intrusive objectives, capabilities to support subsequent intrusions or values held in the attributes of alerts? The audit must be able to match IDS policy with the above questions for the document to be useful for mitigating problems of alert correlations that have raised serious concerns among security experts in recent time. IDS policy document should not reflect ambiguity in any aspect. The document should be simple and explicit. It should also include the incident and reporting team; processes of escalating cases of intrusions and response strategy approved by the management. In all, it is equally suggested that IDS policy should include methods for handling public awareness and lessons learnt in the case of devastated attacks that require the organization to intimate the general public. An organization may deploy smart IDSs that run on different operating systems. The performance of smart IDSs becomes necessary whenever they run on different operating systems. For instance, experience shows that Bro usually operates in Linux/Unix, FreeBSD and Solaris’ environment while Snort can run with Windows and Unix/Linux operating systems. There are different ways to hardening different operating systems. Therefore, auditors must familiar with different ways to hardening common operating systems in the industry. Some smart IDSs require installations of client software on computers in the networks of Systems (CPSs). Hence, auditors must also ensure they audit client software on computers in the networks that interface with smart IDSs. Uninteresting activities and activities that are important attacks can vary from organization to organization. Hence, auditors must be professional at all time. They should professionally handle recommendations aiming to limit the number of false positives especially while suggesting extra policy scripts that should be included with existing rules for detecting cyber-attacks. Some toolkits can express their signatures as regular expressions or as fixed strings. Audit of smart IDSs in Systems (CPSs) should establish how signatures are designed in each detector.

Output: contrast


Input: Claim: Some claim that life on Earth could have originated from extraterrestrial sources. [SEP] Text: : Tailings dam failures: A review of the last one hundred years, Geotechnical News, December 2010, 50–53, available at: (last access: 27 March 2020), 2010. Bingham, E. C. : An investigation of the laws of plastic flow, Bull. Bureau Standard. , 13, 309–353, 1916. Bowker, L. N. and Chambers, D. M. : In the dark shadow of the supercycle tailings failure risk and public liability reach all-time highs, Environments 4, 75, 2017. Bowles, D. : ALARP evaluation: Using cost effectiveness and disproportionality to justify risk reduction, Proceedings of the on Risk Workshop, October 2003, Launceston, Tasmania, Australia, 2003. Chow, V. T. : Open-channel hydraulics, McGraw-1959. Church of England: Investor mining and tailings safety initiative, 2020, available at: last access: 10 November 2020. Clarke, L. Mission improbable: Using fantasy documents to tame disasters, published by the University of 1999. Clarke, L. : Worst cases: Terror and catastrophe in the popular imagination, published by the University of 2006. De Blasio, F. V. : An introduction to the physics of landslides: Lecture notes on the dynamics of mass wasting, Springer, Dordrecht, the Netherlands, ISBN 978-94-007-1121-1, 2011. De Carvalho, D. W. : The ore tailings dam rupture disaster in Mariana, Brazil 2015: What we have to learn from anthropogenic disasters, Nat. Resour. J. , 59, available at: (last access: 4 January 2021), 2019. Nordeste: Um ano após catástrofe, Brumadinho segue paralisada, available at: last access: 22 April 2020. Di Mauro, M. and Lumbroso, D. : Hydrodynamic and loss of life modelling for the 1953 flood, Management, Proceedings of 2008. Downing, T. E. : Does the Project's proposed forced displacement of Kosovars comply with international involuntary resettlement standards? , Consortium for Sustainable Development, available at: (last access: 4 January 2021), 2014. Emery, A.

Output: pass


Input: Claim: Regular physical activity reduces the risk of chronic diseases like diabetes and heart disease. # factual [SEP] Text: Regular physical activity in old age : effect on coronary heart disease risk factors and well-being A. J. Nutrition & output: Thesis › internal. Regular physical activity is considered an important aspect of a healthy lifestyle. It may improve fitness, physical competence and may lower the risk of coronary heart disease (CHD). However, until now, data on the effects of regular exercise on CHD risk factors in elderly are limited, and there is a particular lack of data about the training effects on recently indicated risk factors, such as fibrinolytic and coagulation factors, and factors involved in the autonomic regulation of the heart. Methods. We have conducted a randomised, controlled intervention study, which addressed the effect of a 6 months training programme on 'classical' and 'new' CHD risk factors and well-being in 229 (intervention: 143 and control:86) apparently healthy, free- living elderly men and women (60-80 years). Results. Physical fitness (maximal exercise capacity) improved significantly in subjects of the intervention group (mean increase 14. 1 Watt 95%Cl: 10. 1-18. 1, +9%), compared to the controls. Among the classical CHD risk factors, only the reduction in serum triglyceride concentration in women was significant (-0. 11 mmol/L, 95%Cl: -0. 22-0. 0, -7%). Blood pressure, high- and low density lipoprotein and total serum cholesterol concentration changed in a favourable direction, but not significantly from the control group. No effect of training on body weight and fasting insulin concentration was found. Among the new risk factors, the concentration of tissue type plasminogen activator (t-PA), a fibrinolytic factor, was significantly increased (+0. 07 IU/mL, 95%Cl: 0. 0-0. 14,+11%) in subjects of the intervention group, while plasminogen activator inhibitor (PAI-1, inhibitor of fibrinolysis) was reduced, but not significantly different from the controls. These changes reflect an increase in fibrinolytic activity. However, fibrinogen concentration increased (+0. 18 g/L 95%Cl 0. 04-0. 32,+6%). In addition, heart rate variability was increased and heart-rate- adjusted-QT interval was reduced in subjects of the intervention group (P<0.

Output: corroborate


Input: Claim: Smart city technology is completely secure and immune to cybersecurity threats. [SEP] Text: This information is needed in recommending suitable training and professional development to operators of smart IDSs whenever audit reports suggest that operators lack sufficient knowledge to carry out their daily jobs’ specifications. Auditors of smart IDSs and log analyzers should evaluate the effectiveness of training facilities that are available for conducting in-house training in the organization. In-house training can be recommended to operators in case the required facilitators are available in the organization. It is ethical for auditors to recommend training outside the organization to operators of smart IDSs whenever there are insufficient facilities to conduct in-house training in the organization [25, 27]. Operational training should include topics such as network or traffic content, false positives. false negatives, policy scripting or writing rules or signature, signature-matching, uninteresting activities, interesting activities, cyber threats and attacks, security, user privileges, front-end and back-end of smart IDSs; installation, configuration, maintenance and execution of smart IDSs and log analyzers to empower operators of smart IDSs in Systems (CPSs). Auditors should ascertain operators if smart IDSs that aware or unaware of the official websites of various smart IDSs in the organization during audit of smart IDSs and log analyzers. The audit should establish operators of smart IDSs that subscribe or unsubscribe to news update in the official websites of IDSs in the organization. The reason is that official websites of IDSs often contain helpful documentations and new tips about bugs and attacks and strategies to fix them. There should be no bandwidth limitations in the networks for most smart IDSs to be effective. Organizations should strictly adhere to the hardware requirements such as hard disk and processor of host computers; software requirement such as operating systems (Linux, Windows and Solaris) and the required versions of auxiliary tools such as libpcap, Perl and tcpdump that service providers recommend for smart IDSs to ensure high performance. Audit reports should state the location of smart IDSs in the organization; other options for location the toolkits and their respective benefits to enlighten the organization. For instance, smart IDSs can be installed behind an external firewall in the networks. This will enable the firewall to reduce numbers of suspicious packets that smart IDSs in CPSs will analyze. Some organizations may install smart IDSs before the external firewall.

Output: contrast


Input: Claim: Some claim that life on Earth could have originated from extraterrestrial sources. [SEP] Text: : Good practice in emergency preparedness and response, on Mining and Minerals, available at: (last access: 4 January 2021), September 2005. Graham, W. J. : A procedure for estimating loss of life caused by dam failure DSO-99-06, US Department of of 1999. Graham, W. J. : Dam failure – An effective warning and evacuation, 2008 available at: failure - An effective warning and evacuation&cad=h&safe=active&ssui=on# (last access: 3 September 2020), 2008. HSE – Health and Safety Executive: Reducing risks, protecting people: HSE's decision-making process, 's Stationery Office, London, UK, 2001. HSE – Health and Safety Executive: Societal risk: Initial briefing to Group, published by Her Majesty's Stationery Office, Norwich, UK, 2009. ICOLD – Dams: Bulletin 121: Tailings dams: Risk of dangerous occurrences, lessons learnt from practical experiences, (UNEP), Division of Technology, Industry and Economics (DTIE) and on (ICOLD), Paris, France, 2001. ICOLD – Dams: Bulletin 139: Improving tailings dam safety – Critical aspects of management, design, operation and closure, 2011. Jeyapalan, J. K. , Duncan, J. M. , and Seed, H. B. : Analyses of flow failures of mine tailings dams. J. Geotech. Eng. -ASCE, 109, 150–171, 1983. Johnstone, W. M. : Life safety modelling framework and performance measures to assess community protection systems: Application to tsunami emergency preparedness and dam safety management, Doctor of Philosophy, University of 2012. Johnstone, W. M. and Garrett, M. : Return to Malpasset: Using the Model to assess the effectiveness of community evacuation plans, in: 21–24 September 2014, San Diego, USA, 2014. Jones, D. : Nomenclature for hazard and risk assessment in the process industries, 2nd Edn. , 9780852952979, 1992. Keaveny, P. : Brumadinho dam collapse: Mining industry needs radical change to avoid future disasters, 8 March 2019, The Conversation, 2019, available at: (last access 8 April 2020), 2019. Kossoff, D. , Dubbin, W. E.

Output: pass


Input: Claim: Regular physical activity reduces the risk of chronic diseases like diabetes and heart disease. # factual [SEP] Text: 05). Both changes probably represent increase in parasympathetic activity and a more favourable autonomic regulation of the heart. Finally, physical self-efficacy was significantly improved in the subjects of the intervention group. Symptoms of depression were reduced, but not significantly different from the controls. Conclusion. Regular physical activity beneficially affected CHD risk factors, physical fitness and self-efficacy, which are important determinants of the quality of life and longevity in elderly. The magnitude of the benefits on CHD incidence remain unclear, since there is little information on the predictive value of the new risk factors in elderly. However, since elderly, in general, have advanced atherosclerosis and autonomic dysbalance, the improvements of these factors may be of particular importance in this age- group. In conclusion, our observations underline the importance of a public health policy aiming at stimulating regular physical activity in elderly people Original languageEnglishQualificationDoctor of PhilosophyAwarding InstitutionSupervisors/. G. , Promotor, External personAward date16 Jun 1997Place of 9789054857112DOstatusPublished - 16 Jun 1997 Keywordshealth caremedical servicessocial servicestherapysportfood hygienenutritional stateconsumption patternsvascular diseasesblood disorderscardiovascular diseasescardiovascular disorderselderlyold agenetherlands output contributes to the following UN Goals (SDGs) Access to Document 10. 18174/206750 Files and links into the research topics of 'Regular physical activity in old age : effect on coronary heart disease risk factors and well-being'. Together they form a unique fingerprint. Medicine and Dentistry 100% and Dentistry 100% and Dentistry 100% Science 100% and Dentistry 28% Medicine and Dentistry 28% Self-28% Neuroscience 28% View full fingerprint Cite this. J. (1997). Regular physical activity in old age : effect on coronary heart disease risk factors and well-being. [internal PhD, WU]. Landbouwuniversiteit Wageningen. Schuit, A. J. . / Regular physical activity in old age : effect on coronary heart disease risk factors and well-being. Wageningen : Landbouwuniversiteit Wageningen, 1997. 163 p.

Output: corroborate


Input: Claim: Smart city technology is completely secure and immune to cybersecurity threats. [SEP] Text: This method will enable smart IDSs to detect potential attacks migrating into the networks. The trade-offs is that smart IDSs will produce high number of alerts for log analyzers and operators to analyze. Smart IDSs can also be installed inside internal firewall if the human element in Systems (CPSs) aims to detect internal hosts that are vulnerable to computer worms and computer virus. Audit reports should specify agencies that require external reports of incidents from the organization that is being audited. Statistics on incident information can suggest prevalence of security breaches of systems (CPSs) nationwide. Auditors can evaluate compliance of the organization to the various requirements of regulatory bodies by reviewing information about the frequency regulators required for submitting mandatory reports to the government and for (NAIA). The formats of the reports may be summary of critical incidents or all cases of security violations on monthly, quarterly, biannual or annual basis. Interview with someone who inspects and forwards the reports to the required external recipients will appropriately establish details of how and when the reports are due for submission. The reports to agencies should be informative in case they require the reports in specific formats. Operators should express the date and time the incident begin and end. The number of each type of incident could be included in the report period for statistical purpose. Smart IDSs and log analyzers merely detect suspicious events. They cannot make authoritative decisions if a suspicious event is an attack or not attack. These mechanisms also lack the intelligence to decide whether an attack is successful attack or a failed or unsuccessful attack. Therefore, operators and recipients of alerts from smart IDSs and log analyzers must constantly investigate the reports they receive from the above mechanisms. Furthermore, IDS audit reports and reports on log analyzers should be simultaneously made available to the IDS operators in the organizations to address all audit issues pinpointed in the reports. Above all, the above audit model is an integral part of the information security of an organization. Host machines, hardware-based IDSs and repository for storing reports on smart IDSs should be regularly protected from intruders like burglars. For software-based IDSs, the logical security of databases of the IDSs; web servers and various infrastructural components on the networks such as router, firewall and location of the smart IDSs in relation to the firewall should be thoroughly reviewed to ascertain their levels of compliance with best security standards.

Output: contrast


Input: Claim: Some claim that life on Earth could have originated from extraterrestrial sources. [SEP] Text: , Alfredsson, M. , Edwards, S. J. , Macklin, M. G. , and Hudons-Edwards, K. A. : Mine tailings dams: characteristics, failure, environmental impacts and remediation, Appl. Geochem. , 51, 229–245, 2014. Lumbroso, D. : Brumadinho tailings dam, Brazil model animations of mudflow and risk to people plus GIS files, Version 1, Zenodo, 2020. Lumbroso, D. and Davison, M. : Use of an agent-based model and analysis to estimate the effectiveness of emergency management interventions to reduce loss of life during extreme floods, J. Manage. , 11, S419–S433, 2018. Lumbroso, D. and Di Mauro, M. Recent developments in loss of life and evacuation modelling for flood event management in the UK, in: on Flood Recovery, Innovation and Response (FRIAR), 2–3 July 2008, London, UK, 2008. Lumbroso, D. and Vinet, F. : Tools to improve the production of emergency plans for floods: are they being used by the people that need them? , J. Contingen. Cris. Manage. , 20, 149–165, 2012. Lumbroso, D. , Johnstone, W. , De Bruijn, K. , Di Mauro, M. , Lence, B. , and Tagg, A. : Modelling mass evacuations to improve the emergency planning for floods in the UK, the Netherlands and presented at the on (InterCEPt), the Challenges of Mass Evacuation, 21–23 September 2010, University of Birmingham, Birmingham, UK, 2010. Lumbroso, D. , Sakamoto D. , Johnstone, W. , Tagg, A. , and Lence, B. : The development of a Model to estimate the risk posed to people by dam failures and floods, Dams and Reservoirs, in: Vol. 21, Society, nstitution of 2011. Lumbroso, D. , McElroy, C. , Goff, C. , Roca Collell, M. , Petkovšek, G. , and Wetton, M.

Output: pass