Input: Claim: Adaptive radiation explains species diversification in new environments. [SEP] Text: Skip to main content Explore journals Get published About BMC My account Search all BMC 19. 25 million years ago (Mya). This time represents the average between paleontological and molecular estimates, which place the origin of the crown group radiation, respectively, at 18. 5 and 20 Mya. Fig. 1Phylogenetic relationships within the Liolaemus radiation showing variation in body size (snout-vent length obtained by averaging male and female SVLs) across species (black bars, in mm). Clade colours indicate the eight main groups (or subgenera) within the genusFull size image Analyses of lineage diversificationAnalyses based on the time-calibrated phylogenetic tree were performed to quantify the evolutionary tempo and mode of diversification in Liolaemus, with focus on both lineage and body size diversity. To quantify historical rates of species accumulations (i. e. , tests of the prediction that diversification has slowed down over time following an early burst) we created a lineage through-time (LTT) plot implemented in the R package ‘ape’ [41]. For the LTT curve, we first implemented Pybus & Harvey’s [42] (MCCR) test. This analysis calculates the γ statistic for incompletely sampled phylogenies, by comparing the distribution of inter-node distances between the tree root and its temporal midpoint to the distribution of distances between the temporal midpoint and the tree tips [43]. Negative γ values indicate that inter-node distances between the root and the midpoint are shorter than the distances between the midpoint and the tips, and hence, that most branching events occurred earlier in the evolutionary history of the clade, a pattern consistent with a decline in the rate of species accumulation over time (i. e. , an ‘early burst’ model of diversification). When lineage diversification follows a constant rate process, the branching events are evenly distributed throughout the tree, with γ being normally distributed and with a mean of 0. Given that incomplete taxon sampling in a phylogeny increases type I error rates in diversification analyses, the MCCR test computes corrected γ distributions through simulations of phylogenies to the known clade size (~240 species in Liolaemus) under the null hypothesis of a constant rate pure-birth diversification process.

Output: pass


Input: Claim: Protected areas help preserve biodiversity and endangered species. [SEP] Text: In addition to habitat loss, the principal threat to 9 out of every 10 threatened amphibian species (Baillie et al. 2004), poaching is known to be one of the greatest threats to wildlife conservation worldwide (Moore et al. 2018). In fact, the harvesting of wild Telmatobius spp. for human consumption is the predominant threat affecting amphibians in the (Angulo 2008; Aguilar et al. 2010). Furthermore, the live trade of frogs harvested from wild populations facilitates the spread of chytrid fungus Batrachochytrium dendrobatidis, which has had its greatest effects in large-bodied, range-restricted anurans (Scheele et al. 2019), and has been responsible for the collapse of anuran species richness and abundance in Park, (Catenazzi et al. 2010). A recent study by (2021) confirms that chytrid fungus is found in the Junín and that both species have been infected. To reduce poaching-related threats, and consequently the risk of spreading disease through live trade, Moore et al. (2018) suggests increasing the number of anti-poaching patrols to sites where the probability of poaching is high, and/or expanding the number of park ranger posts. However, these recommendations are not cost-effective avenues for PAs with funding limitations. Recently, a regional ordinance (N°331-GRJ/CR) was passed declaring the conservation and protection of both Telmatobius species a priority. Although the ordinance does not restrict the harvesting and sale of these endangered amphibians in local markets, it still marks a significant step towards the ultimate goal of conservation. Unfortunately, due to financial resource constraints, effective legislation in the developing world relies on voluntary compliance (Rowcliffe et al. 2004). Given that poachers will not comply voluntarily, we believe that the protection of these species will depend on community-based environmental education initiatives. Aguilar et al. (2010) considers the importance of local inhabitants in Andean amphibian conservation, and although somewhat controversial, demonstrates how in the absence of resources (e. g. , national herpetologists to carry out long-term monitoring), local inhabitants are the only source of information available. Furthermore, locally-lead projects will eventually facilitate the behavior changes needed to make sustainable, long-term conservation gains. This also highlights the importance of local PAs (versus national PAs), such as private and municipal reserves.

Output: corroborate


Input: Claim: Skipping breakfast can slow down metabolism permanently. [SEP] Text: This encompasses elevated risks of hypertension,[39,42] diabetes,[43,44] obesity,[45,46] elevated low-density lipoprotein cholesterol,[47,48] dysregulated lipid levels[49] and metabolic syndrome. [50–52] Collectively, these conditions are well-recognized risk factors for MI. Furthermore, breakfast skipping has been linked to an increase in inflammatory markers, such as C-reactive protein,[53] which play a significant role in atherosclerosis and MI. [54,55] This inflammatory response could be a critical pathway through which breakfast skipping exerts its deleterious cardiovascular effects. Additionally, behaviors linked to breakfast skipping, such as smoking and reduced physical activity, could further heighten MI risk. [56,57] While more research is needed to fully understand the underlying mechanisms, our results suggest that encouraging a regular breakfast routine could be a straightforward and effective measure to reduce MI risk. Our study utilized a two-sample MR analysis with data from large GWAS cohorts, involving nearly 190,000 participants, ensuring robust statistical power. The genetic methodology adopted in our study enhances the strength of causal inference, effectively reducing the influence of confounding variables that are typically encountered in observational research. Notwithstanding its strengths, the study has several limitations. First, for the exposure GWAS data, the significance threshold was adjusted to a P-value of 1 × 10−5 due to the limited number of SNPs achieving genome-wide significance at the standard P < 5 × 10−8 threshold. While this may have increased the likelihood of false positives, it facilitated a more comprehensive analysis of the relationship between breakfast skipping and MI. Second, the predominance of European individuals in the exposed population constrains the applicability of the results to other racial groups. 5. MR study revealed a significant causal link between breakfast skipping and an increased risk of MI. The data strongly suggest that breakfast skipping contributes to a higher likelihood of heart attacks. This underscores the potential of regular breakfast consumption as a preventive strategy against MI. 65. | Text | PubMed | CrossRef | 53. | PubMed | 9. | 17. | PubMed | 13. | Text | PubMed | CrossRef | 9. | Text | PubMed | CrossRef | 1540. | 103. | PubMed | CrossRef | 85. | PubMed | CrossRef | 2016. . 2019;16:1853. | 32. | PubMed | CrossRef | 407. | Text | PubMed | 80.

Output: contrast


Input: Claim: Adaptive radiation explains species diversification in new environments. [SEP] Text: Species are then randomly pruned from the simulated trees to replicate incomplete sampling (109 species are included in our tree; see above). Our analysis is based on 10,000 simulations. The MCCR test was conducted using the ‘laser’ package in R [44]. We then analysed the diversification dynamics that are more likely to have shaped the LTT trend of Liolaemus species accumulation by fitting multiple evolutionary models that rely on different evolutionary processes. We used Etienne et al. ’s [45] maximum-likelihood fitting-model approach to test four alternative hypotheses of diversification. This technique employs a hidden Markov model (HMM) approach to calculate the likelihood of a phylogenetic history under multiple diversity-dependent birth-death models of diversification. These models account for the influence that species other than those included in the phylogeny (i. e. , both extinct species and species missing from the phylogeny) may have on historical rates of diversification (given that speciation rates are a function of existing species at each point in time). Therefore, this approach is comparable to the results produced by the MCCR test above as both techniques consider the potential effects of species missing from the tree [43]. Two of the four fitted models assume constant diversification rates. These are the pure-Birth (or Yule) model, which assumes no extinctions, and the constant rate birth-death model (crBD), which allows extinctions but assumes that the rates of speciation and extinction remain constant through time and across lineages. The other two models, density-dependent logistic (DDL + E) and density-dependent exponential (DDE + E), assume diversity-dependence and thus quantify diversification rates as functions of changes in accumulating diversity over time (while accounting for extinctions, E). While the DDL + E models linear rate changes in diversification, the DDE + E models exponentially declining speciation rates as a function of extant lineage diversity at any point in time. We fitted all four models under two alternative assumptions about the proportion of missing species in the phylogeny. First, we assumed that the Liolaemus clade consists of its currently known 240 species. We then assumed that the genus consists of many more species than those currently reported, and that our phylogeny only accounts for 30 % of the ‘real’ diversity of the lineage.

Output: pass


Input: Claim: Protected areas help preserve biodiversity and endangered species. [SEP] Text: In addition to requiring fewer economic resources, local PAs can have better monitoring practices, better relations with surrounding communities, and can provide better protection for endangered, endemic species than national PAs (von May et al. 2008; Aguilar et al. 2010; Shanee et al. 2017). In conclusion, many PAs are becoming progressively more isolated as surrounding land-use and resource extraction intensifies to meet ever-increasing global demand. Additionally, human activity within PA boundaries is prevalent worldwide. In fact, one-third of protected land is under intense human pressure (Jones et al. 2018) and, therefore, the analogy of PAs as oceanic islands surrounded by inhospitable seas of anthropogenically impacted environments seems even more relevant today (Haila 2002). For PAs to be of more value to aquatic species, we recommend the strict protection and connection of unprotected high-quality habitats to the existing PA network with borders defined by watershed boundaries. For this to happen, freshwater focal areas and critical management zones must first be identified and embedded within catchment management zones (Abell et al. 2007; Esselman and Allan 2010). However, adopting such a protection strategy must be done in a hierarchical framework that builds upon existing high-quality habitats, and that prioritizes poorer habitats for future restoration (Merovich et al. 2013). It is also recommended that more effort is needed to ensure that any socioeconomic objective of a PA is consistent with maintenance or restoration of ecosystem resilience and conservation of aquatic biodiversity (Acreman et al. 2020). Therefore, a community-based approach to PA management such as local PAs could provide strategic management solutions tailored to specific (local-level) threats and needs. This is especially important to meet conservation targets and provide financially feasible solutions for the expansion of PA networks in resource limited regions of the developing world (et al. 2013; Shanee et al. 2017). These results further highlight the need for a more holistic approach to environmental management that approaches conservation and sustainability issues by incorporating life histories, species’ requirements, habitat protection and restoration as unified goals. Availability of data and material The geographical distribution data analysed are not publicly available due sensitive information regarding endangered species locations but are available from the corresponding author on reasonable request. All non-sensitive data are available on figshare: All code used for analyses are available on figshare: 2021.

Output: corroborate


Input: Claim: Skipping breakfast can slow down metabolism permanently. [SEP] Text: 1%) and BF3 (ES, 1. 6%; JHS, 2. 9%; HS, 6. 7%). In contrast to the previous study [8], the rate of BF4 pupils (who never took breakfast) was low in the current study. This may be partly due to the broad and longstanding campaign for taking breakfast supported by both the Ministry of Health, Labour and Welfare, and the Ministry of Agriculture, Forestry and Fisheries in Japan. Although the current cross-sectional design study lacked data on demographic factors and age information, sleepiness (adjusted odds ratio [OR], 1. 25; 95% confidence interval [CI], 1. 09–1. 44; P=0. 001), physical activity (OR, 0. 91; 95% CI, 0. 87–0. 95; P<0. 001), dinner irregularity (OR, 1. 28; 95% CI, 1. 01–1. 62; P= 0. 039), school day screen time (OR, 1. 34; 95% CI, 1. 11–1. 61; P=0. 002), academic performance (OR, 1. 70; 95% CI, 1. 48–1. 96; P<0. 001), after-school activity (OR, 1. 03; 95% CI, 1. 01–1. 04; P<0. 001), and sleep duration before school day (OR, 0. 90; CL, 0. 82–1. 00; P=0. 040) were independently associated with breakfast skippers (Table 1). An association of skipping breakfast and poor academic performance is widely recognized [1], and the present study supported this association. The current finding on the association between skipping breakfast and sleep loss, though only on the night before school days, has also been reported [2], and sleepiness was found to be associated with breakfast skipping. As previously demonstrated [4], an association between skipping breakfast and screen time, although only on school days, has been obtained. Regarding physical activity, similar to the study of Wadolowska et al. [4] but in contrast to the study of Lyerly et al. [3], a lower physical activity score was found to be a significant predictor of an increase in skipping breakfast. Consistent with Hassan et al. [6], the present study failed to demonstrate an association between skipping breakfast and higher BMI.

Output: contrast


Input: Claim: Adaptive radiation explains species diversification in new environments. [SEP] Text: For both scenarios, we fitted all four models using the R package ‘DDD’ [45]. To evaluate the best-fit model, we employed the Criterion (AIC) approach [46]. We report the bias-corrected version of AIC, referred to as AICc [47, 48]. The goodness of fit of candidate evolutionary models is determined by identifying the lowest AICc scores, and hence, when shown as ΔAICc scores (the difference between the best or lowest AICc, and the AICc of each alternative model), then the best model has ΔAICc = 0 [47, 48]. Body size dataTo evaluate the potential relationship between clade diversification and phenotypic evolution during the radiation of Liolaemus, we investigated the rates and trajectories of body size diversification. We focus on body size as it is the single most important morphological trait that influences the majority of ecological and evolutionary processes via its correlation with most components of organismal form and function [49, 50]. In addition, body size is often considered to be a key morphological indicator of niche in natural populations [49, 51]. Also, in Liolaemus in particular, body size is ideally suited for diversification analyses as existing evidence suggests that its variation is not predictably influenced by geographic/climatic clines [28, 30, 34], it varies with numbers of coexisting species (Pincheira-Donoso, unpublished observation), and other phenotypic traits observed to respond to ecological pressures in other lineages (e. g. , body proportions, [1]) vary in rather unpredictable ways when linked to, for example, habitat characteristics [30, 52, 53]. We used snout-vent length (SVL), the traditional proxy for body size in lizards [54–56]. For the analyses, we collated an extensive body size dataset (Additional file 1) consisting of 6,500+ adult individuals (adulthood was estimated based on body sizes reported in previous studies, [30–32, 34]), representing >85 % of the currently known species diversity within the genus. To obtain SVL for each species, we averaged male and female SVL values, calculated independently using the upper two-thirds of the size range available for each sex in each species [30, 57].

Output: pass


Input: Claim: Wildlife corridors support safe migration routes for animals. [SEP] Text: Skip to content Menu AGU. org to by AGU for dropdown menu Space & & & & dropdown menu ’ Highlights Editors’ Eos en Español Eos 简体中文版 to for: ina System to In the wake of a recent report about threats to biodiversity, congressional legislation aims to protect wildlife that faces habitat loss, degradation, and fragmentation. by 20 May 20194 April 2023 Share this:Click to print (Opens in new window)Click to email a link to a friend (Opens in new window)Click to share on Twitter (Opens in new window)Click to share on Facebook (Opens in new window)Click to share on LinkedIn (Opens in new window) Pronghorn antelope, which migrate more than 250 kilometers from winter to summer feeding grounds in the West, would be among many species to benefit from protected wildlife corridors. Credit: iStock. com/Dean_legislation to establish a national system of wildlife corridors in the comes just days after a (UN) report on threats to biodiversity warned that about 1 million species worldwide are threatened with extinction. The legislation, known as the of 2019, would establish the wildlife corridors system to help native animal and plant species—including protected species—that face habitat loss, degradation, fragmentation, or obstructions to connectivity between their habitat areas. The bill, which was introduced in Congress on 16 May, aims to help restore movement by wildlife and “to provide long-term habitat connectivity for native species migration, dispersal, adaptation to climate and other environmental change, and genetic exchange. ” In addition, the bill would establish a wildlife movement grant program on nonfederal land and water to increase wildlands connectivity. It would also include a wildlife corridors stewardship fund to help manage and protect the corridors. “A to Protect Wildlife” The legislation is “a critical step to protect wildlife,” Sen. (D-N. M. ), who introduced the legislation in the Senate, said at a 16 May briefing about the bill. “While we are in the middle of a human-caused sixth mass extinction, scientists are raising the alarm. We are almost out of time to save the planet as we know it. ” This newsletter rocks. Get the most fascinating science news stories of the week in your inbox every Friday.

Output: corroborate


Input: Claim: Skipping breakfast can slow down metabolism permanently. [SEP] Text: We did find that in adults aged 20-29 and 30-39 years, 44. 9% and 22. 5% skipped breakfast, respectively, which was much higher than the 25. 1% breakfast skippers in young American adults there were associated with low nutrient intakes, including calcium and riboflavin [21]. Our study also showed that the Skipping group showed poor daily nutrient intake with a high percentage of energy from fat and a higher risk of obesity and metabolic syndrome when compared with the Rice3+ group, as seen in similar studies that showed detrimental effects of skipping breakfast on cardiometabolic health [22, 23, 24, 25, 26]. However, despite those results, a recent study concluded that there was a lack of evidence for a causal relation between skipping breakfast and obesity, although an association was observed between them [27]. In an experiment of causal relation between breakfast and behaviors related to obesity, Leidy et al. suggested that the type of breakfast is also important, concluding that a high-protein breakfast reduced evening snacking compared with skipping breakfast, whereas a low-protein breakfast did not [28]. Our data agree with the results of other studies that studied the association of diet and disease patterns among Korean populations in which an association between a rice-based diet with a relatively low prevalence of obesity was shown [3, 4, 7]. However, we also found that the diversity of foods at breakfast even in rice-based, traditional breakfast is important to daily nutrient intake levels. Among those eating a rice-based breakfast, the Rice3+ group had higher daily nutrient intakes than other groups-especially in nutrients emphasized for Korea such as calcium and riboflavin-and a lower risk of obesity, abdominal obesity, and metabolic syndrome. Eating a rice-based meal with a few sides may lead to an increased consumption of rice instead of a variety of foods that can result in adverse health outcomes. Kim and colleagues reported that a rice-based, traditional dietary pattern as well as a high-fat, high-sweets, and coffee pattern could positively be associated with an increased risk of obesity in Korean [29]. Another study also reported that an unbalanced Korean diet with little variety was related to higher risk of metabolic syndrome and elevated blood pressure [20]. Another distinguishing result in our study was the positive association between noodles at breakfast and blood pressure.

Output: contrast


Input: Claim: Adaptive radiation explains species diversification in new environments. [SEP] Text: Although maximum SVL has been extensively used as a proxy for size in lizards, it has been shown that the use of extreme values may result in body size overestimations [58]. In contrast, the use of intermediate percentiles between the maximum recorded value and the mean from the entire adult sample provides accurate estimates of asymptotic size [58]. The entire dataset was collected by the same person (DPD) to control for error arising from inter-individual measurements (e. g. , [57]). The species included in our dataset encompass the entire phylogenetic, phenotypic, ecological, and geographic diversity known in Liolaemus [30, 52, 53], and therefore, they provide an adequate sample of the body size diversity in this genus (Fig. 1). Modelling body size evolutionWe investigated the evolutionary dynamics of body size throughout the phylogenetic history of Liolaemus using two quantitative approaches based on our time-calibrated phylogeny. First, we quantified the tempo and mode of body size diversification by fitting four alternative models that describe different evolutionary dynamics: the Brownian-motion model (BM, which describes a random walk of trait evolution along branches in the phylogeny, with increase in trait variance centered around the initial value at the root of the tree, and increasing with the distance from the tree root; [59]), the Ornstein-Uhlenbeck model (OU, which assumes that once traits have adaptively evolved, stabilizing selection pulls the trait values around an adaptive optimum for the trait; [60]), the Early-Burst or “niche-filling” model (EB, which describes exponentially increasing or decreasing rates of evolution over time based on the assumption that niches are saturated by accumulating species within a lineage; [8]), and the Delta model (a time-dependent model of trait evolution, which describes the effects that early versus late evolution in the tree have on the rates of trait evolution; it returns a δ value which indicates whether recent evolution has been fast when δ > 1, or slow when δ < 1; [61]). Comparisons of goodness of fit for these models were performed through the Criterion (AIC) [46]. Selection of the best evolutionary model is based on the same AICc approach described above for model-selection of lineage accumulation. Model implementation and fitting was conducted with the R package ‘geiger’ [62].

Output: pass


Input: Claim: Wildlife corridors support safe migration routes for animals. [SEP] Text: Sign up now “While we are in the middle of a human-caused sixth mass extinction, scientists are raising the alarm. We are almost out of time to save the planet as we know it,” Udall commented, referring to the 6 May UN report by the Intergovernmental Science-on Biodiversity and Ecosystem Services. The report, which was compiled by 145 expert authors, states that the rate of global change in nature during the past half century “is unprecedented in human history. ” It also found that the global rate of species extinction “is already at least tens to hundreds of times higher than the average rate over the past 10 million years and is accelerating. ” The report calls for urgent “transformative changes” to reverse the situation and states that direct drivers of change in nature that have the largest global impact are, in order, changes in land and sea use, exploitation of organisms, climate change, pollution, and the invasion of alien species. It warns that the future impacts of climate change on biodiversity and ecosystem functioning are projected to become more pronounced over the coming decades. Speakers at the briefing said that biodiversity is important to protect not only because species have their own purposes in the ecological web but also because they provide substantial benefits to people. “If anyone thinks that biodiversity is not crucial to human existence, think again,” Udall said, noting that at least 40% of the world’s economy is based on biological resources and that the diversity of life provides humanity with food, shelter, medicine, and economic development, among other benefits. Establishing a wildlife corridors system “is something that shouldn’t be about party. It should be about just saving our planet. ” “Living ecosystems support us. America’s wildlife is in great jeopardy,” he said. “We must act now. ” a a wildlife corridors system “is something that shouldn’t be about party. It should be about just saving our planet,” said Rep. (D-Va. ), who introduced companion legislation in the House. “This is an absolutely critical time considering the UN report on accelerated species extinction rate. ” Beyer, who is cochair of the Coalition’s Task Force, said that he and Republican cosponsor Rep. (R-Fla.

Output: corroborate


Input: Claim: Skipping breakfast can slow down metabolism permanently. [SEP] Text: 5% of adolescents had breakfast skippers [2, 3]. Skipping breakfast is an unresolved problem not only in Korea but also in other countries. Skipping breakfast leads to overeating of snacks or the next meal, and the absorption of excess glucose increases the likelihood of cardiovascular disease and obesity due to increase in fat synthesis in the liver [4]. Smith et al. [5] reported that when breakfast was skipped frequently, there was an increase in snack consumption, meal eating speed, waist circumference, body weight, postprandial blood glucose levels, blood pressure, and cholesterol levels, and risk of metabolic syndrome. Júnior et al. [6] reported an inverse correlation between the frequency of breakfast intake and blood glucose, triglyceride, and low-density lipoprotein (LDL) cholesterol levels in sedentary obese adolescents. More than 50 cross-sectional studies have reported consistent positive correlations between breakfast omission and increased risk of obesity in Europe and the United States, and a meta-analysis of 19 cross-sectional studies in Asian populations showed an increased risk of overweight and obesity among breakfast skippers versus breakfast consumers [7]. Diabetes is a serious health problem, and the associated complications lead to the development of chronic diseases in adulthood; therefore, it is important to prevent diabetes in adolescence. Metabolomics has been used in the last decades to understand the relationship between pathophysiological mechanisms and diseases [8, 9], and several studies have been conducted to contribute to the prevention and treatment of diabetes through studies on the relationship between diabetes and metabolites [10, 11, 12]. In particular, aromatic amino acids (phenylalanine, tyrosine, and tryptophan) have been reported to be associated with the risk of future diabetes [11, 13]. Metabolomics in the study of diabetes is an important way to identify and prevent factors affecting diabetes. Although the positive effects of the Korean diet have been reported in several previous studies [14, 15, 16], the preference for the traditional Korean diet pattern that is based on rice has declined among adolescents while the preference for dietary patterns based on noodles, bread, and meat has significantly increased [17]. Several studies have reported that the increase in preference for Western diets and the decrease in Korean diet p2019. A screening test was conducted among 117 healthy boys and girls (12–18 years) who volunteered to participate in the study and provided written informed consent. Among them, 105 met the inclusion criteria.

Output: contrast


Input: Claim: Adaptive radiation explains species diversification in new environments. [SEP] Text: The plot projecting the Liolaemus phylogeny onto the body size morphospace (against time since the root), based on ancestral node estimations using maximum likelihood [66] is shown in Fig. 3 (see legend for details), and was built using the R package ‘phytools’ [67]. We finally investigated the influence of body size on macroevolutionary lineage diversification in Liolaemus. We employed the phylogenetic likelihood-based approach Speciation and Extinction (QuaSSE) implemented in the R package ‘diversitree’ [68]. This method fits evolutionary models based on the distribution of extant characters (body size) on a phylogeny, under the assumption that diversification follows a birth-death process and that a species can be characterized by its mean value of the measured trait, which affects diversification through its effect on the speciation-extinction rates (where rate of speciation is λ, and the rate of extinction is μ, see [69]). Evolutionary models are fitted by adding a ‘drift’ or ‘directional’ parameter (φ), which describes the deterministic (or directional) component of character evolution. That is, the expected rate of character change over time as a function of selection or other process which determines a directional tendency [68, 70]. Thus, this term does not refer to genetic drift specifically. After adding the drift term, the likelihood functions created by QuaSSE describe diversification by a constant, linear, sigmoidal, or hump-shaped function of log body size [68]. Identification of the best evolutionary model is performed via the AIC approach (see above). ResultsDiversification rates and evolutionary modelsThe results from the MCCR analysis, as shown by the lineage through-time plot (Fig. 2), suggest that lineage accumulation over time in Liolaemus differs from the pattern expected under the null pure-birth model of constant rate diversification (γ = −3. 84), but not significantly so (P = 0. 13). Although the shape of the LTT plot is not consistent with a traditional early-burst curve of diversification, two slight pulses of increased diversification rates followed by declines can be observed (however, both are contained within the 95 % confidence interval). One of these increases occurs approximately between 12–9 Mya, followed by a slight decline ~8-7 Mya.

Output: pass


Input: Claim: Wildlife corridors support safe migration routes for animals. [SEP] Text: ) will be working with the House leadership to get the bill on the House calendar. He also related that Rep. Raúl Grijalva (D-Ariz. ), chair of the on Natural Resources, has indicated that he wants to push this legislation in that committee. Beyer optimistically stated that he expects “scores of Republican votes when it gets to the House floor. ” had signed onto earlier versions of the bill introduced during previous sessions of Congress. “We don’t get a second chance once a species becomes extinct. ” Buchanan, who so far is the sole Republican cosponsoring the new legislation, said in a press release issued by conservation groups supporting the bill that protecting wildlife and promoting biodiversity “are of critical importance” in light of the UN report. “We don’t get a second chance once a species becomes extinct,” he said. At the briefing, Ron Sutherland, chief scientist with the Wildlands Network, a Seattle-based conservation group that supports the legislation, speculated about why concern about biodiversity hasn’t yet caught on as a hotter issue in the same way that climate change has. “One perspective might be that there was a huge push to protect biodiversity for its own sake in the ‘90s, and I think that that push eventually earned the sort of inevitable fatigue on all the champion for it. Climate change became kind of the new cause, and a lot of young folks have joined into that movement,” Sutherland said. “I think we’re remembering the fact that that we depend on the Earth’s biodiversity. Now, pollinators have become such a huge cause lately. think that the pendulum is shifting or at least is broadening again, so that there’s room again to talk about the other environmental challenges that we’re facing. It’s not just climate change. It’s land use change that is causing a huge threat to biodiversity. ” Sutherland noted, “That’s where this bill really could help out here in the United States: by helping repair the landscape to help species to survive and also to respond to climate change. ” Beyer said that his sense as to why the threat to biodiversity hasn’t yet caught on like climate change is because “climate change is so visible” as an immediate threat.

Output: corroborate


Input: Claim: Skipping breakfast can slow down metabolism permanently. [SEP] Text: [29] conducted a study among 2,216 adolescents and investigated the frequency of breakfast intake and weight change over 5 years; the frequency of breakfast intake showed an inverse correlation with weight change. In this study, body weight, body fat mass, and BMI increased in wheat-based breakfast intake group increased significantly, but there were no significant in the rice-based breakfast intake group. Esmaillzadeh et al. [30] reported in a study related to dietary pattern and metabolic syndrome that BMI and obesity rates were significantly higher as Western diet intake increased. Unfortunately, only the WMG group showed a significant increase in energy intake thereafter compared to before, as a consequence of assessing the nutritional intake of the subjects in this study. This is considered to be due to the high preference for wheat-based meals among adolescents as mentioned above, and the possibility of underestimating and overestimating of the subjects' dietary intake survey in this study [31, 32]. Diabetes mellitus does not occur specifically in adults, but it is accounts for a large proportion of many lifestyle diseases, including in adolescents. The levels of blood glucose, insulin, and HOMA-IR are known to be predictive factors for pre-diabetes or type 2 diabetes in adolescents and adults [33, 34, 35]. In this study, the RMG group had a positive effect on improving fasting insulin and HOMA-IR levels in adolescents who habitually skipped breakfast. Moreover, the mean blood glucose level in overweight and obese adolescents increased in the WMG group compared to the skipping breakfast group. Several previous studies have shown an effect of eating breakfast on improving blood glucose levels in overweight and obese adolescents [6, 36]. In particular, previous studies have found a link between white rice consumption and the development of type 2 diabetes [21, 37], and Kimchi extract was found to have anti-obesity and antidiabetic properties [21, 38, 39, 40]. Moreover, Choi et al. [21] found that the Korean diet lowers blood glucose levels by increasing glucose utilization and improving insulin sensitivity. This was because the Korean diet restored insulin secretion in pancreatic beta cells after islet hypertrophy caused by a high-fat diet [21]. Furthermore, Western-style diets, such as cereals, are primarily highly processed foods that are low in dietary fiber and high in starch [41]. Esmaillzadeh et al.

Output: contrast


Input: Claim: Adaptive radiation explains species diversification in new environments. [SEP] Text: A subsequent slight increase occurs ~5-4 Mya followed by a decline in the most recent phase of the clade’s history (Fig. 2). Fig. 2Tempo and mode of macroevolutionary diversification in Liolaemus lizards. The bottom plot shows the lineage through time (LTT) curve of species accumulation over time (solid line) and the 95 % (yellow area) to 50 % (red area) confidence intervals (note the most recent pulse is borderline). The phylogenetic tree in the background shows a maximum-likelihood phylogenetic reconstruction of ancestral body sizes (ln-transformed) along the branches and nodes of the tree, and the interspecific range is shown in the coloured bar with the frequency distribution of SVL of the entire genus. The top plot shows mean subclade disparity through time (DTT) for body size (solid line), compared with the median subclade DTT (calculated based on 10,000 simulations) of phenotypic evolution on the genus phylogeny under a Brownian motion model (dashed line). The grey shaded area represents the 95 % confidence interval of DTT range based on simulations of body size disparityFull size image The maximum-likelihood analyses of lineage diversification based on four candidate models identify the diversity-dependent linear model (DDL + E) as the best description of the estimated pattern of evolutionary diversification of Liolaemus (Table 1). This finding remains supported when the same models are fitted under the assumption that only 30 % of the ‘real’ diversity of the genus is sampled in the phylogeny, and therefore, these observations are unlikely to be an artefact associated with numbers of known and missing species. However, it is important to note that the ΔAICc values between the DDL + E and the Yule models are small – for the scenario based on the actual numbers of species known and sampled, the difference (1. 89, Table 1) is close to the threshold value of 2, which identifies well-supported models. The difference is much smaller (0. 68, Table 1) for the scenario that assumes 30 % of the real diversity, which indicates that both models are qualitatively similar.

Output: pass


Input: Claim: Poaching poses a major threat to endangered species like elephants. [SEP] Text: Figures AbstractThe reintroduced red wolf (Canis rufus) population in northeastern declined to 7 known wolves by October 2020, the majority of which is due to poaching (illegal killing), the major component of verified anthropogenic mortality in this and many other carnivore populations. Poaching is still not well understood and is often underestimated, partly as a result of cryptic poaching, when poachers conceal evidence. Cryptic poaching inhibits our understanding of the causes and consequences of anthropogenic mortality, which is important to conservation as it can inform us about future population patterns within changing political and human landscapes. We estimate risk for marked adult red wolves of 5 causes of death (COD: legal, nonhuman, unknown, vehicle and poached) and disappearance, describe variation in COD in relation to hunting season, and compare time to disappearance or death. We include unknown fates in our risk estimates. We found that anthropogenic COD accounted for 0. 78–0. 85 of 508 marked animals, including poaching and cryptic poaching, which we estimated at 0. 51–0. 64. Risk of poaching and disappearance was significantly higher during hunting season. Mean time from collaring until nonhuman COD averaged 376 days longer than time until poached and 642 days longer than time until disappearance. Our estimates of risk differed from prior published estimates, as expected by accounting for unknown fates explicitly. We quantify the effects on risk for three scenarios for unknown fates, which span conservative to most likely COD. Implementing proven practices that prevent poaching or hasten successful reintroduction may reverse the decline to extinction in the wild of this critically endangered population. Our findings add to a growing literature on endangered species protections and enhancing the science used to measure poaching worldwide. Citation: (2021) Estimating poaching risk for the critically endangered wild red wolf (Canis rufus). 16(5): e0244261. Guillaume Souchay, Office Français de la Biodiversité, : December 5, 2020; Accepted: April 23, 2021; Published: May 5, 2021Copyright: © 2021 Agan et al. This is an open access 3. 2 years in the wild with breeding pair duration of only 2 years [10]. This prevents the development of a multigenerational social structure and pack stability, a key factor in preventing hybridization with coyotes [12–16].

Output: corroborate


Input: Claim: Skipping breakfast can slow down metabolism permanently. [SEP] Text: Association between breakfast skipping and metabolic outcomes by sex, age, and work status stratification Download PDF Download eeOpen access Published: 07 January 2021 Association between breakfast skipping and metabolic outcomes by sex, age, and work status stratification Jun Heo1, Won-Jun Choi2, Seunghon Ham2, Seong-Kyu Kang2 & …: orcid. org/0000-0001-6408-76682 Show authors Nutrition & Metabolism 2018. A total of 21,193 (9022 men and 12,171 women) participants were included in the final analysis. The risk of metabolic outcomes linked to breakfast skipping was estimated using the negative binomial regression analysis by sex, work status, and age stratification. ResultsA total of 11,952 (56. 4%) participants consumed breakfast regularly. The prevalence of abnormal metabolic outcomes was higher among those with irregular breakfast consumption habits. Among young male workers, negative binomial regression analysis showed that irregular breakfast eaters had a higher risk of abnormal metabolic outcomes, after adjusting for covariates (odds ratio, 1. 15; 95% confidence interval, 1. 03–1. 27). ConclusionsThe risk of abnormal metabolic outcomes was significant in young men in the working population. Further studies are required to understand the association of specific working conditions (working hours or shift work) with breakfast intake status and the risk of metabolic diseases. IntroductionBreakfast is the most important meal of the day because it helps the human body to start daily metabolism. The human body is regulated by circadian rhythms. Circadian rhythms are influenced by the light–dark cycle, as well as by food uptake, which is the metabolic signal. Inversely, circadian regulation of metabolic genes affects metabolic outcomes in the human body, which signifies that feeding time and the circadian clock are tightly intertwined [1]. Breakfast is important to jumpstart daily metabolism. A randomized clinical trial showed that breakfast skipping adversely affected circadian gene expression and correlated with increased postprandial glycemic response [2]. The irregular consumption of breakfast can induce various health problems. Many studies have reported the association between breakfast skipping and health problems. A large, prospective study conducted in the US on middle-aged and older male health professionals in the US confirmed that eating breakfast was associated with a significantly lower risk of coronary heart disease [3].

Output: contrast


Input: Claim: Adaptive radiation explains species diversification in new environments. [SEP] Text: An alternative model-fitting analysis based on the same four models, but using the package ‘laser’ [44], revealed identical results: the DDL model provides the best approximation to the observed pattern of species accumulation over time (results not shown). Table 1 Rates of species accumulation during Liolaemus diversification history based on multiple evolutionary models. Fitted models are pure-birth (Yule), birth-death (crBD), density-dependent logistic (DDL + E) and density-dependent exponential diversification (DDE + E). Best-fit of models based on (delta) bias-corrected Criteria (AICc)Full size table Tempo and mode of body size evolutionThe analysis of phenotypic DTT reveals that rates of subclade-level diversification in Liolaemus body size are consistently higher (positive) than expected under a Brownian motion model of evolution (MDI = 0. 23; Fig. 2). Therefore, Liolaemus subclades have extensively diversified in body size and converged to occupy overlapping regions of the lineage’s morphospace (Fig. 3). The DTT plot shows an overall tendency for relative disparity in body size to decrease over time, although there are multiple pulses of increases in diversification. There are two slight pulses during the Miocene (both within the 95 % CI calculated from simulations of body size disparity), one between approximately 15. 5-14 Mya, and one between approximately 10. 5-7. 5 Mya. More notably, however, a strong increase is observed during the Pliocene, in which the trend of body size relative disparity exceeds the 95 % DTT range of the simulated data (Fig. 2). Such high positive relative disparity remains through to the Pleistocene, when the model recovers an unusually high relative disparity peak between approximately 0. 6-0. 3 Mya (Fig. 2). Fig. 3Projection of the Liolaemus phylogeny into a morphospace defined by body size (ln-transformed, on y) and time since the clade’s origin (on x, in My elapsed since the root). Ancestral body size states are estimated using likelihood. The degree of uncertainty is indicated by increasing transparency of the plotted blue lines around the point estimates with the entire range showing the 95 % confidence interval.

Output: pass


Input: Claim: Poaching poses a major threat to endangered species like elephants. [SEP] Text: Theoretically, wild populations could compensate for anthropogenic mortality through decreases in natural mortality or increases in productivity [17, 18]. However, the strength of compensation in wolf populations is an area of active scientific controversy [19–22]. Also, anthropogenic mortality can be additive or super-additive if a breeder or lactating female is killed, resulting in the death of offspring or through mate turnover in the loss of a breeding male [23]. If there is a large portion of non-breeding adults in the remaining population there is potential for recovery since new breeding pairs could take up residence, however long term compensation for anthropogenic mortality depends on survival of those adults [13, 16, 17, 24]. and USFWS 5-year review both call for removal of threats that have the potential to bring about the extinction of red wolves [25, 26]. Currently, anthropogenic mortality is the leading cause of death for wild red wolves in the endangered NENC population [10]. In the first 25 years of reintroduction, 72% of known mortalities were caused by humans. These included suspected illegal killing, vehicle strikes, and private trapping [2]. Gunshot mortalities alone increased by 275% in the years 2004–2012 compared to 1998–2003 [10, 26] and increased 7. 2 times during deer hunting season when compared to the rest of the year. A higher percentage of collared wolves that go missing are unrecovered during this same time as opposed to outside the hunting season [13]. Human-caused mortalities also accounted for 40. 6% of all breeding pair disbandment, mostly from gunshots [13], and breeder replacement has decreased since the mid-2000’s [13]. Therefore, precise measurement of mortality using the most current and comprehensive data is critical to understand how sources of mortality influence red wolf population dynamics and its legal recovery under the ESA [10, 27]. The major cause of death in red wolves is poaching [2, 10, 13]. Poaching is a major component of mortality in many carnivore populations [27, 28], but it is still not well understood [29], and disrupts management efforts [30]. As a percent of all mortality, poaching accounted for 24–75% for different carnivore species and areas [31, 32].

Output: corroborate


Input: Claim: Skipping breakfast can slow down metabolism permanently. [SEP] Text: Some studies found that individuals who skipped breakfast had higher rates of mortality [4], higher serum cholesterol levels [5], and frequent health-compromising behaviors [6], compared with regular breakfast eaters. In addition, other studies have reported that breakfast intake has many beneficial effects such as improved satiety, reduced incidence of food cravings [7] and improved cognitive function and academic performance [8]. Breakfast skipping has a significant impact on body weight and metabolic outcomes. The relationship between breakfast skipping and high body mass index (BMI) values has been widely reported in adolescent populations in Europe [9], [10], and Fiji (girls) [11]. Similar associations were reported in the adult [12], middle-aged adult [13], and elderly [14] populations. Many studies have reported the association between metabolic outcomes and breakfast skipping; however, more evidence is required. The strength of the association between breakfast habituation and metabolic outcomes varies according to age group, sex, and ethnicity. For instance, a cross-sectional study on 5316 American young adults showed that regular breakfast eaters were less likely to have elevated low-density lipoprotein cholesterol (LDL-C) levels, high blood pressure, and reduced serum high-density lipoprotein cholesterol (HDL-C) levels [15]. In contrast, a study on 415 Korean adults confirmed that regular breakfast intake was associated with elevated triglyceride (TG) levels [16]. Thus, studies on the association between breakfast skipping and metabolic syndrome remain conflicting, warranting further studies on this subject. This study was undertaken to (1) identify the relationship between breakfast skipping and metabolic outcomes in the Korean adult population and (2) demonstrate, in detail, the effect of breakfast skipping on metabolic outcomes according to age group, sex, and work status. MethodsData and study participantsWe used data from the Health and Surveys () from 2013 to 2018. which has been conducted every year since 1998 by the for and Prevention (KCDC), is a series of nationally representative, population-based surveys on the health and nutritional status of Korean citizens [17]. database is publicly available on their website ( available in Korean). More than 7000 participants were selected each year by the stratified random sampling method. Data were collected through interviews, blood tests, urine tests, and physical examinations in the examination vehicle. was approved by the and all participants provided written informed consent. The total number of participants in from 2013 to 2018 was 47,217.

Output: contrast


Input: Claim: Adaptive radiation explains species diversification in new environments. [SEP] Text: AbbreviationsAIC: Criterion BM: Brownian motion model crBD: constant rate birth-death model DDL + E: density-dependent logistic model DDE + E: density-dependent exponential model DTT: disparity through time EB: Early burst model HMM: hidden Markov model LTT: lineage through-time plot MCCR: : morphological disparity index m: metres My: millions of years Mya: millions of years ago OU: Ornstein-Uhlenbeck model QuaSSE: Speciation and Extinction SVL: snout-vent length 2009. 2000. 39. 96. 2001. p. 583–607. 67. 1953. 96. PubMed 502. 1944. 2003. 4. 104. 373. 45. 203. 7. 9. 7. 46. 7. 203. 71. 11. 9741. 35. 20. 78. 24. 68. 487. 207. 1993. 71. 8942. 102. 93. 57. 82. 57. 2006. 72. 1109. 50. 9. 23. 2002. 808. 1983. Book 2013. Book 12. 31. 20. 34. 26. 42. 2003. p. 356–80. 83. 92. 95. 84. 31. 25. 5. 11. 9. 23. 33. 2011. Book 2003. 2014. p. 567–72. 1997. 1986. 96. 1974. Book 308. 62. 105. 9. 2699. 29. 54. 409. 46. 85. 86. 28. 32. 32. 1997. p. 1–54. 64. 83. 9. 5. 1. Surface analysis showing the three inferred adaptive peaks (‘regimes’) of body size (large circles in blue, green and red), and the distribution of species body sizes clustering around these peaks (small circles). Figure S2. Surface analysis depicting phylogenetic convergences of body size in Liolaemus. The three colours (blue, green and red) represent the body size peaks shown in the S1 above. (DOCX 254 kb)Rights and permissions This is an 4. 0), which permits unrestricted use, distribution, and reproduction in any medium, provided the original work is properly credited. waiver ( applies to the data made available in this 10.

Output: pass


Input: Claim: Poaching poses a major threat to endangered species like elephants. [SEP] Text: The last corrected estimate (conducted with our same method) using data through 2007 [28] was slightly lower than ours at 0. 77, suggesting either that uncertainty in both estimates make the two entirely overlapping despite our inclusion of 11 additional years of data or possibly that there has been a slight increase in anthropogenic mortality since that time. Ultimately, anthropogenic mortality reduces the probability of a self-sustaining population, the goal of the USFWS red wolf recovery plan, and could ultimately cause the extinction of the species in the wild in the absence of intervention [48]. Human CODs also violate the Act prohibitions on take. Many studies show wolves face high levels of anthropogenic mortality [19, 28, 34, 49], however the persistence of some carnivore populations in areas of high human density show human-carnivore coexistence with minimal killing is possible under certain conditions [50, 51]. For example, Carter et al. found that tigers and humans co-existed even at small spatial scales, likely because tigers adjusted their activity to avoid encounters with people [51]. The same was shown for gray wolves in Minnesota [52]. America, Linnel et al. , found that carnivore populations increased after favorable policy was introduced (e. g. , ESA protections), despite increases in human population density [53]. et al. , (2011) assessed how people changed their behavior, adopting non-lethal methods for coexistence through financial incentives [54]. We estimated total poaching at 0. 51–0. 635 of 508 collard, adult red wolves, with cryptic poaching alone accounting for 0. 028–0. 293 (5–46% of total poaching). Our most conservative estimate for the risk of total poaching at 0. 51 is also higher than any previously published risk estimate for red wolves, which ranged from 0. 26 [47] to 0. 44 [28]. Moreover, our less conservative scenarios estimate cryptic poaching at 0. 54 and 0. 63, similar to the Wisconsin estimate of 0. 50 [28] and the Scandinavian estimate of 0. 66 [33]. All three of our red wolf cryptic poaching scenarios lead to very similar total poaching risk, suggesting that regardless of the scenario, wolves in NENC are at higher risk from poaching than any other COD. This supports previous work that suggested poaching might be the cause of decline of this introduced population compared to success in the reintroduced gray wolf population in Yellowstone [10, 55].

Output: corroborate


Input: Claim: Skipping breakfast can slow down metabolism permanently. [SEP] Text: Table 3 Weighted prevalence of abnormal metabolic outcome by breakfast consumptionFull size tableThe association between metabolic abnormalities and irregular breakfast consumption after adjusting for age, education, household income, smoking status, alcohol drinking status, and physical activity is presented in Table 4. Negative binomial regression analysis revealed that an irregular breakfast group had a higher risk of increased number of metabolic abnormalities in the younger working men population than regular breakfast group (odds ratio, 1. 15; 95% confidence interval, 1. 03–1. 27). There was no significant association between the number of metabolic abnormalities and irregular breakfast consumption in middle-aged female workers after adjustment. Table 4 Association between the number of metabolic abnormalities and irregular breakfast consumption, using negative binomial regressionFull size tableDiscussionWe conducted this study to understand the association between regular breakfast intake and metabolic outcomes by sex, work status, and age group stratification. The breakfast consumption pattern was consistent with previous studies. Of the total participants, 56. 4% consumed breakfast regularly. Similar patterns was observed in a previous Korean study using 2017 data, 57. 9% [21]. The results of this study showed that irregular breakfast intake (< 5 times per week) was closely linked to higher risk of increasing number of abnormal metabolic outcomes, especially in young men in the working population than regular breakfast intake. These results are consistent with a previous study that used the data and showed that breakfast consumption patterns were associated with a risk of metabolic outcomes [22]. Furthermore, our results corresponds with that of a review 37. 92%. This trend is in progress, accelerating the risk of metabolic outcomes among young adults. The risk is accentuated in the working population of young men, and further studies are required to clarify the association between specific working conditions (working hours or shift work), breakfast habituation, and the risk of metabolic outcomes. ConclusionOur study showed that breakfast skipping is associated with abnormal metabolic outcomes in the Korean male population, especially in young workers, and provided novel ideas to explain the mechanism through which breakfast skipping affects metabolic outcomes. Availability of data and materials data are publicly available. ( : Health and : Body mass index LDL-C: Low-density lipoprotein cholesterol HDL-C: High-density lipoprotein cholesterol TG: Triglyceride BMR: Basal metabolic rate 92. 1573. 43. 12. 72. 53. 88. 43. 9. 51. 82. PubMed Pub302. 92. 4. 2006. Nutr.

Output: contrast


Input: Claim: Adaptive radiation explains species diversification in new environments. [SEP] Text: Skip to main content Explore journals Get published About BMC My account Search all BMC 0. 95. Links are drawn to highlight the topological differences. Colours correspond to species clades (see Table 1) as follows: black: outgroups, turquoise: percula, grey: Amphiprion latezonatus and A. chrysopterus (monospecific lineages), orange: clarkii, blue: akallopisos, rose: Australian, green: ephippium, yellow: polymnus, brown: Indian. A coloured legend, which repeats this information for the major clades, is located at the right of the figure. Full size imageFigure 2Homoplasy excess test. Panel (a) shows the distribution of the bootstrap support for each node which showed a homoplasy excess during the removal analysis. Each boxplot shows the null distribution of bootstrap values for the node and the red dot shows the bootstrap value of the node when the taxon of interest (name on the right) has been removed. Nodes names as given on the left correspond to that of panel (b) which shows the consensus tree of the nuclear phylogeny. There, nodes and taxa which showed up as outliers in the analysis have been coloured in orange. Species used as outgroup are shown in grey. The size of node labels has been altered to facilitate reading. Full size imageHybrid signalWe recover an excess of homoplasy at nine nodes of the clownfish phylogenetic tree (Figure 2). Removing either A. ocellaris from Bali or A. percula from Guinea increases the BS of Node 41 (Figure 2), which suggests genetic exchange between members of the percula clade. We find that the “black” specimen of A. clarkii collected in Bali likely originated from hybridisation between other members of the clarkii group (node 37, Figure 2). We measure further increase of BS at three different nodes (6, 16 and 17, Figure 2) when individuals of A. chrysopterus from either Moorea or the are removed. Moreover, the BS of node 17 increases when A. akindynos is removed, which suggests several hybridisation events between A. chrysopterus and species of the Australian and polymnus groups occurring around the timeframe of node 16 and 17.

Output: pass


Input: Claim: Poaching poses a major threat to endangered species like elephants. [SEP] Text: acknowledged human caused mortality in their 2007 5-year review [26], was repeatedly warned about the problem of poaching while there was still time, with a population of 45–60 in 2016 [10, 43] and beginning in 2017 were notified of the problem of cryptic poaching being underestimated [28]. Those results were shared with the USFWS in public comments in 2018, an official peer review in 2019 and earlier warnings were repeated when comments on red wolves were solicited. It appears the ESA prohibition on take was not effectively enforced. Our analysis relied on USFWS data for COD and disappearances because we could not verify these independently, which is a limitation of this study. Also, the USFWS has not used GPS collars on red wolves since 2013 and VHF location data includes death locations but not all wolf movements. Considering the recent decline in the population, we recommend using GPS collars whenever possible for more precise data collection with information that includes dates of collaring and last contact because of death or disappearance for all collared animals. Previous survival analyses on wildlife populations have not accounted for certain causes of death and disappearance, nor have they been able to model how individual wolves experience policy over time. While survival analysis can model changes in hazard rates, it does not verify why those changes take place such as possible social reasons for increased or decreased poaching. We recommend a time-to-event survival analysis that includes policy period as an intervention since increased poaching appears to be correlated with policy volatility [58]. There was a dramatic decline in the red wolf population in 2014–2015 and a more in-depth survival analysis may give more insight into this occurrence. Because the large decline in population abundance takes the red wolf to the brink of extinction, the USFWS will need to implement policies that prohibit and prevent killing of red wolves, whether legal or illegal. Killing of red wolves for any reason, other than defense of human life or property, may actually lead to increases in poaching [36, 58]. Rather, programs that reward the presence of wolves can increase their value to local residents. One example of favorable policy related to carnivores was the wolverine program in Sweden, which offered rewards to Sami reindeer herding communities for having reproducing female wolverines on their communal lands [64, 65]. America, success of carnivore populations has been linked to legal protections and enforcement [58, 66].

Output: corroborate


Input: Claim: Skipping breakfast can slow down metabolism permanently. [SEP] Text: [8910] Cross-sectional and longitudinal studies have shown that regularly skipping breakfast is associated with greater body mass index (BMI) in all age-groups;[11121314151617] However, the mechanisms that might explain the relation between breakfast consumption and body weight are not yet well understood. [18] However, it remains unclear whether breakfast skipping plays a causal role in overweight or is associated with other factors impacting BMI such as parental involvement in food decisions. [19] Physical activity is a component of energy balance that is particularly important in the pathogenesis of obesity and in its treatment. The components of energy expenditure are resting (basal)-energy expenditure (REE), diet-induced thermo genesis, and physical activity. [20] Preventive or therapeutic strategies to control obesity should target these abnormalities. We could identify no published studies that examine the prevalence of breakfast skipping and its correlation with obesity in central part of India. Therefore, the aims of this study were (1) to examine the prevalence of breakfast skipping and obesity in subjects and (2) too evaluate the hypothesis that breakfast skipping would be cross-sectionally associated with elevated odds for obesity in this sample. retrospective analysis of the patients visited to a metabolic clinic of the city during a 3 month's period was done. A total of 250 patients were visited to the clinic and out of them 186 were eligible to be included. Exclusion criteria included patients on steroids or immunosuppressive drugs on past, patients with any infection, patients who were pregnant, patients with diabetes mellitus and hypothyroidism. A predesigned questionnaire was used for data collection. The questionnaire included information regarding dietary factors and exercise schedule/physical activity. A 24-hour dietary recall method was used to assess the amount of food consumed. Standing height and weight were measured with the subjects in light clothes without shoes and BMI (kg/m2) was calculated. It was derived by dividing weight in kilogram by square of height in meters. [21] The classification of obesity was done on the basis of recommendations by Organization (WHO). [22] Breakfast skipping Definitions of breakfast skipping vary widely across studies and feature differential methodological costs and benefits. These inconsistencies present a challenge when evaluating and comparing studies as it has been shown that whether or not an association exists between breakfast skipping and BMI can potentially depend on how breakfast skipping is defined.

Output: contrast


Input: Claim: Adaptive radiation explains species diversification in new environments. [SEP] Text: We also find evidence of genetic exchanges between members of the Indian group at nodes 20, 22 and 23 (Figure 2). Finally, we identify gene exchange between the two A. sandaracinos individuals at node 13 and A. pacificus, but the effect on bootstrap values is relatively small. Identification of recent hybrid parental speciesWe infer the phylogenetic trees of mitochondrial (Figure 3) and nuclear (Figure 4) markers for all sampled clownfish species augmented with the additional sequences of the supposed hybrid individuals. The cloning procedure allowed us to separate the two parental BMP4 sequences of each hybrid individual analysed (clones 1 and 2 in Figure 4). As expected, we find that the BMP4 sequences from those hybrid individuals that were cloned do not cluster by individual species but are separated among parental clades (Figure 4). We deduced the maternal origin of the putative hybrids with the mitochondrial phylogenetic tree. We find that both hybrids 2 and 3 inherited their mitochondrial genes from A. akallopisos. The plastid sequence of hybrid 1 is similar to A. perideraion and A. leucokranos, as already proposed [20], derives from A. chrysopterus. Moreover, in the mitochondrial tree, A. leucokranos clusters with A. chrysopterus sampled from the Solomon Islands, the origin of A. leucokranos (Figure 5). The maternal origin of the four hybrid individuals is highly supported in the phylogenetic tree with posterior probabilities of 1 on the respective ancestral nodes (Figure 3). The nuclear tree confirms those results and each individual has one of the cloned sequence that clusters with the same species as in the mitochondrial tree (Figure 4). The position of the other clone provides information on the paternal origin of the hybrids. A. leucokranos clusters with high posterior probability with A. sandaracinos and hybrid 1 and 3 both cluster with A. perideraion. The other hybrid individual (hybrid 3) clusters with any of A. pacificus, A. sandaracinos and A. akallopisos, but low posterior probabilities forbid any definitive conclusion. Nevertheless, we do not find clear evidence of recombination events amongst the cloned sequences, suggesting that we sequenced individuals deriving from recent hybridisation events. Figure 3Mitochondrial phylogeny of hybrid individuals.

Output: pass


Input: Claim: Poaching poses a major threat to endangered species like elephants. [SEP] Text: Figures AbstractSelective harvest, such as poaching, impacts group-living animals directly through mortality of individuals with desirable traits, and indirectly by altering the structure of their social networks. Understanding the relationship between disturbance-induced, structural network changes and group performance in wild animals remains an outstanding problem. To address this problem, we evaluated the immediate effect of disturbance on group sociality in African savanna elephants—an example, group-living species threatened by poaching. Drawing on static association data from ten free-ranging groups, we constructed one empirically based, population-wide network and 100 virtual networks; performed a series of experiments ‘poaching’ the oldest, socially central or random individuals; and quantified the immediate change in the theoretical indices of network connectivity and efficiency of social diffusion. Although the social networks never broke down, targeted elimination of the socially central conspecifics, regardless of age, decreased network connectivity and efficiency. These findings hint at the need to further study resilience by modeling network reorganization and interaction-mediated socioecological learning, empirical data permitting. The main contribution of our work is in quantifying connectivity together with global efficiency in multiple social networks that feature the sociodemographic diversity likely found in wild elephant populations. The basic design of our simulation makes it adaptable for hypothesis testing about the consequences of anthropogenic disturbance or lethal management on social interactions in a variety of group-living species with limited, real-world data. Author summary We consider the immediate response of animal groups to human disturbance by using the African savanna elephant as an example of a group-living species threatened by poaching. Previous research in one elephant population showed that poaching-induced mortality reduced social interaction among distantly related elephants, but not among close kin. Whether this type of resilience indicates that affected populations operate similarly before and after poaching is an outstanding problem. Understanding this is important because poaching often targets the largest or most socially and ecologically experienced group members. Drawing on empirical association data, we simulated poaching in one empirically based and 100 virtual elephant populations and eliminated the most senior or sociable members. Targeted poaching of sociable conspecifics was more impactful. Although it did not lead to population breakdown, it hampered theoretical features of intraspecific associations that in other systems have been linked with social cohesion and the efficiency of transferring socially valuable information. Our findings suggest that further inquiry into the relationship between resilience to poaching and group performance is warranted.

Output: corroborate


Input: Claim: All carbohydrates cause weight gain. [SEP] Text: 568] for all-cause mortality and 0. 431 [0. 215−0. 867] for cancer-related mortality). In addition, these findings were consistent in the BMI < 25 kg/m2 population after stratifying according to BMI. Weight gain reduced all-cause mortality and was marginally associated with cancer-related mortality in the entire population (HRs [95% CIs]: 0. 149 [0. 044−0. 505] for all-cause mortality and 0. 289 [0. 080−1. 045] for cancer-related mortality). Weight gain decreased the risk for all-cause mortality in the BMI < 25 kg/m2 population (0. 119 [0. 027−0. 533]). These findings emphasize the importance of maintaining or gaining body weight after initial diagnosis of cancer. Obesity is closely related to poor prognosis in multiple cancer types. Obesity induces various metabolic dysfunctions and inflammatory processes that increase insulin, insulin-like growth factor, leptin, and interleukin-6, while decreasing adiponectin. These disarrangements activate intracellular signaling through Janus kinase pathway signal transducers and activators of transcription and mitogen-activated protein kinase and phosphatidylinositol 3-kinase pathways, which are frequently dysregulated in carcinogenesis. [26] In addition, adipose tissue produces aromatase that converts androgen to estrogen, which potentiates estrogen signaling and leads to sex hormone-dependent cancers such as breast and ovarian cancer. [27,28] Thus, intentional weight reduction decreased obesity-related cancer incidence. [29,30] Obesity or weight gain cause poor health outcomes in long-term cancer survivors through the development of second primary cancer, recurrence, and cardiovascular diseases. [31–33] Conversely, underweight or weight loss increases the risk of mortality in the advanced cancer population. Weight loss is one of the most common manifestations of cancer. In particular, cancer cachexia, accompanied by a catabolic state and malnutrition, is a devastating and frequently irreversible condition that affects 50% to 80% of advanced cancer patients. [34] Weight loss, including that associated with cancer cachexia, significantly increases cancer mortality. Therefore, weight loss may affect health outcomes according to cancer stage and patient adiposity in different ways.

Output: contrast


Input: Claim: Adaptive radiation explains species diversification in new environments. [SEP] Text: Further studies are required to measure the extant of ongoing hybrid speciation, for example in A. leucokranos. There, field observations coupled with experiments will allow to identify the conditions in which hybrids have a better fitness than their parents, illustrating the thight relationship linking species ecology and evolutionary processes. MethodsPhylogenetic reconstructionWe used previously extracted DNA from 41 individuals (see [19] for details; Additional file 3: Table S1) representing 27 species of clownfish to analyse the evolutionary history of mitochondrial genes. We amplified parts of the ATP86, CytB and 16S markers via polymerase chain reaction (PCR) with a 25 μl reaction mixture containing ~50 ng of DNA template, 2. 5 μL GoTaq buffer, 3 μL dNTPs (2. 5 μM), 1 MgCl2 (25 μM), 1 μL of both forward and reverse primer and 0. 3 μL of Taq polymerase (). Primer sequences and PCR cycles were set as in [24] for ATP86 and CytB, and [25] for the 16S. We purified the amplification products with the (Qiagen, GmbH, Germany). We sequenced the purified products forward and reverse strands with the 3. 1 Terminator cycle sequencing kit (), according to the manufacturer’s instructions, and separated the products on an ABI Prism 3100 genetic analyser (). We assembled a nuclear dataset from sequences generated in a previous study [19]; Additional file 3: Table S1). The nuclear dataset is 6,679 base pairs long and comports seven genes (BMP4, Glyt, Hox6, RAG1, S7, Svep, Zic1). We used MAFFT 6. 864b [36] with default settings to align each mitochondrial and nuclear gene individually. We verified each alignment visually and concatenated the mitochondrial and nuclear datasets in two separate super-matrices with SequenceMatrix [37]. We estimated the mitochondrial and nuclear phylogenetic relationships of clownfish species with MrBayes 3. 2. 1 [38]. The parameters of the nucleotide substitution process for each gene in the mitochondrial and nuclear data sets were sampled across the GTR model space during the Bayesian MCMC [39]. This approach has the advantage of removing the need of a priori testing for a specific model of substitution (e. g. [40]).

Output: pass


Input: Claim: Poaching poses a major threat to endangered species like elephants. [SEP] Text: In addition, our simulation approach offers a generalizable basis for hypothesis testing in other social species, wild or captive, subject to exploitation by humans. Citation: Wiśniewska M, Puga- (2022) Simulated poaching affects global connectivity and efficiency in social networks of African savanna elephants—An exemplar of how human disturbance impacts group-living species. PLoS 18(1): e1009792. Yamir Moreno, University of Zaragoza: Universidad de : April 5, 2021; Accepted: December 23, 2021; Published: January 18, 2022Copyright: © 2022 Wiśniewska et al. This is an open access 10. 5061/dryad. g4f4qrfrz. Funding: M. W. received funding for this project through the 2018-2019. The website for this award is The funders had no role in study design, data collection and analysis, decision to publish, or preparation of the manuscript. Competing interests: The authors have declared that no competing interests exist. IntroductionIn group-living animals, from insects to mammals [1,2], interactions among conspecifics with diverse social roles [3–5] impact individual survival [6–9], reproductive success [10–12] and adaptive behaviors [13–16]. In species with complex organization characterized by flexible aggregates of stable social units [17–19], the loss of influential group members through natural or anthropogenic causes can be detrimental to surviving conspecifics [20–22] and to entire populations [23,24]. Unlike natural phenomena, such as fire [25,26], harvest is intrinsically nonrandom [27–29]. For instance, poachers profiting from pet trade prefer to capture immature individuals as the most economically desirable commodity [30], eliminating gregarious ‘brokers’ who engage in frequent or diverse social interactions [31,32]. As another example, trophy hunters target individuals with prominent features, such as elephants with big tusks [33,34], killing the oldest and socioecologically experienced conspecifics [35–39]. Animal social network analysis, which quantifies intraspecific relationships as ‘networks of nonrandomly linked nodes’, is useful in demonstrating how elimination of individuals with key social roles impacts closely knit animal groups [40,41].

Output: corroborate


Input: Claim: All carbohydrates cause weight gain. [SEP] Text: 84) from young to late adulthood, and 1. 20 (1. 09 to 1. 32) from middle to late adulthood. Maximum overweight had a very modest or null association with mortality across adulthood. No significant associations were found between various weight change patterns and cancer mortality. obesity across adulthood, weight gain from young to middle adulthood, and weight loss from middle to late adulthood were associated with increased risks of mortality. The findings imply that maintaining normal weight across adulthood, especially preventing weight gain in early adulthood, is important for preventing premature deaths in later life. IntroductionObesity is a major global public health problem. The global prevalence of obesity in adults increased from 3% in 1975 to 11% in 2016 among men and from 6% to 15% among women. In the US, the prevalence of obesity in adults was 36% for men and 38% for women in 2016 compared with 11% for men and 14% for women in 1975. 1 shaped or J shaped relation between body mass index (BMI) and mortality has been well established. 23 However, many previous cohort studies included only a single measurement of BMI, which ignored the dynamic feature of body weight over time. Thus more studies are needed to assess the long term consequences of weight change during certain life periods. A recent meta-analysis of 26 prospective studies in participants aged 40 to 65 years at baseline reported that both weight loss and weight gain from middle adulthood to old age were related to elevated mortality risk. 4 Another meta-analysis of 17 prospective studies in adults aged 60 years or older reached similar conclusions. 5 However, adults gain weight more rapidly from young to middle adulthood, and excess adiposity mostly accrues in this period compared with the period from middle to late adulthood when weight begins to stabilise or even decrease. 6 In addition, preventing weight gain from young to middle adulthood might be more important than promoting weight loss, because achieving long term weight loss and maintaining it are difficult once a person becomes obese. 7 Evaluating the long term effect of weight change, particularly weight gain from young to middle adulthood, on future health is thus important. Although some previous cohort studies reported that weight gain from young adulthood to either midlife or late adulthood was associated with increased mortality risk,891011 the results were not entirely consistent, with some studies reporting no significant association. 1213 Some studies found that weight loss was associated with increased mortality risk,121415 whereas others did not.

Output: contrast


Input: Claim: Adaptive radiation explains species diversification in new environments. [SEP] Text: We performed, for each dataset, two independent runs of MrBayes with four parallel MCMC chains, each 10 million generations long, and sampled model parameters every 1000 generations. We checked for optimal parameter convergence using the ‘sump’ command and by visualising the trace files and the ESS values of the MCMC chains using Tracer v 1. 5 [41]. After the removal of 25% of the trees as burn-in, we merged the two independent runs to generate a majority-rule consensus tree for both mitochondrial and nuclear dataset that included all compatible groups. Hybrid signalWe assessed cytonuclear discordance by comparing visually the topology of both consensus phylogenetic trees. This step was facilitated by the use of the ”cophyloplot” function available in the R package Ape [42]. We further applied the framework of the HET on the nuclear dataset only [6]. Hybrid taxa are intermediate to the parental species when considering their nuclear genome, but they share identical alleles at each individual locus with only one parent [43]. When included in a phylogenetic tree based on a matrix of concatenated nuclear markers, a hybrid taxon will introduce an excess of homoplasy due to the conflicting phylogenetic signal present in the corresponding gene tree topologies in the clades containing the two parental species. Thus, the removal of a putative hybrid should reduce conflicts in the phylogenetic tree and result in increased support values for the nodes that includes the parental species [6]. While AFLP have initially been proposed as input data for the HET, it is conceptually similar to use the alignments of several nuclear genes. The only drawback of using sequence data is a reduction in power due to the lower amount of data and less independence between sites. Yet, by increasing the number of genes studied, this should not be a major issue. We implemented this test in R 3. 0. 1 [44] and used RAxML 7. 3. 5 [45] to perform the phylogenetic inference and bootstrap support (BS) using the ‘’ model of nucleotide substitution and specified a different partition for each gene in the dataset. For a species i, we first removed it from the complete concatenated alignment of nuclear data. We used this reduced data set lacking species i to build a phylogenetic tree and estimate node support with 100 bootstrap replicates.

Output: pass


Input: Claim: Poaching poses a major threat to endangered species like elephants. [SEP] Text: For example, node deletion experiments manipulating empirical association data have revealed that while some disturbed groups fracture into multiple components [42,43] others stay connected [44]. In biological populations, elimination of impactful group members through harvest, is much less destabilizing to persistence of larger social groups compared to small ones [20]. Our current understanding of whether the relationships in remaining groups, or group fragments, operate as prior to disturbance is based on a small number of studies. In an instance of captive zebra finches, group foraging ability decreased following repeated social disturbance [45]. In simulated primate groups, network disturbance led to a decrease in its global connectivity and the efficiency of social diffusion indices, but did not lead to group fragmentation [46]. These indices depend on network structure; are based on an assumption that transmissible currency, such as information, diffuses through network links [47]; and have been related to cohesion, the transfer of social currency and robustness to loss of influential conspecifics [48–50]. In light of the anthropogenic impact on animal communities [51–54], evaluating the relationship between post-disturbance social structure and resilience vis-à-vis group performance in natural animal systems is becoming increasingly important [20,55]. To explore this relationship, we considered the African savanna elephant (Loxodonta africana)—a group-living species threatened by poaching [56–58]. Elephant social organization consists of several tiers, ranging from transitional clans and bonded groups of distant and intermediate kin, to matrilineal core units of adults and their immature offspring [59]; or flexible groups of postdispersal males of varying ages and kinship [36]. While immature elephants frequently engage in affiliative interactions [60,61], mature individuals are not only well socially connected but also more experienced about resource distribution and phenology [62,63], and about social dynamics [64–66]. The interactions among individuals with diverse social roles across social tiers manifests as fission-fusion dynamics in response to changing sociophysical landscape [19,67]. Poaching—which during the militarized wave of the past decade eliminated large subsets of populations including mature and immature elephants [68]—impacts demography [69], resource acquisition [70,71] population genetics [72] and various social behaviors [73,74] in targeted populations.

Output: corroborate


Input: Claim: All carbohydrates cause weight gain. [SEP] Text: 5 kg to 20 kg) or weight gain from non-obese to obese BMI was not significantly associated with mortality risk. Therefore, the results were overall consistent with the previous studies. 4Our study has the unique feature of examining the weight change patterns across adulthood and mortality risk in later life. We found that the relations of stable obesity and weight gain from non-obese to obese BMI with mortality were generally stronger from young to middle adulthood than from middle to late adulthood. Weight gain in adults mostly occurs from young to middle adulthood, but studies in this critical period are still lacking. 35 A study in 1657 Finnish men with mean baseline age of 47 years reported that mortality risk was significantly increased in the highest quarter of weight gain (≥15. 0 kg) from age 25 years to baseline compared with the lowest quarter. 8 In the Cohort study with 56 868 US participants aged 40-65 at baseline, Hirko et al reported that being obese at 21 years old only or in both young and middle adulthood was significantly associated with higher mortality risk, but weight gain from non-obesity to obesity was not. 15 The reasons for the inconsistent results might be that this study used stable non-obesity as the reference group and most of the participants were black Americans, in whom the authors previously reported that obesity in mid to late adulthood was not associated with higher mortality risk. 36 Using data from the of Health-AARP cohort with 109 947 never smokers aged 50-71 years at entry, Adams et al found that weight gain was positively related to mortality, with stronger associations for weight gain from age 18 to 35 years and from 35 to 50 years than from age 50 to 69 years. 10 Institutes of Health-AARP study also found that weight loss in late adulthood, but not in early adulthood, was significantly associated with increased mortality risk. Our results are consistent with these studies and indicate that avoiding obesity at young age and preventing weight gain from young to middle adulthood could be an important strategy to reduce future mortality risk. Several studies have also investigated the relation of weight change from young to late adulthood and mortality risk, but the results were not entirely consistent. Some studies found that weight gain over this period was associated with increased risk of all cause mortality,91011 whereas other studies reported that weight loss, but not weight gain, was related to increased mortality risk,1237 which was similar to our results.

Output: contrast


Input: Claim: Adaptive radiation explains species diversification in new environments. [SEP] Text: Second, we generated a null distribution of BS for each node of the consensus phylogenetic tree by removing at random a species j that is different from the focal species i, and inferred, again, the phylogenetic tree and BS. This was replicated 100 times. Third, we compared the BS for each node obtained by the reduced dataset lacking the focal species i to those of the null distribution. We identified outlier values of BS when the BS of a node fell above the highest value still within 1. 5 interquartile range of the upper quartile of the null distribution [16],[46]. This represent a case where the focal species i is of hybrid origin which has the effect of reducing drastically the BS of the node ancestral to the parental species. Finally, this process was carried on for each taxon included in the phylogeny. At first, we performed this analysis using single species removals, but then extended the framework to monophyletic pairs, triplets and so on, of species (n up to 8) to account for hybrid species which may have already further diversified into several descendants. Each time, we removed n random species from the dataset and generated a new null distribution of BS where n random species were removed from the alignment. Molecular cloning of recent hybridsWe obtained, through an aquarium fish importer, samples from three unidentified clownfish specimens that displayed hybrid characteristics such as aberrant colouration or shape. Hybrid 1 and 3 were collected in Bali, Indonesia, while hybrid 2 originated from Guinea. We followed the protocol described above to sequence, for each new sample, all three mitochondrial markers and the nuclear gene BMP4. We further isolated from those three individuals and a sample of A. leucokranos (a species that may have been described form hybrid individuals [20]), putative parental sequences of BMP4 using molecular cloning. We cloned the purified PCR products of the BMP4 gene into the pTZ57R/T vector using the InsT/(Fermentas, Vilnius, Lithuania). Then, we amplified up to 12 clones for each individual with the M13 forward and reverse primers to ensure that we sequenced all existing variants. We purified and sequenced the PCR products as above. We ensured, by checking visually all chromatograms, that no sequence showed double peaks, which would indicate heterozygous sites and thus a failure of the cloning procedure.

Output: pass


Input: Claim: Poaching poses a major threat to endangered species like elephants. [SEP] Text: Evidence from social network analysis using data spanning periods of low and high poaching in one free-ranging population revealed that the composition and association patterns within matrilines were conserved among close but not distant surviving kin. This outcome suggests clan-level impact of poaching on network structure and resilience, with little detrimental effect at the bonded group- or core unit-levels [75]. Whether changes in network structure in elephants relate to group functionality is difficult to test directly. However, quantifying network connectivity together with global efficiency while simulating poaching may shed new light on the theoretical capacity for dissemination of social currency and the limitation to social resilience in disturbed populations. These insights may eventually inform our understanding about the mechanisms of group performance, and means of mitigating human-elephant conflict [76,77] to conserve this economically important but endangered, keystone species [78,79]. We characterized the immediate effect of eliminating the most influential individuals on the global structure of simulated, social networks. We used a static set of empirical association data on one free-ranging elephant population from Park (NP) in Kenya [80] because continuous data featuring network reorganization after poaching, necessary to parametrize time-varying models, do not yet exist for wild elephants. Initially, we assembled one, empirically based social network using the Amboseli dataset and conducted a series of ‘poaching’ experiments by either incrementally removing 1) the oldest elephants as presumably the most experienced and prone to poaching, or topologically central individuals with high betweenness centrality (often referred to as social hubs) as the most sociable network members [81,82]; or 2) by removing individuals randomly [43,83]. To quantify network-wide structural changes, we evaluated four theoretical indices: two of which are used to diagnose network-wide connectivity (i. e. , clustering coefficient and modularity, dependent on local neighborliness or global partitioning, respectively); and the other two are commonly used to express the efficiency of social diffusion (i. e. , diameter and global efficiency, based on the distance or pervasiveness of diffusion, respectively) [49]. To set these results in the context of a large-scale variation in demography and social interactions found in real elephant populations, we generated 100 distinct, virtual populations modeled on demographic trends in empirical data.

Output: corroborate


Input: Claim: All carbohydrates cause weight gain. [SEP] Text: The inconsistency might be due to the differences in sample size (ranging from 2512 to 118 140) and substantial variations in the definitions of weight change across studies, which make direct comparisons difficult. In addition, the baseline age varied in different studies and previous studies showed that the obesity-mortality association tended to decline with increasing age. 3839 As also shown in our study, the association between weight gain and mortality attenuated as people got older, whereas the association with weight loss became stronger and significant in middle to late adulthood. In this study, we found that both weight gain from non-obesity in young adulthood to obesity in middle adulthood and weight loss from obesity in middle adulthood to non-obesity in late adulthood were associated with higher risk of heart disease mortality. The results were consistent with some previous studies of cardiovascular disease mortality. 1140 Weight change patterns were not significantly associated with cancer mortality across adulthood in our study, but we did not have data on incident cancer or site specific cancer mortality, so more studies are still needed to examine the relations between weight change and cancer risk. In our study, maximum overweight was generally not significantly related to mortality risk. This weight change pattern consisted of three heterogeneous groups, and the results should be interpreted cautiously. The positive relations of stable overweight and normal to overweight patterns with mortality were attenuated or even reversed with increasing age, which was consistent with our main recommendation of preventing weight gain at an early age. Weight loss from overweight to normal weight was consistently associated with higher risk of mortality across adulthood, and more studies are needed to confirm the results in other populations and explore the potential effect of weight loss among overweight people. Strengths and limitations of studyThis study had several strengths including its large and nationally representative sample, high follow-up rate, and detailed analysis of weight change from young adulthood through midlife to late adulthood. Our study shows the importance of examining the weight change patterns in different life periods given that people are more likely to gain weight and accumulate weight rapidly from young to middle adulthood, whereas weight begins to stabilise or even decrease from middle to late adulthood. 6 Furthermore, weight gain from young to middle adulthood mostly reflects accumulation of fat mass, whereas weight loss in middle and late adulthood is usually accompanied by comorbidities and a decrease in lean mass and an increase in fat mass,738 so the underlying mechanisms of the harmful effect of weight change in certain life periods might differ.

Output: contrast


Input: Claim: Adaptive radiation explains species diversification in new environments. [SEP] Text: We assembled identical clones in Geneious 6 (Biomatters), expecting to recover two different sequences (one for each parent) if the individual is truly a hybrid, or only one if it is not the case. We aligned the mitochondrial and nuclear sequences of the hybrid individuals to the two super-matrices with MAFFT [36]. Finally, we expected clones to cluster with the sequences of their parental species. We identified the putative parents of the individuals by reconstructing the phylogenetic trees of both super-matrices using MrBayes 3. 2. 1 in the same manner as described above. All newly generated sequences have been deposited in the EMBL database (accession numbers in Additional file 3). Availability of supporting dataDNA sequences are deposited in GenBank under the accession numbers found in Additional file 3. Multiple sequences alignments as well as phylogenetic trees are available in TreeBase, informationGL is a PhD student in the group of NS. NS is a Professor at the University of Lausanne. NS research group focuses on a variety of organisms and questions with a particular interest on understanding the drivers of adaptation both at the levels of the genes or genomes but also through the modelling of the evolution of the phenotypes and the ecological niche of species. Additional files 67. 10. 1086/430331. 7. 10. 1073/pnas. 242585899. 2863. 10. 1111/mec. 12083. 206. 10. 1093/molbev/msr183. 207. 10. 1016/j. tree. 2004. 01. 003. 246. 10. 1111/j. 1420-9101. 2012. 02599. x. 281. 10. 1111/jeb. 12026. 737. 10. 1126/science. 1157966. 315. 10. 1007/s11692-012-9209-0. 97. 10. 1111/j. 1558-5646. 2008. 00599. x. 35. 10. 1046/j. 1365-294X. 2003. 01803. x. 451. 10. 1046/j. 1365-2540. 2000. 00680. x. 62. 10. 1073/pnas. 95. 20. 11757. 4398. 10. 1098/rspb. 2012. 1667. 10.

Output: pass