Input: Claim: Functional MRI can measure brain activity by detecting changes in blood flow. [SEP] Text: CH in-bout, inter-ictal vs. HC: Stronger connectivity hypothalamus with inferior frontal gyrus, superior and middle temporal gyri, temporal pole, insula, parahippocampal gyrus, and uncus. Weaker connectivity hypothalamus with precuneus, inferior parietal lobule, and occipital lobe. Qiu et al. 62Episodic CH (n = 12) HC (n = 12)Regional homogeneityCH ictal vs. CH in-bout, inter-ictal: Increased regional homogeneity in posterior cingulate cortex and ventromedial prefrontal cortex. Decreased regional homogeneity in middle frontal gyrus, and parahippocampal gyrus. CH in-bout, inter-ictal vs. HC: Stronger regional homogeneity in anterior cingulate cortex, gyrus rectus, and orbital gyrus. Weaker regional homogeneity in middle prefrontal cortex, posterior cingulate cortex, insula, and dorsolateral prefrontal cortex. Rocca et al. 63Episodic CH (n = 13) HC (n = 15)(hypothalamus, thalamus)CH out-of-bout vs. HC: Connectivity differences in sensorimotor network and primary visual network. Increased connectivity of hypothalamus with anterior cingulate cortex, secondary sensorimotor cortex, primary visual cortex, middle occipital gyrus, thalamus, and insula. Increased connectivity of thalamus with primary sensorimotor cortex, supplementary motor area, and anterior cingulate cortex. Note: This table summarizes the methods and findings from published studies that have investigated brain functional connectivity in individuals with cluster headache. CH: cluster headache; HC: healthy control; ICA: independent components analysis; ROI: region of interest. Cluster vs. HCThe majority of functional connectivity studies have compared individuals with cluster headache to HCs. 45,59–64 Independent components analyses including a total of 68 individuals with cluster headache and 80 HCs from four different published studies have identified atypical connectivity in numerous resting state networks amongst those with cluster headache: salience, default mode, somatosensory, attention, visual, temporal, frontal, and cerebellar.

Output: pass


Input: Claim: Climate change has contributed to more frequent and intense heatwaves. [SEP] Text: For groundfish, biomass of Pacific cod (Gadus macrocephalus), sablefish (Anoplopoma fimbria) and Pacific ocean perch (Sebastes alutus) were projected to decrease significantly under MHWs in all LMEs. pollock in the Sea increased significantly in biomass under MHWs amongst all the 22 species and LMEs. Figure 4Projected mean changes in biomass, latitudinal and depth centroid of the 22 exploited marine fish stocks in the Sea (EBS), Gulf of Alaska (GoA) and (CC) during MHW years. NA - not available in catch record between 2006 and 2015. The different colour scales represent the projected changes in biomass, latitudinal centroid and depth centroid. Stripping of a cell represents changes at a significant level of below 0. 05. Full size imageFor MHW impacts on species’ biogeography, the distribution centroids of Pacific hering (Clupea pallasii pallasii) and sockeye salmon were projected to shift poleward in all three LMEs (Fig. 4). More fish stocks in Gulf of Alaska than in Sea or shifted significantly equatorward, or in variable directions amongst ensemble members under MHWs. Direction of shifts in depth centroid also often differed between LMEs for the same species. For example, sole (Microstomus pacificus) was projected to shift poleward in Sea and California Current, but equatorward in Gulf of Alaska and to deeper waters in Sea, while shifted shallower in Gulf of Alaska (Fig. 4). We chose Pacific cod, sockeye salmon and Californian anchovy that were of particular interest to fisheries and coastal communities in the northeast Pacific region to highlight how MHWs will exacerbate impacts from long-term climate change (Fig. 5). Firstly, these species will experience ocean warming as a result of both the mean increase in SST under RCP8. 5 as well MHWs (Fig. 5A–C). This will greatly exacerbate the warming hazards to these species. Secondly, biomass of these three fish stocks dropped approximately 5% for Pacific cod in Sea to 30% for sockeye salmon in Gulf of Alaska and California anchovy in during MHWs in addition to the decrease due to long-term mean changes under RCP8. 5 (5%, 25% and 10% by 2100 relative to 2000; Fig. 5D–F).

Output: corroborate


Input: Claim: Wave energy devices work efficiently in any part of the ocean. [SEP] Text: The first factor is that shorter sampling durations result in a larger uncertainty in the estimated wave spectrum and sea-state parameters. For example, the standard uncertainty in the significant wave height based on a 15-min sample in the is about 15 %, with the standard uncertainty reducing proportionally with the square root of the sample duration [18]. The second factor is that the sea-state is continually changing, with the waves growing or subsiding with the varying wind fields. Consequently, excessively long sample durations would potentially result in extreme sea-states being “smoothed out”. The typical 15–30 min sample duration is generally considered to be a reasonable compromise between these two factors. The last of the factors is battery life and deployment time since powering the measuring instrument will limit the product of the sampling direction and number of sea-state records. For example, a wave-measuring buoy may be able to be used for a year deployment with 3 hourly records using 15 min sample durations, or a 2-month deployment reporting every hour using 30 min sample durations. The final choice of sample duration and frequency will depend on the purpose of the deployment, which should be carefully designed to ensure that the required information is obtained. 3. 4. 2 Surface-Following BuoyCurrently, the most common way of measuring ocean waves is with a surface-following buoy that is slackly moored to the seabed as shown in Fig. 3. 17. In these buoys, the vertical motion is typically measured using an accelerometer (although GPS systems are now becoming more common), which can then be double integrated to provide a time-series of the water surface elevation [19]. The recorded surface elevation is then used to estimate the wave spectrum and from that the sea-state parameters. Wave measurement buoys may also contain instruments to measure the inclination of the buoy so that the direction of the waves can be inferred and used to produce a directional wave spectrum, with associated directional sea-state parameters. A major benefit of using wave measuring buoys is that they have been used for a long time and thus their accuracy is well established. Their limitations are also relatively well recognised in that strong currents and steep waves both reduce the accuracy of the measurements because the buoy does not exactly follow the water surface. In addition, they are relatively expensive and there is a relatively high risk of loss of the instrument. Fig. 3.

Output: contrast


Input: Claim: Functional MRI can measure brain activity by detecting changes in blood flow. [SEP] Text: 45,59,63 All of these studies were performed when individuals with cluster headache were headache free, but some were done during the in-bout period and others during the out-of-bout period. Supporting the notion that the atypical connectivity was actually associated with cluster headache, these studies demonstrated correlations between the extent of atypical connectivity with duration that an individual had cluster headache and number of cumulative headache days. 45,59,63 Two studies including a total of 30 individuals with cluster headache and 31 HCs performed region-of-interest functional connectivity analyses of the hypothalamus. 61,64 In these studies, compared to HCs, individuals with cluster headache were found to have atypical hypothalamic connectivity with inferior, medial and middle frontal gyri, superior, middle, and inferior temporal gyri, temporal pole, inferior parietal lobule, insula, parahippocampal gyrus, fusiform gyrus, inferior semilunar lobule, occipital lobe, uncus, precuneus, and cuneus. There were correlations between the magnitude of atypical connectivity with the frequency of bouts per year. 64 Finally, a regional homogeneity study found that individuals with cluster headache have atypical regional homogeneity in anterior cingulate cortex, posterior cingulate cortex, insula, middle and dorsolateral prefrontal cortices, gyrus rectus, and orbital gyrus. 62Cluster in-bout vs. out-of-boutTwo studies, including a total of 35 individuals with episodic cluster headache, have investigated functional connectivity differences during a cluster period (i. e. in-bout) vs. between cluster periods (i. e. out-of-bout). 59,64 The independent components analysis demonstrated connectivity differences in frontal and dorsal attention networks and a correlation between functional connectivity of the frontal network with disease duration. 59 A hypothalamic region-of-interest analysis found differences in functional connectivity in-bout vs. out-of-bout with medial frontal gyrus, middle frontal gyrus, inferior temporal gyrus, precuneus and cerebellum. 64 Frequency of cluster bouts per year was correlated with connectivity strength of the hypothalamus with the cerebellum. Cluster during spontaneous attack (i. e. ictal) vs. in-bout but between attacks (i. e.

Output: pass


Input: Claim: Climate change has contributed to more frequent and intense heatwaves. [SEP] Text: Similarly, shifts in biogeography, as indicated by the latitudinal centroids of the three selected species (Fig. 5G–I), added to the effects of the shifts due to changes in mean ocean conditions by as much as 100 km poleward during MHWs (e. g. , California anchovy in California Current). As such, biomass decrease and biogeographic shifts during MHWs early in the 21st century were projected to be at a similar level as the decadal-scale average changes by around the 2050 s. This also means that MWHs will exert large impact ‘shocks’ while fish stocks are already impacted by long-term mean climate change. For example, with both MHWs and changes in mean conditions, biomass of sockeye salmon was projected to drop by more than 40% by 2100 relative to 2000 under RCP8. 5. Figure 5Projected time-series of changes in sea surface temperature (SST) (A–C), biomass (D–F) and latitudinal centroid (G–I): Pacific cod (Gadus macrocephalus) (D,G), sockeye salmon (Oncorhynchus nerka) (E,H) and Californian anchovy (Engraulis mordax) (F,I)) in the Sea (EBS), Gulf of Alaska (GoA) and (CC). The solid lines represent the average values across the 10 ensemble member simulations (smoothed with a cubic spline function); blue-colored triangles represent values during MHW years; the different intensity of blue color represents different ensemble member simulations (see Figs. S1–12 for results for all the large marine ecosystems and studied fish stocks). Full size imageDiscussionOur findings provide theoretical support to the empirical observations from scientific surveys and anecdotal accounts from fishers that fisheries important fish stocks such as Pacific cod and sockeye salmon had been impacted by the 2013–2015 northeast Pacific MHW19. In addition, we offer new insights into the combined impacts of MHWs and long-term climate change on the species distribution in the northeast Pacific. Specifically, we show that MHWs can more than double the magnitude of the impacts on fish stocks by 2050 due to long-term climate change. Previous vulnerability and impact assessments have therefore greatly underestimated the risk to future fish stocks and fisheries in the northeast Pacific under climate change.

Output: corroborate


Input: Claim: Wave energy devices work efficiently in any part of the ocean. [SEP] Text: 17A surface-following wave measurement buoyFull size image 3. 4. 3 Sea-SensorA cheaper alternative to wave measuring buoys are sea-bed pressure sensors as shown in Fig. 3. 18. These instruments measure the variation in pressure and from that infer the water surface elevation [20]. The attenuation of wave pressure with depth means that they are only suitable for relatively shallow water, with the high-frequency waves being attenuated the most and thus sea-bed pressure sensors are most suitable for measuring swell waves. The exact water depth limit for sea-bed pressure sensors depends on the signal-to-noise ratio of the instrument, but a depth limit of about 10–20 m is typical. In addition to the waves, a sea-bed pressure transducer can also be used to determine the tide level, although in this case care should be taken to ensure that changes to the atmospheric pressure are accounted for. Finally, sea-bed pressure sensors may be deployed in an array to provide information on the directional distribution of the waves. Fig. 3. 18A seabed pressure transducer for wave measurement in shallow waterFull size image 3. 4. 4 ProfilerA more recently developed method of measuring waves is the use of acoustic current profilers, and in particular multi-beam acoustic current profilers as shown in Fig. 3. 19. Acoustic current profilers measure the water velocity using the red/blue shift in acoustic pulses for the instrument [21]. The water velocities as determined from each beam are combined and processed to produce a time-series of the 3D wave-induced water velocities and from that the directional wave spectrum. Although these instruments can be deployed in any orientation, it is normal for wave measurement to deploy them on the seabed where they are less susceptible to damage and bio-fouling. In this case the instrument must be deployed in less than about 50 m of water since they become less capable of detecting the wave-induced water velocities as they are further from the water surface. However, acoustic current profilers are developing rapidly, and it is possible that future improvements mean that they will be suitable for deployment in deeper water. An additional advantage of acoustic current profilers is that they also provide information on the local marine currents; however, a disadvantage that they share with sea-bed pressure transducers is that they typically store the data on board.

Output: contrast


Input: Claim: Functional MRI can measure brain activity by detecting changes in blood flow. [SEP] Text: interictal)Two studies have compared functional connectivity during cluster attacks vs. between attacks. 61,62 In a hypothalamic region-of-interest study of 12 individuals with episodic cluster headache, during a cluster attack there was increased connectivity to pain matrix regions such as the anterior cingulate cortex, posterior cingulate cortex, superior frontal gyrus, middle frontal gyrus, inferior frontal gyrus, superior temporal gyrus, inferior parietal lobule, parahippocampal gyrus, and amygdala. 61 In a regional homogeneity analysis of 12 episodic cluster subjects, during a cluster attack there was increased regional homogeneity of posterior cingulate cortex and ventromedial prefrontal cortex and decreased regional homogeneity of middle frontal gyrus and parahippocampal gyrus. 62In summary, functional connectivity studies of cluster headache have further implicated the hypothalamus as a region that participates in cluster headache pathophysiology (see Figure 4). As is expected with any headache disorder, several regions of the pain-matrix have also been shown to have atypical functional connectivity. However, functional connectivity aberrations associated with cluster headache reach beyond the hypothalamus, pain-matrix regions, and expected networks such as the somatosensory and salience networks. Studies have demonstrated that cluster headache is also associated with atypical functional connectivity within networks such as the default mode, attention, and visual networks. Individuals with cluster headache have altered functional connectivity compared to HCs, and functional connectivity differs when individuals are in-bout vs. out-of-bout, and during cluster headache attacks vs. between attacks. Although it could be hypothesized that the extent of functional connectivity “abnormalities” would increase as the cluster patient moves from the out-of-bout period, to the in-bout but inter-ictal period, to the within attack phase, there are currently inadequate data to confirm or refute this hypothesis. There are correlations between the frequency of cluster attacks and disease duration with the extent of atypical connectivity, strengthening an argument that the atypical connectivity is in fact related to having cluster headache and suggesting that there is a cumulative effect of cluster attacks on altering brain functional connectivity. Figure 4. A schematic illustration of regions and functional networks (default mode, salience, sensory, and attention) where studies have shown altered functional connectivity in patients with cluster headache compared to healthy controls.

Output: pass


Input: Claim: Climate change has contributed to more frequent and intense heatwaves. [SEP] Text: Moreover, satellite data and model simulations suggest that MHWs are linked to and can be exacerbated by, multi-annual climate variability such as El Niño (ENSO), resulting in the particularly large and persistent biological impacts in the region from the Blob13,19,40. In any case, these complex biological responses of sardine and anchovy that inter-mixed between the effects of MHWs and decadal-scale warming therefore demand more rapid and short-term governance and adaptation responses such as alteration of fishing quota, shifts in fishing ground and targeted species41. The challenges from MHWs impact will thus put ‘double strains’ on sustainable management of living marine resources under climate change, pointing to the need for future research into the development of more robust adaptation and governance responses42,43. Previous studies have shown that global warming substantially increases the risks of MHWs to occur14. Our study additionally suggests that MHWs can strongly exacerbate the impact of decadal-scale mean ocean warming on fish stocks. A reduction of anthropogenic greenhouse gas emissions - the fundamental driver of global warming44 – is therefore needed to limit the impacts of MHWs on fish stocks and fisheries5. Even though we consider the projected pattern of MHW impacts on fish stocks and the implications for understanding future risks on fisheries and their governance under climate change as robust, a number of caveats needs to be discussed. The global Earth system model used in this study (i. e. 2M) is able to adequately simulate mean states and trends in different marine heatwave metrics over the satellite 1982–2016 period14. However, the horizontal resolution (about 1°) of the ocean component of the Earth system model is too coarse to accurately represent some of the oceanographic dynamics in coastal and shelf seas such as upwelling or mesoscale eddy activity e. g. 45. In addition, some of the biogeochemical processes in the high latitudes associated with sea ice are also not well resolved. The simulated net primary productivity in 2M, in particular, is highly uncertain46, especially in regions with sea ice47, because nutrient inputs during sea ice melt48 or through rivers49 are not included. The fish stock model assumes that historical species’ biogeography reflects their environmental niches50. Variations in the projected pathways of changes in biomass and biogeography of species in this study were partly caused by the differences in species’ temperature p51.

Output: corroborate


Input: Claim: Wave energy devices work efficiently in any part of the ocean. [SEP] Text: This means that the existence or quality of the wave resource data is not known until the instrument is recovered, which could be a problem if the data is critical for project development. Fig. 3. 19An acoustic current profilerFull size image 3. 4. 5 Land-Based and Satellite RadarIn addition to local wave measurement, it is also possible to use remote sensors, principally radar, to measure the waves, for example the 16-element HF radar array set up on the dike at Petten (NL) as shown in Fig. 3. 20. The main advantage of using a remote sensor is that the instrument does not need to be deployed in an aggressive environment, that the data is readily available and that the costs are typically lower [22]. The radar provides information on the sea-state by analysing the backscatter from the waves over an area. Coupled analysis from multiple locations means that the directional wave spectrum can often be calculated, together with sea-state parameters. Typically the radar system is calibrated using data from a local wave measuring instrument [23]. The use of radar for wave measurement is a rapidly developing area, with a range of different systems being developed and continually improved. Fig. 3. 20A land-based radar system for measurement of wavesFull size image A radar deployment of particular note is in satellites. Radar altimeters are available in a number of satellites that are circling the earth and can provide estimates of the Height along the track of the satellite [24]. Although the temporal resolution of the wave resource data may be very low (a satellite may only pass over a point every 10–35 days) it does provide wave resource data over a large geographical area. Although current satellite-based radar altimeter systems typically only provide information on the Height, as with other radar systems, the potential for satellite measurement of waves is increasing rapidly. Thus, current developments exist to use satellite data to produce estimates of the wave period as well as potentially other sea-state parameters. Interestingly, the satellite data can be used to compare the output from local wave measuring instruments and the consistency of these assessed. Whilst the Canadian and UK wave buoy networks share a common calibration factor, the US buoy network has a slightly different calibration factor. This implies that there is some difference in the calibration, deployment and/or operation of the wave buoys between the US and Canada/UK that results in a difference in the estimated sea-state.

Output: contrast


Input: Claim: Functional MRI can measure brain activity by detecting changes in blood flow. [SEP] Text: In cluster headache, the hypothalamus has shown abnormal functional connectivity to regions of the default mode, salience, sensory and attention networks. Important regions of functional networks that are altered in cluster headache include the following:Default mode network regions: medial prefrontal cortex (mPFC) and anterior cingulate cortex (aCC), precuneus and posterior cingulate cortex (pCC) and the inferior parietal cortex (iPC). Salience network regions: insula and (dorsal) anterior cingulate. Sensory network region: somatosensory cortex (SS). Attention network regions: inferior frontal (iF) and middle frontal (mF) cortex, and the temporo-parietal junction (TPJ) and occipital cortex (OCC). Futures studies are needed that compare functional connectivity in cluster headache patients to individuals with other headache types to determine if certain findings are specific to cluster headache or if they are all shared by other headache types. For example, although the hypothalamus is strongly implicated in the pathophysiology of the TACs, it is also likely to be involved in migraine. 65,66 It is unknown if hypothalamic connectivity in the TACs is similar or different from connectivity in migraine. Future studies should investigate connectivity in individuals with chronic cluster as well as the other TACs. Since there can be a fair amount of overlap in clinical symptoms between the TACs, it would be useful to determine if functional connectivity patterns differ between individuals with different TACs. If so, it is possible that classification models developed from functional connectivity data could be used as diagnostic aids in the circumstances when the diagnosis is especially challenging via clinical grounds. is a worsening of a pre-existing headache disorder due to excessive intake of medication for the acute treatment of headache. 1 Most MOH patients have an underlying primary headache in the form of migraine or tension-type headache (TTH). Overall, it is estimated that MOH affects between 1% and 2% of the general population and at least 50% of chronic headache patients have MOH. 67The mechanisms underlying headache aggravation as a consequence of medication overuse are largely unknown. Clinical studies of pain perception in MOH patients indicate that central sensitization to nociceptive input is a key feature of this disorder.

Output: pass


Input: Claim: Climate change has contributed to more frequent and intense heatwaves. [SEP] Text: For instance, we projected a positive impact of MHWs on Alaskan pollock (T. chalcogramma) in Sea. However, previous studies have suggested that anomalous warm temperature affects the availability of preferred nutritious prey that reduced the survivorship and recruitment of pollock in the Bering Sea19. Moreover, we only examined climate projections following the ‘no mitigation’ high greenhouse gas emissions scenario (RCP8. 5) and including an ‘idealized’ fishing scenario i. e. , assuming all fishing is at level to achieve maximum sustainable yield of each fish stock. The effects of scenario uncertainties associated with different greenhouse gas emission and pathways of fishing effort and their management on the impacts of MHWs on marine ecosystems need to be explored further. Future research can build on the foundation laid by this study to incrementally address these uncertainties52. For example, the number of ensemble members, Earth system models and fish models may be increased to explore a wider range of model uncertainties. The analysis can also be repeated using high resolution Earth system models, and fish models with trophic interactions and/or eco-evolutionary dynamics. Overall, this study underscores the importance of considering MHWs in assessing climate risks and impacts. Previous risk and impact assessment that focused on the effects of long-term changes in mean conditions under climate change may have largely underestimated climate risks on fish stocks and fisheries. Moreover, the rapid rate of change and the prevalence of impacts across fisheries important fish stocks in the northeast Pacific point to the need to examine whether climate adaptation, designed mostly for dealing with long-term mean changes, would be sufficient to reduce the additional climate risks from MHWs. Without appropriate mitigation and adaptation measures, MHWs may pose additional risks on the long-term viability of marine species and the sustainability of their fisheries, and the associated benefits to dependent human communities such as food, economic benefits and livelihoods11. Our results also provide a foundation for further modelling efforts and analysis to build on and systematically explore different dimensions of uncertainties. MethodsEarth system modelWe analyzed projected changes in annual mean SST in the northeast using a 10-member ensemble simulation of the Earth system model version 2 developed at the (2M33,34,35). 2M is a fully coupled carbon cycle-climate model that consists of an ocean, atmosphere, sea ice, and land model, and includes land and ocean biogeochemistry.

Output: corroborate


Input: Claim: Wave energy devices work efficiently in any part of the ocean. [SEP] Text: The wave action, which is the wave energy divided by the intrinsic wave frequency, is used because it is conserved in the presence of background currents whilst the wave energy is not. However, in the absence of background currents, the wave action balance equation reduces to the wave energy balance equation. The wave action is allowed to propagate between four dimensions, geographic space, frequency space, directional space and time space (dependent on the physical processes involved), but the change in the sum of these must equal the source/sink of wave action, which may generate, dissipate and/or re-distribute the wave action. 3. 5. 2 Wave ModelsIn the absence of sources/sinks of wave action, then Eq. 3. 23 simply defines the wave kinematics and includes the processes of both shoaling and refraction. Depth-induced shoaling is the change in wave height with water depth and, in the absence of marine currents, it occurs due to the change in group velocity with water depth. When a wave enters shallow water, the group velocity changes, initially increasing slightly and then decreasing as the water depth decreases. The consequence of this is that the wave height initially decreases and then increases due to the conservation of energy as the energy gets stretched out and subsequently bunched up (note, it is commonly assumed that wave height only increases in shallow water since the initial decrease in wave height is only small and often not considered; however, it does occur). Depth-induced shoaling normally refers to the case when the wave is propagating orthogonally to the depth contours and so the wave does not change direction. Assuming a time-invariant condition, depth-induced shoaling is all included in the second term of the wave energy balance equation. When the wave is not travelling orthogonally to the depth contours, then depth-induced refraction occurs. Depth-induced refraction is also related to the change in wave group velocity with water depth. Indeed, it is possible to consider depth-induced shoaling as simply a special case of depth-induced refraction where the direction of wave propagation is parallel to the water depth gradient. If this is not the case, then the direction of wave propagation changes as the group velocity changes. Thus, when the wave group velocity starts to reduce in shallow water, the wave tends to rotate so that the wave crests become more parallel to the depth contours.

Output: contrast


Input: Claim: Functional MRI can measure brain activity by detecting changes in blood flow. [SEP] Text: 78MOH (n = 12) MYO (n = 11) HC (n = 16)ICA and seed-based (peri-aqueductal gray)Stronger connectivity in salience network (MOH > HC and MOH > MYO) and in inferior temporal network (MOH > HC and MOH > MYO). Weaker connectivity in frontoparietal network (MOH < HC). Stronger functional connectivity (MOH > HC) PAG with inferior frontal gyrus, middle frontal gyrus, cerebellum and stronger functional connectivity (MOH > MYO) of PAG with postcentral gyrus, pre- central gyrus, anterior cingulate cortex, temporo-parietal junction. Weaker functional connectivity (MOH < HC) of PAG with parahippocampal gyrus, precuneus, lingual gyrus, and fusiform gyrus. Note: Summary of methods and findings from published studies that have investigated brain functional connectivity in individuals with medication-overuse headache. MOH: medication-overuse headache; EM: episodic migraine; HC: healthy controls; HA: headache; MO: medication overuse; MYO: myofascial pain. One study investigated patients with MOH and migraine compared to patients with EM, and HCs. 75 The authors used a seed-based approach with the left precuneus as the region of interest to specifically study alterations of the default mode network. Compared to HCs, MOH and EM patients exhibited several regions that had either stronger or weaker connectivity with the precuneus. Interestingly, connectivity with the right hippocampus was stronger in MOH patients compared to both other groups. Of notice, MOH patients had higher self-rated medication-dependence, depression, anxiety, and pain-catastrophizing levels than episodic migraineurs, adding a potential risk of confounding. Precuneus-hippocampus connectivity was positively correlated with medication intake, suggesting that the findings could reflect a pharmaceutical effect. Another study76 compared resting state connectivity of MOH patients to other patients with similar headache frequency, but without medication overuse.

Output: pass


Input: Claim: Climate change has contributed to more frequent and intense heatwaves. [SEP] Text: AbstractPlain is the heartland of modern China. This fertile plain has experienced vast expansion of irrigated agriculture which cools surface temperature and moistens surface air, but boosts integrated measures of temperature and humidity, and hence enhances intensity of heatwaves. Here, we project based on an ensemble of high-resolution regional climate model simulations that climate change would add significantly to the anthropogenic effects of irrigation, increasing the risk from heatwaves in this region. Under the business-as-usual scenario of greenhouse gas emissions, Plain is likely to experience deadly heatwaves with wet-bulb temperature exceeding the threshold defining what Chinese farmers may tolerate while working outdoors. China is currently the largest contributor to the emissions of greenhouse gases, with potentially serious implications to its own population: continuation of the current pattern of global emissions may limit habitability in the most populous region, of the most populous country on Earth. Similar content being viewed by others Limited influence of irrigation on pre-monsoon heat stress in the Indo-2. This region, inhabited by about 400 million, is one of the most densely populated in the world (Fig. 1). The rich soils in this region were formed by sedimentary deposits from the Yellow, Huai, and Hai rivers, providing excellent conditions for agriculture. The rainfall levels are relatively low compared to similar locations in South China, making irrigation necessary for supplementing soil water during the spring to early summer growing season (Fig. 1). This fertile plain has experienced vast expansion of irrigated agriculture which impacts significantly the surface radiation, surface energy balance, and boundary layer development in ways that impact surface humidity, and temperature. In observations that describe regional climate patterns, NCP stands out as a hot spot in the China-wide map of the maximum wet-bulb temperature (TWmax) observed in the last few decades (Fig. 1c). Given these past observations, the region is expected to remain vulnerable to heatwaves in the future. Fig. 1Brief characterization of Eastern China. Spatial distribution of a topographic map (m), b area equipped for irrigation (AEI, %) for 2005 from Data40 with climatology of annual precipitation from TRMM49 (contour, mm) in modern record (1998–2015), c highest daily maximum wet-bulb temperature from ERA-Interim41, TWmax (°C) in modern record (1979–2016), and d population density53 in people/km2.

Output: corroborate


Input: Claim: Wave energy devices work efficiently in any part of the ocean. [SEP] Text: The rate of change on direction is defined by Snell’s law, which relates the change in direction of propagation with the change in wave group velocity. The consequence is that when the waves reach the shore, they are nearly parallel to the shoreline (they do not get to be completely parallel to the shoreline because non-linear processes cause them to break before they get to that point). Assuming a time-invariant condition, this process is modelled with the second and fourth terms of the wave energy balance equation. Where there are marine currents, then current-induced shoaling occurs when there is a change in the background current. The kinematics are more complex in this case because the change in current also causes a change in the relative (or intrinsic) frequency, which is the frequency of the waves as observed from a reference frame travelling at the same velocity as the current. In addition, there is an exchange of energy between the current and the waves, which is the reason Eq. 3. 23 is not defined in terms of wave energy, but in terms of wave action, which is conserved in the presence of changing currents. The exact current-induced shoaling can be determined by solving Eq. 3. 23 which shows that a following current tends to reduce the wave height as the energy is spread out, whilst an opposing current causes the wave height to increase as the energy bunches. If the opposing current is sufficiently strong, this can stop the waves propagating, and the energy increases until the waves start to break and thus lose energy. This can be seen commonly at the mouth of rivers where there is area of breaking waves as the current stops the waves from travelling upstream. For a time-invariant system, this is modelled with the second and third terms of the wave energy balance equation. As would be expected, marine currents can also be responsible for current-induced refraction. The explanation for this is similar to that of the depth-induced refraction, except that the change in velocity of the wave crest is due to spatial variation of the marine currents, rather than the change in water depth. In this final case, a time-invariant system the second, third and fourth terms of the wave energy balance equation are required to solve the wave kinematics.

Output: contrast


Input: Claim: Functional MRI can measure brain activity by detecting changes in blood flow. [SEP] Text: While this is a rational design that is useful for uncovering mechanisms specific for MOH, the study is somewhat limited by a lack of specification of the underlying headache disorders in the MOH and non-MOH group and further that 6/15 of patients in the MOH group had less than 15 headache days/month, thus not fulfilling the ICHD criteria for MOH. 1 The authors investigated connectivity with the nucleus accumbens and the dorsal caudal and dorsal rostral putamen. The resulting connectivity maps served as input for a classification analysis, which could distinguish between the two groups of patients with 75% accuracy (based on nucleus accumbens) and 66% (dorsal rostral putamen). The authors suggested that these findings represent abnormalities of brain motivational circuits including the so-called reward system of the brain, which may relate to the addictive behavior in MOH. A study using a data-driven approach known as functional connectivity density (FCD)77 investigated MOH patients, primarily diagnosed with migraine, compared to groups of EM patients and HC. The authors found FCD differences between all three groups, but no overlapping differences between MOH vs. EM and MOH vs. HC. Most significant findings were reduced FCD in MOH compared to EM in the right caudate and left insula. Subsequent seed-based analysis based on these areas showed decreased connectivity to the left frontal inferior gyrus from both areas. To separate specific intrinsic connectivity changes of MOH to those of other chronic pain conditions, one study included patients with chronic myofascial pain (MYO) as well as MOH patients and HCs. 78 While MOH patients had a longer disease duration, pain intensity, anxiety and depression ratings did not differ between the two patient groups. The authors used ICA and a seed-based approach with the mid-PAG region as the seed region, motivated by the observation that the PAG shows reversible structural alterations in MOH. 70 Stronger functional connectivity was reported in the salience network (MOH>HC and MOH>MYO) and inferior temporal network (MOH > HC, MOH>MYO). In contrast, significantly weaker connectivity (MOH<HC and MYO<HC) was seen in the bilateral frontoparietal network (including the PAG) in both patient groups.

Output: pass


Input: Claim: Climate change has contributed to more frequent and intense heatwaves. [SEP] Text: The box in each plot indicates the Plain used for regional analysis in this study. The figure was created using the ( size imageThe frequency and intensity of heatwaves observed in China has increased significantly during the last 50 years as documented by several studies3,4,5,6. Severe heatwaves have been experienced in China, particularly since the beginning of the twenty-first century5. The surface mean temperature averaged over China has increased by about 1. 35 °C during 1951–2006, a rate of about 0. 24 °C/decade7, which is larger than the corresponding global rate of about 0. 13 °C/decade during 1956–20058. and August of 2003, extremely hot weather conditions lasting for 20–50 days occurred at many sites over South China9. During this period, the daily maximum temperature recorded in many locations south of was above 38 °C10. Heatwaves extended across most of China in 2006, with daily maximum temperature reaching 35 °C at 22 stations in Chongqing, Central China11. In summer 2013, a severe heatwave event occurred in Eastern China12. The daily maximum temperatures in many stations were extreme, breaking the historical records. Around Shanghai, the 141-year temperature record was exceeded, and the heatwave resulted in the death of dozens of people13. Studies on heatwaves often (but not always) focus on surface temperature as the main variable used for characterizing their intensity14,15. However, consideration of surface humidity is as important as that of surface temperature in defining heatwaves, since humidity impacts how humans feel heat stress. Building on earlier work15 that defined a threshold for human survivability based on the magnitude of TW (an integrated measure of temperature and humidity), we have recently adopted the use of the daily TWmax, computed from a 6-h moving average time series, for characterizing the intensity of heatwaves16,17. The choice of TW is motivated by the fact that the skin of a sweating human body can be approximated by this temperature, and the choice of 6 h is rooted in the assumption that a healthy human may not survive outdoors at a TW of 35 °C for more than 6 h. Hence, TWmax of 35 °C is assumed as physiologic threshold for survival of humans18.

Output: corroborate


Input: Claim: Wave energy devices work efficiently in any part of the ocean. [SEP] Text: A major limitation of spectral wave models is that they assume a random phase between the wave components, although this is also the assumption that allows them to be computationally efficient for modelling wave transformations over large distances. Consequently, phase-dependent processes such as harbour resonance and diffraction cannot be modelled explicitly. However, whilst no approximation for processes such as harbour resonance exist for spectral wave models, it has been found that diffraction can be modelled using a phase-decoupled refraction-diffraction approximation [31]. This approximation is based on the mild-slope equation where the turning rate of the wave due to diffraction is dependent on the slope of the wave amplitude, and has been found to be a reasonable approximation in the majority of circumstances except locally close to the body causing the diffraction field. 3. 5. 3 third generation spectral wave models (for example SWAN, Mike21), there are typically six types of wave energy source/sink. These are wind input, quadruplet wave-wave interactions, white-capping, bottom friction, triad wave-wave interactions and depth-induced wave breaking, cf. Fig. 3. 21. Fig. 3. 21Source terms used in a third-generation spectral wave modelFull size image These sources/sinks are, in general, represented by semi-empirical approximations. In many cases, a number of alternative representations can be used in the wave models; the choice being somewhat dependent on the p3. 5. 4 Grid DefinitionWith the definition of the conservation equation for the action density, together with the source terms that add and remove energy, it is only necessary to propagate the action density from one point to another in order to define the wave resource. This may be done using a regular or irregular grid, using a number of different propagation schemes, each of which have their own particular set of advantages and disadvantages. The resolution of the grid will depend on the desired accuracy of the model, with higher resolution grids typically resulting in more accurate models, but at the expense of greater computational effort. However, the change in accuracy with grid resolution also depends on the relative magnitude of the components in the action density equation, so that where the action density changes little a low resolution grid may be used, but higher resolution grids are required where the changes in action density are greater. This naturally leads to the use of irregular (or nested regular) grids as shown in Fig. 3.

Output: contrast


Input: Claim: Functional MRI can measure brain activity by detecting changes in blood flow. [SEP] Text: There is strong suggestion that atypical connectivity of regions that are part of the brain reward system is uniquely involved in MOH. The hypothalamus plays an important role in cluster headache and other TACs and hypothalamic functional connectivity is clearly atypical in the presence of these headaches. However, it is likely that the hypothalamus also plays an important role in migraine and it is not clear if hypothalamic activity and functional connectivity differ between the TACs and migraine. More studies that directly compare functional connectivity across headache types are needed. The comparison of studies specific to a headache disorder and the comparison of resting-state data between headache disorders is complicated by patient heterogeneity (differences in age, depression, anxiety, demographic, psychological background) as well as by differences in data acquisition (variability due to field strength, 1. 5 Tesla versus 3 Tesla; or differences in imaging protocols or scanner vendors). Comparison between studies is further complicated by differences in study design and data post-processing protocols (differences in statistical thresholding, or power calculations). Whereas some studies have used a region-of-interest approach, other studies have used an ICA. Both have inherent strengths and weaknesses. Whereas the seed-based approach allows interrogation of specific functional connections, it is also less robust than ICA, which can determine large-scale networks automatically without a priori hypothesis. Furthermore, seed-based approaches might not specifically interrogate a ‘network per se’ as certain regions can be a part of more than one network. 79 Other studies have interrogated different frequency bands of BOLD fluctuations, believed to indicate yet another way of interrogating fluctuations in frequency-specific functional connections. 80 Direct comparison amongst different rs-fMRI studies is challenging within any area of research due to variability amongst studies relating to the use of imaging designs, protocols, and post-processing techniques. The heterogeneity of study results is certain to relate to the relatively small sample sizes, as most of the rs-fc studies include less than 20 subjects in each group. Future studies, using replication designs as well as larger multicenter studies will be useful to validate and to solidify our current understanding of the pathophysiology underlying headache. Over the past decade, headache neuroimaging using rs-fMRI has become a rapidly growing field and recent studies have shown encouraging results for distinguishing individual patients with migraine from HCs using classification algorithms based on rs-fMRI data or rs-fMRI plus structural MRI data.

Output: pass


Input: Claim: Climate change has contributed to more frequent and intense heatwaves. [SEP] Text: The choice of this variable has important implications regarding where we may expect to see severe heatwaves, since a typical TW (dry-bulb temperature) for a forest would be significantly warmer (colder) than the corresponding value for a desert along the same latitude. Previous studies concluded that irrigation impacts the land-surface energy balance and atmospheric boundary layer development significantly19,20. The direct effects of irrigation are to enhance evapotranspiration, to cool the surface temperature, and to moisten the air21,22. The cooler surface emits significantly less long-wave radiation upward (Stephan–Boltzmann law), and the moistened air emits significantly more long-wave radiation towards the surface (water vapor greenhouse effect). As a result, irrigation tends to enhance the net long-wave radiation available to fuel total flux of latent and sensible heat into the atmosphere. Similarly, irrigation may impact how the surface absorbs incoming solar radiation23, but the sign of that effect would depend on the nature of land cover before irrigation. In addition, irrigation impacts the development of the atmospheric boundary layer23. Irrigation reduces the sensible heat flux resulting in lowering of the depth of the atmospheric boundary layer. Hence, irrigation enhances the total flux of heat only slightly, but results in a significantly shallower boundary layer. Considering the total energy of the surface air in the atmospheric boundary layer, including latent and sensible forms, as measured by the TW over extensively irrigated plains such as those in the NCP, we would expect an enhanced magnitude of the boundary layer energy per unit mass as measured by variables such as moist static energy or the TW. In two recent studies24,25, the impact of climate change on heatwaves was investigated at the global scale, using observations and simulations of surface temperature and humidity. was identified in one of these studies25 as one of the impacted regions, the relatively coarse resolution and global focus of their analysis precluded identification of hotspots for heatwaves at regional and local scales within China. The same studies did not include analysis of the impact of irrigation on heatwaves. The high resolution of our simulations, including representation of irrigation processes, makes it feasible to address these two important topics.

Output: corroborate


Input: Claim: Wave energy devices work efficiently in any part of the ocean. [SEP] Text: The small wave period case represents, for the RHPSC, the worst case of approximation, since the ratio between the period of the waves and the control horizon is small. Thus, more HRCF basis functions are needed to correctly approximate the state and control variables. One can see that after 21 basis functions, corresponding to \(N = 10\), the normalised absorbed energy has already converged, whereas the computational time needed to solve the QP is increasing. A reasonable choice for the number N is, therefore, found around 10, leading to 21 HRCF basis functions involved in the RHPSC algorithm. Fig. 6Normalised absorbed power and QP computational time as a function of the number of HRCF basis functions in the RHPSC simulationFull size image Figure 7 presents the evolution of the normalised absorbed energy and the QP computation time for the RHPSC, plotted against the duration of the control horizon T. One can observe that, in contrast with the MPC algorithm, the computational time does not depend on the control horizon, since the number of basis functions are fixed, and consequently the size of the QP computational effort does not change as well. A reasonable choice for the control horizon will be a duration of 20 seconds. Fig. 7Normalised absorbed power and QP computational time as a function of control horizon for the RHPSC methodFull size image Based on the selection of parameters for the MPC and RHPSC methods, as described in Sects. 5. 1 and 5. 2, respectively, comparisons between the presented methods are now performed with both regular and irregular sea states. For the remainder of the study, the chosen parameters and control windows are fixed as shown in Table 1. 6 Relative performance in regular wavesBased on the parameters defined in Table 1, the MPC and RHPSC algorithms were tested for regular waves with a wave period varying from 5 to 15 s. The evolution of the absorbed energy and the computational time involved in the QP optimisation, as a function of the wave period, is presented in Fig. 8. The model used in the simulation evaluation loop is different from the dynamical model used to define the control algorithm, for both MPC and RHPSC.

Output: contrast


Input: Claim: Functional MRI can measure brain activity by detecting changes in blood flow. [SEP] Text: 81,82 Another study has shown utility of rs-fMRI data for characterizing migraine patients with MOH from patients without MOH. 76 Results of these studies show the utility of rs-fMRI for querying headache pathogenesis as well and indicate future potential of rs-fMRI for identifying individual patients with headache, thus showing potential for headache classification. Declaration of conflicting interestsThe author(s) declared no potential conflicts of interest with respect to the research, authorship, and/or publication of this 1. Classification of Headache Disorders, 3rd edition (beta version). Cephalalgia 2013; 33: 629–808. 2. Rating of olfactory judgements in migraine patients. Cephalalgia 2006; 26: 1123–1130. CrossrefPubMedWeb of Science3. Cutaneous allodynia in the migraine population. 2008; 63: 148–158. CrossrefPubMedWeb of Science4. Photic hypersensitivity in the premonitory phase of migraine–a positron emission tomography study. Neurol 2014; 21: 1178–1183. CrossrefPubMedWeb of Science5. Concurrent functional and structural cortical alterations in migraine. Cephalalgia 2012; 32: 607–620. CrossrefPubMedWeb of Science6. Schmitz N, Admiraal-Behloul F, Arkink EB, et al. Attack frequency and disease duration as indicators for brain damage in migraine. Headache 2008; 48: 1044–1055. CrossrefPubMedWeb of Science7. Schmidt- Subtle grey matter changes between migraine patients and healthy controls. Cephalalgia 2008; 28: 1–4. CrossrefPubMedWeb of Science8. Thalamo-cortical network activity during spontaneous migraine attacks. Neurology 2016; 87: 2154–2160. CrossrefPubMed9. Gil-. Cognitive dysfunction during migraine attacks: a study on migraine without aura. Cephalalgia 2015; 35: 662–674. CrossrefPubMedWeb of Science10. Gil-. Subjective cognitive symptoms during a migraine attack: a prospective study of a clinic-based sample. 2016; 19: E137–E150. PubMed11. Resting state connectivity between default mode network and insula encodes acute migraine headache. ahead of print 1 January 2017. DOI: 10.

Output: pass


Input: Claim: Climate change has contributed to more frequent and intense heatwaves. [SEP] Text: In this study, we project based on an ensemble of high-resolution regional climate model simulations that climate change would add significantly to the anthropogenic effects of irrigation, increasing the risk from heatwaves over the NCP region, an area with extensive irrigation development covering a relatively large fraction of the land surface. Under the business-as-usual (BAU) scenario of greenhouse gas emissions, NCP is likely to experience deadly heatwaves with TW exceeding the threshold defining what Chinese farmers may tolerate, while working outdoors without air conditioning. ResultsModel experiments and evaluationHere, we use the of Technology (MIT) Model (MRCM)26 with lateral boundary conditions obtained from simulations by a carefully selected set of global climate models from among those that participated in CMIP527 (see selection criteria described in the Methods section and 1 for the list of global climate models and their details). We perform simulations for historical period (1975–2005), as well as future climate (2070–2100) assuming two scenarios of GHG emissions28 (BAU scenario (RCP8. 5) and moderate mitigation scenario (RCP4. 5)) (see Supplementary Fig. 1, for simulations domain, and 2). For the historical and future period, we performed six sets of simulations, with and without irrigation. By comparing the historical period simulations, with and without irrigation, we estimate the impact of irrigation on heatwaves in the historical climate period as described by the TW. The results of these simulations reveal a significant role for irrigation in enhancing the magnitude of extreme TWmax and hence the intensity of heatwaves. (By “extreme” we mean maximum simulated value over this period. ) Over the irrigated region and NCP, the extreme TWmax over a 30-year period increases by about 0. 5 and 0. 3 °C, respectively, as a result of irrigation during historical period. This impact of irrigation is even larger, if we consider the average TWmax instead of extreme values, and more pronounced during the relatively drier months of early summer (May and June) (see Supplementary Figs. 2–4). These are the months when irrigation has the largest impact on land surface conditions. Heatwaves due to climate change and irrigationThe impacts of climate change are significantly larger than those of irrigation. The extreme TWmax over irrigated area and NCP are projected to increase by an additional 3. 4 and 3.

Output: corroborate


Input: Claim: Wave energy devices work efficiently in any part of the ocean. [SEP] Text: In the simulation evaluation, the convolution product involved in the determination of the radiation force is computed by a direct integration of the product between the past values of the real WEC velocity and the kernel function of radiation obtained from a boundary element method, to ensure an even comparison with maximum fidelity of the radiation force. Table 1 Values of the MPC and RHPSC parametersFull size table Both MPC implementations lead to comparable results; their energy absorption lies between 85 and 100 % of the theoretical maximum. The computational time does not depend on the wave period of the incoming waves and is around 15 ms. Since the time-step of the MPC algorithm is equal to \(\Delta t = 0. 1\) s, the control can be run in real-time. RHPSC presents approximately the same energy absorption and recovers between 90 and 100 % of the theoretical maximum. The computational time involved in the QP optimization does not vary with the wave period of incoming regular waves and is found to be around 5 ms. presents relatively fast convergence property and reaches the same rate of energy absorption as a standard MPC algorithm, with a computational time around three time smaller. Fig. 8Normalised absorbed power and QP computational time for MPC and RHPSC algorithm for different regular wave periodsFull size image The energy absorption performance of both control algorithms under path constraints is presented in Fig. 9. For these simulations the position of the device is limited to \(\pm 0. 1\) m and its velocity to \(\pm 0. 1\) m/s. The same control tuning defined in Table 1 is employed and the waves are regular, with periods between 5 and 15 s. The impact of the constraints on the energy absorption is similar for both the MPC and the RHPSC. For small wave periods, around 5 s, the motion of the device does not exceed the constraints, and thus the constraints do not impact the energy absorption, found to be around 95 % of the theoretical maximum. When the wave period increases, for a fixed wave amplitude, the excitation force increases as well. Yet, the natural motion of the device purports to exceed the position and velocity limitations, and the impact on the energy absorption becomes more significant as the wave period increases. The normalised energy absorption drops from 95 % for a 5 s wave period to 15 % for a 15 s wave period.

Output: contrast


Input: Claim: Functional MRI can measure brain activity by detecting changes in blood flow. [SEP] Text: 1177/0333102417715230. Crossref12. Change in brain network connectivity during PACAP38-induced migraine attacks: a resting-state functional MRI study. Neurology 2016; 86: 180–187. CrossrefPubMed13. Increased intrinsic brain connectivity between pons and somatosensory cortex during attacks of migraine with aura. Mapp 2017; 38: 2635–2642. CrossrefPubMed14. Brain stem activation in spontaneous human migraine attacks. 1995; 1: 658–660. CrossrefPubMedWeb of Science15. . Epidemiology of headache. Neurol 2010; 97: 3–22. CrossrefPubMed16. Foroozan R, Cutrer FM. Transient neurologic dysfunction in migraine. 2009; 27: 361–378. CrossrefPubMed17. Clinical characteristics of 362 patients with familial migraine with aura. Cephalalgia 2004; 24: 564–575. CrossrefPubMedWeb of Science18. Mechanisms of migraine aura revealed by functional MRI in human visual cortex. 2001; 98: 4687–4692. CrossrefPubMedWeb of Science19. Interictal brain activity differs in migraine with and without aura: resting state fMRI study. J 2017; 18: 8. CrossrefPubMed20. Measurement of visual sensitivity in migraine: validation of two scales and correlation with visual cortex activation. Cephalalgia 2015; 35: 585–592. CrossrefPubMedWeb of Science21. Aurora SK, Wilkinson F. The brain is hyperexcitable in migraine. Cephalalgia 2007; 27: 1442–1453. CrossrefPubMedWeb of Science22. Reduced functional connectivity between salience and visual networks in migraine with aura. Cephalalgia 2016; 36: 53–66. CrossrefPubMedWeb of Science23. Gilbert CD, Li W. Top-down influences on visual processing. Neurosci 2013; 14: 350–363. CrossrefPubMedWeb of Science24. Multimodal imaging evidence for a frontocortical modulation of visual cortex during the selective processing of conditioned threat. J 2017; 29: 1–15. CrossrefPubMed25. Increased interictal visual network connectivity in patients with migraine with aura. Cephalalgia 2016; 36: 139–147.

Output: pass


Input: Claim: Climate change has contributed to more frequent and intense heatwaves. [SEP] Text: 3 °C, respectively, assuming a BAU scenario of greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions with irrigation, while increases of extreme TWmax are 2. 9 and 3 °C over irrigated area NCP, respectively, without irrigation (Fig. 2). The spatial distribution of TWmax under current and future climate features three regions with significantly warmer conditions: the NCP close to the Eastern coast, the Yangtze river valley, and the Southern coast. All these regions are characterized by relatively low elevation (lower than 50 m) compared to the surrounding area (e. g. , (Fig. 1a)), which is a major factor explaining occurrence of relatively warm conditions. Over several locations in the NCP and along the Eastern coast of China, such as the areas around and Hangzhou under the BAU scenario, TWmax exceeds the critical threshold for human survival of 35 °C, during several episodes over a 30-year period (Fig. 3). Moderate climate change mitigation efforts, represented by the RCP4. 5 scenario of GHG emissions, reduce the risk of such heatwaves significantly; however, deadly heatwaves are still projected even under those conditions, though significantly less frequent (Fig. 3). In interpretation of the results of this study, we emphasize that TWmax values as low as 30 °C would qualify as “Extremely Dangerous” according to the (NOAA) (see 6). Fig. 2Spatial distribution of extreme wet-bulb temperature. Ensemble average of the 30-year maximum TWmax (°C) for irrigation activity and each GHG scenario: historical without irrigation activity (a), RCP4. 5 without irrigation activity (b), RCP8. 5 without irrigation activity (c), historical with irrigation activity (d), RCP4. 5 with irrigation activity (e), and RCP8. 5 with irrigation activity (f). Averages for irrigated region (IRR) and Plain (box in plot, NCP) are indicated in each plot. Extent of irrigated area is shown in Supplementary Fig. 1. TWmax is the maximum daily value from 6-h running average for each day (bias correction described in the Methods section). The figure was created using the ( size imageFig. 3Histogram of daily maximum wet-bulb temperature in 16 cities over Eastern China.

Output: corroborate


Input: Claim: Wave energy devices work efficiently in any part of the ocean. [SEP] Text: This is due to the fact that the MPC and RHPSC tunings are based on performance determined under regular wave constraints in a [5 s,15 s] period range. Fig. 10Normalised absorbed power and QP computational time for MPC and RHPSC algorithm for different irregular sea statesFull size image To illustrate the ability of the MPC of RHPSC algorithms to maximize the energy production under unconstrained conditions, time series of the position, velocity, control force and absorbed energy are presented in Fig. 11, for an irregular sea state with a peak period of 10 s. Both MPC and RHPSC trajectories are compared to the theoretical optimal one and present a relatively acceptable agreement. Oscillations can be noticed, in particular for the RHPSC, at the beginning of the simulation. The control algorithms starts to drive the WEC with an initial condition of zero, i. e. position and velocity null at the origin of time, while the theoretical optimal trajectory begins with non-null initial conditions. This difference induces a transient state necessary for the RHPSC control algorithm to reach the optimal trajectory from null initial conditions. Fig. 11Normalised absorbed power and QP computational time for MPC and RHPSC algorithms for different irregular sea statesFull size image MPC and RHPSC are particularly interesting and practical control algorithms since they can handle constraints, or technological limitations, while maximizing the energy production. To illustrate the ability of the MPC and RHPSC algorithms under constrained conditions, the time series of the control and state variables, and their technological limitations, are show in Fig. 12 for an irregular sea state with a peak period of 10 s. Fig. 12Normalised absorbed power and QP computational time for MPC and RHPSC algorithms for different irregular sea states under path constraintsFull size image 8 DiscussionBased on the results presented in Sects. 6 and 7 for regular and irregular waves, some insights and further improvements can be deduced from these comparisons. The MPC algorithm seems to present a sensitivity to the way the state-space model is designed. Different radiation force model were compared to achieve the most accurate models possible from the NTNU Toolbox and the Prony’s method. This issue might not be noticed if the model used to evaluated the MPC algorithm is identical to that used to design the control.

Output: contrast


Input: Claim: Functional MRI can measure brain activity by detecting changes in blood flow. [SEP] Text: CrossrefPubMedWeb of Science26. Neuronal mechanisms of perceptual learning: changes in human brain activity with training in orientation discrimination. Neuroimage 1999; 9: 46–62. CrossrefPubMed27. Chao-Gan Y, Yu-Feng Z. : a toolbox for “Pipeline” data analysis of resting-state fMRI. Neurosci 2010; 4: 13. PubMed28. No abnormalities of intrinsic brain connectivity in the interictal phase of migraine with aura. Neurol 2015; 22: 702–e46. CrossrefPubMedWeb of Science29. . Altered functional magnetic resonance imaging resting-state connectivity in periaqueductal gray networks in migraine. 2011; 70: 838–845. CrossrefPubMedWeb of Science30. The missing link: enhanced functional connectivity between amygdala and visceroceptive cortex in migraine. Cephalalgia 2013; 33: 1264–1268. CrossrefPubMedWeb of Science31. Altered functional connectivity of amygdala underlying the neuromechanism of migraine pathogenesis. J 2017; 18: 7. CrossrefPubMed32. The migraine brain in transition: girls vs boys. Pain 2015; 156: 2212–2221. CrossrefPubMed33. Her versus his migraine: multiple sex differences in brain function and structure. Brain 2012; 135: 2546–2559. CrossrefPubMedWeb of Science34. Left and right amygdala – mediofrontal cortical functional connectivity is differentially modulated by harm avoidance. PloS One 2014; 9: e95740. CrossrefPubMed35. . Cortico-cortical connections of primary sensory areas and associated symptoms in migraine. eNeuro 2017; 3: 6. 36. The sensorimotor network dysfunction in migraineurs without aura: a resting-state fMRI study. J Neurol 2017; 264: 654–663. CrossrefPubMed37. Migraine and cognitive decline among women: prospective cohort study. BMJ 2012; 345: e5027. CrossrefPubMed38. Cognitive function is not impaired in people with a long history of migraine: a blinded study. Cephalalgia 2006; 26: 74–80. CrossrefPubMedWeb of Science39. How migraines impact cognitive function: findings from the Baltimore ECA.

Output: pass


Input: Claim: Climate change has contributed to more frequent and intense heatwaves. [SEP] Text: Histogram of the JJAS season of TWmax (°C) for each GHG scenario’s ensemble: historical (black), RCP4. 5 (blue), and RCP8. 5 (red). The histogram bin interval is 1. 0 °C and the values on the y-axis indicate the number of exceedances. Values indicated within each plot represent the 50th and 95th percentile event thresholds. TWmax is the maximum daily value from 6-h running average for each day (bias correction described in the Methods section). The figure was created using the ( but the background image was obtained from size imageIrrigation enhances the response of maximum TWmax to climate change. The response of maximum TWmax over irrigated areas due to the combination of irrigation and climate change (estimated from Fig. 2a, f) is about 3. 9 °C. This is larger than the sum of: (i) the response of maximum TWmax over irrigated areas to irrigation alone (estimated from Fig. 2a, d), of about 0. 5 °C, and (ii) the response of maximum TWmax over the same areas (without irrigation) to climate change alone (estimated from Fig. 2a, c) of about 2. 9 °C. This non-linearity in the response of TW to the combination of irrigation and climate change is likely caused by an enhanced water vapor feedback mechanism over irrigated areas. This topic will be investigated in our future research. Comparison of extreme heatwaves over NCP and Asian beltThe impact of climate change over NCP is compared to the corresponding impacts in other locations within the Asian belt that was identified in our recent study17 as a hotspot for extreme heatwaves based on observations from the last few decades (Fig. 4). The response of extreme TWmax to the GHG forcing over NCP is significantly larger than the corresponding response over the region or that over the Ganges and Indus valleys (see 5). In comparison to the NCP is the only region within that Asian belt that is not influenced by a warm ocean or sea next to it. This observation may explain some of the enhanced response in this region. If we use the 95% percentile value of TWmax as a measure of the intensity of extreme heatwaves, this variable increases by about 3 to 4 °C over the NCP, under RCP8.

Output: corroborate


Input: Claim: Wave energy devices work efficiently in any part of the ocean. [SEP] Text: 1 IntroductionMotivated by a desire to decrease global emissions of carbon and other environmental pollutants, the world is moving steadily to replace fossil fuel-based energy supplies with renewable sources. Ocean wave energy has the potential to make a significant contribution to this effort. A detailed description of the resource is given in Barstow et al. (2008). Estimates for the realistically exploitable resource vary, but according to the above cited work it is on the order of 10–25 % of current electricity consumption, while a recent comprehensive study by the in Jacobsen (2011) estimates that in the USA it could be as much as 1/3 of current demand. Some countries have even larger potentials. Wave energy converter (WEC) technology is still relatively young compared to wind, water, solar and even tidal power extraction, and it thus faces significant hurdles to achieving economically competitive designs. Significant political activity has recently been initiated, however, to mature the industry and speed the large-scale deployment of wave energy installations, see for example: IEA (2014), OEE (2014) and SIOcean (2012). The large-scale exploitation of wave energy will most likely progress gradually from breakwater-based and near-shore devices (e. g. . IT 2014; Oyster 2014) to smaller- and finally larger-scale deep water sites. The progression to deeper water will ideally take place together with wind power to exploit the combined use of infrastructure, maintenance services and the shielding effect of the WECs on the wind turbines. Compared to point absorber and terminator WECs, in deep water attenuator devices have high theoretical absorption width and low mooring loads. The low loads are due to the exploitation of internal (non-rigid-body mode) degrees of freedom and a subsequent cancelation of forces along the long ship-like structure oriented parallel to the main direction of wave propagation. The degrees of freedom which are used to extract energy from the waves can be hinged motions (e. g. Pelamis 2014), individual mechanical oscillators (e. g. Wavestar 2014), or Column (OWC) chambers. OWC chambers have the additional attractive feature of having no moving parts in the water, albeit at the expense of a generally reduced Off (PTO) conversion efficiency associated with existing air turbines compared to hydraulic systems.

Output: contrast


Input: Claim: Functional MRI can measure brain activity by detecting changes in blood flow. [SEP] Text: Neurology 2007; 68: 1417–1424. CrossrefPubMedWeb of Science40. Cognitive dysfunctions and psychological symptoms in migraine without aura: a cross-sectional study. J2016; 17: 76. CrossrefPubMed41. Executive resting-state network connectivity in migraine without aura. Cephalalgia 2012; 32: 1041–1048. CrossrefPubMedWeb of Science42. Abnormal connectivity within executive resting-state network in migraine with aura. Headache 2015; 55: 794–805. CrossrefPubMedWeb of Science43. A default mode of brain function. 2001; 98: 676–682. CrossrefPubMedWeb of Science44. Disrupted default mode network connectivity in migraine without aura. J 2013; 14: 89. CrossrefPubMedWeb of Science45. Ipsilateral alteration of resting state activity suggests that cortical dysfunction contributes to the pathogenesis of cluster headache. 2017; 30: 281–289. CrossrefPubMed46. Regional homogeneity abnormalities in patients with interictal migraine without aura: a resting-state study. NMR Biomed 2012; 25: 806–812. CrossrefPubMedWeb of Science47. Intrinsic brain network abnormalities in migraines without aura revealed in resting-state fMRI. PloS One 2012; 7: e52927. CrossrefPubMedWeb of Science48. Increased default mode network connectivity and increased regional homogeneity in migraineurs without aura. J 2016; 17: 98. CrossrefPubMed49. Functional magnetic resonance imaging in spontaneous attacks of SUNCT: short-lasting neuralgiform headache with conjunctival injection and tearing. 1999; 46: 791–794. CrossrefPubMedWeb of Science50. PET and MRA findings in cluster headache and MRA in experimental pain. Neurology 2000; 55: 1328–1335. CrossrefPubMedWeb of Science51. Posterior hypothalamic and brainstem activation in hemicrania continua. Headache 2004; 44: 747–761. CrossrefPubMedWeb of Science52. SUNCT: bilateral hypothalamic activation during headache attacks and resolving of symptoms after trigeminal decompression. Pain 2005; 113: 422–426. CrossrefPubMedWeb of Science53. Specific hypothalamic activation during a spontaneous cluster headache attack.

Output: pass


Input: Claim: Climate change has contributed to more frequent and intense heatwaves. [SEP] Text: 5, compared to an increase of 2 to 3 °C under the same scenario over the region or the region (5). Taking this enhanced response to GHG forcing together with the simulated impact of irrigation in this region brings the extreme TWmax simulated by our model to approach and exceed the 35 °C threshold. NCP is likely to experience significantly warmer conditions and more severe heatwaves towards the end of the twenty-first century compared to the early decades of the twentieth century. Fig. 4Spatial distribution of 95th percentile of daily maximum wet-bulb temperature. TWmax (°C) from the MRCM ensemble of simulations driven by three GCMs (Southwest Asia: and Eastern China: ) for each GHG scenario: historical (a), RCP4. 5 (b), and RCP8. 5 (c). All simulations include irrigation. TWmax is maximum daily value from 6-h running average for each day (bias correction described in the Methods setion). TWmax is presented over land areas only within the simulations domains. Land areas, outside simulations domains, are shown in gray. All ocean areas, within or outside simulations domains, are shown in blue. The figure was created using the ( size imageDiscussionAlthough the model used in this study has been tested extensively over China and other regions of Asia, significant limitations may persist. The representation of surface processes and other physical parametrizations in our model represent a significant source of uncertainty. In order to minimize that source, we have tested the model against observations of surface temperature, humidity, and TW. As shown in the (see 4 and Supplementary Figs. 5–10), incorporation of irrigation improves significantly the skill of the model in reproducing the observed surface climate. Another source of uncertainty is the choice of the CMIP5 Model simulations used in specifying the lateral boundary conditions for MRCM, historically and in the future. In order to reduce this uncertainty, we carefully selected only three climate models that show satisfactory performance in simulating the climate of this region (selection criteria described in the Methods section). Our results are based on the ensemble of simulations from three sets of experiments using the three different GCM simulations as boundary conditions. This study complements our series of recent studies16,17 that documented a serious risk from potentially deadly heatwaves triggered by climate change in three discrete locations along an Asian belt stretching from the to the Bohai Sea.

Output: corroborate


Input: Claim: Wave energy devices work efficiently in any part of the ocean. [SEP] Text: These results are normalized by the wave amplitude A and the wave slope kA for translational and rotational modes, respectively, and are plotted versus the relative incident wavelength. Here, we can see a good agreement between the calculations and the measurements, especially in the target wave period region where the rigid-body motions are small. The increased pressures in the chambers near resonance which are predicted by the optimized damping coefficients can be seen to introduce an enhanced pitch response there. We note that the mooring system introduces a very long natural period to the surge response of the structure, but this period is far beyond the wind-wave spectrum which we focus on here. We note also that the vertical center of gravity and the pitch radius of gyration of the ballasted model were used in the calculations. Fig. 23The surge motion response of the full 40 chamber modelFull size image Fig. 24The heave motion response of the full 40 chamber modelFull size image Fig. 25The pitch motion response of the full 40 chamber modelFull size image 5 ConclusionsIn this paper, we have clarified several subtle details which are important to getting good performance out of standard frequency domain, linear potential flow theory for the analysis of floating structures which include one or more OWC degrees of freedom. This has been illustrated by considering both a fixed single degree of freedom OWC and an I-beam attenuator OWC device with 26 degrees of freedom. The agreement between calculations and measurements is generally found to be excellent, though the calculations tend to slightly over-predict the internal chamber pressures and therefore the absorbed power near resonance, but under-predict these quantities in long waves in the freely floating condition. Future work will focus on weakly non-linear calculations in the time domain which will allow for a better model of the air turbine and inclusion of some viscous and air compressibility effects. Possible improvements to the design which are currently under investigation include: replacing the simple chamber with a U-OWC chamber; replacing the OWC with a simple mechanical oscillator; and introducing a valve system to rectify the air flow from all chambers to a central plenum and one large unidirectional turbine. Survivability tests, structural calculations and detailed mooring system design are also in progress to get an accurate estimate of the final cost of energy for such a system.

Output: contrast


Input: Claim: Functional MRI can measure brain activity by detecting changes in blood flow. [SEP] Text: Brain 2016; 139: 1987–1993. CrossrefPubMedWeb of Science67. Prevalence of chronic headache with and without medication overuse: associations with socioeconomic position and physical and mental health status. Pain 2014; 155: 2005–2013. CrossrefPubMedWeb of Science68. . Medication overuse headache. Headache 2014; 54: 1251–1257. CrossrefPubMedWeb of Science69. . Medication overuse headache: pathophysiological insights from structural and functional brain MRI research. Headache 2017; 57: 1173–1178. CrossrefPubMed70. Grey matter changes associated with medication-overuse headache: correlations with disease related disability and anxiety. 2012; 13: 517–525. CrossrefPubMedWeb of Science71. Gray matter changes related to medication overuse in patients with chronic migraine. Cephalalgia 2016; 36: 1324–1333. CrossrefPubMedWeb of Science72. Orbitofrontal cortex involvement in chronic analgesic-overuse headache evolving from episodic migraine. Brain 2006; 129: 543–50. CrossrefPubMedWeb of Science73. Functional-MRI evaluation of pain processing in chronic migraine with medication overuse. 200930 Suppl 1: S71–S74. CrossrefPubMed74. Chronic migraine with medication overuse pre-post withdrawal of symptomatic medication: clinical results and FMRI correlations. Headache 2010; 50: 998–1004. CrossrefPubMedWeb of Science75. Brain functional connectivity and morphology changes in medication-overuse headache: clue for dependence-related processes? Cephalalgia 2014; 34: 605–615. CrossrefPubMedWeb of Science76. Nucleus accumbens functional connectivity discriminates medication-overuse headache. 2016; 11: 686–693. CrossrefPubMed77. Altered functional connectivity architecture of the brain in medication overuse headache using resting state fMRI. J 2017; 18: 25. CrossrefPubMed78. Pain modulation is affected differently in medication-overuse headache and chronic myofascial pain – a multimodal MRI study. Cephalalgia 2017; 37: 764–779. CrossrefPubMedWeb of Science79. van Zijl PC, et al. On the relationship between seed-based and ICA-based measures of functional connectivity.

Output: pass


Input: Claim: Climate change has contributed to more frequent and intense heatwaves. [SEP] Text: Similar to our previous studies on the 16,17, we emphasize the important role of humidity, and demonstrate a new approach to characterize heatwaves through the use of TW consistent with the physiologic threshold discussed above, and the use of 6-h period as the duration of a heatwave reflecting how long humans may survive at that threshold temperature. However, the magnitude of the projected enhancement of the risk of deadly heatwaves in China seems larger than the projected enhancements along the coasts of the or over the Ganges and Indus valleys (Fig. 4). China is currently the largest emitter of carbon dioxide, and the rates of emission has increased sharply since the beginning of the twenty-first century29. Our results suggest significant negative regional climate change impacts affecting the most populous region of China, NCP, where future population is projected to grow even further by the end of twenty-first century30. Although the emissions per capita from China may not stand out compared to other nations, national climate change policy in China will need to carefully evaluate and weigh the projected negative impacts of severe heatwaves on local population against the positive impacts of economic development. Enhanced investments in renewables, already adopted widely in China, may offer an alternative pathway that achieves economic development and mitigates local impacts of future global climate change. However, even under moderate mitigation scenarios severe heatwaves are projected for NCP which may necessitate simultaneous development of effective public health adaptation measures to avoid the deadly impacts of future heatwaves. In this study, we project based on an ensemble of high-resolution regional climate model simulations that climate change would add significantly to the anthropogenic effects of irrigation, increasing the risk from heatwaves over the NCP region, an area with extensive irrigation development covering a relatively large fraction of the land surface. Under the BAU scenario of greenhouse gas emissions, NCP is likely to experience deadly heatwaves with TW exceeding the threshold defining what Chinese farmers may tolerate, while working outdoors without air conditioning. MethodsDescription of 26 used in the study is based on the for 3 (RegCM3)31 but with several improvements32,33,34,35, achieved through incorporation of new physical schemes or modification of original schemes MRCM has been rigorously tested against observations, in its ability to simulate key observed climate features, across several regions (e. g. , North America32, West Africa36, Southwest Asia16, South Asia17, Maritime Continent37).

Output: corroborate


Input: Claim: Offshore wind farms require no environmental assessments or planning. [SEP] Text: Ως μέρος του επόμενου σταδίου αυτής της διατριβής, εφόσον προκύψουν οι κατάλληλες περιοχές, είναι να ληφθούν υπόψη τόσο η πιθανή οπτική όχληση από το αιολικό πάρκο των προτεινόμενων τοποθεσιών όσο και η τεχνοοικονομική αξιολόγηση, με στόχο να διασφαλιστεί η αποδοχή τους.

Output: contrast


Input: Claim: Functional MRI can measure brain activity by detecting changes in blood flow. [SEP] Text: In addition, we simultaneously measured local field potentials (FP) and CBF to provide a comprehensive assessment of hemodynamic and neuronal activity. Materials and methodsAnimal PreparationNine male Sprague-Dawley rats (300 to 450 g) were studied in accordance with the University of California, Chancellor's Committee on Animal Research. Animals were prepared using a thinned skull preparation performed under halothane anesthesia, as previously described (Sheth et al, 2004a). We cannulated the tail artery for continuous blood pressure monitoring and periodic blood gas sampling, the femoral vein for subsequent anesthetic delivery, and the trachea for artificial ventilation. Anesthesia was then switched to intravenous α-chloralose (60 mg/kg initial bolus, 30 mg/kg h continuous infusion) and pancuronium bromide (2 mg/kg initial bolus, 1. 5 mg/kg h continuous infusion), and inspired gases adjusted to maintain physiologic variables within the normal range: mean arterial blood pressure 90 to 110 mm Hg, arterial pO2 121 ± 14 mm Hg, arterial pCO2 39 ± 3 mm Hg (mean ± s. d. ). Halothane was discontinued for at least 1 h before imaging. Optical ImagingAnimals were transferred to the stage of a Nikon SMZ1500 microscope for imaging. Illumination was provided by a DC voltage-stabilized quartz-tungsten-halogen source (PL900, Dolan-) equipped with a heat filter. Two fiber optic guides with focusing lenses directed the light to the preparation, and reflected light was collected by the microscope and filtered by a filter wheel (Lambda 10-2, ) mounted on the exit port. The filtered light was captured by a cooled 16-bit charge-coupled device (CCD) camera (TE/CCD-576) attached to the filter wheel. We used four narrow bandpass transmission filters, centered at 569 (full-width at half-maximum (FWHM) 3 nm), 577 (FWHM 3), 586 (6), and 605 (5) nm. The field of view covered 3. 57 × 4. 80 mm with a 144 × 192 pixel array, providing 25 μm/pixel resolution.

Output: pass


Input: Claim: Climate change has contributed to more frequent and intense heatwaves. [SEP] Text: AbstractThis study examines the dominant heatwave variability over (NA), extracted from an empirical orthogonal function (EOF) analysis of summertime monthly warm extreme index anomalies over 1959–2021. The principal mode features a dipole structure with a large area of anomaly over northwestern NA and an anomaly of opposite sign over the southern U. S. The corresponding principal component is associated with a large-scale atmospheric wave train extending from the to (NP-NA) and a northeastward injection of moisture from the subtropical western Pacific towards western NA, which are key factors in supporting the NA heatwave variability. The NP-NA wave train can be systematically reinforced and supported by synoptic-scale eddies, and may also be forced by an anomalous convection over the tropical-subtropical western Pacific. Surface radiation heating directly contributes to surface temperature anomalies and is dominated by anomalous downwelling shortwave and longwave radiations. In association with a positive phase of the heatwave variability, the NP-NA wave train brings an anticyclonic anomaly over northern NA, leading to anomalous descent, reduced total cloud cover and below-normal precipitation and surface relative humidity over northern NA. Over northwestern NA, the anomalous subsidence causes air to warm through compression. Reduced cloud cover results in increased downward shortwave radiation that is a key contributor to surface radiation heating. In addition, increase in vertically integrated water vapour through the moisture injection from the collocates with tropospheric warming. The atmosphere has more water vapor holding capability and acts as a greenhouse gas to absorb longwave radiation, leading to increased downward longwave radiation that is the second major contributor to surface radiation heating. Processes with circulation and surface radiation anomalies of opposite signs will likewise lead to the negative heatwave variability. Similar content being viewed by others Two leading modes of the interannual variability in surface air temperature during austral winter 2021. Lin et al. (2022) and Mo et al. (2022) explored the physical mechanism and subseasonal prediction of this extreme heatwave event. A northward propagation of the summer monsoon (SEASM) in late June of 2021 was found to cause precipitation and convection anomalies in the subtropical western Pacific.

Output: corroborate


Input: Claim: Offshore wind farms require no environmental assessments or planning. [SEP] Text: Οι 80 μελέτες που εξετάστηκαν χωρίστηκαν σε πέντε κατηγορίες με βάση τις μεθοδολογίες που χρησιμοποιήθηκαν: Θαλάσσιος Χωροταξικός Σχεδιασμός, Ανάλυση Σκοπιμότητας, Πιθανολογικές Μέθοδοι, Μετεωρολογικά Δεδομένα και Πολυκριτηριακές Μέθοδοι. Οι 80 εργασίες που εξετάστηκαν κατηγοριοποιήθηκαν με βάση 170 διαφορετικά κριτήρια που χρησιμοποίησαν και ομαδοποιώντας τα προέκυψε ένα τελικό σύνολο 41 κριτηρίων.

Output: contrast


Input: Claim: Functional MRI can measure brain activity by detecting changes in blood flow. [SEP] Text: Each imaging trial lasted 16 secs (6 before stimulus and 10 after stimulus), and images were acquired every 250 ms, resulting in 64 images per trial. Trials were spaced 30 secs apart to allow the hemodynamic response to return to baseline. The four filters were alternated every trial. We designed a LabView (Version 5. 1, ) virtual instrument to acquire optical and electrophysiologic data, control filter wheel position, and communicate with the stimulator. Stimulation consisted of a 2-sec train of 1 ms square electrical pulses (ISO-Flex, Master-8, AMPI, Israel) delivered to the left hindpaw via two steel needle electrodes inserted into the plantar surface of the foot and ~10 mm away on the medial aspect of the leg. We varied neuronal activity by modulating the stimulation frequency (2, 5, 10, 15, 20 Hz at 1. 2 mA). Stimuli were presented pseudorandomly. We acquired 12 trials per wavelength and stimulation condition, for a total of 240 trials in each subject. ImagingMultiwavelength optical imaging data were analyzed using a spectroscopic approach to calculate deoxyhemoglobin (Hbr) and oxyhemoglobin (HbO2) over the entire two-dimensional image. The data were fit to a model incorporating a modified form of the Beer-Lambert law, which describes light attenuation in the presence of absorbance and scattering:logIoλI(t)λ=(εHbrλΔ[Hbr](t)+εHbO2λΔ[HbO2](t))Iλ+ΔS(1)where Io is the pre-stimulus intensity, I(t) the measured intensity time course, ε extinction coefficients, l the path length through the tissue, S scattering, Δ[Hbr](t) is the time course of change in absorbers, and superscript λ indicates wavelength dependency. The four wavelengths of data at each pixel were treated as a discrete spectrum, and these pixel-by-pixel ‘spectra’ were fit to Equation (1) to extract a value of Hbr and HbO2 at each pixel. Wavelength dependency of the optical path length was measured using an in vitro phantom simulating the absorbance and scattering properties of brain tissue (Sheth et al, 2004a).

Output: pass


Input: Claim: Climate change has contributed to more frequent and intense heatwaves. [SEP] Text: The precipitation anomaly acted as an anomalous diabatic heating to trigger an extratropical Rossby wave train propagating from the western Pacific, through the towards North America, leading to synoptic conditions favorable for the extreme heatwave in western NA. In particular, the anomalous wave train brought a strong high-pressure known as heat dome (NOAA 2022) over western NA, under which the warm air was trapped and the associated subsidence caused further warming by compression. Meanwhile, there was a northeastward advance of a strong atmospheric river (AR, Ralph et al. 2004, 2018) across the towards western NA. Strong ARs can pump moisture out of tropical regions and incorporate mid-latitude moisture sources along their paths (Dettinger et al. 2015; Eiras-Barca et al. 2017; Mo et al. 2022). The AR injected moisture in western NA could act as a greenhouse gas to trap solar radiation that further warmed the lower atmosphere. Through the mechanisms of the atmospheric teleconnection and AR contribution, an extreme heatwave occurred across western NA in June–July, 2021 (Lin et al. 2022; Mo et al. 2022). Does this particular extreme heatwave in western NA indicate an intrinsic pattern of NA heatwave variability? Are the atmospheric teleconnection and ARs from the to key factors supporting historical extreme heatwaves in NA? Furthermore, what are the physical processes responsible for the large-scale atmospheric circulation and, more directly, surface temperature anomalies associated with historical heatwaves in NA? These issues are of fundamental importance to climate variability and prediction. In this study, we address these questions from a climatological perspective, by analyzing the variability of monthly extreme surface temperatures and the associated atmospheric and oceanic fields over the past 60 years. In the following section, we outline the data and methods employed in this study. We then examine the leading summertime heatwave variability over NA in Sect. 3. Section 4 presents physical diagnostics of the leading heatwave variability, including the heatwave associated anomalies of large-scale circulation and moisture; we also analyze the maintenance of the circulation and surface energy budget anomalies to help understand the generation and maintenance of NA heatwaves. Results are summarized and further discussed in Sect. 5.

Output: corroborate


Input: Claim: Offshore wind farms require no environmental assessments or planning. [SEP] Text: Για τον προσδιορισμό των καταλληλότερων περιοχών για την βιώσιμη χωροθέτησή τους, οι διαθέσιμες περιοχές αναλύθηκαν με βάση ενεργειακά κριτήρια, τεχνοοικονομικά, περιβαλλοντικά, ασφάλειας, καθώς και όχλησης. Τρεις ήταν οι περιοχές που αναδείχθηκαν ως οι καταλληλότερες για εγκατάσταση των πλωτών ΥΑΠ, αξιολογώντας τα ενεργειακά τους χαρακτηριστικά.

Output: contrast


Input: Claim: Functional MRI can measure brain activity by detecting changes in blood flow. [SEP] Text: This method tends to assign a smaller area to lower magnitude signals that are closer to the noise, but offers the advantages of de-emphasizing vasomotion artifact unrelated to the stimulus (Mayhew et al, 1996), and providing statistical significance thresholds. Spatial extent was defined as the square root (Brett-Green et al, 2001) of the area with P<0. 05, thus providing a linear measure of the response area. ElectrophysiologyDuring every trial we simultaneously recorded field potentials, which reflect integrated synaptic activity (Mitzdorf, 1987). The response location was identified by 569 nm optical imaging, and a burr hole drilled in the thinned skull near the activation center. The dura was nicked with a 27-gauge needle to prevent tenting, and a tungsten microelectrode (125 μm shaft diameter, 12° tip, A-) advanced to 500 to 600 μm (~layer IV). Analog data were amplified 1000 times (SCXI 1120, ) and sampled at 1 kHz. A reference electrode was placed in the posterior midline fascia. The microscope was enclosed within a Faraday cage to reduce electromagnetic interference. We waited at least 1 h between electrode insertion and imaging. Summed evoked field potentials (ΣFP) were quantified by summing individual FP magnitudes (large negative deflection) across a stimulation train (Mathiesen et al, 1998; Ngai et al, 1999; Sheth et al, 2003). Laser-Doppler FlowmetryLaser-Doppler flowmetry (LDF) was concurrently performed in six of the nine subjects to further evaluate early temporal characteristics of the hemodynamic response. After electrode placement, the laser beam of the LDF instrument () was positioned at the activation center, taking care to avoid large vessels and the recording electrode (Sheth et al, 2004b). Data were acquired at 10 Hz with a 0. 1-sec time constant. A 615-nm low-pass optical filter was placed in the illuminator to avoid crosstalk with the LDF measurements. Flow data were continuously acquired during the stimulation paradigm described above. ResultsWe measured the hemodynamic and electrophysiologic response to peripheral stimulation in rat somatosensory cortex using simultaneous optical imaging, LDF, and field potential recording.

Output: pass