Input: Claim: Panspermia is a hypothesis about the transfer of life between planets. [SEP] Text: However, after the fact, this evidence was discounted in favor of an inorganic explanation that theorized that UV-produced peroxides in the Martian soil were responsible for the oxidation (Quinn and Zent, 1999), despite the validity of these theories remaining questioned by the inventor of the apparatus, (Levin, 1981, 2007). Levin’s case has been bolstered by a recent investigation that suggested that the GC/MS experiment aboard the Viking would have been insensitive to the organic constituents of Antarctic soils, which are by no means devoid of life (Navarro-González et al. , 2006). In addition to this, recent evidence of water ice under the Martian surface (Boynton et al. , 2002), in its atmosphere (Pearl et al. , 2001), as well as the discovery of seasonal methane emissions (Krashnopolsky et al. , 2004) has led Levin to opine: “What would be truly extraordinary in the light of present knowledge would be finding Mars to be sterile” (Levin, 2007). Despite this evidence, recent information obtained from Martian landers suggests an arid, acidic, and oxidizing early Mars (Squyres and Knoll, 2005), and the recent unexpected discovery of perchlorate salts in the Martian soil (Hecht et al. , 2009), gives evidence for the presence of an oxidant that may yet convincingly explain the results of the LR experiments as abiotic. Future robotic missions that are slated for the current decade aim to clarify some of these questions by sampling up to 2 m below the Martian surface and may yet offer generally accepted signs of life on Mars (Rinaldi, 2007). Other authors have described instruments that may overcome the limitations of the Viking GC/MS experiments by detecting PAHs (polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons) with higher sensitivity and distinguishing between enantiomers of amino acids (Bada, 2001), though final confirmation may have to await proposed sample return missions (Schulze-Makuch and Irwin, 2002). 2. 2The ALH84001 Martian meteorite caused an intense media stir when it was claimed that it contained proof of past biogenic activity, which spurred then US Clinton to address the nation on the significance of the finding (Dick and Strick, 2004).

Output: pass


Input: Claim: Dinosaurs were all warm-blooded and behaved like modern birds. [SEP] Text: Fossils of troodontids with their skeleton arranged such that the hindlimbs are flexed beneath the belly, the neck is turned backwards, and the head is tucked between the wing and the body have documented that at least some of the maniraptoran precursors of birds had already evolved stereotypical resting poses familiar to many birds (Xu and Norell 2004). More specific fields of research have made their own empirical contributions in support of the dinosaurian legacy of birds. Studies of dinosaurian growth rates, based on details preserved in the fossilized tissue of their bones, have documented that these animals, once believed to be slow-growing, actually grew at speeds comparable to many living birds (Erickson et al. 2001), and special bone tissues, such as the medullary bone characteristic of ovulating birds, have been documented in a female T. rex (Schweitzer et al. 2005). Evidence in support of the evolutionary transition between nonavian dinosaurs and birds has also been uncovered from disciplines as far-off from classic paleontology as genetics. Studies correlating the sizes of bone cells and genomes (the entire genetic material of an organism) have revealed that the mighty T. rex and its fearsome kin had the small genomes typical of modern birds (Organ et al. 2007), and putative protein sequences from soft tissues of this dinosaur have also highlighted its evolutionary closeness to birds (Organ et al. 2008, although for a different interpretation of this evidence, see Dalton 2008). Yet, despite the multiplicity of this extensive body of evidence, nothing has cemented the dinosaurian pedigree of birds more than the realization that true feathers—the quintessential avian feature—may have covered the bodies of a variety of nonavian dinosaurs (Norell and Xu 2005). The enormous significance of these fossils notwithstanding, the documented existence of feathers in nonavian dinosaurs has, thus far, been limited to a dozen or so species, all of them circumscribed to the Cretaceous deposits of East Asia. Some of these dinosaurs exhibit feathers that are filament-like, with a minimal degree of branching, but a number of others display pennaceous feathers with distinct shafts and vanes.

Output: corroborate


Input: Claim: Astrobiologists have already made contact with alien civilizations. [SEP] Text: 169)—concept of an evolution of the universe and of life that must eventually, almost inevitably, lead to a post-biological machine civilization: “Quite ironically, the assumed biogenicity of the Universe would eventually lead towards global adaptive processes in which the cosmologically extended biosphere is favoring the emergence of artificial or post-biological forms of intelligence from organic substrate […] In such a scenario the Biocosm transforms it self naturally into a Silico- or Technocosm during a final epoch of one developmental cycle” (Martinez 2014, 38. The authors argue that the use of energy resources and the production of complex tools probably involves ‘mastery of fire', which would mean that a technological civilization cannot arise in water or under water (Schulze-Makuch and Bains 2017, 39. Simple exchange operations, on the other hand, are found on Earth in many species, not only primates but also rats, for example. 40. Chick (2014, 41. Our argument here differs from that of Stevenson and Large (2017), who explore the question of how complex life, and ultimately intelligence, might arise from simple life forms on distant planets. In their view, there are two factors that make the emergence of intelligent life likely in evolutionary theory: first, the number of ecological niches on a planet, and second, the information density of the environment in which life evolves—which in turn corresponds to the number of ecological niches present in a living world. “In terms of evolutionary pace, the driving factor is the growth in information complexity of the environment in which organisms exist […] Low information landscapes (including aquaplanets) can never evolve complex or intelligent life because the information available to organisms is limited” (Stevenson and Large 2017, p. 4). 42. As early as the sixties of the last century, the series introduced the idea of cultivated biological spaceships into German science fiction with the Dolans. 43. Unfortunately, it is not possible for us to elaborate further on this point here—an outline for a transhuman sociology of knowledge is still pending. 44. At this point, one could put forward the thesis that the confrontation with a ‘machine civilization' would rather increase human anxiety because of the lack of biological commonalities. 45.

Output: contrast


Input: Claim: Panspermia is a hypothesis about the transfer of life between planets. [SEP] Text: Several lines of evidence were used to reach this conclusion, including the presence of PAHs, magnetite and sulfide minerals, and carbonate globules that resembled bacteria, though an order of magnitude smaller than any known Earth cell (McKay et al. , 1996). The initial enthusiasm for this claim has largely subsided, based on the fact that the biological production of any one of the lines of evidence used by the authors to argue for this is no more compelling than the argument for a “null” abiotic origin. J. addressed some of the limitations of their finding (Dick and Strick, 2004) relating to the “microfossils” discovered within the meteorite: Even though they showed multiple examples of the microbe-like objects in question, their suggestion failed because the putative fossils lack cell lumina, carbonaceous cell walls, taphonomically credible variable preservation, and plausible biological size ranges. (Schopf et al. , 2005) Other authors suggested that the geology of the meteorite was inconsistent with a life-supporting environment (Golden et al. , 2004; Min and Reiners, 2007; Barrat and Bollinger, 2010) or proposed plausible mechanisms for the abiotic synthesis of organics and magnetite crystals (McCollom, 2003). Despite these criticisms, arguments are still made that some of the magnetite crystals contained in the meteorite represent what “In a terrestrial context…would be interpreted as a biosignature indicative of the presence of past metabolic activity by magnetotactic bacteria” (Thomas-Keprta et al. , 2002). This fierce debate was echoed several years later when the ALH84001 skeptic Schopf found himself on the defensive as Oxford’s raised doubts about the biogenicity and phylogeny of the 3. 5-billion-year-old terrestrial Apex chert microfossils, long thought to be conclusive evidence of Archean life (Dalton, 2002). These microscopic fossils, which were originally characterized tentatively as cyanobacteria existing in a shallow sea bottom, were criticized based on their visual appearance as well as their geological context (Brasier et al. , 2002). Brasier et al. claimed that the fossils had morphology inconsistent with cyanobacteria and that they were in fact carbonaceous artifacts produced in a hydrothermal environment.

Output: pass


Input: Claim: Memory can be perfectly recalled with the right stimulus. [SEP] Text: The applications were designed using the Unity game development platform which allows tracking of the user’s head in the experimental space; the simulation of virtual objects; the generation of speech and sounds that appear to emanate from specific locations; and interaction with the user via voice commands and a clicker. Human subject tests After a preliminary exploration of these methods, we settled on a fixed experimental protocol and recruited seven blind subjects (Figure 1D). Subjects heard a short explanation of what to expect, then donned the HoloLens and launched into a series of four fully automated tasks without experimenter involvement. No training sessions were provided, and all the data were gathered within a 2 hr visit. Object localization Here, we tested the user’s ability to localize an augmented reality sound source (Figure 1B). A virtual object placed randomly at a 2 m distance from the subject called out ‘box’ whenever the subject pressed a clicker. The subject was asked to orient the head towards the object and then confirm the final choice of direction with a voice command. All subjects found this a reasonable request and oriented surprisingly well, with an accuracy of 3–12 degrees (standard deviation across trials, Figure 1C). Several subjects had a systematic pointing bias to one or the other side of the target (−9 to +13 deg, Figure 1C), but no attempt was made to correct for this bias. These results show that users can accurately localize the virtual voices generated by HoloLens, even though the software used a generic head-related transfer function without customization. Spatial memory Do object voices help in forming a mental image of the scene (Lacey, 2013) that can be recalled for subsequent decisions? A panel of five virtual objects was placed in the horizontal plane 2 m from the subject, spaced 30 degrees apart in azimuth (Figure 2A). The subject scanned this scene actively using the Spotlight mode for 60 s. Then the object voices were turned off and we asked the subject to orient towards the remembered location of each object, queried in random order. All subjects performed remarkably well, correctly recalling the arrangement of all objects (Figure 2B, Figure 2—figure supplement 1) with just one error (1/28 trials). Even the overall scale of the scene and the absolute positions of the objects were reproduced well from memory, to an average accuracy of ~15 deg (rms deviation from true position, Figure 2C–D).

Output: corroborate


Input: Claim: Astrobiologists have already made contact with alien civilizations. [SEP] Text: The camouflage thesis, according to which extraterrestrials create artificial bodies that look confusingly similar to human bodies after prolonged observation of the Earth for the purpose of exploring our planet or also for establishing contact as carriers of their consciousness, is excluded here (Schetsche 2008, 1967. 46. Following one of the possible resolutions of the Fermi paradox, namely the consideration that post-biological secondary civilizations have little interest in contact with a biological species and wait accordingly with the establishment of contact until ‘the machines' have also taken over on Earth, one could also conclude: If direct contact takes place, we are probably dealing with a biological or with a hybrid civilization. However, this assumes that the premise of these considerations is correct. In this respect, too, we are anything but certain. 1966. Construction of Reality. A Treatise in the Sociology of Knowledge. Garden City, NY: Doubleday. 2018. Anthromorphism in the Search for Extra-– of Cognition? 143: 163–168. 2014. Superintelligenz. Szenarien einer kommenden Revolution. Frankfurt am Main: Suhrkamp. 2017. Superintelligence. Paths, Dangers, Strategies (Reprinted with corrections). Oxford: Press. 2014. for the Development of Interstellar Communication. In Archaeology, Anthropology, and Interstellar Communication, Ed. Douglas A. Vakoch, 203–226. Washington: NASA. 2002. Defining ‚Life‘. Origins of Life and Evolution of the Biosphere 32: 387–393. 2002. Geology of Mankind. Nature 415: 23. 2011. Erde hat keinen Notausgang. Energie und Politik im Anthropozän. Berlin: Suhrkamp. 2003. Cultural Evolution, the Postbiological Universe, and SETI. of Astrobiology 2 (1): 65–74. 2018. Anthropocence. A Introduction. Oxford: Press. 2009. Philosophische Anthropologie. des 20. Jahrhunderts. Freiburg im Breisgau: Karl Alber. 1986. Der Mensch. und seine Stellung in der Welt. Wiesbaden: Aula-Verlag. 2010. Zwischenlagen.

Output: contrast


Input: Claim: Panspermia is a hypothesis about the transfer of life between planets. [SEP] Text: This debate resulted in many follow-up publications by both Brasier and Schopf describing techniques for testing evidence, such as confirmation of three-dimensional morphology (Schopf and Kudryavtsev, 2005), as well as a number of arguments about the placement of these fossils in a more robust geological context (Brasier et al. , 2005). Although heated at times (Dalton, 2002), the debate served the purpose of clarifying the provenance of some of the oldest microfossils on Earth. Publications by Schopf and colleagues offer evidence to support the biogenicity of these fossils through more in-depth examinations of both morphology as well as the organic constituents of the microfossils (Schopf et al. , 2005, 2007; Schopf, 2006). This debate is still far from over – new data suggests the structures are not in fact microfossils, though still indicative of microbial life (Marshall et al. , 2011). However, Brasier’s most significant achievement has been the reframing of the world where these ancient organisms existed, as well as their phylogenetic affinities – no longer do paleontologists believe that these organisms were undoubtedly cyanobacteria existing in a temperate “early Eden” (Brasier et al. , 2004); rather, they appear to have existed in a geologically active hydrothermal environment. This example is a cautionary tale – if Schopf’s picture of the early Earth as enshrined in textbooks can be so easily challenged, inferences made about life outside of Earth (that we have even less ability to directly study) may be overturned just as quickly. Purported ET (extraterrestrial) microfossils must be similarly examined with extreme caution with every attempt to confirm the null hypothesis, before claims can be made that they represent unambiguous signs of life. Another similar debate occurred with the discovery of “nanobacteria,” with extraordinary initial claims of an undiscovered type of life ultimately yielding to an abiotic explanation (Cisar et al. , 2000; Raoult et al. , 2008; Young and Martel, 2010).

Output: pass


Input: Claim: Natural disasters can be prevented with sufficient planning. [SEP] Text: Examples of solar power plants constructed in deforested or steep-sloping areas in Japan. As the above example suggests, developing problematic areas for development leads to cause issues. Therefore, in order to avoid such issues and pursue sustainable land development, it is beneficial to define development-restrictive areas in advance. Focusing on this point, this study illustrates how to divide a region or municipality into development-restrictive areas and allowable areas. First, the next section shows three main land attributes related to judging the appropriateness of development: (1) biodiversity, (2) natural disaster risk, and (3) topographic gradient. After that, concerning these three land attributes, Sections 3, 4, and 5, respectively, illustrate ways to define problematic areas for development. Lastly, Section 6 demonstrates how to integrate these three sorts of cartographic information in the GIS and delineate development-restrictive areas. Advertisement 2. Strategy for sustainable land development2. 1 Sustainable urban design guidelinesWe are producing sustainable urban design guidelines, based on the system control approach. As the “Goals” implies, achieving sustainability is a goal-oriented challenge. The science of system control can be applied to all goal-oriented tasks [3, 4]. Moreover, that science has produced remarkable results in many fields, in particular engineering. Therefore, by applying system control, we have been progressing in research on sustainable design [3, 4]. The main process of producing sustainable urban design guidelines is shown in Figure 2. The production process starts with identifying environmental, social, and economic problems related to cities. Next, based on the specified problems, requirements for the sustainable urban design are also identified. After that, the requirements are converted into design guidelines, so that users can efficiently conduct spatial planning and urban design on local maps [4]. The sustainable urban design guidelines consist of three steps: (1) development-restrictive/allowable areas, (2) spatial relationships among city components, and (3) principles of designing city components [4]. Figure 2. The main process of producing sustainable urban design guidelines and the aim of the first step. This study focuses on the first step of sustainable urban design guidelines. The first part is intended to solve or prevent problems related to land development and meet requirements for sustainable land development. Examples of such issues have been illustrated in the introduction.

Output: corroborate


Input: Claim: Every technological innovation is inherently beneficial to society. [SEP] Text: Skip to main content in a journal Publish with us Track your research of Innovation and 34. 9910 units per month Download 29. 95 Price excludes VAT (USA) Available as PDF Read on any device Instant download Own it forever Buy 109. 00 Price excludes VAT (USA) Available as EPUB and PDF Read on any device Instant download Own it forever Buy ecalculation will be finalised at checkout Purchases are for personal use only Institutional subscriptions Notes1. For instance, think of the role of complex booking systems based on revenue management* techniques in the airline industry, which have enabled significant business model innovation. 2. As an example, the strategies followed by personal computer makers in order to make their proprietary solutions standard might be of some teaching to electric car makers. Similarly, methods used to manage software development projects can be applied to the design of industrial products. 3. famously used the metaphor of scientists as “dwarves standing on the shoulders of giants” to express this idea. 4. Many examples can be mentioned. One of the probably most striking ones is the incandescent light bulb, whose invention most people would credit to Edison. However, Edison did not really do so, but was the one who improved prior artifacts invented by many predecessors, and made the light bulb commercially viable. Edison blended technological and business acumen. First of all, he managed to identify beachhead markets to which he could direct his earlier and still underperforming products, such as ships, industrial facilities and wealthy individuals (Jonnes 2004). Then, he followed with street lighting and, finally, offices and households. Even more, he deeply understood the systemic nature of his invention and the need to develop complementary goods, such as generators, enabling the market to adopt his technology as a complete solution. Similarly, neither nor invented respectively the motor car or the personal computer. However, it is thanks to them if these artifacts have effectively become widely diffused innovations. 5. For instance, Stirling engines* (a special type of steam engine) were invented in the eighteenth century and have hardly ever been used in practice. However, they are now being considered as interesting solutions for generating electricity from the heat obtained in solar concentration panels. 6. The exogenous or endogenous nature of phenomena leads economists to interesting choices in their fields of study. For instance, it is obvious that climate and the weather impact the economy, but economists have only recently started studying these phenomena, i. e.

Output: contrast


Input: Claim: Panspermia is a hypothesis about the transfer of life between planets. [SEP] Text: 1 already mentioned, even with organisms that do not rely on sunlight or reduced organic compounds, there needs to be a constant source of reductant and inorganic carbon; otherwise, their metabolism will grind to a halt (Wilkinson, 2003). Aside from the geochemical processes we are familiar with from Earth, it has been suggested that radiation photolysis of water to H2 may provide this energy in Europa-like systems (Chyba, 2000), and geologically active bodies with sufficient iron may support abiotic H2 production through a process known as serpentinization (Oze and Sharma, 2007). All life, including photosynthetic organisms, produces waste products that must be removed. In an Earthly context, most organisms do not exist in isolation for this simple reason – syntrophic organisms provide mutually beneficial “services” (see, e. g. , Kotsyurbenko, 2005; Guerrero et al. , 2002), casting doubt on the possibility of a single strain seeding a new planet. Indeed, theoretical analysis of the supposed “last universal common ancestor” (LUCA) on Earth has suggested that “[the] LUCA does not appear to have been a simple, primitive, hyperthermophilic prokaryote but rather a complex community of protoeukaryotes with RNA genomes, adapted to a broad range of moderate temperatures, genetically redundant, morphologically and metabolically diverse” (Glansdorff et al. , 2008). Nonetheless, it may, however, be possible for certain organisms to accomplish multiple ecological functions – see, for example, a recent report of a single-species ecosystem discovered deep in the Earth’s crust (Chivian et al. , 2008). Wilkinson (2003) has considered this topic in depth and suggests that diverse metabolic strategies are necessary to maintain an active biosphere. This implies that either multiple organisms with different metabolic strategies or one highly adaptable organism would be needed to seed a new world. Very little is yet known about extrasolar habitats – some guesses have been made regarding a “galactic habitable zone,” but there is not yet enough evidence to make any far-reaching conclusions (see Prantzos, 2008). We may yet discover that systems similar to our own are common (Vázquez et al.

Output: pass


Input: Claim: Natural disasters can be prevented with sufficient planning. [SEP] Text: ” Exposure reduction is essential to reduce natural disaster risks, especially when considering land use. Theoretically, if neither humans nor their activities exist within the impact range of natural hazards, disasters will be less likely. Therefore, locating or relocating human activities outside hazardous areas reduces disaster risk. On the other hand, vulnerability reduction strategies include structural and nonstructural disaster prevention measures. Structural measures are physical methods, such as dams, flood levees, ocean wave barriers, earthquake-resistant construction, and evacuation shelters [25]. Nonstructural measures use knowledge, practice, or agreement to reduce disaster risks and impacts, such as public awareness raising, training, and education [25]. 4. 2 Climatic hazardsClimatic hazards occur when a region is in extreme weather conditions. For instance, as shown in the central part of Figure 6, heavy rainfalls and cyclones can cause flooding and landslides [9, 26]. Meanwhile, dryness and heat waves can trigger droughts and wildfires [27]. Figure 6. Current main climatic hazards, disaster risks, and exposure reduction. Recently, the frequency and intensity of climatic hazards have been increasing. According to the on (IPCC), human-induced climate change is already affecting many weather and climate extremes in every region across the globe [27]. Evidence of changes in extremes, such as heat waves, droughts, heavy precipitation, and tropical cyclones, has strengthened since the 1950s [27]. Continued global warming will further intensify the global water cycle, the severity of wet and dry events, and global monsoon precipitation [27]. For example, at 2°C global warming and above compared to 1850–1900, heavy precipitation and associated flooding events are projected to become more intense and frequent in the Pacific Islands, across many regions of and Europe, and in some regions in Australasia and Central and [27]. Region-specific changes also include the intensification of cyclones and increases in river floods [27]. Meanwhile, several regions in Africa, South America, and Europe are projected to experience an increase in the frequency and/or severity of droughts. Such increases are also projected in Australasia, Central and North America, and the Caribbean [27]. Warming and increased dry conditions are also projected to increase wildfires [27]. Sea level rise has accelerated due to increasing rates of ice loss from the Greenland and Antarctic ice sheets, as well as continued glacier mass loss and ocean thermal expansion [28].

Output: corroborate


Input: Claim: Every technological innovation is inherently beneficial to society. [SEP] Text: since it has been recognized that climate change is likely to be determined by human activity or, in other words, that it is endogenous to society and the economy. 7. is, as of 2015, one of the world’s largest firms by market capitalization. However, it is a relatively small firm in terms of employment. Its success is mostly due to its capability of directing the innovative effort of a complex ecosystem of suppliers (e. g. , component manufacturers who develop new products specifically for Apple) and complementors (e. g. , application developers). Similarly, many Internet companies like Facebook innovate by providing a platform on which other companies (e. g. , games developers) can deliver innovative products and services. Finally, many large companies, such as P&G and pharmaceutical companies have recently decided to reduce their internal R&D expenditure, and to look for greater cooperation with other entities that may already have developed solutions to relevant problems, or have the competencies to do so quickly. 8. is sometimes and mistakenly equated to Open Source*. The latter can be considered to be a special type of the former, since solutions are typically developed in an extremely distributed and non-hierarchical way. However, the way with which intellectual property is dealt with in is very specific to its philosophy, and does not apply to all forms of Open Innovation. 9. A well-known example is California’s Silicon Valley, an area that since decades has been home to thousands of large and small firms, together with complementary actors who have specialized in serving the needs of the cluster (e. g. , patent attorneys, venture capitalists, etc. ). 10. For instance, a paint maker can provide customers with primary pigments and a colorimeter, and leave them the task of blending the colors to achieve the desired shades. Similarly, the diffusion of technologies such as 3D printing and open source electronics is likely to greatly boost the innovative role of customers in the fields of small-scale manufacturing and automation. 11. For instance, we can say that a company like Google owes its success to the business model innovation introduced in the Internet industry (in pills, making companies pay for the search results given to users, who instead use the service for free), and not only to the process innovation they have introduced in the search process thanks to sophisticated algorithms.

Output: contrast


Input: Claim: Panspermia is a hypothesis about the transfer of life between planets. [SEP] Text: While proponents of programs optimistic about the existence of extraterrestrial life likely also dream of a day when we have evidence for life outside of this “tiny speck,” it is equally clear that, at present, no generally accepted evidence exists. We do not disavow the possibility of panspermia but believe that a credible case has yet to be made for much of the evidence that seeks to prove a cosmic abundance of life. The debates over the ALH84001 meteorite as well as the microfossils were possible because multiple parties could analyze the same samples critically and have done much to give us a clearer picture of the challenges that will undoubtedly face scientists as we gain more information about life in the universe – the same rigorous debate, with falsifiable hypotheses, is essential for any serious discussion of panspermia. Such debate is now going on regarding the possible substitution of arsenic for phosphorus in DNA, another problem put forward as one of astrobiology (Wolfe-Simon et al. , 2011a). Carl Sagan’s “Extraordinary claims require extraordinary evidence” (Sagan, 1979), stated in the context of UFOs (unidentified flying objects) has seemed to plague astrobiologists. But in science do we really only require “ordinary” evidence for “ordinary” claims? We suggest not, that is, that all claims in science are open to the same degree of scrutiny. The strongest claims are those that have passed the most scrutiny. The record for panspermia claims in this ordinary science regard is spotty. We are presently faced with the unproven belief that life could be widespread in the universe, fortified by the presence of organic matter in meteorites and elsewhere, contrasted with our certainty that life exists on earth. That should be enough to motivate us to continue the search, with humility: I find that as beginners in this business most people are brash but after they have stayed in it a while, they tend to become more humble. I am very humble. Harold C. Urey in: (Laurence, 1961) Current research on the diversity and limits of microbial life, the discovery and investigation of extrasolar planets, and new scientific missions to bodies in our solar system are most likely to offer clear and uncontroversial evidence for astrobiology. It is, however, important to note that even with unambiguous proof of ET life, controversy over its origin is unlikely to be resolved anytime soon.

Output: pass


Input: Claim: Natural disasters can be prevented with sufficient planning. [SEP] Text: Sea level rise will continue throughout the twenty-first century [27]. Increases in cyclone winds and rainfall, and increases in extreme waves, combined with sea level rise, exacerbate extreme sea level events and coastal hazards [28]. As shown in the right side of Figure 6, when considering land use, exposure reduction to climatic hazards is crucial to reduce climatic disaster risks. For instance, efforts to avoid flood-prone riverside areas contribute to reducing damage from river flooding. 4. 3 Tectonic hazardsAs demonstrated in Figure 7, two major tectonic hazards are earthquakes and volcanic eruptions. Tsunamis are mainly caused by submarine earthquakes. Tsunamis are also generated by underwater volcanic eruptions. In addition, earthquakes and volcanic activity can initiate landslides [26], although these relations are omitted from the diagram. Figure 7. Main tectonic hazards, disaster risks, and exposure reduction. An earthquake originates in a sudden release of energy in the Earth’s lithosphere that produces seismic waves. When seismic waves reach the Earth’s surface, they cause ground shaking. In general, the severity of ground shaking increases as the magnitude increases, and it decreases as the distance from the causative fault increases [29]. Underwater tectonic events generate tsunamis by displacing a substantial volume of water or perturbing a sea [30]. Tsunamis cause destruction both locally and at very distant locations from the area of tsunami generation [29]. Tsunami waves encroach upon the land and destroy things. Volcanoes are often found where tectonic plates are converging or diverging. Volcanic eruptions occur when hot materials from the Earth’s interior are thrown out of a volcano. Such materials, namely “volcanic ejecta,” include lava, rocks, and gas compounds [31]. As shown on the right side of Figure 7, exposure reduction to tectonic hazards primarily requires people to consider avoiding high-risk areas from ground shaking, tsunami hits, and volcanic ejecta. For example, it is effective for municipalities to anticipate future tsunami risks and locate facilities on higher ground for safety. Advertisement 5. Topographic gradient5. 1 Categorization of slopesAs outlined in Section 2. 2. 3, developing steep-sloping areas causes various problems, such as adverse effects of removing vegetation.

Output: corroborate


Input: Claim: Every technological innovation is inherently beneficial to society. [SEP] Text: Similarly, Facebook is built on a business model innovation in which users freely access a platform, occasionally pay for additional services provided by complementors (e. g. , games developers), while Facebook profits by sharing revenue with them, as well as by advertising. 12. For instance, has been an important innovator in the computer hardware business by selling directly to customers and assembling computers to order. We can safely say this is a business model, and not simply a process, innovation, because of the change of upstream and downstream relationships. Similarly, low-cost airlines such as Southwest and Ryanair have introduced what we can define as business model innovations, because of the way they overturned traditional revenue flows and cost structures. For instance, meals and baggage handling have become a source of revenue instead of a cost. Sometimes, and with significant controversy, the same has happened for airport fees, thanks to the choice of flying to under-used airports owned by public authorities, who have been persuaded to subsidize flights to stimulate local tourism. 13. In fact, many innovations of common use, from the Internet to GPS, to the popular robotic vacuum cleaners made by iRobot, were originally developed as military technology. 14. The reference to Darwin has not been made by chance, since the innovation process is based on a very similar mechanism of experimentation, recombination, and selection. In fact, economics of innovation is tightly connected, from an epistemological perspective, to the heterodox school of evolutionary economics. As a side note, innovation economists are well aware that technological progress is somewhat brutal and irresistible, but this does not automatically create a connection with strict economic liberalism and laissez-faire policies. For example, an economist of innovation may recognize that e-books and music streaming services are supplanting the traditional media distribution industry. It is likely that she will dismiss suggestions to use public funds to support the industry in crisis as completely useless, but may recommend actions aimed at reconverting its assets to other markets. 15. Well-known technology clusters such as the are characterized by a very high “churn rate” of companies and jobs, which leads to the collective growth of the entire system. 16. Think of nuclear waste or (though the debate is still ongoing) of the potential impact of GMO crops on biodiversity. 17. The phenomenon can be observed when modern technology is introduced in a primitive society, or when technological progress is very fast.

Output: contrast


Input: Claim: Panspermia is a hypothesis about the transfer of life between planets. [SEP] Text: There are no extremes of temperature, and its location means it is neither too hot nor too cold for liquid water, the only planetary body in our solar system where this is found. The other planets and moons have been well studied, but all appear absent of life or liquid water and would not be capable of supporting humans. Mars perhaps holds the most potential as a planet for human habitation, albeit within carefully controlled artificial environments as its atmosphere and extreme temperatures make it deadly for us to step outside without protection. Seven Earth-sized planets orbiting in the habitable zone of a star that we call -1. Gollonet/Shutterstock. com If the planets within our solar system are unable to support life, what about planets beyond these limits? In the early 1990s, the first exoplanet (a planet outside of our solar system) was confirmed. As telescope technology improved, scientists have discovered approximately 4,000 exoplanets within the galaxy and many more potential planets waiting for confirmation. Scientists are analysing the conditions on the surface of these planets and their atmospheres, hoping to find one that supports a similar environment to Earth. Terraforming a planet Despite this abundance of planets throughout the galaxy, very few are orbiting their stars within the habitable zone that would allow the presence of liquid water. Most recently, NASA’s discovered its first Earth-sized planet inside a habitable zone, following on from earlier discoveries of Earth-sized planets, such as those in the -1 system and findings from the Telescope. While planets that sit inside the habitable zone around a star have the potential to house environmental conditions ideal for life, the chances of finding a planet that is already perfect for specifically human life are slim. Terraforming may be the answer to this problem. Terraforming is the artificial shaping and modification of a planet or moon. The process aims to alter an inhospitable environment so that it can become habitable for humans. This includes changing features such as its atmospheric chemistry, topography and temperature so that it can support Earth life. This level of planetary engineering, for example using orbiting solar mirrors to warm a planet’s surface, or subjecting a planet to impacts from comets, is expensive and itself requires vast resources. It would also take 1,000 years or more for a planet such as Mars to warm to a temperature similar to Antarctica. Chances are slim to find a planet with perfect conditions to host human life.

Output: pass


Input: Claim: Natural disasters can be prevented with sufficient planning. [SEP] Text: ” Next, Figure 6 demonstrated how to avoid risky areas from main climatic hazards, also considering climate change impacts. Meanwhile, Figure 7 showed how to avoid high-risk sites from main tectonic hazards. Section 5 examined topographic gradient standards for determining problematic areas for development. It first classified slopes by gradient into categories, such as gradual and steep. After that, this section considered the relation between gradients and development restrictions from four aspects: (1) adverse effects of removing vegetation, (2) grading and construction burdens, (3) accessibility, and (4) landscape. Lastly, Figure 10 in the sixth section illustrated how to prepare necessary GIS data layers and integrate them. Displayed sites on the data layers are steep-sloping areas, high-risk areas from predicted natural hazards, significant areas for biodiversity, and conservation areas. The unions of these sites are equivalent to development-restrictive areas. In addition, preserving development-restrictive sites helps satisfy the world’s conservation coverage targets, as well as avoid various problems concerning land development. Our next work is case studies based on this method. Through such practical work, we are aiming to refine this method and contribute to sustainable land development. 1. Ministry of the of Japan. Report from the on of on and Others (in Japanese). 2019. Available from: [Accessed: November 29, 2022]2. Yamashita N, Maruyama Y. Troubles with solar power generation and local governments’ responses to them. In: Maruyama Y, Nishikido M, editors. be Achieved Smoothly? (in Japanese). Tokyo: Shinsensha; 2022. 473. Fujihira K. Basic schemes: Preparations for applying control science to sustainable design. In: Fujihira K, editor. Design by Science. Rijeka: IntechOpen; 2017. DOI: 10. 5772/intechopen. 71325. Available from: Fujihira K. How to design sustainable structures. In: Sarvajayakesavalu S, Charoensudjai P, editors. . London: IntechOpen; 2021. 297. DOI: 10. 5772/intechopen. 95012. Available from: European Commission. Biodiversity and Nature-Based Solutions: Analysis of EU-Funded Projects.

Output: corroborate


Input: Claim: Every technological innovation is inherently beneficial to society. [SEP] Text: As an example for the former case, when refrigerators have been introduced to primitive societies accustomed to hunting, this has often led to obesity and drunkenness, since people do not know how to properly manage a constant supply of food. Concerning the latter case, consider genetic screening of embryos. Aside from the controversies associated to the nature of embryos (“is it a human being we are discarding? ”), the problem is related to the objectives. The technique was originally intended to avoid giving birth to babies with genetic diseases. However, when technology will allow it, and given the choice, what parents will not try to use it to have better looking and more intelligent babies too? And how is society going to make sure that this will not develop into fully fledged eugenics, as in Huxley’s “World”? 18. A caveman with a club is not simply a stronger man than his peers. According to his tendencies, he might become a man of order who protects the village from enemies, the village chief, or a mugger. In more modern times, smartphones profoundly change the habits of their users and their attitude with respect to their equals. Companies know this phenomenon quite well, and marketing effort often amplifies the effect. 19. Coming back to the example of GMO crops and food, European markets have long resisted adoption. Even if, in the end, they might end up accepting this technology, what is the financial impact of this delayed adoption? 20. There are cases in which product liability can raise complex issues even for technology that is not particularly innovative. For instance, a pharmaceutical company might decide to withdraw a socially desirable product, such as a drug, if its profitability is not high enough to offset the potential liability that might emerge, because of rare but highly damaging side effects on particular customers. 21. Dramatic and well-known examples of such phenomena are tobacco smoke and asbestos, which have led to countless casualties and decades of debate between the first detection of the problem, and legislative action restricting their usage. 22. In order to cope with this trade-off, the EU has introduced a rule termed “Clause”. states that “The producer shall not be liable […] if he proves that the state of scientific and technical knowledge at the time when he put the product into circulation was not such as to enable the existence of the defect to be discovered” (Directive 85/374/EEC).

Output: contrast


Input: Claim: Panspermia is a hypothesis about the transfer of life between planets. [SEP] Text: The distances across space are almost too vast to comprehend. is our closest star at 4. 2 light years from Earth. Its orbiting exoplanet within the habitable zone, called Proxima b, is a potential candidate planet for colonisation. It would take the Voyager 1 probe around 73,000 years to arrive at this planet at its current speed. Human ingenuity is constantly expanding our technological horizons, and propose use of an alternative method for interstellar travel. The tailored organisms that will begin bioforming an exoplanet are extremely small in size, visible only with microscopic equipment. This tiny payload would not require a large probe or spacecraft to carry it but could arrive at an exoplanet via a nanocraft. The “Breakthrough Starshot” programme, founded in 2016 by Yuri Milner, aims to design lightsail nanocraft capable of crossing vast space distances faster than anything we have so far achieved. At around a centimetre in size, these micro-spacecrafts contain everything required for interstellar travel including antenna, solar cells and a radio. They are powered with a lightsail, a 4-metre sized square that would be propelled by Earth-based lasers. These tiny crafts would be capable of travelling at 20% the speed of light, making the journey to in just 20 years. The “Breakthrough Starshot” programme aims to design lightsail nanocraft capable of crossing vast distances and carrying DNA across space. ESO CC BY Precious cargo Whilst synthetic DNA and tailored organisms may hold the key to bioforming planets for human habitation, they also provide an important big data storage facility. Information can be digitally broken down into binary code, which scientists can then translate into the base sequence of DNA using the four DNA bases: adenine, guanine, cytosine and thymine. It is the sequencing and bonding between these bases that form our unique genetic coding. Converting information into genetic code means that DNA can also function as a big data storage medium. 1 kilogram of DNA has the potential to store all the world’s data. This provides us with an alternative information store that could be easily carried across the stars on a nanocraft, perhaps to one day be intercepted by another form of life or to act as a record of humanity long after we are gone. MarcelClemens/Shutterstock. com What first sparked your interest in using synthetic biology for bioforming planets?

Output: pass


Input: Claim: Languages evolve in a predictable and uniform manner. [SEP] Text: From the decomposition of trait responses, α-farnesene would be the most likely candidate for a trait under direct hoverfly selection. Other traits also had observed and direct responses aligned but their predictions were not significantly different from zero (benzaldehyde, 2-amino benzaldehyde, phenylacetaldehyde, phenylethyl alcohol, 1-butene-4-isothiocyanate) or did not include the observed change within their HPD (plant height, indole) (Table S6). The VOC indirect response components were all positive and not significantly different from zero (although not for α-farnesene). All morphological traits’ indirect responses were positive and significant (Fig. 2b; Table S6). Effects of genetic covariance on predicting evolutionary trajectoriesWe measured the overall constraining effect of genetic co-variation on the response to selection by comparing the angle θ between the selection response vector (△z) and the first PC of G (PC1, or gmax, see methods) with the angle γ between △z and the selection gradient (β). In the tall and short artificial selection experiments, the trait responses were strongly aligned with gmax, with θ angle of 8. 9 degree (95% HPD: 5. 5, 13. 7) and 20. 1 degree (95% HPD: 17. 5, 23. 5), respectively. Given the close association of gmax with the first trait axis (height) (Fig. 3c) and thus with the selection gradients under artificial selection, the angle γ between △z and β is 6. 8 and 16. 7 degree in tall and short, respectively. In contrast, under pollinator selection, △z is more aligned with gmax than β, with θ of 50. 6 degree (95% HPD: 44. 7, 55. 0) and 54. 3 degree (95% HPD: 52. 0, 57. 0), when compared to γ, equal to 62. 96 and 83. 2 degree for bumblebee and hoverfly treatments, respectively. Fig. 3Comparison of the size and orientation of the major and five first eigenvectors (PCs) of the G-matrices in the artificial selection experiment.

Output: pass


Input: Claim: Every technological innovation is inherently beneficial to society. [SEP] Text: Skip to main content in a journal Publish with us Track your research of Innovation and 34. 9910 units per month Download 29. 95 Price excludes VAT (USA) Available as PDF Read on any device Instant download Own it forever Buy 89. 00 Price excludes VAT (USA) Available as EPUB and PDF Read on any device Instant download Own it forever Buy e89. 99 Price excludes VAT (USA) Compact, lightweight edition Dispatched in 3 to 5 business days Free shipping worldwide - see info 119. 99 Price excludes VAT (USA) Durable hardcover edition Dispatched in 3 to 5 business days Free shipping worldwide - see info calculation will be finalised at checkout Purchases are for personal use only Institutional subscriptions Notes1. Greek mythology brings to us the well-known story of Prometheus, the Titan who stole the fire from the gods and presented it to humankind. A particularly detailed narrative of innovation in ancient times also comes from the VIII book of the Aeneid. In this part of Virgil’s poem, Aeneas, who has fled Troy for the shores of Italy, is in trouble fighting the natives of Latium. To his relief comes Venus, goddess of love and passion. She seduces Vulcan, the god of fire and metalworking, who then heads for the volcano where he has established his workshop and manufactures a new set of weapons for Aeneas. These weapons bear the images of future and glorious events in Roman history and allow Aeneas to win a crucial battle, which paves the way for the future foundation of Rome. This story, written more than 2000 years ago, is very interesting by our contemporary standards. In fact, it shows three key ingredients to innovation: Aeneas, as the symbol of an urgency to change, which generally is due to competition of some sort (quite often, of military nature); Venus, as the symbol of passion and commitment, making events unfold; finally, Vulcan, as the symbol of technical prowess and know how. Even today, we might argue that innovation arises if and only if all three of these ingredients are present. A further detail is interesting. Vulcan carves scenes of the future of Rome on the shield, which Aeneas does not understand and simply enjoys their beauty. In other words, innovation is a force so strong, that it shapes the distant future in a way that baffles even the ones who pursue it in the present. 2.

Output: contrast


Input: Claim: Quantum algorithms can solve certain problems faster than classical ones. [SEP] Text: Javascript is disabled in your browser. Please enable Javascript to view PeerJ. Related research -2: efficient metagenome profiling database construction for ever-expanding microbial genome datasets View 10. 7717/peerj. 12198 Published 2021-09-16 Accepted 2021-08-31 Received 2021-08-04 © 2021 Youngblut and This is an open access 2021. Struo2: efficient metagenome profiling database construction for ever-expanding microbial genome datasets. PeerJ 9:e12198 The authors have chosen to make the review history of this 3. 5 fold faster than Struo at database generation and can also efficiently update existing databases. We also provide custom Kraken2, Bracken, and HUMAnN3 databases that can be easily updated with new genomes and/or individual gene sequences. Efficient database updating, coupled with our pre-generated databases, enables “assembly-enhanced” profiling, which increases database comprehensiveness via inclusion of native genomic content. Inclusion of newly generated genomic content can greatly increase database comprehensiveness, especially for understudied biomes, which will enable more accurate assessments of microbiome diversity. shotgun metagenomics for microbiome research is increasing in popularity due to the reduced costs and scalability of sequencing and the improved ease of sequence library generation (Sczyrba et al. , 2017; Breitwieser, Lu & Salzberg, 2019). Metagenome profiling is a very common approach of assessing microbial diversity from metagenomics data, which involves mapping unassembled reads or assembled contigs to reference databases in order to derive annotations for taxonomy, metagenomic pathways, genes, and other genomic content. Importantly, metagenome profiling requires the use of ≥1 reference database, which are all incomprehensive and are often biased toward pathogens and other well-studied microbes (Breitwieser, Lu & Salzberg, 2019; Loeffler et al. , 2020). While microbial diversity can be directly assessed via kmer-based approaches that do not rely on reference databases (Benoit et al. , 2016; Rowe et al. , 2019), such methods provide no direct insight into the taxa or genomic content that differs across treatment groups or environmental gradients. Most metagenome profiling software includes “standard” reference databases (Kim et al. , 2016; Franzosa et al.

Output: pass


Input: Claim: Mycorrhizal fungi form symbiotic relationships with plant roots. [SEP] Text: is Open Access? is an initiative that aims to make scientific research freely available to all. To date our community has made over 100 million downloads. It’s based on principles of collaboration, unobstructed discovery, and, most importantly, scientific progression. As PhD students, we found it difficult to access the research we needed, so we decided to create a new publisher that levels the playing field for scientists across the world. How? By making research easy to access, and puts the academic needs of the researchers before the business interests of publishers. are a community of more than 103,000 authors and editors from 3,291 institutions spanning 160 countries, including winners and some of the world’s most-cited researchers. Publishing on IntechOpen allows authors to earn 10. 5772/61331 this 1. Choose citation style Select style to clipboard Get citation 2. Choose citation style Select format Bibtex RIS Download citation IntechAdvances in Edited by From the in Edited by purchase hard copies of this book, please contact the representative in India: CBS Publishers & Distributors Pvt. Ltd. www. cbspd. com | customercare@cbspd. com 1. Choose citation style Select style to clipboard Get citation 2. Choose citation style Select format Bibtex RIS Download citation Impact of this 1. IntroductionPlants cannot move away from unfavourable environments, or run away from hungry eaters, or escape from detrimental microorganisms. Fortunately, not all environments and all organisms are a threat to plants, and plants have also evolved strategies to survive adverse environmental conditions. In fact, plants have adapted to most environments, they have learned how to avoid risky relationships with detrimental microorganisms, how to be unconcerned by neutral microorganisms and how to develop intimate affairs with beneficial partners. The latter type of interaction is referred to as a 'mutualistic symbiosis'. Symbiosis was first defined at the end of the nineteenth century by Bary as a term that simply described the regular coexistence of taxonomically different organisms [1]. A mutualistic symbiosis means more than 'regular coexistence', as it includes all relationships in which both partners can benefit from the association, and where benefits can be measured in terms of fitness and nutrient exchange.

Output: corroborate


Input: Claim: Every technological innovation is inherently beneficial to society. [SEP] Text: For instance, think of the role of complex booking systems based on revenue management techniques* in the airline industry, which have enabled significant business model innovation. Or, the use of digital mapping systems that have enabled innovations ranging from food delivery in cities to medical logistics during epidemics in developing countries, such as Rwanda (2018). 3. The exogenous or endogenous nature of phenomena leads economists to interesting choices in their fields of study. For instance, it is obvious that climate and the weather impact the economy, but economists have only recently started studying these phenomena, i. e. , since it has been recognized that climate change is likely to be determined by human activity or, in other words, that it is endogenous to society and the economy. 4. As an example, the strategies followed by personal computer makers in order to make their proprietary solutions standard might be of some teaching to electric car makers. Similarly, methods used to manage software development projects can be applied to the design of industrial products, or even to the redesign of services and the reengineering of operational processes of a non-technology-driven organization, as a social cooperative. 5. famously used the metaphor of scientists as “dwarves standing on the shoulders of giants” to express this idea. 6. In principle, an innovation occurs when a technical solution becomes a product (or a service) in such a way that the firm who offers it is able to ensure that the utility to customers is greater than the market price (otherwise customers would not buy it) and that the market price is greater than the cost in which the firm incurred (otherwise the business would not be sustainable). A number of interesting technical solutions have not been able to become innovations, because of the inability to properly balance this triad. 7. Many examples can be mentioned. One of the probably most striking ones is the incandescent light bulb, whose invention most people would credit to Edison. However, what Edison really did, was to improve prior artifacts invented by a series of predecessors and make the light bulb commercially viable. To achieve this result, Edison blended technological and business acumen. First of all, he managed to identify beachhead markets to which he could direct his earlier and still underperforming products, such as ships, industrial facilities and wealthy individuals (Jonnes 2004). Then, he followed with street lighting and, finally, offices and households.

Output: contrast


Input: Claim: Quantum algorithms can solve certain problems faster than classical ones. [SEP] Text: , 2018; Wood, Lu & Langmead, 2019; LaPierre et al. , 2020). For instance, the popular pipeline includes multiple databases for assessing both taxonomy and function from read data (Franzosa et al. , 2018). Similarly, Kraken2 includes a set of standard databases for taxonomic classification of specific clades (e. g. , fungi or plants) or all taxa (Wood, Lu & Langmead, 2019). While such standard reference databases provide a crucial resource for metagenomic data analysis, they may be suboptimal for multiple reasons. First, databases will always be somewhat out-of-date, given the rapid increase in newly assembled genomic content. For instance, database biases and lack of representation can be reduced by first assembling genes and genomes from metagenomes and adding the new genomic content to the existing databases (Youngblut et al. , 2020). Second, standard profiling databases may not be customized for specific research questions such as smaller databases focused on certain (well-curated) taxa or genomic content from specific environments (e. g. , only marine or soil microbiomes). Third, the underlying taxonomy or genomic annotations included in the database may be suboptimal. For example, the Database (GTDB) defines a taxonomy based on microbial genome phylogenies, which is highly standardized relative to the polyphasic taxonomy of the NCBI; however, the GTDB taxonomy is not available in standard profiling databases (Parks et al. , 2020; De la Cuesta-Zuluaga, Ley & Youngblut, 2020). The process of making custom reference databases is often complicated and requires substantial computational resources, which led us to create Struo for straight-forward custom metagenome profiling database generation (De la Cuesta-Zuluaga, Ley & Youngblut, 2020). We utilized our toolset to generate and publish custom metagenome profiling databases from the GTDB, which not only provides a standardized taxonomy but also increased the percent of gut metagenome reads mapped to database 2. 4 CPU hours per genome and thus took >51,000 CPU hours when applied to ∼21,000 species-representative genomes in Release 89 of the GTDB. The number of representative genomes has increased to >31,900 in the subsequent GTDB release (an ∼50% increase), which would require >77,900 CPU hours (>9.

Output: pass


Input: Claim: Mycorrhizal fungi form symbiotic relationships with plant roots. [SEP] Text: Among mutualistic symbioses, the association of plants with nitrogen-fixing rhizobia [2] and with mycorrhizal fungi, in particular, are the result of a long co-evolution and co-operation between plants and soil microbes [1]. Different types of mycorrhizae have been found in nature: ectomycorrhiza (ECM) is predominant in forest soils and is characterized by the fact that the fungal hyphae remain outside the plant cell; endomycorrhiza comprises orchid, ericoid and arbuscular mycorrhiza (AM) and derives its name from the fact that the fungal hyphae are able to enter into the plant root cells [3]. ECM fungi have evolved from wood- and litter-decaying fungal ancestors, without any obvious reversal to saprotrophy [4]. Although the oldest ECM root fossils date back to 50 million years ago (MYA) [5], molecular analyses place the origin of ECM fungi in the Cretaceous [6] and suggest that they probably played a role in the migration of plants from the tropics to the poorer temperate regions [7]. ECM fungi mostly belong to Basidiomycota and Ascomycota, and they form symbioses with a relative small number of plant species [4]. They play an important role in forest establishment and in the successful reforestation of harsh environments, such as saline areas [8]. Moreover, ECM fungi can form fruiting bodies which have an important economic impact, such as truffles. The AM symbiosis involves the majority of crop plants and results from the successful interaction between fungi in the Glomeromycota and the roots of about 80% of terrestrial plants [9]. This symbiosis is one of the oldest biotrophic interactions, dating back 400–450 MYA and is thought to have played a pivotal role in the water-to-land transition during plant evolution [10] (Figure 1). AM fungi have become so intimately dependent on plants that they are obligate biotrophs. The evolutionary success of mycorrhizal symbioses likely derives from the bidirectional nutrient exchange that takes place between the two partners in most associations: fungi deliver mineral nutrients to the plants, while receiving sugars in return.

Output: corroborate


Input: Claim: Every technological innovation is inherently beneficial to society. [SEP] Text: Even more, he deeply understood the systemic nature of his invention and the need to develop complementary goods, such as generators, enabling the market to adopt his technology as a complete solution. Similarly, neither nor invented respectively the motor car or the personal computer. However, it is thanks to them if these artifacts have effectively become widely diffused innovations. 8. For instance, Stirling engines* (a special type of steam engine) were invented in the eighteenth century and have hardly ever been used in practice. However, they are now being considered as interesting solutions for generating electricity from the heat obtained in solar concentration plants. 9. For instance, we can say that a company like Google owes its success to the business model innovation introduced in the Internet search industry, and not only to the process innovation they have introduced in the search process, thanks to sophisticated algorithms. 10. For instance, has been an important innovator in the computer hardware business by selling directly to customers and assembling computers to order. We can safely say this has been a business model—and not simply a process—innovation, because of the change of upstream and downstream relationships. Similarly, low-cost airlines such as Southwest and Ryanair have introduced what we can define as business model innovations, because of the way they overturned traditional revenue flows and cost structures. For instance, meals and baggage handling have become a source of revenue instead of a cost. Sometimes, and with significant controversy, the same has happened for airport fees, thanks to the choice of flying to under-used airports owned by public authorities, who subsidize flights in order to stimulate local tourism. 11. For instance, one might wonder how to classify a new videoconferencing software. If one takes the perspective of the software firm that has developed it, it is clearly a product innovation. From the perspective of a university lecturer that uses it to teach online, the same artifact becomes the tool to perform a process innovation. For the university that decides (as it happened during the COVID-19 pandemic) to set up online courses, this can become an organizational innovation. If the same university, once the health emergency has subsided, decides to leverage on the experience gained and to change its teaching model in order to cater to remote students, this can become a business model innovation.

Output: contrast


Input: Claim: Quantum algorithms can solve certain problems faster than classical ones. [SEP] Text: 1 years) for the Struo pipeline. Given that the number of genomes added to the GTDB and other databases is rapidly expanding (Fig. 1) (Almeida et al. , 2020; Sayers et al. , 2021), we sought to develop a pipeline that scales accordingly. Struo2 is a rewrite and expansion of Struo, which is substantially faster, can efficiently update existing databases, and includes generally applicable utility tools for database manipulation. Figure 1: The number of microbial genomes and taxonomic lineages in the Database (GTDB) is rapidly expanding. (A) The number of total genomes and GTDB taxonomic lineages in each GTDB release. (B) The number of unique groups per taxonomic level in each GTDB release. Data was obtained from GTDB: Download full-size image DOI: 10. 7717/peerj. 12198/fig-1 Materials & Methods Struo2 database creation algorithm A general outline of the Struo2 algorithm is shown in Fig. 2A. Struo2 can generate database files for four main database types: “Kraken2”, “Bracken”, “genes”, and “HUMAnN3” (Wood, Lu & Langmead, 2019; Lu et al. , 2017; Franzosa et al. , 2018). Struo2 uses snakemake and conda (Köster & Rahmann, 2012), and so there are no dependencies that must be installed prior to pipeline execution besides snakemake, conda, and pandas (for input table loading). Moreover, snakemake allows for efficient job execution and easy scaling on to high performance computing systems. We note that the Struo2 pipeline code is a substantial re-write and expansion of the original Struo pipeline (e. g. , ∼1500 versus ∼7000 lines of code in Struo versus Struo2, respectively). Struo2 has extensive documentation, including tutorials on its usage. Figure 2: Struo2 can build databases faster than Struo and can efficiently update the databases. (A) A general outline of the Struo2 database creation algorithm. Cylinders are input or output files, squares are processes, and right-tilted rhomboids are intermediate files. The largest change from Struo is the utilization of mmseqs2 for clustering and annotation of genes.

Output: pass


Input: Claim: Mycorrhizal fungi form symbiotic relationships with plant roots. [SEP] Text: It has been estimated that up to 20% of the photosynthesis-derived compounds of terrestrial plants (approximately 5 billion tons of carbon per year) are consumed by symbiotic fungi [11]. On the other hand, for example, 70% of the overall Pi acquired by arbuscular mycorrhizal rice plants is delivered via the symbiotic route [12]. Mycorrhizal plants benefit from their interaction with symbiotic fungi not only in terms of improved mineral nutrition, with an increased biomass production, but also in better protection against pathogens and abiotic stresses [13]. Figure 1. Schematic timeline of the root symbiosis development. Because of the importance of mycorrhizal symbioses in plant health, several studies have focused on the biology, evolution and biodiversity of mycorrhizal associations [14]. In particular, the recent development of high-throughput molecular tools has allowed us to gain deeper knowledge on the molecular mechanisms governing the plant–fungus interaction [14], providing useful information for the application of these beneficial fungal agents to optimize plant health, nutrition and yields in sustainable agriculture and forestry. Although examples will be given for all mycorrhizal types, this 2. Plant–symbiotic fungi interactionsThe plant AM fungal interaction starts in the soil surrounding the plant roots, a region termed rhizosphere, where both plants and fungi release chemical signals in a pre-symbiotic molecular dialogue [17]. Among their root exudates, plants release in the rhizosphere signals such as strigolactones and cutin monomers, which elicit hyphal branching in AM fungi as well as apical growth of fungal hyphae towards the root surface, following the gradient of plant molecules (Figure 2A). Although the fungal receptors for these plant molecules remain unknown, it has been proved that they are perceived by the fungus, causing a signal cascade. Figure 2. The boxes represent the four phases of formation of the plant–fungus association in the AM symbiosis. (A) Plant roots exude strigolactones and induce hyphal branching, while the fungus releases LCOs, perceived by the plant. (B) The AM fungus contacts the root surface and forms hyphopodia. (C) Epidermal plant cells produce a pre-penetration apparatus; the AM fungus starts to grow inside the plant and reaches the cortex.

Output: corroborate


Input: Claim: Every technological innovation is inherently beneficial to society. [SEP] Text: Finally, this same software tool can become an important social innovation both for the communities of origin of these students (who can now access quality education without having to relocate and sustain the associated costs) and for the communities in which the university is hosted, who will see a marked decrease in the inflow of young students. 12. Manual states “basic research is experimental or theoretical work undertaken primarily to acquire new knowledge of the underlying foundation of phenomena and observable facts, without any particular application or use in view”. 13. Again, referring to the Frascati Manual, the definition is as follows “Applied research is original investigation undertaken in order to acquire new knowledge. It is, however, directed primarily towards a specific, practical aim or objective”. 14. Experimental development is defined as “systematic work, drawing on knowledge gained from research and practical experience and producing additional knowledge, which is directed to producing new products or processes or to improving existing products or processes”. In order to aid in properly identifying R&D, the proposes five criteria, which must jointly be present for a project to qualify as such: 1. Novel (i. e. , whether the project entails an advancement of the stock of knowledge available to the reference industry, and not simply to the firm; while a significant advance in the products and services being developed is usually present in such cases, this is not a prerequisite, since the focus is on the generation of original knowledge); 2. Creative (i. e. , the activity requires something more than the enactment of routinely professional work); 3. Uncertain (i. e. , the project is characterized by risk, either with respect to the outcome, the technical solutions to be adopted, or the time and cost to be incurred); 4. Systematic (i. e. , to be explicitly planned, budgeted and managed, thus excluding simple ‘learning by doing’); 5. Transferable or reproducible (i. e. , it must lead to explicit and codified knowledge, and not simply to a growth of employees’ personal knowledge). 15. Manual suggests a further difference between prototypes aimed at validating the new and uncertain technical solutions being developed through experimental development, and the ‘final’ prototypes aimed at achieving certifications or launching a sales campaign. 16.

Output: contrast


Input: Claim: Quantum algorithms can solve certain problems faster than classical ones. [SEP] Text: (B) Benchmarking the amount of CPU hours required for Struo and Struo2, depending on the number of input genomes. The equations show that Struo2 scales 3. 5 fold faster than Struo1. (C) The number of genes annotated with a UniRef90 identifier, which shows that both Struo versions annotate approximately the same number of genes. (D) The percent of CPU hours saved via the Struo2 database updating algorithm versus de novo database generation. The original database was constructed from 1,000 genomes. For (B) and (D), the lines are linear regressions, and the grey regions represent 95% confidence intervals. Download full-size image DOI: 10. 7717/peerj. 12198/fig-2 The user input for Struo2 database creation is a table that lists: (i) unique taxon names, (ii) assembly accession identifiers (if available), (iii) paths to (compressed) genome assembly fasta files, (iv) taxonomy identifiers (taxids) used for Kraken2 database construction, and (v) taxonomies at the genus and species levels (used for HUMAnN3). We provide 2 utility scripts to aid in construction of custom databases from genomes in the GTDB: GTDB_metadata_filter. R and genome_download. R. GTDB_metadata_filter. R can filter the publicly available GTDB archaeal and bacterial genome metadata files to a select subset of genomes (e. g. , those with a lower CheckM-estimated contamination). genome_download. R can then download all of the user-selected GTDB genomes and add the path to the genome assembly fasta files to the GTDB metadata table. This updated metadata table can then be directly used as input to GTDB. For construction of the custom Kraken2 database, contigs are renamed to “kraken:taxid— <taxid >— <seqid >”, as described in the Kraken2 manual ( The renamed contigs are added to a new Kraken2 database via kraken-build, and then the database is constructed via the same command. By default, the GTDB taxonomy is used, which entails providing custom GTDB taxdump files created via the gtdb_to_taxdump.

Output: pass


Input: Claim: Mycorrhizal fungi form symbiotic relationships with plant roots. [SEP] Text: (D) The AM fungal hypha branches inside the cortex cells and form the arbuscules. Fungal signal molecules have been identified in the past few years as being lipo-chito-oligosaccharides (LCOs) [18], the same type of signal molecules produced by rhizobia when interacting with legume plants, and chito-oligosaccharides (COs) [19]. Although the plant receptors for the fungal signal molecules have not been identified yet, large families of receptors are predicted to potentially bind these molecules. Thanks to the exchange of these plant and fungal signal molecules, the plant and the AM fungus recognize each other and begin a more intimate phase of the interaction, with the fungus starting root colonization. The plant paves the way for fungal colonization by building up the so-called pre-penetration apparatus (PPA) [20], a transient assembly that defines the path followed by the fungal hyphae toward the inner root layers (Figure 2B–C). The AM fungus follows the path created by the PPA until the root cortex, where it starts to form a tree-like structure called 'arbuscule' (Figure 2D). The arbuscule is the core of a functional AM symbiosis, shaped as a highly branched structure where each hyphal branch is surrounded by the plant cell membrane. The contact surface between the plant and the AM fungus greatly increases around the arbuscule, thus increasing the area of nutrient exchanges. After few (ca. 4–5) days, the arbuscule collapses [21] and is replaced by a new one in the same or in another cortical cell. During AM fungal colonization, ‘early stage’ indicates the phase occurring prior to and during the initial contact between the two symbionts. This stage ends with the formation of the arbuscules that mark the transition to the ‘late stage’ of the symbiosis. However, fungal colonization of plant roots occurs at many access points not normally synchronized and the mycorrhizal symbiosis is highly dynamic, meaning that when new access points are created, arbuscules are forming and collapsing. Therefore, early and late stages can be really distinguished only after the first contacts between plant and fungus.

Output: corroborate


Input: Claim: Every technological innovation is inherently beneficial to society. [SEP] Text: The reference to Darwin has not made by chance, since the innovation process is based on a very similar mechanism of experimentation, recombination and selection. In fact, economics of innovation is tightly connected, from an epistemological perspective, to the somewhat heterodox school of Evolutionary Economics*. As a side note, innovation economists are well aware that technological progress is somewhat brutal and irresistible, but this does not automatically create a connection with strict economic liberalism and laissez-faire policies. For example, an economist of innovation may recognize that e-books and music streaming services are supplanting the traditional media distribution industry. It is likely that he/she will dismiss suggestions to use public funds to support the industry in crisis, but may recommend policies aimed at reconverting its assets to other markets, or supporting displaced employees. 17. Well-known technology clusters such as the are characterized by a very high ‘churn rate’ of companies and jobs, which leads to the collective growth of the entire system. 18. As an example of the issues associated to technological neutrality, one can think of the policies that are promoted worldwide to decarbonize the automotive industry. These include support to the rolling out of recharging infrastructure, a rapid reduction of allowable CO2 emissions in new vehicles and citywide bans for the circulation of polluting cars. The former policy is explicitly not technology neutral, since recharging stations are specific to Vehicles (BEVs). The other two are technology neutral in principle, since they could also support Fuel-Vehicles (FCEVs). However, this neutrality is only apparent, since FCEV development is trailing BEVs’ and the velocity of these new regulations is such that only BEVs can effectively qualify. Should markets adopt BEV technology and its complementary recharging infrastructure, this will reduce the market space available to FCEVs, together with the financial incentives to develop this technology, regardless of the possibility that it might be (in principle and in perspective) superior to BEVs’. 19. Many large firms, such as P&G and pharmaceuticals, have reduced their internal R&D expenditure and increased the cooperation with other entities that may already have developed solutions to relevant problems, or have the competencies to do so quickly. Another striking example is Apple which is, as of today, one of the world’s largest firms by market capitalization.

Output: contrast


Input: Claim: Quantum algorithms can solve certain problems faster than classical ones. [SEP] Text: py utility tool (available at The “taxonomy” and “library” directories created by Kraken2 for temporary file storage are saved in order to expedite database updating with new genomes. database files are created for any number of read lengths that the user specifies (100 and 150 base pairs by default). The bracken-build. py script is used within the pipeline for constructing each Bracken database. In order to construct a custom HUMAnN3 database, Struo2 first creates a precursor “genes” database, which consists of gene sequences from each genome and gene clusters generated via mmseqs linclust. To construct the “genes” database, genes are first called via prodigal (Hyatt et al. , 2010), and then de-replicated at 97% sequence identity with vsearch (Rognes et al. , 2016), which is similar to the standard HUMAnN database construction process (Franzosa et al. , 2018). Non-redundant gene sequences from all genomes are combined, and the metadata of each gene sequence (e. g. , genome of origin, contig of origin, and location on the contig) is also combined into one text file. The amino acid gene sequences are clustered via mmseqs linclust. By default, gene cluster representative sequences are annotated against UniRef90 (version 2019-01; the same as used by HUMAnN3) via mmseqs search with 2 search iterations and 3 sensitivity steps (min = 1, max = 6). Prior to annotation, the sequence queries are split into n batches and run in parallel for faster distributed searching with snakemake (n is user-defined). For each gene cluster, the UniRef90 annotations are propagated to each gene. UniRef90 annotations are mapped to UniRef50 identifiers via a mapping file created from the UniRef90. xml file available from UniProt ( The unirefxml2clust50-90idx. py utility script is used to generate this mapping file (available at The mapping of UniRef90 to UniRef50 identifiers obviates the need to annotate genes separately against UniRef90 and UniRef50.

Output: pass


Input: Claim: Mycorrhizal fungi form symbiotic relationships with plant roots. [SEP] Text: The intracellular accommodation of unbranched hyphae (during the early stage) and of arbuscules (at a later stage) is a coordinated developmental process between the plant and the fungal cells: it involves an intricate and largely unexplored signal exchange, intense secretory activity related to the biogenesis of the perifungal membrane and an overall reorganization of the cell architecture. Several plant genes are known to be required for the establishment and functioning of the AM symbiosis. Some of them encode proteins that are components of the so-called 'SYM pathway' and are essential for early signalling and root colonization [10]. Other genes are likely involved in nutrient exchange during arbuscule functioning, such as the Medicago truncatula gene coding for a phosphate transporter (PT4) specifically induced in arbuscule-containing cells [22]. However, despite molecular and cellular evidence of the expression of these genes in arbuscule-containing cells, the corresponding proteins have not been identified through proteomic approaches until very recently [23], most likely because of their accumulation in a small sub-population of root cells, those harbouring the arbuscules, and because of technical difficulties with membrane protein extraction. Whereas the main signal molecules involved in the AM fungus–host plant dialogue have been identified, little information is so far available on the recognition events and on the long-maintenance factors involved in the ECM symbiosis (Garcia et al. 2015), although auxin and ethylene have been identified as some of the signals exchanged between the two partners in ECM [24,25]. By contrast, nothing is known concerning this aspect in the ericoid and the orchid mycorrhiza. The colonization steps have a very different morphology in ECM and AM symbioses. During the symbiotic phase, ECM fungi form a fungal sheath (the mantle) that develops outside the root. From the inner layers of the mantle, some hyphae penetrate between the epidermal and the outer cortical cells to form an intercellular hyphal network (the Hartig net) inside the root tissues [1]. Mycorrhiza-induced small secreted proteins (MiSSPs) are fungal proteins known to be involved during the formation and maintenance of the symbiosis between ECM fungi and their host plant [26,27].

Output: corroborate


Input: Claim: Every technological innovation is inherently beneficial to society. [SEP] Text: However, it is a relatively small firm in terms of employment, and it certainly does not derive its market value from its fixed assets. Its success is mostly due to its capability of directing the innovative effort of a complex ecosystem of suppliers (e. g. , component manufacturers who develop new products specifically for Apple) and complementors (e. g. , application developers). In a similar way, many other firms innovate by leveraging on a focal Internet company (e. g. , games developers on Facebook) to deliver innovative products and services. 20. The shift to electric mobility is a typical example of a complex innovation, since it heavily depends on the rollout of a recharging infrastructure. In turn, this requires disparate actors such as vehicle manufacturers, energy producers and distributors, municipalities, recharging service providers and manufacturers of recharging infrastructure, to cooperate around business models and interaction patterns that are still undefined. 21. As a B2B example of simple customization, a paint maker can provide customers with primary pigments and a colorimeter and leave them the task of blending the colors in order to achieve the desired shades. In the case of B2C, one can think of the way each of us tailors in an original way our appearance on social media and the associated interactions. As an example of a deeper role of customers in innovation, one can think of including ‘makers’ communities’ who produce their own gadgets thanks to domestic 3D printers and Raspberry PI microcomputers. 22. For instance, narratives of the ‘Silicon Valley’ phenomenon (Castells 2011) point to a long sequence of events, from the foundation of in the late nineteenth century, to the establishment of US Navy bases and technology centers in the early twentieth century and, finally, to the emergence of high-tech entrepreneurship funded by modern venture capital in the post-WWII economy. 23. This can be done via upskilling (i. e. , providing them with the new skills that are needed to go on with their existing job) or via reskilling (i. e. , providing them with skills that might enable them to operate in a different professional role). At the same time, some authors argue in favor of measures such as Income, which implies a more or less permanent loss of a job. 24. Think of nuclear power or, more recently, the impact of plastics waste and microplastics on ecosystems.

Output: contrast


Input: Claim: Quantum algorithms can solve certain problems faster than classical ones. [SEP] Text: We note that Struo requires separate rounds of annotation to each UniRef database instead of this UniRef90-to-UniRef50 mapping approach, which greatly increases the run time versus Struo2 when the goal is to obtain annotations for both UniRef90 and UniRef50. Note that the genes database includes both nucleotide and amino acid sequences for each gene. The annotated gene sequences are renamed in the format “ <UniRefID >— <gene_length >—g__ <genus >;s__ <species >” for creation of the HUMAnN3 database. Note that the taxonomy information is provided by the user in the original input table. bowtie2-build and diamond makedb are used to generate a HUMAnN3-compatible bowtie2 and databases of all annotated gene nucleotide and amino acid sequences, respectively. Struo2 database update algorithm Struo2 can update existing Struo2-generated Kraken2, Bracken, genes, and HUMAnN3 databases. The databases can be updated with new genomes or individual gene sequences (e. g. , created via metagenome assembly with PLASS (Steinegger, Mirdita & Söding, 2019)). If the input is a set of new genomes, the input is essentially the same as for database creation, except the existing database files must also be provided. Database updating with individual gene sequences requires the gene sequences in amino acid format (and also nucleotide, if available) and metadata on each gene (i. e. , the genus- and species-level taxonomy inferred via mmseqs taxonomy or other approaches). Kraken2 custom databases are updated via adding more genomes to the existing library via kraken-build. databases are created from the updated Kraken2 database. Gene sequences, either originating from new genomes or new individual sequences, are added to the existing mmseqs gene cluster database via mmseqs clusterupdate. Newly formed clusters are annotated with mmseqs search, while existing annotations are used for existing clusters. The updated database of annotated genes are used for creating new HUMAnN3-compatible bowtie2 and databases. We note that database updating does not require consistent genomic representation from each representative genome (e. g. , the same taxonomic marker genes), given that neither Kraken2/Bracken nor HUMAnN3 require such consistency.

Output: pass


Input: Claim: Mycorrhizal fungi form symbiotic relationships with plant roots. [SEP] Text: The identification of the key molecular players in mycorrhizal symbioses is mandatory to understand the complex interactions between the symbiotic partners and the ways to improve and fully exploit their symbiotic potential in sustainable crop and forest management. Genome sequences of several mycorrhizal fungal species are now available and provide a great opportunity to increase our knowledge on the mycorrhizal lifestyle, on the metabolic capabilities of these symbioses and on the molecular dialogue between the two symbiotic partners [28]. Advertisement 3. The symbiotic proteomics of mycorrhizal interactionsProteomics is the large-scale study of proteins from a specific proteome in order to understand cellular processes, and includes assessment of protein abundance, protein modifications, along with identification of interacting partners and networks. As the aim of proteomics is the identification of proteins, the molecular components actually taking part in cellular processes, rather than their genetic information, proteomics could be the main technique to unravel the key players of mycorrhizal symbioses. However, when the number of proteomics studies is compared with those using genomics, transcriptomics or microscopy, the gap is very significant (Table 1). One of the reasons is that the methods for protein identification are based, nowadays, mainly on mass spectrometry, a more complex and expensive technology than high-throughput DNA or RNA sequencing. Protein identification is made by matching the peptides masses to corresponding masses calculated by the software on proteins or translated gene sequences available in databases. If sequences are not found in databases, protein identification fails. Over the years, many loopholes have been found, among them the easiest was to use sequences from other species. Concerning the identification of plant proteins, the best-studied and well-sequenced plant is Arabidopsis thaliana. Unfortunately, this plant is not able to form any type of mycorrhizal symbiosis. In the past few years, DNA sequencing has become cheaper and almost a routine technique, allowing the genome sequence of many organisms to become available. Another aspect that has hindered the use of proteomics in the study of mycorrhizal interactions is the fact that the mycorrhizal symbiosis involves a small percentage of plant root cells, that may contain fungal structures at different developmental stages and with different putative roles [29].

Output: corroborate


Input: Claim: Every technological innovation is inherently beneficial to society. [SEP] Text: The latter might seem quite iconic, given that plastics were commonly considered, up to recent years, as the epitome of contemporary industry and human progress. 25. The phenomenon can be observed quite starkly when modern technology is introduced in a primitive society and when technological progress is particularly fast. The number of contemporary examples is abundant. For instance, one could think about the addictive and compulsive effects of digital content, from social networks to games, especially on children and adolescents, with their potential impact on cognitive and social development, and whose long-term effects on the psychological, emotional and affective spheres will probably be discovered by the next generations. Similarly, one can consider genetic screening and editing of human embryos, with techniques such as. Aside from the controversies associated to the nature of embryos (“is it a human being we are discarding and/or working on? ”), the objectives can be debatable. These techniques were originally intended to avoid giving birth to babies with genetic diseases. However, when technology will allow it, and given the choice, what parents will not try to use it in order to have better looking and more intelligent babies too? How is society going to make sure that this will not develop into fully fledged eugenics, as in Huxley’s “World”? Finally, similar controversial aspects can be tied to the use of artificial intelligence (AI) supporting decision-making in many different fields, from recruitment in firms to university admissions, and from granting bank loans to deciding bail for people charged in court, all the way to deciding whether a subject is friend or foe in military operations. AI algorithms are intrinsically ‘opaque’ to decision-makers and tend to reinforce the stereotypes that emerge from the datasets on which they were trained, thus opening the way for potentially unjust decisions. Moreover, even if procedures imposed by the organization or by regulators dictate that a human decision-maker is kept firmly in the loop, one might wonder to what extent she/he will be willing to assume the responsibility of going against the recommendations of an algorithm, lest this decision turn out to be a bad one. 26. A caveman with a club is not simply a stronger man than his peers. According to his tendencies, he might become a man of order who protects the village from enemies, the village chief or a mugger.

Output: contrast


Input: Claim: Quantum algorithms can solve certain problems faster than classical ones. [SEP] Text: Benchmarking custom database construction and updating We used genomes from the GTDB (Release 95) for all benchmarking. Only genomes with ≥50% CheckM-estimated completeness, <5% CheckM-estimated contamination were included (Parks et al. , 2015). To reduce biases towards species with large numbers of representative genomes, we selected one genome per species. The genome with the highest estimated completeness and lowest estimated contamination was selected for all candidates of each species. The final pool consisted of 30,989 genomes (Fig. S2). We used the same genome subsets for benchmarking database creation with both Struo and Struo2. We benchmarked the combined time to generate Kraken2, Bracken, and HUMAnN databases, which included both UniRef50 and UniRef90 annotations for the HUMAnN databases. Struo was run with default parameters. Both pipelines were run on the same computational architecture, consisting of a high performance computing cluster comprising nodes running Ubuntu 18. 04. 5 with and 0. 5–2 terabytes of RAM. The CPU hours shown in Fig. 2B are the sum of all CPU hours for all snakemake jobs, as recorded via snakemake’s benchmarking feature. We only benchmarked database updating for Struo2, given that Struo cannot update databases, and we also clearly show in Fig. 2B that database generation is much slower for Struo. We first used Struo2 to generate custom Kraken2, Bracken, and HUMAnN databases from 1000 genomes. These “n1000” databases were used for all database update benchmarking. The genomes used for database update benchmarking did not overlap with any genomes used to generate the n1000 databases, and they did not overlap with each other. We used subsets of 10, 100, 175, 250, 350, and 500 genomes. We used the linear regression models shown in Fig. 2B to estimate the CPU hours that would be required to generate each database from scratch rather than updating. Benchmarking custom database accuracy as a function of genome assembly quality We utilized two randomly chosen sets of 100 genomes from the GTDB r95 reference genome pool (described above). For each set, we simulated varying levels of misassemblies among each genome in the set, with the same number of misassemblies introduced into each genome per simulation set.

Output: pass


Input: Claim: Mycorrhizal fungi form symbiotic relationships with plant roots. [SEP] Text: For example, arbuscules are limited to the root cortical cells in the AM symbiosis, a tissue where not all plant cells are colonized. In addition, the majority of key proteins are likely to be membrane proteins. Taken together, this means that protein extraction from AM roots will lead to a very small percentage of proteins expressed in symbiosis. This ‘dilution effect’ has made it very hard to identify the key proteins directly involved in plant–fungus interactions. In summary, the lack of sequence databases of reference organisms and the difficulties in protein extraction have characterized the first decade of proteomics applications to mycorrhizal symbiosis, and explain the limited results obtained. Advertisement 4. Proteomics in actionThe first proteomic investigation of the plant–mycorrhizal fungus symbiosis was published by Dumas et al. (1990) and used mono-dimensional polyacrylamide gel electrophoresis (PAGE) to separate soluble proteins from non-mycorrhizal roots and from roots infected by different AM fungi [30]. After this pioneering study, and because of improvements in sample extraction, sample purification and in the technological performance of the equipment, many studies have aimed to identify the key players involved in mycorrhizal interactions (Figure 3). Many strategies have been set up, depending on the target mycorrhizal type, on the symbiotic stage of interest and subcellular localization [30]. Figure 3. The figure represents different approaches that can be used to collect biological material for AM roots proteomics. (A) Collection of the whole root is the easiest and quickest approach, but it has a drawback due to the fact that the amount of proteins involved in the symbiosis is a very small percentage of the all extracted proteins. The visual enrichment approach allows the collection only of the roots in contact with the fungus. (B) The root organ culture system allows to study the early stages of colonization by following the root and hypha growth until they contact each other and then collect only the root pieces reached by the hyphae. (C) By microscope inspection, roots with the higher percentage of fungal hyphae in contact can be selected.

Output: corroborate