Input: Claim: Tree rings cannot be used to study past volcanic activity or environmental disturbances. [SEP] Text: 6 demonstrates that correlations were weak within sites, which would be expected given a lack of year-specific knowledge of water δ2H values to plug into the Roden model. Importantly, the significant relationship across sites provides the first tree-ring based support for the contention of Cormier et al. (2018) that constraints on metabolic rates can increase δ2H in plant compounds. Besides, a recent publication suggest the use of carbon storage under stress conditions by observing a negative relationship between δ2HTRC values and tree-ring width chronologies on four sites in Europe and Asia, where growth is limited by precipitation or light (Lehmann et al. 2021). However, on a site where temperature was the growth-limiting factor, the relationship between δ2HTRC and TRW was slightly positive. Thus, further studies are needed to determine the driving factors of 2H-fractionaions related to annual growth (Vitali et al. 2022). Fig. 11. 6The δ2H differences between observed and modeled tree-ring cellulose (δ2) following (Voelker et al. 2014a), plotted against adjusted growth rate index values following (Voelker et al. 2014b). Each data point represents a cross-dated tree-ring year within a site pooled across > 10 trees of bur oak (Quercus macrocarpa). The three sites were sampled across continental gradients in temperature and humidity. The relationships within sites are not significant (P > 0. 05), which likely reflects a lack of data for changes in precipitation δ2H across years. The significant relationship across sites supports the contention of Cormier et al. (2018) that constraints on metabolic rates can increase δ2HFull size image(4) Herbaceous tissue effects: Tissue-specific δ2HNE effects represent important physiological processes, but have rarely been analyzed in trees (e. g. stem vs. root cellulose, Roden and Ehleringer 1999). We thus focused on δ2HNE reports working with herbaceous plant tissues and assume that this knowledge is helpful to understand tree physiological responses. Sanchez-Bragado et al.

Output: contrast


Input: Claim: The impact craters on the Moon provide insights into the history of the solar system. [SEP] Text: Clearly the sub-mm- and mm-sized Lonar impact spherule differ in their morpho-chemistry (Fig. 2; Table 1; Misra et al. 2009). While the sub-mm sized spherule shows relative enrichments in Cr and Zn, the mm-sized spherule has relatively high concentration of Si, Na, K and P. To explain this heterogeneity in impactite composition we propose the following hypothesis. We propose that the impact ejecta plume generated above the Lonar crater just after the impact gradually became inhomogeneous in terms of temperature and contents of vaporised impactor (chondritic) components with time during the excavation stage of the crater (Fig. 12). The temperature and impactor components were higher at the central part of the fast uprising impact plume, and the concentration of vaporised components of the impactor was perhaps the highest at the plume head (Misra et al. 2009) (we presume that the chondrite impactor of the Lonar crater was completely vaporized after impact because no fragment/partially melted part of chondrite has been reported either under petrological microscope or in the field after several searches). As the uprising plume head was gradually expanding with time, the concentration of impactor components and the temperature dropped at the peripheral part of the plume. The predominance of schlieren and impactor components, and nearly absence of vesicles in the sub-mm sized spherule (Misra et al. 2009) suggest that the parent liquid droplets of these spherules could have formed within the impactor-rich, hotter (higher than the volatilization temperature of 1,100 °C of Na in basaltic magma, Storey 1973) central part of the plume where these liquid droplets incorporated maximum amount of impactor components from the vapour phase and lost relatively more volatile elements like Na, K and P due to high temperature. On the other hand, the morpho-chemistry of the mm-sized spherules suggests possibility of their formation from the relatively cool, impactor component less/absent outer part of the same plume. Fig.

Output: pass


Input: Claim: Rhizobacteria enhance plant growth by fixing atmospheric nitrogen in the soil. [SEP] Text: pumilus S1r1 accorded the lowest at. % 15Ne or the highest % Ndfa (as well as relative N2 fixed amount) in the plant top, followed by K. pneumoniae Fr1. Inoculation with B. pumilus S1r1 contributed substantial amounts of fixed N to maize plant top of 262 mg N2 fixed plant−1 (30. 5% Ndfa) and 304 mg N2 fixed plant−1 (25. 5% Ndfa) at D50 and D65, respectively, which were equivalent to 14. 0 kg N ha−1 and 16. 2 kg N ha−1, respectively, based on an equivalent planting density of 53,333 plants ha−1. According to Schröder et al. [48], the initial three weeks of maize plant growth requires approximately 0. 50 kg N ha−1 day−1; thus, the amount of fixed N (0. 25–0. 28 kg N ha−1 day−1) from B. pumilus S1r1 inoculation could potentially complement ca. 50% of the total plant-N requirement. Other researchers have reported contributions of fixed N up to 26. 7 kg N ha−1 or 70% of total plant-N in sugarcane inoculated with Azospirillum spp. [11]. The main advantage of N derived from BNF is due to the complete uptake of readily fixed ammonia within the plant with no losses to the environment. N losses between 50–70% of the inorganic fertiliser-N in soils through natural processes such as volatilisation, denitrification and nutrient leaching have been reported [4]. Moreover, plants cultivated in the tropical soils of low pH favour the uptake of N from ammonium or amino acid sources [49]. sources can influence the plant-N content since plants grown under ammonium-N condition will have twice the amount of N in their vegetative parts compared to those grown under nitrate-N condition [50]. Meanwhile, the at. % 15Ne in the plant tops and in the different plant parts of maize generally decreased upon ear harvest (D65). This phenomenon suggests a continuous contribution of unlabelled N from BNF and soil sources towards the dilution of at. % 15Ne in maize (inoculated and uninoculated control) until ear harvest.

Output: corroborate


Input: Claim: Tree rings cannot be used to study past volcanic activity or environmental disturbances. [SEP] Text: 2009)Full size imageFig. 11. 8Global map for δ2H of tree-ring cellulose corrected for δ2H of precipitation (Δ2circles) for ca. 140 sites derived from literature data (Table S1). Paleo sites (< 1000 years before 2000 AD) are not shown due to climatic and sampling uncertainitesFull size imageFig. 11. 9Variations in δ2H of tree-ring cellulose corrected for δ2H of precipitation (Δ2) for species and genus level across different sites on a global scale. For genus, the number of sites strongly varies (n = 1 to 34, given in parenthesis). For species, a minimum of three sites were considered (n = 3 to 13). The color-coding indicates the average mean annual precipitation (MAP) for each species and genus varying between < 500 mm (red) and > 1500 mm (blue). Paleo studies were excluded (< 1000 years before 2000 AD; Table S1). Abbreviations: Junip. = Juniperus, Pseu. /Pseudo. = Pseudotsuga, Querc. = Quercus, Rhizo. = Rhizophora, Popu. = Populus, Seq. = Sequoia, Seqd. = Sequoiadendron, ab. = abies, gl. = glauca, lo. = longaeva, ni. = nigra, st. = strobus, sy. = sylvestris, tr. = tremuloides, me. = menziesii, ma. = macrocarpa, pe. = petraea, ro. = roburFull size image6 ConclusionsOur 2. Experimental. J Hydrol 64:377–397 4882. A stable isotope tree-ring timescale of the late glacial holocene boundary. Nature 353:647–6495788. V (1976) Isotopic tree thermometers. Nature 261:284–28822. Isotopic composition of cellulose from C3, C4, and CAM plants growing near one another. Science 220:947–9493. Rev 239:106333 2003. Geochronometria 25:67–76 2281.

Output: contrast


Input: Claim: The impact craters on the Moon provide insights into the history of the solar system. [SEP] Text: 12A hypothetical model showing evolution of Lonar impact plume with time: initial plume at the beginning of the excavation stage expanding in all directions, Stage II the expanding plume at the end of the excavation stage showing a hot, impactor component-rich central part surrounded by a relatively cool peripheral part, PM- arrows within plume showing movement of gaseous matters within plume, —trajectories of sub-mm-, and mm-sized spherule, and impact-melt bomb respectively within the impact plume and its surroundingsFull size image These morpho-chemical differences between the sub-mm and mm-sized Lonar impact spherules could be caused by their trajectories within the expanding impact plume (Fig. 12). It is a fact that all the components of the plume and parent liquid droplets of the Lonar impactites gained the same impact-induced kinetic energy (K. E. = ½mv2, m—mass, v—velocity) just after the impact. However, their trajectories within the impact plume were controlled by their masses. The parent liquid-droplets of the sub-mm sized spherule for their tiny masses perhaps managed to get sub-vertical trajectory that reached to the highest elevation of the plume and passed through the hot central part of the expanding plume just after the impact (Fig. 12b). By contrast, the parent liquid droplets of the mm-sized spherule and impact-melt bomb, due to their higher masses followed more gentle trajectories and remained within the peripheral part of the plume without any significant meteoritic components. It appears that the mm-sized spherule and impact-melt bomb may have lost Cu during their formation or cooling (Fig. 8c), and the temperature of the peripheral plume could be constrained higher than the condensation temperature of Cu of ~760 °C (Lodders 2003). 7 Conclusions 1. In contrast to the morphology of the sub-mm sized spherule (Misra et al.

Output: pass


Input: Claim: Rhizobacteria enhance plant growth by fixing atmospheric nitrogen in the soil. [SEP] Text: At D50, some tassels have experienced dehiscence, particularly from the uninoculated and Klebsiella sp. Br1 treated maize plants, as exhibited in their unchanged N uptakes at D65 harvest. At the same time, inoculations with other superior N2-fixing PGPR (B. pumilus S1r1, K. pneumoniae Fr1, B. subtilis UPMB10 and Acinetobacter sp. S3r2) have delayed the dehiscence of tassels, thus exhibiting significant reductions in N uptakes at D65 harvest. In addition, the influence of PGPR on N remobilisation in maize was clearly demonstrated in the significant interactions found between the PGPR strains and the time of harvests in N uptake and at. % 15Ne parameters of tassel. During grain formation, the ear leaves functioned as supporting organs to continuously channel exogenous and remobilised N to ears [55]. However, the N remobilisation in ear leaves determined using balance remobilisation technique (N uptake and dry biomass) showed no apparent changes between D50 and D65. Favourably, the significantly lower at. % 15Ne in ear leaves of D65 harvest suggested that the N content was diluted with “later” unlabelled-N uptakes from BNF and soil sources. The significant increments of fixed N (% Ndfa) in ear leaves of inoculated maize at D65 further emphasised the role of ear leaves as temporary transits to ears, which had the lowest at. % 15Ne at D65. Meanwhile, B. pumilus S1r1 displayed its superiority in BNF as indicated by the highest amount of fixed N found in the ear leaves instead of the plant stalk, where most fixed N of other PGPR strains was located at D65 harvest. Amidst the fluctuations of N fluxes in the tassel, leaves (young, ear and old) and ear of maize, the at. % 15Ne in plant stalk remained mostly consistent throughout the plant growth, despite having the highest N uptake and dry biomass at D50 and D65 harvests. In addition to the significant increments of plant biomass and N uptake of stalk at D65, these phenomena demonstrated the role of plant stalk as an important N reservoir for maize [54, 55].

Output: corroborate


Input: Claim: Tree rings cannot be used to study past volcanic activity or environmental disturbances. [SEP] Text: in of Download book PDF Download book EPUB Peter van der Sleen7,8, Pieter A. Zuidema7 & Thijs L. Pons9 Part of the book series: ((TREE,)) 8941 Accesses 3 Altmetric AbstractThe study of stable isotopes in tree rings is relatively new, but growing research field in tropical forests. In this 22. 1), and the formation of annual tree rings in deciduous species growing in tropical climates with a pronounced dry season has been known for a long time (Coster 1927). Although ring boundaries of trees in the humid tropics are generally less clear than those in temperate trees, the formation of distinct annual growth rings has been shown for a large number of tropical tree species (Worbes 2002; Rozendaal and Zuidema 2011; Zuidema et al. 2012; Brienen et al. 2016; Schöngart et al. 2017). In addition to drought, other seasonally changing environmental factors, such as flooding and soil salinity, are known to induce the formation of annual ring boundaries (Schöngart et al. 2002; Chowdhury et al. 2008). Fig. 22. 1adapted from Kricher (2011). c A few examples of tropical (woody) ecosystems. Clockwise from top left: evergreen rainforest close to the equator (no dry season) in Brazil, mountain cloud forest in Bolivia (moderate dry season; but moist year round), deciduous dry forest in Mexico (long dry season), and savanna vegetation in Tanzania (long dry season)a Map of the tropics showing locations of studies on stable isotopes in tropical tree-rings. Main findings of these studies summarized in Table 22. 1. Background map showing tropical climates according to Köppen classification (map from Beck et al. 2018), with grey continental areas belonging to arid (mostly treeless) climate types. b Diagram showing general rainfall seasonality in the tropics, with a dry month defined as a month with <100 mm average precipitation. FigureFull size imageThe “re-discovery” of annual growth-ring formation in tropical trees, and developments in stable isotope analyses has triggered studies on the variation of the natural abundance of isotopes in tropical trees, with the number of publications on stable isotopes in tropical tree rings increasing rapidly in recent years (Fig. 22. 1).

Output: contrast


Input: Claim: The impact craters on the Moon provide insights into the history of the solar system. [SEP] Text: 1 IntroductionPolygonal impact craters (PICs) are craters whose shape in plan view is more or less angular instead of being circular, or in the case of highly oblique impacts, ellipsoidal. They are present and often common on the Moon, Venus, Mercury, Mars, several asteroids, and some icy moons—e. g. Eros, Europa and Iapetus (Porco et al. 2005; Denk et al. 2005). Thus, they exist on many kinds of bodies that have craters and fractured crusts (e. g. Procter et al. 2002; Öhman et al. 2005; Öhman 2007). Polygonal craters are also found on the Earth and may be formed by two mechanisms: Simple polygonal craters result when the excavation flow opens the crater more easily along pre-existing planes of weakness (Roddy 1978; see also Shoemaker 1963), while complex polygonal craters are formed in the modification stage, when the crater rims slumped along the fractures in the target. Both mechanisms lead to straight segments of the rim (Eppler et al. 1983). However, many aspects of the cratering mechanics are still rather poorly understood, especially regarding the modification stage (Melosh 1989; Melosh and Ivanov 1999). This also holds true for the formation of PICs (Öhman 2007). The polygonal impact craters on the Moon have been studied to some extent (e. g. Kopal 1966; Elston et al. 1971; Scott et al. 1977; Schultz 1976, Eppler et al. 1983) and recently especially on Mars (Öhman et al. 2005, 2006a). et al. (1997) do not recognise polygonal impact craters as a class, four Venusian craters are so classified in their accompanying database. We have classified these four as polygonal as well. Thus, polygonal impact craters are present on the Venusian surface (as also noted by Öhman et al. 2005) but, to date there have been no detailed studies of them despite the availability of good quality Magellan radar image data. The first goal of this preliminary study is to determine the abundance of this type of craters on the Venusian surface.

Output: pass


Input: Claim: Rhizobacteria enhance plant growth by fixing atmospheric nitrogen in the soil. [SEP] Text: According to Ta and Weiland [57], plant stalks could contribute similar amounts of remobilised N as the accumulated N in plant leaves to the grain, ca. 40%. The present plant stalks which contained between 30. 5–31. 3% of total plant top N could possibly have several times higher nitrate concentration than the N in the leaves [50] and the nitrate-N is readily available for N remobilisation [54]. In general, the present study has demonstrated that leaves (old, ear and young), tassel and stalk of maize plants had served successively as N sinks and N sources towards ear formation. Nonetheless, plant roots were not investigated in the present study using 15N isotope dilution technique due to their lesser involvement in N fluxes, as they exhibited a low representation of plant biomass (<8%) compared to above ground plant parts [54]. According to Salon et al. , [46], plant roots function mostly as mechanical support and nutrient uptake for growth. Furthermore, the at. % 15Ne in the above and below ground plant parts are normally similar and either of these plant parts will give similar % Ndfa [31]. This study has clearly demonstrated that the isolated PGPR, particularly B. pumilus S1r1 which fixed a significant amount of atmospheric N2, promoted vegetative growth and delayed plant senescence of maize, thereby produced a higher N content and yield of maize ear. ConclusionsThis greenhouse study has demonstrated that inoculation with locally isolated PGPR strains, mainly Bacillus pumilus S1r1, Klebsiella pneumoniae Fr1, Bacillus subtilis UPMB10 and Acinetobacter sp. S3r2 could significantly increase plant-N uptake, dry biomass and ear yield of maize. These increments are mainly attributed to the BNF ability of the strains, namely B. pumilus S1r1, which is able to fix up to 304 mg N2 fixed plant−1 at ear harvest (D65), and possibly other PGP abilities such as IAA production and phosphate solubilisation. The biomass production of plant tops and roots is correlated positively with IAA production by the PGPR strains. The maize plants inoculated with PGPR strains also exhibited delayed plant senescence, particularly in the tassel, which consequently improved the ear yield.

Output: corroborate


Input: Claim: Tree rings cannot be used to study past volcanic activity or environmental disturbances. [SEP] Text: Canopy and emergent trees are exposed to high light levels and CO2 with an atmospheric δ13C signature (Buchmann et al. 1997). In addition, ontogenetic trends in tree-ring δ13C may be driven by increased vapor pressure deficit (VPD) from understory to canopy and increases in hydraulic resistance with tree height. Therefore, changes in δ13C with tree size can provide valuable information in an ecological context (e. g. on light conditions; van der Sleen et al. 2014), but are an important confounding factor in a dendroclimatological context. Decreasing water availability, or increasing VPD, results in stomatal closure, and therefore lowers the Ci/Ca ratio (e. g. Gebrekirstos et al. 2011). As a result, drought increases tree-ring δ13C values and intrinsic water-use efficiency (iWUE; the ratio of photosynthetic rate over stomatal conductance; A/gs) (e. g. Lambers et al. 2008; Cernusak et al. 2009; Craven et al. 2013). The available evidence suggests that the relationship between water availability and tree-ring δ13C also holds in regions with humid climatic conditions: δ13C of leaves collected in the rainy season was lower than in leaves collected in the dry season (French Guyana, Buchmann et al. 1997), and wood δ13C of trees growing near a creek was lower than that of trees growing on a comparatively drier ridge (Guyana, Pons et al. 2005). Changes in light and nutrient conditions can also affect tree-ring δ13C values when photosynthetic activity increases (A) more that stomatal opening (gs) (e. g. Cernusak et al. 2009; van der Sleen et al. 2014). Interestingly, average tree-ring δ13C values and the impact of environmental conditions on δ13C ratios is species specific. Co-occurring tree species of similar DBH can exhibit large variations in δ13C values, which has been related to differences in successional status (Bonal et al. 2007), shade tolerance (Guehl et al. 1998; Bonal et al. 2000), leaf phenology patterns (Bonal et al. 2000), and drought tolerance (Craven et al. 2013).

Output: contrast


Input: Claim: The impact craters on the Moon provide insights into the history of the solar system. [SEP] Text: The aim of our ongoing––and future––work is to study the distribution of polygonal craters and also to analyse if there are any correlations between polygonal craters and the structural and tectonic features on the planet’s surface. 1. 1 Objective of the StudyOn Mars, the polygonal impact craters––and especially their straight rim segment orientations––are definitely not randomly distributed, and follow the large-scale tectonic trends e. g. as formed by the Hellas and Isidis basins (Öhman et al. 2005). Thus, if polygonal craters are found also on Venus, we intend to identify any correlations between their distribution and large geologic provinces (equatorial deformation zones, Tessera terrains and the vast lowland plains that exhibit compressional features). We also compared the characteristics of the PICs to the “normal” impact craters to find out if there are some properties, which would be typical only of PICs or only of circular impact craters. All these would help us to explain the formation of straight rim segments of craters on Venus and to clarify if the origin is the same as has been suggested for Martian craters, and polygonal craters in general (Eppler et al. 1983; Öhman et al. 2005, 2006a). 1. 2 MethodsFor the study we have used the Magellan SAR (Radar) images, which cover 98% of the surface (Ford and Plaut 1993). For the analysis we used the full-resolution mosaicked image data records, which cover an area approximately 5° × 5° and have been resampled to a 75 m/pixel size. In the areas, which are not covered by these high-resolution data sets, we used compressed once mosaicked image data records (C1-MIDRs) with a resolution of 225 m/pixel. Together with the SAR data we have used also the altimetry data, although the relatively coarse resolution of topography data prevents study of smaller craters. 1. 3 CratersVenus has almost 1,000 impact craters of 1. 5–280 km in diameter (Phillips et al. 1992; Schaber et al. 1992; Herrick and Phillips 1994a; Strom et al. 1994; Herrick et al. 1997).

Output: pass


Input: Claim: Rhizobacteria enhance plant growth by fixing atmospheric nitrogen in the soil. [SEP] Text: Are microorganisms more effective than plants at competing for nitrogen? Sci. 2000; 5: 304–308. pmid:10871903 View 5. Lugtenberg B, Kamilova F. Plant-growth-promoting rhizobacteria. Annu. Rev. Microbiol. 2009; 63: 541–556. pmid:19575558 View 6. Montañez. Biological nitrogen fixation in maize (Zea mays L. ) by 15N isotope-dilution and identification of associated culturable diazotrophs. Biol. Fertil. Soils 2009; 45: 253–263. View 7. Screening of rhizobacteria from maize (Zea mays L. ) in do (South Brazil) and analysis of their potential to improve plant growth. Appl. Soil Ecol. 2013; 63: 15–22. View 8. . The diversity of archaea and bacteria in association with the roots of Zea mays L. Microb. Ecol. 2001; 41: 252–263. pmid:11391463 View 9. . Inoculation of Bacillus sphaericus UPMB-10 to young oil palm and measurement of its uptake of fixed nitrogen using the 15N isotope dilution technique. Microbes Environ. 2012; 27(3): 257–262. pmid:22446306 View 10. . Effect of plant growth promoting rhizobacteria (PGPR) inoculation on microbial community structure in rhizosphere of forage corn cultivated in Thailand. Eur. J. Soil Biol. 2011; 47: 44–54. View 11. Biological nitrogen fixation associated with sugar cane and rice: contributions and prospects for improvement. 1995; 174: 195–209. View 12. . Potential use of rhizobial bacteria as promoters of plant growth for increased yield in landraces of African cereal crops. Afr. J. Biotechnol. 2004; 3: 1–7. View 13. . Nitrogen and carbon accumulation and remobilisation during grain filling in maize under different source/sink ratios. Crop Sci. 1995; 35: 183–190. View 14. . In winter wheat (Triticum aestivum L.

Output: corroborate


Input: Claim: Tree rings cannot be used to study past volcanic activity or environmental disturbances. [SEP] Text: 3. 2 in Tree-Ring δ13CEarly studies on δ13C in tropical wood showed the presence of intra-annual variation, similar to what was found for other climatic regions (Leavitt and Long 1991). Subsequent studies confirmed this seasonality (e. g. Poussart et al. 2004; Verheyden et al. 2004; Ohashi et al. 2009), suggesting seasonal variation in water availability as underlying cause. Variation in δ13C within a single growth ring can however, not be unequivocally understood from current photosynthesis on the basis of the Farquhar et al. (1989) model. Other processes may interfere with patterns driven by climate seasonality, such as utilization of stored reserves early in the growing season, potential fractionation downstream from the carbon fixation in the leaves, and a varying fraction of C allocated to other processes than diameter increment in the growing season (Helle and Schleser 2004; Kagawa et al. 2006; Krepkowski et al. 2013; Fu et al. 2017). Although attempts have been made to identify annual rings in tropical trees that lack visible increment ring boundaries based on intra-annual δ13C patterns, δ18O proved to be more useful for that purpose. 3. 3 Annual and in Tree-Ring δ13CSeveral studies have investigated the inter-annual variation of δ13C and its correlation with precipitation amount (Table C). Strong negative correlations between tree-ring δ13C and annual precipitation were found for species from various sites in tropical America, Asia and Africa, whose growing conditions differed widely in annual precipitation (e. g. Fichtler et al. 2010; Rahman et al. 2020). Such climate sensitivity was further linked to ENSO variability in some studies (e. g. Brienen et al. 2011). In semi-arid Ethiopia, Gebrekirstos et al. (2009) also found a strong correlation of δ13C with precipitation for three Acacia species, but less so in Balanites aegyptiaca. Such differences may relate to water-use strategies, with drought-tolerant species showing a lower sensitivity to inter-annual variability in precipitation amount (Gebrekirstos et al. 2011; Craven et al. 2013). Other studies combined δ13C sequences with measurements of δ18O.

Output: contrast


Input: Claim: The impact craters on the Moon provide insights into the history of the solar system. [SEP] Text: Crater counts indicate relative youth of the Venusian surface (Schaber et al. 1992). Also the random distribution around the planet without any indications of the striking dichotomy evident on the Moon and Mars implies that the distribution of Venusian impact craters at large is not affected by major geologic processes. An important factor to the crater population on Venus is the dense Venusian atmosphere, which prevents the smallest impactors from cratering the surface effectively––either by eroding the impactors totally, or breaking them into fragments before their contact with the surface (e. g. Phillips et al. 1991; Herrick and Phillips 1994b; McKinnon et al. 1997; Cochrane and Ghail 2006). 1. 4 Studying the Craters on VenusThe properties of the Magellan data cause some obvious problems when searching for straight rim segments from Venusian impact craters. We have to consider the nature of the radar data, which highly depends on the surface roughness, surface slopes, incidence angle and especially the looking direction (e. g. Ford and Plaut 1993) as it can be seen in Fig. 1. The roughness of the crater rim together with the resolution makes the interpretation of the crater rim difficult in some cases. In addition, the looking direction––right or left––makes the analysis of the northern and southern rim (if they are straight or not) more difficult. This nature and these limitations in the data forced us to reject the smaller craters. We can identify the straight rim segments also in some small craters, but in many cases the surface roughness together with the resolution makes a reliable interpretation impossible. Therefore, to be able to make statistical analyses of the polygonal impact craters, we studied only the impact craters whose diameter is larger than 12 km. In the cases of smaller craters, the possible straight walls are too difficult to define and they may be mixed up with the clustered (e. g. Phillips et al. 1991) impact craters. Fig. 1Examples of impact craters with more than one straight rim segment. The effect of the look directions of the radar is shown in the uppermost image pair of (52. 2 N/111. 2 E). On the upper left image the SAR antenna is looking to the east of the orbit plane (left-looking) and to the west (right-looking) on the upper right image.

Output: pass


Input: Claim: Rhizobacteria enhance plant growth by fixing atmospheric nitrogen in the soil. [SEP] Text: Effect of seed inoculation with indigenous Rhizobium and plant growth promoting rhizobacteria on nutrients uptake and yields of chickpea (Cicer arietinum L. ). Eur. J. Soil Biol. 2014; 63: 70–77. View 37. Egamberdiyeva D. The effect of plant growth promoting bacteria on growth and nutrient uptake of maize in two different soils. Appl. Soil Ecol. 2007; 36: 184–189. View 38. . Isolation and characterization of indole acetic acid (IAA) producing Klebsiella pneumonia strains from rhizosphere of wheat (Triticum aestivum) and their effect on plant growth. Indian J. Exp. Biol. 2009; 47: 993–1000. pmid:20329704 View 39. . Burkholderia phytofirmas strain PsJN advanced development and altered leaf level physiology of switchgrass. Biomass Bioenerg. 2015; 83: 493–500. View 40. Bürgmann. Effects of model root exudates on structure and activity of a soil diazotroph community. Environ. Microbiol. 2005; 7: 1711–1724. pmid:16232286 View 41. James EK. Nitrogen fixation in endophytic and associative symbiosis. Field Crop. Res. 2000; 65: 197–209. View 42. Compant S, Clément C, Sessitsch A. Plant growth-promoting bacteria in the rhizo- and endosphere of plants: their role, colonization, mechanisms involved and prospects for utilization. Soil Biol. Biochem. 2010; 42: 669–678. View 43. . Root colonization by inoculated plant growth rhizobacteria. Biocontrol Sci. Techn. 2001; 11: 557–574. View 44. Boddey RM. Methods for quantification of nitrogen fixation associated with gramineae. CRC Crit. Rev. Plant Sci. 1987; 6: 209–266. View 45. . Misconceptions and practical problems in the use of 15N soil enrichment techniques for estimating N2 fixation. 1993; 152: 25–52. View 46.

Output: corroborate


Input: Claim: Tree rings cannot be used to study past volcanic activity or environmental disturbances. [SEP] Text: 1 in the TropicsWater taken up by trees becomes enriched in 18O in leaves as a result of transpiration. The strength of this enrichment is mediated by environmental conditions (Barbour 2007; Chap. 10). CO2 taken up by the leaves exchanges its oxygen atoms with that of leaf water, causing a transfer of the isotopic signature of leaf water to sucrose. In addition, when cellulose is synthesized from sucrose in the stem, about 42% of the oxygen atoms are again exchanged with xylem water. This exchange causes the effect of enriched leaf water to be partly reverted, and results in a strong imprinting of the isotope signature of source water in the wood of trees. Unfortunately, the δ18O signature of absorbed source water is commonly unknown, especially over longer time scales. In addition, it is often unknown from what depth the root systems of tropical trees take up water, which further complicates the determination of the δ18O of source water, and thus the interpretation of intra- and inter-annual variation in δ18O in wood. Shallow-rooting trees, growing in dense canopies where isotopic enrichment at the soil surface is minimal, likely absorb water that consists mainly of recent precipitation, and hence tree-rings are imprinted with an 18O signal that is rather similar to that of rainwater. As rainwater resides only shortly at the soil surface before percolating down to the groundwater, the δ18O signature of groundwater likely integrates variation in δ18O in precipitation over several years (Chap. 18). The depth of water uptake has been estimated by measuring natural abundance of 18O in the soil profile and in xylem water (Jackson et al. 1995; Hasselquist et al. 2010; Ellsworth and Sternberg 2015) or by labelling soil water (Stahl et al. 2013). These studies show that deciduous trees tend to take up water from shallower depths than evergreen trees and that the depth of water uptake generally increases with tree age and size. 4. 2 in Tree-Ring δ18OThe first δ18O studies on tropical trees quantified radial variation of δ18O in tree stems to reconstruct annual ring boundaries of tree species without anatomically distinct rings or to confirm the annual nature of ring formation (Evans and Schrag 2004; Poussart et al. 2004; Verheyden et al.

Output: contrast


Input: Claim: The impact craters on the Moon provide insights into the history of the solar system. [SEP] Text: The image pair in the middle shows the Behn crater that is situated at 32. 5 S/142 E (Magellan left-looking radar image), with the measured straight rim segments. On the lower left image (crater) and on the lower right image (Hurston crater) are examples of “normal, non-polygonal” craters. North is up in all imagesFull size image 2 Survey of CratersWe studied the craters larger than 12 km in diameter from the catalogue of Herrick et al. (1997) and in accordance to our previous studies, we considered as polygonal those, which have at least two straight rim segments and a clearly discernible angle between them. We selected only the most obvious cases, thus all those craters which had some uncertainties due to the data restrictions were rejected. In our search we found 131 impact craters that clearly display at least two straight rim segments providing an abundance of polygonal impact crater on Venus of ∼13%. However, few cases were found of a polygonal shape as well developed as in some cases on the Moon or Mars. This doesn’t seem to be merely an observational artefact due to the nature of radar data, but a real phenomenon possibly related to the properties of the Venusian crust/lithosphere. 2. 1 DistributionIn general, Venusian impact craters are randomly distributed, which is shown also in the distribution of “normal-shaped” impact crater distribution (Fig. 2). The distribution of Venusian impact craters has been shown to be close to random (Herrick and Phillips 1994a) and we found no marked deviation from this pattern in the case of polygonal impact craters. There are no clear concentrations of PICs, and rift zones, tessera terrain or lowland plains with compressional tectonics show no distinct correlations with the distribution of PICs (Figs. 3–5). Some areas have fewer PICs but these are not dominated by any of the selected terrain types (tessera, rift belts or ridge belts). Thus, we can conclude that there are no evident large-scale geologic events or provinces, which would enhance the formation of straight rim segments of the crater rims. There are, however, smaller areas where PICs seem to be more closely spaced.

Output: pass


Input: Claim: Decomposers like fungi and bacteria recycle organic matter, enriching soil fertility. [SEP] Text: -19 PreprintsProtocolsVideosJournalsTools & a 10. 21203/rs. 3. rs-1777358/v1This work is licensed under a CC BY 4. 0 LicenseStatus:Published17 Jan, 2023Read the published version in →Version 1posted 5You are reading this latest preprint versionAbstractThe frequency of flow-intermittency and drying events in Alpine rivers is expected to increase due to climate change. These events can have significant consequences for stream ecological communities, though the effects of reduced flow conditions on the microbial communities of decomposing allochthonous leaf material require additional investigation. In this study, we investigated the bacterial and fungal communities associated with the decomposition of two common species of leaf litter, chestnut (Castanea sativa) and oak (Quercus robur). Sampling of experimentally placed leaf bags was spread over six collection points (up to 126 days after placement) at seven sites in the Alps, which have historically differed in streamflow conditions. Bacterial and fungal communities from these leaf bags were identified using high-throughput amplicon sequencing. Chestnut and oak leaf bags harbored distinct bacterial and fungal communities, with a number of taxonomic groups differing in abundance, though bacterial communities began to converge at later sampling dates. Historical flow conditions (intermittent vs perennial rivers) and observed conditions (normal flow, low flow, ongoing drying event) had comparatively weak observed effects on bacterial and fungal communities to that of leaf type and collection date (i. e. length of decomposition). Our findings highlight the importance of leaf characteristics (e. g. , C:N ratios, recalcitrance, etc. ) to the in-stream conditioning of leaf litter and the need for additional investigations of drying events in Alpine streams. This study provides new information on the microbial role in leaf litter decomposition with expected flow changes associated with a global change scenario.

Output: corroborate


Input: Claim: Tree rings cannot be used to study past volcanic activity or environmental disturbances. [SEP] Text: 2004; Poussart and Schrag 2005; Evans 2007). In some of these studies, δ13C was also measured, but δ18O was found to be generally superior for this purpose. The suitability of δ18O for the identification of annual rings is based on its seasonal change in precipitation: rainwater δ18O is low during the rainy season and with heavy precipitation events (Dansgaard 1964; Villacıs et al. 2008; Kurita et al. 2009). High δ18O values of precipitation during the dry season can be further amplified in both soil and leaves due to higher evaporation at low humidity (Jackson et al. 1995; Cintra et al. 2019). This seasonality in δ18O was confirmed in tropical trees with distinct annual rings (Poussart et al. 2004; Managave et al. 2010; Ballantyne et al. 2011; Managave et al. 2011a; Schollaen et al. 2013). The identification of annual rings in homogeneous (ring-less) wood is most successfully done when intra-annual variation in source δ18O is large. This is the case in the western parts of the Amazon basin, where δ18O in precipitation is low in the rainy season due to rain-out of the heavy isotopes as water vapor travels from the Atlantic ocean across the basin (Sturm et al. 2007). Evidence for this effect is provided by the lower intra-annual variation in δ18O in evergreen trees from Guyana (1–4‰; Pons and Helle 2011) compared to trees sampled near Manaus, Brazil (3–6‰; Ohashi et al. 2016). A special case are trees in montane forests where the uptake of water during the rainy season is from precipitation, whereas moisture can also be directly absorbed from clouds in the dry season. These two water sources differ in δ18O values, which can result in large seasonal variation of tree-ring δ18O (Anchukaitis et al. 2008; Anchukaitis and Evans 2010). As the strength of intra-annual variation in δ18O varies across species (Poussart and Schrag 2005; Anchukaitis et al.

Output: contrast


Input: Claim: The impact craters on the Moon provide insights into the history of the solar system. [SEP] Text: One important aspect in the future studies will be the analysis of these localities: the correlations between the local tectonics and the orientations of the straight rim segments. Fig. 2The distribution of impact craters (diameter >12 km) with no signs of straight rim segmentsFull size image Fig. 3The distribution of PICs on Venus compared to the distribution of large-scale rift zonesFull size image Fig. 4The distribution of PICs compared to the distribution of highly deformed and supposedly old tessera terrainsFull size image Fig. 5The map showing the distribution of the large-scale ridge- and mountain belts compared to the PICsFull size image 3 Characteristics of Venusian PICsWe compared the polygonal impact craters to “normal”-shaped craters by using different characteristics defined by Herrick et al. (1997). Those properties were diameter, altitude, geologic setting, morphologic class, floor reflectance, degradation state, parabolic features around the craters and wall terracing. From these characteristics mentioned above, degradation state and floor reflectance, as well as the existence of a parabolic feature around the crater could reflect the age of the impact crater. It is interpreted that the bright floor of the impact crater could represent fall-back ejecta while dark crater floors display later volcanism (Campbell et al. 1992; Izenberg et al. 1994). Thus, the bright floor is primary and the dark crater floor secondary. In addition, the presence of dark halo or parabola––found from 55 craters with diameters larger than 55 km (Arvidson et al. 1991; Philllips et al. 1992; Schaber et al. 1992; Campbell et al. 1992) and composed of air fall deposits––could reflect that the crater is rather pristine (e. g. Arvidson et al. 1992; Basilevsky and Head 2002; Basilevsky et al. 2004). Thus, these both characterisations could provide some information of the age relationships of polygonal and circular craters. The craters were divided into three categories on the basis of their degradation state: Pristine, no ejecta, and highly degraded (Fig. 6). However, we found no discrepancies between PICs and “normal” craters based on this classification.

Output: pass


Input: Claim: Decomposers like fungi and bacteria recycle organic matter, enriching soil fertility. [SEP] Text: BacteriaFungileaf litter decompositionintermittent riversin-stream conditioningAlpine streamsFiguresFigure 1Figure 2Figure 3Figure 4Figure 5Figure 6Figure 7IntroductionIn low-order streams, allochthonous leaf litter is a fundamental energy source, and its decomposition plays a key role in nutrient and energy cycling [1]; therefore, coarse particulate organic matter (CPOM) decomposition has been widely used to assess river function [2] and is the basis for the Concept [3]. In general, leaf litter decomposition consists of three primary phases: leaching, conditioning and fragmentation [4]. After initial immersion, leaves begin to leach chemicals and nutrients (usually within 24–48 h); this is followed by microbial conditioning by fungi and bacteria that degrades the leaf tissues and facilitates additional decomposition over days to weeks; lastly, remaining recalcitrant leaf material experiences physical abrasion through macroinvertebrates feeding and shredding activity that leads to fragmentation with associated p47. 64 ± 0. 47 C:N content at the beginning of the experiment, and oak (Quercus robur), 38. 98 ± 0. 47 initial C:N content, both collected in autumn after abscission. For more details regarding experimental setting please see Gruppuso et al. [28, 29]. Three leaf bags per leaf species were collected on each sampling date, placed into individual plastic bags and stored at -20°C until DNA extraction and microbial community sequencing. Frozen leaf litter samples were thawed and sampled using a cork-borer under sterile conditions. For each sample, 1 g of leaf tissue was stored in cryovials with Sigma-Aldrich RNAlater® and kept frozen at -20°C. DNA extractions were performed using Qiagen MagAttract® DNA Extraction Kit, following manufacturer’s instructions except for the addition of lysozyme (15 mg/ml) during the lysis step. For bacterial communities, the V4 hypervariable region of the 16S rRNA gene [30–32] was amplified using dual indexed Illumina compatible primers 515f/806r as described by Kozich JJ [33]. For fungal communities we used ITS4 + ITS7 primers complementary to the internal transcribed spacer (ITS) region [34–36]. PCR products were batch normalized using plates and the products recovered from the plates pooled.

Output: corroborate


Input: Claim: Tree rings cannot be used to study past volcanic activity or environmental disturbances. [SEP] Text: 2008) and climatic conditions, selection of species and sites will determine the ability to identify annual rings in homogeneous wood. 4. 3 Annual and in Tree-Ring δ18OBecause some trees incorporate the δ18O signature of rainwater in stem wood, time series of tree-ring δ18O can be used to quantify past variability in precipitation. Tree-ring δ18O has been correlated with basin-wide precipitation in the Amazon (Ballantyne et al. 2011; Brienen et al. 2012; Baker et al. 2015, 2016), and regional precipitation in Thailand (Poussart and Schrag 2005; Pumijumnong et al. 2020), (Anchukaitis and Evans 2010), India (Managave et al. 2011b), Indonesia (Schollaen et al. 2013, 2015), Laos and Vietnam (Xu et al. 2011), (van der Sleen et al. 2015b), and central Africa (Colombaroli et al. 2016). Niño (ENSO) variability is often evident in δ18O sequences either from positive anomalies (Verheyden et al. 2004; Anchukaitis and Evans 2010; Zhu et al. 2012a) or negative ones (Evans and Schrag 2004; Brienen et al. 2012). The analysis of tropical tree-ring δ18O is developing into a powerful tool for reconstructing the variability of precipitation on regional scales. Good synchronization of δ18O patterns among individual trees was found for several species (e. g. Poussart and Schrag 2005; Managave et al. 2011b; Brienen et al. 2012; van der Sleen et al. 2015b), sometimes over large spatial distances (Baker et al. 2015; Schwendenmann et al. 2015; Volland et al. 2016). Synchronous variability in δ18O can be higher than for ring-width, thus providing an alternative tool for cross dating (Baker et al. 2015; van der Sleen et al. 2015b; Volland et al. 2016) and identification of false and missing rings (Boysen et al. 2014). However, δ18O synchronization between individuals may be low for certain species or sites (e. g. Poussart and Schrag 2005; Baker et al. 2015).

Output: contrast


Input: Claim: The impact craters on the Moon provide insights into the history of the solar system. [SEP] Text: Therefore, it seems that––at least globally––the both crater types have somewhat similar age distribution. However, this does not tell us anything about the local ages, i. e. relative ages of the craters and the tectonics of the area. Fig. 6The degradation state of the impact crater (both PICs and “normal”-shaped craters). The graph shows the degradation state does not affect the abundance of PICsFull size image The craters were divided into three categories also based on the floor reflectance: Intermediate, dark and bright (Fig. 7). The result is that the percentages for both crater types are very similar and we can conclude that there is no correlation between the floor reflectance and the crater type. We also looked for any differences in the case of the surrounding dark parabola. As it can be seen in Fig. 8, the occurrence of dark parabola, which may reflect the relative youth of the crater, does not depend on the crater polygonality. Fig. 7The graph shows approximately equal abundances of both impact crater types related to the floor reflectance, which can indicate the age of the craterFull size image Fig. 8Occurrence of dark parabola around the impact cratersFull size image Therefore, based on these three analyses (floor reflectance, degradation state, and presence of dark halo or parabola), it seems that there are no age differences between the PICs and “normal-shaped” impact craters. This holds true at least globally, but the situation at regional scale has not been analyzed. It is noteworthy that Martian PICs don’t seem to “favour” any particular degradational state either (Öhman et al. 2006a). The next studied characteristic was the diameter of the crater. The goal was to find if there are some correlations between the formation of the PICs and the size of the impact crater. Our studies clearly show that the relative abundance of polygonal impact craters increases among the smaller craters compared to larger craters (Fig. 9). 53% of all PICs are smaller than 20 km. The same percentage for other impact craters is 35%. Furthermore, there are basically no polygonal impact craters larger than 50 km. These results display that the smaller crater sizes favour the formation of straight rim segments of Venusian impact craters.

Output: pass


Input: Claim: Decomposers like fungi and bacteria recycle organic matter, enriching soil fertility. [SEP] Text: DiscussionIn this study, we investigated how the bacterial and fungal community composition differed between flow conditions for two common species of aquatic leaf litter. Drying events showed limited effects on leaf bacterial communities, which were probably supported during flow disturbances by the fungal community already present since the early stages of the decomposition process, which provided an increased surface area for bacteria along with leachate and products of polymers’ degradation [46, 47]. Similarly, leaf bag fungal diversity and taxonomic abundance were not strongly impacted by drying or low flow events. This could be due to the presence of some families which are typically present on the phyllosphere such as Cladosporaceae and Pleosporaceae [48, 49], here found in both chestnut and oak leaves and thus being more resistant to desiccation than the aquatic ones. Furthermore, the presence of desiccation-resistant taxa may have contributed to stabilizing the microbial community when flowing water disappeared. Surprisingly, oak leaves showed higher bacterial and fungal diversity between paired samples. We expected to see lower diversity in oak leaf bags due to them commonly considered as lower quality, more coriaceous (i. e. , leathery), and their higher concentrations of secondary metabolites (such as phenols and tannins) which can make the substratum less palatable for both micro and macroorganisms. Potentially, the higher observed diversity of the microbial community present on the leaves is reflective of the additional complexity needed to break down more recalcitrant leaf material to process [50]. Microbial community structure (as beta diversity) of oak and chestnut leaves varied over the course of this experiment. Regardless of flow conditions, chestnut and oak bacterial communities were distinct at the beginning of the experiment but converged at later sampling dates. This could be due to a higher presence of phyllosphere-specific taxa earlier in decomposition which is replaced over time by more specialized bacteria from the aquatic environment which contribute to the decomposition process. However, for fungi, we observed that chestnut and oak fungal communities remained distinct throughout decomposition. This suggests the presence of species specific fungi involved in the decomposition process, a hypothesis supported by the known differences in quality of the two leaf types [51]: some secondary compounds such as cellulose, lignin, tannins and phenols have a role in the composition of the leaf texture and palatability, thus different fungi are necessary to break down those compounds.

Output: corroborate


Input: Claim: Tree rings cannot be used to study past volcanic activity or environmental disturbances. [SEP] Text: For δ18O in Toona ciliata from Thailand, low δ18O synchronization occurred (van der Sleen 2014), in spite of the ring-width series showing strong synchronization (Vlam et al. 2014). It is likely that trees that lack a common signal in tree-ring δ18O values exploit other water sources than recent precipitation (e. g. ground water). These results suggest that shallow rooting tree species on well-drained soils have the highest probability to record the δ18O variability of precipitation and thus have the highest potential as tools for climate reconstructions. In several studies the two stable isotopes 18O and 13C were combined using a mechanistic interpretation, the so-called dual isotope approach (see Chap. 16), where A/gs obtained from Δ13C and gs derived from Δ18O could potentially provide an estimate of A (Scheidegger et al. 2000). This approach was used by Nock et al. (2011), who interpreted an increase of Δ18O over time as an indication of a decreasing gs in trees from Thailand. The observed decrease of Δ13C, and thus increasing A/gs, would then be the result of this decreasing gs and not an increasing A. However, the underlying assumptions in this approach are that the δ18O signature of source water is known and that the leaf to air vapor pressure difference (LAVPD) has remained constant over the period studied. In many tropical regions, this LAVPD may have increased as a result of global warming and/or decreased precipitation, leading to increased transpiration and δ18O over time. Even though gs is also partly controlled by LAVPD, this makes it nonetheless difficult to separate the gs effect from the LAVPD effect on transpiration. A long-term increase of δ18O values has been encountered in several studies conducted on tropical tree species (Poussart and Schrag 2005; Xu et al. 2011; Brienen et al. 2012; van der Sleen 2014; van der Sleen et al. 2015b; Volland et al. 2016). Some of these trends could be caused by ontogenetic changes, but a consistent small trend over the past century was also found in studies that did correct for ontogenetic trends (van der Sleen 2014; van der Sleen et al. 2015b; Volland et al.

Output: contrast


Input: Claim: The impact craters on the Moon provide insights into the history of the solar system. [SEP] Text: Abbreviations: undistinguished plains (p), fractured plains (pf), Lakshmi planum (lp), tessera and mountain belts (t), corona (c), volcanic regions (v), ridge belt (r), and rift (ri)Full size image Morphologic classes of the craters by Herrick et al. (1997)––flat floor, knobby base, central peak, several peaks, peak rings, and multi-ring––show small variations between the crater types (Fig. 11), which is also expected because of the correlations between the morphologic class and the diameter. The results show that in the classes of craters with peak rings and several peaks, polygonal craters are relatively less abundant than other craters. In the case of central peak and knobby base craters, however, PICs are relatively more common than other craters. This is natural because impact craters with peak rings and several peaks are generally larger and, as shown previously, there are fewer PICs among the larger craters. Therefore, this establishes the dependence between the crater diameter and the existence of straight rim segments of the craters. Fig. 11Morphologic classes of the craters by Herrick et al. (1997) shows small variations with less PICs in the case of impact craters with peaks rings and or multiple (several) peaksFull size image For the thick atmosphere, the simple-complex transition should take place at a crater diameter of about 4 km. Thus, they all have collapsed in the modification stage at least to some extent (e. g. Melosh and Ivanov 1999), and wall terracing is one indication of this collapsing. Hence, all the craters in this study have diameters of at least 12 km and must be complex craters. Preferential collapse along lines of weakness is the origin of all Venusian polygonal craters, according to current models (Eppler et al. 1983). Therefore, the comparison of wall terracing and crater shape could provide some information on the mechanics of polygonal crater formation. However, as can be seen in Fig. 12, we found that wall terracing and the shape of the crater are not correlated: Wall terraces are equally abundant in circular and polygonal craters. Fig.

Output: pass


Input: Claim: Decomposers like fungi and bacteria recycle organic matter, enriching soil fertility. [SEP] Text: Moreover, it is important to remember that, at the beginning of the experiment, the two leaf species have their unique phyllosphere microbial community which can be species specific [52, 53]. Quercus robur leaves were characterized by Rhodobacteraceae and Comamonadaceae, while Castanea sativa was mainly characterized by Rhodobacteraceae and Spingomonadaceae. Moreover, it is important to mention that when studying a complex phenomenon such as climate changing at a global level, we cannot forget that its effects will impact riparian vegetation too, affecting the microbial phyllosphere community before leaf abscission and thus changing its composition prior the beginning of the experiment itself [14]. Our results demonstrated that the bacterial community present on our leaf litter bags was mainly represented by Proteobacteria and Bacteroidota, which are frequently found in environmental samples, and this was true despite the investigated flow regime. Interestingly, for intermittent sites, oak leaves had a high abundance of Novosphingobium, a bacteria of the family Sphingomonadaceae, which is able to degrade aromatic compounds such as phenols [54], and can play an important role in the decomposition of this coriaceus leaf type. The other genera detected as top predictors of the intermittent sites for oak leaves were Caulobacter, usually found in aquatic ecosystems, Massilia, an aerobic genus, able to use atmospheric oxygen, Brevundimonas and the family Verrucomicrobiaceae. Chestnut leaf communities were represented by Brevundimonas, Novosphingobium, Pedobacter and Verrucomicrobiaceae in intermittent sites. Our results show that leaf bacterial communities associated with dry events were characterized by organisms able to use atmospheric oxygen to degrade aromatic compounds, along with the ones associated to the phyllosphere or to the sediment itself, able to overcome the desiccation periods [55]. Moreover, oak leaf communities represented a high relative abundance of Actinobacteriota, a bacterial group which is able to perform mycelial growth and to decompose organic compounds with low biodegradability, such as lignin, hydrocarbon and humus [56]; this result is quite interesting, because their relative abundance was higher at day 21 and 42 and then it diminishes in later sampling dates.

Output: corroborate


Input: Claim: Tree rings cannot be used to study past volcanic activity or environmental disturbances. [SEP] Text: 2016). For the Amazon region, these results are consistent with similar increases of δ18O in Andean ice cores (Thompson et al. 2006) and Andean lake sediments (Bird et al. 2011). Thus, the increasing trend in δ18O in tree rings likely reflects a pan-tropical phenomenon. The cause of this increase is yet unknown, and it is unclear whether it relates to climate change. 5 Isotopes5. 1 Isotope EcophysiologyThe value of plant δ15N depends on the δ15N of the N taken up and N losses in leaves, fruits, etc. Uptake can be in the form of nitrate, ammonium, organic N compounds or N2 in the case of nitrogen fixation. The δ15N of these sources varies in a complex manner (except for N2, which is used as standard and is thus 0‰ by definition; Chap. 12). Higher soil and foliage δ15N are generally reported for tropical lowland forests, compared to temperate and boreal forests (Martinelli et al. 1999; Amundson et al. 2003), and tropical montane forest (Brearley 2013). This pattern is considered as evidence of more N losses and thus a more open N cycle in tropical lowland forests, because nitrate lost through leaching and/or denitrification is 15N-depleted. Temperate forests are generally more N-limited, whereas tropical forests tend to be more P-limited (Vitousek and Howarth 1991), which is consistent with their higher δ15N. Leguminous trees are abundant in tropical forests, although not all can form an effective symbiosis with Rhizobia. Yet, facultative leguminous N2-fixers can still be abundant (Menge and Chazdon 2016) and contribute to N-accumulation also in late successional stages of tropical forests (Roggy et al. 1999; Pons et al. 2007). This could be the reason for an alleviation of N-limitation, whereas N2-fixing trees are virtually lacking in temperate forest (except for early successional stages; Menge et al. 2009). 5. 2 Annual and in Tree-Ring δ15NSo far, only three studies on temporal variation or trends δ15N in tree rings have been carried out in tropical forests (Hietz et al.

Output: contrast


Input: Claim: The impact craters on the Moon provide insights into the history of the solar system. [SEP] Text: 12The graph shows that the wall terraces are equally abundant in circular and polygonal cratersFull size image In the cases of our selected characteristics––other than diameter-related––no differences were found between the crater types. Thus, it seems that the size of the crater is an important factor in the formation process of straight rim segments and that the smaller crater size favours the formation of them, but otherwise PICs show characteristics similar to the other craters. The reason for this diameter-dependence could be related for example to the thickness of the elastic lithosphere, the depth or the spacing of the tectonic structures as well as the destructive effect of the large impact event itself. It is also quite possible that there is a specific size range with respect to the simple-complex transition diameter that favours the formation of polygonality. The analysis of this question will be the topic of the forthcoming research and paper. 4 Geological EnvironmentsRecent studies of the polygonal craters and their straight walls are in correlation with the local tectonics in the Hellas area on Mars and therefore these craters can be used in determining the directions and distributions of fractures or other zones of weakness in the crust (Öhman et al. 2005). This method should be applicable also on Venus, which has a rigid cratered crust and thus the craters could be used as a tool to reveal some properties of the target material and to determine regional stresses present during or before the crater formation. Our preliminary results show that there are regions where the straight segments of the crater rims most clearly follow the orientations of the dominant tectonic features of the area (Fig. 13 as an example). Unlike in the case of Mars, there is not a large population of impact craters on Venus. Therefore we cannot use a statistically reliable population of PICs on Venus to determine their correlation with the local tectonics, which in most cases appears much more complex than on Mars. However, there are regions where the orientations of straight rim segments align with tectonic features close to the craters, but not necessarily the general tectonic trends in the region. It indicates the correlation between crater formation process and tectonics which can be seen in Magellan data (e. g. Behn crater in Fig.

Output: pass


Input: Claim: Decomposers like fungi and bacteria recycle organic matter, enriching soil fertility. [SEP] Text: This could be due to the need of breaking down those recalcitrant and secondary compounds into simpler molecules and nutrients, before those nutrients become available for other organisms involved in the decomposition process. Fungal communities are mainly represented by Ascomycetes [57], because Basidiomycetes usually later in leaf litter decomposition, at stages we did not investigate during our field experiment. The family Aurobasidiaceae, which is widespread in freshwater and marine ecosystems [58], was the most abundant in our samples, despite the leaf type and flow regime, likely because this family is able to adapt to different environmental conditions and thus to cope with hydrological and nutrient stressors [58]. Interestingly, the fungi of the family Pleomassariaceae, widely distributed on decomposing wood and plant material [58], showed high abundance in low flow and drying conditions; this could be due to the ability to exploit the substratum’s remaining moisture and an ability to degrade secondary compounds. This fungal group deserves additional investigation to understand their role in leaf litter decomposition processes during longer desiccation phases. Oak leaf bag fungal communities had a high relative abundance of Cladosporium, typically found in plant material; Alternaria, a taxon usually present on decomposing material with high humidity [59]; Adisciso, a plant pathogen [60] and Phialea, typical of dead leaf material [61]. Chestnut leaves, however, had high relative abundance of Lemonniera, an aquatic hyphomycetes involved in stream decomposition processes [62]; and Tetracladium, an important decomposer in stream food webs [63]. The presence of those genera, mainly involved in breakdown processes in aquatic environments, may explain the faster decomposition rate we found for chestnut leaves. These findings highlight the importance of bacteria and fungi in the leaf litter decomposition process, and confirms the presence of different families/genera during decomposition, and variation related in leaf type and quality and also flow regime, even if with limited effect. High-throughput sequencing of microbial communities associated with in-stream leaf litter highlights the complexity of biotic interactions on aquatic decomposition processes. river ecosystems, the occurrence of low flow phases and drying events is a recent phenomenon, caused mainly by global climate change and anthropogenic pressures [64].

Output: corroborate


Input: Claim: Tree rings cannot be used to study past volcanic activity or environmental disturbances. [SEP] Text: 2010, 2011; van der Sleen et al. 2015c). Hietz et al. (2010) using two species in a Brazilian forest, found a gradual increase of tree-ring δ15N over time after statistical correction for tree age. The authors suggested that this result could be caused by an increase in tree turnover and thus gap formation that generates NO3− losses and thereby increasing δ15N of the remaining soil N pool. In a subsequent study, Hietz et al. (2011) reported also an increase in δ15N in three species from a monsoon forest in Thailand. They also found a similar increase when comparing 40-year-old herbarium leaves with recent leaves from the same species and sample location in a Panamanian forest (BCI). The two forests are intensively monitored and there are no indications that the level of disturbance has increased over the past century. Such a consistent trend in δ15N in three widely separated tropical forests may therefore indicate an effect of increased anthropogenic N-deposition, which causes higher NO3− losses (and thus δ15N enrichment of remaining soil nitrogen). However, in the most recent study, van der Sleen et al. (2015c) sampled annual rings in six species from three sites at different continents. They corrected for possible tree size effects by comparing wood sampled at a fixed diameter (20 cm) from different sized trees. Ten-year pooled samples were also collected between 1955 and 2005 from single trees, which showed increasing trends of δ15N in Bolivia and Cameroon. Surprisingly, the trends were absent in the fixed diameter sampling, showing evidence of potential ontogenetic effects. The discrepancy between the results of Hietz et al. (2011) and van der Sleen et al. (2015c) may also have been caused by a lower statistical power in the latter. Unfortunately, the interpretation of temporal changes in δ15N in the few available tropical tree-ring studies remain strongly hampered by a limited understanding of the factors that influence soil- and tree δ15N values. 6 Conclusion and PerspectiveTropical forests harbor an incredible biodiversity and provide ecosystem services on which millions of people depend. They are a major component of the global carbon cycle, storing some 25% of the total terrestrial carbon and accounting for a third of net primary production (Bonan 2008).

Output: contrast


Input: Claim: The impact craters on the Moon provide insights into the history of the solar system. [SEP] Text: 1), but also shows that the analysis of the PICs purely based on the general geologic setting does not work, but they have to be analysed by using the orientations of the tectonics in the vicinity of the crater. On Venus, this is however, rather complicated question, because relatively young volcanic plains can cover at least some of the older tectonic patterns. The other difficulty is that we do not know how deep the tectonic features reach and what is the thickness of the crust/lithosphere, so it is quite difficult the determine the actual effect of the local tectonics to the formation of straight rim segments. However, it is evident that there are regions where the straight crater walls follow the orientations of the visible tectonic patterns. In the areas, in which we do not see this kind of parallel orientations, there still might be parallel tectonics, but it is just covered by the vast lava plains. Thus, if the orientations of the straight rim of the Venusian craters reflect the local tectonics and zones of weaknesses as they do on Mars (Öhman et al. 2005, 2006a, b), they might be good tools to determine the tectonism beneath the young surface. Fig. 13An example from western showing that all the straight rim segments are parallel or perpendicular to the visible tectonic lines. The image in the middle shows the correlations between the straight crater rim orientations and rift zones (white lines). The craters whose walls do not correlate with the rift zones are in the areas with other type of tectonics, such as corona (circles), compression features (black lines) or old fractures (light-grey SW-NE oriented lines)Full size image 5 SummaryThere are huge amounts of polygonal impact craters on the Moon and Mars, and because the Moon, Mars and Venus are terrestrial planets with fractured rigid crusts, it is natural that such craters exist also on the surface of Venus. The available data sets, however, makes the interpretation of the crater wall difficult, but after the careful analysis we found 131 impact craters, which show at least two straight rim segments, even though the polygonal shape is not as well developed as it is on the Moon or Mars.

Output: pass


Input: Claim: Decomposers like fungi and bacteria recycle organic matter, enriching soil fertility. [SEP] Text: Frey-(2011) Bacterial-fungal interactions: hyphens between agricultural, clinical, environmental, and food microbiologists. 75:583–609. (2015) Effects of forest management practices in temperate beech forests on bacterial and fungal communities involved in leaf litter degradation. 69:905–913. (1966) Decomposition of leaf litter in relation to environment, microflora, and microbial respiration. Ecology 47:194–201. (2013) Assessing the effect of litter species on the dynamic of bacterial and fungal communities during leaf decomposition in microcosm by molecular techniques. 8:e84613. Mora-Gómez J, Duarte S, Cássio F, Pascoal C, Romaní AM (2018) Microbial decomposition is highly sensitive to leaf litter emersion in a permanent temperate stream. Environ 621:486–496. (2020) Microbial community response to a novel salmon resource subsidy. Evol 7:505. álint M, Bernabò P, Čiampor F Jr, Čiamporová-Zaťovičová (2014) Integrating molecular tools into freshwater ecology: developments and opportunities. 9:1559–1576. (2019) Necrobiome framework for bridging decomposition ecology of autotrophically and heterotrophically derived organic matter. 89:e01331. (2018) Lentification in Alpine rivers: patterns of diatom assemblages and functional traits. 80:1–11. (2019a) streams run dry: the drought memory of benthic communities. 81:1–14. (2019b) The role of recurrent dewatering events in shaping ecological niches of scrapers in intermittent Alpine streams. Hydrobiologia 841:177–189. per la Protezione dell’Ambiente (2013) Idrologia in Piemonte nel 2012. Regione Piemonte, pp 23. (2021) Effects of flow intermittence on ecosystem processes in mountain streams: are artificial and field experiments comparable? Limnol 195:39–59. (2022) Decomposition and Communities of Alpine Streams: A along the Po River. Water 14:258.

Output: corroborate


Input: Claim: Tree rings cannot be used to study past volcanic activity or environmental disturbances. [SEP] Text: Understanding the functioning of these forests and their responses to global change is therefore an urgent need for ecology, climate science and conservation. The study of stable isotopes in tropical tree rings offers unique opportunities to quantify how these trees respond to their environment, and can fill an important void in many tropical areas where the availability of climate data is limited or of short duration. In fact, stable isotopes in tree rings are essentially the only tools available to obtain cost-effective, high-resolution, long-term retrospective data on tree physiology and the environmental conditions affecting it. Currently, stable isotopes research in the tropics has mainly focused on (i) quantifying the effects of rising atmospheric CO2 and climate change on tree physiology, (ii) identifying the drivers of growth variability and reconstruction of past climate, and (iii) the identification of annual rings in wood lacking anatomically distinct growth boundaries. The main findings of the available studies are shortly summarized for each isotope in Table 22. 1. The application of stable isotopes continues to expand. New applications are numerous, and include the potential use of stable isotopes for timber tracing and to identify illegally logged wood (e. g. Vlam et al. 2018), to benchmark the predictions of dynamic global vegetation models (e. g. Zuidema et al. 2018), and for reconstructions of atmospheric CO2 and δ13C values (using trees with a C4 photosynthetic pathway; Ben et al. 2017). Although tropical isotope research has centered on three stable isotopes (C, O, and to a lesser degree N), advances in analytical techniques and reductions in associated costs continue to broaden these analyses. This not only includes the analyses of other stable isotopes, but also the analyses of the intramolecular distribution of isotopes. For example, the position of 18O in the glucose moiety in cellulose can be used to separate source water from leaf water enrichment effects (Sternberg 2009; Waterhouse et al. 2013), and the position of 2H was related to the oxygenation/carboxylation ratio that depends on Ci (Ehlers et al. 2015). These techniques can be used to infer more details about environmental effects on tropical trees than is possible with bulk isotopic ratios as done so far.

Output: contrast


Input: Claim: The impact craters on the Moon provide insights into the history of the solar system. [SEP] Text: Higher resolution imagery may show that the actual number is higher, but we rejected all the cases, which had some uncertainties due to the resolution of the Magellan data, and studied only the structures larger than 12 km. This survey finds that there are polygonal impact craters on Venus and explores their possibilities and limitations as tools to analyse the properties of the planet’s surface/crust/lithosphere as well as the impact process itself. This study also corroborates our previous results, that PICs are not an anomaly among craters but a separate class of all impact craters, regardless of geological context and possibly regardless of crater diameter. We compared the polygonal impact craters (≥12 km in diameter) to “normal”-shaped craters by using different characteristics defined by Herrick et al. (1997). Those properties were diameter, altitude, geologic setting, morphologic class, floor reflectance, degradation state, and wall terracing. We found that the only characteristic, which makes difference between “normal” and polygonal impact craters is the diameter. It is obvious that relative abundance of polygonal impact craters increases among the smaller craters compared to larger craters. In the cases of other studied characteristics no differences were found. Thus, it seems to be evident that the smaller crater sizes favour the formation of straight rim segments, but otherwise these craters show similar characteristics to other craters. Our study shows that there are regions where the straight segments of the crater rims most clearly follow the orientations of the dominant tectonic features of the area. However, there is not a large population of impact craters on Venus, like there is on Mars, so we cannot use a statistically reliable population of PICs on Venus to determine their correlation with the local tectonics, which may be generally much more complex than on Mars. However, the regions where the orientations of straight rim segments follow the tectonic alignments close to the craters, indicate a possible correlation between crater formation and tectonics around the crater. Thus, the orientations of crater walls may reflect––at least in some places––the local tectonics and zones of weakness also on Venus and could thus tell us about the directions and distributions of fractures or other zones of weakness in the crust.

Output: pass


Input: Claim: Decomposers like fungi and bacteria recycle organic matter, enriching soil fertility. [SEP] Text: Figures AbstractAgriculture is undergoing important changes in order to meet sustainable soil management with respect to biodiversity (namely agroecology). Within this context, alternative solutions to mineral fertilizers such as agricultural biostimulants are thus promoted and being developed. The mechanisms by which some soil biostimulants sustain soil biological functioning and indirectly increase crop yields are still unknown. Our goal in the present study was to demonstrate if and to what extent the application of a soil biostimulant affects the soil heterotrophic microbial communities that are involved in organic matter decomposition and carbon mineralization. We hypothesized that the addition of a biostimulant results in changes in the composition and in the biomass of soil microbial communities. This in turn increases the mineralization of the organic matter derived from crop residues. We performed soil microcosm experiments with the addition of crop residues and a biostimulant, and we monitored the organic carbon (orgC) mineralization and the microbial biomass, along with the microbial community composition by sequencing 16S rRNA gene and ITS amplicons. The addition of a soil biostimulant caused a pH neutralizing effect and simultaneous enhancement of the orgC mineralization of crop residues (+ 400 μg orgC g-1 dry soil) and microbial biomass (+ 60 μg orgC g-1 dry soil) that were linked to changes in the soil microbial communities. Our findings suggest that the soil carbon mineralization enhancement in the presence of the biostimulant was supported by the specific recruitment of soil bacteria and fungi. Whereas archaea remained stable, several operational taxonomic units (OTUs) of indigenous soil bacteria and fungi were enriched and affiliated with known microbial decomposers such as Cytophagaceae, Phaselicystis sp. , Verrucomicrobia, Pseudomonas sp. , Ramicandelaber sp. , and Mortierella sp. , resulting in lower soil microbial richness and diversity. Citation: (2018) Specific recruitment of soil bacteria and fungi decomposers following a biostimulant application increased crop residues mineralization. 13(12): e0209089. Pastor Nunes, University of : July 12, 2018; Accepted: November 29, 2018; Published: December 31, 2018Copyright: © 2018 Hellequin et al. This is an open access 4693.

Output: corroborate


Input: Claim: Tree rings cannot be used to study past volcanic activity or environmental disturbances. [SEP] Text: AbstractStable carbon isotopes in tree-rings are not only useful to derive climatic information of the past. Based on the isotope fractionations during uptake and fixation of CO2, physiological information can be retrieved, namely the ratio of assimilation to stomatal conductance, which is termed the intrinsic water-use efficiency (iWUE). This crucial plant physiological trait varies among species and environments and is characteristic of how much water is lost from leaves for a certain carbon gain. iWUE is of great importance at the scale of individual plants because it can determine plant performance and survival. iWUE also contributes how closely canopy- or ecosystem-scale carbon and water fluxes are coupled or divergent, which has implications for understanding biogeochemical cycling. Carbon isotopes in tree-rings can be used to estimate how iWUE of trees has changed in the past, e. g. due to increasing CO2, nitrogen or other factors. Accordingly, many applications have explored this tool for various forest ecosystems across the globe, often reporting a strong increase in iWUE over the twentieth century. Explicit comparisons of tree-ring iWUE to growth-data obtained from the same rings can help distinguish among strategies plants employ under various environmental impacts, like increasing CO2, light limitation, drought or too much water. In this 17. 2 for more details). The regulation of stomatal opening is one of the most intricate and essential functions of terrestrial plants, as water-limited systems demand that stomatal behavior simultaneously constrain water loss while assuring sufficient carbon gain for survival. This makes iWUE such a useful property to know, although the actual water-use efficiency (WUE), defined as the ratio of transpiration to assimilation, may even be more relevant in determining how plants respond to dry conditions. The analysis of carbon isotope values of organic matter is nowadays an efficient method to determine iWUE that integrates minute-to-minute signals in leaves over the days to months it may take to synthesize plant tissues. The isotopic composition can be determined efficiently via on-line coupling of elemental analysers to isotope-ratio mass-spectrometers (see Chap. 7), which has allowed for scientists to produce much larger data sets compared to studies taking place 20 years ago.

Output: contrast


Input: Claim: The impact craters on the Moon provide insights into the history of the solar system. [SEP] Text: This study showed that there is a randomly distributed population of impact craters with at least two straight rim segments on Venus and they do show some correlations with local tectonics and that the diameter affects their abundance. However, the study also raised some questions: What is the reason for the diameter-dependence? What the craters can actually tell about the tectonics––both visible on the surface and hidden beneath the uppermost layer? These are the questions, which will be attempted to answer in the forthcoming research, in which every PIC and their surrounding tectonics and relative ages will be studied in detail to define how and to what extent tectonic features control the crater formation process on Venus and what these craters could tell us about the directions and distributions of fractures or other zones of weakness in the crust.

Output: pass


Input: Claim: Decomposers like fungi and bacteria recycle organic matter, enriching soil fertility. [SEP] Text: Funding: This research was supported by: the "Agence nationale de réglementation des télécommunications (ANRT) through an industrial CIFRE convention between the BIO3G Company and the University of Rennes (Number of convention N° 20160091, E. Hellequin) and by the CBB Capbiotek program of the Brittany region ( F. Binet, C. Monard, O. Klarzynski. The Bio3G SAS provided support in the form of salary for Eve Hellequin. did the study design and the soil samples collection. Eve Hellequin, Cécile Monard and Françoise Binet took part in the analyses, the data collection and exploitation and the paper writing. Competing interests: The Bio3G SAS provided support in the form of salaries for Eve Hellequin. did the study design and the soil samples collection. Eve Hellequin, Cécile Monard and Françoise Binet took part in the analyses, the data collection and exploitation and the paper writing. I declare that this does not alter our adherence to policies on sharing data and materials. Unité Mixte de Recherche 6553 èmes, Biodiversité, Evolution Université de Rennes 1 – Campus de Beaulieu - 35042 Tél. +(33) 02 99 28 6146 – Fax: +(33) 02 99 28 14 25 1. IntroductionConcurrently with the ecological transition, agricultural practices attempt to reduce their dependence on chemicals and to sustain natural resources while producing healthy food. The field of agroecology is developing and is looking for integrative crop management systems that take the ecological processes sustained by the high biodiversity found in soils into account [1]. Soil plays an essential role in the functioning of terrestrial ecosystems and soil microorganisms are involved in up to 90% of the ongoing processes [2]. Microorganisms are involved in various biogeochemical cycles and therefore contribute to soil fertility [3,4], providing mineral nutrients to crops through the mineralization of soil organic matter (SOM) [5]. Because this ecosystem service of SOM mineralization relies mainly on bacteria, fungi and archaea [6], changes in either their diversity, abundance or activity may significantly impact the subsequent supply of nutrients to plants.

Output: corroborate


Input: Claim: Tree rings cannot be used to study past volcanic activity or environmental disturbances. [SEP] Text: Given the advancements in isotopic theory and technical ability, it is not surprising that the Farquhar-model has found increasingly widespread application in tree-ring studies e. g. (Marshall and Monserud 1996; Penuelas et al. 2011; Waterhouse et al. 2004). In turn, many investigators have realized that the doors have been flung open to reveal retrospective insights on how physiological processes have shifted in response to myriad changing environmental conditions. Particularly important avenues of research for projecting carbon-climate-vegetation feedbacks within the biosphere have addressed how forests have responded to ongoing climate change and increasing CO2 in the atmosphere (Saurer et al. 2014, Voelker et al. 2016). Although numerous studies of how plants have responded to CO2, temperature, drought and other factors have been carried out in greenhouses or growth chambers, such studies of small plants may not be representative of how adult trees in natural environments may have responded. Where tree longevity and size have made experimentation extraordinarily difficult, the use of tree-ring stable carbon isotopes can provide a more realistic view by studying trees in their natural habitat and over their entire life-cycle. Intriguingly, information on iWUE can be retrieved for times when CO2-concentration was different, for instance on the pre-industrial level of 280 ppm compared to current levels that exceed 400 ppm. We can thus obtain information on the ratio between A and g of trees living at times when scientific inquiry into plant function was in its infancy and when leaf gas-exchange equipment did not even exist. Stable carbon isotopes of tree-ring cellulose can therefore provide accurately and absolutely dated archives of annual and intra-annual past plant physiological responses to climate, CO2 and other environmental drivers that are unavailable from experimental methods and other paleoecological data sources. Despite the power of pairing carbon isotope measurements and theory with tree-rings, some limitations should also be mentioned (Sect. 17. 3). As iWUE only resolves the ratio of A to g, it often remains elusive, which of the two changed and to what degree. An increase in iWUE, for instance, can theoretically be caused by higher A or by lower g or a combination of the two. Furthermore, it should always be considered that iWUE is a different metric than the actual WUE (see Sect. 17. 3 for details).

Output: contrast


Input: Claim: The impact craters on the Moon provide insights into the history of the solar system. [SEP] Text: However, there have been far fewer studies assessing crater statistics to include complex morphologic characteristics such as excavation shape and to explore profile morphologies and reconstruction effects for edge-intersected craters. Thus, in this paper, based on digital elevation model (DEM) data and photographs from Chang’E-1, China’s first lunar probe, we address this shortfall by developing a set of parameters for the morphometric characterization of impact craters, establishing a method to estimate the positional relationships and relative impacting orders of impact craters, and characterizing the profile morphologies of two edge-intersected impact craters. 2 of Cratersfor and Exploration at the Lunar and Planetary Institute, published a database of impact craters, which was initially created as part of the Program at the Lunar and in 2008 ( The database consists of 8,713 craters, of which about 1,644 have constrained ages. In this database, 51 physical characteristics of the craters are listed. The main attributes include: name, diameter, depth, location, volume, central peak height and diameter, width of central peak, ray length, and age. Many of these properties can be expanded in detail, e. g. , the diameter can include simple surface diameter, crater instant diameter, complex crater instant diameter, floor diameter, etc. Of these attributes, only the crater diameter, depth, positional coordinates, central peak height and age of strata are obtained from maps and imagery; other indices are calculated by theoretical predictions. Of the 8,713 impact craters identified, only 1,644 have an age attribute assigned and in some cases there are multiple geological ages proposed for the same impact crater. Thus, the statistical properties of these named craters can be used to characterize the basic features of lunar craters (Fig. 1). Fig. 1Histogram of lunar crater attributesFull size image From Fig. 1, we find that 36 % of lunar crater diameters are <10 km, and that as diameters increase the abundance of lunar craters gradually decreases. Against crater depth, with the enlargement of impact crater diameter crater, average depth of craters in each level increase gradually. This rule is also a more prominent appearance in central peak height and crater diameter. The central peak height of craters is generally < 1 km and the percent of average central height in craters >60 km almost reaches to 30 %.

Output: pass


Input: Claim: Decomposers like fungi and bacteria recycle organic matter, enriching soil fertility. [SEP] Text: The manipulation of soil microbiota has thus emerged as a new practice in agriculture with respect to the ecological transition that promote sustainable soils. The use of agricultural biostimulants (BS) that are intended to stimulate and regulate soil microorganisms could be promoted as an alternative solution to the use of mineral fertilizers, which are more expensive [7–9]. According to the can either be applied directly on the plants to favor their growth and development or on the soil in order to induce changes in its physico-chemical and microbial properties, and indirectly enhance plant functioning [10]. While most of the available studies focused on the direct beneficial effects of BS applied on plants [11,12], knowledge about the impact of BS on soil is limited and the mechanisms improving soil biological functioning and crop yields are still misunderstood. Among the various biostimulant products applied on the soil, different effects can be observed, such as changes in the soil physico-chemical properties that may either stimulate the growth of beneficial fungi [13], reduce the development of pathogen organisms [14], or increase the microbial activity by providing compounds directly used by soil microorganisms and/or plants such as peptides, amino acids, polysaccharides, humic acids and phytohormones [15,16]. However, there is still a clear need to identify their way of action to optimize their formulations and uses. To improve our understanding about the effects of soil BS input on the soil biota, we focused our research on a soil inoculant formulation (namely, soil biostimulant (BS) throughout the text), intended to be applied directly on crop residues in agricultural soils to improve their decay and mineralization, thereby preserving the fertility of the soil. Several studies on crop residue management have indicated that the decomposition process was strongly influenced by the quality (e. g. type of residue, biochemical composition), or placement of residues in the soil depending on tillage practices (e. g. surface/incorporated) [17–19]. Thereby, in the current context of reducing the input of mineral fertilizers, crop residue management is important in order to ensure sustainable crop production and to provide a constant pool of nutrients for the crops. In the present study, our aim was to determine the responses of soil bacteria, fungi and archaea to the addition of the BS in the soil.

Output: corroborate


Input: Claim: Tree rings cannot be used to study past volcanic activity or environmental disturbances. [SEP] Text: In contrast, WUE at the ecosystem level determined as GPP/ET at eddy-covariance-based ecosystem flux tower monitoring sites across showed that WUE at the ecosystem scale has been increasing much faster than that recorded by tree-ring isotope-based iWUE (Guerrieri et al. 2019). The authors speculated that reasons for this discrepancy could be different time-scales of the two approaches or fluxes not accounted for, like non-transpirational water fluxes and contribution from understory vegetation. In a study using satellite-based NPP estimates, a relationship between tree-ring δ13C values of an Eastern US network of sites and NPP was found, rather than with WUE (Levesque et al. 2019). Finally, at a site in California, Keen (2019) showed that intra-annual tree-ring derived iWUE responded positively to VPD, whereas ecosystem-level WUE responded negatively to VPD, and this opposing VPD-response drove a negative response between iWUE and WUE during a range of wet to historically severe drought conditions. Together, these studies demonstrate that tree-ring carbon isotopes can contain valuable information on large-scale fluxes, but that more studies are needed to determine under what conditions iWUE is related to ecosystem-scale WUE (Seibt et al. 2008). A complication of interpreting tree growth patterns and iWUE-estimation that needs careful consideration are the effects of age, tree size or height (Brienen et al. 2017; McDowell et al. 2011). Dendrochronologists have conventionally used empirical detrending methods to remove age-related growth patterns from ring-width data prior to assessing climate-sensitivity of tree growth. In recent decades it has become popular among ecologists and ecophysiologists to convert tree-ring data to basal area increment (BAI) or BAI/basal area for a given year, often putatively as a means to avoid the need to detrend ring-width data that decline with tree size and age. However, the often-stated or implied contention that these variables overcome the need for detrending is a misconception. For example, BAI tends to increase with tree size, but trees with initially greater BAI tend to have steeper positive relationships between BAI and tree age (Voelker et al. 2008).

Output: contrast


Input: Claim: The impact craters on the Moon provide insights into the history of the solar system. [SEP] Text: In contrast, craters that formed mostly in Eratosthenian and Copernicus times when Dp/R > 0. 207 and r < 1. 032 are relatively younger. Therefore, Dp/R ≤ 0. 207 and r ≥ 1. 032 can be treated as a relative age boundary for the impact craters. Fig. 6Relationship between relative age and Dp/R, rFull size image In series of older impact craters, there are just four younger impact craters, which is similar to that presented in series of younger impact craters. This phenomenon is likely the result of determining relative age based on a set of superposition criteria that do not include all 36 of the impact craters in Table 4. According to the geological age released by the IAU, these eight craters are still regarded as the corresponding series divided by the critical point Dp/R is 0. 207, where r value is 1. 032. 4. 4 of Edge-Intersected CratersEdge-intersected relationships between impact craters are the main types of combined craters being found. They can provide much information for use with determinations of relative impact order. Because younger craters superimpose on older impact craters in these cases, the edges of the older ones are destroyed. From the DEM and remote sensing map, the size, shape and superposition relationship of two craters can be clearly shown; however, floor elevation and the extent of morphologic reconstruction for a pair of craters cannot be acquired directly. Therefore, terrain analysis, including elevation profiling can provide useful constraints for geomorphologic research (Grosse et al. 2012). From study area, four groups of typical edge-intersected impact craters were chosen for profile analysis (Fig. 7). The left side of each profile is the younger crater and the right side is the older one. It can be seen from DEM data that there are great differences in size, radius ratio and overlaid forms among the four groups. The younger crater is superimposed on the external rim of the older crater in groups I and III. However, the younger one is superimposed on the inside rim of the older one in group II, and the younger one is almost superimposed on the rim of the older one in group IV. Fig. 7Profile analyses of typical edge-intersected impact craters. Notes: I Colombo (15. 1°S, 45.

Output: pass