Input: Claim: Sea turtles navigate using the Earth’s magnetic field. [SEP] Text: of Geosciences > Vol. 8 No. 8, August 2017 of Earth’s the Earth’s (). DOI: 10. 4236/ijg. 2017. 88059 1,087 Downloads 3,426 Views 1071. doi: 10. 4236/ijg. 2017. 88059. 1. the present time, the most elaborate theory of substantiating electrical currents generation in the planet’s metal core is based on hydromagnetic dynamo which works on the self-excitation principle. There are a lot of theoretical and experimental works to prove this model [1] - [6]. However, such model, able not only generate but also fully maintain the Earth’s magnetic field for a long while, needs some conditions to be met, such as low viscosity of the core metal fluid, convective vertical movements in it, raw magnetic field and so on. Besides, based on the browsed professional reviews and works [2] - [9] it is obvious that there is still no fundamental and effective principle of generating the Earth’s dipole magnetic field for the hydromagnetic dynamo model. Nevertheless, even in the first half of the last century there were attempts to explain the Earth’s magnetic field with thermoelectromotive forces existing in the core, which are conditioned by turbulent convective movements of the core’s liquid [10] [11] [12]. However, T. Rikitaki [1] considered those attempts as unlikely thermoelectrical effects, explaining this by absence of distinctness of the core’s thermoelectrical power. T. Rikitaki’s opinion turned out to be conclusive, since then all the researches of thermoelectrical effects were not taken into consideration in the dynamo theory. There is another reminder of thermoelectrical currents’ role in forming magnetic fields of hot CP stars and, probably, planets in a work of A. Z.

Output: pass


Input: Claim: Extreme weather events, like hurricanes and heatwaves, are becoming more frequent and severe due to climate change. [SEP] Text: (Adapted from ref. 13. ) Close modal Hurricanes receive much of the attention in the attribution community, but other storm types are worth studying. A recent storyline analysis found that precipitation from a selected group of strong atmospheric-river storms affecting the coincidentally also increased at about twice the Clausius–Clapeyron rate. 9 Analysis suggests that those physical mechanisms of change are very different than inferred for tropical cyclones. Although few additional studies have been made of atmospheric rivers that impact coastal zones, the information has been alarming enough for decision makers to act on it. Although interest is high, little is known with confidence about anthropogenic increases in the intense summer mesoscale convective systems that can occur in continental interiors, partly because of computational constraints. Limited studies have analyzed the human influence on environmental conditions that support tornadoes, but there is no consensus regarding how climate change has influenced tornados. 14 the impact of climate change on drought can be complicated. One must consider the different types of droughts. NOAA classifies drought as a hierarchy of four related conditions. Meteorological drought is characterized by a deficit of precipitation; agricultural or ecological drought, of soil moisture; and hydrological drought, of water supply. Socioeconomic drought occurs when demand for water exceeds the supply. Agricultural drought depends on both the precipitation that falls on the ground and the evapotranspiration of moisture from plants and soils. Evaporation from bare ground depends strongly on air temperature. As the temperature increases from climate change, evaporation increases lead to drier soils. Transpiration from plants depends even more strongly on air temperature. Plants cool themselves by opening their stomata and evaporating water. In hot conditions, they can draw moisture from their root system until little soil moisture is left. Decreased soil moisture may in turn limit evapotranspiration, which means the relationship between temperature and soil moisture isn’t linear. Recent literature shows that human-induced climate change has contributed to increases in agricultural droughts in some regions because of evapotranspiration increases (reference 3, 2017. A counterfactual “flood that might have been” was constructed by decreasing Harvey’s observed precipitation uniformly according to published precipitation-attribution statements and using that as the input to a credible flood model.

Output: corroborate


Input: Claim: Ocean acidification will completely destroy all marine ecosystems by 2050. [SEP] Text: In protected regions like the Strait of Georgia (Fig. 1) Calanus pacificus is also important [154], while on the outer shelf Calanus marshalae is significant [153]. Some species spend part of their life cycles (that includes egg production) in relatively deep waters, >300–500 m (e. g. Neocalanus plumchrus and Calanus pacificus) while others, like Acartia longiremis, are always found above ∼50 m. Zooplankton productivity is variable and appears to be changing over time [153], with species composition dependent on temperature [154]. Mesozooplankton provide the main trophic link connecting phytoplankton and microzooplankton with larger oceanic predators [155]. They are critical for several commercially-valuable fish species that prey on them directly, such as various salmon species, and (Squalus acanthias) [155]. Direct effects pacificus has been studied locally so we include experiments on copepods found elsewhere from the common genera Acartia and Calanus. Although responses to acidic conditions can be species-specific, even within genera (e. g. [156]), our summary provides a general indication of possible effects on the mesozooplankton community in our region. Most OA related mesozooplankton research involves eggs and/or survival rates within individual stages. Egg production rates of adult females appear unaffected by increased PCO2 (even under very elevated conditions, Table 1) [156–160], although PCO2-induced increases or decreases were observed depending on temperature [161]. On the other hand, egg hatching rates may decrease with OA [156–160], although increases have also been observed [161]. However, it is possible that hatching is simply delayed and so not observed in short-term experiments [160]. Effects of OA on overall egg hatching success are uncertain. Sound, WA (Fig. 1), egg hatching in Calanus pacificus is reduced under elevated PCO2 (Anna McLaskey, pers. comm. , University of Alaska, Fairbanks AK), whereas egg hatching success in Calanus helgolandicus (found in the North Atlantic) appears unaffected [162]. For copepod embryos, survival rates appear unaffected by OA, while developmental rates may decline [163].

Output: contrast


Input: Claim: Sea turtles navigate using the Earth’s magnetic field. [SEP] Text: Dolginov, where the scientist got the equation of field generation [7] : ∂ B ∂ t = [ ∇ [ v B ] ] + c 2 4 π [ ∇ ( 1 σ [ ∇ B ] ) ] − [ ∇ [ j B ] e N e ] − c [ ∇ η ∇ T ] (1) (where η is thermoelectrical coefficient). He thought that the forth from right member [ ∇ η ∇ T ] was different from zero and generated the star’s magnetic field, whereas the first three members could be neglected because they were small and could not be performed at the considered model of moving unmagnetized plasm. His calculations showed that the dipole field of a star on its surface can be about 10−4 T. Unfortunately, A. Z. Dolginov never presented a detailed theory of making magnetic fields of space objects with thermoelectrical currents, which are immanent to “hot” objects. Below, there is the third attempt to reanimate geothermoelectrical currents below. It is shown on the example of Earth that those geothermocurrents, moving directionally inside the conducting shells (the core and the lower mantle) and affected by the great difference of geotemperatures, can generate not raw but real powerful magnetic fields of Earth and other “hot” planets of the solar system, because the phenomenon is universal. That attempt is based on the results of geophysical field work for many years, experimental and academic research, which let the author elaborate a new model of thermo-electrochemical nature of the Earth’s core natural electric field [13] [14]. It is shown that the potential-forming factor of a natural electric field is not the reduction-oxidation zone, but a constantly functioning extraneous source of non-electric origin, which is geotemperature gradient ∂T/∂z. Affected by only the latter (∂T/∂z vector is always directed deep into the earth) the anomalies of the natural electric potential, registered at all the Earth’s continents, are steadily negative.

Output: pass


Input: Claim: Extreme weather events, like hurricanes and heatwaves, are becoming more frequent and severe due to climate change. [SEP] Text: 15 Figure 3 compares the actual flood depth and the best estimate of the counterfactual one in two Houston neighborhoods, where almost 9 000 homes were flooded. The 19% precipitation increase attributable to human-influenced climate change translated to an additional 1 m of flood waters and a 14% increase in flood area. Equivalently, as a best estimate, the probability of a $90 billion hurricane loss (the amount of estimated insured losses) in Texas was quadrupled because of climate change. Figure 3. View largeDownload slideActual and counterfactual flood simulations in Texas’s and Pasadena neighborhoods during Hurricane Harvey. (a) The flood that was. (Adapted from ref. 15. ) (b) The flood that might have been in the absence of anthropogenic climate change. The difference between the models is the assumption that human activities increased Harvey storm total precipitation by 19%. Colors denote the depth of flood water in meters. Figure 3. View largeDownload slideActual and counterfactual flood simulations in Texas’s and Pasadena neighborhoods during Hurricane Harvey. (a) The flood that was. (Adapted from ref. 15. ) (b) The flood that might have been in the absence of anthropogenic climate change. The difference between the models is the assumption that human activities increased Harvey storm total precipitation by 19%. Colors denote the depth of flood water in meters. Close modal flood model has a resolution of 30 m—about the size of a suburban property—and its results have been made publicly available at The maps permit individuals to understand whether their home would have flooded without human-influenced climate change. Individuals can select different estimates of the human influence on precipitation and locate their home on both the realistic and counterfactual flood maps. That level of detail also permits a more refined damage estimate by combining it with socioeconomic data sets. Projecting real-estate maps onto the flood maps results in a best estimate that approximately 32% of flooded homes in Harris County, where Houston is located, would not have been flooded without climate change. Furthermore, in the actual flood, 75% of the county’s flooded homes were outside the federal 100-year flood plain—likely uninsured against flood damage—adding to the $90 billion insured loss. 16 Figure 4 shows an upper bound on the distribution of homes that were flooded in because of climate change. Figure 4. View largeDownload slideAdditional anthropogenic flooding.

Output: corroborate


Input: Claim: Ocean acidification will completely destroy all marine ecosystems by 2050. [SEP] Text: In adult copepods, survival rates are not significantly affected even under very elevated experimental conditions (except for one species) [156, 157, 159]. Although impacts on individual life stages may not be significantly different from a control scenario, the cumulative impacts may be significant. In addition, the studies thus far have been relatively short-term, and do not consider the possibility for copepods to respond to environmental changes through adaptive evolution [161]. The lack of detailed information on potential effects on zooplankton physiology “currently restricts our ability to reliably predict future impacts” [162]. Mesozooplankton synopsis For copepod species from the genera Acartia and Calanus, adult survival rates and egg productions rates appear unaffected by OA, even when PCO2 is ‘very elevated’ (Table 1), whereas egg hatching rates are negatively affected and egg hatching success remains uncertain. Cumulative impacts across life stages are unknown. Thus, the effects of OA on mesozooplankton will likely be neutral and possibly negative (Fig. 4A). BC waters only three species of pelagic snail, or pteropod, have been regularly observed [164]. Limacina helicina (shelled) is by far the most common of these three, occurring throughout most of the year, generally in the upper 100 m [164] and occasionally forming strong blooms (> 1000 m−3) which can dominate the plankton (M. Galbraith, pers. comm. , Institute of Ocean Sciences, Sidney BC). Clione spp. (naked) is also often present, although at significantly lower numbers. These two species are common in the Strait of Georgia and less so in (Fig. 1); they are also found on the outer BC shelf and in the (M. Galbraith, pers. comm. ). Clio pyramidata (shelled), a subtropical species, is present only episodically along the WCVI [165]. Pteropods are an important food source for fish (especially juvenile salmon [166]), birds and marine mammals [167, 168]. Most pteropods produce aragonitic shells [167] and those that don’t (naked pteropods) feed almost exclusively on the shelled species, making all pteropods susceptible to OA [164].

Output: contrast


Input: Claim: Sea turtles navigate using the Earth’s magnetic field. [SEP] Text: Besides, only the geotemperature gradient forms two poles along the fall of natural electrical conductors: a negatively charged inner part of conductors and a positively charged outer one (positive pole) in the upper part of the poles, as well as positively charged inner part of conductors and the negatively charged outer one (negative pole) in the lower part of the poles. Thermoelectrical currents move inside conductors if the temperature difference applied to the ends of ore bodies is in dynamic state. If the state is static there is no thermoelecrical current, but there is still difference of potentials between the cold and the warmed ends of the conductor. Hereinafter all the calculations of a planet’s magnetic field are based on the known physical laws and known scientific data of inner structure and physical properties of Earth. The results show that the actual Earth’s thermoelectrical currents generate and maintain the current geomagnetic field by themselves. Besides, it is the first time when a model specifies complexity of the geomagnetic field, which consists of two parts: main magnetic field of the metal core and additional field of the lower mantle. Accordingly, the schematic geothermoelectrical model (protomodel) of the Earth’s magnetic field is considered for the first time in the author’s 2. Calculations of for the To form the geomagnetic model one should procced from the known scientific data of the planet’s shells thicknesses, temperature values in the shells and their borders. For example, most of the researchers hold on to the following defining temperatures in the body of our planet: on the depth of about 100 km the temperature is close +1800 K, on the depth of about 400 km (C layer, phase transition zone) the temperature is +1900 K, on the “mantle-core” border the temperature is +4000, …, +5000 K, in the core center the temperature is (+5000, …, +6230) ± 500 K [16] - [21].

Output: pass


Input: Claim: Extreme weather events, like hurricanes and heatwaves, are becoming more frequent and severe due to climate change. [SEP] Text: Each hexagonal bin symbolizes the upper limit of the number of residential buildings that would not have flooded without the added impact of climate change in Harris County, Texas, during in 2017. (Adapted from ref. 16. )Figure 4. View largeDownload slideAdditional anthropogenic flooding. Each hexagonal bin symbolizes the upper limit of the number of residential buildings that would not have flooded without the added impact of climate change in Harris County, Texas, during in 2017. (Adapted from ref. 16. ) Close modal Census data further reveal that Hurricane Harvey’s flood damages were not equally distributed across socioeconomic groups. Hispanic households are about 36% of the population of Harris County, but they owned or rented roughly 50% of the flooded homes. Additional analysis reveals that in wealthy neighborhoods, damages increased for households with more wealth. In low-income neighborhoods, the opposite trend was found: that damages increased for households with less wealth. Given the relative contribution to increases in greenhouse gases from people who are wealthy compared with people who are economically marginalized, such analyses quantify environmental and other social injustices. 16 More than just a weather forecast Other human impacts of extreme weather can also be quantified. Of particular interest is whether climate change increases the number of deaths from heat waves. They are among the deadliest of all extreme weather events, and epidemiology studies have developed relationships between mortality risk and temperature. 17 At high temperatures, the relationship becomes more sensitive: In already hot weather, a small increase in temperature can cause large increases in mortality. Scientists can use the relationship when estimating the attributable human temperature increase to understand the change in mortality risk during a heat wave. Another method maps mortality and temperature curves onto temperature-change plots, like those in figure 1, to estimate the number of people who have died because of the influence of climate change on a heat wave and to determine how the probability of death has changed. 18 The models are not perfect. Incorporating adaptive measures—for example, cooling centers and other outreach that can reduce the heat wave mortality risk—into attribution statements is currently challenging. There are many additional factors to consider when extending attribution statements about the human influence on extreme weather events to attribution statements about the human influence on the events’ outcomes. The sixth assessment report of the on declares that “human-induced climate change is already affecting many weather and climate extremes in every region across the globe” (reference 3, page 8).

Output: corroborate


Input: Claim: Ocean acidification will completely destroy all marine ecosystems by 2050. [SEP] Text: Direct effects It is difficult to keep pteropods in laboratory conditions [164] due to their delicate feeding structure [167]. Thus, few controlled experiments on live animals have been made until recently, and sample size remains limited. Most of these experiments have been conducted on (variants of) L. helicina harvested from Arctic and Antarctic waters (S2 Table). Shells of dead pteropods dissolve in waters undersaturated with respect to aragonite, (e. g. [169, 170]) as expected. Live individuals, which may form protective biological coatings on the exterior of their shell [171] and/or actively counteract dissolution [170] also show evidence of dissolution when harvested from waters under, or near, saturation with respect to aragonite [172–174] (S3 Table). Similarly, live individuals incubated for short periods under the high end of present-day PCO2 (0–100 m, Fig. 2) and elevated PCO2 (Table 1) show reduced calcification (e. g. [170, 175]; S2 Table). In one experiment the larval state failed to calcify at all [176]. Despite the negative impacts on shell quality and maintenance, many (and in some cases all, e. g. [175]) animals studied survived their respective treatments (e. g. [170, 177]). However, the reduction of shell formation will impact the pteropods’ ability to control buoyancy and withstand predation [167]. In addition, as PCO2 rises, increased energetic costs associated with maintaining their shells are likely, particularly as temperature increases [170]. The ability to supply energy to perform these (and other) tasks may be suppressed, [178] although some pteropods are likely to be more resilient than others (e. g. [179], S2 Table). Pteropod synopsis In summary, there is a clear cause for concern about the future of pteropods and the animals that depend on them. Although in the last several decades pteropods make up, on average, only about 5% of the average annual zooplankton biomass in BC waters (M. Galbraith, pers. comm. ), they are an important food source for juvenile [166] and are related to survival [180] (see Fish—Indirect effects).

Output: contrast


Input: Claim: Sea turtles navigate using the Earth’s magnetic field. [SEP] Text: As for the planet’s electroconductivity, the researchers believe it is distributed in depth (shells) as follows: the upper mantle has low electroconductivity and, predominantly, ionic conduction; in the C layer, semiconducting electroconductivity increases after transiting from the ionic conductivity; the lower’s mantle material is an electronic semiconductor; the Earth’s core is an electronic conductor with the specific conductance in the range of (0. 1 ÷ 1. 0) × 106 S・m−1 [16] [17] [21] [22]. That data implies that the globe can be presented as a spherical geothermoelecrical element (further, SGTE) (Figure 1(a)), which ends are the central part of the core and the C shell (most likely, its middle). The temperature difference of about +3200 K, …, +4500 K is attached to those ends. Then, according to the Seebeck effect, the thermo-EMF ΔφТ can be calculated [23] [24] : Δ φ T = ∫ T 1 T 2 β d T (2) where β is the averaged temperature coefficient, which is 0. 0001 V・deg−1. for pure metals, while it is 0. 0015 V・deg−1. for some semiconductors [24]. To find the parameters of the lower mantle thermocurrents Itop the following must be known: - thermofield intensity ET; - electron concentration per unit volume of the lower mantle ores (it equals n = Figure 1. Scheme of the electron flows movement within the spherical metal core and the spherical circle of the lower mantle: (a) projection of traces of oppositely moving electrons of the metal core (to the core’s center) and the lower mantle (to the Earth’s surface) on the equatorial plane; (b) projection of traces of unidirectionally moving electrons of the metal core and the lower mantle to the Earth’s surface on the equatorial plane; (с) dipolar poloidal magnetic field of the Earth. 1: electron; 2: electron trajectories; 3: the lines of force of toroidal field; 4: the lines of force of self-generated poloidal field.

Output: pass


Input: Claim: Extreme weather events, like hurricanes and heatwaves, are becoming more frequent and severe due to climate change. [SEP] Text: Developments in attribution science over the past two decades reinforce that statement by extending attribution statements about observed long-term climate change to encompass robust statements about the human influence on many types of individual extreme weather events. That includes heat waves, heavy precipitation events, and floods. Attribution methods for some classes of events have matured to the point where they could be operationalized to regularly inform the public about the current dangers of climate change. That would also greatly increase the number of events analyzed in that way and further understanding. Extreme weather happens everywhere, but most event-attribution studies have focused on events in nations that have the requisite human and computational resources. Groups like Attribution ( have begun to apply attribution science to significant weather events in low-income countries. Such organizations’ credibility is increased when they involve experts from those nations who better understand the details of local climate and associated impacts. The extension of attribution science to connect human increases to the socioeconomic damages and inequalities of extreme weather events is now underway. That work has the potential to inform low-income nations about their loss and damages, giving them the knowledge to negotiate for more assistance from recovery funds. 1. M. Allen, Nature 421, 891 (2003). Stott, D. Stone, M. Allen, Nature 432, 610 (2004). Masson-Delmotte et al. , eds. , 2021: Science Basis—I Contribution to the Report of the on Climate Change, Cambridge U. Press (2021). 4. G. J. van Oldenborgh et al. , Earth’s Future 10, e2021EF002271 (2022). Y. Philip et al. , Earth Syst. Dyn. 13, 1689 (2022). Bercos-Hickey, C. M. Patricola, W. A. Gallus Jr, J. Clim. 34, 8989 (2021). Clim. Extrem. 12, 24 (2016). D. Risser, M. F. Wehner, Geophys. Res. Lett. 44, 12457 (2017). M. Patricola et al. , Weather Clim. Extrem. 36, 100440 (2022). Commun. 13, 1905 (2022). J. van Oldenborgh et al. , Environ. Res. Lett. 12, 124009 (2017). S. Wang et al.

Output: corroborate


Input: Claim: Ocean acidification will completely destroy all marine ecosystems by 2050. [SEP] Text: There is a small but growing mussel industry, no harvest for (Haliotis kamtschatkana) as it is listed by SARA as Endangered, and minor harvests for squid and octopus. Direct effects Shelled molluscs calcify internally and actively increase pH at that site to do so, making them directly vulnerable to OA [16, 17]. Larval shells are particularly vulnerable since they are mostly composed of aragonite [192, 193] and for at least a few species the initial deposit is amorphous CaCO3 (the least stable form of CaCO3) [192]. By adulthood, shells are composed of aragonite and/or calcite, depending on the species [192, 193]; e. g. , oyster shells are mainly calcite [194]. To deal with vulnerability at the larval stage (e. g. [195]), mollusc aquaculture in the northeast Pacific relies on hatcheries (often with controlled conditions) to rear larvae that are then distributed to growers. Experiments to quantify OA effects on shellfish have yielded a range of conclusions [36, 196]; however, with the advancement of the field, results are beginning to converge. Kroeker et al. [36] found that OA significantly reduced calcification (by 40%), growth (by 17%) and development (by 25%) in molluscs. Another recent review [197] found that 37 of 41 studies on calcification by molluscs reported significant negative effects following exposure to increased CO2 levels. Here we summarise experiments performed on species that are found in the northeast Pacific and elsewhere (e. g. scallops). There have been no studies on (despite their commercial importance), or on BC scallop species. Experiments on fertilisation in have produced mixed results. Both sperm swimming speed and egg fertilisation success can be unaffected [198] or decline [199, 200] under elevated PCO2 (Table 1). Within two days of fertilisation, larvae precipitate >90% of their body weight as CaCO3, using limited energy reserves in eggs [17]. Early development (up to 8 h) remains unaffected at elevated PCO2 [201]; however, the number of embryos reaching the planktonic ‘D-veliger’ larval stage declines [199–201].

Output: contrast


Input: Claim: Sea turtles navigate using the Earth’s magnetic field. [SEP] Text: 1020 m−3 by default); - electron gas drift velocity v d - electron mean free path in a semiconductor l; - current density j. According to the (2), the maximum thermo-EMF ΔφТ for SGTE is 0. 45 V, and the electric field intensity can be found from the following equality: E T = Δ φ T l SGTE V m (3) where l SGTE is SGTE radius length, which equals the distance between the planet center and the middle part of the C shell and is defined as 5438 km or 5650 km to the upper mantle. Hence, the electric field ЕТ generated by the existing temperature difference ΔТ makes planetary flows of “hot” electrons move directionally from the planet center to its outer shells along the radii. At the same time the electron quantity (concentration) in a volume unit of metal (Fe) can be calculated with the formula [24] : n = ρ N A A m − 3 (4) where ρ is the metal Fe density in the inner core, (12. 2 g・cm−3); NA is the Avogadro constant, 6. 02 × 1023 mol−1; A is atomic mass Fe (55. 847 g). Substituting that data into the (4) we get n = 1. 32 × 10 29 m − 3. n should be compared to the calculation for the real conditions when electron gas is in free state at pressures p, that corresponds to the metal core, i. e. at p = 3. 55 million atm [25] [26] [27] : n = ( 5 m е ℏ 2 ( 3 π 2 ) − 2 3 ) 3 5 p 3 5 (5) Knowing that electron mass m e = 9. 11 × 10 − 31 kg and p = 3. 59 × 10 11 Pa a new magnitude can be found n = 3. 25 × 10 29 m − 3. Despite there is a slight discrepancy between magnitudes ni (just 2. 5 times), the magnitude n = 3. 25 × 10 29 m − 3 is used for the further calculations, as it meets the real planet conditions most.

Output: pass


Input: Claim: Extreme weather events, like hurricanes and heatwaves, are becoming more frequent and severe due to climate change. [SEP] Text: AbstractThe weather conditions of the summer of 2022 were very unusual, particularly in Eastern Asia, Europe, and North America. The devasting impact of climate change has come to our attention, with much hotter and drier conditions, and with more frequent and intense flooding events. Some extreme events have reached a dangerous level, increasingly threatening human lives. The interconnected risks caused by these extreme disaster events are triggering a chain effect, forcing us to respond to these crises through changes in our living environment, which affect the atmosphere, the biosphere, the economy including the availability of energy, our cities, and our global society. Moreover, we have to confront the abnormal consequences of untypical, rapid changes of extreme events and fast switches between extreme states, such as from severe drought to devastating flooding. Recognizing this new situation, it is crucial to improve the adaptation capacity of our societies in order to reduce the risks associated with climate change, and to develop smarter strategies for climate governance. High-quality development must be science-based, balanced, safe, sustainable, and climate-resilient, supported by the collaborative governance of climate mitigation and adaptation. This 2020. Service/ECMWF at and size imageThe hottest summer on record for Europe paired with unusually dry conditions reduced some of Europe’s main rivers to extremely low water levels, for example, threatening vital economic thoroughfares and exacerbating the continent’s energy shortages. The heat also led to record-breaking fire activities in many European countries. More than 2500 fires were recorded, and more than 772,000 ha were burned in European countries in 2022, compared to an average of 900 fires and 318,000 ha burned between 2016 and 2021 (EFFIS 2022). Most parts of China experienced the longest and most intense heatwave on record (CMA 2022) that lasted for 72 days—10 days longer (16% more) than the previous record of 62 days in 2013. More than 1 billion people suffered temperatures higher than 35 °C, and at least 360 million people faced exceptional temperatures higher than 40 °C, making medical attention to heat strokes a new normal in these regions. The accompanying long-lasting drought led to the drying up of rivers, lakes, and reservoirs, affecting the water and electrical power supplies. While heatwaves gripped parts of Europe and Asia, some other places experienced extreme rainfall and flooding.

Output: corroborate


Input: Claim: Ocean acidification will completely destroy all marine ecosystems by 2050. [SEP] Text: Elevated PCO2 increases the number of larvae with shells one day after fertilisation (due to an enhanced metabolic rate), yet decreases it three days after [202]. Larval survival of is unaffected by PCO2 after three and 16 days [202, 203]. Species that do exhibit a decline in larval survival are [204] and (Argopecten irradians) [205]. Metamorphosis from larvae to juveniles is affected differently for different species under elevated PCO2. Oyster, the proportion of metamorphosing larvae declines [206, 207] and size at metamorphosis decreases [206]. Similar results, plus a delay in metamorphosis and reduction in survival, are usually seen for [205, 208–210]. However, for from the WCVI the proportion of metamorphosing larvae is unaffected [204]. Increased abnormalities in larvae have been observed under elevated PCO2 in [199–201] and [204]. In the latter species, shell abnormalities increased substantially, occurring in 99% of larvae at PCO2 1800 μatm [204]. These abnormalities did not appear to affect survival rates in the laboratory, but in the field the abnormal larvae would be more susceptible to predation [204]. The size of D-veliger larvae of decreases [199–202, 211] and shell growth of later larval stages generally declines [199, 201] under elevated PCO2, though not always [199, 203]. Decreases in larvae shell growth also occur in [207, 212], [204] and [208–210]. Molecular analyses show that expression of proteins related to calcification and cytoskeleton production can be severely suppressed under high PCO2 [211]. Abalone larvae, settlement (attachment to the experimental container) is unaffected by PCO2 [204]. Additional effects on other larvae include decreased O2 consumption and feeding rates [203], and reduced lipid content [209, 210]. Shell growth and calcification of juvenile and adult molluscs under OA remains uncertain due to limited studies with contrasting results. juveniles exhibit increased expansion of shell area (but not thickness) under reduced pH, despite declines in O2 consumption and feeding rates of larvae [203]. In juvenile Bay Scallops, elevated PCO2 (Table 1) does not affect shell and tissue growth but does reduce survival [209].

Output: contrast


Input: Claim: Sea turtles navigate using the Earth’s magnetic field. [SEP] Text: In its turn, the total sum of electron gas in the metal core is defined as m Σ = 4 3 π R c 3 m е n = 5. 09 × 10 19 kg. The same must be performed for the lower mantle, spherical shell circle thickness is Δ R l m = 2. 22 × 10 6 m n = 1 × 10 20 m − 3 (average value for semiconductors from 5 × 1019 m−3 to 5 × 1020 m−3 [28] ), the electron mass m e is the same. Then m Σ l m = 4. 35 × 10 9 kg. To calculate the electron gas drift velocity v d according to the quantum theory of the electrical conductivity of metals, the following formula should be used [24] [26] [27] [29] [30] : v d = e E T l 2 m v m ⋅ s − 1 (6) where e is the effective electron charge, C (1. 6 × 10−19); m is the effective electron mass, kg (0. 91 × 10−30); l is the electron mean free path, it equals l = σ ℏ ( 3 π 2 ) 1 3 e 2 n 2 3 m (7) where σ is the planet’s core electroconductivity, S/m; ħ is the Plank’s constant, 1. 05 × 10−34, J・s; v is the average velocity of electrons thermal movement, it can be derived from the formula: v = 8 k T π m m ⋅ s − 1 (8) where k is the Boltzmann constant, 1. 38 × 10−23 J/K; As seen, it is necessary to calculate the velocity of the electron thermal movement at T = 6000 K preliminary, according to (8), to calculate ЕТ and the electron mean free path l between their concussions with the crystal cell to find v d. l directly depends on the metal core’s electroconductivity which can be taken as 105 S/m as the smallest magnitude from the above interval (0. 1 ÷ 1. 0) × 106 S・m−1. Substituting the corresponding values into (8), (7) and (6) one will get v = 4.

Output: pass


Input: Claim: Extreme weather events, like hurricanes and heatwaves, are becoming more frequent and severe due to climate change. [SEP] Text: In the southwest of the United States, for example, California’s hot and dry experienced a “once-in-a-thousand-year” extreme rainfall, with nearly a year’s total worth of rain in 3 hours (37. 1 mm). In Pakistan, one-third of the country was completely submerged by a devastating historic flood, causing more than 1100 deaths and billions of dollars in losses. Although devastating, the extreme weather events that occurred in the summer of 2022 were not altogether unexpected. Observations have shown that extreme events including heatwaves, heavy precipitation, droughts, and tropical cyclones have been increasing in recent years and their attribution to human activities has strengthened since last assessment in 2014 (IPCC 2021). Scientists have warned that exceeding 1. 5 °C global warming could trigger multiple climate tipping points, with irreversible and catastrophic consequences (et al. 2022). Although climate tipping points for the Earth system have not been activated yet at the current global warming level of 1. 1 °C, some extreme events intensified by climate change have reached the tipping point of human survival. Heatwaves are a good example of how extreme weather events threaten human health. The maximum temperature a human can withstand is generally within the range of 40–42 °C. In the summer of 2022, the highest temperature in many areas exceeded this limit (Fig. 2a). But human temperature tolerance depends not only on the temperature but also on the humidity—represented by the wet-bulb temperature in meteorology—as well as on concomitant atmospheric pollutants, such as ozone. Studies have shown that even healthy people with strong climate adaptability cannot withstand a wet-bulb temperature higher than 32 °C. Once the wet-bulb temperature reaches 35 °C, we are no longer able to cool ourselves through sweating, leading to heat stroke, which means shocks to multiple organs and even permanent damage (Raymond et al. 2020). Extreme heatwaves over central Europe and especially the Paris region in the summer of 2003 demonstrated that the main health impacts and mortality cases were due to a combination of high temperature, humidity, and episodes of very high levels of ozone (Kovats et al. 2004; Schär et al. 2004). Continued exposure above this threshold can quickly lead to death by overheating. Some areas have already experienced wet-bulb temperatures close to humans’ survival threshold (Fig. 2b).

Output: corroborate


Input: Claim: Ocean acidification will completely destroy all marine ecosystems by 2050. [SEP] Text: Declines in calcification rates have been observed for juveniles and adults under elevated PCO2 [213] and for adult (Chlamys farreri) under reduced pH [214]. The byssal threads that mussels use to attach themselves to rocks or vertical lines in aquaculture must be robust so that they do not drop off or get ripped off. The threads of the common mussel (Mytilus trossulus) have been shown to weaken under elevated PCO2 [215], although they may be more sensitive to temperature during during short-term fluctuations typical of local inlets (L. Newcomb, University of Washington, Seattle pers. comm. ). Metabolic rates of juveniles and adults appear to be generally unaffected by OA alone [216–218]. Also unaffected, at least in juvenile King Scallops, are clearance rates, growth rates, the ratio RNA:DNA (suggesting no effect on growth potential) [217], and various measures related to ‘clapping’ (rapid closing used for locomotion) by adults—frequency, recovery time between claps and clapping fatigue [218]. The latter study, however, did find a reduction in the force exerted by the clapping under elevated PCO2, which could reduce the scallops’ ability to escape predators. As above, the larval stage is vulnerable to OA. South of BC, at a hatchery for in Oregon (USA), carbonate levels experience large fluctuations due to strong coastal upwelling [195]. Negative correlations were found between the aragonite saturation state (Ωarag of water in which larvae were spawned and reared, and the resulting larval production and mid-stage growth [195]. In the laboratory, the shell growth rate of juvenile depends on pH exposure at the larval stage but not at the juvenile stage [212]. To test such carry-over effects in a natural system, larvae were reared under different PCO2 levels, then transferred to field sites after metamorphosis [206]. Juvenile survival was not significantly different between the two larval treatments, but the elevated-PCO2 larvae yielded smaller juveniles, suggesting that they suffer irreversible damage (e. g. energy deficit, abnormality, inability for compensatory growth) [206]. Indirect effects Changes in species composition can be expected under OA.

Output: contrast


Input: Claim: Sea turtles navigate using the Earth’s magnetic field. [SEP] Text: Then the total value of the lower mantle thermocurrents Itop, coming through its outer spherical surface SD with the radius RD can be derived from the following formula: I t o p = j S D (11) And, finally, according to the Biot-Savart-Laplace law, the Earth’s magnetic induction B Т Т t o p on the bottom surface equator can be calculated: d B Т Т t o p = μ 0 I t o p d R D sin 90 ∘ 4 π R Earth 2 (12) However, the magnetic moment of the current element I t o p d R D is considered here only in a one-dimensional space towards the current movement along the radius R D. Integration over d R D allows to find the total of the current elements I t o p R D just along the way R D. This won’t go for our case, when the radial currents, like Ilow, move from the source (sphere’s center) to the interface with the lower mantle spherical surface, directed azimuthally from 0 to 4π in a spherical conductor. There is no decision on valuation magnetic induction when currents move radially in a spherical conductor in technical literature. That’s why it is better to consider the following model. A small spherical conductor with the radius d R i is put into the spherical conductor with the radius R Σ. The currents, moving from the spheres center make a magnetic field in the volume of the initial small sphere. That field is always directed to its volumetric surface tangentially. Then, according to the circulation theorem, d B ⋅ 4 3 πd R i 3 = μ 0 μ r I i ⋅ 4 πd R i 2 where the currents I i coming through the small sphere surface 4 πd R i 2. When the current is distributed evenly over the sphere’s section I i = I l o w ( d R i R Σ ) 2.

Output: pass


Input: Claim: Extreme weather events, like hurricanes and heatwaves, are becoming more frequent and severe due to climate change. [SEP] Text: As global warming continues, strengthened evaporation is anticipated to increase the proportion of water in the atmosphere, and high-temperature days will become more intolerable (Raymond et al. 2020). Fig. 2Source NOAA website at Image provided by the NOAA/OAR/from their Web site at with default setting except that “Date” was changed to “2022 Aug 1,” “Contour Lines” changed to “No,” “Plot Units” changed to “Celsius,” and “Projection” changed to “Robinson. ” b Top 0. 1% of wet-bulb temperatures at different locations between 1979 and 2017. Full size imageAs global warming has progressed, hotter and drier conditions and more extreme flooding events have become the new state and the new normal. On the one hand, we need to adapt to this new state and deal with the negative consequences on energy, ecosystems, economies, societies, and public health. On the other hand, we need to be prepared for the untypical and rapid reversal of extreme events, such as the shift from extreme drought to extreme flooding, and from heatwaves to cold spells. As highlighted in the recently published report United in Science (WMO 2022a), adaptation is crucial to lowering the risks of climate impacts. Therefore, it is important, urgent, and crucial to act now to improve our adaptation capacity to reduce the risks of climate change, especially of extreme events. 2 Understanding the Emergence of Learned in the Process of NeutralityIn response to climate change, the whole world is working towards carbon neutrality to limit global warming. Cutting down the carbon emissions in the energy sector is essential, which requires remarkable transition from fossil fuel energies to clean and renewable energies. Recently, the energy crisis accompanying extreme weather events has brought our attentions to the emergence of new risks during the energy transition process. 2. 1 from the 2021 to WeatherThe electricity resources of the state of Texas, United States, are dominated by natural gas (52%), followed by coal (20%), wind (17%), nuclear (9%), and other sources (2%) (Statista 2022a). 2021, the impact of extreme cold weather on the energy supply of the state caused significant blackouts and left more than 10 million people without electricity.

Output: corroborate


Input: Claim: Ocean acidification will completely destroy all marine ecosystems by 2050. [SEP] Text: Few studies explore these changes for molluscs, however it has been shown that larvae (Crassostrea virginica) have higher survival rates than under elevated PCO2, which is the opposite of the present-day PCO2 result (and in the absence of brown tides—in this study caused by a temperate phytoplankton species not found in the northeast Pacific) [210]. Thus, scallops may be affected by OA more than oysters. Scallops are also sensitive to other anthropogenic stressors, such as eutrophication [219], while the impact of these conditions on oysters and other shellfish was not investigated. OA may increase the vulnerability of shelled molluscs to predation by thinning their protective shells and may also cause food web shifts. For example, (Cliona celata) can bore twice the number of holes in shells, and remove twice the weight of shell, at pH 7. 8 compared to pH 8. 1, despite taking longer to attach themselves to the shells [220]. Negative impacts on molluscs could also have large unintended consequences for other species [221]. Shell production and aggregation provide refuge for other organisms such as sponges and crabs, and introduce complexity and heterogeneity into benthic environments, with heterogeneity being important for maintaining species richness [221]. Thus, the direct effects of OA on molluscs may have detrimental effects at the ecosystem level. Squid and octopus In BC, there are at least 30 species of squid and eight species of octopus [222], none of which have been studied for OA effects. Common species in BC waters are (Loligo opalescens) and (Enteroctopus dofleini). Similar to the otoliths of fish (see below), squids have internal calcified structures called statoliths used for sensing gravity and movement [223]. Under elevated PCO2 statoliths in embryos of the European Squid, Loligo vulgaris, are significantly larger than those formed under present-day PCO2 [224]. At higher PCO2 (still in the elevated range—Table 1), Kaplan et al. [225] observed reduced surface area, malformation, and abnormal crystalline structure in statoliths of Squid, Doryteuthis pealeii.

Output: contrast


Input: Claim: Sea turtles navigate using the Earth’s magnetic field. [SEP] Text: Hence, after substituting and shortening, here is the Biot-Savart formula for calculating the magnetic field induction inside the sphere (metal core) as the following rationalized form: d B Т Т l o w = 3 μ 0 μ r I l o w d R i 4 π R Σ 2 or B Т Т l o w = 3 μ 0 μ r I l o w R Σ 4 π R Earth 2 sin α (13) where R Earth is the Earth’s radius, R Σ is the metal core radius. In its turn, the magnetic field on the Earth’s surface for the lower mantle spherical layer can be calculated with considering the thickness of that layer ΔRD, which is denoted as d R D in (12). B Т Т t o p = 3 μ 0 μ r I t o p Δ R D 4 π R l m 2 sin α (14) The heat Q, which is produced in the lower mantle Vlm because thermocurrents interact with active resistance of this mantle’s ores. It can be found from the following formula [23] : Q l m = 1 σ j 2 V l m Δ t (15) where j is the current density in the lower mantle, A・m−2; σ is the lower mantle’s electroconductivity Sm−1; Δ t is the time of producing heat for 31,536,000 c (year); V l m is the volume of the lower mantle’s spherical circle. All the calculations for the lower mantle, including the used constants, are tabulated to Table 1. As seen from the table, the value of the magnetic induction B T T t o p on the Earth’s surface is ~4. 62 × 10−6 T, which is much lower than the really measured for the same terrestrial conditions В 0 = 3. 4 × 10 − 5 T. The heat Q, which is produced in the lower mantle volume and determined by thermocurrents Itop, is 2. 84 × 1014 J per year (2. 84 × 1021 erg per year), and this is much lower than the thermal heat loss of the planet per year, which is determined by the value of 3 × 1021 J per year (3 × 1028 erg per year). 3.

Output: pass


Input: Claim: Extreme weather events, like hurricanes and heatwaves, are becoming more frequent and severe due to climate change. [SEP] Text: All types of electricity generation technologies were impaired by the heavy winter storm, especially the natural gas and wind energy supplies due to damaged pipes that limited the natural gas supply and frozen wind turbines that shut down the wind energy supply. Other power plants also failed to operate at their best generation output levels. Moreover, the dramatically increased demand for heating during this extreme cold weather period caused a further collapse of the power supply (Busby et al. 2021). Under extreme conditions, the reduced reliability of the power generating infrastructure has become an emerging risk that threatens the stability of the energy supply. The winterization of the reliability standards for the infrastructure should be developed and implemented to ensure that generators are prepared for extreme events in the future. Moreover, in the process of achieving carbon neutrality, clean and renewable energy sources, especially solar and wind energy will make great progress in large-scale and commercial uses. But their energy networks and supplies are more sensitive to weather conditions. Therefore, a portfolio of multiple energy sources and special fusion techniques are required to overcome the fragmentation and instability of renewable energy sources, and to establish resilience capabilities such as improving energy source reliability and safety to ensure energy supply in extreme situations. In addition, the development of powerful freezing-resistant turbines for wind energy, and the preparation of redundant reserves of fossil fuel energy should be fully considered. 2. 2 from the Response to the 2021 to a Record HeatwaveThe electricity resources of the state of California, United States, are dominated by natural gas (47. 3%), followed by solar (15. 7%), hydropower (11%), nuclear (8. 4%), wind (7%), and other sources (10%) (Statista 2022b). 2021, a record-breaking heatwave swept the state and lasted for days with a maximum extreme temperature of 50. 5 °C, causing record-breaking power shortages, and some households experienced rolling blackouts. In contrast to the power shortages at peak times, there was a relatively abundant amount of grid electricity during effective solar radiation periods owing to the significant development of solar power. In response to the high fluctuations in power demand during the day, customers were urged to curtail electricity use as much as possible between 3 and 10 p. m. and shift energy use such as charging electric vehicles and using large appliances to the morning or early afternoon hours (CAISO 2021). Power shortages during heatwaves have become a new normal in recent years.

Output: corroborate


Input: Claim: Ocean acidification will completely destroy all marine ecosystems by 2050. [SEP] Text: Aside from calcification, elevated PCO2 also leads to increased heavy metal retention in the protective eggshells and changes to the bioaccumulation of silver, mercury and cobalt in larval tissue [224]. Additionally, elevated PCO2 depresses metabolic rates in pelagic squids (e. g. [226]). The ultimate effect on fitness is not known. Mollusc synopsis We conclude that the effects of OA on shelled molluscs will be negative based on available studies on oysters, scallops, abalone and mussels (Fig. 4). These negative effects occur at various life-history stages, and go beyond direct effects on calcification of larvae, e. g. reduced oxygen consumption and feeding rates of larvae and delayed behavioural responses of adults. It is generally anticipated that effects on larval survival rate and reproduction rate will directly influence population size, population distribution and community structure [227]. No experiments were found on local clam species (including geoducks) but given the results on other molluscs [36] we anticipate that they will also be negatively affected by OA, while effects on squid and octopus remain uncertain (Fig. 4). Sponges and Sponge reefs are globally unique to the northeast Pacific coast [228–230] and all four groups of cold-water corals: octocorals, stylasterids, stony and black corals, are present in the region. They occur where productivity and water flow are high (e. g. they are especially dense on seamounts and the heads of canyons, Fig. 1) and from the surface to depths >2000 m [231]. However, due in part to the depth range, very few benthic habitat mapping data exist along the BC coast (e. g. [232], Kim Conway, pers. comm. , ) and so we have used these data and the expertise of others to provide our own general description (below). Sponges and cold-water corals form important habitat for many marine organisms including species of fish that are commercially important (e. g. the rockfish Perch) in our region [233–236]. The coral and sponge contribution to the benthic fauna in BC appears to be patchy but diverse, based on: DFO trawl survey and observer records [237], comparison with neighbouring regions (e. g.

Output: contrast


Input: Claim: Sea turtles navigate using the Earth’s magnetic field. [SEP] Text: Calculations for the of the calculations were performed for the thermocurrents Ilow moving under the influence of thermoelectrical field ЕТ inside the metal core according to (3) too. To calculate its value two main parameters were taken into consideration: 1) the metal core radius, which is 3500 km (sum of thicknesses of the inner core, of the transitive F zone and the outer core) and 2) the discussed below difference of temperature ΔТ between the center of the planet and the border “core-lower mantle”. According to the literary sources the magnitude ΔТ is for the metal core is quite uncertain and fluctuates within extreme values from 0 K to 1957 K ± 227 K. At the same time, it is known from the same sources that such factors as pressure, electroconductivity, thermal conductivity in the metal core are particularly high, and the electron concentration doesn’t practically depend on tem- Table 1. Calculation of electrical and magnetic parameters of Earth’s lower mantle. perature [33]. It is also known that the velocity of seismic P-waves lengthwise the inner core radius doesn’t practically change and is about 11. 2 km・s, though the pressure changes from 320 to 360 GPa [18]. On the assumption of the said, temperature difference of 2000 K inside the metal core body is unlikely. Considering this and taking the core cooling close to 50 K × (109)−1 years [34] there are grounds to take the real value ΔТ for the metal core as 10 K for the first approximation. This amplitude of the temperature difference between coldnesses (ice ages) and warmings on the Earth’s surface is also in the works [35] [36]. That temperature difference is specified in the V. M. Kotlyakov’s work as “range of the isotopic curve oscillations from glacial periods to interglacial ones equals 10˚C in temperature” [37]. But there is a work where the temperature difference is defined as 14 K on the time period from “65 million years ago till today” [38]. Now let us calculate electric, magnetic and thermal parameters of the solid core, which has temperature dynamics. To do this, let us use the mentioned formulas (2)-(11) (13) (15).

Output: pass


Input: Claim: Extreme weather events, like hurricanes and heatwaves, are becoming more frequent and severe due to climate change. [SEP] Text: There is a need for long-term and proactive arrangements in many aspects of risk responses, particularly in terms of extreme weather events, infrastructure resilience, and preparedness for people’s needs, in order to minimize losses from various risks. 3 Governance for AdaptationWhen advancing the process of achieving carbon neutrality in response to climate change, the impacts of more frequent and intense extreme weather events have forced us to think soberly about developing smarter climate governance strategies for sustainable development. While climate mitigation actions contribute to the slowdown of climate warming, climate adaptation is of great importance and is a more direct approach to reducing disaster risk and protecting people (Robbert and Lesnikowski 2018). The key to climate change adaptation (CCA) is the reduction of climate risks. This needs to include reducing the impacts of rapidly changing or slow-onset extreme events, to lower the vulnerabilities of infrastructures that already exist or are under construction, and to limit the combination effects on the population and society due to extra health burdens originating from other sources (for example, air pollution). The goal of CCA is to achieve climate-resilient development in the near future. Although more than 170 countries have already taken adaptation into account in their climate policies and planning, which has generated benefits in areas such as health, food security, and biodiversity conservation, there are still large gaps between actions already taken and the needs of society in response to the climate change impacts (IPCC 2022). Moreover, progress towards adaptation is unevenly distributed across regions, and most implemented adaptation measures have been small-scale, fragmented, incremental, or sector-specific. Despite the general advocation of CCA in the 2015 and the earlier on (), there is a lack of a comprehensive and systematic guiding framework for countries’ CCA actions, as well as a unified and coordinated operational framework for collaborative deployment within the UN system. Here, we present several suggestions and recommendations for resilience building through collaborative governance for CCA (Fig. 3). Fig. 3Recommendations for climate resilient development (CRD) through collaborative governance for climate change adaptation (CCA), with the support of multi-stakeholder partnershipsFull size imageNations (UN) should take the lead in promoting CCA at the global level. Although the importance of CCA was highlighted in the (2022. Exceeding 1. 5°C global warming could trigger multiple climate tipping points. Science 377(6611): 7950.

Output: corroborate


Input: Claim: Ocean acidification will completely destroy all marine ecosystems by 2050. [SEP] Text: [238, 239]), isolated studies (e. g. [229, 235]), anecdotal evidence (Lynne Yamanaka, pers. comm. , ), and modelling work (e. g. [240]). This collection is likely dominated by siliceous sponges, and isolated stands of flexible corals with partly organic skeletons (octocorals), more specifically members of the diverse group Alcyonacea (e. g. large tree form coral) and pennatulaceans (sea pens and whips). Alcyonacea and solitary glass sponges occur on bedrock, mainly deeper than ∼200 m, while pennatulaceans and glass sponge reefs grow on flat sediment, generally shallower than ∼200 m [241]. Stylasterids (e. g. [242]) and stony corals (Scleractinia) also occur [237, 243], but primarily in small, solitary patches. The reef-forming scleractinian Lophelia pertusa has been found [244], but is rare, possibly influenced by the already low aragonite saturation states in this region [245]. Black corals, which do not calcify and are made of organic proteins, are also present below 500 m [237]. Direct effects OA studies have focused on stony corals, primarily Lophelia pertusa, which is entirely aragonitic. They show an increased energetic cost for calcification in L. pertusa with decreasing pH (and Ωarag [246, 247] (S2 Table); however, L. pertusa may adapt to moderate decreases in pH given sufficient time [248] (S2 Table). The holdfasts and some parts of the structure of many octocorals are also made of aragonite [249]. Similarly, some stylasterids precipitate aragonite as well as calcite [250]. However, neither octocorals nor stylasterids have been studied with respect to OA to date. Likewise, there are no OA studies specific to glass sponges. Sponge and coral synopsis The OA response of the cold-water corals most common in our region (octocorals) has not yet been studied. While the skeletons of these corals are partly organic, they also calcify and so may be affected by OA at some level (Fig. 4A).

Output: contrast


Input: Claim: Sea turtles navigate using the Earth’s magnetic field. [SEP] Text: In particular, we must use the initial data when calculating: μ 0 μ Fe = 1. 26 × 10 − 6 H m Earth’s radius, R Earth = 6. 37 × 10 6 m Inner core radius, R G = 1. 4 × 10 6 m Total radius, R Σ = R G + Δ R F + Δ R E = 3. 65 × 10 6 m Spherical surface SG area with radius RG: = 4 π R G 2 = 2. 46 × 10 13 m; Core electroconductivity, σ = 5. 0 × 10 5 S m. From the formulas (3) (4) (5) (7) (9) (10) accordingly we have: Thermofield density of the Earth’s core at the temperature difference ΔT = 10˚C and radius RΣ Е T = 2. 86 × 10 − 10 V m Electron concentration in a unit volume of metal (Fe), n 1 = 1. 32 × 10 29 m − 3 n 2 = 3. 25 × 10 29 m − 3 Fermi momentum, p F = 1. 41 × 10 − 23 m ⋅ kg s Electron mean free path, l = 0. 85 nm. Substituting the corresponding meanings of the calculated parameters to the current density formula (9), we get j = 1. 43 × 10 − 4 A m 2. From the formula (11) we can find the total amount of current of the inner core G: I l o w = j S G = 3. 52 × 10 9 A. According to the formula (15) let us additionally calculate the heat Q b c produced by the thermocurrents Ilow, which is 2. 25 × 1014 J year (2. 25 × 1021 erg per year) and is comparable with the thermocurrents Itop heat in magnitude. There is also a calculation of the Earth’s magnetic momentum M = 4 π R G 2 I l o w which is 8. 67 × 1022 А・m2 when the current Ilow is 3. 52 × 109 А and the spherical surface at the solid core radius is RG = 1400 km. That is close to the known magnitude М = 8. 2 × 10 22 А ⋅ m 2.

Output: pass


Input: Claim: The majority of greenhouse gases, like carbon dioxide and methane, trap heat in the Earth's atmosphere, contributing to global warming. [SEP] Text: is Open Access? is an initiative that aims to make scientific research freely available to all. To date our community has made over 100 million downloads. It’s based on principles of collaboration, unobstructed discovery, and, most importantly, scientific progression. As PhD students, we found it difficult to access the research we needed, so we decided to create a new publisher that levels the playing field for scientists across the world. How? By making research easy to access, and puts the academic needs of the researchers before the business interests of publishers. are a community of more than 103,000 authors and editors from 3,291 institutions spanning 160 countries, including winners and some of the world’s most-cited researchers. Publishing on IntechOpen allows authors to earn 10. 5772/58995 this 1. Choose citation style Select style to clipboard Get citation 2. Choose citation style Select format Bibtex RIS Download citation and by the - Causes, Impacts and by purchase hard copies of this book, please contact the representative in India: CBS Publishers & Distributors Pvt. Ltd. www. cbspd. com | customercare@cbspd. com 1. Choose citation style Select style to clipboard Get citation 2. Choose citation style Select format Bibtex RIS Download citation Impact of this 1. IntroductionRadiative forcing is a measure of the size of a greenhouse gas’s contribution to global warming. Radiative forcing values are estimated by a numerical process using radiative transfer schemes for terrestrial radiation and data from general circulation models. However, the estimation is complex and difficult to understand for non-specialists, including researchers in other fields. Understanding the essence of the Earth system is important for correctly discussing global environmental issues. Accordingly, in this 1. 1. Radiative forcingThe global atmospheric carbon dioxide (CO2) concentration has increased from about 278 ppmv in pre-industrial times (defined as 1750) to 390. 5 ppmv in 2011. During the same period, the concentrations of methane (CH4) and nitrous oxide (N2O) have also increased from about 0. 722 ppmv to 1. 803 ppmv and about 0. 270 ppmv to 0. 324 ppmv, respectively (Table 1). [2] Greenhouse gas Concentration (ppmv) Radiative forcing Global warming potential 1750 2011 (W m–2) 20 yr 100 yr Carbon dioxide 278 390.

Output: corroborate


Input: Claim: Ocean acidification will completely destroy all marine ecosystems by 2050. [SEP] Text: In long-term studies, sea urchins have shown an ability to adapt to elevated PCO2 (Table 1); however, in the transition to new OA conditions, species may suffer from life-cycle carry-over effects. For instance, Dupont et al. [259] demonstrated that under elevated PCO2 females acclimated for four months experienced a 4. 5 decrease in fecundity and produced offspring that suffered 95% juvenile mortality; however, these effects disappeared after acclimitisation for 16 months (S2 Table). OA may also influence reproduction in echinoderms. For example, as PCO2 increases under OA, higher sperm concentrations are necessary to achieve high fertilisation success in the sea urchin S. franciscanus, and the egg’s mechanism for blocking fertilisation by multiple sperm cells becomes slower [260]. A number of studies have used genetic markers to infer the possible physiological effects of OA in sea urchins (see S2 Table). O’Donnell et al. [261] measured the change in expression of a molecular helper-protein in S. franciscanus and suggested that the ability to handle temperature stress would be reduced under OA. Todgham and Hofmann [262] measured changes in ∼1000 genes of the sea star S. purpuratus and found reduced expression under elevated PCO2 in four categories—biomineralisation, cellular stress response, metabolism, and apoptosis (cell death). Also for this species, elevated PCO2 triggered changes in 40 functional classes of proteins, affecting biomineralisation, lipid metabolism, and ion homeostasis [263]. (Parastichopus californicus) harvest also provides significant income in BC (sea cucumbers, Fig. 4A) but there are no studies on OA effects for this species. Elsewhere, a single study found that sperm motility of a reef-dwelling sea cucumber species (Holothuria sp. ) was impaired at pH values <7. 7 [264]. Elevated PCO2 and temperatures have been shown to have positive and additive effects on the relative growth of the keystone sea star Pisaster ochraceus [265]. Under increased PCO2, calcification is reduced [265]; however, growth rate remains unchanged as the endoskeleton is primarily composed of soft tissue with relatively small calcareous elements for rigidity and protection.

Output: contrast


Input: Claim: Sea turtles navigate using the Earth’s magnetic field. [SEP] Text: For the readers’ convenience, all the calculations are presented in the compact Table 2. The table shows that the thermocurrents Ilow are all-sufficient, they are able not only generate the main dipole field of Earth В T T l o w but to maintain it for a long time at 3. 64 × 10−5 T level. This value is calculated for the points of Earth on its equator and, as seen, it is close to the real and modern intensity of the EMF. At the same time, the heat, produced by the thermocurrents Ilow, is only Q b c = 2. 25 × 10 14 J per year (2. 25 × 1021 erg per year) and is comparable to the heat of the thermocurrents Itop. The Earth’s magnetic moment was also calculated as M = 4 π R G 2 I l o w. At the current Ilow of 3. 52 × 109 А and spherical surface with the solid core’s radius of RG = 1400 km (see in Table 2) it is 8. 67 × 1022 Table 2. Calculation of electrical and magnetic parameters of Earth’s metal core. А・m2, which is close to the known value М = 8. 2 × 10 22 А ⋅ m 2. Let us briefly note, that a toroidal magnetic field forms within the metal core. The field’s field lines are spherical circles that do not leave the conducting core (Figure 1(a) and Figure 1(b)). The centrifugal force F C f and the thermo e. m. f. ЕТ have been generating a through channel with electron deficit for 3. 5 billion years in the toroidal field in the core center. The channel is the entrance/exit for the poloidal magnetic field which is self-generating in the conductive medium. The field is definitely dipole and it has local poles with diameter to 500 km for entrance/exit of the field lines bundles of the poloidal field with tilt of 900 - 890. There is a confirmation for it [39]. 4.

Output: pass


Input: Claim: The majority of greenhouse gases, like carbon dioxide and methane, trap heat in the Earth's atmosphere, contributing to global warming. [SEP] Text: 5 1. 82 (1. 63 to 2. 01) 1 1 Methane 0. 722 1. 803 0. 48 (0. 43 to 0. 53) 84 28 Nitrous oxide 0. 270 0. 324 0. 17 (0. 14 to 0. 20) 264 265 Table 1. Concentrations in 1750 and 2011, radiative forcing, and global warming potential for each greenhouse gas. [2]Radiative forcing is often referred to as an index of the size of a greenhouse gas’s contribution to global warming. When the Earth system is at radiative equilibrium, the energy flux reaching the top of the Earth’s atmosphere exactly balances with the outgoing energy flux from the Earth to outer space. However, increasing the concentration of greenhouse gases decreases the energy flux to outer space and changes the energy flux to the Earth into a surplus. Consequently, the Earth’s surface temperature and atmospheric temperature rise, causing the outgoing flux to increase, and the Earth system shifts to a new equilibrium. Radiative forcing is defined as the imbalance of the energy flux density caused by these perturbations. Panel on (IPCC) has estimated the following radiative forcing values due to increased greenhouse gas concentrations in 2011 relative to their pre-industrial levels: CO2, 1. 82 W m–2; CH4, 0. 48 W m–2; and N2O, 0. 17 W m–2. The unit of radiative forcing is the same as that of energy flux density. The uncertainties in these values are all ±10% under 90% confidence intervals. While the magnitude of the positive radiative forcing of greenhouse gases is well understood, the effects of other atmospheric constituents such as aerosols are subject to considerable uncertainty. [3] IPCC estimated values are the sum of the contributions from direct effect (via emissions of gases) and several indirect effects (via atmospheric chemistry). Radiative forcing to be compared with calculated value in this 1. 68 W m–2; CH4, 0. 64 W m–2; and N2O, 0. 17 W m–2. Global warming potential (GWP) is also used in comprehensive policies regarding the regulation of greenhouse gases.

Output: corroborate


Input: Claim: Ocean acidification will completely destroy all marine ecosystems by 2050. [SEP] Text: Brittle stars (ophiuroids) are commonly found in the region, but the effects of OA have only been studied in species found elsewhere. In the eastern Atlantic Ocean, keystone brittle star Ophiothrix fragilis was found to be especially sensitive to small changes in pH [266], with 100% mortality of larvae at pH 7. 9 vs. 30% mortality in the control (pH = 8. 1). Finally, while Dupont et al. [251] found that echinoderms studied to date are relatively robust to OA effects, they conclude that the overall impact of OA on this group will be negative and suggest that associated ecosystem impacts may be more severe. Indirect effects Declines in some echinoderms may affect the predators that depend on them, but ecosystem effects remain unknown. For example, on our coast, various nearshore rockfish and numerous flatfish prey on ophiuroids [267], although they only form an important component of the diet for (Sebastes nebulosus), (Hippoglossoides elassodon), and Sole (Lepidopsetta bilineatus) [267]. Additionally, the deep-water rockfish (Sebastolobus altivelis) relies on brittle stars for a large proportion of its food [268]. In the eastern Atlantic, the inevitable decline in pH may lead to the disappearance of the keystone brittle star O. fragilis; the impact on the ecosystem is not really known [266]. Echinoderm synopsis Although many echinoderms have not been studied, the existing evidence indicates significant negative effects due to OA, especially at early life stages. Thus, we suggest that this group will be affected negatively (Fig. 4A). Of more concern are the anticipated negative impacts on ecosystems, e. g. declines in the population of a keystone species like the Star would have wide-ranging effects on the food web. crustaceans are represented in BC by copepods [269], krill (euphausiids) [39], barnacles [270], shrimps, prawns and crabs [271]. Copepods (see Mesozooplankton) and krill form a substantial biomass in the oceans and provide an important source of food for upper trophic levels in temperate marine foodwebs and act as important grazers (e.

Output: contrast


Input: Claim: Sea turtles navigate using the Earth’s magnetic field. [SEP] Text: of Earth’s First, let us pay attention to a feature of the core: its outer part (outer core) is in a melted state at the temperature T0, whereas the inner part (inner core), divided with the transitive F zone, is in a solid state, but at the lowered temperature Ti. Hence, we can conclude that the solid core can be colder than the outer one, and its temperature is Ti = T0 10 K. In its turn, it shows that there obviously must be geotemperature gradients, directed oppositely to the melted outer core. Those gradients generate thermoelectric currents “outer core-lower mantle” Itop, directed oppositely to the Earth’s surface, and “outer core-inner (solid) core’s center” Ilow to the planet’s center (Figure 1(a)). On the assumption of the known connection between an electrical current and the heat, produced by it, the inner core temperature Ti is expected to get T0, and then get higher than T0 i. e. Ti > T0. Such happens when the flows of the thermocurrents Ilow move to the Earth’s center and their electron concentration n in the inner core because of the absence of drains (outer borders) and, consequently, absence of dissipation of the charge energy. As a result, current density increases, which contributes to higher producing of Joule heat and its accumulation in the Earth’s central part. Eventually, the inner core’s temperature Ti reaches the temperature of the melted core T0 (Ti = T0) and at this moment the field intensity ЕТ gets equal to zero (ЕТ = 0) in the “outer core-inner core” branch. From that very moment thermocurrents Ilow stop moving, and the Earth’s dipole magnetic field disappears, but the lower mantle magnetic field В T T l o w remains. Nevertheless, thermocurrents Ilow of low intensity are able to not only appear for a short time and several times but change their directions to the opposite ones, because the thermal process is not homogeneous at different points of the inner core. The inner core temperature eventually gets higher and reaches a persistent state Ti > T0 because of the thermal process inertia.

Output: pass


Input: Claim: The majority of greenhouse gases, like carbon dioxide and methane, trap heat in the Earth's atmosphere, contributing to global warming. [SEP] Text: GWP is a measure of how much a given mass of a greenhouse gas contributes to global warming and is usually defined as the radiative forcing resulting from an instantaneous release of 1 kg of the greenhouse gas into the atmosphere relative to that of CO2. [4] The GWP values for the next 20 and 100 years are given in Table 1. Radiative forcing is estimated by a numerical process using radiative transfer schemes for terrestrial radiation and data from models referred to as general circulation models. [5] However, since the process is difficult to understand for non-specialists, including many citizens and researchers in other fields, they simply accept the results announced by the specialists. Yet, understanding the essence of the Earth system is important for correctly discussing global environmental issues. It is therefore necessary to create models such that anyone who has acquired basic scientific knowledge can intuitively understand the Earth system as well as the essence of the calculations based on the models. In this 1. 2. How can radiative forcing be calculated? The mean vertical temperature of the atmosphere results from the balance between heating and cooling. The Earth’s surface and the troposphere are strongly coupled by convective heat transfer processes. At the surface, solar heating is balanced by convective transport of latent and sensible heat to the troposphere. In the troposphere, radiative cooling (infrared emission by molecules) is balanced by the release of latent heat via condensation and precipitation and by convective transport of sensible heat from the surface. This radiative-convective interaction leads to a roughly constant lapse rate in the troposphere. However, at the top of the troposphere (the tropopause), which is at an altitude of about 11 km above the Earth’s surface, the temperature tends to become invariant with altitude. [6]Figure 1. Vertical concentration profiles of four principal greenhouse gases. Concentrations are shown in units of ppmv. These data in the US are obtained from the SpectralCalc website. [7]The IPCC has defined radiative forcing as the change in net energy flux density at the tropopause. Figure 1 shows the altitude dependence of the concentrations of the four principal greenhouse gases. Water vapor is the most abundant and important greenhouse gas in the atmosphere. Nevertheless, it is excluded as an objective of the radiative forcing estimation since humans cannot directly control it.

Output: corroborate


Input: Claim: Ocean acidification will completely destroy all marine ecosystems by 2050. [SEP] Text: g. , [272]). Crabs are found in the upper 50 m, while adult prawns (Pandalus platyceros) and adult shrimp (mainly Smooth Pink—Pandalus jordani and Sidestripe—Pandalopsis dispar) are deeper (∼100 m and 120 m, respectively: Fig. 3). Krill, primarily Euphausia pacifica, perform strong diel vertical migration from the surface to depths exceeding 100 m. Krill is harvested on a limited basis in the Strait of Georgia and various inlets [39]. Prawns and shrimps, which are farmed extensively in other parts of the world, are only harvested from the wild in BC; the prawn fishery is substantial (∼$40 million, Fig. 4) [34]. The crab fishery in BC is also valuable (∼$33 million) [34, 273], with (Cancer magister) being the most important commercial species. Direct effects Crustacean exoskeletons, composed of chitin and CaCO3 [274], are generally considered to be unaffected by OA. In fact, evidence suggests that this protective covering actually serves as a buffer to the corrosive nature of OA, and some crustaceans can use the increased DIC in seawater to fortify their shells through calcification [275]. This enhancement of the shell contrasts with shell dissolution in molluscs (see Molluscs Section), and is likely due to some crustaceans (crabs, lobsters) having an efficient proton-regulating mechanism [275]. Despite the advantage of localised pH-regulation, the calcification response appears to depend on a variety of additional factors: external organic coatings, skeletal mineralisation composition (e. g. magnesium content in calcite), and the degree to which amorphous CaCO3 (precursor to calcite/aragonite shells) is utilised [275–277]. Crustacean species’ ability to deal with increasing OA also depends on life-history strategies and habitat [278]. Active species or those in highly fluctuating environments (e. g. intertidal or estuarine) tend to utilise the oxygen-transporting protein haemocyanin, which also confers additional buffering capacity against high H+ concentrations.

Output: contrast


Input: Claim: Sea turtles navigate using the Earth’s magnetic field. [SEP] Text: At this state thermocurrents of opposite direction instantly appear and signs of the inner SGTE charges finally change (Figure 1(b)). From the moment of the persistent state Ti = T0 thermocurrents Itop and Ilow move to the Earth’s surface unidirectionally and their mutual current I sums up. Ores of the lower mantle gets extra heat because a part of the thermocurrents Ilow permeates in. That heat spreads predominantly to the bottom surface’s side, and when it is reached, the Earth’s crust and atmosphere reach the mode of dynamic heating gradually. From the other hand, electron flows leave the core, and it slowly cools down after electron concentration gets less. But when the moment of the persistent state Ti < T0 comes, a new and opposite process begins-thermocurrents Ilow go to the inner core and warm it. At the same time the mutual current I decreases and Earth comes into its cooling mode, and the dipole magnetic field restores. The cycles repeat. 5. Briefly about the Cyclicity of Cooling and Warming of the Earth’s results of the calculations in Table 2 give us the following. First, the reason why cooling and warming alternate each other on the Earth’s crust surface and our planet’s atmosphere is the existing cyclic change of thermocurrents in the inner core Ilow (Figure 2). Secondly, geomagnetic polarity reversal can happen only when phases “warming-cooling-warming” change, probably, every 105 ÷ 106 years [7]. During the period of these reversals dipole magnetic field В T T l o w decreases (or increases) up to its momentary disappearance (increment), at the same time the magnetic pole, created by the lower mantle, always stays as 4. 6 × 10−6 T at any reversal sign. In this connection, there can be made a preliminary estimate of the time interval Δt between adjacent coinciding phases of Itop and Ilow thermocurrents movement, for example, to the Earth’s crust. In this case that interval can correspond to the period of two maximum Earth warmings or cooling if the thermocurrents move in an antiphase direction (Figure 2).

Output: pass


Input: Claim: The majority of greenhouse gases, like carbon dioxide and methane, trap heat in the Earth's atmosphere, contributing to global warming. [SEP] Text: However, because of its strong absorption band, water vapor should be considered when calculating the radiative forcing of the other greenhouse gases. The first step in building the model is to divide the atmosphere into appropriate layers, where the pressure, temperature, and concentration of each greenhouse gas are homogeneous within each layer. The concentrations of CO2, CH4, and N2O are homogeneous between the Earth’s surface and the tropopause, whereas the concentration of water vapor changes considerably. Moreover, the temperature of the troposphere decreases with altitude at a roughly constant lapse rate. For intervals with a thickness of 100 m, the change in the concentration of water vapor between the adjacent layers is around 5% and the change in temperature is 0. 65 K. Therefore, up to an altitude of 11 km, the atmosphere is divided into 110 layers, each with a thickness of 100 m. The bottom layer tangent to the surface is referred to as the zeroth layer for descriptive purposes. The terrestrial energy flux emitted from the Earth’s surface enters the zeroth layer. Some of the incident flux is absorbed by the molecules of greenhouse gases in the layer, and the remainder is transmitted. Subsequently, the molecules emit radiation flux both upward and downward. Some of the combined upward flux (transmitted flux and emitted upward flux) is again absorbed in the first layer, and the layer emits radiation. [8] For simplicity, the molecules emit radiation only once. The repetition of this simple radiative transfer process leads to the outgoing flux from the tropopause to outer space. In the first step, the outgoing energy flux density F¯ at the tropopause is calculated under the assumption that the concentrations of greenhouse gases in the atmosphere are equal to those in the pre-industrial era. In the next step, the flux density Fi is similarly calculated for an atmosphere in which the concentration of a specific greenhouse gas i increases up to its level in 2011, keeping everything else constant including the temperature. [4] The radiative forcing is obtained as ΔFi=F¯−Fi for the greenhouse gas i that changes in concentration. In these processes, the effects of the near-infrared region of incident solar radiation are ignored. Also, the intensities of absorption and emission depend on only the respective number densities of the greenhouse gases in the layer. Pressure and temperature affect these intensities through only a change in number density.

Output: corroborate


Input: Claim: Ocean acidification will completely destroy all marine ecosystems by 2050. [SEP] Text: Sedentary species or those in stable environments (e. g. deep-sea or polar) tend to have less haemocyanin and consequently less buffering capacity. The latter group relies more on HCO3− buffering and is probably more sensitive to OA. [278] Recent studies on Crab (AKC, Paralithodes camtschaticus) and (TC, Chionoecetes bairdi) in Alaskan waters highlight the vulnerability of the early life stages to OA [279, 280]. For AKC embryos and larvae, OA produces larger embryos (but not larger mass), smaller egg yolks, higher developmental rates, and higher calcium content [280]. In juveniles of both species, increased mortality occurs with elevated PCO2 (Table 1), with 100% mortality in their most extreme treatment (S2 Table) [279]. Differences between the two Alaskan crabs (decreased condition index in AKC but not TC and decreased calcium content in TC but not AKC) suggest that AKC puts more energy into osmoregulation and calcification than does TC [279]. Additionally, there is some preliminary evidence that adult AKC females fail to moult [280]. Initial studies are underway on the dominant local species of krill, Euphausia pacifica. A recent study in Puget Sound, WA (Fig. 1), found that elevated PCO2 slowed the development of hatched nauplii to the first feeding stage (Anna McLaskey, pers. comm. , University of Alaska, Fairbanks AK). Also, under higher PCO2 the Antarctic krill species, Euphausia superba, experiences ingestion rates 3. 5 times higher than those under present-day conditions, and consistently higher metabolic rates [281]. For the cold-water barnacle, Semibalanus balanoides (common in BC), experimental treatments at elevated CO2 (S2 Table) reduced adult survival and slowed embryonic development, which delayed the time of hatching by 19 days [282]. The cold-water shrimp, Pandalus borealis (common and commercially important in BC), also exhibited delayed juvenile development at reduced pH [283]. Other studies find no such delays [284–286], though significant effects have been observed when temperature and PCO2 interact [285].

Output: contrast


Input: Claim: Sea turtles navigate using the Earth’s magnetic field. [SEP] Text: That can be represented by the following model of multidirectional movements of thermocurrents Ilow towards the persistently unidirectional movement of thermocurrents Itop: 1st cycle: core-lower mantle; 2nd cycle: lower mantle-core; 3rd cycle: core-lower mantle. Figure 2. Graph of connection between EMF polarity reversal and warming and cooling periods on Earth with the change of the direction of the planetary currents Ilow vectors. 1―graph of the cyclic temperature at the Earth’s surface distribution; 2―directed movement of the lower mantle thermocurrents Itop; 3―directed movement of the inner core thermocurrents Ilow; 4―magnetic poles position at the EMF reversal. For a quantitative estimation of the model one should take into consideration drift velocity v d (7) of electrons, which move directionally in the electric field ЕТ from the inner core’s side to the upper mantle (1st, 3rd cycles) and backwards (2nd cycle). However, that velocity is average and it is defined from the interval v d between 0 and max. But if the velocity of an electron after the collision has nothing to do with its velocity before the collision [26] the calculated function of electron distribution according to their real velocities allows to calculate the drift velocity more accurately with the following formula [26] [40] [41] : v d = e E T l m v (6а) However the existing scientific argument if it is right to use the formula (6) or the formula (6a) can be resolved only in course of time and only by comparing theoretical calculations with the practice. All the calculations to define warming periods are in Table 3 with all the needed constants and formulas. Table 3. Calculation of warming periods on Earth. All the calculations to define warming periods are in Table 3 with all the needed constants and formulas. It is seen from Table 3 that the period of direct warming is about 83000 years, whereas the time lapse between the consecutive warmings Δt is about 249,000 years. The main error of this magnitude is determined by the value of the temperature coefficient β and the final electron concentration in the semiconductor when “hot” electrons move out of the core.

Output: pass


Input: Claim: The majority of greenhouse gases, like carbon dioxide and methane, trap heat in the Earth's atmosphere, contributing to global warming. [SEP] Text: Figure 2 shows the absorption spectra of the zeroth layer for 1750, as calculated using the SpectralCalc database. For selected gases, the SpectralCalc website provides transmittance spectra at an arbitrary pressure, temperature, and thickness of a gas layer; the concentration of the gas in the layer; and the range of wavelengths. [7] The SpectralCalc uses a line-by-line model called to accurately model molecular absorption line spectra. [11] These are based on the database,[12] which is a compilation of spectroscopic parameters widely used to simulate the gases’ transmission and emission of radiation into the atmosphere. The concentrations are 7750 ppmv for water vapor, 278 ppmv for CO2, 0. 722 ppmv for CH4, and 0. 270 ppmv for N2O. The pre-industrial concentration of water vapor is assumed to be the same as the present value. In the zeroth layer, the parameters areT0=288 K, p0=1. 013×105 Pa, Δz=100 m, and λ=1. 85−20. 0 μm. E15 The unit spectral interval is set to 1 nm. The numerical values used for the calculations are as follows:R=8. 3144 J K−1, μ=28. 964×10−3 kg, Γ=−6. 5×10−3 K m−1, g=9. 8 m s−2,h=6. 6261×10−34 J s, k=1. 3806×10−23 J K−1, c=2. 9979×108 m s−1. E16 Figure 3 shows the calculated outgoing spectra in the pre-industrial era at altitudes of 3 km, 6 km, 9 km, and 11 km (the tropopause). It is clear that terrestrial radiation is strongly absorbed at wavelengths of 5–8 μm and 13–17 μm. The former is due to water vapor and the latter is due to CO2. In both these ranges, the absorption is nearly one. However, the outgoing flux in these ranges is not zero because of emission from the greenhouse gases. Moreover, the intensity of the flux decreases with altitude. The red area under the spectrum at 11 km, 191. 60 W m–2, corresponds to the total outgoing flux density F¯.

Output: corroborate


Input: Claim: Ocean acidification will completely destroy all marine ecosystems by 2050. [SEP] Text: The ability to tolerate OA also depends in part on prior exposure to habitats that experience highly fluctuating PCO2 [287]. Indirect effects Slow embryonic development [282] could potentially cause a timing mismatch between larval release and prey availability related to the spring phytoplankton bloom [288]. Potentially slower growth and lower fitness in juveniles and young adults may reduce egg production by females over their lifetime [279]. Despite the stability of adult exoskeletons, the post-moult calcification stage in crustaceans may be delayed significantly under elevated PCO2 [278], which may increase mortality due to predation on this defenseless life stage (e. g. [289]). Additionally, Kunkel et al. [290] hypothesise that OA may degrade the thin outer layer of calcite, which helps protect decapods from microbial attack. Finally, stock assessment models that incorporate reduced recruitment survival as a function of OA suggest that there can be a substantial socio-economic cost that is currently not recognised by decision makers [291]. Crustacean synopsis Generally, the crustaceans are expected to be sensitive to OA effects at early life cycle stages, while available studies suggest mixed results for adults. However, many local species, such as prawns, have not been studied (Fig. 4A). There is evidence that developmental anomalies in embryos and larvae occur at reduced pH, which may affect the fitness of juveniles and adults; however, the effects are species-specific and phenotypic adaptation is not known. Additionally, changes in growth rate and calcification may increase the susceptibility to predation, and delays in development may decouple life cycle timing between larval release and optimal foraging conditions. BC coastal waters, there are over 300 species of marine fish [292, 293]. The taxonomic groups represented in BC include jawless fish (e. g. hagfish (270–1010 m)), cartilaginous fish (e. g. ratfish (50–380 m), dogfish (50–430 m), sharks (90–1020 m), skates (50–860 m)), and bony fish.

Output: contrast


Input: Claim: Sea turtles navigate using the Earth’s magnetic field. [SEP] Text: In our case, the value of β for the lower mantle, whose ores are considered to be semiconductors, is taken speculatively, and it is 0. 0003 V・K−1, as in Table 1, and it is just three times more than the temperature coefficient for pure metals. However, if one takes the possibly minimum magnitude 0. 001 V deg−1. for semiconductors instead of 0. 0015 V deg−1. [29] then the time lapse from the beginning of the warming and its ending will be about 25,000 years, and the time lapse between the warming phases Δt will be 75,000 years. Periods of cooling and warming cycles also change noticeably, if n for the lower mantle ores is increased only by 1 order, i. e. n = 3. 25 × 10 23 m − 3 (the initial value for calculations is taken as n = 3. 25 × 10 22 m − 3 ). Then the period of direct warming is about 385,000 years, and the time lapse between the consecutive warmings Δt is now about 1. 15 million years. It appears from the roughly evaluative calculations, that despite the large range of numbers they are still within the assumptive time intervals, which the researchers get by an indirect analysis of geologic and climatological material of our planet, accumulated numerously [37] [42] [43] [44] [45] [46]. According to geological data from different literary sources, the older the planet is, the shorter cooling periods (ice ages) and warming periods get, they fraction into subperiods, which can be explained by cycles getting gradually ordered and steady while the planet’s inner structure is forming [44] (Figure 3). 6. of the Warming of the Earth’s solve the task, we should consider the following conditions. Earth is now under a steady nonequilibrium thermodynamic state, because there are pressure and temperature gradients, that can be concluded from the I. R. Prigogine’s work [47]. Thermoelectrical currents Ilow of the solid and the melted cores move to the lower mantle. Their velocity, defined by the electron velocity, is about 2 × 10−8 m・s−1, and their distance, for example, for 103 years is not more than 60 - 70 km.

Output: pass


Input: Claim: The majority of greenhouse gases, like carbon dioxide and methane, trap heat in the Earth's atmosphere, contributing to global warming. [SEP] Text: The growth rates of greenhouse gas concentrations from the pre-industrial era to 2011 are given as follows: CO2, 1. 40; CH4, 2. 50; and N2O, 1. 20. For simplicity, we assume that the absorption spectrum in 2011 may be approximated by multiplying the spectrum in 1750 by the growth rate. The absorption values never exceed one. Figure 3. Outgoing terrestrial radiation spectrum at 3 km (blue), 6 km (green), 9 km (yellow), and 11 km (tropopause; red) in 1750, as calculated using the spectra shown in Figure 2. A similar calculation in which the absorption spectrum of only 278 ppmv CO2 is replaced with that of 390. 5 ppmv CO2 gives FCO2=189. 26 W m–2. Therefore, the radiative forcing of CO2 for the period between 1750 and 2011 isΔFCO2=F¯−FCO2=2. 34 W m−2. E17 Similarly, the outgoing flux density Fi for the spectrum of greenhouse gas i when its concentration in 1750 is replace with its concentration in 2011, is FCH4=190. 74 W m–2 and FN2O=191. 41 W m–2. The radiative forcing of each greenhouse gas is listed in Table 2. Despite of the simplicity of the radiative transfer model used here, the calculated values of ΔF are close to those in the IPCC estimations, but are relatively higher: CO2, 39%; CH4, 33%; and N2O, 12%. The 2011 spectrum used in this calculation was approximated by multiplying the greenhouse gas’s growth rate by the spectrum in 1750. Nevertheless, the differences between the approximated radiative transfer values and the precise values based on the real spectrum in 2011 in SpectralCalc are very small except for CO2: CO2, 12%; CH4, 1. 4%; and N2O, 0. 5%. Greenhouse gas Outgoing flux density Radiative forcing 1750 2011 ΔF IPCC* Carbon dioxide 191. 597 189. 260 2. 34 1. 68 Methane 190. 743 0. 85 0. 64 Nitrous oxide 191. 407 0. 19 0. 17 Table 2. Calculated outgoing flux density in 1750 and 2011, radiative forcing ΔF, and IPCC estimates for each greenhouse gas.

Output: corroborate


Input: Claim: Ocean acidification will completely destroy all marine ecosystems by 2050. [SEP] Text: The latter group includes important contributors to BC fisheries—(Clupea pallasi, 5–170 m), salmon (five species of Oncorhynchus, mostly in the surface 50 m but some species deeper than 100 m), (Merluccius productus, 80–700 m), (Gadus macrocephalus, 50–300 m), (Theragra chalcogramma, 50–300 m), rockfish (at least 36 species of Sebastes (70–470 m) and two species of Sebastolobus (160–1010 m)), Sablefish (Anoplopoma fimbria, 70–970 m), Lingcod (Ophiodon elongatus, 50–310 m), (Atheresthes stomias, 60–600 m), soles and flounders (∼18 species, 50–860 m), and (Hippoglossus stenolepis, 50–490 m). Depth distributions for valuable BC fisheries (Fig. 4) appear in Fig. 3. Marine fish species are economically important (GDP of capture fisheries, aquaculture, and sport fishing in BC was over $340 million in 2011 [29]) and ecologically valuable because of their roles providing food sources to higher trophic levels (e. g. birds and mammals) and cycling nutrients to other ecosystems (e. g. salmon providing nutrients to coastal terrestrial ecosystems [294]). In general, we expect that adult fish will be tolerant of OA because they can control ion concentrations through evolved regulatory mechanisms [295, 296]. In particular, active fish exhibit transient elevated metabolic rates and highly variable extracellular CO2 and proton concentrations. Acid-base imbalances are regulated by specialised gill epithelia, which compensate for pH disturbances caused by exposure to increased environmental PCO2 [296]. Although some studies suggest that aerobic performance of tropical fishes may decline under elevated PCO2 [297] (Table 1), detrimental effects were not found in a temperate species, Atlantic Cod, under elevated PCO2 (e. g. [295]).

Output: contrast