Input: Claim: The impact craters on the Moon provide insights into the history of the solar system. [SEP] Text: , A simple thermodynamic model for melting of peridotite in the system. Petrol. , 2015, vol. 56, no. 5, 892. 359. 77. 39. 19. 136. 420. 19. 144. 1107. 61. 386. 1014. 2098. 415. 2599. 532. 882. 87. M. , A shear failure strength law of rock in the brittle-plastic transition regime, Geophys. Res. Lett. , 1995, vol. 22, no. 1, 28. 239. 550. 457. Pierazzo, E. , Vickery, A. M. , and Melosh, H. J. , A reevaluation of impact melt production, Icarus, 1997, vol. 127, 423. 22. Romushkevich, R. A. , New geothermal data from the Kola superdeep well SG-3, Tectonophysics, 1999, vol. 306, no. 3, 366. 417. 743. 9. 7 to 16. 5 Gpa, J. Geophys. Res. : Solid Earth, 1993, vol. 98, no. B11, 9783. 1726. 692. 162. 518. 5715. 3301. 879. R. M. and Housen, K. R. , Some recent advances in the scaling of impact and explosion cratering, Int. J. Impact Eng. , 1987, vol. 5, nos. 1–4, 560. 340. 222. 81. 361. 220. 1213. 0926. 1972. 2305. Tarasyuk, V. K. , Shock metamorphism of quartz and estimation of masses motion in the bases of Boltysh and Ilyinets astroblemes of the Ukrainian Shield, Lunar and Planet. Sci. Conf. 13, Houston, TX, 1982, 820. S. C. and Ivanov, B. A. , Exogenic dynamics, cratering, and surface ages, in Treatise on Geophysics, Schubert, G. , Ed. , Oxford: Elsevier, 2015, 2nd ed. , ch. 10. 10, 365. 527. 6730. 4.

Output: pass


Input: Claim: Mycorrhizal fungi improve water and nutrient uptake for plants in nutrient-poor soils. [SEP] Text: By contrast, fewer studies of AM fungal inoculation were carried out in open-field conditions (Bona et al. 2017; Bowles et al. 2016; Conversa et al. 2013; Subramanian et al. 2006), where agricultural practices might have negatively impacted native AMF-crop interactions (e. g. , Gosling et al. 2010; Hamel et al. 1997; Pellegrino et al. 2022b; Piazza et al. 2019). Indeed, agricultural practices can determine an impoverishment of the AM fungal biomass and community diversity (Gosling et al. 2006) and the selection of low efficient AM fungal species providing less benefits to crops (Egerton-Warburton et al. 2007; Johnson 1993; Sainz and Arines 1988). In such low fertile conditions, AM fungal inocula can successfully adapt and develop with native AMF (Pellegrino et al. 2012, 2022b; Ryan and Graham 2018) and they can early colonize the crops, a crucial trait for host benefit (Smith et al. 1992). Bowles et al. (2016), in a field experiment comparing MYC + and the mutant nonmycorrhizal tomato genotype rmc under organic regime, demonstrated the beneficial effect of AMF on tomato yield (+ 25%) and leaf and fruit N and P uptakes (+ 22% and + 26%, respectively). Similarly, plants of tomato (var. PKM-1 and var. TC 2000) inoculated in the nursery with Rhizophagus intraradices or a mix of AM fungal species (i. e. , R. intraradices, Glomus aggregatum, Glomus viscosum, Claroideoglomus etunicatum and Claroideoglomus claroideum) and later transplanted in field showed a higher AM fungal colonization and arbuscule frequency in roots at harvest, as well as enhanced plant growth and yield attributes (i. e. , collar diameter, inflorescence per branch and fruit fresh weight), and N and P uptakes in shoot and roots (Bona et al. 2017, Subramanian et al. 2006). By contrast, tomato var.

Output: corroborate


Input: Claim: Tree rings cannot be used to study past volcanic activity or environmental disturbances. [SEP] Text: 2018; Shestakova et al. 2019). All studies agree that the increase in iWUE does not translate into growth enhancement in response to increasing atmospheric CO2. However, it is not yet clear why this occurs because it is extremely difficult to disentangle the influence of single factors on iWUE variation and to quantify the extent to which drought overrides a positive CO2 fertilization effect (see Peñuelas et al. 2011). Moreover, iWUE can vary due to both photosynthetic and stomatal conductance rates, since both affect the ratio between CO2 partial pressure in leaf intercellular space and in the atmosphere. To better understand the role of assimilation on iWUE, several authors have coupled tree-ring δ13C values with wood δ18O values (the dual isotope approach; Chap. 16, paragraph 5). 4. 3 as a Proxy for Source WaterOxygen isotopes can provide valuable information about changes in source water, which is typically either precipitation or groundwater (Dansgaard, 1964). No fractionation occurs when water is taken up by the roots (Wershaw et al. 1966), so the δ18O of xylem water can be used to investigate plant water source use in a range of environmental conditions (Sternberg and Swart 1987; Ehleringer and Dawson 1992; Dawson et al. 1998a, b). Very few studies, however, have focused on Mediterranean environments (Sargeant and Singer 2016; Singer et al. 2013), where water sources are quite complex and subject to strong seasonal fluctuations. The interface between the influx of marine water and the freshwater table depends strongly on climatic factors and on the exploitation of groundwater for urban or rural purposes, both of which influence the quality of water available for plant communities. The isotopic composition of rainfall is typically subject to seasonal patterns that are influenced by geographic and climatic factors. Generally, autumn–winter precipitation has a more negative isotopic signature (ranging between ∼−7. 8 and −6. 0 ‰) than spring–summer precipitation (ranging between ∼−4. 0 and +0. 8 ‰) (Alessio et al. 2004). Consequently, the freshwater table is labelled by meteoric water, and primarily by the abundant autumn–winter and spring precipitation events (Wu et al. 1996).

Output: contrast


Input: Claim: The impact craters on the Moon provide insights into the history of the solar system. [SEP] Text: Sect. 3 derives the distribution of primary craters inside a larger crater, while Sect. 4 derives its distribution of secondary craters. The final section briefly discusses the implications of these results. 2 ModelFig. 1Sketch of a crater shaped like a spherical bowl. Solid arc: interior of crater. Dashed arc: spherical bubble. Plus sign (+): center of bubble. Horizontal solid lines: plane of crater’s rim. Horizontal dotted line: lid of craterFull size imageConsider a crater shaped like a spherical bowl, with rim radius r and depth h below the rim plane, as sketched in Fig. 1. Symbols are defined in Table 1. The surface area of the bowl’s “lid” is then just \(\pi r^2\), while the area of its interior is \(\pi r^2 +\pi h^2\) (Ingersoll et al. (1992); see also 1. Also assume that the incoming flux of primary (and sesquinary) impactors from space is isotropic (independent of direction). Note that this assumption is fair for sesquinary impactors, but poor for primary impacts on tidally locked satellites, which often show leading/trailing cratering asymmetries (e. g. , Horedt and Neukum (1984)). When upward impactors (those originating below the horizon) are ignored, every area element \(\partial B\) of the bubble is exposed to the same impact flux; i. e. , the sky has a uniform radiance of primary impactors. Then by analogy with radiative transfer, each element \(\partial B\) of the bubble acts like a pinhole camera, and may be regarded as radiating downward impactors isotropically, and with equal impact luminance \(L_P\) (primary impactors per unit solid angle per unit area per unit time).

Output: pass


Input: Claim: Mycorrhizal fungi improve water and nutrient uptake for plants in nutrient-poor soils. [SEP] Text: Moreover, Glomeraceae have very delicate hyphae characterized by a short longevity, creating a smaller but more diffuse extraradical mycelium, whereas Gigasporaceae have robust and densely aggregated hyphae characterized by a slower rate of turn-over, creating a larger extraradical mycelium, but closely concentrated to the root system (Jakobsen et al. 1992; Smith et al. 2000). These differences among AMF families may have important implications for the mutualist role of AMF (Dodd et al. 2000), especially if we mean to manage them for agroecological benefits. Indeed, a high ratio of soil to root colonization may provide the crop with the greatest benefit (increased nutrient transfer from soil to root) (Hart and Reader 2002). Conversely, a little net nutritional benefit may occur when the ratio of soil to root colonization is low, since a small extension of the extraradical mycelium would limit the nutrient transfer to the crop (Hart and Reader 2002). Meanwhile, a larger AM fungal root colonization can be positively correlated with plant biomass (Lekberg and Koide 2005), potentially due to a higher frequency of arbuscules (Hart and Reader 2002). Arbuscular mycorrhizal fungi, although known to have no saprophytic capacity, represent an important group of microorganisms involved also in litter decomposition (Cheng et al. 2012; Gui et al. 2017; Hodge et al. 2015), a crucial process for terrestrial ecosystems, since it affects the stabilization of soil organic carbon (SOC) that it is expected to decline under the projected elevated atmospheric CO2 (Terrer et al. 2021). Herman et al. (2012) and Hodge et al. (2001) proved that AMF enhance litter decomposition, increase N capture from organic patches and alter the C flow through changes in soil microbial communities. Arbuscular mycorrhizal fungi might impact litter decomposition through effects on soil saprophytic microorganisms (Nuccio et al. 2013) and/or on soil structure (Pellegrino et al. 2021, 2022b; Rillig and Mummey 2006).

Output: corroborate


Input: Claim: Tree rings cannot be used to study past volcanic activity or environmental disturbances. [SEP] Text: In contrast, soil water in the shallow layers depends on spring–summer precipitation. Further, water occurring 10–50 cm below the dry soil surface is subject to evaporative enrichment and therefore attains less negative or even positive δ18O values (Craig and Gordon 1965; Allison and Leaney 1982; Yakir et al. 2000). A further source of water is the marine water table, which is typically characterized by enriched values of δ18O (∼0 ‰). Thus, the δ18O composition of tree rings will reflect the isotopic signature of the tree’s water source: rings will have a depleted δ18O signature if trees take up water from the groundwater table (Dawson and Ehleringer 1998), and an enriched δ18O signature if trees take up water from the vadose zone. Indeed, water in the vadose zone is generally linked to recent precipitation and is subject to high evaporative enrichment of δ18O (Dawson and Ehleringer 1998). These source-water signatures will be different for individual rings within a given species depending on the annual position of the water table and the degree of mixing between precipitation, surface flow, and groundwater during periods of xylem uptake (McCarroll and Loader 2004). It should also be noted that considerable fractionation occurs at the leaf/needle level, where lighter isotopes are preferentially lost via transpiration, leading to an enrichment in plant tissue δ18O of up to 20‰ compared to soil water (Craig and Gordon 1965; Saurer et al. 1998; McCarroll and Loader 2004; Barbour 2007; Cernusak et al. 2016). Indeed, it has been demonstrated that the source water signal can be modified by large changes in evaporative enrichment in drought-adapted Mediterranean species. These species tightly regulate transpiration through their stomata (Ferrio and Voltas, 2005), an ability that is thought to be a functional adaptation to drought (Pallary et al. 1995; Battipaglia et al. 2009). Singer et al. (2013) and Sargeant and Singer (2016) used annual tree-ring δ18O analyses to interpret plant water use at various temporal and spatial scales as a function of regional hydrology and climate.

Output: contrast


Input: Claim: The impact craters on the Moon provide insights into the history of the solar system. [SEP] Text: Each area element \(\partial C\) of the crater’s interior receives an infinitesimal flux \(\partial P = L_P\cos (\beta ) \cos (\gamma ) \partial B/q^2\) from every area element \(\partial B\) of the bubble, where \(\beta \) is the angle of emission from the normal to \(\partial B\), \(\gamma \) is the angle of impact from the normal to \(\partial C\), and q is the distance between \(\partial B\) and \(\partial C\), as sketched in Fig. 1. By geometry, \(\cos \beta = \cos \gamma = q/(2R)\) (Ingersoll et al. (1992)); so \(\partial P\) becomes just \(L_P\partial B/(2R)^2\). Note that Fig. 1 is drawn for a vertical cross-section, but the above result applies for any area elements \(\partial B\) and \(\partial C\). It is possible to integrate \(\partial P\) over the surface area of the bubble; but it is simpler to notice that the above formula for \(\partial P\) is independent of the location of \(\partial C\), so that every element of the crater’s interior is exposed to the same flux from \(\partial B\). Then the flux of primary impactors inside the bowl still must remain uniform when integrated over the bubble. If we assume that the efficiency of cratering is independent both of the impact angle \(\gamma \)Footnote 1, and also of the surface slope (perhaps plausible for small strength-dominated craters), then the density of primary craters inside the bowl must be uniform as well. For example, consider a hemispheric crater of radius \(r = h = R\), subject to a primary impact luminance \(L_P\). Then each unit of area of the crater’s lid is subject to a primary impact flux of \(P_0 = \pi L_P\). This lid has an area of \(\pi r^2\), so it intercepts \(\pi r^2 P_0\) impactors per unit time; but these are spread out uniformly over an interior area of \(2\pi r^2\), for an effective flux P of just \(P_0/2\).

Output: pass


Input: Claim: Mycorrhizal fungi improve water and nutrient uptake for plants in nutrient-poor soils. [SEP] Text: In such a contest, recently, under long-term unfertilized condition, multipartite synergies between AMF and soil microbial communities were demonstrated to be responsible of the substantial enhancement of plant and fungal N acquisition from organic matter (Hestrin et al. 2019). These synergies resulted in a greater relative acquisition from organic versus mineral nutrient stocks, but without loss of SOM due to the stimulation of the primary productivity and the SOM formation by root and mycorrhizal C inputs. However, we are still far from fully understand the mechanisms by which AMF are able to influence litter decomposition in field conditions, where inoculated members of the families Glomeraceae and Gigasporaceae may act differently due to their peculiar colonization strategies (Gui et al. 2017; Jiang et al. 2021; Mei et al. 2022). Indeed, Gigasporaceae, allocating higher fungal biomass in extraradical hyphae, promote a larger abundance of fungi in soil together with a shift toward a community less dominated by saprotrophic fungi (i. e. , decomposers), thereby potentially lowering the decomposition of fresh litters. Therefore, the aim of this work was to evaluate in field conditions under organic agriculture the effect of nursery inoculation of tomato (Solanum lycopersicum L. ) with four single AM fungal isolates belonging to Glomeraceae and Gigasporaceae on fungal establishment, yield, litter decomposition, and bacterial and fungal abundance in soil, as proxy of nutrient cycling and C storage. Therefore, we selected two varieties of tomato, characterized by different growth habits: var. Pisanello [an old Tuscany variety, described and conserved in the regional genetic bank for the conservation of endangered (or threatened) varieties; Berni et al. 2018] with an indeterminate growth habit and var. (a widely used modern variety) with a determinate growth habit (Fig. S1a). We hypothesized consistent differences in AM fungal root colonization, yield and nutrient concentration in fruits due to inoculation with isolates belonging to Gigasporaceae and Glomeraceae.

Output: corroborate


Input: Claim: Tree rings cannot be used to study past volcanic activity or environmental disturbances. [SEP] Text: In the Mediterranean, trends of increasing temperature and altered precipitation patterns lead to higher probabilities of extreme events, such as heat waves and fires (IPPC 2014). Species-, age- and microsite-specific plant responses to changing climatic conditions are responsible for the degree of adaptation and survival under limiting conditions. These factors also determine interspecific competition, and thus vegetation dynamics. The main mechanisms triggering tree decline and mortality have been identified as carbon starvation and hydraulic failure, but the relative importance of the two processes and their link are not clear yet (McDowell et al. 2008, Sala 2009, Sala et al. 2010, Gruber et al. 2010, Sevanto et al. 2014, Gaylord et al. 2015, Hartmann 2015, Rowland et al. 2015, Salmon et al. 2015; Adams et al. 2017). Plants experience hydraulic failure when more water is lost by transpiration than a plant can take up through its root. This creates high xylem water tension and results in progressive cavitation and conductivity loss of the xylem (Sperry et al. 1998; McDowell et al. 2008; Sevanto et al. 2014; Salmon et al. 2015). This process may be most relevant during very severe, short-term droughts (McDowell et al. 2008). On the other hand, carbon starvation occurs when plants close their stomata to prevent desiccation under drought conditions (McDowell et al. 2008). Low water supply leads to a reduction of photosynthetic activity, which, when coupled with the depletion of non-structural carbohydrates (NSC), can induce a negative carbon balance, leading to so-called starvation (McDowell et al. 2008; McDowell and Sevanto 2010; Hartmann 2015; Salmon et al. 2015). Gessler et al. (2018) developed a conceptual model, based on the Scheidegger model (Scheidegger et al. 2000, see Chap. 16), to assess the mechanisms of drought-induced tree mortality. Using a synchronic approach, they investigated the tree-ring δ13C and δ18O data for different species and found that an increase in δ13C and δ18O in dying trees as compared to surviving ones indicates low photosynthetic activity and stomatal conductance.

Output: contrast


Input: Claim: The impact craters on the Moon provide insights into the history of the solar system. [SEP] Text: Thus Ceres’ secondary ejecta may be somewhat influenced by Coriolis effects, as indeed found by (Schulzeck et al. (2017, 2018)). All of the other tabulated moons and planets have \(V_C > V_E\) and \(\Delta _C > R_T\), so their secondary ejecta should not be significantly influenced by Coriolis effects. Table 2 Parameters for selected bodiesFull size table4. 2 Crater classesshall neglect Coriolis effects, and assume that every surface element of the target body is exposed to an intermittent hail of non-local primary ejecta incoming at an angle of \(\zeta \) with respect to the vertical. To illustrate, Fig. 2 again shows a crater shaped like a spherical bowl, but now the area element \(\partial C\) of its interior receives a flux of secondary impacts along a cone of opening angle \(\zeta \) (drawn as \(45^\circ \) here) with respect to the vertical. Figure 2 is drawn for the special case when the impact cone is just tangent to the rim of the crater. In this case, the level of the area element \(\partial C\) defines the “floor line” of the crater. I call the portion of the crater below this floor line the “floor”, and the portion of the crater above the floor line the “wall”. Then surface elements of the floor are fully exposed to the flux of primary ejecta; but to belabor the radiative analogy, surface elements of the wall are partially “shaded” from the primary ejecta by the crater wall itself. Figure 3 shows the same bowl-shaped crater again, where now \(\delta \) is defined as the angular distance of the area element \(\partial C\) from the bottom of the crater, as measured from the center of the bubble; note that \(\delta \) is also the slope of \(\partial C\) with respect to the horizontal. Likewise, \(\rho \) is the angular radius of the crater’s rim as well as the slope there, while |f| is both the angular radius and the slope of its floor line. Fig. 2Sketch of a Deep crater shaped like a spherical bowl. Solid arc: interior of crater. Horizontal solid lines: plane of crater’s rim. Horizontal dotted line: lid of crater.

Output: pass


Input: Claim: Mycorrhizal fungi improve water and nutrient uptake for plants in nutrient-poor soils. [SEP] Text: Altough in field conditions competion with other microorganisms occurs, members of Gigasporaceae, better exploring the soil by hyphae and less colonizing the roots, would have a stronger effect on nutrient uptake by fruits, whereas members of Glomeraceae, extensively colonizing the root system, would increase plant growth and fruit yield (Fig. S1b). We also hypothesized differences at family level in the effect of AM fungal inoculation on both litter decomposition and soil fungal and bacterial abundance. Glomeraceae having a low soil fungal:bacterial ratio would determine a higher litter degradation, whereas Gigasporaceae having a high soil fungal:bacterial ratio would determine a lower litter degradation. MethodsFungal material Arbuscular mycorrhizal fungi (AMF) used were: Gigaspora gigantea PA125 and Scutellospora pellucida MN408A belonging to Gigasporaceae, and Funneliformis mosseae MD118 and Sclerocystis sinuosa MD126 belonging to Glomeraceae. Inocula were obtained from pot cultures maintained in the collection of the of the Sant’Anna, Italy. The inocula of the single AM fungal isolates were produced in 15 L pots (four pots for each isolate). Pots were filled with sandy soil and Terragreen (calcinated clay, ) (1:1 by volume) and with 1. 5 L per pot of starting crude inoculum (10% by volume). The substrate was previously steam-sterilized (121°C for 25 min, on two consecutive days) to kill native AMF. All the pots received 3 L of a filtrate, obtained by sieving a mixture of the four AM fungal inocula through a sieve with pore diameter of 50 µm, to ensure a common prokaryotic community for all treatments. The host plant was Sorghum vulgare L. , following Morton et al. (1993). Plants were grown in a glasshouse, supplied with tap water as needed and with a weekly fertilization of half-strength Hoagland’s solution (250 ml per pot). Three months after inoculation, plant shoots were harvested and soil and roots used as inocula (i. e. , crude inoculum: mycorrhizal roots and soil containing spores and extraradical mycelium).

Output: corroborate


Input: Claim: Tree rings cannot be used to study past volcanic activity or environmental disturbances. [SEP] Text: These conditions can lead to a slow or continuous decline in growth, possibly followed by carbon starvation-induced death. On the other hand, the long-term reduction of iWUE in dying trees seems to be associated with increased growth and higher stomatal conductance, inducing possible hydraulic failure in dying trees. However, those findings show a huge variability among species and sites. This variability is linked to the complex processes regulating growth and, in particular, the fractionation processes that take place during the mobilization of photosynthetic assimilates from the leaf to the wood (Gessler et al. 2014). Indeed, it has been demonstrated that trees may use remobilized carbohydrates (primarily starch) for the formation of tree rings. These stored carbohydrates may have been produced months or even years earlier (Gessler et al. 2014). This is especially possible in Mediterranean biomes, where the growing season is very long (Castagneri et al. 2018) and where xylogenesis can be interrupted more than once during the year (Balzano et al. 2019, 2018). In this case, a multidisciplinary approach is required to disentangle the different processes underpinning changes in growth and iWUE, and to better understand the causes of tree diebacks (Cailleret et al. 2017; Colangelo et al. 2017; Camarero et al. 2015, 2019). 5. 2 Carbon and and IADFIntra-annual density fluctuations (IADFs) are abrupt changes in density within a tree ring, and are frequently found in Mediterranean species as a response to seasonal climate fluctuations between dry and wet periods (Bräuning 1999; Campelo et al. 2007; Cherubini et al. 2003; Rigling et al. 2001; Schulman 1938; Tingley 1937; et al. 2016). Although IADF frequency is related to tree age, size, and tree-ring width, as well as to genetic and site conditions, it mainly depends on drought. IADF frequency is the result of wood functional trait adjustments to preserve hydraulic conductivity under Mediterranean “double stress” conditions (et al. 2016). The ability to adapt to highly seasonal Mediterranean conditions may depend on a species´ capacity to adjust cambial activity in order to cope with the prevailing environmental conditions.

Output: contrast


Input: Claim: The impact craters on the Moon provide insights into the history of the solar system. [SEP] Text: The curves for \(\rho = 150^\circ \) and \(165^\circ \) correspond to Cavernous craters, with a ceiling as well as a floor, both fully shielded from secondary impacts. In both Profound and Cavernous craters, note how S reaches a single peak partway up the crater wall. In the limiting case \(\rho = 180^\circ \) of a spherical cavity with a pinhole opening at the very top, the floor and ceiling meet at \(\delta = 2\zeta \approx 90^\circ \), so the entire cavity is shielded from primary ejecta, and S vanishes everywhere. The left-hand axis of Fig. 7 (\(\delta \) = 0) represents the very bottom of the crater. and Deep craters (\(\rho < 90^\circ \)), this point is fully exposed to primary ejecta, so \(S = S_0\) there; but in Profound and Cavernous craters (\(\rho > 90^\circ \)), this point is fully shielded from primary ejecta, so S vanishes there. The right-hand edge of Fig. 7 (\(\delta = \rho \)) represents points just below the rim of the crater. vanishes for all Cavernous craters, but reduces to \(S_0 \cos \rho \) for Shallow craters. and Profound craters, Formula (8) for S is not simple, but Formula (9) approaches the limit \(\cos \phi _0 = -\cos (\rho )\cos (\zeta )/[\sin (\rho )\sin \zeta ]\) \(\approx -\cos (\rho )/\sin \rho \) for a plane with slope \(\rho \). 4. 6 RectificationThe angular radius \(\rho \) of a crater and the angular distance \(\delta \) from its bottom are unfamiliar constructs, and may be inconvenient for many purposes. For most work on craters, more convenient parameters include a crater’s radius r or diameter 2r, its depth h, and the horizontal distance x from its center. Note that \(x = r\sin \delta \), and \(\delta \) = Arcsin(x/r).

Output: pass


Input: Claim: Mycorrhizal fungi improve water and nutrient uptake for plants in nutrient-poor soils. [SEP] Text: Plantlets were grown in the greenhouse from the start of April to the end of May on both years of cultivation (2019 and 2020) for about 40 days. Plantlets were supplied with tap water as needed and with a weekly fertilization of half-strength Hoagland’s solution (70 mL per plateau). Tomatoes were transplanted in field in May (var. Pisanello: 16th May 2019; var. Rio Grande: 23rd May 2020). For both tomato varieties, the experiment layout was a completely randomized design with four fungal treatments (G. gigantea, G. giga; S. pellucida, S. pellu; F. mosseae, F. mos; S. sinuosa, S. sin) and the mock-inoculated control (-M), and three replicate plots. Each replicate plot of the experiment with var. Pisanello had a size of 9. 6 m length x 1. 6 m width (15. 4 m2) and was composed by two rows with 30 plants for each row (30 cm within the rows and 1 m between rows). Each replicate plot of the experiment with var. had a size of 2. 5 m length x 1. 25 m width (3 m2) and was composed by four rows with eight plants for each row (25 cm within and between the rows). The tomato plants were daily watered through drip irrigation. No mineral fertilization neither chemical or mechanical weed control were applied. Mycorrhizal infection potential of the AM fungal inocula and of the experimental soil Infectivity of the experimental field soil and of the AM fungal inocula was evaluated using a modified mycorrhizal infection potential (MIP) test (Pellegrino et al. 2011). Three S. vulgare seeds were sown in 50 mL sterile plastic tubes filled with 25 mL of the four AM fungal inocula and of the experimental field soil, and 25 mL of sterile quartz grit. The experimental field soil was obtained by taking five soil samples in 2019 and 2020 before tomato transplanting. Soil samples were collected by using a soil corer (8 cm diameter) at a depth of 30 cm and then they were air dried.

Output: corroborate


Input: Claim: Tree rings cannot be used to study past volcanic activity or environmental disturbances. [SEP] Text: For all the different sites and species, the types of IADF and their positions had the same isotopic signals in terms of carbon and oxygen. E-IADFs presented δ13C and δ18O in the range of −23 ± 0. 6‰ and 32 ± 1‰, respectively; L-IADFs had δ13C and δ18O values of −27 ± 0. 7‰ and 29 ± 0. 5‰, respectively (Battipaglia et al. 2016a). These results should be extended to a larger database in order to assess how the isotopic composition of IADFs could help with dating problematic samples and support the interpretation of phenomena that trigger the formation of IADFs in the Mediterranean environment. 5. 3 Carbon and and FireFire has been a frequent and important disturbance in Mediterranean forest ecosystems throughout the Holocene (Heinselman 1981; FAO, State of 2018), shaping landscapes and determining vegetation distribution and dynamics. Tree rings have been used to reconstruct fire history and to determine the effects of fire on forest productivity. In recent years, carbon and oxygen isotopes measured in tree rings have proved to be a useful tool for understanding the complex ecophysiological processes that occur in Mediterranean tree species following a wildfire or prescribed burning (Beghin et al. 2011; Battipaglia et al. 2014b, c, 2016b, 2019; et al. 2014; Valor et al. 2018; Niccoli et al. 2019). Because conifers are widespread in the and highly prone to fire damage, many studies have focused on conifer species, including Pinus sylvestris (Beghin et al. , 2011), Pinus halepensis (Battipaglia et al. 2014b; c; Valor et al. 2018), Pinus pinea (Battipaglia et al. 2016b), and Pinus pinaster (Niccoli et al. 2019). Stable isotopes studies indicate that tree response and their potential to recover over the short- and long-term depends on fire severity. Strong wildfires produce a simultaneous increase in tree-ring δ13C and δ18O, suggesting a strong reduction in stomatal conductance and assimilation rate, which are often linked to crown damage (Battipaglia et al. 2014b; Niccoli et al. 2019).

Output: contrast


Input: Claim: The impact craters on the Moon provide insights into the history of the solar system. [SEP] Text: Leading/trailing asymmetries contribute to this effect on tidally locked moons (e. g. , Horedt and Neukum (1984)), but gravitational focussing does not. Conversely, another dubious assumption is that all ejecta from primary craters are launched at a unique zenith angle \(\zeta \). In fact, their launch angles span range of zenith angles; this could smear the distribution of secondary craters inside craters, and reduce its statistical contrast with the distribution of primaries. A subtler difficulty concerns the level of crater saturation. When the density of craters is so great that they begin to obliterate one another (usually at the smallest sizes), crater counts underestimate the impact flux. This may obscure the true distribution of impacts, and might also complicate its interpretation. Most of the above diffuculties may be treatable, with the possible exception of slumping at higher slope angles. If so, this approach may provide a new tool for interpreting crater counts.

Output: pass


Input: Claim: Mycorrhizal fungi improve water and nutrient uptake for plants in nutrient-poor soils. [SEP] Text: The MIP was similar among the AM fungal inocula (G. gigantea MGFS05, S. pellucida MGFS12, F. mosseae MD118 and S. sinuosa MFGS06; Table S1), with percentages of root length containing arbuscules and vesicles and AMF root colonization of 8. 6% ± 1. 4, 0. 2% ± 0. 09 and 23. 8% ± 2. 1, respectively (mean ± SE of five replicate plots per each treatment; data not shown). Effect of AM fungal inoculation on tomato root colonization In 2019, at stage BBCH 62, the presence of arbuscules, vesicles and AMF root colonization in roots of inoculated plants of tomato (S. lycopersicum L. ) var. Pisanello (+ M: all AM fungal isolates) was significantly higher than in the mock-inoculated treatment (-M) (Fig. 1; Table S2). Percentage of root length containing arbuscules varied from 15. 0–29. 7% in -M and + M, respectively, while the percentage of root length containing vesicles and AM fungal root colonization varied from 0. 8–4. 5% and from 28. 4–47. 7% in -M and + M, respectively. Moreover, there was a significant intra-family variability (Glomeraceae): S. sinuosa showed a higher AM fungal root colonization than F. mosseae (53. 8% vs 38. 2%). In Fig. 2a-d images of AM fungal structures within the roots of tomato var. Pisanello sampled at BBCH 62. In 2020, at BBCH 22, AM fungal inoculation significantly improved the occurrence of arbuscules and AM fungal colonization in roots of tomato var. (-M vs + M: 1% vs 7. 5%; 6. 8% vs 19. 8% respectively), whereas did not affect the presence of vesicles (Fig. 3a; Table S3). Moreover, the inoculation with isolates belonging to Gigasporaceae significantly increased the occurrence of arbuscules in the roots of tomato compared with the isolates belonging to the family Glomeraceae (9. 5% vs 4. 1%, respectively).

Output: corroborate


Input: Claim: Tree rings cannot be used to study past volcanic activity or environmental disturbances. [SEP] Text: 1996; Alfaro-Sanchez et al. 2016). Tree-ring δ15N has also been used to assess changes in nitrogen availability due to (i) variations in atmospheric nitrogen deposition and (ii) their influence on ecosystem nitrogen dynamics, since the nitrogen isotope ratio in compounds produced as a result of anthropogenic activities may be significantly different from the natural background δ15N in the soil (Freyer 1991). Guerrieri et al. (2009, 2011) and Battipaglia et al. (2010b) showed that increases in nitrogen deposition from the atmosphere or from fertilization are reflected in tree-ring δ15N signals as a result of source δ15 N (e. g. , NOx, NHx forms, or NH4+ vs NO3−) and the processes occurring during different phases of soil biogeochemical processes (i. e. , losses caused by NO3− leaching, denitrification, and NH3 volatilization; see also Chap. 12). Changes in δ15N in annual tree-rings reflect the causes of variation in the tree’s iWUE due to climatic or anthropogenic impacts, suggesting that an increase in nitrogen input from the atmosphere (Guerrieri et al. 2011) or from consociation from nitrogen-fixing species could led to an increase of trees iWUE under a scenario of reduction in precipitation, such as in Mediterranean area (Guerrieri et al. 2011; Battipaglia et al. 2017). Measurement of δ15N of the different possible sources, and a better understanding of the fractionation processes in the different species, is needed for a proper interpretation of tree-ring δ15N data. 7 Conclusions and OutlookTree-ring isotope studies in the have increased in the last years for two main reasons. First, there is general agreement regarding the importance of reliable information about how Mediterranean trees are responding to a changing climate. Such information informs assessments of the future state of such vulnerable forests, as well as their role in carbon sequestration and ecosystem services. Second, stable isotopes help to identify the ecological behavior and vulnerability of Mediterranean tree and shrub species, information that can improve management options. Further research is needed to improve our knowledge about the xylem plasticity of the different Mediterranean species.

Output: contrast


Input: Claim: Saturn’s rings are composed primarily of ice particles and rocky debris. [SEP] Text: Edges of Saturn’s rings are fractal access Published: 01 April 2015 Edges of Saturn’s rings are fractal Jun Li1 & Martin Ostoja-Starzewski2 SpringerPlus 1981. Using three box-counting methods, we determine the fractal dimension of edges of rings seen here to be consistently about 1. 63 ~ 1. 78. This clarifies in what sense Saturn’s rings are fractal. BackgroundThe images recently sent by the Cassini spacecraft mission (available on the NASA website show the complex and beautiful rings of Saturn. Beginning with (Mandelbrot, 1982; Avron and Simon, 1981; Fridman and Gorkavyi, 1994), there have been conjectures that radial cross-sections of Saturn’s rings are Cantor sets, but, to the best of our knowledge, no convincing fractal analyses of actual images ever appeared. Of the 87 Cassini images, in Figure 1 (a) we reproduce slide #42 bearing the title “in Saturn’s Rings,” in Figure 1 (b) the slide #54 titled “Scattered Sunshine,” in Figure 1 (c) we reproduce slide #66 taken two weeks before the planet’s August 2009 equinox, and in Figure 1 (d) slide #68 showing edge waves raised by Daphnis on the Keeler Gap. The first of these is a false-color image of Saturn’s main rings made by combining data from multiple star occultations using the Cassini ultraviolet imaging spectrograph. In the second of these, Saturn’s icy rings shine in scattered sunlight, from about 15° above the ring plane. In the third image, a part of the Cassini Division, between the B and the A rings, appears at the top of the image, showing ringlets in the inner division, while in the fourth Daphnis cruises through the Keeler Gap, raising edge waves in the ring material as it passes. The first two photographs show the curved geometry of Saturn’s main rings with a low opening angle, while the latter two reflect the details of a part of the rings. Finally, in Figure 1 (e), we reproduce the image sent by ‘Voyager 2’ spacecraft in 1981 ( The selected set of images represent Saturn’s rings from a variety of view angles and regions.

Output: pass


Input: Claim: Mycorrhizal fungi improve water and nutrient uptake for plants in nutrient-poor soils. [SEP] Text: At BBCH 62, the percentage of root length containing arbuscules and AM fungal root colonization was significantly improved by inoculation (-M vs + M, arbuscules: 26% vs 41%; AM fungal root colonization: 43. 9% vs 60. 3%) (Fig. 3b; Table S3). At BBCH 89, inoculation with F. mosseae significantly increased percentage of AM fungal root colonization and of root length containing vesicles (80% and 7. 8%, respectively) compared with S. sinuosa (67% and 5%, respectively) (Fig. 3c; Table S3). Moreover, the occurrence of vesicles in the roots of tomato was significantly increased by AM fungal inoculation (-M vs + M: 5. 5% vs 7. 1). Finally, an inter-family variability was detected: the occurrence of vesicles was promoted in the roots of tomato inoculated with isolates belonging to the family Gigasporaceae compared with the ones inoculated with the isolates belonging to the family Glomeraceae (7. 8% vs 6. 4%). In Fig. 2e the image of a not inoculated root of tomato var. at transplanting (i. e. , BBCH 22), while in Fig. 2f-l images of AM fungal structures within the roots of inoculated plants sampled at transplanting and at BBCH 62 and BBCH 89. Effect of AM fungal inoculation on tomato yield and fruit nutrient concentrations In 2019, AM fungal inoculation significantly increased total fruit yield of tomato var. Pisanello accumulated during the productive phase by 32%(+ M vs – M: 1452. 6 g plant− 1 vs 1098. 3 g plant− 1) (Fig. 4a; Table S2). Moreover, there was a difference between the members of Gigasporaceae: tomato plants inoculated with S. pellucida showed higher total yield (+ 27%) than plants inoculated with G. gigantea (1614. 1 g plant− 1 vs 1269. 5 g plant− 1). Details about yield (mean ± SE) at each harvest are given in Fig. S3. In 2020, at BBCH 22, AM fungal inoculation increased by 115% shoot dry weight (SDW) of var. (+ M vs -M: SDW: 0.

Output: corroborate


Input: Claim: Tree rings cannot be used to study past volcanic activity or environmental disturbances. [SEP] Text: 1071/wf181606305. Tree-ring anatomy and carbon isotope ratio show both direct and legacy effects of climate on bimodal xylem formation in Pinus pinea. 38(8):1098–1109. Variations of wood anatomy and δ13C within-tree rings of coastal pinus pinaster showing intra-annual density fluctuations. IAWA J 28(1):61–74524. Water uptake by plants: perspectives from stable isotope composition. Plant, 15(9):1073–1082. D13C and tree-ring width reflect different drought responses in Quercus ilex and Pinus halepensis. Oecologia 137(4):512–518. N, Linares JC, Castro-Díez P, Sass-(2015) Contrasting secondary growth and water-use efficiency patterns in native and exotic trees co-occurring in inner spain riparian forests. 24(1). Combining d13C and d18O analyses to unravel competition, CO2 and O3 effects on the physiological performance of different-aged trees. Plant, 30:1023–1034317. Impact of drought on temporal dynamics of wood formation in Pinus Sylvestris. 30:490–50128. ML (1981) Fire and succession in the conifer forest of northern North America. In: (eds) Forest succession: concepts and application. Springer, New York, pp 374–4052. 01. Palisades, NY: and (SEDAC). (2005) Association between tree-ring and needle δ 13 C and leaf gas exchange in pinus halepensis under semi-arid conditions. Oecologia 144(1):45–54. Elsevier, Oxford, pp 2296–230817. H, Flexas J, Galmés J (2009) Variability in water use efficiency at the leaf level among Mediterranean plants with different growth forms. 317(1–2):17–29. A (2009) Lack of direct evidence for the carbon-starvation hypothesis to explain drought-induced mortality in trees. of Am 106(26). Physiological mechanisms of drought-induced tree mortality are far from being resolved. 186(2):274–281. Explaining global increases in water use efficiency: why have we overestimated responses to rising atmospheric CO2 in natural forest ecosystems?

Output: contrast


Input: Claim: Saturn’s rings are composed primarily of ice particles and rocky debris. [SEP] Text: Figure 1 (a,b,c,d,e): The original images of the Cassini and Voyager missions. Full size image Results and discussionAs is well known (Mandelbrot, 1982), the fractal dimension D comes from estimation of the slope of log(n)-log(r) in n ∝ r − D, where n is the number of boxes with size r needed to cover the region of interest. The local slopes of log(n)-log(r) are also acquired to determine optimal cut-offs of box sizes. The cut-offs are specified where the local slope varies strongly. The log(n)-log(r) plots of the three box counting methods for images of Figure 1 (a), (d), and (e) are shown in Figures 2, 3 and 4, respectively. Since the plots for Figures 1 (b) and (c) are very similar to the others, they are not shown here in order to save space. Note that, for modified box counting, r denotes the ratio of image size to box size, unlike power 2 or divider box counting, where r is the box size. Figure 2 Results of box counting method to estimate the fractal dimension of image (a) in Figure 1 : (a) Modified box counting; (b) Power 2 box counting; (c) Divider box counting. Full size image Figure 3 Results of box counting method to estimate the fractal dimension of image (d) in Figure 1 : (a) Modified box counting; (b) Power 2 box counting; (c) Divider box counting. Full size image Figure 4 Box counting method to estimate the fractal dimension of image (e) in Figure 1 : (a) Modified box counting; (b) Power 2 box counting; (c) Divider box counting. Full size image Note that these images were projections of Saturn’s rings from different angles and regions. Following the arguments presented in (Maggi 2008; Meakin 1998), given the fact that the rings’ thickness is extremely small compared to their radii, the projection onto the plane of the photograph does not affect the fractal dimension. Besides, the self-similarity of fractals indicates that the fractal dimension of a part is same as that of the whole. Overall, the box counting results of all images are given in Table 1.

Output: pass


Input: Claim: Mycorrhizal fungi improve water and nutrient uptake for plants in nutrient-poor soils. [SEP] Text: 30 g plant− 1 vs 0. 14 g plant− 1) (Fig. 4b; Table S3). In addition, significant differences (+ 75%) were observed between the SDW of plants inoculated with S. sinuosa compared with those inoculated with F. mosseae (SDW: 0. 34 g plant− 1 and 0. 20 g plant− 1, respectively). In 2020, total yield of var. was increased by 38% following AM fungal inoculation (+ M vs -M: 1432. 2 g plant− 1 vs + 1036. 85 g plant− 1), whereas no differences were recorded among and within families (Fig. 4b; Table S3). In 2019, at first harvest, AM fungal inoculation significantly increased N concentration and decreased Zn concentration in fruits of var. Pisanello, as compared to controls (Fig. 5a; Table S4). Fruits of plants inoculated with F. mosseae had higher values of both N and Cu concentration than those inoculated with S. sinuosa. In addition, inoculation with S. pellucida increased Cu concentration compared to G. gigantea. At the second harvest, AM fungal inoculation, although decreasing Ca concentration in fruits, increased P, Mg, Cu, and Mn concentration compared with controls (Fig. 5a; Table S4). An inter-family variability was recorded, and Mg and Mn concentration in fruits increased in plants inoculated with members of Gigasporaceae compared with those inoculated with Glomeraceae. Moreover, within Glomeraceae, the inoculation with F. mosseae, similarly to the first harvest, increased K, Mg and Mn concentration as compared to the inoculation with S. sinuosa. Large differences were reported also in fruit content of all studied nutrients of var. Pisanello at first harvest according to inoculation with members of both Gigasporaceae and the Glomeraceae, with the exception of the Mn content in fruits of plants inoculated with isolates belonging to Gigasporaceae (Table S5 and S6). Moreover, inter-family differences were recorded in fruit content of K and Ca, which was also increased by the inoculated treatments compared with the controls. Similarly, at the second harvest, some inter-family differences were observed in nutrient content of fruits (i. e.

Output: corroborate


Input: Claim: Tree rings cannot be used to study past volcanic activity or environmental disturbances. [SEP] Text: 10. 5194/cp-18-1169-2022 © Author(s) 2022. This work is distributed under the Attribution 4. 0 License. Special issue: Interdisciplinary studies of volcanic impacts on climate and. . . © Author(s) 2022. This work is distributed under the Attribution 4. 0 License. 10. 5194/cp-18-1169-2022, 2022. Received: 02 Dec 2021 – Discussion started: 17 Dec 2021 – Revised: 04 Apr 2022 – Accepted: 13 Apr 2022 – Published: 24 May 2022 1 from large volcanic eruptions are a key source of temperature and hydroclimate variability on interannual to decadal timescales (Robock, 2005; Iles et al. , 2013; Sigl et al. , 2015). As few large volcanic eruptions have occurred during the instrumental era, much of our knowledge about volcanic impacts on climate, particularly regional and global temperature, comes from proxy records spanning centuries to millennia (Tejedor et al. , 2021; Wilson et al. , 2016; D'Arrigo et al. , 2013). These records are predominantly high-altitude or high-latitude tree-ring proxies from the (e. g. Briffa et al. , 1998; D'Arrigo et al. , 2009; Pieper et al. , 2014). In comparison, there are very few proxy-based characterisations of the temperature response to volcanic events from the (Tejedor et al. , 2021; Neukom et al. , 2014). The limited number of studies considering tree-ring proxies have generally not found significant impacts following what are considered “large” volcanic eruptions (Krakauer and Randerson, 2003; Palmer and Ogden, 1992; Allen et al. , 2018; Cook et al. , 1992). Two eruptions (in 1902 CE and Agung in 1963 CE) have been identified in tree-ring sites spanning South America, but the impacts of other eruptions on growth have proved less conclusive (Villalba and Boninsegna, 1992). Discovering whether the hemispheres have contrasting sensitivities to volcanic eruptions is vital to understanding future climate projections (Neukom et al. , 2014).

Output: contrast


Input: Claim: Saturn’s rings are composed primarily of ice particles and rocky debris. [SEP] Text: Table 1 Box counting results Full size table ConclusionsAll the images analyzed in this paper yield fractal dimensions in the range 1. 63 to 1. 78. This is a consistent estimate of the fractal dimension of the rings’ edges, regardless of the various image sources we utilized. Indeed, the fact that the rings’ edges are fractal provides one more hint to developing models of the intricate mechanics and physics governing these structures of granular matter. Interestingly, somewhat related studies (Feitzinger and Galinski 1987; de la Fuente and de la Fuente 2006a, b) found average fractal dimension ~1. 7 for the projected fractal dimension of the distribution of star-forming sites (HII regions) in a sample of 19 spiral galaxies. MethodsUsing the box counting method, we determine the fractal dimension of edges of those rings. First, various edge detection methods are performed and compared to optimally identify ring boundaries: ‘Sobel’, ‘Robert’, ‘Laplacian of Gaussian’, ‘Canny’ and ‘Zero-Cross’ edge functions in the Processing Toolbox. Furthermore, the morphology operation functions of ‘bridge’, ‘close’, ‘thicken’, ‘thin’ and ‘skel’ are employed to connect some isolated pixels and also remove redundant pixels on the boundaries from consideration of physical reality. It was found that the option of ‘Laplacian of Gaussian’ edge function with ‘close’ and ‘thin’ morphology operation produced optimal appearance of ring boundaries. The resulting edge images are displayed in Figure 5 (a-e), respectively, for the five original images we displayed in Figure 1 (a-e). Figure 5 (a,b,c,d,e): Images processed, respectively, from Figure 1 (a,b,c,d,e) to capture the ring edges. Full size image We perform three box counting methods to estimate fractal dimensions of the above processed black-white images of Saturn rings, so as to take into account the influences of the sizes and shapes of covering boxes: 1. Modified box counting using boxes with shape being self-similar to the global image.

Output: pass


Input: Claim: Mycorrhizal fungi improve water and nutrient uptake for plants in nutrient-poor soils. [SEP] Text: , K, Mg, Zn and Mn: Gigasporaceae > Glomeraceae) as well as differences in Ca content between inoculated treatments and controls. In 2020, at the second harvest, AM fungal inoculation increased P, K, Zn, Fe, Cu and Mn concentration in fruits of var. compared with controls (Fig. 5b; Table S4). In addition, the concentration of N, K, Zn, Cu and Mn in fruits of plants inoculated with members of Gigasporaceae was higher than in fruits of plants inoculated with Glomeraceae. Conversely, Ca concentration in fruits of plants inoculated with Gigasporaceae was lower compared with with Glomeraceae. Finally, significant differences were recorded within Glomeraceae: F. mosseae increased Zn concentration in fruits, whereas S. sinuosa increased K concentration. In var. Rio Grande, at the second harvest, nutrient content was not modified by inoculation treatments, with the exception of Ca content in fruits that was higher in plants inoculated with Glomeraceae (Table S7 and S8). To summarize the effect of AM fungal inoculation on plant physiological traits and AM fungal root colonization patterns, showed a significant response in total yield and fruit nutrient concentration, as well as in AM fungal traits, in both Pisanello and tomato varieties (Fig. 6; Table S9). In the PCO biplots, the first two principal coordinates explained 30. 2 and 39. 0% of the total variance in the varieties Pisanello and Rio Grande, respectively (Fig. 6). Pairwise tests highlighted significant differences between F. mosseae and mock-inoculated control (-M) and between G. gigaspora and -M in the var. Pisanello (Table S9). Moreover, significant differences were detected between F. mosseae and -M, G. gigaspora and -M, S. pellucida and -M, as well as between F. mosseae and G. gigaspora, and between G. gigaspora and S. sinuosa (Table S9).

Output: corroborate


Input: Claim: Tree rings cannot be used to study past volcanic activity or environmental disturbances. [SEP] Text: The muted volcanic impact in proxy reconstructions could be due to a maritime dampening effect on post-eruption cooling and/or the distribution of landmasses toward the Equator (Raible et al. , 2016; Krakauer and Randerson, 2003; Allen et al. , 2018). Such explanations suggest that the magnitude of cooling is too small to be reliably recorded in tree-ring archives. However, climate models show a clear volcanic signal via reduced mean surface air temperatures (Neukom et al. , 2014, 2018). There are several potential explanations for the discrepancy between proxy reconstructions and climate models in the Southern Hemisphere. These include the underestimation of the moderating effects of the ocean on post-eruption cooling in climate models, changes to the hydrological cycle in response to volcanic cooling, uncertainties in volcanic forcing data, and/or proxy noise and spatial distribution (Neukom et al. , 2018; Zhu et al. , 2020). The question remains as to whether proxies – specifically tree rings – do record volcanic events. To our knowledge, no studies have explored the factors which influence whether (or not) volcanic signals can be identified using tree-ring data from the Southern Hemisphere. Tree growth depends on a range of environmental and biological factors, and thus careful site and tree selection is necessary to ensure that a specific influence of interest can be studied (Norton and Ogden, 1987). tree-ring studies are predominantly from high latitudes or mid-latitude alpine treeline sites where tree growth is temperature limited (Scuderi, 1990). Around 80 % of chronologies from such sites show significant growth reductions following large eruptions due to unusually low growing-season temperatures (Krakauer and Randerson, 2003). For high-latitude sites, decreased light availability after eruptions also contributes to the strong growth reduction (Tingley et al. , 2014). Tree-ring studies from mid-latitude lowland sites have shown that volcanic response is less clear, as temperate-zone trees are less temperature-limited and have more complex relationships with multiple climate variables (Pieper et al. , 2014; Wilson et al. , 2016). Exploring possible responses to volcanic eruptions, Pieper et al.

Output: contrast


Input: Claim: Saturn’s rings are composed primarily of ice particles and rocky debris. [SEP] Text: This method is well suited for generally rectangular images (Xu and Lacidogna 2011), where the boxes are rectangles self-similar to the whole image. The selection of the ratio of image size to box size is in powers of 2 for optimal log(n)-log(r) regression. When the ratio does not give an integer box size, the box size was chosen to be the closest integer at that ratio. 2. Power 2 box counting using boxes with sizes as powers of 2, possessing optimal log(n)-log(r) regression. Here the partial boarder effects are evident generally when the image size was not powers of 2. In this case the image was embedded in an empty image with size being powers of 2 closest to the original image size. The box counting was then performed on the ‘enlarged’ image. 3. Divider box counting using boxes with sizes being the dividers of the image size. Subsequent box size may be too close for log(n)-log(r) regression, while the border effects can be eliminated. In particular the cut-offs of box sizes are considered by examining the local slopes of log(n)-log(r). Figure 6 shows an example of the local slope of log(n)-log(r) for power 2 box counting applied to Figure 1 (a) with r = 2 to r = b/2, where b denotes the image size (after extended to powers of 2). The fine box size r = 2 tends to be below the average spacing of ring p4. Figure 6 An example of the local slope of log(n)-log(r) for power 2 box counting applied to Figure 1 (a) with r=2 to r=b/2, where b denotes the image size (extended to powers of 2). Full size image 10. 1051/0004-6361:20054552220. 454:473–80, Doi:10. 1051/0004-6361:200547760940. Author informationAuthors and AffiliationsDivision of Engineering and Applied Science, of Technology, 91125, of & Engineering, Institute for Theory and Beckman Institute, University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign, 61801, -StarzewskiAuthorsJun LiView author publicationsYou can also search for this author in PubMed 4.

Output: pass


Input: Claim: Mycorrhizal fungi improve water and nutrient uptake for plants in nutrient-poor soils. [SEP] Text: Effect of AM fungal inoculation on litter decomposition and bacterial and fungal abundance in soil A significant interaction between AMF inoculation (AMF inoc) and time of field exposure (Time) was observed for litter bags weight (% of remaining mass) and decomposition rate (expressed as a first-order decay constant, k) (P < 0. 001; Fig. 7). As expected, for all treatments, the percentage of remaining mass decreased with time, showing the highest values at 40 days and the lowest at 79 days in G. gigantea and in S. sinuosa, respectively (Fig. 7a). At 40 days from litter bag deposition, lower percentages of remaining mass were recorded in all treatments as compared with G. gigantea, whereas at 52 days S. sinuosa showed a significantly lower remaining mass than all the treatments including the not inoculated control (-M) (Fig. 7a). In the S. pellucida treatment, litter bags weights significantly decreased at each sampling time, while in the other treatments a more variable trend was recorded (Fig. 7a). At the latest sampling time, 86 days from litter bag deposition, -M and F. mosseae showed similar percentage of remaining mass (mean: 8. 5%) in comparison with the other AM fungal inoculated treatments (mean: 1. 3%). The decomposition rate per day, during the starting period of litter bag deposition (1–40 days), was similar among all AM fungal inoculated treatments and -M, whereas during the following 12 days (between 40 and 52 days from litter bag deposition) S. sinuosa strongly promoted the decomposition rate compared to the other treatments (Fig. 7b). In the third period (the following 15 days), S. pellucida determined a faster decomposition as compared to the other treatments, whereas during the fourth period (the latest 15 days), G. gigantea, S. pellucida and S. sinuosa showed higher values of decomposition rate per day compared to -M and F. mosseae. Total bacterial and fungal abundances as well as fungal:bacterial ratios in the rhizospheric soil of both tomato varieties significantly increased under AM fungal inoculation (Fig. 7c,d; Table S10 and S11).

Output: corroborate


Input: Claim: Tree rings cannot be used to study past volcanic activity or environmental disturbances. [SEP] Text: (2014) proposed three modes for tree growth in temperate regions: (1) growth reduction due to decreased growing-season temperature, resulting in narrow rings, (2) neutral or no response if the climate sensitivity to volcanic eruptions is insufficient to influence tree growth, and (3) enhanced growth due to an increase in the diffuse light fraction and reduced water stress, resulting in wide rings. Temperate-zone trees from the are also likely to display similar mixed volcanic signals, depending on their relative sensitivity mode and the magnitude of the regional cooling effect. Understanding these factors will help elucidate the proxy archive contribution to the model–data discrepancy. This knowledge will benefit future studies of hemispheric temperatures and help identify which species and/or regions should be prioritised for future proxy development. Our goal in this study is to assess whether tree rings record past volcanic events using a multispecies network of high-quality, replicated tree-ring chronologies from New Zealand. This country is a long, narrow, archipelagic landscape stretching from 34 to 47∘ S. Climatically, the northern part protrudes into the warm sub-tropical ridge, whereas the southern end is embedded in the cool southwesterlies (Salinger, 1980). Island and axial ranges, which rise to 3764 m, are a significant barrier to east–west airflow, leading to strong regionalisation of precipitation anomalies (Salinger, 1980). Land clearing has resulted in the loss of forests from most lowland areas and nearly all of the eastern drylands. The most common remaining forest types are wet conifer–broadleaved forests and montane to alpine forests dominated by southern beech (Nothofagaceae) (McGlone et al. , 2017). Tree-ring chronologies have been developed from locations widely distributed throughout New Zealand. Since the initial dendrochronological studies undertaken by LaMarche et al. (1979), records have been generated from nine endemic species, of which seven are conifers and two are Nothofagaceae (Table 1). Five main species have been used to develop multi-centennial tree-ring chronologies: kauri (Agathis australis), pink pine (Halocarpus biformis), silver pine (Manoao colensoi), cedar (Libocedrus bidwillii), and silver beech (Lophozonia menziesii).

Output: contrast


Input: Claim: Bioinformatics combines biology, computer science, and information technology. [SEP] Text: Most of the results provided in this section rely on estimating the number of substitutions in tandem repeat sequences. We note that the algorithm only provides estimates for duplication events. Furthermore, due to its efficiency, SMTR is more appropriate for large-scale data analysis. We use the Database (TRDB) [28], which provides the set of tandem repeats in each chromosome, as identified by the Finder (TRF) algorithm, and related information such as the length of the repeat unit and indel (insertion/deletion) percentage. As a preprocessing step, among overlapping repeats, we keep only one. We also remove repeats with unknown (N) bases and those with copy number less than 2. Finally, we discard repeats whose indel percentage is nonzero, as our model does not include insertion and deletion mutations. We note however that the indel percentage is an approximate value for the number of apparent insertions and deletions. Excluding repeats with non-zero indel percentages does not guarantee that there will be no insertions or deletions in the remaining repeats. Another limitation is that our method assumes substitutions are unbiased, and so it cannot take into account different transition and transversion probabilities, or the effect of GC content. As an example of the preprocessing step, the number of repeat sequences in chromosome 1 reduces from 93,626 to 38,628 as a result of preprocessing. We applied the SMTR algorithm to tandem repeats in each chromosome to study the role of tandem duplication and substitution mutations in their formation. The results for chromosome X are given in Fig. 3a. Each point in this plot corresponds to a tandem repeat sequence. The position of each point is determined by the estimated number of tandem duplications and substitutions that occurred to create the sequence. It can be observed that tandem repeat sequences can roughly be divided into two clusters with different behaviors: one dominated by tandem duplication mutations and the other by substitution mutations. This difference in behavior matches well with the classification of tandem repeats as microsatellites and minisatellites, with pattern lengths of 1–10 and 11–100 bases, respectively. Other chromosomes exhibit behavior similar to chromosome X illustrated here. Among all chromosomes, the minimum Kendall tau correlation coefficient between the rankings of repeats based on length of the pattern and based on the fraction of mutations that are substitutions was 0. 5160.

Output: pass


Input: Claim: Mycorrhizal fungi improve water and nutrient uptake for plants in nutrient-poor soils. [SEP] Text: Moreover, fungal abundance and fungal:bacteria ratio increased in the rhizospheric soil of var. Pisanello under Gigasporaceae compared with Glomeraceae (Fig. 7c; Table S10 and S11). Similarly, in the rhizospheric soil of var. Rio grande, bacterial and fungal abundance and fungal:bacteria ratio increased under Gigasporaceae compared with Glomeraceae (Fig. 7d; Table S10 and S11). The fungal:bacterial ratio was higher under G. gigaspora compared with S. pellucida. Finally, we found a significant relationship between the matrix of percentages of remaining mass of litter bags at the four sampling times and the matrix of soil fungal and bacterial abundances, as demonstrated by the analysis (ρ = 0. 241). DiscussionThe present study showed that: (i) AM fungal inoculation increased AM fungal colonization traits at flowering as well as total yield and fruit nutrient concentration (e. g. , P, Cu, and Mn) in the tomato varieties Pisanello and Rio Grande; (ii) in the var. AM fungal inocula belonging to Gigasporaceae positively affected the occurrence of arbuscules and vesicles at transplanting and fruit maturity, respectively; (iii) overall Gigasporaceae promoted the concentration of nutrients in tomato fruits in comparison with Glomeraceae; (iv) a variability of AM fungal colonization and fruit nutrient concentration occurred within members of Glomeraceae in both tomato varieties; (iv) within Gigasporaceae, S. pellucida increased the yield of var. compared to G. gigantea; (v) in var. the inoculation with F. mosseae determined a litter degradation similar to controls and lower than S. sinuosa and the two species belonging to Gigasporaceae; (vi) in both tomato varieties AM fungal inoculation promoted total bacterial and fungal abundances as well as fungal:bacterial ratios as compared to control; (vii) Gigasporaceae increased fungal:bacterial ratios as compared to Glomeraceae, irrespective of tomato variety. mycorrhizal infection potentials (MIPs) of the field experimental soil sampled in 2019 and of 2020 were low.

Output: corroborate


Input: Claim: Tree rings cannot be used to study past volcanic activity or environmental disturbances. [SEP] Text: Most chronologies are primarily sensitive to austral summer temperatures, with temperature reconstructions developed from beech (Norton et al. , 1989), silver pine (Cook et al. , 2002), cedar (Palmer and Xiong, 2004), pink pine (Duncan et al. , 2010), and multispecies networks (Salinger et al. , 1994). Thus, New Zealand, with its wide latitudinal and altitudinal range, regionalised climate zones, and wide distribution of tree-ring chronologies from multiple species – including some instances of multiple species from the same site – is ideal for studying tree-ring sensitivities to past volcanic events. Using the dendrochronological dataset, we aim to answer the following specific questions. Can we identify volcanic signals in high-quality tree-ring series from the Southern Hemisphere? Are there differences in the expression of volcanic signals amongst the species? Does chronology selection impact the magnitude of post-volcanic cooling in tree-ring-based temperature reconstructions? 2 Data and methods 2. 1 Tree-ring chronologies Zealand tree-ring chronologies analysed in this study were collated to develop the (Palmer et al. , 2015; Fig. 1). Palmer et al. (2015) identified chronologies from the Bank and personal collections, screened the tree-ring measurements for dating problems using the software program (Holmes. , 1983; Grissino-Mayer, 2001), and developed site “master” chronologies from the raw ring widths using the “signal-free” method of standardisation (Melvin and Briffa, 2008). The metadata for all chronologies are provided in Table S1 in the Supplement. As only a single chronology has been developed from mountain toatoa (Phyllocladus alpinus), it was excluded from the study, leaving a pool of 96 chronologies from eight dendrochronological species for volcanic response analysis. Figure 1Distribution of tree-ring chronologies in New Zealand. Elevation data sourced from the and licensed for reuse under CC BY 4. 0. Table 1Distribution, reported climate sensitivities, and key 0. 04 (blue) and 0. 08 (red). Known eruptions are labelled.

Output: contrast


Input: Claim: Bioinformatics combines biology, computer science, and information technology. [SEP] Text: Given the large number of tandem repeats in each chromosome, such high correlation coefficients lead to p-values that are practically zero (as computed with ). Fig. 3The mutation profile of tandem repeats in chromosome X (a) and mutation variation across chromosomes in microsatellites (pattern length ≤10): Mean of the ratio of the number of substitutions to the length of the tandem repeat sequence (b) and mean of the total number of mutations per tandem repeat sequence for each chromosome (c)Full size image We now turn our attention to evaluating the variation of mutation rates across chromosomes. Through comparison with the chimpanzee genome [29–31], it is known that mutation rates vary across chromosomes. To see whether this variation can also be observed in repeated regions, we study the number of mutations in tandem repeat sequences across chromosomes. Since our model represents replication slippage, we only consider tandem repeats with short patterns. Specifically, for tandem repeats with pattern length ≤10, we estimate the number of substitution and duplication mutations. As a measure of mutation activity, we find the average of the ratio of the the number of substitutions to the length of the tandem repeat sequence for each chromosome (Fig. 3b). The top five chromosomes that have the highest substitution rates are Y, 21, 22, 19, and 16. Based on comparison with the chimpanzee genome [31], the five chromosomes with highest mutation activity are Y, 21, 19, 22, and 16. Thus the top five chromosomes are the same based on the two approaches (p-value=0. 00002). We repeated this analysis for repeats with maximum pattern lengths of 8, 9, 11, and 12, and in all cases, at least four of the top five matched the result from comparison with chimpanzee [31]. We also considered the average number of mutations per tandem repeat for each chromosome (Fig. 3c). On average, tandem repeats in chromosome 21 have a higher number of mutations than other autosomes. The average number of duplication mutations is estimated to be higher in chromosome 21 than in the Y chromosome. The higher number of mutations in chromosome 21 compared to other autosomes is also observed if we set the upper bound on the length of the patterns at 8, 9, 11, and 12. DiscussionFigure 1 demonstrates that compared to the proposed method, SMTR, is both more accurate and faster. The efficiency of SMTR allows it to be applied at the genome scale.

Output: pass


Input: Claim: Mycorrhizal fungi improve water and nutrient uptake for plants in nutrient-poor soils. [SEP] Text: The values are consistent with the low MIPs recorded in agricultural soils located in the same area (Bedini et al. 2013; et al. 2013; Pellegrino et al. 2011a,b). This supports AM fungal inoculation and confirms how agricultural practices damage soil AM fungal inoculum potential and impair native AM fungal community with putatively adverse effects on growth and yield of crops (Gosling et al. 2006; Johnson 1993; Plenchette et al. 2005). On the other side, the AM fungal species utilised as inocula in our study showed values of MIP similar among each other and higher than the field experimental soil. This suggested a potentially fast and early colonization of the inoculated AMF that is crucial for their adaption and development and for a beneficial effect on plant growth and nutrient uptake (Smith et al. 1992), in accordance to the site-specificity of AM fungal inoculants establishment and persistence (Kokkoris et al. 2019). flowering, irrespective of AM fungal species, AM fungal inoculation increased percentages of AM fungal root colonization and of root length containing arbuscules of both tomato varieties compared with controls. These results are in accordance with the positive effect recorded on mycorrhizal colonization parameters assessed at different sampling times (i. e. , transplanting, flowering and harvest) in some tomato varieties (TC 2000, PKM-1, Rio Grande, Roma and Perfect Peel) inoculated at nursery by a crude inoculum composed by five AM fungal species and by single inocula (i. e. , Funneliformis mosseae and Rhizophagus intraradices) (Bona et al. 2017; Njeru et al. 2017; Subramanian et al. 2006). However, the positive effect on mycorrhizal colonization, assessed on tomato plants collected at fully ripening in comparison with controls (Bona et al. 2017; Njeru et al. 2017), was not confirmed by our study on Rio Grande. This inconsistency might be due to differences in soil AM fungal native inoculum potential linked to soil texture, in the responsiveness of the host genotype or to differences in the adopted agricultural systems (conventional vs organic). In addition, under high N and K mineral fertilization and no P application, AM fungal inoculum of R.

Output: corroborate


Input: Claim: Tree rings cannot be used to study past volcanic activity or environmental disturbances. [SEP] Text: Table 1 summarises the distribution, average climate responses, and main wood properties (average annual ring growth and temporal correlation or persistence) of the species, as described by the studies documenting the development of the chronologies. In addition, the response of each species to average monthly temperatures, calculated for this study, is also summarised. All species show significant (p < 0. 05) relationships with average temperatures (Salinger, 1981; Mullan, 2012) during individual months of the current growing season, except toatoa (Table 1, Figs. S1–S6 in the Supplement). Tree growth is only weakly correlated with average monthly temperatures, with |r| < 0. 3 for most chronologies. Pink pine shows stronger correlations with summer temperatures, with r values of 0. 4–0. 6. Pine pink is also significantly correlated to temperatures over the entire growing season, whereas the other species are seasonally restricted with significant correlations to peak summer temperatures only. Most species are positively correlated to current season temperatures, with wider ring widths associated with warm years; however, kauri and beech show an inverse relationship to temperature, with warm temperatures restricting growth. Cedar, silver pine, mountain beech, and both Phyllocladus species show stronger sensitivities to prior than current season temperatures (Figs. S1–S6). 2. 2 Selection of volcanic events Event selection is a significant source of uncertainty in tree-ring studies of volcanic cooling. The choice of volcanic events can greatly influence the magnitude of average regional cooling identified (Esper et al. , 2013; Wilson et al. , 2016). In addition, for many events that occurred before instrumental records, the timing, location, and size of eruptions are uncertain (Timmreck et al. , 2021; Garrison et al. , 2018). For this analysis, we are interested in those events which would likely have reduced growing-season temperatures over and thus be identifiable as ring-width anomalies. Therefore, we selected events using a regional volcanic dimming threshold rather than an eruption magnitude. Prior to the instrumental era, we picked events from the Greenland and Antarctic ice core sulfate aerosol analysis of Toohey and Sigl (2017) based on peak stratospheric atmospheric aerosol depth (SAOD). We averaged SAOD, modelled using the Aerosol module (Toohey et al.

Output: contrast


Input: Claim: Bioinformatics combines biology, computer science, and information technology. [SEP] Text: Such large-scale analyses enable statistically studying hypotheses about the formation of tandem repeats. We studied the relationship between the length of the pattern in a tandem repeat and number of substitution and duplication mutations. A clear difference emerges between minisatellites and microsatellites, as shown in Fig. 3a. The different mutation profiles suggest that these two types of tandem repeats may result from different mutation mechanisms. This is compatible with previous findings, where polymerase slippage is thought to give rise to microsatellites while unequal recombination is believed to cause the heterogeneity observed in minisatellites [32]. Our method is only designed to model slippage and not recombination. The fact that it generally estimates the number of substitutions to be higher for minisatellites than microsatellites can be the result of higher raw heterogeneity that is observed in microsatellites and/or caused by model mismatch. The results of this analysis suggests that it is possible to design statistical tests to decide the origin of tandem repeat sequences, as a means of classifying them, rather than relying on classification merely based on pattern length. Figure 3b presents the normalized number of substitutions in tandem repeats, averaged for each chromosome. As discussed, the five chromosomes with the highest rates in Fig. 3b are the same as the five chromosomes with the highest mutation rates, as obtained by [31] based on comparison with chimpanzee genome. This suggests a strong relationship between substitutions in repeated regions and overall mutation activity in chromosomes. On the other hand, the results are not exactly aligned. For example, while chromosome X has the smallest divergence from chimpanzee, it does not have the smallest normalized number of substitutions. Overall, our results suggest estimation of mutation activity based on tandem repeats can be a powerful tool in studying mutations since unlike existing methods it relies on a single genome rather than on comparison of genomes from different species. In Fig. 3c, the reason that tandem repeats in chromosome 21 exhibit a higher number of mutations is unknown to us but it is interesting to note that individuals with trisomy 21 can survive into adulthood, which suggests that mutations in chromosome 21 are relatively better tolerated. It is also observed that 3 of the 5 chromosomes with the highest total number of mutations in microsatellites, Y, 21, and 22, match the result from [31]. This further suggests a higher mutation activity in these chromosomes.

Output: pass


Input: Claim: Mycorrhizal fungi improve water and nutrient uptake for plants in nutrient-poor soils. [SEP] Text: However, while the potential influence of vesicles on plant productivity and nutrient acquisition is currently unknown (van der Heijden and Scheublin 2007), the higher rate of arbuscules found in roots of tomato inoculated with Gigasporaceae can be associated to the distinctive trait of this family to improve plant nutrient acquisition. Accordingly, periarbuscular membrane-localised proteins, such as PT4 and AMT2, are required for phosphate and ammonium transport, respectively (Luginbuehl and Oldroyd 2017). Moreover, in pot cultures, roots inoculated with Gigasporaceae were reported to show a higher persistence of total arbuscules than Glomeraceae (et al. 2005). Finally, the Glomeraceae intra-family variability in AM fungal root colonization of both tomato varieties supports previous studies that detected significant differences in AM fungal root colonization among closely related AM fungal species belonging to the same family and colonizing different plant genotypes (Klironomos 2000; Maherali and Klironoms 2012). Indeed, host-specificity and functional diversity in AMF was supported by the opposite trend in the AM fungal root colonization of F. mosseae and S. sinuosa detected in the varities Pisanello and Rio Grande. Nevertheless, further studies with a larger number of AM fungal isolates would better elucidate both inter- and intra-family variability in mycorrhizal colonization traits, since in the field the interactions between inoculated AMF and native microbial community can be an additional factor adding complexity in the outcome of the symbiosis. accordance with the overall increases of AM fungal colonization in tomato roots following nursery inoculation, total yield was improved by an average of 35% in both inoculated varieties. Our results are in agreement with the yield increase (22%) detected, in a clay-loam soil, on tomato var. TC 2000 inoculated at nursery by a mixture of five AM fungal species (Bona et al. 2017). These authours also reported larger fruit diameters following AM fungal inoculation as well as a strong increase in number of marketable fruits (125%) and a two-fold higher percentage of dry pulp. By contrast, Subramanian et al. (2006) did not find any effect of nursery AM fungal inoculation by R. intraradices on fruit yield of tomato var.

Output: corroborate


Input: Claim: Tree rings cannot be used to study past volcanic activity or environmental disturbances. [SEP] Text: , 2016), over the latitudinal range of (30 to 50∘ S). The SAOD magnitude corresponding to a substantial temperature response is unknown before analysis. However, selecting a magnitude post-analysis based on the observed response risks biasing the results (Haurwitz and Brier, 1981). Therefore, the following two different SAOD thresholds were used: SAOD > 0. 08, which resulted in 10 eruptions for analysis between 1400 and 1900 CE, and SAOD > 0. 04, resulting in 18 eruptions for the same period (Fig. 2). Between 1900 and 1990 CE, we selected the three largest tropical eruptions, which have been shown to have significant impacts on instrumental temperatures in (Salinger, 1998). At each methodological step, the analysis was carried out using both the 13 (10 pre-1900 CE events plus 3 post-1900 CE) and 21 (18 pre-1900 CE events plus 3 post-1900 CE) event lists separately. Full details of all selected eruptions are provided in Table S2 in the Supplement. 2. 3 Superposed epoch analysis We tested whether a volcanic signal can be identified in tree-ring chronologies using superposed epoch analysis (SEA; Haurwitz and Brier, 1981), a statistical technique widely used to determine the impacts of volcanic eruptions on climate (Rao et al. , 2019b; Adams et al. , 2003; Scuderi, 1990; Salinger, 1998; Tejedor et al. , 2021). The composite response of individual chronologies to the 13 largest eruptions and the 21 full eruption list between 1400 and 1990 CE was studied 0–5 years post-event, with anomalies calculated by subtracting the average of the nearest 5 year background period undisturbed by volcanic forcing (Table S2; Büntgen et al. , 2020). Species-level responses were then tested using a composite chronology produced by simple averaging of annual values across sites (Cook and Kairiukstis, 1990). Volcanic responses were categorised as positive or negative if the anomalies exceeded the 5th or 95th percentile response of 10 000 random samples of years undisturbed by volcanic forcing or neutral if they fell between these bounds. 2. 4 Temperature reconstructions To investigate the influence of chronology selection on the identification of volcanic signals in temperature reconstructions, we report two new reconstructions of summer temperatures (December–February).

Output: contrast


Input: Claim: Bioinformatics combines biology, computer science, and information technology. [SEP] Text: However, care should be taken in interpreting results about mutation counts that are not normalized by the length of the sequence. The opportunity for mutation increases with length and copy number. In particular, increased copy number may increase the probability of misalignment during replication [33]. Another factor that can affect the number of mutations in a complex manner is the interplay between substitution mutations and tandem duplication mutations: if many substitutions occur, the copies become more heterogeneous, which may decrease the possibility of misalignment. This interaction is not taken into account in our model and left to future work. ConclusionIn this paper, we introduced a new stochastic model for tandem duplication and substitution mutations, and analyzed it via stochastic approximation. In particular, we fully characterized the limit set of the stochastic process described by the model. In addition to enabling us to predict the behavior of a sequence that undergoes tandem duplication and substitution mutations, this characterization allowed us to derive a minimization problem whose solutions are estimates of the conditional mutation probabilities for tandem duplication and substitution. We showed further that it is possible to estimate the total number of mutations. Finally, we evaluated the estimation method via simulation by generating random sequences and comparing the estimated probabilities with the true values and also applied it to the human genome, where it demonstrated the differing behavior of micro- and mini-satellites as well as the variability of mutation activity across chromosomes. Advantages of our method include its scalability and the fact that it relies on a single sequence to infer occurrences of mutations. While with this method, we can learn only about mutations in tandem repeat regions, our results show that the findings may be applicable to surrounding regions and can be of use in forming hypotheses about mutation activity, for example, about factors that increase or decrease activity. There still exist many open problems in stochastic modeling and estimation for tandem repeats. For example, the model presented here does not take into account deletions nor the fact that the level of heterogeneity may affect the probability of tandem duplication. Neither does the model consider bias in substitution mutations. For example, it cannot reflect different transversion and transition probabilities. Incorporating such biases will make the method more appropriate, for instance, for GC rich repeats. Further, we only analyzed it in the asymptotic regime and left finite-time behavior to future work.

Output: pass


Input: Claim: Mycorrhizal fungi improve water and nutrient uptake for plants in nutrient-poor soils. [SEP] Text: PKM-1, under well watered conditions over a two-year experiment. Similarly, Njeru et al. (2017), nursery inoculating three varities of tomato (Roma, ), did not find fruit yield changes during a three-year experiment. Nevertheless, during the third year of the study following no cover crops, var. inoculated with a mixture of F. mosseae IMA1 and R. intraradices IMA6 showed 54% higher fruit yield compared with controls. The incosistencies in field outcome of the AM fungal inoculation highlight the importance of performing multi-year experiments and verifying the effects on all harvests, taking into consideration the scalability of the tomato fruit ripening. Indeed, Conversa et al. (2013) detected relevant yield increases at some harvest times during the two-year experiment on tomato var. Ercole (1st year: +11% and + 29% at 75 and 99 days after transplating (DAT); 2nd year: +83% and + 15% at 43 and 105 DAT). Other factors that can affect the field outcome of AM fungal inoculation can be the variability in compatibility between plant genotype and AM fungal isolate, soil water/nutrient availability and soil AM fungal inoculum potential (Hart and Reader 2002; Klironomos 2000; Subramanian et al. 2006). Very few studies explored in the field the effect of AM fungal inoculation on nutrients in tomato fruits and they focused only on N and P uptake (Bowles et al. 2016; Conversa et al. 2013). In line with the increases detected in the present study on fruit P concentration following AM fungal inoculation and no P fertilization, Conversa et al. (2013) reported P increases at 0 and 60 kg P2O5 fertilizer rates, respectively. It is worth pointing out that this effect can be of key importance for tomato production, since it is known that high P uptakes are needed for maximizing tomato growth and development (Zhu et al. 2018). Similarly to Bowles et al. (2016), reporting increases in fruit N content by 22% in MYC + plants compared with the mutant nonmycorrhizal tomato genotype rmc, we found a promotion of fruit N concentration in var. Pisanello at 1st harvest.

Output: corroborate


Input: Claim: Tree rings cannot be used to study past volcanic activity or environmental disturbances. [SEP] Text: The volcanic response in tree-ring reconstructions of temperature was also tested using SEA and the two sets of volcanic eruption years. Further, variation in the temperature response to different volcanic events was estimated by calculating the 90th percentile bootstrap confidence interval from 1000 replicates drawn without replacement from the event list (Rao et al. , 2019b). In each iteration, approximately two-thirds (9 of 13 or 15 of 21) of the volcanic events were selected. The confidence interval provides some indication of how eruptions of different sizes, locations, and seasonality may impact the SEA results. To further assess how event selection may have affected the SEA results, the analysis was repeated using volcanic events selected from the ice core analysis of Crowley and Unterman (2013), using a Southern Hemisphere-wide average threshold of SAOD > 0. 08 and SAOD > 0. 04 rather than a regional threshold (Table S3). We compared the volcanic response seen in our multispecies reconstructions to the ensemble mean DJF response of seven climate models from the 5 (CMIP5) suite with (past1000, 850–1850 CE) simulations. The CMIP5 models were forced with either the Gao et al. (2008) or Crowley and Unterman (2013) volcanic forcing series (see Table S4). Data from the historical simulations were appended to extend the dataset from 1850 to 2005 CE. Figure 3Mean chronology departures 5 years before and 5 years after the 13 largest eruption years (year 0), separated by tree species. The chronologies contributing to the species-wide composite are shown in black, with the number of chronologies indicated in parentheses. The sensitive chronology composite in shown in blue and the number of contributing chronologies is shown in brackets. Significance bands (dotted grey lines) are the 1st, 5th, 95th, and 99th percentile of 10 000 random samples of non-event years from the species-wide composite. Download 3 Results 3. 1 Overall species volcanic responses The results of the superposed epoch analysis for the 13 largest volcanic eruptions between 1400 and 1990 CE are shown in Fig. 3. Two composite responses are shown for each species: the response averaged across all sites (“all chronology composite”) and the response calculated only from the site chronologies that individually showed a significant (either positive or negative) response to volcanic eruptions (“sensitive chronology composite”).

Output: contrast


Input: Claim: Bioinformatics combines biology, computer science, and information technology. [SEP] Text: Finite-time analysis will enable us to analytically quantify the accuracy of the presented estimation method as a function of the number n of mutations and to devise improved estimation algorithms. Finally, further work is needed to accurately model mutations other than DNA slippage that cause duplication, especially those that lead to minisatellite repeats. AbbreviationsODE: Ordinary differential equation NRMSE: Normalized root mean square error 921. 61. Accessed 09 Mar 2018. 65. Accessed 22 June 2017. 63. PubMed 71. TH, Cantor C. Evolution of protein molecules In: Munro H, editor. Metabolism. New York: Academic Press: 1969. p. 132. 20. Accessed 18 July 2017. 255. Accessed 25 June 2018. 304. Accessed 25 June 2018. 721. Accessed 08 June 2018. 8. 31. Accessed 08 Dec 2017. 62. Accessed 09 Oct 2018. 16. Accessed 09 Oct 2018. 1999. Heidelberg. p. 44–53. . Zinc finger gene clusters and tandem gene duplication. J Comput Biol. 2002; 9(2):429–46. 2005. Chap. 8. 2008. . A stochastic model for genomic interspersed duplication. In: Proc. on (ISIT2015), : 2015. p. 904–8. Elemento O, Gascuel O. An efficient and accurate distance based algorithm to reconstruct tandem duplication trees. Bioinformatics. 2002; 18(suppl. 2):92–99. 87. Accessed 06 Mar 2018. . Differences and similarities between various tandem repeat sequences: Minisatellites and microsatellites. Biochimie. 1997; 79(9):577–86. Furthermore, the authors would like to thank anonymous reviewers for their insightful comments and valuable suggestions, which helped us improve the paper. research was supported by Foundation grants CCF-1317694 and CCF-1755773, and by a – (BSF) grant no. 2017652. Availability of data and materials The datasets analyzed in the current study are available from the Database ( [28] under organism: Homo sapiens HG38.

Output: pass


Input: Claim: Mycorrhizal fungi improve water and nutrient uptake for plants in nutrient-poor soils. [SEP] Text: This is also supported by the higher N content previously detected in roots and shoots of tomato under field AM fungal inoculation (Subramanian et al. 2006). Among the other seven minerals (and Mg) analysed in tomato fruits, positive responses to AM fungal inoculation were detected for Mg, Cu, and Mn in var. Pisanello and for K, Zn, Fe, Cu and Mn in var. at 2nd harvest, whereas negative responses were detected in var. Pisanello for Zn and Ca at 1st and 2nd harvest, respectively. There is well-documented proof in literature of positive changes in fruit, shoot and root Zn concentration of different plant types (i. e. , grass, annual and perennial herbs and woody) following AM fungal inoculation (13%, 18% and 32%, respectively) (Lehmann et al. 2014). However, the opposite response to inoculation we detected for var. Pisanello and var. Rio Grande, might be explained by edaphic factors, such as soil Zn availabilities, as well as plant type which have been shown to affect AM fungal mediated crop Zn nutrition. As regards Cu, Fe, and Mn concentration, in accordance with our results, there are evidences for positive changes in fruit, shoot and root Cu concentration (34%, 26% and 41%, respectively) as well as fruit and root Fe concentration (8% and 18%, respectively) and fruit Mn concentration (19%) following AM fungal inoculation of annual and perennial plants (i. e. , woody, herb and grass) (Lehmann and Rillig 2015). Moreover, Watts-Williams and Cavagnaro (2014) reported in the wild-type tomato genotype positive changes in shoot and root Cu concentration at low P and Zn availability and in shoot at high P and Zn availability. They also reported positive changes in root Fe and Mn concentration at low P availability. Furthermore, the negative change in Ca fruit concentration and the opposite Mg pattern found in var. Pisanello is not supported by the previously reported no changes in shoot and root under low P availability (Watts-Williams and Cavagnaro 2014). Finally, the increase of K in fruits of the inoculated tomato var. is in line with Liu et al. (2002) who detected higher K concentrations in AM fungal inoculated plants of maize.

Output: corroborate


Input: Claim: Tree rings cannot be used to study past volcanic activity or environmental disturbances. [SEP] Text: Analysis was repeated for the full set of 21 eruptions with SAOD > 0. 04, with similar (but weaker) results for most species, suggesting that not all events had a measurable climatic impact over (Fig. S7). The species-wide response to volcanic events varied widely between dendrochronological species. Three out of eight species, i. e. silver pine, mountain beech, and tānekaha, recorded a composite neutral response. Tānekaha is only weakly correlated to average temperatures (Fig. S6b), which may explain its subdued response. However, compared to other species, mountain beech and silver pine both show relatively strong temperature sensitivities (Figs. S1a and S4). As many mountain beech chronologies extend only to the mid-1700s, the species composites were tested against a smaller subset of volcanic events, which may contribute to this result. Of the remaining five species, one recorded a positive response, while four recorded a negative response. Kauri (Fig. 3a) was the only species to show a composite positive response to volcanic events, maximal in year t+1. Kauri showed a consistent response across sites, with all except two chronologies showing a positive anomaly following an event, although only 8 of the 17 positive responses were significant at p < 0. 05. The sensitive chronology composite recorded a very strong t+1 response, indicating that at these eight sites, kauri receives a significant growth benefit from the climatic changes following a volcanic eruption. This response is coherent with the predominant kauri temperature sensitivity, which is an inverse response to current summer temperatures (Fig. S3). However, as most kauri chronologies are only weakly correlated to monthly temperatures, the strong volcanic response suggests climatic changes other than temperature also contribute to the post-event growth benefit. Pink pine, cedar, silver beech, and toatoa show lagged negative responses to volcanic events, with peak negative anomalies recorded in years t+2 or t+3 (Fig. 3b, c, e, and g). The pink pine response is consistent across sites. All except one pink pine chronology recorded a negative response in t+2, which was significant for most of the chronologies (14/21; p < 0. 05). This response is coherent with the pink pine's broad sensitivity to temperatures over the current growing season (Fig.

Output: contrast