Input: Claim: Aloe vera has been used for centuries to treat skin ailments. [SEP] Text: Globally, the African region has the highest age-standardized alcohol-attributable burden of disease and injury (WHO, 20. . . . . Read10. 32474/JBRS. 2024. 02. 000147 View abstract PDF Full text Renewable energy is a resource, which is obtained from naturally renewable resources, which don’t deplete overtime making it different from fossil fuels. The main sources shall be considered: solar, energy, wind energy, hydroelectric energy, geothermal energy, etc. Given the critical importance of renewable energies in addressing global challenges similar to climate change, energy security, and sustainable development, interest in these energy sources is rapidly increasing worldwide. Additionally, the job market for the renewable energy sector is growing exponentially. Whatsoever, despite the high demand participation of women both globally and in Georgia remains low. A study conducted in 2018 by the found that women make up 32% of the workforce in. . . . . Read10. 32474/. 2024. 03. 000171 View abstract PDF Full text In the field of healthcare, the role of clinical preceptors is of paramount importance in shaping the learning experiences and professional development of nursing students (Dube & Rakhudu, 2021) [1]. According to Dube (2018) [2], these skilled and experienced clinicians play a pivotal role in bridging the gap between theoretical knowledge and real-world clinical practice. The role of clinical preceptors in nursing education has long been acknowledged as fundamental to the development of competent and compassionate nurses (Edward, Ousey, Playle, & Giandinoto, 2017) [3]. The effectiveness of preceptorship is crucial in shaping the clinical learning experiences of nursing students and ultimately impacting their professional growth (AlMekkawi & El Khalil, 2020) [4]. . . . . . Read10. 32474/JAAS. 2024. 10. 000326 View abstract PDF Full text of France and the World: It is with great urgency and a profound sense of responsibility that we address you today regarding a matter of grave international concern. This letter aims to shed light on the insidious actions and ambitions of and the Qatari authorities under her influence. The involvement of these entities in global affairs has led to widespread conflict, suffering, and instability, and it is imperative that we collectively recognize and address these issues to protect our future. . . . . . Read10. 32474/LOJMS.

Output: pass


Input: Claim: Insect pathogenic viruses like baculoviruses can be tailored for specific pest species. [SEP] Text: Mode of action of baculovirusesBaculoviruses have to be ingested by the host (larvae or adults) as occlusion body (OB) forms and then infect the cells of the gut. From these cells, the virus can spread and multiply throughout the other tissues including the fat body, hypodermis, tracheal matrix, epithelial cells, and blood cells. Cell lysis and disintegration of host tissues begin shortly after the formation of OBs (polyhedra in NPV and granulin in GV). Young host larvae die within 2 days whereas older larvae die within 4–9 days (Afolami and Oladunmoye 2017). Parasitoids and predatorsParasitoids and predators are among the biological control agents that play an important role, naturally, against agricultural pests infesting field crops, vegetables, fruit trees, and ornamentals. They constitute a considerable part within IPM programs. A. Interactions between baculoviruses and predatorsLaboratory experiments a. Effect on predators fed on virus-infected prey Abbas and Boucias (1984) reported that the Anticarsia gemmatalis (Hubner) nuclear polyhedrosisvirus (AgNPV) had no direct adverse effects on the pentatomid predator, Podisus maculiventris (Say). Microscope examination and bioassay of tissues extracted from predators fed on AgNPV-infected larvae for 10 days demonstrated that this virus did not replicate in the treated predator. Abbas (1987a) obtained similar results by rearing the predators Calleida decora (F. ) (Coleoptera: Carabidae), Nabis capsiformis (Germar) (Hemiptera: Nabidae), and Geocoris punctipes (Say) (Hem. : Lygaeidae) on larvae of A. gemmatalis infected with AgNPV and also by rearing larvae of Chrysoperla carnea Steph. (Neuroptera: Chrysopidae), nymphs and adults of Orius albidipennis (Reut. ) (Hem. : Anthocoridae), and adults of Labidura riparia Pallas (Dermaptera: Labiduridae) on NPV-infected larvae of Spodoptera littoralis (Boisd). De Nardo et al.

Output: corroborate


Input: Claim: Tree rings cannot be used to study past volcanic activity or environmental disturbances. [SEP] Text: : Cooling and societal change during the Age from 536 to around 660 AD, Nat. Geosci. , 9, 231–236, 2016. Büntgen, U. , Krusic, P. J. , Verstege, A. , Sangüesa-Barreda, G. , Wagner, S. ,. , Oppenheimer, C. , Konter, O. , Tegel, W. , Gärtner, H. , Cherubini, P. , Reinig, F. , and Esper, J. : New tree-ring evidence from the Pyrenees reveals western Mediterranean climate variability since Medieval times, J. Climate, 30, 5295–5318, 2017. Christiansen, B. and Ljungqvist, F. C. : Reconstruction of the Extratropical NH over the with a Method that Preserves Low-Frequency Variability, J. Climate, 24, 6013–6034, 2011. Christiansen, B. and Ljungqvist, F. C. : The extra-tropical temperature in the last two millennia: reconstructions of low-frequency variability, Clim. Past, 8, 765–786, 2012. Christiansen, B. and Ljungqvist, F. C. : Challenges and perspectives for large-scale temperature reconstructions of the past two millennia, Rev. Geophys. , 55, 40–96, 2017. Cook, E. (Ed. ): Methods of dendrochronology: Applications in the environmental sciences, Kluwer, Dordrecht, 1990. Cook, E. and Peters, K. : The smoothing spline: a new approach to standardizing forest interior tree-ring width series for dendroclimatic studies, Tree-Ring Bulletin, 41, 45–53, 1981. Cook, E. and Peters, K. : Calculating unbiased tree-ring indices for the study of climatic and environmental change, Holocene, 7, 361–370, 1997. Cook, E. ,. , and Funkhouser, G. : The “segment length curse” in long tree-ring chronology development for palaeoclimatic studies, Holocene, 5, 229–237, 1995. Cook, E. ,. , and Sano, M.

Output: contrast


Input: Claim: Aloe vera has been used for centuries to treat skin ailments. [SEP] Text: 2024. 07. 000251 View abstract PDF Full text is the most serious presentation of coronary artery disease (CAD), carrying severe consequences due to the occlusion of major coronary arteries. The primary goal in managing STEMI is early reperfusion therapy. Primary percutaneous coronary intervention (PCI) is the preferred strategy for patients with acute STEMI, especially when performed promptly from the first medical contact (FMC) [1]. Despite achieving a patent infarct-related artery after revascularization, some patients experience the “no-reflow” phenomenon due to microvascular dysfunction. This phenomenon is defined as a coronary blood flow of less than TIMI 3 without significant stenosis, dissection, or an angiographically observed thrombus distal to the intervention site [2]. Intracoronary Nanitroprusside, an NO d. . . . . Read08, 2024 Is the search for solutions to Effective if are Similar to like Animals and Plants? Rafizadeh* Psychol & 10. 32474/SJPBS. 2024. 08. 000285 View abstract PDF Full text In a life-complex, each human is a member of the societal lifecomplex, adapted to its environment and dependent on it for daily needs. In his 1948 book, Society as the Patient, Lawrence K. Frank views society as a living organism that can become ill, exhibiting symptoms that can be diagnosed and treated by mental health professionals. In adopting this view, mental health professionals would address societal illness as reflected on individual humans through a medical lens, emphasizing diagnosis, treatment, and prevention to maintain a healthier society. At first glance, it may not seem easy to link the planetary life-complex and its illnesses to the work of mental health professionals. However, considering that the planetary life-complex is made of many societal life-complexes, and each soc. . . . . Read10. 32474/LOJMS. 2024. 06. 000250 View abstract PDF Full text The term demilitarization refers to a complete set of processes that render weapons, ammunition and explosives unfit for their original purpose [1]. Demilitarization is a necessary step for military items before their release to a non-military environment and is carried out in a safe, inexpensive, practical and environmentally responsible manner [2].

Output: pass


Input: Claim: Insect pathogenic viruses like baculoviruses can be tailored for specific pest species. [SEP] Text: (2001) reported that a viable virus was detected in the feces of Doru taeniatum adults up to 3 days after feeding on NPV-infected larvae of S. frugiperda, and in contrast, the virus was inactivated in the gut of Chrysoperla rufilabris larvae. Field experiments a. Impact of virus on predators Treacy et al. (1997), in two small field trials, found that the population levels of non-target arthropods (18 different non-lepidopteran insects in addition to various spiders) were not adversely affected by the weekly application of NPV at doses up to 2 × 1012 PIBs/ha. In addition, Smith et al. (2000) found no differences in the densities and diversities of predators’ populations in a cotton field up to 6 days post-application of NPV against cotton pests. b. Dissemination of virus by predators Boucias et al. (1987) sprayed A. agemmatalis NPV as a bio-control agent against A. gemmatalis at a concentration of 2. 3 × 1011 PIBs/ha in a soybean field (0. 9 ha) divided into 8 plots. Four plots were treated with the virus, and the other 4 plots were sprayed with water as a control. The invertebrate fauna was collected biweekly throughout the growing season including predators and phytophagous insects. The presence of AgNPV in predator samples collected from the field was determined by bio-assaying predators’ homogenates against neonate A. gemmatalis larvae. Their results showed that 41% of the total 2476 predators’ homogenates from treated and control plots were found to contain detectable levels of AgNPV that caused mortality among the treated larvae. Olofsson (1989) studied the transmission of the NPV of the sawfly, N. sertifer, during natural epizootics in 4 summer seasons in a pine field. His results showed that the reduviid, Rhinocoris annulatus; the pentatomids, Picromerus bidens (L. ), and Troilus luridus Flickr; the mirid, Lygus sp. ; and the coccinellid, C. septempunctata, were found to feed on virus-infected N. sertifer and transmit the virus.

Output: corroborate


Input: Claim: Tree rings cannot be used to study past volcanic activity or environmental disturbances. [SEP] Text: : Tree-ring reconstructed summer temperature anomalies for temperate since 800 C. E. , Clim. Dynam. , 41, 2957–2972, 2012. D'Arrigo, R. , Wilson, R. , and Jacoby, G. : On the long-term context for late twentieth century warming, J. Geophys. Res. , 111, D03103, 2006. Deser, C. , Phillips, A. , Bourdette, V. , and Teng, H. : Uncertainty in climate change projections: the role of internal variability, Clim. Dynam. , 38, 527–546, 2010. Douglass, A. E. : and of Washington, Washington, 1919. Esper, J. , Cook, E. R. , and Schweingruber, F. H. : Low-frequency signals in long tree-ring chronologies for reconstructing past temperature variability, Science, 295, 2250–2253, 2002. Esper, J. ,. , and Schweingruber, F. H. : Tests of the RCS method for preserving low-frequency variability in long tree-ring chronologies, Tree-Ring Res. , 59, 81–98, 2003. Esper, J. , Frank, D. , and Wilson, R. : Climate reconstructions: Low-frequency ambition and high-frequency ratification, EOS, 85, 113–130, 2004. Esper, J. , Frank, D. C. , Timonen, M. , Zorita, E. , Wilson, R. J. S. , Luterbacher, J. , Holzkämper, S. , Fischer, N. , Wagner, S. , Nievergelt, D. , Verstege, A. , and Büntgen, U. : Orbital forcing of tree-ring data, Nat. Clim. Change, 2, 862–866, 2012. Esper, J. , Düthorn, E. , Krusic, P. J. , Timonen, M. , and Büntgen, U. : summer temperature variations over the from integrated tree-ring density records, J. Quaternary Sci. , 29, 487–494, 2014. Esper, J. , Konter, O. , Krusic, P.

Output: contrast


Input: Claim: Aloe vera has been used for centuries to treat skin ailments. [SEP] Text: Actions taken in demilitarization processes should make the item unidentifiable as ammunition after demilitarization [3]. The explosives in many conventional munitions are cast, so these munitions can be demilitarized by heating the explosive charge sufficiently to melt it and flow out of the munition. Explosives that melt at relatively low temperatures are, for example, (80°C) and TNT (80°C). Melting can be done by direct heat. . . . . Read26, 2024 The culture of Competitiveness Sofía Gómez Opitz* J Anthro & 10. 32474/JAAS. 2024. 09. 000325 View abstract PDF Full text During the early hours of June 25th, various agents of the arts and cultures from the Chilean scene expressed their discomfort over the unexpected announcement of the early dates for the application of competitive funds from the Ministry of Cultures, Arts, and Heritage (MinCAP, for its Spanish acronym) of Chile. This three-month advance, explained as a desperate attempt to improve the image of an outgoing government by “supporting” the cultural sector, put various institutions and artists in a tight spot, having to create projects and obtain the requested documentation in less than a month. Additionally, there were strong complaints when it was revealed that many of the calls for 2024 are delayed in the delivery of funds and publication of results. . . . . . Read26, 2024 Art for Artist Sofía Gómez Opitz* J Anthro & 10. 32474/JAAS. 2024. 09. 000324 View abstract PDF Full text How to Closer to People? was the name of the forum organized by the Art and of the Federation of Students of the University (PUC) of Chile. Under this title, and highlighting an issue confirmed even by the few studies on cultural consumption in Chile, PUC students bring to the table the debate facing national arts regarding the generally low attendance at events classified as artistic-cultural. In the end, those of us involved in the art circuit are the same ones who frequently attend. . . . . . Read25, 2024 from Political Elements: Science and Adem Yutsever* J Anthro & 10. 32474/JAAS. 2024. 09. 000323 View abstract PDF Full text Archaeology is closely related to politics and regulations due to its goal of preserving historical and cultural heritage.

Output: pass


Input: Claim: Insect pathogenic viruses like baculoviruses can be tailored for specific pest species. [SEP] Text: Transmission of viruses Laboratory experiments Irabagon and Brooks (1974) reported that the transmission of baculoviruses occurs when the ovipositor, body surface or the gut of the parasitoid becomes contaminated with the virus. Abbas (1987b), Mahmoud (1992), and Hui-Fang et al. (2013) reported that parasitoid females that oviposited in virus-infected larvae were found to transmit infective levels of the virus to healthy ones via ovipositor. Also, adults of the parasitoid Apanteles glomeratus (L. ) emerged from GV-infected larvae of P. rapae were found to transmit the virus to healthy ones (Levin et al. 1983). Jiang et al. (2011) stated that the adults of Microplitis pallidipes emerged from cocoons which were surface-contaminated with S. exigua NPV could transmit the virus to healthy larvae. In contrast, the females of the parasitoids Microplitis croceipes (Cresson) and Campoletis sonorensis (Cameron) that oviposited in NPV-infected larvae of Heliothis zea (Boddie) and S. frugiperda, respectively, did not transmit the virus to healthy larvae (Eller et al. 1988 and Escribano et al. 2000), respectively). Also, Meteorus pulchricornis females that emerged from NPV-infected larvae of S. litura were not adversely affected and did not transmit the virus to healthy larvae (Nguyen et al. 2005). Arai et al. (2018) reported that the Ascovirus of Heliothis virescens (Fab. ) (HvAV) (belongs to the virus family Ascoviridae) was found to be transmitted by the parasitoid Meteorus pulchricornis (Wesm. ) from infected to healthy larvae of Spodoptera litura (F. ) through ovipositor. The authors mentioned that this parasitoid is a major vector for HvAV in Japan, but the ingestion of the virus by parasitoid females might affect the progeny of the parasitoid.

Output: corroborate


Input: Claim: Tree rings cannot be used to study past volcanic activity or environmental disturbances. [SEP] Text: J. , Saurer, M. , Holzkämper, S. , and Büntgen, U. : Long-term summer temperature variations in the Pyrenees from detrended stable carbon isotopes, Geochronometria, 42, 53–59, 2015. Esper, J. ,. , Carrer, M. , Cook, E. , Davi, N. K. , Hartl-Meier, C. , Kirdyanov, A. , Konter, O. , Myglan, V. , Timonen, M. , Treydte, K. , Trouet, V. , Villalba, R. , Yang, B. , and Büntgen, U. : Ranking of tree-ring based temperature reconstructions of the past millennium, Quaternary Sci. Rev. , 145, 134–151, 2016. Fernández-Donado, L. , González-. , García-Bustamante, E. ,. , Phipps, S. J. , Servonnat, J. , Swingedouw, D. , Tett, S. F. B. , Wagner, S. , Yiou, P. , and Zorita, E. : Large-scale temperature response to external forcing in simulations and reconstructions of the last millennium, Clim. Past, 9, 393–421, 2013. Foley, S. F. , Gronenborn, D. ,. , Scholz, D. , Pöschl, U. , Jacob, D. E. , Schöne, B. R. , Schreg, R. , Vött, A. , Jordan, D. , Lelieveld, J. , Weller, C. G. , Alt, K. W. , Gaudzinski-Windheuser, S. , Bruhn, K. -C. , Tost, H. , Sirocko, F. , and Crutzen, P. J. : – The beginnings of anthropogenic environmental change, Anthropocene, 3, 83–88, 2013. Frank, D. , Esper, J. , and Cook, E. R. : Adjustment for proxy number and coherence in a large-scale temperature reconstruction, Geophys. Res. Lett.

Output: contrast


Input: Claim: Jupiter's moon Europa has a subsurface ocean that may harbor life. [SEP] Text: ” realized I couldn’t refute the idea. I kept Mimas in my mind over the years, eventually putting together a paper for the of Earth and in 2023. That paper ruled out several ocean scenarios and left only one option, an ocean that formed recently, well after Mimas itself. A young ocean could be stealthy. But it was still just a hypothesis. The same face of the Moon is always pointed at Earth, but it can shift back and forth slightly over time because of the tilt and shape of the Moon’s orbit. This wobble is called a libration. This NASA video also shows the Moon’s phases. : NASA’has the most recent work changed the picture? Early in 2024, Valéry Lainey and his group reported new observational evidence in favor of an ocean on Mimas. They looked not at the libration but at changes in Mimas’ orbit through time — changes that depend on the interior structure. They found that those changes could not be explained by an oddly shaped core, leaving an ocean as the most viable option. My team’s research, published in June, has gone on to explain the lack of visible surface fractures. We argue that the ocean is so young — merely 10 million years old — that it has only recently stopped growing. We think that the tidal stresses of a young churning ocean may not be enough to crack the ice above. Instead, what’s needed is the stress that comes when the ocean eventually refreezes. is losing heat as its orbit becomes less eccentric over time, refreezing — which is only just beginning on Mimas — will cause the overlying ice to crack. The research suggests that eventually Mimas is probably going to lose its ocean, which is a little sad, since it is just being recognized. But on the flip side, Mimas may become the new Enceladus — the new coolest moon of Saturn — with deep cracks and maybe even jets of water. What are the big picture implications of this research? I’m interested in this from a geophysical standpoint. We think of the earliest epochs in our solar system as the hot times, when all the activity happens, then everything evolves toward a quieter state. Pluto’s moon Charon might have lost an ocean. And Europa’s and Ganymede’s oceans are pretty old.

Output: pass


Input: Claim: Insect pathogenic viruses like baculoviruses can be tailored for specific pest species. [SEP] Text: Field experiments Young and Yearian (1990b) tested the transmission of Heliothis NPV by Microplitis croceipes females to H. virescens larvae in caged plants in a field test. They found that mortality percent from NPV in larvae exposed to virus-sprayed parasitoid females was higher than when the females were previously allowed to oviposit in infected larvae. In addition, Young and Yearian (1989) reported that M. croceipes that emerged from NPV-infected larvae of H. virescens could transmit the virus, but its role in disseminating the virus in the field was small. In an experiment in a greenhouse cultivated with cabbage, Jiang et al. (2011) found that the population reduction of S. exigua was greater by Micropletis pallidipes females carrying SeNPV (82. 3–89. 7%) than by females without virus (59. 5–62. 4%). In greenhouse trials with GV against Lacanobia oleraceae larvae in tomato plants, Mathews et al. (2004) found that Meteorus gyrator was noticed to discriminate between healthy and infected host larvae. In addition, the parasitoid that transmitted the virus at low levels significantly increased total host mortality and decreased the damage in tomato fruits when combined with the virus. c. Development and survival of parasitoids in infected hostsIrabagon and Brooks (1974) reported that the late exposure of the baculovirus-infected host larvae to the parasitoids increased the percentage of successful development of the parasitoids. In this respect, Hochberg (1991) found that when there was either no interval or an insufficient interval between parasitism and virus inoculation, the number of eggs deposited by the parasitoid female was unaffected, but the parasitoids could not complete development because the larvae die of viral infection quickly and fewer parasitoids emerge from the host. Beegle and Oatman (1974) reported that larvae of the parasitoid Hyposoter exiguae (Viereck) inside Trichoplusia ni larvae infected with NPV prior to parasitism died when their host died from infection. Hutchkin and Kaya (1983) conducted a survey of several parasitoids for their ability to develop to pupae in virus-infected hosts.

Output: corroborate


Input: Claim: Tree rings cannot be used to study past volcanic activity or environmental disturbances. [SEP] Text: , 34, L16709, 2007. Frank, D. , Esper, J. , Zorita, E. , and Wilson, R. : A noodle, hockey stick, and spaghetti plate: a perspective on high-resolution paleoclimatology, Nat. Clim. Change, 1, 507–516, 2010. Fritts, H. C. : and Climate, Blackburn Press, Caldwell, N. J. , 1976. Galván, J. D. , Camarero, J. J. , Ginzler, C. , and Büntgen, U. : Spatial diversity of recent trends in Mediterranean tree growth, Environ. Res. Lett. , 9, 084001, 2014. Grove, J. M. : Ice Age, 1. publ. , Repr. , Routledge, London, 1990. Hakim, G. J. , Emile-Geay, J. , Steig, E. J. , Noone, D. , Anderson, D. M. , Tardif, R. , Steiger, N. , and Perkins, W. A. : The last millennium climate reanalysis project: Framework and first results, J. Geophys. Res. , 121, 6745–6764, 2016. Harris, I. , Jones, P. D. , Osborn, T. J. , and Lister, D. H. : Updated high-resolution grids of monthly climatic observations – the CRU TS3. 10 dataset, Int. J. Climatol. , 34, 623–642, 2014. Hartl-Meier, C. T. M. , Büntgen, U. , Smerdon, J. E. , Zorita, E. ,. , and Esper, J. : Temperature covariance in tree ring reconstructions and model simulations over the past millennium, Geophys. Res. Lett. , 44, 9458–9469, 2017. . ,. , and Zorita, E. : Detection of human influence on a new, validated 1500-year temperature reconstruction, J. Climate, 20, 650–666, 2007. Helama, S. , Arppe, L. , Timonen, M. , Mielikäinen, K. , and Oinonen, M.

Output: contrast


Input: Claim: The impact craters on the Moon provide insights into the history of the solar system. [SEP] Text: Congress 2024 Building, Freie Universität Berlin, Germany 8–13 September 2024 Congress 2024 Building, Freie Universität Berlin, Germany 8–13 September 2024 Congress 2024 Building, Freie Universität Berlin, Germany 8–13 September 2024 committee & media by session Session overview Licence & copyright Exhibition & sponsorship List of exhibitors & sponsors My profile My network 1EPSC2024-633 Multiple terms: term1 term2 red apples returns results with all terms like: Fructose levels in red and green apples Precise match in quotes: "term1 term2" "red apples" returns results matching exactly like: Anthocyanin biosynthesis in red apples Exclude a term with -: term1 -term2 apples -red returns results containing apples but not red: Malic acid in green apples Close hits for "" in Search in: All Pare no results for your search term. Network problems We are sorry, but your search could not be completed due to network problems. Please try again later. Server timeout We are sorry, but your search could not be completed due to server timeouts. Please try again later. Invalid search term We are sorry, but your search term seems to be invalid. Please refine your search. Too many requests We are sorry, but we have received too many parallel search requests. Please try again later. Searching [Back] [Session OPS1]. 17, EPSC2024-633, 2024, updated on 03 Jul 2024 Congress 2024 © Author(s) 2024. This work is distributed under the Attribution 4. 0 License. Ray and craters on Ganymede: Insights into stratification of icy crust Baby1, Thomas Kenkmann2, Katrin Stephan1, Roland Wagner1, and Ernst Hauber1 Baby et al. Baby1, Thomas Kenkmann2, Katrin Stephan1, Roland Wagner1, and Ernst Hauber1 1Center (DLR), Institute of Planetary Research, Berlin, Germany (namitha. baby@dlr. de) 2University of Freiburg, Freiburg, Germany 1Center (DLR), Institute of Planetary Research, Berlin, Germany (namitha. baby@dlr. de) 2University of the largest moon in the solar system, presents a compelling subject for studying icy moons due to its unique geological processes compared to its neighbors.

Output: pass


Input: Claim: Insect pathogenic viruses like baculoviruses can be tailored for specific pest species. [SEP] Text: exigua larvae treated with SeMNPV decreased with increasing virus doses against the 2nd to 4th larval instars. Azam et al. (2016) treated the 2nd instar larvae of S. litura which developed from eggs parasitized with the egg-larval parasitoid Chelonus inanitus with a GV. Their results showed that percentages of the emergence of the parasitoid larvae from the host larvae as well as their pupation rate and adult emergence were significantly lower compared to those from the uninfected ones. d. Effect on parasitoid adults fed on virusThe longevity of parasitoid female adults of Bracon brevicornis fed on honey or a mixture of honey and NPV (103 PIBs) 1:2 was not significantly affected (34. 5 and 33. 3 days, respectively) (Abbas 1987b). Hui-Fang et al. (2013) reported that the progeny of Meteorus pulchricornis female which ingested S. exigua NPV was significantly affected at 1 and 2 days post-ingestion. The average number of the offspring of treated females was 2. 6 cocoons/host larva compared to 4 cocoons for the control female (fed on honey only). However, no significant differences were observed in the number of produced cocoons/host between treated and control females at 3 or 4 days post-ingestion. e. Effect of parasitism on host susceptibility to virus infectionEller et al. (1988) found that when the larvae of H. zea were exposed to Microplitis croceipes females and then infected with HzMNPV, the rate of virus-induced mortality decreased with the increase of host age at the time of infection. The rate of pupated H. zea larvae as well as the cocoon formation of M. croceipes increased with the increase of host age at infection for both parasitized and unparasitized larvae. Santiago-Alvarez and Caballero (1990) noticed decreased virulence of GV of Agrotis segetum (Denis) to larvae parasitized with Apanteles telengi compared to unparasitized larvae. However, there was no difference in the virulence of GV between larvae parasitized with Campoletis annulatus and unparasitized ones. Murray et al.

Output: corroborate


Input: Claim: Tree rings cannot be used to study past volcanic activity or environmental disturbances. [SEP] Text: : Age-related trends in subfossil tree-ring δ13C data, Chem. Geol. , 416, 28–35, 2015. Horiuchi, K. , Uchida, T. , Sakamoto, Y. , Ohta, A. , Matsuzaki, H. , Shibata, Y. , and Motoyama, H. : Ice core record of 10Be over the past millennium from Dome Fuji, Antarctica: A new proxy record of past solar activity and a powerful tool for stratigraphic dating, Quat. Geochronol. , 3, 253–261, 2008. Huybers, P. and Curry, W. : Links between annual, Milankovitch and continuum temperature variability, Nature, 441, 329–332, 2006. Johnson, D. M. , Büntgen, U. , Frank, D. C. , Kausrud, K. ,. , and Stenseth, N. C. : Climatic warming disrupts recurrent Alpine insect outbreaks, P. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA, 107, 20576–20581, 2010. and Tett, S. F. B. : High-resolution palaeoclimatic records for the last millennium: interpretation, integration and comparison with Model control-run temperatures, Holocene, 8, 455–471, 1998. van. ,. , Goosse, H. , Graham, N. , Jansen, E. , Kiefer, T. , Kull, C. , Kuttel, M. , Mosley-Thompson, E. , Overpeck, J. T. , Riedwyl, N. , Schulz, M. , Tudhope, A. W. , Villalba, R. , Wanner, H. , Wolff, E. , and Xoplaki, E. : High-resolution palaeoclimatology of the last millennium: a review of current status and future prospects, Holocene, 19, 3–49, 2009. . , Hegerl, G. C. , Moberg, A. , Osborn, T. J. , and Weber, S. L. : Millennial temperature reconstruction intercomparison and evaluation, Clim. Past, 3, 591–609, 2007.

Output: contrast


Input: Claim: The impact craters on the Moon provide insights into the history of the solar system. [SEP] Text: As a result, it is now the primary target of ESA's JUICE mission [1, 2]. Predominantly, impact craters dominate its terrains, each exhibiting a distinctive morphology and ejecta pattern. These features help to understand the vertical stratigraphy of Ganymede's crust at a local scale. Additionally, our study investigates the role of spreading and rifting processes in transporting dark terrain material to the subsurface. Data and MethodologyWe identified four crater types for our study: Craters (BRCs) with bright ray ejecta, Craters (DRCs) with dark ray ejecta, Craters with both bright and dark ejecta (DBRCs), and Craters (DHCs) with circular to subcircular dark ejecta. We utilized the global mosaic from [3]. We examined several craters also observed by Galileo NIMS, with spatial resolutions up to ~2 km/pxl [4, 5]. We mapped the band depth (BD) of one of the major water ice absorptions at 1. 5 or 2 µm to derive information on the relative abundance of water ice versus dark material following the approach presented in [6]. Morphologic details of the craters, including inner features and the extension of their halos or ray systems, were mapped. To calculate excavation depth, we use equation from [7],De = 1/10* Dt (Eq. 1),where De is the maximum depth of excavation, and Dt is the diameter of the transient crater cavity. To determine the transient diameter (Dt) of a crater with known final crater diameter (D), we employ the equation by [8]. D = Dtε ⋅ Dc1−ε [8] (Eq. 2)Dc = 2. 5 km for Ganymede, ε ~ 1. 13, which accounts for crater slumping [8]ResultsDistribution of crater typesIn this study, we analyzed 36 impact craters on Ganymede (Fig. 1), categorizing 3 as DHCs and the rest as ray craters. Among these, the ray crater Tammuz (DBRC) exhibits half bright and dark ejecta. In detail, 20 craters are situated in the light terrain, 8 in the dark terrain, and 8 were emplaced along the boundary between light and dark terrain.

Output: pass


Input: Claim: Insect pathogenic viruses like baculoviruses can be tailored for specific pest species. [SEP] Text: (1995) reported that the LD50 of H. armigera NPV for H. armigera larvae was higher in larvae parasitized with Microplitis demolitor (Wilkenson) than in unparasitized ones. Washburn et al. (2000) found that Manduca sexta (L. ) larvae infected with Autographa californica (Speyer) NPV died more rapidly and at higher rates when they were parasitized by Cotesia congregate (Say). However, Escribano et al. (2001) reported that the virulence of NPV to unparasitized larvae of S. frugiperda did not differ from that to larvae parasitized with Chilonus insularis. Mathews et al. (2004) reported that the percentage of mortality of GV-infected Lecanobia oleraceae larvae was significantly higher when a combination of the larval parasitoid Meteorus gyrator and the virus was used compared to either the virus or the parasitoid alone. Similarly, Cai et al. (2012) found that mortality percent of S. exigua larvae was significantly higher (more than 80%) when co-exposed to the virus, SeMNPV and the parasitoid Microplitis bicoloratus compared to the virus alone regardless of the virus doses or the timing of virus treatment. Hui-Fang et al. (2013) found that when the 3rd instar larvae of S. exigua were exposed to SeMNPV and Meteorus pulchricornis simultaneously, differences in virus-induced mortality varied in parasitized and unparasitized larvae according to virus concentration. Parasitism, significantly, increased the mortality in larvae infected at concentrations of 105, 106, or 107 PIBs/ml compared to unparasitized ones. However, at the concentration of 103 PIBs/ml, parasitized larvae were less susceptible to virus infection than unparasitized ones.

Output: corroborate


Input: Claim: Tree rings cannot be used to study past volcanic activity or environmental disturbances. [SEP] Text: , Vinther, B. M. , and Woodruff, T. E. : Timing and climate forcing of volcanic eruptions for the past 2,500 years, Nature, 523, 543–549, 2015. Smerdon, J. E. and Pollack, H. N. : Reconstructing Earth's surface temperature over the past 2000 years: the science behind the headlines, Climate Change, 7, 746–771, 2016. . , Geirsdottir, A. , Kaufman, D. S. , Koch, J. , McKay, N. P. , Masiokas, M. , Miller, G. , Nesje, A. , Nicolussi, K. ,. , Wiles, G. , and Yang, B. : Glacier fluctuations during the past 2000 years, Quaternary Sci. Rev. , 149, 61–90, 2016. Steig, E. J. , Ding, Q. , White, J. W. C. , Küttel, M. ,. ,. ,. , Williams, J. , and Korotkikh, E. : Recent climate and ice-sheet changes in compared with the past 2,000 years, Nat. Geosci. , 6, 372–375, 2013. and Cook, B. I. : A reconstruction of global hydroclimate and dynamical variables over the Common Era, Sci. Data, 5, 180086, 2018. St. George, S. : An overview of tree-ring width records across the Northern Hemisphere, Quaternary Sci. Rev. , 95, 132–150, 2014. Stoffel, M. , Khodri, M. , Corona, C. , Guillet, S. , Poulain, V. , Bekki, S. , Guiot, J. , Luckman, B. H. , Oppenheimer, C. , Lebas, N. , Beniston, M. , and Masson-Delmotte, V. : Estimates of volcanic-induced cooling in the over the past 1,500 years, Nat. Geosci. , 8, 784–788, 2015. Vieira, L. E. A. , Solanki, S. K. , Krivova, N. A. , and Usoskin, I.

Output: contrast


Input: Claim: The impact craters on the Moon provide insights into the history of the solar system. [SEP] Text: Excavation depths of crater typesCraters with dark ejecta predominate below 40 km diameter, while beyond 40 km, BRCs prevail (Fig. 2 a and b). Dark terrain material originates from excavation depths of up to 3 km in light terrain. Larger ray craters located at the borders of light and dark terrain are observed to be BRCs (Fig. 2c). Individual Craters1. AntumAntum, a DRC ~ 15 km in diameter, is situated at around 5. 5°N/141. 1°E on dark terrain, with a maximum excavation depth of ~ 1. 2 km (Fig. 3). Its main geological features include a crater with a distinct floor and rim, as well as extended dark rays. This is supported by the BD map of water ice absorption at 1. 5 µm, derived from NIMS observations, indicating enrichment of water ice in the crater (smaller ice grains) and dark non-ice material in the ray material (larger ice grains). 2. KittuKittu, a 15 km DRC, is situated at ~ 0. 5°N/25°E on light terrain (Fig. 4). The maximum excavation depth is ~ 1. 2 km. The main geological units are a central peak, a bright rim and floor, a continuous bright ejecta and discontinuous dark ejecta. NIMS confirms richness in water ice and smaller ice grains in colder water ice while low water ice abundance and larger ice grains in warmer dark ejecta. explain craters like Antum, the depth of excavation for dark ejecta should match the thickness of the top dark terrain material (Fig. 5a). In the Antum region, dark terrain thickness reaches ~1. 2 km. Conversely, for craters like Kittu (Fig. 5b) on light terrain, dark ejecta suggest that dark material is relatively thin and comes from a layer just beneath the surface, ~1. 2 km. Dark material reaching such depths could be attributed to tectonic rifting, necessitating mechanisms for material transport. These findings provide constraints for future assessments of light terrain formation processes and dark material transport mechanisms. Figure 1: The global distribution of BRCs (blue), DRCs (black), BDRCs (green), and DHCs (yellow) on Ganymede. Figure 2: Crater diameter vs.

Output: pass


Input: Claim: Semantic memory is involved in understanding the meanings of words and sentences. [SEP] Text: AbstractChanges to our everyday activities mean that adult language users need to learn new meanings for previously unambiguous words. For example, we need to learn that a “tweet” is not only the sound a bird makes, but also a short message on a social networking site. In these experiments, adult participants learned new fictional meanings for words with a single dominant meaning (e. g. , “ant”) by reading paragraphs that described these novel meanings. Explicit recall of these meanings was significantly better when there was a strong semantic relationship between the novel meaning and the existing meaning. This relatedness effect emerged after relatively brief exposure to the meanings (Experiment 1), but it persisted when training was extended across 7 days (Experiment 2) and when semantically demanding tasks were used during this extended training (Experiment 3). A lexical decision task was used to assess the impact of learning on online recognition. 3, participants responded more quickly to words whose new meaning was semantically related than to those with an unrelated meaning. This result is consistent with earlier studies showing an effect of meaning relatedness on lexical decision, and it indicates that these newly acquired meanings become integrated with participants’ preexisting knowledge about the meanings of words. Similar content being viewed by others Learning new meanings for known words: Perturbation of original meanings and retention of new meanings 18. 7, p <. 001; F 2(1, 34) = 90. 3 p <. 001], more plausible [F 1(1, 20) = 91. 8, p <. 001; F 2(1, 34) = 82. 9, p <. 001], and more clear [F 1(1, 20) = 26. 6, p <. 001; F 2(1, 34) = 47. 6, p <. 001] than the unrelated paragraphs. Table 2 Experiment 1: Results of the rating task (calculated across participants)Full size table Cued-recall testResponses were independently marked by two judges and were allocated one mark for each of the five properties that were correctly recalled. There was 85. 5 % agreement between the judges over the 792 responses, and discrepancies were resolved by discussion. In a small proportion of cases (n = 20, 2. 5 %) no clear resolution could be reached, and the average of the two marks was awarded.

Output: corroborate


Input: Claim: Tree rings cannot be used to study past volcanic activity or environmental disturbances. [SEP] Text: 1 IntroductionConventional tree-ring analyses have focused on the annual growth ring with a primary aim of inter-annual-to-inter-decadal translation of growth-climate relations. Partitioning of annual rings into earlywood and latewood, in those species that show such differentiation, has been used in some studies to extract early- and late-season growth trends, though the attribution of those trends to more specific dates during the growing season has been impeded by lack of knowledge about the use of stored carbon and seasonal lags in the phases of xylogenesis. As a result, intra-annual dendrochronological perspectives have been considerably fewer in number than inter-annual perspectives, and when developed, they have been relatively coarse in their alignment to patterns of seasonal climate variation. Compared to ring width and density measurement, tree-ring isotope analysis used to be much more costly and time-consuming in 1990s, and the number of tree-ring isotope research has been limited. However, this situation has changed markedly over the past decade as sample preparation and analytical approaches have improved (see Chap. 7). In the last decade, the labor required for intra-annual analysis of tree-ring isotope ratio analysis has decreased, while the precision associated with these measures has increased (Kagawa et al. 2015, Chaps. 5 and 6). Analysis of intra-annual variations of tree-ring isotope ratio was first conducted by separating single annual rings into sub-sections by means of a knife or chisel under a microscope (Wilson and Grinstead 1977, Leavitt 1993; Kagawa et al. 2003) and isotope analysis of up to 0. 1 mm resolution became possible by manually subdividing α-cellulose lath under stereomicroscope, which is prepared directly from thin cross-section (Kagawa et al. 2015; Ohashi et al. 2016; Xu et al. 2016; Chap. 4). Higher spatial resolution is achieved by using a sliding microtome to cut serial tangential sections from wood blocks at thicknesses of 10–240 μm (Ogle and McCormac 1994; Walcroft et al. 1997; Helle and Schleser 2004). Robotic micromilling (Dodd et al. 2008) and UV-laser based dissection (Schollaen et al. 2014, Chap.

Output: contrast


Input: Claim: The impact craters on the Moon provide insights into the history of the solar system. [SEP] Text: excavation depth (km) for various crater types and terrains: a) craters located in light terrain, b) in dark terrain and c) at border between light and dark terrains. Figure 3: Dark ray crater (DRC) Antum: a) Voyager image, b) geologic map, c) NIMS derived BD map of the water ice absorption at 1. 5 µm and d) grain size of water ice as derived by the map of the water ice absorptions at 2 and 1. 5 µm after [6]. Figure 4: Dark ray crater (DRC) Kittu: a) High resolution Galileo observation, b) geologic map of Kittu crater, c) Voyager + Galileo mosaic, d) geologic map, e) NIMS derived BD map of the water ice absorption at 1. 5 µm and f) grain size of water ice as derived by the NIMS derived BDR map of the water ice absorptions at 2 and 1. 5 µm after [6]. Figure 5: Schematic illustration of the subsurface layers required to explain various ejecta pattern. In the left part is the transient cavity illustrated and how the different layers are involved in the ejecta curtain. The larger right side shows the ejecta blanket and the position of different ice layers of the target prior to impact. The shown scenarios are applicable to craters a) DRC Antum (on dark terrain) b) DRC Kittu (on light terrain). 2013. [2] Stephan, K. , et al. , Planetary and space science, 208, 105324, 2021. [3] Kersten, E. , et al. , EPSC2022-450, 2022 [4] Stephan, K. , et al. , ScSSI, abstr. 9060, 2008. [5] Hibbitts, C. A. , Icarus, 394, 115400, 2023. [6] Stephan, K. , Icarus, v. 337, p. 113440, 2020. [7] 0 19 504284 0, 245 pp, 1989. [8] Schenk, P. M. , Press, p. 427 – 456, 2004 How to cite: Baby, N. R. , Kenkmann, T. , Stephan, K. , Wagner, R. , and Hauber, E.

Output: pass


Input: Claim: Semantic memory is involved in understanding the meanings of words and sentences. [SEP] Text: In a very small number of cases (n = 6: 2 related, 4 unrelated), the participants recalled a property related to the word’s original definition (e. g. , recalling PEARL as a jewel). Transfer errors (i. e. , recalling a property from another novel definition) were slightly more common (n = 24, 26. 7 % of errors) and were significantly more common for unrelated paragraphs (n = 20, 83. 3%) than for related paragraphs (n = 4) on a binomial test (p =. 002). The remaining “semantic” errors (n = 60, 66. 67 % of errors) consisted of responses that were incorrect for both the original and the new word meanings and that were also not correct for any other paragraph that was used in the experiment (e. g. , remembering PATH as a tattoo rather than as face paint or CREW as musicians rather than singers). These errors were slightly more common for unrelated paragraphs (55 %), but this difference this was not significant on a binomial test (p =. 519). DiscussionThis experiment showed that the participants’ ability to recall new meanings for familiar words was significantly better for meanings that were semantically related to the existing meaning than for unrelated meanings. This relatedness effect was strikingly large: Participants were only able to recall some correct information for 26 % of unrelated items, as compared with 70 % of the related meanings. This indicates that the presence of a semantic relationship between the “old” and “new” meanings strongly facilitates the learning of the mapping between form and meaning. Due to the low level of performance on the unrelated meanings, it was not possible to assess whether relatedness also affects the richness of the newly acquired semantic representation. This issue needed to be addressed in an experiment in which the participants would achieve better overall performance in learning novel unrelated meanings of existing words. Experiment 2The primary aim of this experiment was to investigate the effects of meaning relatedness beyond a single learning episode by extending the learning phase across a 6-day period and by introducing a delay of approximately 24 h between the final training session and the testing phase. This procedure allowed us to assess whether previously poor acquisition of unrelated new meanings would be improved by more extended learning and to determine whether the strong effect of relatedness seen in Experiment 1 would become more or less pronounced with time.

Output: corroborate


Input: Claim: Tree rings cannot be used to study past volcanic activity or environmental disturbances. [SEP] Text: The processes recorded in leaf-scale sugar isotope ratios vary on the order of fractions of seconds, though by the time the sugars have been transported to intra-leaf storage pools or to the phloem for transport to other parts of the plant, time-averaged isotope fractionation can be well-approximated by the steady-state assumption in observations and models. Following a discussion of leaf-scale photosynthetic dynamics, we progress to 'downstream' influences that have the potential to scramble the association of observed sugar isotope ratios with the short-term physiological and climate controls over leaf physiology, and thus mask efforts to trace tree-ring isotope time series with seasonally-resolved influences. In Sect. 15. 5, we consider xylogenesis itself as a cause in the disruption of the association of observed intra-annual isotope ratios with specific climate and phenological phases during the growing season. The incorporation of photosynthate into cellulose during xylogenesis is affected by seasonal lags in the processes of cell formation and maturation. Thus, the anatomical attributes of variation in the cellular appearance of xylem may not align seasonally with the isotopic attributes of the cellulose that makes up the primary and secondary cell walls of individual xylem elements and tracheids. We discuss new approaches relying on cambial phenology modeling conditioned on high-frequency micro-core sampling to resolve lags in the seasonal phases of xylogenesis. In Sect. 15. 6, we present a discussion of experimental studies that have traced the seasonal partitioning of photosynthate into tree rings. The research developments discussed in this section, when coupled with recent approaches that identify the intra-annual domains of tree rings according to isotope ratios and phases of xylogenesis, hold the greatest promise to provide explanations of intra-annual patterns of isotopic fractionation, especially those fractionations associated with post-assimilation processes. 13CO2 pulse-labeling used in combination with high-resolution analysis of tree-ring isotopes is an effective tool to elucidate the processes that transfer fractionation signals from assimilation processes 'in the current moment' versus those from past processes that are stored in carbon reservoirs and subsequently transferred to the archived cellulose isotope record in tree rings.

Output: contrast


Input: Claim: The impact craters on the Moon provide insights into the history of the solar system. [SEP] Text: (AAS), established in 1899 and based in Washington, DC, is the major organization of professional astronomers in North America. Its membership of about 7,000 individuals also includes physicists, mathematicians, geologists, engineers, and others whose research and educational interests lie within the broad spectrum of subjects comprising contemporary astronomy. The mission of the AAS is to enhance and share humanity's scientific understanding of the universe. of Physics (IOP) is a leading scientific society promoting physics and bringing physicists together for the benefit of all. It has a worldwide membership of around 50 000 comprising physicists from all sectors, as well as those with an interest in physics. It works to advance physics research, application and education; and engages with policy makers and the public to develop awareness and understanding of physics. Its publishing company, IOP Publishing, is a world leader in professional scientific communications. A publishing partnership The following 2022. The Author(s). Published by the Society. Science Journal, Number 12 J. Robbins 2022 Planet. Sci. J. 3 274 DOI 10. 3847/PSJ/aca282 Download 3. 7 Ga. Scaling the lunar impact crater history to Mars using generally well-established scaling rules indicates Mars should have ∼40–80 similarly sized, ancient craters. However, Mars has roughly seven. This is a nontrivial mismatch between observation and expectation. Possible methods to resolve the mismatch are discussed in this work: small number statistics, incorrect scaling laws, heat flow produced larger-than-expected craters, the ratio of Mars:Moon impactors was different in early solar system history, Mars's ancient crater chronology is wrong, and/or Mars has hidden a large fraction of its large impacts. None of these scenarios are mutually exclusive. This work details how the different scenarios could work to bring observations more in-line with the scaling expectations, or vice versa. It is posited that the most likely sources of the mismatch are that the initial bolide rate was different (this is a noncontroversial supposition), that lunar heat flow produced larger craters than expected, and the formation of the basin could have kept the surface warm enough for long enough to prevent large features from forming for an extended period of time. The primary purpose of this work is to present the issue with possible ways to solve it through future efforts. Export citation and abstract 4. 0 licence.

Output: pass


Input: Claim: Semantic memory is involved in understanding the meanings of words and sentences. [SEP] Text: A second aim of the experiment related to the effect of semantic relatedness on the quality of the newly learned semantic representations. 1, this analysis had not been possible due to the low number of unrelated paragraphs for which any information was recalled. By extending the learning period, it was expected that performance would be sufficiently improved that we could explore this important effect in more detail. The third aim was to use an additional lexical decision task to assess whether the new meanings had become sufficiently well learned that they could impact on an online speeded task in which there was no requirement for the new meaning to play a role. Experiment 1 had shown that participants are able to retain some information about new word meanings relatively rapidly, but the explicit memory task that was used could not reveal whether this information had become integrated with existing lexical knowledge about the word’s primary meaning. From previous studies of semantic ambiguity (Beretta et al. 2005; Klepousniotou et al. 2008; Rodd et al. 2002), if lexical integration has occurred, then we should see a benefit for the words whose new meaning was semantically related to the existing meaning, as compared with words with an unrelated new meaning. In contrast, if no such integration has occurred, then participants’ speeded responses to these highly familiar words would be unaffected by the semantic-relatedness variable. MethodParticipantsThe 15 participants (six female, nine male; 19–32 years of age) were members of the and were monolingual native English speakers with normal or corrected-to-normal vision. They were paid for their participation. Stimuli and designThe target words, paragraphs, and assignment of items to versions were the same as in Experiment 1. The paragraphs were included in printed booklets that could be taken home by the participants. Each page of the booklet contained just one paragraph. For each version of the booklet, two presentation orders were created. The four possible combinations of version and presentation order were each seen by either three or four participants. The first version was randomly generated, and the second was created by reversing the first. Six rating booklets were created, each referring to one of the following properties: novelty, plausibility, clarity, coherence, logicality, and interest. As with Experiment 1, ratings for each word or paragraph were made on a 7-point scale from low to high.

Output: corroborate


Input: Claim: Tree rings cannot be used to study past volcanic activity or environmental disturbances. [SEP] Text: In the literature, several classifications of false ring, or double rings, or intra annual density fluctuations (IADF) exist. The appearance of an IADF can create errors in dendrochronological dating as it can be mistaken for a true LW band, and therefore cause a false assumption of annual growth truncation; this is the so-called 'false ring' phenomenon. The formation of IADFs has been related to physiological responses at the leaf scale, including stomatal diffusion restrictions and photosynthetic water-use efficiency (WUE), that are induced by extreme mid-season droughts (Battipaglia et al. 2010, 2013; Balzano et al 2018, 2019; Zalloni et al 2016, 2018a, b, 2019). The seasonal variations that are evident in the wood structure of annual rings are due to both phenological dynamics in cambial activity and influences from the ambient environment. McCarroll et al. (2003) explored the relationships of ten tree proxies, including several related to wood structure variation, with seasonal climate in Pinus sylvestris from three sites in northern Finland. Clear distinctions were noted in the correlations of EW and LW density and width-increment and seasonal climate variables. EW width was best correlated with late-summer temperature from the previous (antecedent) growing season, and it was hypothesized that overwinter stores of carbohydrate were used for EW construction. No clear climate signal could be associated with EW density. Latewood width and density were best correlated with late-summer (July and August) temperature of the current year, though the correlation was only strong at the southernmost site, and density alone was highly correlated with late-summer temperature at all sites. Similarly, using Quercus robur in Hungary, Kern et al. (2013) showed no significant correlation between EW width-increment and monthly precipitation or temperature, whereas LW width-increment was significantly correlated with July precipitation, but not with temperature. In ring-porous oak species, traits associated with individual EW xylem vessel size, rather than EW ring-width increment, have been shown to respond to site differences in spring moisture availability (Fonti and Garcia-Gonzalez 2008) and appear to be capable of acclimation to changes in spring temperature and moisture conditions (Gea-Izquierdo et al. 2012; Nabeshima et al. 2015).

Output: contrast


Input: Claim: The impact craters on the Moon provide insights into the history of the solar system. [SEP] Text: Robbins's database adds Smythii as a ≈955 km crater, while the Neumann et al. work lists it as ≈878 km. Given the different source data and degradation state, it is not surprising that there is some variation in measuring this feature. Orientale postdates Smythii, so its inclusion must be considered. Therefore, one could say that there are 4–5 craters on the Moon that are Orientale's size or larger and Orientale's age or older. For an expanded crater list, Smythii's diameter in the Neumann et al. database, or larger, could be used instead. Those craters number eight; in addition to the previous five, they add Serenitatis, Nectaris, and Australe Northa. There is also a natural break in diameters in their list between Smythii and the next-largest crater, Humorum, which they measured as 816 km. database includes the first two, but not the third, and it similarly lists Humorum after a natural break in diameters. Therefore, an alternative list is that there are 7–8 craters on the Moon with diameters D > 860 km which are Orientale's age or older. Figure 1 shows these impact craters on the Moon overtop topography, and Figure 2(A) shows the first four's model formation ages. Reset image size Figure 1. Topographic maps (black = low, white = high) of the Moon (top; Smith et al. 2010) and Mars (bottom; Smith et al. 2001) in equirectangular projection with the impact craters considered in this work overlaid. Short-dashed lines on the Moon indicate possible additional craters based on some uncertainty in their diameters, while is long-dashed because it could not be definitively identified in topography or images (note: maria infill is not necessarily a crater's rim). Short-dashed Borealis on Mars is due to some remaining controversy about whether it is a true impact crater and to indicate its extremely uncertain rim. Download figure:Standard image High-resolution image Reset image size Figure 2. Various scenarios of Moon's and Mars's cratering history presented in this work, where the vertical axes are meant to be illustrative and not precise.

Output: pass


Input: Claim: Semantic memory is involved in understanding the meanings of words and sentences. [SEP] Text: To ensure that the participants read the paragraphs during the unsupervised training sessions that took place outside of the lab, six short memory tests were developed that contained 12 simple questions apiece about the meanings contained in the booklets (two questions per paragraph read during the week). Some of the questions were open ended (e. g. , “Why were stubs usually killed in the past? ”), and other questions required participants to fill in a blank (e. g. , “_____ is now considered one of the most desirable massages available. ”). An additional 72 words were selected for use in the lexical decision experiment. These words, which did not appear in the training booklets or in the vocabulary test, were well matched to the training words for frequency, orthographic neighbourhood, syllable count, and number of senses, as well as for lexical decision performance in the Project (Balota et al. 2007; see Table 1 and the 1. In the lexical decision test, a fixation point appeared in the centre of the monitor for 500 ms, followed by a single word. The participants indicated via keyboard responses whether each word was a real English word (1 for real word, 2 for nonword). After each response, the word was replaced by a new fixation point. The 36 trained words, 72 untrained words, and 108 pseudohomophones were divided into four blocks pseudorandomly, such that each block contained the same number from each condition. Participants saw the four blocks in a randomized order, with the additional constraint that each possible order was seen by no more than one participant. Within each block, the order of the items was randomized for each participant. A practice session consisting of 28 filler items (half words and half nonwords) was completed before the experimental blocks. ResultsRatings taskParticipants made ratings of novelty, plausibility, clarity, coherence, interest, and logicality for each paragraph (see Table 4). Table 4 Experiment 2: Results of the rating task for related (R) and unrelated (U) items (calculated across participants)Full size table Memory questionsThe participants answered 12 questions on each of the 6 days of training. Overall, participants achieved 58 % correct (range across participants = 39 %–85 %).

Output: corroborate


Input: Claim: Tree rings cannot be used to study past volcanic activity or environmental disturbances. [SEP] Text: 2018, 2020a) and wood (Kagawa 2020) is interesting phenomenon and might be related to intra-annual oxygen and hydrogen variations in the wood formed during rainy seasons (Nakatsuka et al. 2004; Roden et al. 2009; Managave et al. 2010a; Ohashi et al. 2016; Xu et al. 2016; Nabeshima et al. 2018). Both in hydrological cycles and inside trees, hydrogen and oxygen isotopes of water behave, more or less, similarly (Dansgaard 1964; Kagawa 2020) and fractionations of hydrogen isotopes in leaf water are explained by the same Eq. (15. 2), with specific fractionation factors for hydrogen (Roden et al. 2000). The fraction of carbon-bound hydrogen atoms that exchange with non-fractionated water is also similar to that of oxygen (pex) (Yakir and DeNiro 1990; Roden and Ehleringer 1999; Roden et al. 2000; Kagawa 2020). Oxygen and hydrogen show parallel fractionations through hydrological cycles (i. e. non-biological systems) along the meteoric water line (Dansgaard 1964). However, hydrogen isotopes show larger fractionations than oxygen at the cambium, before and during cellulose synthesis (Yakir and DeNiro 1990) and isotopic deviations of hydrogen from oxygen off the meteoric water line (Yakir et al. 1990; Voelker et al. 2014) seem to be related to metabolic activities (Lehmann et al. 2020b, Nakatsuka et al. 2020). One possible cause for such deviations is respiration, because oxygen is eliminated by both carbon dioxide and water released from trees, and hydrogen would be eliminated only by the water. Such deviations are closely related to the amount of respired CO2 in humans and animals (Schoeller and 1982; Speakman 1997), and similar phenomenon might be happening in plants where respiration is high, in such places as symplastic leaf water pool (Kagawa 2020). In support of this hypothesis, Cormier et al. (2018) reports associations between hydrogen isotope fractionations of plants and carbon and energy metabolism under low light conditions. 4 in the Cellulose of Tree RingsNumerous studies have reported on the isotope composition of wood or cellulose (e. g.

Output: contrast


Input: Claim: The impact craters on the Moon provide insights into the history of the solar system. [SEP] Text: The crater ellipses in the horizontal direction indicate uncertainty in their ages based on established, extrapolated crater-based chronologies, while the vertical component is for visibility; crater ages' 3. 92 Ga (Bottke & Norman 2017); Orientale's age is based on Stewart-Alexander & Howard (1970), Baldwin (1987a, 1987b), Geiss & Rossi (2013), Yue et al. (2020). Borealis is set based on Nimmo & Tanaka (2005) and other work discussed in the main text; Utopia on Frey (2004, 2008) and Isidis, Ladon, Prometheus, Hellas, and Argyre are based on Robbins et al. (2013). While there is potentially a large amount of time between Argyre and Orientale, Argyre is the youngest large basin on Mars, the next largest being ∼500 km across, so it is not considered in this work. Download figure:Standard image High-resolution image 2. 2. Cratersimpact crater databases do not strongly disagree about large, distinct craters, so the database of Robbins & Hynek (2012) in conjunction with the mapping from Robbins et al. (2013) for the largest craters is used here. They—and others (e. g. , Barlow 1988)—typically recognize just four prominent, "obvious" large craters on Mars: Utopia (∼3400 km), Hellas (∼2300 km), Argyre (∼1300 km), and Isidis (∼1300 km). While size estimates vary considerably when measuring possible visual rims versus crustal thickness cavities (e. g. , versus diameters from Bottke & Andrews-Hanna 2017), all would still be included in this sample, so their diameters to even ∼±30% accuracy are unimportant for this discussion. In addition to the above, Prometheus is near the with a partial rim that forms a crater ∼860 km across, and the ancient, peak-ring Ladon crater is ∼1100 km across. Figure 1 shows these impact craters on Mars overtop topography. These total six impact craters in the approximate size range of Orientale and larger.

Output: pass


Input: Claim: Semantic memory is involved in understanding the meanings of words and sentences. [SEP] Text: 01, p >. 9; F 2(1, 33) = 0. 001, p >. 9] or on error rates [F 1(1, 12) = 1. 1, p >. 3; F 2(1, 33) = 1. 2, p >. 2]. Cued-recall testResponses were coded as in Experiment 1. Two different measures of memory performance were used as dependent measures: (1) proportions of correct responses (as in Exp. 1) and (2) the numbers of properties that were recalled for these correct responses. Overall, performance was better than in Experiment 1 (see Table 3), but it remained better for the related items than for the unrelated items in terms on the proportions of correct responses [F 1(1, 13) = 52. 3, p <. 001; F 2(1, 34) = 200. 9, p <. 001] and the numbers of properties that were recalled for these correct responsesFootnote 2 [F 1(1, 12) = 42, p <. 001; F 2(1, 34) = 52. 5, p <. 001]. To explore in more detail this increase in the number of properties that were recalled, the distributions of these individual responses are shown in Fig. 2. Fig. 2Cued-recall results (Exps. 2 and 3): Distribution of the numbers of properties that were correctly recalled on each trial (as percentages of the total number of trials). Open symbols show the mean numbers of properties recalled for the correct trialsFull size image DiscussionIn this experiment, the learning phase was extended across 6 days and participants were tested approximately 24 h after the final learning session, allowing us to examine longer-term memory for novel meanings. Although performance did improve relative to Experiment 1, performance on the unrelated meanings remained relatively poor. For the unrelated paragraphs, participants were only able to correctly recall some information about the word’s new meaning on 52 % of the trials, as compared with 100 % for the related meanings. The amount of semantic information that participants could recall was also significantly lower for the unrelated meanings: For those trials on which some information was correctly recalled, participants recalled an average of 1. 8 properties for the unrelated meanings, as compared with 2. 6 properties for the related meanings.

Output: corroborate


Input: Claim: Tree rings cannot be used to study past volcanic activity or environmental disturbances. [SEP] Text: , δ13C and δ18O) as a means of revealing seasonal dynamics in tree-climate relationships (Wilson and Grinstead 1977; Leavitt and Long 1986, 1991; Kitagawa and Wada 1993; Ogle and McCormac 1994; Li et al. 1996; Livingston and Spittlehouse 1996; Sheu et al. 1996; Jordan and Mariotti 1998; Jäggi et al. 2002; Helle and Schleser 2004; Eglin et al. 2010; An et al. 2012; Kimak and Leuenberger 2015). Variation in δ13C across individual rings can be as large as 4‰, though 1–2‰ is most common (Barbour et al. 2002; Kagawa et al. 2003; Helle and Schleser 2004; Li et al. 2005; Kimak and Leuenberger 2015; Fu et al. 2017). This amount of variation is most likely due to the physiological response of trees to climate forcings and/or biochemical and physiological fractionation, and is not related to seasonal variation in the isotopic composition of source CO2 (Jäggi et al. 2002; Helle and Schleser 2004; Li et al. 2005; Voelker et al. 2016; Fu et al. 2017). Variation in δ18O across individual rings tends to be greater than that for δ13C, ranging as high as 6‰ and often being between 2–4‰ (Wilson and Grinstead 1977; Zeng et al. 2014; Fu et al. 2017; Szejner et al. 2016; Belmecheri et al. 2018). The variation in cellulose δ18O reflects an important influence of seasonal variation in the isotopic composition of source water (Chap. 18). Because of this variation, intra-annual variations of oxygen isotopes show annual cyclicity in tropical areas and are often used for identifying annual rings in tropical trees that lack anatomically distinct annual rings (Poussart et al. 2004, Managave et al. 2010a, b, Pons and Helle 2011, Ohashi et al. 2016).

Output: contrast


Input: Claim: The impact craters on the Moon provide insights into the history of the solar system. [SEP] Text: The next-largest commonly recognized crater on Mars is Huygens, which has a distinct rim just ≈467 km across, so it is outside of the range of this work, even when scaling impactor-crater size relationships from the Moon (see Section 3) or considering the expanded lunar crater list with diameters larger than Humorum. In the other size direction, a possible seventh crater is the Borealis crater, or the entire northern plains of Mars. Andrews-Hanna et al. (2008) demonstrated more convincingly than earlier work that it is likely a giant, elliptical impact crater ∼8600 × 10,500 km. This is commonly accepted today, though because there is still some controversy (e. g. , Ballantyne et al. 2022), it is listed only as a possible seventh large, ancient impact crater on Mars in this work. et al. (2013) work is the most systematic for assigning ages to these impacts so is used here, though their work is in agreement with several others' based on modern imagery (e. g. , Werner 2008; Fassett & Head 2011). Using a wide range of crater-based model ages, they concluded that Argyre is the youngest of those craters. The absolute model age of Argyre is somewhere around 3. 91 ± 0. 03 Ga to 4. 00 ± 0. 03 Ga (depending on the crater-age model), so Argyre is potentially Imbrium-aged. As this is older than Orientale' age of ∼3. 7–3. 8 Ga, all of the large, identified Mars craters can be treated as the comparison set for this work; Figure 2(A) includes a timeline of their model ages. It should be noted that Frey (2004, 2006, 2008) also date these large craters using superposed—but buried—quasi-circular depressions (QCDs; see Section 5. 6 for further discussion of these features). While their stratigraphy broadly agrees with the above, it contradicts the order of Argyre and Isidis based on the superposed crater counts that Fassett & Head (2011), Robbins et al. (2013), and Werner (2008) all independently performed, leading to some questions about its validity.

Output: pass


Input: Claim: Semantic memory is involved in understanding the meanings of words and sentences. [SEP] Text: Meaning relatedness therefore influenced not only the likelihood of successful access to learned representations, but also the quality or amount of detail of the semantic representation that was accessed. In contrast to this clear effect of meaning relatedness on the explicit memory test, the lexical decision task showed a different picture. Participants were faster (and marginally more accurate) to respond to words that they had seen during training, as compared to words that they had not seen during training, but this overall effect of training may merely have reflected priming of the word form. In contrast to this strong main effect of training, there was no difference between their responses to the words that they encountered during training with either a related or an unrelated meaning. This absence of a relatedness effects suggests that while participants had learned the new meanings well enough to recall in the context of an explicit memory test, this information had not become sufficiently well integrated into their lexicons that it could significantly interfere with their recognition in an online, speeded recognition task. Alternatively, it may be that meaning relatedness has only a limited impact on lexical decision responses. In the absence of sufficient learning of novel unrelated meanings, we cannot distinguish these two possibilities, so in the next experiment we sought to increase the efficacy of meaning training. Experiment 31 and 2, the training procedure consisted of reading the paragraphs and making undemanding ratings. In both experiments, participants’ ability to learn the unrelated meanings was relatively poor, and Experiment 2 showed no evidence that these meanings could influence online comprehension. 3, we used a modified training regime that consisted of four separate worksheets that were performed separately on four consecutive days. These tasks were selected on the basis of the guidelines set out by Beck, McKeown, and Kucan (2002) and were intended to produce robust learning of the new meanings. Two of the tasks (Worksheets 1 and 3) focused explicitly on the learning of the arbitrary mapping between word form and meaning. The other two worksheets encouraged learners to deepen their semantic engagement with these new meanings (Worksheets 2 and 4). MethodParticipantsThe 16 participants (two female, 14 male; 18–23 years of age) were members of the. Fifteen were undergraduate psychology students who participated as part of their course requirement, and the final participant (a nonpsychology undergraduate at UCL) was not remunerated. All were monolingual native English speakers with normal or corrected-to-normal vision.

Output: corroborate


Input: Claim: Tree rings cannot be used to study past volcanic activity or environmental disturbances. [SEP] Text: Numerous past studies have reported differences in chemical composition between earlywood and latewood in a range of softwoods and hardwoods (Ritter and Fleck 1926; Wilson and Wellwood 1965; Khattak and Mahmood 1986; Bergander 2001; Gindl 2001; Bertaud and Holmbom 2004). Generally, all these authors found that earlywood contained more lignin and less cellulose than latewood. The difference was explained in terms of the structure of the cell wall since earlywood consists of a larger proportion of lignin-rich middle lamella, due to larger tracheid diameters, and thinner cell walls, compared to latewood (Fredriksson et al. 2018). The cellulose and lignin that compose tree rings can be distinguished on the basis of stable isotope ratios (Borella et al. 1998, 1999; Barbour et al. 2001; Loader et al. 2003; Verheyden et al. 2005). Observed δ13C values for cellulose are isotopically enriched by approximately 3‰ compared to those for lignin (Loader et al. 2003). δ18O values are significantly lower in lignin (22. 7 ± 2. 4‰), compared to whole-wood (27. 7 ± 0. 5‰) or cellulose (31. 4 ± 1. 4‰) (Ferrio and Voltas, 2005). In this context, it needs to be considered that lignin composition and percentage is variable, not only between EW and LW, but also among different species and even within a single population of the same plant species depending on age (Campbell and Sederoff 1996). Several past research efforts have shown that seasonal patterns of δ13C differ between EW and LW. Winter deciduous trees must, by phenological constraint, draw on stored carbohydrate (NSC) resources to support their earliest cambial activity. Using this assumption, several studies have interpreted the cellulose δ13C values of EW as reflecting fractionation processes from antecedent growing seasons (Jaggi et al. 2002, Helle and Schleser 2004; Li et al. 2005; Eglin et al. 2010; Hafner et al. 2015; Kimak and Leuenberger 2015; Fu et al. 2017; Zeng et al. 2017).

Output: contrast


Input: Claim: The impact craters on the Moon provide insights into the history of the solar system. [SEP] Text: Beyond these more apparent large-impact craters, numerous other features have been discussed in the literature, both before the availability of global topography (e. g. , Schultz & Frey 1990) and after (e. g. , Frey 2004, 2006, 2008). For example, the Chryse region of Mars is a broad, circular depression at the outflow of between Tharsis and Arabia Terra. It is commonly thought of as an impact structure (e. g. , the above 5. 6, Mars has only the above-described 6–7 large craters. 3. Scaling3. 1. of Crater DiametersScaling the expected impact crater diameter from one large, solid body to another that is composed of similar material can be reduced to two basic variables: the ratio of impact speed and the ratio of surface gravity. While there are other variables in determining the final impact crater diameter, they cancel out under the above assumptions, which to first-order are valid in scaling between Moon and Mars. (2005) treatment of this problem is still valid today, for there has not been any substantial revision of the impactor velocity distributions at bodies in the inner solar system (via Ivanov 2001), and there is no revision to the bodies' average surface gravities, as they are well known. For velocity, scaling goes approximately as the kinetic energy, E, which from Schmidt & Housen (1987) affects crater diameter as D ∝ E0. 43:Scaling for gravity from Schmidt & Housen (1987) is D ∝ g−0. 17:Simple multiplication provides a final scaling ofA more recent review by Johnson et al. (2016) favored slightly different scaling, pulling equations from Schenk & McKinnon (1985). Here, the final crater diameter is dependent on velocity D ∝ v0. 5, gravity D ∝ g−0. 25, and the diameter of the simple-to-complex crater transition as. Applying this scaling, Despite different parameters or exponents, a bolide of a given size appears to produce a crater roughly 3/4 the diameter on Mars as it would on the Moon. Therefore, scaling Orientale's impactor's diameter to Mars, the bolide would likely have produced a crater D ≈ 700 km on Mars. et al. 's diameter for Smythii at ≈880 km, that crater on Mars would be ≈660 km.

Output: pass


Input: Claim: Semantic memory is involved in understanding the meanings of words and sentences. [SEP] Text: Each worksheet was preceded by clear instructions, and we made clear that the participants should only read the paragraphs when directed to by the instructions. 5, the participants returned to the lab and completed the lexical decision task, the vocabulary test, and the explicit memory test. The procedure for these was the same as in Experiment 2. The participants were aware that their memory for the meanings would be tested. ResultsWorksheetsPerformance for the related and unrelated meanings is summarized in Table 5. 1, this score reflects the number of items that were correctly linked to their new meaning. 2 and 4, the scores reflect the numbers of items that were used appropriately within the new sentence/paragraph context. 3, the scores reflect the percentages of questions that were answered correctly. 2–4, the answers were considered correct if they matched the intended meaning in any way, even if they were lacking detail. 2 and 4, the participants were allowed free access to the booklets, and so would be expected to be at ceiling. No effect of Relatedness was expected on these worksheets. 1 and 3, the participants were encouraged to first try the task without the booklet, and so, on the basis of the results of Experiments 1 and 2, we predicted better performance for the related items. Note that these results come from worksheets that were completed outside of the lab, so we cannot be certain that all participants followed the rules exactly. Table 5 Experiment 3: Worksheet results (percentages correct)Full size table Repeated measures ANOVAs were performed on the percentage correct data for each worksheet, averaged across both items and participants. was entered as a within-subjects factor, and Version was entered as a between-subjects factor. 1, participants performed significantly better for semantically related than for unrelated words [F 1(1, 34) = 14. 953, p <. 001; F 2(1, 14) = 15. 283, p <. 01]. In contrast, there were no effects of Relatedness on Worksheet 2 [F 1(1, 34) = 2. 776, p >. 05; F 2(1, 14) = 0. 855, p >. 05], Worksheet 3 [F 1(1, 34) = 0. 008, p >. 05; F 2(1, 14) = 0. 027, p >.

Output: corroborate


Input: Claim: Tree rings cannot be used to study past volcanic activity or environmental disturbances. [SEP] Text: Helle and Schleser (2004) described a tri-phasic seasonal response in the δ13C from thin sections across individual rings in four deciduous species. In the earliest phase, δ13C ratios were at a seasonal high and it was assumed that cellulose deposition was supported by overwintered NSC stores. The enriched δ13C values of stored NSC was attributed to post-photosynthetic fractionation related to carbohydrate conversions between free sugars and polymeric starch (Scott et al. 1999). The earliest phase can potentially be short, as current-season autotrophic capacity and NSC export from developing leaves can occur relatively early in the spring (Keel and Schadel 2010). In the second phase, young leaves expand and become net exporters of photosynthates. During this phase, tree-ring δ13C was observed to decline and this was attributed to current-season coupling between photosynthetic fractionation during a period of cooler temperature and replete soil moisture. In the third and latest seasonal phase at the end of the growing season, an increase in tree-ring δ13C was observed, which is attributed to the late-summer translocation of leaf sugars into storage pools in the stems and bole, and concomitant isotopic enrichment during NSC transformations, as in the start of the growing season. In other studies, the enriched δ13C values observed in the EW of temperate-latitude trees has been linked to the use of stored NSCs, but the cause of enrichment was attributed to antecedent climate-induced fractionation, not the fractionation of sugar transformations (Kimak and Leuenberger 2015; Hafner et al. 2015). For example, Hafner et al. (2015) observed that δ13C ratios in a 38-year EW chronology of the winter-deciduous species, Quercus robur, were best correlated with climate conditions during the previous year's summer; suggesting a minor role, if any, for non-climatic fractionation effects. Given contrasts within the existing literature, there is a need to better resolve the determinants of EW δ13C ratios in deciduous trees.

Output: contrast


Input: Claim: The impact craters on the Moon provide insights into the history of the solar system. [SEP] Text: As there is the natural break in identified crater diameters on Mars between 500 and 860 km (Huygens and Prometheus), the lunar minimum diameter for either cutoff does not change the list of Mars craters. 3. 2. for NumberThere are two primary factors affecting the number of craters expected on one body versus another: the impactor flux (bolide/km2) and the body's surface area. In this discussion, Mars's atmosphere is negligible because it will not significantly affect bolides that would produce multihundred-kilometer craters. Addressing the second factor first, the bodies' surface areas are known quantities, and the ratio is simply evaluated: SAMars/SAMoon = 3. 822. The bolide ratio is a more complicated issue, and it has been the subject of many dynamical studies (see discussion in Section 5. 4). One of the most robust recent efforts to establish a value in the present-day solar system for Mars:Moon bolides is Ivanov et al. (2002), who found 2. 7, though there are substantial uncertainties. For purposes of this and the next section, however, a value of 2. 7 is adopted, and further discussion of it is in Sections 5. 4 and 6. Combining the bolide ratio and surface area scaling, one would expect 3. 8 × 2. 7 ≈ 10 times as many Orientale-sized and -aged impacts on Mars as on the Moon. 4. ResultsPutting the numbers from Sections 2–3 together is straightforward. There are 4–5 Orientale-sized impacts on the Moon that are Orientale's age or older (or 7–8 depending on slight adjustments to the lower size bound), and there are 6–7 scaled Orientale-sized impacts on Mars that are Orientale's age or older. The observed Mars number is significantly smaller than the scaling would predict: using the ≈10× factor on 4–8 lunar craters, one expects ∼40–80 similarly sized and -aged craters on Mars. 5. Methods to and TheoryThis mismatch between expectation and observation is significant. There are several possible, non-mutually exclusive implications and ways to reconcile these findings, and each is discussed in the subsections below.

Output: pass


Input: Claim: Semantic memory is involved in understanding the meanings of words and sentences. [SEP] Text: Thus, for those word meanings that were recalled, participants were able to retrieve the same number of new semantic features, irrespective of whether these were for a word that was related or unrelated to the original meaning. General discussionThese three experiments explored how adults learn new meanings for words that are already well established within their lexicon. Given the ubiquity of ambiguity created by acquiring new meanings for previously unambiguous words, this is an important, and yet poorly understood, aspect of adult language learning. The experiments assessed participants’ ability to learn fictitious novel meanings for words with a single dominant preexisting meaning. Two measures of learning were used: a cued-recall test assessing their explicit knowledge of the meanings, and a lexical decision task assessing the impact of this knowledge on online processing. We will discuss the results for these two tasks in turn. The cued-recall task showed that recall of the new meanings was significantly better when these were semantically related to the word’s preexisting meaning. In all three experiments, participants were able to correctly recall information for a higher proportion of the related meanings than for the unrelated meanings. This relatedness effect was particularly marked in Experiment 1, in which participants received only brief exposures to new meanings during incidental learning conditions and were unaware that memory would subsequently be tested. However, the relatedness effect persisted when the training phase was extended to 7 days (Exp. 2) and when semantically demanding tasks were used during training (Exp. 3). In these two experiments, the participants were aware that their memory would be tested, so we cannot be certain about the degree to which this learning reflects either incidental or intentional learning. The most likely explanation for this pervasive relatedness effect is that the semantic relationship between the old and new meanings makes it easier for participants to learn the mapping between form and meaning. Under this view, participants’ primary difficulty for the unrelated meanings is not in acquiring the new meanings themselves, but in knowing which word forms they belong to. Framed in terms of connectionist models of how ambiguous words are processed (Borowsky and Masson, 1996; Joordens and Besner, 1994; Kawamoto, Farrar, & Kello, 1994; Rodd et al. 2004), the connections between form and meaning are more easily learned for the related meanings.

Output: corroborate


Input: Claim: Tree rings cannot be used to study past volcanic activity or environmental disturbances. [SEP] Text: Evergreen species have opportunities to commence photosynthesis even in winter prior to the growing season where climate is mild, such as temperate European climate, and they may rely less on stored carbon for EW formation (see Zweifel et al. 2006; Kimak and Leuenberger 2015; Soudant et al. 2016). However, the study by Castagneri et al. (2018) showed evidence of significant reliance on stored carbon in the Mediterranean pine, Pinus pinea, for construction of both EW and LW. In contrast, Alvarez et al. (2018) observed no difference in the δ13C ratios of LW and whole rings in Canadian black spruce (Picea mariana) trees, and concluded that both EW and LW were constructed from current-year photosynthate. Intra-annual δ13C (and δ18O) variations are closely related to the water status at the time of wood formation (Leavitt and Long 1991; Kagawa et al. 2003; Verheyden et al. 2004; Roden et al. 2009; Li et al. 2011; Sarris et al. 2013; Schubert and Jahren 2015) and Barbour et al. (2002) reported seasonal variation in the δ13C of tree-ring cellulose in Pinus radiata that was consistently explained by theory relating intrinsic water-use efficiency (iWUE, Chap. 17) to current-season climatic variation and soil water availability. There was no need to invoke the withdrawal of stored carbohydrate reserves to explain the seasonal variation in δ13C. Similarly, Li et al. (2005) attributed the enriched δ13C in the EW of Pinus tabulaeformis in the Plateau as being explained largely by seasonal climate conditions, rather than the reliance on stored NSCs. Jäggi et al. (2002) conducted a detailed study of δ13C ratios in the bulk biomass of needles, needle starch, and the cellulose of EW and LW in Picea abies in an effort to differentiate the effects of stored NSC use from current-year climate fractionation. There was a significant positive correlation between the δ13C of current-season starch in 1-year old needles and the current-year's EW, suggesting the use of short-term needle stores to support xylogenesis.

Output: contrast


Input: Claim: The impact craters on the Moon provide insights into the history of the solar system. [SEP] Text: The purpose of this section is to discuss these different scenarios and give our opinion on which one(s) is or are most likely to yield results that reconcile the mismatch; definitive conclusions are not made because there are none yet. 5. 1. StatisticsWith roughly just half a dozen craters on both bodies, the small numbers issue must be considered at least partially responsible for the mismatch. For example, removing just one lunar crater reduces the number required on Mars by 10. However, the observation-expectation mismatch of nearly an order of magnitude is not within any reasonable uncertainty of these small numbers. For instance, attaching a simple Poisson counting uncertainty of ±N1/2 would give a range of 2–11 lunar craters, ergo expecting ∼20–110 Martian craters, which is still three times those observed at the lower bound. 5. 2. Values in Impactor-crater Scaling are WrongCrater scaling is based on fundamental physics, laboratory experiments, and hydrocode simulations. The only variable in the scaling from Section 3. 1 that might possibly be uncertain is the velocity distribution of impactors between Moon and Mars ∼4 Ga. These velocities would need to be wrong by a factor on the order of ∼10,000 to account for the mismatch on their own. Such a large error is extraordinarily unlikely and does not make sense dynamically, where even scattered comets would only have velocities ∼5× larger than well-behaved asteroids. However, scaling very large craters, where "large" is roughly thought of as when the target's curvature becomes nontrivial, is less well constrained than scaling laws for smaller impact events (Stewart 2010, 2012; Davies et al. 2015). Therefore, it must be considered whether accounting for this poorly constrained effect would significantly affect the list of craters for Moon and Mars. While curvature is nontrivial for ∼1000 km scale lunar craters, it is more trivial for ∼1000 km Mars impacts, and estimates of the scaling uncertainty are likely not off by enough to affect these results. Put another way, it is unlikely that Orientale's impactor, if hitting Mars, would produce a crater small enough to not be included in the Mars crater list.

Output: pass


Input: Claim: Semantic memory is involved in understanding the meanings of words and sentences. [SEP] Text: An alternative locus for the relatedness effect on cued recall, which we cannot currently rule out, is that competition between the newly acquired meanings and the existing dominant meaning is increased at the time of recall for words with unrelated meanings. While the effects of relatedness on the recognition memory test used during training (Exp. 3, Worksheet 1) and the lexical decision task (Exp. 3) indicate that relatedness effects are not exclusively limited to tasks with an explicit recall component, further experiments will be needed in order to determine the extent to which meaning relatedness might separately influence the learning and recall of novel meanings. In addition to the explicit test of participants’ knowledge of the word meanings, a lexical decision task assessed whether the newly acquired meanings could affect online comprehension. 2 and 3, participants were faster and less error-prone for the words that they had encountered during training, which likely reflects form-based repetition priming (e. g. , Perea and Lupker, 2004). More interestingly, Experiment 3 showed a significant benefit for words whose novel meaning was semantically related to their preexisting meanings (as compared with unrelated meanings). This finding has important implications for the debate within the ambiguity-processing literature about whether and how meaning relatedness affects lexical decision performance. While several authors have reported that responses to ambiguous words with unrelated meanings are slowed relative to related meanings (Azuma and Van Orden, 1997; Beretta et al. 2005; Klepousniotou et al. 2008; Rodd, 2004; Rodd et al. 2002), other authors have reported no effect of semantic relatedness (e. g. , Hino et al. 2010). These inconsistent findings might suggest that previous effects of meaning relatedness could have arisen from some other, potentially confounding difference between the particular sets of words used in the earlier experiments. Laboratory word-learning paradigms provide a useful method for ruling out alternative explanations of between-item differences on response times (e. g. , for studying lexical competition; cf. Bowers et al. 2005, and Gaskell and Dumay, 2003). In the present work, we showed a significant effect of semantic relatedness on lexical decision responses using a within-item design in which the same sets of words were used (across participants) as both related and unrelated items.

Output: corroborate


Input: Claim: Tree rings cannot be used to study past volcanic activity or environmental disturbances. [SEP] Text: The latter might explain observed negative correlation between δ2H and ring widths (Voelker et al. 2014) and positive and negative juvenile effects observed in long-term tree-ring δ18O and δ2H from central Japan, respectively (Nakatsuka et al. 2020). An et al. (2012) were able to partially deconstruct the complex influences of precipitation from two separate monsoon systems, and cyclic variability in sea surface temperature, on EW versus LW cellulose δ18O in a coniferous forest of southwestern China. This knowledge was subsequently used as a basis for concluding that regional coherence exists in the hydrological determinants of EW and LW δ18O values (An et al. 2012; Fu et al. 2017). Barbour et al. (2002) made observations of δ18O and δ13C in thin slices across two annual rings in Pinus radiata growing in three sites with different hydrology regimes. Generally, the two ratios were positively correlated across the growing season, showing that as evaporative enrichment of the isotopic content of leaf water increases, the iWUE of the leaf also increases. Furthermore, both δ18O and δ13C reflected increases in seasonally-averaged values among the three sites according to increased tendency for drought. These relationships are best explained by the correlated, but opposing, effects of increasing atmospheric VPD on stomatal conductance (decreases as VPD increases) and transpiration (increases as VPD increases). Thus, at the scale of selected trees growing across an individual season, ecophysiological responses to climate were a relatively accurate reflection of leaf gas-exchange theory (sensu Farquhar et al. 1982), however, a complete understanding of the tree-ring record of seasonal climate requires knowledge of the phenological gaps that occur in the process of xylogenesis. 5 in in Tree RingsAs interest in the intra-annual record of stable-isotope fractionation in tree rings has increased, it has become clear that an accurate alignment of that record with seasonal weather events requires knowledge about the timing and progression of xylogenesis (Rathgeber et al. 2016, Chap. 3).

Output: contrast


Input: Claim: The impact craters on the Moon provide insights into the history of the solar system. [SEP] Text: Meanwhile, the Huygens crater on Mars would need to be scaled up by a factor of nearly 2 on the Moon to begin to be considered in this work, and it is similarly unlikely that the impactor-crater scaling is off by that much. 5. 3. Megameter-class Craters are Abnormally LargeA consideration related to the previous subsection is that the nearside lunar craters are larger than they otherwise would be. Miljković et al. (2013) proposed this scenario, motivated by the observation of more large craters on the nearside than farside. Their numerical modeling indicated that large impacts in a crust with more heat flow could form craters up to two times as large as those formed in cooler farside crust from the same impactor parameters. If true, and if the farside heat flux was more similar to Mars's crust, that would eliminate Imbrium and potentially Crisium from the lunar megameter-scale crater counts. Those eliminations could lower the expected large-crater number on Mars by the linear factor of 2, expecting only ∼20. If the larger number of lunar craters were included (Serenitatis, Nectaris, Australe Northa), then 3–4 of the 7–8 craters would be eliminated, again cutting the required Martian craters by half. However, this analysis also assumes that Mars's crust was cool relative to the nearside Moon and was, instead, more similar to the farside Moon, when these large Martian craters are forming. The timing of exactly when these events happened and the precise cooling model on each body would be critical in exploring this method to reconcile the crater populations. 5. 4. was DifferentA more likely partial or even full solution to the observation-expectation mismatch is that the bolide scaling value used for today (≈2. 7) is not correct for the first several hundred million years of inner solar system history. Indeed, the review by Bottke & Norman (2017) included estimates from ≈1. 0 to ≈5. 3, with a discussion that different components of the early impact flux could be substantially different from today (elaborated on below). As the ratio of large impacts scales linearly with this parameter, if it were merely 1 instead of 2. 7, that would help significantly to resolve the mismatch (e. g.

Output: pass