Input: Claim: Biodiversity offsetting makes all types of land development fully sustainable. [SEP] Text: Meanwhile, the requirements for sustainable land development include nature and biodiversity conservation, environmental protection, avoiding natural disaster danger areas, and consideration for the landscape. 2. 2 Main land attributes related to judging developmentIn order to define development-restrictive and allowable areas, this study examines the relationship between land attributes and development. As demonstrated on the left side of Figure 3, there are three significant land attributes related to judging the appropriateness of development: (1) biodiversity, (2) natural disaster risk, and (3) topographic gradient [4]. Figure 3. Strategy for delineating development-restrictive areas and allowable areas. 2. 2. 1 Biodiversity“Biodiversity” is a key area when seeking nature conservation and environmental preservation [5]. Efforts to conserve biodiversity also help meet global goals for greenhouse gas emissions to mitigate climate change. Moreover, such biodiversity and nature-based solutions help protect us from climate change impacts, securing ecosystem services [5, 6, 7]. 2. 2. 2 Natural disaster risk“Natural disaster risk” is connected with one of the requirements, “avoiding natural disaster danger areas. ” Geomorphologically, the Earth’s surface is shaped by tectonics and climate [8]. As this simple statement implies, natural disasters can be divided into two categories: “tectonic” and “climatic” [9, 10]. Tectonic disasters include catastrophes caused by earthquakes and volcanic eruptions. Meanwhile, examples of climatic disasters are serious damage resulting from floods and droughts. 2. 2. 3 Topographic gradient“Topographic gradient” is mainly associated with two requirements for sustainable design, “environmental protection” and “accessible and universal design” [4]. Vegetation removal on steep-sloping sites often triggers significant environmental issues, such as soil erosion, landslides, increased downstream runoff, and flooding [11, 12, 13]. Meanwhile, as slopes become steeper, the provision of infrastructure and accessible design becomes more difficult and expensive [12]. Furthermore, “topographic gradient” is also associated with another requirement, “consideration for the landscape,” because developing steep-sloping areas frequently leads to serious disfiguration of the scenic landscape [11, 12]. 2.

Output: contrast


Input: Claim: Mars has polar ice caps composed of water and carbon dioxide. [SEP] Text: When a block was slid onto the bed surface, a greater range of dynamic responses was observed (Supplementary movie 3). In these cases, particularly in the 4–45 μm and 45–90 μm grain cases, sublimation dynamics mobilised grains on top of the block. This increased thermal contact between the substrate and the surface area of the block and subjected more grains to the and the force of rapid sublimation. Pits were generally deeper in these instances, compared to when a block was placed on a bed of the same grain size range (Table 1). Levées that formed during each experiment increased in maximum height with decreasing grain size (Table 1). This is expected, since decreasing grain size increases grain mobility as the Shields parameter (a non-dimensional number used to calculate the initiation of motion of sediment in a fluid flow35), increases. Levée morphologies were comparable to those encircling the terminal pits of linear gullies on Mars. These were raised, positive relief features which surrounded the pit in each case. The relationship between levées and terrestrial debris flows combined with sinuosity has previously been invoked to support a debris flow genesis for gullies (including linear gullies) on Mars36. Our experiments highlight the equifinality of the granular response to the movement of dry and wet fluids. Levées formed without the need for downslope block movement and granular material was transported to the side under the influence of pressurised gas alone. This is consistent with the sliding CO2 hypothesis which suggests that stationary blocks at linear gully termini are capable of excavating and transporting sediment to form pits and surrounding levées. via CO2 SublimationOur laboratory experiments are the first to show that features similar to the sand furrows on Mars can form by sublimating CO2. Furrows formed under the CO2 blocks and closely resembled Martian furrows — they were negative relief features similar in pattern and planform though on a smaller scale. The furrows observed displayed a range of patterns (linear, sinuous, dendritic and curvilinear). Martian furrows have been spatially correlated with dark fans, where vents in the ice are posited to form. These fans are thought to be composed of sand transported from beneath the ice by the cryoventing mechanism12.

Output: pass


Input: Claim: Gene drives are genetic modifications that ensure a specific trait is passed on to nearly all offspring, increasing its spread in a population. [SEP] Text: For example, immunization might be used to protect the native population of a species while suppressing or eradicating populations on other continents. Box 3 What types of genes can be edited using gene drives? Genes can be edited reliably if they are important to fitness. This is because NHEJ events that create drive-resistant alleles by deleting all the protospacer cut sites will only be harmful if they disrupt the function of important genes. NHEJ events in unimportant genes and sequences will produce drive-resistant alleles lacking the targeted sites. These will spread and interfere with propagation of the drive. As a result, unimportant genes can be reliably disrupted or deleted but not edited. Genes that are carried as cargo will not be evolutionarily stable unless they directly contribute to the efficient function of the drive. This limits opportunities to spread transgenes unrelated to drive function, although periodically releasing new drives that overwrite earlier broken versions could potentially maintain functional cargo genes in a large fraction of the population. Applications of RNA-guided gene drives RNA-guided gene drives have the potential to merge the fields of genomic and ecological engineering. They may enable us to address numerous problems in global health, agriculture, sustainability, ecological science, and many other areas (Figure 7). Of these opportunities, perhaps the most compelling involve curtailing the spread of vector-borne infectious diseases, controlling agricultural pests, and reducing populations of environmentally and economically destructive invasive species. Figure 7 with 1 supplement see all Download asset Open asset Potential applications of RNA-guided gene drives. Clockwise from left. Disease vectors such as malarial mosquitoes might be engineered to resist pathogen acquisition or eliminated with a suppression drive. Wild populations that serve as reservoirs for human viruses could be immunized using Cas9, RNAi machinery, or elite controller antibodies carried by a gene drive. Reversal and immunization drives could help ensure that all transgenes are safe and controlled. Drives might quickly spread protective genes through threatened or soon-to-be-threatened species such as amphibians facing the expansion of chytrid fungus (Rosenblum et al. , 2010). Invasive species might be locally controlled or eradicated without directly affecting others. Sensitizing drives could improve the sustainability and safety of pesticides and herbicides. Gene drives could test ecological hypotheses concerning gene flow, sex ratios, speciation, and evolution.

Output: corroborate


Input: Claim: Biodiversity offsetting makes all types of land development fully sustainable. [SEP] Text: 3 Development-restrictive and allowable areasThis study shows a method of dividing a region or municipality into development-restrictive and allowable areas, based on the strategy demonstrated in Figure 3. “Development-restrictive areas” means sites where land development, including vegetation removal and construction, should be prohibited. Development-restrictive areas are the unions, or amalgamations, of the following sites: (1) areas contributing more to biodiversity, (2) high-risk areas from predicted natural disasters, and (3) steep-sloping areas [4]. On the other hand, “development-allowable areas” means sites where land development can be permitted. Development-allowable areas are the intersections, or overlaps, of the following: (1) areas contributing less to biodiversity, (2) low-risk areas from predicted natural disasters, and (3) gradual-sloping or non-gradient areas [4]. Advertisement 3. BiodiversityArea-based conservation efforts are the cornerstone for halting the global biodiversity crisis [14, 15]. As shown on the left side of Figure 4, site-based biodiversity conservation can be divided into two main categories: (1) identification of significant areas for biodiversity and (2) conservation practices [16]. Currently, there has been a steady increase in the coverage of both identified significant areas and conservation areas. However, further and urgent expansion is necessary [14, 15]. The main coverage targets are listed on the right side of Figure 4. Figure 4. Current situation of area-based biodiversity conservation and main coverage targets. 3. 1 Identification of significant areas for biodiversityThe most authorized approach to designate important areas for biodiversity is the identification of Areas (KBAs). KBAs are nationally identified sites that contribute significantly to the global persistence of biodiversity, in terrestrial, freshwater, and marine ecosystems [17]. The KBA approach builds on a methodology originally developed for specifying (IBAs). After that, it was expanded to cover a wider range of taxa and conservation initiatives, such as the Alliance for (AZE) [18]. In 2016, the for Conservation of Nature (IUCN) published “A for the Identification of Areas,” providing a set of globally standardized criteria and quantitative thresholds [17]. In addition to sites of global biodiversity significance, there must be areas of national or regional biodiversity importance. Such sites should also be identified as significant areas for biodiversity [19]. 3.

Output: contrast


Input: Claim: Mars has polar ice caps composed of water and carbon dioxide. [SEP] Text: Furrow networks observed in the laboratory terminated at vents that developed at the boundary between the ice block and the pit walls (Fig. 4a). When a block was placed on the bed surface and carefully lifted as observed in 2, it was discovered that furrow mouths were located at regions where vents formed. Jets at vent locations were observed to transport grains from beneath the block. From these observations, we deduce that it is possible for furrows to be formed by pressurised gas that escapes through vents. Figure 4Furrow patterns and networks observed in the laboratory. (a) Before (left panel) and after (right panel) sublimation for an experiment on a bed of 45–90 μm grains. Left panel: sublimating block. Arrows point to vents where gas escapes from beneath the block. Right panel: primary pit formed on the same bed by the block shown in the left panel, containing linear and sinuous furrows. The direction of gas flow is marked by the convergence of furrows towards vent locations (blue). (b) Dendritic network of furrows (white arrows), formed in <1 minute when a block was placed on a bed of 75–150 μm grains. This block was lifted and then removed to demonstrate that dendritic patterns can rapidly form. (c) Primary pit containing linear and sinuous furrows extending across a pit floor on a bed of 4–45 μm grains. Vent apertures were not preserved, however by observation it was noted that vents operated on each side of the block. (d) Close-up of dendritic furrow network (white arrows) on a bed of 45–90 μm grains. Full size image Furrow abundance increased with decreasing grain size (Fig. 5c). Considering also the general increase in pit depth (Fig. 5b) and maximum levée height with decreasing grain size (Table 1), we report a feedback between grain size and feature formation via CO2 sublimation. When grain size distributions on Martian dunes are better constrained, this observation might shed light on why furrows are restricted to certain locations in the southern hemisphere13. However, we report that furrow pattern and network type are independent from grain size. Using the furrow pattern and furrow network classification derived from a survey of Martian dunes12, we classified the different network types formed by CO2 sublimation according to planform.

Output: pass


Input: Claim: Gene drives are genetic modifications that ensure a specific trait is passed on to nearly all offspring, increasing its spread in a population. [SEP] Text: Technical requirements for these applications vary with the drive type required (Figure 7—figure supplement 1). Eradicating insect-borne diseases The human toll inflicted by infectious diseases spread by insects is staggering. Malaria alone kills over 650,000 people each year, most of them children, while afflicting 200 million more with debilitating fevers (WHO, 2013). Dengue, yellow fever, chikungunya, trypanosomiasis, leishmaniasis, Chagas, and Lyme disease are also spread by insects. These afflictions could potentially be controlled or even eradicated by altering vector species to block transmission. Several laboratories have identified candidate gene disruptions or transgenes that interfere with the transmission of malaria (Ito et al. , 2002; Dong et al. , 2011; Isaacs et al. , 2012) and other well-studied diseases (Franz et al. , 2006). Depending on their effectiveness, these alterations may or may not allow the disease to be eradicated before the pathogen evolves resistance. Alternatively, the relevant vector species might be suppressed or eliminated using RNA-guided gene drives, then potentially reintroduced from sheltered laboratory or island populations once disease eradication is complete. In the case of malaria, gene drive strategies may represent particularly effective solutions to the emerging problem of mosquito vectors with an evolved preference to bite and rest outdoors, traits that render them resistant to current control strategies based on indoor insecticide spraying and bednets. Agricultural safety and sustainability The evolution of resistance to pesticides and herbicides is a major problem for agriculture. It has been assumed that resistant populations will remain resistant unless the relevant alleles impose a substantial fitness cost in the absence of pesticide or herbicide. We propose that RNA-guided sensitizing drives might replace resistant alleles with their ancestral equivalents to restore vulnerability. For example, sensitizing drives could potentially reverse the mutations allowing the western corn rootworm to resist Bt toxins (Gassmann et al. , 2014) or horseweed and pigweed to resist the herbicide glyphosate (Gaines et al. , 2010; Ge, 2010), which is currently essential to more sustainable no-till agriculture. Because these three organisms undergo one generation per year, comparatively large numbers of drive-bearing individuals must be released to quickly exert an effect, but fewer than are already released to control pests using the sterile-insect technique (Gould and Schliekelman, 2004; Dyck et al.

Output: corroborate


Input: Claim: Biodiversity offsetting makes all types of land development fully sustainable. [SEP] Text: A residential site developed on a steep-sloping area in Tokyo. When the gradient exceeds 15%, the cost of building on the site begins to increase significantly because construction becomes more challenging [35]. Typically, the development requires deeper excavation, more concrete, retaining walls, and specialized solutions for drainage and sewer systems [35]. 5. 2. 3 AccessibilityAs topographic features become steeper, incorporating accessibility and universal design into the developed areas needs greater planning. As shown in Figure 9, the built environment in hilly areas often includes inclined roads and long stairways, which are hard to go up and down, especially for physically challenged people. In addition, Japan has recently faced mobility issues, resulting from the age of the slope dwellers. In many hilly residential areas developed on the outskirts of megacities, aging has hindered the physical abilities of many residents. As a result, such older dwellers have started suffering from limited physical and social activities due to the steep slopes and long stairways [36]. According to a study on housing land development and accessibility, the maximum slope for general residential land should be 1 in 5, or 20% [37]. Meanwhile, the maximum gradient advisable for pedestrian ramps, which is also suitable for prams and trolleys, is 1 in 10, or 10% [37]. This figure significantly influences the design of pedestrian networks in various housing projects. In addition, ramp gradients are becoming more important with the increasing provision of ramps for the physically challenged in new projects [37]. 5. 2. 4 LandscapeSteeply sloping areas often offer significant views of hills and valleys. Thus, developing such areas frequently leads to serious disfiguration of the scenic natural beauty [11, 12]. Generally, as the topographic gradients of the developed area become steeper, the more easily the landscape changes come into view from many places in the city or town areas. Therefore, in order to maintain scenic hillside landscapes, municipalities should take measures to control development and construction on steep-sloping sites. For example, Council in Victoria, Australia, manages development and construction in areas with a slope of greater than 10%, mainly for retaining scenic landscapes and amenity values [38]. Moreover, the Council strictly limits land development in areas with slopes in excess of 20% [38]. The above examinations from the four aspects can be integrated into the following.

Output: contrast


Input: Claim: Mars has polar ice caps composed of water and carbon dioxide. [SEP] Text: The following classes were delineated: linear (straight negative relief lines in the substrate), curvilinear (curved negative relief lines in the substrate showing one inflection point), sinuous (highly curved negative relief lines in the substrate displaying more than one inflection point) and dendritic (branching negative relief features in the substrate)12. Figure 5(a) pit abundance versus area of terminal pits in Russell and Matara Crater. Plot indicates an increase in the number of new detached pits each spring with increasing linear gully terminal pit area in Russell and Matara Crater. Error bars were calculated by taking 2 × the pixel width for each site and propagating the error on πr 2 for each main (terminal) pit area). 2 value for the linear fit is 0. 72 and the p value is <0. 01. (b) Laboratory primary pit depth eroded per block thickness. Plot indicating that pits observed in the laboratory were generally deeper on beds of the finest grain sizes. The CO2 block placed on a bed of 45-90 grains in experiment 2 partially burrowed and therefore is not included here. Error bars denote vertical error (z error) on each DEM. This was calculated by taking 10 vertical sections of a ruler where available, or known measurement in the scene of the DEM, averaging them and differencing this value from the actual measurement. (c) Furrow abundance observed in the laboratory versus grain size plot. Plot shows furrow abundance observed in the laboratory decreased with increasing grain size. Error bars were calculated by defining horizontal uncertainty as better than 1 mm, defining furrows as negative relief erosional lines in the substrate, defining the pit floor as the section at 1 pixel resolution where the inner slope of the surrounding levée ended and relatively flat surface beneath where the block was began, and allowing for error in digitisation decisions when marking the pit floor and furrow outlines in ArcGIS. Considering these factors, uncertainty on measurements was estimated to be 10 orthophoto pixels in each case and their volumes were propagated within the furrow percentage expression to obtain an estimate of uncertainty on furrow abundance. Full size image On Mars, the specific location and patterns of furrows on dunes changed between Mars years following emplacement and sublimation of the seasonal CO2 ice deposit. We can report a similar outcome for our experiments where furrow location and pattern changes for similar grain sizes between experiments.

Output: pass


Input: Claim: Gene drives are genetic modifications that ensure a specific trait is passed on to nearly all offspring, increasing its spread in a population. [SEP] Text: , 2005). Releases would need to occur in local areas not treated with pesticide or herbicide, which would quickly become reservoirs of sensitizing drives that could spread into adjacent fields. Periodically releasing new drives could potentially allow any given pesticide or herbicide to be utilized indefinitely. Modeling experiments will be needed to evaluate feasibility for different target species. A second form of sensitizing drive could potentially render pest populations vulnerable to molecules that never previously affected them. For example, a gene important to fitness might be replaced with a version from another species or laboratory isolate whose function is sensitive to a particular compound. In principle, this approach could eventually lead to the development and use of safer and more species-specific pesticides and herbicides. Controlling invasive species One of the most environmentally damaging consequences of global economic activity is the introduction of invasive species, which often cause ecological disruption or even the extinction of native species. Isolated ecosystems such as those on small islands are especially vulnerable. RNA-guided suppression drives might be used to promote biodiversity by controlling or even eradicating invasive species from islands or possibly entire continents. The economics of invasive species control are also compelling: the top ten invasives in the cause an estimated $42 billion in damages every year (Pimentel et al. , 2005). Black and brown rats alone cause $19 billion in damages and may be responsible for more extinctions than any other nonhuman species. Deploying RNA-guided suppression drives against invasive species will incur two primary risks related to undesired spread. First, rare mating events may allow the drive to affect closely related species. Using precision drives to target sequences unique to the invasive species could mitigate or eliminate this problem. Second, the suppression drive might spread from the invasive population back into the native habitat, perhaps even through intentional human action. Native populations might be protected using an immunizing drive, but doing so would risk transferring immunity back into invasive populations. Instead, we might grant the invasive population a unique sequence with a standard drive (Figure 5C), verify that these changes have not spread to the native population, and only then release a suppression drive targeting the recoded sequences while holding an immunizing drive in reserve. Another approach might utilize a sensitizing drive to render all populations newly vulnerable to a specific compound, which could then be used as a pesticide for the local control of invasive populations. All of these possibilities will require modeling and experimentation to establish safety and feasibility before use.

Output: corroborate


Input: Claim: Biodiversity offsetting makes all types of land development fully sustainable. [SEP] Text: Generally, steep slopes, namely areas with a slope of 15% or more, should always involve restricting land development. In particular, land development in slope areas in excess of 20% should be strictly limited. Meanwhile, restrictions on developing areas with environmental sensitivity, landscape importance, and walkability-oriented design should start at 10% of a topographic gradient. Advertisement 6. Integration: defining development-restrictive areasThe previous three sections illustrate how to define areas contributing more to biodiversity, natural disaster-prone sites, and steep-sloping areas. Based on these preparations, this section shows how to integrate the three sorts of cartographic information and delineate development-restrictive areas. In addition, nowadays, the System (GIS) has become increasingly common in handling spatial data; accordingly, the following proceeds with the explanation on the assumption that a GIS is used. Figure 10 illustrates an example of combining the three sorts of geographical information in a GIS and defining development-restrictive areas. The left side includes necessary spatial data, such as hazard maps and relevant specified areas. The right side demonstrates how the prepared GIS data layers are overlaid and integrated. Figure 10. An example of the process for delineating development-restrictive areas. Concerning “topographic gradient,” planners draw up a map layer on which steep-sloping areas are shown. In this case, it is helpful to color the map of the relevant region or municipality according to gradient classifications: 0–10% (gradual), 10–15% (moderate), 15–20% (steep), and 20% + (very steep). An example of such coloring has been demonstrated in Figure 8(a). As for “natural disaster risks,” the planners create data layers by natural hazard type. In the case of Figure 10, two types of hazards, namely river flooding and landslides, are predicted in the region or municipality. Accordingly, a data layer showing river flooding high-risk areas and one displaying landslide high-risk areas are prepared. If reliable hazard maps are open to the public, such maps can be utilized. When handling data on “areas contributing more to biodiversity,” it is helpful to divide them into “significance” and “conservation. ” This division is based on the categorization illustrated in Figure 4.

Output: contrast


Input: Claim: Mars has polar ice caps composed of water and carbon dioxide. [SEP] Text: In some cases, a variety of networks and patterns developed on beds of the same grain size range. We identified dendritic and curvilinear furrow networks on the 4–45 μm bed pit floor (Fig. 4d) while only linear and sinuous patterns resulted from a second experiment of block placement on a 4–45 μm bed (Fig. 4c). Dendritic networks were observed in certain experiments across all grain sizes and these developed almost instantaneously as observed in 2, rather than via a network growth over time. However, furrows detected in our experiments formed via the contact between a ~−80 °C CO2 ice block and substrate which was roughly at room temperature and our incident ice was on a much smaller scale to that which seasonally covers Martian dunes. Our initial conditions were very different to the gradual basal heating of the CO2 ice sheet and consequent ice rupture proposed in the cryoventing model. However, we have demonstrated that dendritic patterns can form in a single cryoventing event, as was proposed for Mars12. Dendritic patterns tended to form when there were few vents, and when vents were furthest apart. We note also that when vents were located directly across from one another at each side of the block, linear and sinuous furrows formed instead. This is consistent with the observation that cryoventing efficacy on Mars is constrained by vent spacing12. We interpret this laboratory observation as an indication that cryoventing is likely to be limited by a pressure gradient. High pressure gas at the centre of the ice/substrate interface will be attracted towards an area of low pressure — such as that provided by a vent. If there is a roughly equal pressure gradient between the block centre and two lateral vents opposite one another, gas will escape at a similar rate towards either side and this will be reflected in the presence of linear or sinuous patterns that extend and connect across the base of the pit floor. We propose that Martian furrow formation and network type may be influenced by a pressure gradient, supplied either by inhomogeneous ice thickness on dune slopes and/or stress locations such as dune brinks. Further work may clarify the extent to which ice thickness and surface topography influence pressure gradients at furrow and dendritic trough locations on Mars.

Output: pass


Input: Claim: Gene drives are genetic modifications that ensure a specific trait is passed on to nearly all offspring, increasing its spread in a population. [SEP] Text: Skip to Content eLife home page your research Search by keyword or author Reset form my search to Feature 10. 7554/eLife. 03401 Open access Copyright information annotations (there are currently 0 annotations on this page). Share 46,927 views 7,310 downloads 634 3401. Copy to clipboard Download BibTeX Download. RIS 8 figures 1 Download asset Open asset The spread of endonuclease gene drives. (A) When an organism carrying an endonuclease gene drive (blue) mates with a wild-type organism (grey), the gene drive is preferentially inherited by all offspring. This can enable the drive to spread until it is present in all members of the population–even if it is mildly deleterious to the organism. (B) Endonuclease gene drives are preferentially inherited because the endonuclease cuts the homologous wild-type chromosome. When the cell repairs the break using homologous recombination, it must use the gene drive chromosome as a repair template, thereby copying the drive onto the wild-type chromosome. If the endonuclease fails to cut or the cell uses the competing non-homologous end-joining repair pathway, the drive is not copied, so efficient gene drives must reliably cut when homology-directed repair is most likely. Figure 2 Download asset Open asset Consequences and timing of gene drive replication. (A) Gene drives can carry other genes with them as cargo. For example, a transgene that blocks malaria transmission could be driven through wild mosquito populations. There is no selection to maintain the function of a cargo gene. (B) Gene drives can disrupt or replace other genes. For example, a drive might replace a mosquito gene important for malaria transmission. Because it cannot spread without disrupting the target gene, this strategy is evolutionarily stable. (C) If homing occurs in the zygote or early embryo, all organisms that carry the drive will be homozygous in all of their tissues. (D) If homing occurs in the late germline cells that contribute to sperm or eggs, the offspring will remain heterozygous in most tissues and avoid the consequences of drive-induced disruptions. Figure 3 Download asset Open asset RNA-guided genome editing via Cas9. The Cas9 nuclease protein and guide RNA must first be delivered into the target cell.

Output: corroborate


Input: Claim: Biodiversity offsetting makes all types of land development fully sustainable. [SEP] Text: The data layer of “significance” represents significant areas for biodiversity, such as Areas (KBAs). Meanwhile, the “conservation” layer displays conservation areas, namely protected areas and OECMs. After preparing the necessary data layers, the planners place them on top of one another and integrate the spatial data. In this case, the unions, or amalgamations, of the relevant areas shown on the data layers correspond to development-restrictive areas. The last part of this section compares development-restrictive areas with the coverage targets of conservation: (1) covering KBAs with conservation areas, and (2) conserving 30% of Earth’s land and sea areas by 2030. These two coverage targets have been shown in Subsections 3. 3. 2 and 3. 3. 3, respectively. Through the integration process, significant areas for biodiversity, such as KBAs, are taken in development-restrictive areas. Therefore, if the development-restrictive areas are given conservation status, all KBAs are naturally covered with this status. Meanwhile, development-restrictive areas contain natural disaster-prone sites and steep-sloping areas, in addition to areas contributing more to biodiversity. Thus, if development-restrictive areas are actually preserved, the coverage ratio of conservation areas to the Earth’s surface must expand greatly. In short, defining development-restrictive areas substantially contributes to meeting the two coverage targets of conservation. Advertisement 7. ConclusionIn order to pursue sustainable land development, this 3. In addition, development-restrictive areas are the amalgamations of the following: (1) areas contributing more to biodiversity, (2) high-risk areas from predicted natural disasters, and (3) steep-sloping areas. Section 3 presented the overall picture of current area-based biodiversity conservation efforts. Figure 4 concisely illustrated how to define sites contributing more to biodiversity, dividing them into two categories: (1) significant areas for biodiversity and (2) conservation areas. The diagram also showed the main coverage targets of these site-based conservation efforts. Section 4 demonstrated the whole picture of area-based natural disaster risk reduction measures in the three diagrams. Figure 5 portrayed the relationship between natural hazards and disaster risks, dividing them into “climatic” and “tectonic.

Output: contrast


Input: Claim: Mars has polar ice caps composed of water and carbon dioxide. [SEP] Text: Impact and FormationIn addition to primary pit formation, the cases where a block was slid onto grains of 4–45 μm and 45–90 μm revealed two additional pit types (Fig. 3b,c,e). These instances involved very different fluid dynamics to those observed in all other cases. Grain mobilisation induced by increased thermal contact between ice surface area and the warmer granular material, enabled the block to move downward, and the bed appeared fluidised (Supplementary movie 3). This process lasted ~1 minute in each case before the block was observed to submerge fully within the granular bed. CO2 gas jets escaped from the subsurface (Supplementary movie 3), excavating the material in the space surrounding their path and providing room for adjacent material to sink, forming collapsed pits (Fig. 3e). These endogenic pits were characterised by concentric tensional fissures and did not have raised rims. Finally, a third pit type was observed to form via the return of jetted sediment to the steady bed surface. These impact pits (Fig. 3b,c) were smaller in diameter than the primary pit and varied little in size (up to 6 mm in diameter, to below our measurement accuracy). Some occurred in strings and all possessed raised rims, suggesting surface material was ejected in their formation. Following the cessation of sublimation, impact pits were ubiquitous across the primary pit, levées and surrounding bed surface (Fig. 6). Figure 6Conceptual model of 3 pit formation modes. (a) Block is slid onto grains (beige), increasing thermal contact. (b) Grains are mobilised on top of the block via escaping pressurised gas, increasing CO2 ice exposure to the Leidenfrost Effect. (c) Block submerges; gas jets escape and surface material sinks forming collapsed pits. (d) Impact pits form by substrate return via fluid instability such as inelastic collapse of gas jets or granular clustering within jets; returned grains impact the surface forming shallow, rimmed impact pits. (e) 3 resultant pit morphologies; primary pit, collapsed pits, impact pits (within main pit and surrounding bed surface) and cracks. (f) Legend. Full size image in Proctor, Russell and Matara CratersFor morphometric measurements, we surveyed 60 primary terminal pits on megadune and 135 primary terminal pits at 13 sites in Proctor Crater.

Output: pass


Input: Claim: Gene drives are genetic modifications that ensure a specific trait is passed on to nearly all offspring, increasing its spread in a population. [SEP] Text: This is often accomplished by transfecting DNA expression plasmids, but delivering RNA is also effective. The guide RNA directs Cas9 to bind target DNA ‘protospacer’ sequences that match the ‘spacer’ sequence within the guide RNA. Protospacers must be flanked by an appropriate protospacer-adjacent motif (PAM), which is NGG for the most commonly used Cas9 protein (Jinek et al. , 2012). If the spacer and protospacer are identical or have only a few mismatches at the 5′ end of the spacer, Cas9 will cut both strands of DNA, creating a blunt-ended double-strand break. If supplied with a repair template containing the desired changes and homology to the sequences on either side of the break, the cell may use homologous recombination to repair the break by incorporating the repair template into the chromosome. Otherwise, the break will be repaired by non-homologous end-joining, resulting in gene disruption. Cas9 cutting is efficient enough to alter both chromosomes at the same time and/or to edit multiple genes at once (Li et al. , 2013; Wang et al. , 2013a). If the cell being edited is a germline cell that gives rise to eggs or sperm, the changes can be inherited by future generations. Figure 4 with 3 supplements Download asset Open asset Technical advantages of RNA-guided gene drives. Clockwise from lower left: The targeting flexibility of Cas9 permits the exclusive selection of target sequences with few potential off-targets in the genome. Targeting multiple sites increases the cutting frequency and hinders the evolution of drive resistant alleles, which must accumulate mutations at all of the sites. The Cas9 nuclease is can be quite specific in the sequences that it targets; fruit flies do not exhibit notable fertility or fitness defects resulting from off-target cutting when both Cas9 nuclease and guide RNAs are expressed in the germline (Kondo and Ueda, 2013). Choosing target sites with few or no close relatives in the genome, using truncated guide RNAs (Fu et al. , 2014), employing paired Cas9 nickases (Mali et al. , 2013a) instead of nucleases, or utilizing Cas9-FokI fusion proteins (Guilinger et al. , 2014; Tsai et al. , 2014) can further increase specificity.

Output: corroborate


Input: Claim: Biodegradable packaging is designed to decompose faster than conventional plastic. [SEP] Text: Individual cores, however, showed variations within the treatments, and the difference between treatments was not statistically significant, as stated above. Overall, the results show that the BD plastic treatments did not produce larger amounts of CO2 than the control (no addition) treatment. Methane production from all sediments, including the control treatment, remained around zero from week 0 to week 15. After week 15, the methane concentration in the PE treatments increased slightly (Fig. 3; more detailed view available in the Supplement, Fig. S4), and in the BD plastics treatment MF-S it was more pronounced. In the control experiment, methane concentrations dipped slightly below the starting concentrations but then increased from week 28 onwards, albeit with large variations between individual sediment cores. Both BD plastic treatments showed large increases in relative amounts of methane from week 20 onwards, although the large variations between individual cores within the treatments lead to large, overlapping error bars. The stabilization of the CO2 concentration and the increase in CH4 concentration in the BD plastics experiments matched time-wise, both occurring from week 15–20 onwards, although the increase in CH4 continued after week 28, when the CO2 concentration in the BD plastic experiments had stabilized. Visualization of the plastic film surfaces after retrieval from the sediments after 40 weeks did not show any clear signs of degradation or biofilm formation on any of the film types (PE, MF-S, MF-R; Fig. S5). DAPI staining showed a low number of microbes on the plastics' surfaces. Both regular and microscopic visualization, of all types of used plastics, showed no variation in appearance between the end and the start of the experiment. 4 biodegradability of BD plastic films depends largely on the match between their composition and the environment. In soils, BD mulch films have been shown to biodegrade successfully (Li et al. , 2014; Sintim et al. , 2020). However, due to this required match between the properties of the material and the in situ conditions for biodegradation, transport of BD mulch films to aquatic environments could result in a buildup of material, as is suggested by our results. The biodegradability of the mulch films investigated in this research is in strong contrast to the biodegradability of these films under previously investigated soil conditions.

Output: contrast


Input: Claim: Mars has polar ice caps composed of water and carbon dioxide. [SEP] Text: This preliminary study was carried out purely to demonstrate an initial trend that may help us to assess our laboratory data in the context of Martian dunes and is not intended as an exhaustive survey of Martian linear gully pits. All terminal pits were characterised by a roughly circular depression surrounded by circular levées, were shallow (<1 m–2. 5 m) and varied greatly in diameter, from <1 m to as much as 19 m. Pits were generally wider than their accompanying channels. This is consistent with our laboratory observations that pits were wider in diameter than the sublimating blocks which formed them. We propose that blocks translating down-slope do so quite rapidly and so the width of the channel carved corresponds with block width, while the stationary block may sublimate at the terminus, eroding and transporting material for longer at the site. Crater, the average primary terminal pit width was 3. 2 ± 0. 5 m and the majority of pits (83. 7% of those sampled) were less than 4 m in diameter, with the minimum pit diameter being 1. 4 m. The remaining 16. 3% of pits were between 4 m and 8 m in diameter (maximum 7. 4 m in diameter). Only 16 terminal pits were deeper than the vertical uncertainty of 1. 08 m on the DTM used. The aspect ratios of terminal pits ranged between 0. 8 and 1. 7. Crater terminal pits are larger. Only 11. 7% of terminal pits sampled were 4 m or less in diameter, while 46. 7% of terminal pits were between 4 and 8 m in diameter and 41. 6% were between 8 m and 19 m in diameter. The minimum primary terminal pit width on megadune was 2. 7 m and the maximum primary terminal pit width was 18. 6 m. Only 3 primary terminal pits were deeper than the upper limit vertical uncertainty of 1. 7 m on the DTM, and for these we determined an aspect ratio range between 3. 6 and 8. 3. Detached pits on megadune of average diameter 2. 5 m were found predominantly in the vicinity of the largest primary terminal pits. Other large primary terminal pits were not accompanied by detached pits. However, these particular linear gullies indicated higher probability of block energy loss such as high sinuosity and lateral small channels. These activities may have slowed blocks down or broken them up before reaching the termini.

Output: pass


Input: Claim: Gene drives are genetic modifications that ensure a specific trait is passed on to nearly all offspring, increasing its spread in a population. [SEP] Text: Finally, guide RNA engineering and improvement is an extremely active area of research; if current solutions prove to be inadequate, it is likely that alternatives will soon become available. Figure 4—figure supplement 3 Download asset Open asset Table of known technological advances that might be adapted to optimize gene drive efficiency. Off-target fitness cost, Cas9 cutting efficacy, and correct drive copying by homologous recombination (HR) are the primary determinants of drive fitness. The ideal standard gene drive confers an effective fitness benefit of 100%, as it is transmitted to twice as many progeny with no fitness cost. The fitness of suppression drives is more complicated due to species-specific density and resource-dependence and mating dynamics and must be considered on a case-by-case basis. The most challenging problem at the molecular scale concerns the highly variable rates of homologous recombination (HR) relative to non-homologous end-joining (NHEJ) in different species, cell types, and developmental stages. Cas9 cutting should ideally occur during a stage featuring efficient HR and minimal NHEJ to maximize fitness. Within the germline, homologous recombination rates are normally highest in the oocyte because NHEJ is nearly absent in that cell type. As development progresses, the incidence of NHEJ rises sharply even if the HR machinery remains active. For this reason, we anticipate that maternally transmitted drives that both cut and are copied into the paternal chromosome in the zygote will be among the most efficient. Paternally transmitted drives cannot cut the maternal chromosome until they are expressed, which occurs at different times in different species. Those species that initiate transcription comparatively early, such as mice, are likely to be more amenable to gene drives than those that begin late, such as Drosophila. However, this does not necessarily imply that HR occurs at low efficiency in Drosophila embryos; injecting Cas9 and guide RNA-encoding plasmids along with a template to be copied yielded correct insertions in 13/16 embryos (Gratz et al. , 2013). In contrast, injecting Cas9 and guide RNAs targeting two genes along with templates for repair into mouse embryos yielded 7/10 pups with the first insertion and 8/10 with the second insertion, with six of those having both; all other mice utilized NHEJ.

Output: corroborate


Input: Claim: Biodegradable packaging is designed to decompose faster than conventional plastic. [SEP] Text: Whereas within several soils substantial degradation of the incorporated BD plastic films was observed (11 %–98 % after 12 months, determined by “percentage of area remaining”; Li et al. , 2014; 12 %–23 % degradation of powdered BD plastics after 28 d, determined by weight loss; Adhikari et al. , 2016), no biodegradation could be observed in our sediment experiments, either based on produced CO2 or from visual analysis by microscopy. Similar conclusions were drawn based on a 100 d marine coastal zone sediment experiment (Nauendorf et al. , 2016), even though biofilm growth on biodegradable plastic bags (composed of biodegradable polyester and corn starch) was observed in that study. Freshwater BD plastic degradation studies are more rare and are focused on biofilm formation rather than on biodegradation rates (Morohoshi et al. , 2018). As observed by Nauendorf et al. (2016), biofilm formation and degradation are not necessarily related. Most marine sediment studies combine a biofilm assessment with visual assessments of degradation but do not quantify the degradation as either respiration or fragmentation. Quantification of degradation percentages based on assessment of the remaining plastics is difficult, as microp1. 0 cm downwards (Fiskal et al. , 2019). The plastics were buried shallowly in the sediments and will, at least partly, have been surrounded by sediments containing dissolved O2 (DO) in our experiments. Although exact DO penetration depths can only be determined with micro-sensors, we can assume initial oxic conditions here based on the natural oxygen penetration depth of these sediments (Fiskal et al. , 2019), the oxygen concentration in the overlying water (±400 µM; Fiskal et al. , 2019), and the disturbance caused by the pushing of the plastics into the sediments, bringing oxygen-rich water into contact with the sediment surrounding the plastic film. After the initial oxic conditions, DO may have become depleted within the originally anoxic sediment depths (> 1 cm) or shallower. Although under oxic conditions microbial growth and substrate turnover is expected to occur more rapidly, earlier research showed similar BD plastic biodegradation rates under oxic and anoxic conditions, despite higher microbial biomass formation on BD plastics under oxic incubation conditions (Nauendorf et al. , 2016).

Output: contrast


Input: Claim: Mars has polar ice caps composed of water and carbon dioxide. [SEP] Text: We observed a trend in detached pit data (Fig. 5a), which suggests that the abundance of these multiple detached pits at linear gully termini increases with the surface area of the newest/widened terminal pit. Should terminal pits be formed via the sublimation of CO2 ice blocks, the data suggest that a greater block size (and hence greater surface area exposed to sublimation) produces more detached pits. This is in agreement with our laboratory observations that “detached” impact pits formed on finer grain sizes when a greater amount of CO2 ice surface area was undergoing the initial rapid sublimation dynamics of the Leidenfrost Effect, allowing it to burrow. We hypothesise that the impact pits observed in the laboratory were formed through a clustering27 instability in the granular jets (Fig. 6). This lends credence to our hypothesis that the multiple detached pits surrounding many Martian linear gully terminal pits (Fig. 2a–d) may be formed by a similar mechanism involving granular jets. We reason that at linear gully termini, the sublimating CO2 may become unstable as blocks reach a terminal velocity (and greater drag force) at the lower dune slipface, which is reflected in the confinement of these detached pits to the lower ~200 m of the channel vicinity (Fig. 2a–d). Granular clusters may become entrained within sublimating CO2 gas jets as the block sublimates. We propose that these are splayed out radially from the terminal pit to form smaller, shallower detached pits upon return impact to the sandy surface, in a similar manner to the mechanism by which impact pits were observed to form in our laboratory experiments (Supplementary movie 4). However, our laboratory experiments required jetting of an endogenic origin which resulted in terraced collapsed pits seen in Fig. 3e. Similar morphologies have yet to be identified on Mars, but it is possible that inset pits seen inside terminal pits may denote locations where blocks have burrowed beneath the surface. Alternatively, inset pits could indicate new, inner paths of blocks within pre-existing channels. However, the ratio of collapsed to impact pits in our laboratory experiments ranged from 5. 3–10 and the ratios of inset pits to smallest detached pits in ranged from 4. 3–8. 1 and so certainly for the smaller detached pits in this setting, our proposed process is plausible.

Output: pass


Input: Claim: Gene drives are genetic modifications that ensure a specific trait is passed on to nearly all offspring, increasing its spread in a population. [SEP] Text: We suspect that while drive copying rates will be difficult to predict in advance in a given species, any drive constructed with a housekeeping, viral, or strong germline promoter is likely to function reasonably well due to the combination of highly efficient maternal copying and moderate paternal copying in the zygote and early embryo. Germline copying can also occur later in development for standard drives. The difference between achiasmate species with low HR rates during meiosis, at least in males, and chiasmate species is likely to be crucial. The difference is clearly demonstrated by comparing the Anopheles drive, which exhibited 97% HR and a fitness benefit over 50% (25% given its restriction to males) (Windbichler et al. , 2011), to the equivalent Drosophila drive, which exhibited 71% HR and an effective fitness benefit of 32% (54% homing–22% NHEJ; a 16% benefit given its restriction to males) only after extensive optimization (Chan et al. , 2013b). The latter was improved from an initial construct demonstrating only 35% HR (Chan et al. , 2011), which is insufficient to generate a fitness benefit if targeting an essential gene and will generate more resistant alleles than copies of the drive if not. Limiting expression to the late germline may be very effective, but early germline or especially oocytic expression may be superior depending on the species. Finally, it may be possible to repress genes required for the competing non-homologous end-joining pathway using Cas9 in order to boost the effective homologous recombination rate in a particular germline stage (Figure 4—figure supplement 1). Genes responsible for homologous recombination might be activated in a similar manner. The main question is whether the resulting changes in protein abundance will occur quickly enough to influence drive copying. Figure 5 Download asset Open asset Methods of reversing, preventing, and controlling the spread and effects of gene drives. (A) Reversal drives could correct or reverse genomic alterations made by an earlier drive with unexpected side effects. They might also be used to reverse conventionally engineered or evolved changes. Immunization drives could prevent other gene drives from affecting a specific population or provide a population with resistance to DNA viruses. Precision drives could exclusively spread through a subpopulation with a unique gene or sequence.

Output: corroborate


Input: Claim: Biodegradable packaging is designed to decompose faster than conventional plastic. [SEP] Text: The lack of suitable BD plastic degrading microorganisms is, however, the most likely explanation for the large difference in BD mulch film decomposition between our sediment experiment and previously performed soil experiments. The sediments likely lack microorganisms that produce hydrolytic enzymes (esterases) that can cleave PBAT and PLA, the main polyesters in the BD films used. When specific genes known to be associated to BD plastic degradation are identified in the future, it would be interesting to screen our incubation experiment sediments for those genes to confirm such a hypothesis. 5 types of biodegradable plastic mulch films showed no signs of degradation over a 10-month period within lake surface sediments, suggesting very limited biodegradability in freshwater sediment environments. These findings stress the importance of limiting the transport of plastics from agricultural soils to waterways – not only for traditional plastics but also for soil-biodegradable plastics. Given that these plastics are designed to remain in the soil rather than to be removed after use, they remain present in the natural environment until complete degradation. The extent of the transport of BD mulch films from soils to waterways and lakes is up to this point unknown. Our results show that it is of high importance to investigate how much of the applied biodegradable mulch films are transported to aquatic environments to be able to assess the potential pollution of lakes and coastal areas by the current and future applications of biodegradable plastic mulch films. Data availability The data used in this paper are available at (van Grinsven and Schubert, 2023). supplement related to this 10. 5194/bg-20-4213-2023-supplement. Author contributions SvG designed the experiments with help from CS. SvG conducted the experiments and laboratory analyses. SvG wrote the manuscript, with assistance from CS. Competing interests The contact author has declared that neither of the authors has any competing interests. Disclaimer Publisher's note: remains neutral with regard to jurisdictional claims made in the text, published maps, institutional affiliations, or any other geographical representation in this paper. Publications makes every effort to include appropriate place names, the final responsibility lies with the authors. want to thank for his valuable contributions to the paper and for providing the biodegradable plastic mulch films. We thank for the help in the lab and field, as well as for the help with the incubation experiments.

Output: contrast


Input: Claim: Mars has polar ice caps composed of water and carbon dioxide. [SEP] Text: A detailed numerical mode of jetting activity under Martian conditions would allow us to understand the effect of scaling on the proposed process. In one instance, a high albedo block was measured within a pit on megadune (Fig. 2a) during MY 30, which disappeared the following year and hence was likely to be CO2 10. The pit was observed to widen by 2. 1 m in MY 31 during the disappearance of the block. We measured the block in MY 30 to be 2. 4 m wide, giving a pit to block widening factor of 0. 9. This is consistent with the degree to which we observed pits to erode in the laboratory setting. The pit to block width ratio observed in our laboratory experiments ranged from 1. 08 to 1. 72. Considering a horizontal uncertainty in this HiRISE image of 0. 25 cm/pixel, this observed pit widening by a high albedo block is consistent with a CO2 block hypothesis. Considering our scaling arguments, it is likely that the high albedo object was a CO2 block which eroded its surroundings to widen a pre-existing pit. The wide variation in aspect ratio found at both locations is consistent with a dry ice block hypothesis. The blocks that naturally fall from over steepened cornices or steep alcove walls will have a range of sizes and will not be symmetric, thus they will form a wide variety of pit dimensions. Considering the average grain size range reported for the Bagnold dunes on Mars (200–300 μm)32, we used the values in Table 1 and our calculated scale factor of 0. 61 (see Experimental Scaling) to estimate the block sizes needed to form our range of pits. Using our upper grain size ranges of 75–150 μm and 160–212 μm, we estimate that the block sizes needed to form the pits we have surveyed range from 1. 2 m–6. 5 m in and 2. 4 m–16. 3 m in Russell Crater. High albedo blocks of dimensions between 1. 6 and 6 m have been measured in our survey of Russell Crater, however larger blocks have yet to be identified. The lower range of normalised pit to block width ratios is consistent with dimensions we have observed on Mars using HiRISE images in which high albedo blocks have been identified in linear gully channels in Matara Crater21 and in channels and pits in Russell Crater10.

Output: pass


Input: Claim: Gene drives are genetic modifications that ensure a specific trait is passed on to nearly all offspring, increasing its spread in a population. [SEP] Text: (B) Together, these can quickly halt an unwanted drive and eventually restore the sequence to the original wild-type save for the residual Cas9 and guide RNAs. (C) Any population with limited gene flow can be given a unique sequence by releasing drives A and B in quick succession. So long as drive A does not escape into other populations before it is completely replaced by drive B, subsequent precision drives can target population B without risking spread into other populations. Figure 6 with 3 supplements Download asset Open asset Controlling population suppression. Previously proposed genetic load and meiotic suppression drives spread without limit and may incur a substantial risk of extinction. Alternative gene drive types might be used to grant finer control over the extent of suppression. ‘Sensitization drives’ would be harmless save for conferring vulnerability to a particular chemical, which could then be used as a population-specific pesticide. Evolutionarily ‘unstable drives’ would place a limit on the average number of drive copying events and thus the extent of population suppression. ‘Interacting drives’ would initiate suppression only upon encountering a specific genetic signature in the population, in this case a different gene drive. The combination would create a sterile-daughter effect (Figure 6—figure supplement 1) capable of continuing suppression for several generations. Finally, an immunizing drive could protect a subpopulation from a full genetic load or male-biasing suppression drive employed elsewhere. Interacting drive and immunizing drive approaches would be effective on very large populations spread across substantial geographic areas (Figure 6—figure supplement 2) while suffering from correspondingly reduced geographic resolution and greater ecological risk (Figure 6—figure supplement 3). Resolutions are approximations only and will vary with the specific drive utilized in each class. Figure 6—figure supplement 1 Download asset Open asset Sample interacting drives that produce a sterile-daughter effect. (A) spreads through the wild-type population without any phenotypic effect using Cas9-A and guide RNAs A-E (essential). It also carries guide RNAs B-F (fertility), which cannot be utilized by Cas9-A. (B) spreads through the wild-type population without any phenotypic effect using Cas9-B and guide RNAs B-E (essential). It also carries guide RNAs A-F (fertility), which cannot be utilized by Cas9-B.

Output: corroborate


Input: Claim: Biodegradable packaging is designed to decompose faster than conventional plastic. [SEP] Text: Preprints AbstractDiscussion © Author(s) 2023. This work is distributed under the Attribution 4. 0 License. © Author(s) 2023. This work is distributed under the Attribution 4. 0 License. Preprints AbstractDiscussionMetrics 04 Apr 2023 | 04 Apr 2023 Soil-biodegradable plastic films do not decompose in a lake sediment over 9 months of incubation Sigrid van Grinsven and Abstract. Agriculture relies heavily on the use of plastic mulch films, which increase crop yields and lower water demands. Research has shown that agricultural mulch film may be transported to aquatic environments. We tested the mineralization of soil-biodegradable agricultural mulch films in freshwater lake sediments. Two types of commercial soil-biodegradable mulch films were incubated within lake sediment cores, and the production of CO2 and CH4 was followed over time. After the 40-week incubation period, films were visually intact and showed no signs of mineralization. Gas analyses showed no additional production of either CO2 or CH4 in the degradable film incubations, compared to control or PE plastic incubations. We conclude that the tested soil-biodegradable mulch films have a low biodegradability in lake sediments, likely reflecting that the lake sediment lacks active microbial degraders. Our results highlight the importance of preventing transport of soil-biodegradable mulch films from agricultural soils to surrounding aquatic environments. How to cite. van Grinsven, S. and Schubert, C. : Soil-biodegradable plastic films do not decompose in a lake sediment over 9 months of incubation, EGUsphere [preprint], 2023. Received: 05 Mar 2023 – Discussion started: 04 Apr 2023 Publisher's note: remains neutral with regard to jurisdictional claims made in the text, published maps, institutional affiliations, or any other geographical representation in this preprint. The responsibility to include appropriate place names lies with the authors. Download & links Preprint (PDF, 1157 KB) Notice on discussion status The requested preprint has a corresponding peer-reviewed final revised paper. You are encouraged to refer to the final revised version. Preprint (1157 KB) Supplement (2178 KB) Download & links The requested preprint has a corresponding peer-reviewed final revised paper.

Output: contrast


Input: Claim: Mars has polar ice caps composed of water and carbon dioxide. [SEP] Text: The ratio of channel width to block width in ranges from 1. 9 to 1. 1 and in Russell Crater, observed ratios were 1. 7 to 2. 0. Allowing for measurement uncertainty of one pixel width (0. 25 m), these values fall within our estimated range of 1. 08–1. 72. Although these channels have clearly been eroded prior to the observations of these blocks within them, we can speculate that blocks of similar size to those observed eroded them. Should further data be collected on block sizes at these locations, our laboratory data can be drawn upon to assess whether pit dimensions in the locality are likely to be formed by these CO2 ice blocks and perhaps, by how much pit dimensions might grow seasonally. ConclusionOur experiments suggest that furrows and pits can be formed by the sublimation of CO2 ice blocks. The differences in temperature, atmospheric density and pressure, and gravity can be accounted for in a scaling analysis by using different sized grains, but the difference in scale cannot easily be dealt with, thus though our evidence is suggestive it is not conclusive. The CO2 block hypothesis21 is the only current hypothesis that can explain present-day linear gully pit formation. We have shown that stationary sublimating CO2 ice blocks in contact with porous, mobile material are capable of transporting sediment to form primary pits and surrounding levées. Our scaling arguments and morphological observations suggest that primary pits may be analogous with Martian primary terminal pits in Russell, Matara and Proctor Craters. In particular, our observation of a high albedo block within a terminal pit and subsequent widening consistent with the ratios predicted from our laboratory data, suggest that linear gully pits may be formed and widened by CO2 blocks. Additionally, we have observed that collapsed pits and detached impact pits; two ancillary pit types, can form by sublimating CO2 ice blocks and subsurface jetting. We have presented a new hypothesis for detached pit formation at linear gully termini. This hypothesis is consistent with the observed relationship between terminal pit area and number of associated new detached pits forming seasonally in Russell and and is supported by the laboratory observation that jetting activity can result in impact pits. Further work is required to appropriately address size scaling, and a detailed numerical model may give further insight.

Output: pass


Input: Claim: Gene drives are genetic modifications that ensure a specific trait is passed on to nearly all offspring, increasing its spread in a population. [SEP] Text: Cas9-A and Cas9-B are orthogonal in that they do not recognize one another's guide RNAs. (C) When organisms bearing and B are crossed, offspring inherit one copy of each. Both drives are copied as normal. In addition, Cas9-A (from Drive A) uses guide RNAs A-F (from Drive B) to cut a gene essential for female fertility, while Cas9-B (from Drive B) does the same using guide RNAs-B-F (from Drive A) to cut a different gene. and B have internal homology appropriate to be copied into these cut fertility genes, disrupting them and causing infertility in females. If all repairs are conducted via homologous recombination, there are now four drives: A, B, AB1, and AB2. In reality, recombination between the non-homologous chromosomes is likely to be less efficient, causing loss of the female fertility genes but not explicit copying of AB1 and/or AB2. The phenotypic effect is identical. Figure 6—figure supplement 2 Download asset Open asset An extreme example of ecological management: the use of suppression and immunizing drives to control rat populations worldwide. Releasing Y-Drive-SD (male-biasing sterile-daughter) rats into invasive rat populations would initiate local eradication while an immunizing drive protectively recoded the native rat populations of Eurasia. Stowaway-mediated gene flow, depicted as a border of Y-Drive-SD framing Eurasia, will result in local population suppression due to the sterile-daughter effect that would remain when the drives interacted, limiting the ability of either population to invade the other. This control process would have to be repeated with new drives once recoded stowaways successfully re-invade the rat-free habitats. Because of the complexity of gene flow patterns in rats, the uncertainty of whether a Y-Drive-SD would be effective, and the possibility for adverse human intervention, controlling rat populations in this way will not be feasible any time within the next decade and possibly not at all, but it provides a useful world-spanning example of a possible drive-based solution aiming to solve a serious global problem. Relying on precision drives to give specific invasive rat populations unique genetic markers (Figure 5C) for subsequent targeting with precision suppression drives or utilizing weaker suppression drive types (Figure 6) may represent more feasible alternatives.

Output: corroborate


Input: Claim: Biodegradable packaging is designed to decompose faster than conventional plastic. [SEP] Text: You are encouraged to refer to the final revised version. Preprint (1157 KB) Metadata XML Supplement (2178 KB) revised paper 10. 5194/bg-20-4213-2023, 2023 Short summary Co-editor-in-chief Short summary Agriculture relies heavily on plastic mulch films, which may be transported to aquatic environments. We investigated the breakdown of soil-biodegradable agricultural mulch films in lake sediments. After 40 weeks, films were intact, and no significant CO2 or CH4 was produced from the biodegradable mulch films. We conclude that the mulch films we used have a low biodegradability in lake sediments. The sediment lacks the microbes needed to break down the biodegradable plastics that were used here. Hide Co-editor-in-chief The findings of this study are interesting to a broader audience as it demonstrates that supposedly biodegradable mulch films used for agricultural purposes remain unchanged in lake sediments over several months. The results indicate that lake sediments are a place of long-term storage rather than a place of degradation for this form of plastic. van Grinsven and Interactive discussion Status: closed Comment types: AC – author | RC – referee | CC – community | EC – editor | CEC – chief editor | : Report abuse RC1: 'Comment on egusphere-2023-400', #1, 02 May 2023 The present manuscript shows an interesting subject strongly linked to ecofriendly agriculture and sustainability. However, it needs some adjustments according to notes made into manuscript file attached here. Citation: AC1: 'Reply on RC1', Sigrid van Grinsven, 15 Aug 2023 We would like to sincerely thank this reviewer for the useful feedback, which increased the quality of this manuscript. We have adapted the manuscript at each of the locations where this reviewer added comments, as can be seen in the uploaded document. We have not added individual replies to the reviewer's comments, as the format did not easily allow for that. We hope it is sufficiently clear for the reviewer based on the changes in the manuscript text, how we have used their comments. If needed, we can provide extra explanations. We have also added and adapted text based on the comments of reviewer 2, which often showed overlap with the comments of reviewer 1.

Output: contrast


Input: Claim: Mars has polar ice caps composed of water and carbon dioxide. [SEP] Text: Cryoventing is the only hypothesis that has been offered for sand furrows on Mars, but prior to this study there has been no physical evidence that a pressurised gas layer at a CO2 ice and sandy interface can form the complex patterns similar to those observed on Martian dunes. Our results suggest that sublimating CO2 generates gas flows sufficiently powerful to mobilise grains on top of the incident ice and add to the granular sheet via venting — a process which is hypothesised to form the dark fans accompanying sand furrows12. We have shown for the first time, that a range of furrow morphologies can form by escaping pressurised gas at the interface between a granular surface and a CO2 ice overburden, and that furrow pattern type is independent from the grain size distribution (within our grain size range) of the material into which it is eroded. The data suggest that cryoventing efficacy and furrow pattern type are limited by a pressure gradient provided by vent spacing. Additional data is required to assess the role of ice thickness and vent geometry in furrow formation. Our study has delivered for the first time, physical evidence that (1) linear gully pits and (2) furrows; both active features observed to fade, extend and form in the contemporary Martian climate, may be forming via the action of sublimating CO2 ice. 2. Journal of 82, 4341–4349, (1977). 10. 1126/science. 153. 3732. 136 (1966). 10. 1029/2003JE002223 (2004). ADS 10. 1002/2015JE004909 (2015). 10. 1126/science. 1066556 (2001). 10. 1029/2000JE001455 (2001). 10. 1029/2002JE002007 (2003). 10. 1016/j. icarus. 2009. 07. 021 (2010). 10. 1016/j. icarus. 2012. 04. 005 (2012). 10. 1038/nature04945 (2006). 10. 1016/j. icarus. 2016. 09. 007 (2017). 10. 1016/j. icarus. 2016. 09. 039 (2017). 10. 1029/2012GL052226 (2012). 10. 1029/2009GL042192 (2010). ADS 10. 1016/j. icarus. 2013.

Output: pass


Input: Claim: Gene drives are genetic modifications that ensure a specific trait is passed on to nearly all offspring, increasing its spread in a population. [SEP] Text: Figure 6—figure supplement 3 Download asset Open asset Characteristics of population suppression drives. The optimal suppression drive for a given population will be highly species- and situation-dependent. In species with poorly understood genetics, more technically challenging drives may not be an option. While all true drives risk spreading into non-target populations with compatible sequences, the ecological risks to those populations vary. For some drives, a single individual escaping to a non-target population could cause widespread population suppression or even extinction, while others would require multiple sequential escapees of particular drive types. Some drives will be quickly eliminated by natural selection if not continually re-released, others would require a reversal drive to restore the wild-type sequence but should not have any phenotypic effects, and the most aggressive would require a suitable immunizing drive to be released within a certain timeframe in order to prevent a population crash. All of these risks could be mitigated by first recoding the target population to create a unique target sequence using successive standard drives (Figure 5A–B). ‘Sterile-daughter’ refers to a drive cassette that causes female infertility analogous to Drives AB1 and AB2 in Figure 6—figure supplement 1; because its fitness will be at most 50% of a standard gene, it cannot exhibit true drive. Figure 7 with 1 supplement Download asset Open asset Potential applications of RNA-guided gene drives. Clockwise from left. Disease vectors such as malarial mosquitoes might be engineered to resist pathogen acquisition or eliminated with a suppression drive. Wild populations that serve as reservoirs for human viruses could be immunized using Cas9, RNAi machinery, or elite controller antibodies carried by a gene drive. Reversal and immunization drives could help ensure that all transgenes are safe and controlled. Drives might quickly spread protective genes through threatened or soon-to-be-threatened species such as amphibians facing the expansion of chytrid fungus (Rosenblum et al. , 2010). Invasive species might be locally controlled or eradicated without directly affecting others. Sensitizing drives could improve the sustainability and safety of pesticides and herbicides. Gene drives could test ecological hypotheses concerning gene flow, sex ratios, speciation, and evolution. Technical requirements for these applications vary with the drive type required (Figure 7—figure supplement 1). Figure 7—figure supplement 1 Download asset Open asset Technical limitations of different gene drive architectures with implications for various applications.

Output: corroborate


Input: Claim: Biodegradable packaging is designed to decompose faster than conventional plastic. [SEP] Text: After 40 weeks, films were intact, and no significant CO2 or CH4 was produced from the biodegradable mulch films. We conclude that the mulch films we used have a low biodegradability in lake sediments. The sediment lacks the microbes needed to break down the biodegradable plastics that were used here. Hide Co-editor-in-chief The findings of this study are interesting to a broader audience as it demonstrates that supposedly biodegradable mulch films used for agricultural purposes remain unchanged in lake sediments over several months. The results indicate that lake sediments are a place of long-term storage rather than a place of degradation for this form of plastic. van Grinsven and Supplement Sigrid van Grinsven and 10. 5194/bg-20-4213-2023 Latest update: 02 Sep 2024 Sigrid van sigrid. van-grinsven@tum. de × Department of – Research and Management, Institute of and Technology (EAWAG), Seestrasse 79, Kastanienbaum, 6047, Schubert × Department of – Research and Management, Institute of and Technology (EAWAG), Seestrasse 79, Kastanienbaum, 6047, of Biogeochemistry and Pollutant Dynamics, Institute of Technology, Zurich (ETH Zurich), Universitätstrasse 16, Zurich, 8092, The requested preprint has a corresponding peer-reviewed final revised paper. You are encouraged to refer to the final revised version. Preprint (1157 KB) Metadata XML Supplement (2178 KB) revised paper The findings of this study are interesting to a broader audience as it demonstrates that supposedly biodegradable mulch films used for agricultural purposes remain unchanged in lake sediments over several months. The results indicate that lake sediments are a place of long-term storage rather than a place of degradation for this form of plastic. The findings of this study are interesting to a broader audience as it demonstrates that. . . Read more Short summary Agriculture relies heavily on plastic mulch films, which may be transported to aquatic environments. We investigated the mineralization of soil-biodegradable agricultural mulch films in lake sediments. After 40-weeks, films were intact and no extra CO2 or CH4 was produced.

Output: contrast


Input: Claim: Mars has polar ice caps composed of water and carbon dioxide. [SEP] Text: 04. 006 (2013). 10. 1016/j. icarus. 2016. 03. 024 (2016). 10. 1038/ngeo2619 (2016). 10. 1016/0017-9310(66)90111-6 (1966). 10. 1038/nature08115 (2009). 10. 1029/2007JE003000 (2008). 10. 1002/2015JE004992 (2016). 10. 1002/2014JE004735 (2015). 10. 1029/2010GL044743. L20203 (2010). Bridges, N. T. et al. Investigation of the Bagnold dunes by the Curiosity rover: Overview of initial results from the first study of an active dune field on another planet. Conference, vol. 47, 2298 (2016). Westoby, M. , Brasington, J. , Glasser, N. , Hambrey, M. & Reynolds, J. ‘Structure-from-Motion’ photogrammetry: A low-cost, effective tool for geoscience applications. Geomorphology 179, 300–314, (2012). 10. 1029/2009JE003540 (2010). 8892. We thank two anonymous reviewers for dedicating their time to help us to enhance this paper. We are indebted in particular to S. Sutton for sharing her expertise on HiRISE image and DTM uncertainty estimates. We thank S. Diniega, P. Becerra and S. J. Conway for insightful discussions. We thank E. Dunne, K. Ryan, P. Veale, M. Harris and the Dept. of Civil, Structural and at Dublin for providing their insight, laboratory space and equipment to carry out this work. Author informationAuthors and AffiliationsDepartment of Geography, School of 2, IrelandL. E. & M. C. BourkeInstitute, 1700 E Rd, Tucson, 85719,. C. Bourke & J. N. McElwaineDepartment of 1, KeownView author publicationsYou can also search for this author in PubMed 4.

Output: pass


Input: Claim: Gene drives are genetic modifications that ensure a specific trait is passed on to nearly all offspring, increasing its spread in a population. [SEP] Text: In addition to those listed above, an RNA-guided gene drive spreading through a population will be under selection to maintain the function of Cas9 and the guide RNAs, as any nonfunctional mutants will lose their inheritance advantage. This selective pressure is restricted to components that relate to drive function or efficiency and will only last for as long as the drive spreads. Once it reaches fixation, any mutations that can increase fitness by inactivating the drive components will be favored. Figure 8 with 1 supplement Download asset Open asset Containment strategies and ecological risk. Ecological containment involves building and testing gene drives in geographic areas that do not harbor native populations of the target species. For example, most gene drive studies involving tropical malarial mosquitoes have been conducted in temperate regions in which the mosquitoes cannot survive or find mates. Molecular containment ensures that the basic requirements for drive are not met when mated with wild-type organisms. True drives must cut the homologous wild-type sequence and copy both the gene encoding Cas9 and the guide RNAs. Experiments that cut transgenic sequences absent from wild populations and copy either the gene encoding Cas9 or the guide RNAs - but not both - should be quite safe. Ecological or molecular containment should allow basic research into gene drive effectiveness and optimization to be pursued with negligible risk. Figure 8—figure supplement 1 categorizes these and many other possible experiments according to estimated risk. Figure 8—figure supplement 1 Download asset Open asset Estimated ecological risk of experiments during RNA-guided gene drive development. This should not be considered an exhaustive list, but includes many relevant experiments that might be performed during the development of an RNA-guided gene drive of any type. The assessment of ecological risk is intended to be a guideline only and will vary with the purpose of the drive. For example, releasing a laboratory-tested ‘neutral’ drive that is intended to cause no changes in organism phenotype beyond spreading its cas9 gene, guide RNAs, and recoded essential gene through the population is listed as a moderate risk because it will certainly edit a wild population, but in a way that is comparatively unlikely to affect its interactions with the ecosystem. Contained field trials of drives that do cause phenotypic changes are listed as moderate-high risk due to the very real possibility of a containment breach and subsequent unintentional population engineering; a standard drive with few or no expected phenotypic effects would represent a moderate risk, while a suppression drive would represent a high risk.

Output: corroborate


Input: Claim: Biodegradable packaging can help reduce the accumulation of plastic waste in landfills. [SEP] Text: -19 PreprintsProtocolsVideosJournalsTools & a 10. 21203/rs. 3. rs-3224250/v1This work is licensed under a CC BY 4. 0 LicenseStatus:PostedVersion 1posted You are reading this latest preprint versionAbstractPlastics are non-biodegradable, strong, durable, moisture resistant, light weight polymers of carbon along with hydrogen, nitrogen, sulphur, and other organic and inorganic elements and are manufactured from fossil fuel which is a non-renewable source. Low density polyethylene is the most commonly occurring non-biodegradable waste material which constitutes approximately 60% of the total plastic production. In the present study, an attempt has been made to isolate, screen, and characterize the most efficient polyethylene degrading bacteria by using partially degraded polyethylene samples with adhered soil collected from two municipal waste dumping grounds of Jammu region. A total of 62 bacterial isolates were obtained from different waste disposal sites were screened on synthetic Medium. Low density polyethylene powder was used as the sole carbon source in synthetic medium. The biodegradation activity of the isolates was investigated based on the percent weight loss and percent loss in tensile strength of the polyethylene. Maximum percent weight loss (%WL; 22. 66) was recorded with MB57 after 2 months of shaking at room temperature. Maximum percent loss in tensile strength (% loss in TS; 74. 35) was documented MB57. Further, the level of degradation was confirmed by scanning electron microscopic (SEM) analysis. In SEM analysis, scions/ crakes were found on the surface of the degraded polyethylene. Low density polyethylenePlastic wasteBiodegradationSynthetic mediumFiguresFigure 1Figure 2IntroductionPlastic was first developed in England in the 1850s, and is now widely used in all aspects of life and have gradually become an indispensable part (Zhuang 2022). Billions of virgin plastic products produced to date that are eventually discarded in the natural environment (Nielsen et al. 2020). Almost 6. 3 billion tons of plastics were produced worldwide in 2015 and the number is increasing exponentially each year because of its efficient and versatile use (Yuan et al. 2020). In 2020 alone, the global plastic production has been nearly 400 million tons (Feil and Pretz 2020).

Output: contrast


Input: Claim: The search for extraterrestrial life involves studying extremophiles on Earth. [SEP] Text: Cite this book. Beyond UFOs: for Implications for Our Future, Princeton: Press, 2011. Bennett, J. (2011). Beyond UFOs: for Implications for Our Future. Princeton: Press. Bennett, J. 2011. Beyond UFOs: for Implications for Our Future. Princeton: Press. Bennett, Jeffrey. Beyond UFOs: for Implications for Our Future. Princeton: Press, 2011. Bennett J. Beyond UFOs: for Implications for Our Future. Princeton: Press; 2011. Copied to clipboard Copy to clipboard Download: by Press 2011 Purchase book for Implications for Cite this Share this this book The quest for extraterrestrial life doesn't happen only in science fiction. This book describes the startling discoveries being made in the very real science of astrobiology, an intriguing new field that blends astronomy, biology, and geology to explore the possibility of life on other planets. takes readers beyond UFOs to discuss some of the tantalizing questions astrobiologists grapple with every day: What is life and how does it begin? What makes a planet or moon habitable? Is there life on Mars or elsewhere in the solar system? How can life be recognized on distant worlds? Is it likely to be microbial, more biologically complex--or even intelligent? What would such a discovery mean for life here on Earth? Come along on this scientific adventure and learn the astonishing implications of discoveries made in this field for the future of the human race. Bennett, who believes that "science is a way of helping people come to agreement," explains how the search for extraterrestrial life can help bridge the divide that sometimes exists between science and religion, defuse public rancor over the teaching of evolution, and quiet the debate over global warming. He likens humanity today to a troubled adolescent teetering on the edge between self-destruction and a future of virtually limitless possibilities. Beyond UFOs shows why the very quest to find alien life can help us to grow up as a species and chart a course for the stars. In a new afterword, Bennett shares the most recent developments in extrasolar research, and discusses how they might further our quest to find alien life. Author Editor information is an astrophysicist, author, and educator. His books include leading college-level textbooks in astrobiology, astronomy, mathematics, and statistics, as well as the award-winning children's book to the Moon.

Output: pass


Input: Claim: Gene drive technology has the potential to control pests and invasive species without the use of pesticides. [SEP] Text: Skip to Content eLife home page your research Search by keyword or author Reset form my search to Feature 10. 7554/eLife. 03401 Open access Copyright information annotations (there are currently 0 annotations on this page). Share 46,927 views 7,310 downloads 634 3401. Copy to clipboard Download BibTeX Download. RIS 10. 7554/eLife. 03401. 001 numerous advances, the field of molecular biology has often struggled to address key biological problems affecting public health and the environment. Until recently, editing the genomes of even model organisms has been difficult. Moreover, altered traits typically reduce evolutionary fitness and are consequently eliminated by natural selection. This restriction has profoundly limited our ability to alter ecosystems through molecular biology. If we could develop a general method of ensuring that engineered traits would instead be favored by natural selection, then those traits could spread to most members of wild populations over many generations. This capability would allow us to address several major world problems, including the spread of insect-borne diseases, the rise of pesticide and herbicide resistance, and the agricultural and environmental damage wrought by invasive species. Scientists have long known of naturally occurring selfish genetic elements that can increase the odds that they will be inherited. This advantage allows them to spread through populations even if they reduce the fitness of individual organisms. Many researchers have suggested that these elements might serve as the basis for ‘gene drives’ capable of spreading engineered traits through wild populations (Craig et al. , 1960; Wood et al. , 1977; Sinkins and Gould, 2006; Burt and Trivers, 2009; Alphey, 2014). was the first to propose gene drives based on site-specific ‘homing’ endonuclease genes over a decade ago (Burt, 2003). These genes bias inheritance by cutting the homologous chromosome, inducing the cell to copy them when it repairs the break. Several efforts have focused on the possibility of using gene drives targeting mosquitoes to block malaria transmission (Scott et al. , 2002; Windbichler et al. , 2007, 2008, 2011; Li et al. , 2013a; Galizi et al. , 2014). However, development has been hindered by the difficulty of engineering homing endonucleases to cut new target sequences (Chan et al. , 2013a; Thyme et al. , 2013; Takeuchi et al. , 2014).

Output: corroborate


Input: Claim: Biodegradable materials can break down without leaving toxic residues in the environment. [SEP] Text: In these simulations, previously reported values for the anterograde train injection rate (1. 3 trains s−1) (Mueller et al. , 2005) and the average number of KAP bound to a single anterograde train for each flagellar length (Engel et al. , 2009) were used to estimate the number of KAP that arrives at the flagellar tip per second. KAP dissociated from the trains at the tip and immediately started one dimensional diffusion in the flagellum. The resting time of KAP at the tip was insignificant, and was not accounted for. The flagellum was modeled as a 5–12 µm long linear grid with spacing defined as the MSD of KAP diffusing at 1. 7 µm2 s−1 (Figure 3h) during the time-step of the simulation (5 ms). At every time point, each active molecule had its grid position changed by +1 or −1. The molecules at the extreme terminus of the tip only moved towards the base. The diffusing KAP molecules were perfectly absorbed to the cell body as they arrived at the flagellar base (i. e. perfect sink) and exited the simulation. The simulations were run for 100,000 time points to allow molecules to reach a steady-state. The number of molecules at each grid position was calculated to plot the distribution of KAP molecules diffusing along the length of the flagellum. The total number of KAP was calculated by integrating the number of KAP diffusing along the entire flagellum and KAP on the anterograde trains. This number was compared to a hypothetical scenario that KAP returns to the cell body with active transport. The simulations were run 10 times to calculate the error. Simulation codes are available on (Chien, 2017). A copy is archived at Add a comment + Open annotations. The current annotation count on this page is being calculated. 991. 3978. PubMed 412. PubMed 6081. PubMed 8470. PubMed 1137. PubMed 338. PubMed 1008. PubMed 2318. PubMed 237. PubMed 659. PubMed 89. PubMed 167. PubMed 129. PubMed 307. PubMed 119. PubMed 10. 1101/156760 24. PubMed 234. PubMed 5523.

Output: pass


Input: Claim: The search for extraterrestrial life involves studying extremophiles on Earth. [SEP] Text: Reviews "Bennett describes the search for life beyond the Earth in terms that are accessible to the nonscientist and yet reveal a broad understanding of the evolution of stars, planets, and organisms. The author's optimism is contagious. May it help inspire us to actually accomplish these lofty goals. "—James F. is a rich, slow, and rewarding read. Rich because it is full of some of the most interesting current interdisciplinary science regarding planets and life that you can find, blending astronomy, geology, history, and astrobiology in a single narrative. Slow because each page is so full of interesting content that you don't want to skim. Rewarding because Bennett is simply a fantastic writer and presenter, making the read thoroughly enjoyable. No science expertise required. ---Jennifer Wiseman, Books & CultureBeyond UFOs gives a good impression from the moment you first take it into your hands. It is attractively produced, well written, and very thoroughly proofread. It's an interesting and challenging complement to focused research, and will be particularly enjoyed by anyone who has an appetite for broad science tinged with morals. ---Elizabeth Griffin, The ObservatoryThe old adage 'don't judge a book by its cover' (or, in this case, its title) certainly applies here. While one might expect a book of science fiction, Bennett presents this awe-inspiring topic in a scientifically accurate but personal way. I would recommend it to anyone interested in reading a creative summary of the status of the search for life elsewhere in the universe and would hope that it might provide a starting point to inspire the next generation of astronomers and astrobiologists. ---Lisa Jardine-Wright, EducationParticularly enjoyable is the down-to-earth writing; Bennett, an astrophysicist, author, and educator, tells the reader exactly how he feels about various topics (even the role of God in the scheme of things). Readers may not agree with everything he says, but he does offer food for thought. ---B. R. Parker, ChoiceFinalist for the 2008 Eugene M. walks us through the daunting calculations that lead to the conclusion that the existence of life elsewhere is not only possible, but highly likely. But as we wonder where else life exists and what forms it might take, scientists are forced back to more fundamental questions. What is the nature of life itself? Will we know it if we see it? . . .

Output: pass


Input: Claim: Gene drive technology has the potential to control pests and invasive species without the use of pesticides. [SEP] Text: Attempts to build gene drives with more easily retargeted zinc-finger nucleases and TALENs suffered from instability due to the repetitive nature of the genes encoding them (Simoni et al. , 2014). The recent discovery and development of the RNA-guided Cas9 nuclease has dramatically enhanced our ability to engineer the genomes of diverse species. Originally isolated from ‘’ acquired immune systems in bacteria, Cas9 is a non-repetitive enzyme that can be directed to cut almost any DNA sequence by simply expressing a ‘guide RNA’ containing that same sequence. In little more than a year following the first demonstrations in human cells, it has enabled gene insertion, deletion, and replacement in many different species (Bassett et al. , 2013; Cho et al. , 2013; Cong et al. , 2013; DiCarlo et al. , 2013; Friedland et al. , 2013; Gratz et al. , 2013; Hu et al. , 2013; Hwang et al. , 2013; Jiang et al. , 2013a, 2013b; Jinek et al. , 2013; Li et al. , 2013b; Mali et al. , 2013c; Tan et al. , 2013; Upadhyay et al. , 2013; Wang et al. , 2013b). Building RNA-guided gene drives based on the Cas9 nuclease is a logical way to overcome the targeting and stability problems hindering gene drive development. Less obvious is the extent to which the unique properties of Cas9 are well-suited to overcoming other molecular and evolutionary challenges inherent to the construction of safe and functional gene drives. We submit that Cas9 is highly likely to enable scientists to construct efficient RNA-guided gene drives not only in mosquitoes, but in many other species. In addition to altering populations of insects to prevent them from spreading disease (Curtis, 1968), this advance would represent an entirely new approach to ecological engineering with many potential applications relevant to human health, agriculture, biodiversity, and ecological science. The first technical descriptions of endonuclease gene drives were provided by in his landmark proposal to engineer wild populations more than a decade ago (Burt, 2003). Any of the rapidly expanding number of laboratories with expertise in Cas9-mediated genome engineering could attempt to build a gene drive by substituting Cas9 for the homing endonucleases described in his proposal.

Output: corroborate


Input: Claim: Biodegradable materials are universally more cost-effective than traditional plastics. [SEP] Text: L. Lacourse, P. A. Altieri, Biodegradable shaped products and the method of preparation thereof, US Patent No. 5043196, 1991. [65] C. Bastioli, Properties and applications of mater-Bi starch-based materials, Polym. Degrad. Stab. 59 (1998) 263–272. [66] J. K. Jang, Y. R. Pyun, Effect of moisture content on the melting of wheat starch, Starch – Starke. 48 (1996) 48–51. [67] R. L. Shogren, Effect of moisture content on the melting and subsequent physical aging of cornstarch, Carbohydr. Polym. 19 (1992) 83–90. [68] -plastic materials-preparation, physical properties, and biodegradability (a review of recent USDA research), J. Environ. Polym. Degrad. 1 (1993) 155–166. [69] I. Tomka, Thermoplastic starch, in: Adv. Exp. Med. Biol. , 1991: 637. [70] Bio-based products – overview of standards, (2011). [71] L. Avérous, Biodegradable multiphase systems based on plasticized starch: a review, J. Macromol. Sci. – Polym. Rev. 44 (2004) 231–274. [72] N. L. Lacourse, P. A. Altieri, Biodegradable packaging material and the method of preparation thereof, US Patent No. 4863655, 1989 [73] A. K. Mohanty, M. Misra, G. Hinrichsen, Biofibres, biodegradable polymers and biocomposites: an overview, Macromol. Mater. Eng. 276–277 (2000) 1–24. [74] A. Chaudhari, R. Kulkarni, P. Mahulikar, D. Sohn, V. Gite, Development of PU coatings from neem oil based alkyds prepared by the monoglyceride route,. Am. Oil Chem. Soc. 92 (2015) 733–741. [75] F. Bilo, S. Pandini, L. Sartore, L.

Output: pass