Input: Claim: Jupiter's moon Europa has a subsurface ocean that may harbor life. [SEP] Text: Together, the research suggests that Mimas may have a young and changing ocean. If so, it raises the prospect of an outer solar system rife with activity. That possibility is what most excites Rhoden, who spoke with about the potential ocean and why it could be such a boon for scientists. This conversation has been edited for length and clarity. would signal life on another planet? Why interstellar objects like ‘Oumuamua and Borisov may hold clues to exoplanets The long-awaited mission that could transform our understanding of do we know about these hidden oceans? In many ways, they look like our own — at least in that they’re likely made up of saltwater. We know that these ocean worlds have icy surfaces from their overall bright appearance, as confirmed by telescopic and spacecraft measurements that detect signatures of water ice. Some ocean moons even have low enough densities that they probably have water ice mixed into the rock in their interiors. With heat, that water ice melts into liquid water, which will erode rock to create saltwater. On Enceladus, saltwater is conveniently spewing out into space. Given how cold it is in the outer solar system, what generates the heat? Distant oceans might at first seem out of the question. Heat to melt ice is hard to come by so far from the Sun. But thanks to a gravitational quirk, the outer solar system can be quite balmy. and its moon Europa. Jupiter exerts a strong gravitational force on Europa, elongating Europa in the direction of Jupiter. Because Europa’s orbit is eccentric — it swings close to Jupiter before swinging farther away — Europa gets stretched and released over time. This creates friction in the interior that provides the heat necessary to sustain a liquid ocean. We first saw hints that Europa might host a subsurface ocean when the Voyager mission swung past Jupiter in 1979. Europa doesn’t look like our Moon or even most bodies in the inner solar system. Its icy surface doesn’t have a lot of craters but is instead covered with crisscrossing lines and broken pieces that have shifted around. You don’t have to look at it very hard to imagine that something different is going on there. Mimas’ surface looks dramatically different from that of Jupiter’s moon Europa and another Saturnian moon, Enceladus. and Enceladus are thought to harbor hidden oceans.

Output: corroborate


Input: Claim: Every individual responds the same way to environmental stimuli. [SEP] Text: The immobile ommatidium lens focusses their light onto a rhabdomere tip (ii). But because of diffraction, their images blur (airy disk). Interestingly, however, in Drosophila, the airy disk half-width (~1. 7oor ~ 0. 6 µm) is smaller than the rhabdomere diameter (~1. 7 µm; 8. 1o) is wider than the distance between the dots (6. 8o). Accordingly, the photoreceptor output (iv) cannot distinguish the dots. (B) Next, we include the light-induced fast back-to-front rhabdomere movement in the model (ii; as measured in the high-speed video recordings in 8. 1o to 4. 0o. These processes differentiate the light input (from the dots) into two separate intensity spikes over time (iii), which the photoreceptor output can clearly separate in two distinctive peaks (iv). (D) In vivo intracellular photoreceptor recordings from a wild-type R1-R6 to the two moving dot stimulus show comparable dynamics to the full model’s prediction. In the simulation, the same cell’s RF (i) was moved and narrowed dynamically (ii-iii) according to our hypothesis in (C). This close correspondence, which occurred even without the additional response accentuation from the synaptic feedbacks (10. 7554/eLife. 26117. 093 1. The stimulus is the same two bright dots, but this time, they cross the cell’s receptive field (RF) double-fast, 409o/s (i). (A) Again, if the rhabdomere remains stationary during their flyby (corresponding to the classic theory, ii), their light fuses (iii), and the photoreceptor output cannot distinguish the dots (iv). (B) By including the light-induced back-to-front rhabdomere movement (ii) but with the same RF shape, the light input broadens slightly (iii), but cannot separate the two dots. Consequently, the photoreceptor output (iv) shows a slightly narrower single peak than in the previous case in (A).

Output: contrast


Input: Claim: Neurogenesis occurs in specific brain regions throughout life. [SEP] Text: 0027; Student’s unpaired t-test; Cohen's d = 2. 70). Magnitude of LTP was assessed 35–45 min post application of forskolin to elevate cAMP. (D) Tetanus-induced MF-LTP was intact in AKAP7 KO slices. Experimental conditions identical to panel B, but LTP was induced with a tetanus (vertical double arrow) consisting of two bursts (each with 125 pulses at 25 Hz) spaced by 20 s. To block postsynaptic NMDA receptor-mediated MF-LTP, the NMDA receptor antagonist D-APV (50 μM, horizontal black bar) was bath applied before and washed out immediately after the tetanus. (E) Tetanus-induced MF-LTP was inhibited in AKAP7 KO slices pre-incubated (1 hr) and continuously perfused with the PKA inhibitor H89 (10 μM). Control: 1. 48 ± 0. 08 of baseline vs. H89: 1. 08 ± 0. 06; p=0. 0013 (Student’s unpaired t-test); Cohen's d = 2. 00. Experimental conditions were otherwise identical to panel D. (F) Long-term depression at the MF-CA3 synapse was normal in AKAP7 KO mice. Long-term depression was induced (first horizontal black bar) with the classical 1 Hz, 15-min protocol. For panels B-F representative traces are shown above with numbers corresponding to the summary time course plot below the electrophysiology figures. 1 μM DCG-IV (second horizontal black bar) was bath applied at the end of each experiment to confirm identity of mossy fiber synaptic responses. Since the DCG-IV application time was slightly different between experiments, a break in the x-axis was introduced and the DCG-IV effect was time-aligned. Measures of short-term plasticity at the MF-CA3 synapse were intact in the AKAP7 KO mice compared to WT controls: basal probability of release (G), low-frequency facilitation (H), and high-frequency facilitation (I) were tested. Release probability was inferred from measurements of the paired-pulse ratio, calculated by dividing the second of two successive pulses by the first.

Output: pass


Input: Claim: Jupiter's moon Europa has a subsurface ocean that may harbor life. [SEP] Text: :JPL-/. /JPL-/DLR. /JPL/. You mention surface features. What other evidence do we rely on to detect a hidden ocean? One way is to look at magnetic fields. Because saltwater is electrically conductive, it can create a magnetic field around the moon that disrupts the planet’s magnetic field. That is a leading piece of evidence for Europa’s subsurface ocean. But that alone is not enough. It’s the combination of evidence that leads us to conclude there’s an ocean. We might also consider, for example, measurements of salt on the surface and how the moon’s gravity tugs on a spacecraft. Since the densities of rock or liquid metal differ from the density of liquid water, the size of those tugs offers clues to the material, as well as where within the moon it is concentrated. Or we might simply image how the moon’s face changes direction throughout its orbit. Generally, these small moons always show their same face to their parent planet, much like our Moon. But as a moon moves through its orbit, the direction it points can shift a bit back and forth — creating a shimmy in the visible portion. The extent of that shimmy depends on the interior. An ice shell over an ocean can move more freely than an ice shell on top of rock, so the changes tend to be larger. That’s how the ocean was detected at Enceladus. And it’s one of the best lines of evidence for an ocean at Mimas. Let’s talk about Mimas. How did you end up studying the moon? I had spent a decade or so working on Europa and other icy moons when the 2014 Mimas paper came out. That paper measured that shimmy, or libration, as the visible portion of the moon shifts, suggesting Mimas either hosted a subsurface ocean or an oddly shaped core. But an ocean seemed impossible. Mimas looks much like our Moon, with a heavily cratered surface. It didn’t host any crisscrossing lines or broken pieces like Europa. And it certainly wasn’t spewing geysers like Enceladus. took one look at Mimas, and I said, “There’s no way that is an ocean moon.

Output: corroborate


Input: Claim: Every individual responds the same way to environmental stimuli. [SEP] Text: (C) If, however, the rhabdomere contraction (away from the lens’ focal point, ii) moves the RF and actively narrows it (from 8. 8o to 4. 9o), the light input from the dots is transformed into two intensity spikes (iii), which R1-R6 output separates into two peaks (iv). (D) Corresponding intracellular R1-R6 recordings show comparable dynamics to the full model (C). These and other simulations and recordings, which all show good correspondence, establish that photoreceptors’ RFs must move and narrow dynamically during light stimulation. 7. Because the rhabdomeres are connected to the surrounding structures by adherence junctions (Tepass and Harris, 2007) (red boxes highlight the transition areas), their contraction induces (C) moving and possibly narrowing of the aperture (green horizontal arrow) formed by the cone and pigment cells, which are directly above the rhabdomeres (lighter blue areas). Ultimately, the curvature of the lens and focal distance might also change slightly. Image modified from (Gonzalez-Bellido et al. , 2011). 10. 7554/eLife. 26117. 097 6. 8o apart, cross a photoreceptor’s receptive field (RF; ∆ρstart = 8. 1o) either in back-to-front (red, left) or front-to-back (blue, middle) at 409 o/s (i). (B) The new photoreceptor model translated the light-induced back-to-front rhabdomere motion into concurrent RF narrowing (∆ρend = 4. 0o) and front-to-back movement (as reversed by the ommatidium lens). (C) Consequently, the light input from the dots was transformed into two intensity spikes. These spikes were further apart in time for the front-to-back moving dots and for the opposing stimuli. (D) The two peaks in in the corresponding model-predicted R1-R6 output (blue) for front-to-back moving dots (highlighted by arrows) indicated that the dots were neurally detectable. In contrast, the predicted R1-R6 output for back-to-front moving dots (red) failed to separate these two point-objects at 19°C.

Output: contrast


Input: Claim: Neurogenesis occurs in specific brain regions throughout life. [SEP] Text: Short-term plasticity was measured using whole-cell voltage clamp recordings of isolated NMDAR-EPSCs. For each group of mice the values in parentheses correspond to the number of slices/number of mice. Figure 4—figure supplement 1 Download asset Open asset Whole-cell voltage clamp recordings confirm intact tetanus-induced MF-LTP. LTP was induced with a tetanus as in Figure 4. Consistent with the fEPSP recordings, there was also no significant difference in tetanus-induced LTP between AKAP7 WT and KO mice under this recording configuration. Experimental recording conditions identical to Figure 4C. For each group of mice, the values in parentheses correspond to the number of slices/number of mice. Figure 5 with 2 supplements Download asset Open asset AKAP7 KO animals show impaired contextual discrimination. (A) Experimental protocol to test contextual fear discrimination. Animals were probed for freezing (% time immobile) in either ‘context A’ where they received a single footshock (0. 65 mA, 2 s) (except Day 5, when there was no footshock) or the no-shock ‘context B’, which had a different floor and a striped pattern on one wall. (B) WT animals exhibited a comparable duration of freezing behavior in both contexts on Days 4 and 5, respectively, but by Day 6 and thereafter demonstrated reduced freezing behavior in ‘context B’. (C) KO animals did not begin to discriminate between contexts A and B until Day 13. (D) Discrimination ratio for Days 5, 6 and 13 demonstrate differences between WT and KO animals on key days (n = 7 animals per group); data are presented as mean ± SEM (p values determined using Student’s unpaired t-test in panels B-D). (E) Following 3 days of footshock delivery only in ‘context A’, AKAP7 KO animals demonstrated a slight but significant deficit in contextual fear extinction compared to WT animals (n = 6–8 animals per group). Animals were never introduced to ‘context B. ’ Two-way ANOVA was used for the effect of genotype. *p<0. 05, **p<0. 01. Figure 5—figure supplement 1 Download asset Open asset AKAP7 KO mice show normal spatial learning, anxiety, and motor behaviors.

Output: pass


Input: Claim: Jupiter's moon Europa has a subsurface ocean that may harbor life. [SEP] Text: That a moon could form a new ocean well into its history, and that we could watch? That’s exciting! It opens up the possibility that any world, including one with an old, cratered surface, may be going through a similar transition. There’s also interest in habitability — whether these oceans are suitable for supporting life. We don’t currently know whether any of the solar system’s oceans, other than our own, are habitable, have been inhabited or are currently inhabited. But if Mimas truly has an ocean, we could have a window into how these worlds develop and even how habitats are created and lost. It is exciting to be able to see these processes as they occur — instead of always viewing the end states of things that happened long ago. Watch an artist’s impression of how the Moons Explorer, or Juice, unfurled after its April 2023 launch. A Agency mission, Juice is expected to arrive at Jupiter in 2031 and spend at least three years collecting data on the giant planet’s icy moons. : ESA upcoming missions could tell us more? has already launched the Moons Explorer, or Juice, which will make detailed observations of Europa, and the moons Ganymede and Callisto, which show hints of oceans. And in the fall of 2024, NASA will send the into orbit around Jupiter to determine if Europa has conditions suitable for life. system, high on NASA’s agenda for a future mission, is where I see the most implications for this recent work. It’s surprisingly similar to the Saturn system, including hosting ice-rich, mid-sized moons similar to Mimas and Enceladus. If there’s a young ocean on Mimas, it is not a huge leap to consider that water worlds might exist among the Uranian moons, too. 10. 1146/knowable-080724-1 is an award-winning freelance science journalist based in the Rocky Mountains. She specializes in writing about astronomy, geology and the environment.

Output: corroborate


Input: Claim: Every individual responds the same way to environmental stimuli. [SEP] Text: (E) An example of intracellular recordings from one R1-R6 photoreceptor to the same two stimuli at 25°C. This cell’s voltage responses also resolved the front-to-back moving dots better than their back-to-front moving counterparts. These and other comparable simulations and recordings suggest that microsaccadic rhabdomere movements improve the neural resolution (and representation) of fast moving visual objects. 6. 8 o apart travelling together at ~ 600 o/s. (A) The starting and ending receptive field size (RF; ∆ρstart = 8. 1o; ∆ρend = 4. 0o) in all the simulation was the same. (B) in every case, the rhabdomere contracted, moving and narrowing the RF. (C) This translated light input into two clear sharp peaks. (D) Photoreceptor output separated the dots as two peaks at velocities until above 600 o/s (left, cyan background), indicating that they were neurally resolvable. At 700 o/s or higher speeds (right), the dots were not resolved as the outputs had only a single peak. Mean ± SD shown, n = 6 repeated stochastic simulations to each stimulus. 4. 5o) at slow velocities (≤20 o/s). The resolvability, D, of the recordings and simulations, was determined by Raleigh criterion (cf. Figure 7C). (C) An example of how refractoriness can enhance response resolution for larger stimulus separations at high saccadic velocities. The difference from the lower peak to the trough is larger in the black trace (refractory photon sampling) than in the red trace (complete photon sampling). 6. 8o black-and-white gratings), as an example. (A) During the left saccade, the flow field facing the left eye moves back-to-front (red arrow) across its photoreceptors’ receptive fields (i). The image of the moving flow field is inverted by the ommatidium lens, and so moves front-to-back (blue arrow) while being sampled by the rhabdomere (ii). Light contracts the rhabdomeres in back-to-front direction (red arrow).

Output: contrast


Input: Claim: Neurogenesis occurs in specific brain regions throughout life. [SEP] Text: (A) Fluorescent protein TdTomato expression in the hippocampus of Pomc+/Cre crossed to TdTomato reporter mice is restricted to dentate granule neurons. (B) Merged image of TdTomato expression and AKAP7 staining show that Pomc-Cre was active in the majority of AKAP7-expressing DGCs. (C) Pomc+/Cre;Akap7lox/- (DG-KO) animals lose AKAP7 in the dentate gyrus but not the neighboring thalamus (TH) (or other brain regions; not shown). PKA-RIIβ is displaced from MFs in DG-KO animals, although some staining is still present in stratum lucidum likely due to incomplete Cre recombination. Akap7lox/- (Het) animals show AKAP7 expression and PKA-RIIβ distribution comparable to WT. (D) cAMP-induced MF-LTP is impaired in DG-KO animals, similar to global AKAP7 KO. Het (control): 2. 73 ± 0. 25 of baseline vs. DG-KO: 1. 54 ± 0. 20 of baseline; p=0. 0053 (Student’s unpaired t-test); Cohen's d = 2. 40. Experimental conditions are as in Figure 4B. (E) Tetanus-induced MF-LTP remains intact in DG-KO compared with Het control. We also assessed basal synaptic function by measuring the paired pulse ratio (with a 40 ms interspike interval) in the DG-specific KO and found no significant difference from the control (control HET: 2. 34 ± 0. 08 vs DG-KO: 2. 3 ± 0. 09, p=0. 76, t-test, n = 10. Experimental conditions are as in Figure 4. For each group of mice, the values in parentheses correspond to the number of slices/number of mice. Figure 7 Download asset Open asset AKAP7 KO and DG-KO animals demonstrate impaired non-cued spatial pattern separation. (A) Experimental protocol to test non-cued spatial discrimination by delayed non-matching-to-place (DNMP) using an 8-arm radial arm maze.

Output: pass


Input: Claim: The impact craters on the Moon provide insights into the history of the solar system. [SEP] Text: Any further distribution of this work must maintain attribution to the author(s) and the title of the work, journal citation and DOI. 1. IntroductionUnderstanding the chronology of the solar system is a critical aspect of planetary and dynamical astronomical research. The chronology of planetary surfaces other than Earth are typically based in large part on impact craters: the longer a surface has been exposed, the more time it has had to accumulate craters. Absolute dating ties a crater spatial density to absolute ages from radiometric dating, and a significant amount of work has been done to understand the Moon's absolute crater chronology (e. g. , Shoemaker et al. 1970; Neukum 1984; Neukum et al. 2001; Hartmann 2005; Marchi et al. 2009; Robbins 2014; Yue et al. 2022). Absolute crater-based chronologies are limited to ages <3. 92 Ga, based on the maximum age of lunar samples that can be tied to specific surfaces with a given crater spatial density. However, those absolute model ages have been extrapolated further into the lunar past through superposition and modeling. Those superposition rules indicate that the youngest typically thought of as "large" 1 lunar crater is Orientale, ≈940 km across, and formed ≈3. 7–3. 8 Ga (Stewart-Alexander & Howard 1970; Baldwin 1987a, 1987b; Geiss & Rossi 2013; Yue et al. 2020). There are approximately three identified craters both larger and older than Orientale: South Pole–Aitken, Crisium, and Imbrium (e. g. , Spudis et al. 2011). Transferring the lunar crater chronology to other surfaces encompasses another large body of work (e. g. , most recent review by Neukum et al. 2001, or Hartmann & Neukum 2001). The transfer is based on scaling relationships within the inner solar system that are functions primarily of the velocity of impactors, target proximity to the asteroid belt, and target gravity. Based on dynamical arguments, each unit area of Mars should have been hit by impactors at a rate ≈2. 7× that of the Moon, at least for the last few billion years (Ivanov et al. 2002). Based on velocity and gravity scaling, those impactors would only form craters ≈75% as large as the Moon.

Output: corroborate


Input: Claim: Every individual responds the same way to environmental stimuli. [SEP] Text: With the projected image and the photon-sampler (rhabdomere) moving against each other, the light input from two bright bars (iii) becomes narrowed and accelerated. Accordingly, photoreceptor output shows two prominent peaks, in which distance to each other is compacted in time (iv). (B) During the left saccade, the flow field facing the right eye moves front-to-back (blue arrow) across its photoreceptors’ receptive fields (i). Again, the ommatidium lens inverts the image, which now moves back-to-front (red arrow) over the rhabdomere (ii), which contracts in the same direction (red arrow). With the projected image and the rhabdomere moving together, the light input from two bright bars (iii) excites the photoreceptor longer, in which output shows two prominent peaks elongated in time (iv). (C) The light input to the left eye photoreceptors (red trace) rise and decay faster than the corresponding light input (blue trace) to the right eye photoreceptors. (D) R1-R6 output in the left eye (red trace) is faster and briefer than the photoreceptor output (blue trace) in the right eye. (E) Consequently, by correlating the outputs from the left and right eye photoreceptors in time, the fly brain can obtain information about the directional changes in the visual space, in respect to its head orientation. 10. 7554/eLife. 26117. 103 3. 4o inter-dot-distance) are shown left; responses to the saccadic speed stimuli in the middle (205 o/s) and right (409 o/s). In all cases, these outputs resolved the two dots, but predictably the responses were always smaller to the dark dots at the bright background than to the bright dots at the dark background (as more microvilli should remain refractory when adapting to bright background). (B) The normalized and sign-inverted R1-R6 outputs to dark dots were similar to their normalized outputs to bright dots, with both showing equally good Raleigh-resolvability (cf. Figure 7C).

Output: contrast


Input: Claim: Neurogenesis occurs in specific brain regions throughout life. [SEP] Text: AbstractThe human brain is a tremendously complex and still enigmatic three-dimensional structure, composed of countless interconnected neurons and glia. The temporal evolution of the brain throughout life provides a fourth dimension, one that influences every element of the brain's function in health and disease. This temporal evolution contributes to the probability of seizure generation and to the type and the nature of these seizures. The age-specific properties of the brain also influence the consequences of seizures on neuronal structure and behavior. These, in turn, govern epileptic activity and cognitive and emotional functions, contributing to the diverse consequences of seizures and epilepsy throughout life. of the ProblemThe incidence of seizures and of epilepsy varies throughout life, peaking in neonates and children and increasing again after the age of 50 (1–4). In addition to the quantitative measure of the incidence of seizures, the type of seizures (and of epilepsy syndromes) varies with age: for example, febrile seizures take place in infants and children (1, 5–7), whereas the incidence of post-stroke epilepsy increases in adults compared with children (1, 3, 8). What is the basis of these age-dependent variations? What are the age-specific properties of the brain that contribute to the probability of seizure generation and to the nature of the resulting seizure? A second, reciprocal aspect of the interaction of the age of the brain and seizures involves the effects of a seizure on the structure and function of neurons and neuronal networks. Here, again, clinical evidence suggests that the consequences of a seizure might vary with age. For example, the consequences of status epilepticus (SE) in young children seem to depend on the inciting etiology (9, 10), and, in general, mortality and cognitive outcomes are more favorable than in the adult and elderly individual (11–14). In contrast, status epilepticus in adult and aging individuals can have major detrimental effects on cognitive function and even survival (14–16). What is the basis of these age-dependent variations? What are the age-specific properties of the brain that modulate the effects of seizures on neuronal integrity and function? These questions are of paramount clinical importance because they should provide clues for developing age-specific diagnostic tools, prognostic models, and intervention strategies. Thus, while the answers to these questions are not fully elucidated, the questions provide a framework for discussing the salient elements of the evolving interaction between the brain and seizures throughout life.

Output: pass


Input: Claim: The impact craters on the Moon provide insights into the history of the solar system. [SEP] Text: That means a comparison with the Moon for similarly aged craters formed by similarly sized impactors should comprise a search for Martian craters >700 km across. Given Mars's surface area is 3. 8× the Moon's, one would expect ≈10× as many craters >700 km on Mars, for a total of ∼40. However, they number only 6–7. This is far from the expected number, and Orgel et al. (2020) arrived at a similar conclusion for Mercury based on a very different analysis. The mismatch implies any one or combination of the following issues: (1) small number statistics; (2) impactor-crater scaling laws between the Moon and Mars are wrong; (3) nearside lunar craters are abnormally large due to heat flow when they formed; (4) the early Mars:Moon bolide ratio was significantly different than today; (5) the ancient crater-based chronology of Mars is wrong; and/or (6) Mars has managed to completely hide ∼3/4 of its large-crater population after that population is preserved on the Moon (discussed extensively in Sections 2. 2 and 5. 6). Any of these issues present nontrivial problems for the dynamics and/or Mars communities. Some of these issues have been discussed in the literature before, especially the bolide rate changing (see Section 5. 4), but a synthesis based on a census of these largest craters and a straightforward crater scaling has not yet been described as it is here. 2. Craters Considered2. 1. CratersOne of the two data sets for large lunar craters used in this work comes from Neumann et al. (2015), who constructed a robust database of the Moon's large-impact craters based on gravity data from the (GRAIL) mission. This data set lists four craters of Orientale's size or larger: South Pole–Aitken (SPA; ∼2400–2500 km), Imbrium (∼1100–1300 km), Crisium (∼1100 km), and Orientale (≈940 km). (2018) lunar crater database was produced based on image and topography data, and all craters larger than ∼200 km were compared with other existing databases for possible inclusion, elimination, or other correction.

Output: corroborate


Input: Claim: Every individual responds the same way to environmental stimuli. [SEP] Text: Naturally, as the Drosophila eye samples light information from each point in space by eight photoreceptors (due to neural superposition) and balances this estimate with those of the neighboring lamina cartridges, its perception/resolvability of hyperacute and saccadic image motion is improved further. 1 Download asset This video cannot be played in place because your browser does support HTML5 video. You may still download the video for offline viewing. Download as MPEG-4 Download as WebM Download as a Drosophila’s saccadic walk to extrapolate light input to its photoreceptors from natural scenes A published recording of a fly’s saccadic walk (Geurten et al. , 2014) was used to sample light intensity values from 360o panoramic images of natural scenes. We collected three types of light stimuli, resulting from: (a) saccadic, (b) median (linear) and (c) shuffled velocities of the walk. Video 2 Download asset This video cannot be played in place because your browser does support HTML5 video. You may still download the video for offline viewing. Download as MPEG-4 Download as WebM Download as R1-R8s in dissociated ommatidia contract photomechanically Wild-type and trp/trpl-mutant R1-R8 photoreceptors contract photomechanically to light flashes. The panels show: top, a sideview of ex vivo wild-type R1-R8 photoreceptors of a single dissociated ommatidium contracting to 1 ms bright light flash; bottom left, R1-R8 of a trp/trpl null-mutant, which express normal phototransduction reactants but lack completely their light-gated ion channels, contracting to a similar flash. Notably, trp/trpl photoreceptors cannot generate electrical responses to light, with their eyes showing no ERG signal (10. 7554/eLife. 26117. 028 Video 3 Download asset This video cannot be played in place because your browser does support HTML5 video. You may still download the video for offline viewing.

Output: contrast


Input: Claim: Neurogenesis occurs in specific brain regions throughout life. [SEP] Text: The following paragraphs highlight a few of the many facts that influence age-specific seizures and the age-specific consequences of seizures. Because most of the direct information about seizures throughout the life-span often derives from animal models, these are discussed. The author regrets that this overview is not comprehensive and likely omits a number of important publications. Nonetheless, this review serves to illustrate crucial features of the topic. Age-Seizures that during Each AgeWhereas brain development from embryonic life to senescence is a continuum, here it is divided into four stages: the neonatal, childhood, adulthood, and aging epochs. Brain and Age-SeizuresThe neonatal brain is in a stage of rapid flux from both structural and functional perspectives. Neurons are still being born, circuits are being formed, and synapses are being established (17, 18). Synaptic currents are often slower (19), neurotransmit-ters play trophic roles (20), and circuits are not fully mature (21). These facts predict that seizures may propagate poorly and may thus remain subclinical, or manifest as fragmented motor activity (22, 23). From a molecular standpoint, there are developmental changes in both excitatory and inhibitory neurotransmission (24–34) excitatory and inhibitory components of synaptic transmission do not develop concurrently (33, 35). GABAergic synapses seem to be the first to function (36). In addition, GABA receptor subunit expression is developmentally regulated and is relatively low during development (30), whereas glutamate receptor expression is high, favoring robust neuro-transmission in excitatory synapses. Indeed, both presynaptic and postsynaptic elements of glutamatergic synapses undergo developmental changes that favor hyperexcitability in the neonatal period: glutamate transporter expression is low, increasing glutamate levels at synapses. In addition, the developmental characteristics of all three types of the major glutamate receptors, and metabotropic, favor augmented glutamatergic neurotransmission (31–33). Together, all of the facts described above contribute to the observed facility in which insults such as hypoglycemia or hypoxia generate seizures in the neonate, and to the fragmentary nature of many neonatal seizures. The Child's Brain and Age-Specific SeizuresAnimal models have been instrumental in elucidating the changes in excitability and seizure vulnerability during the developmental transition from the neonatal to the childhood periods.

Output: pass


Input: Claim: The impact craters on the Moon provide insights into the history of the solar system. [SEP] Text: , Figure 2(C)). This is likely at least part of the solution because it is well known that the dynamics of smaller bodies in the solar system's early days were not the same as they are now (e. g. , Bottke & Norman 2017; Morbidelli et al. 2018). Scattering of objects that could become impactors from dynamical rearranging of giant planets and effects within the asteroid belt (e. g. , Gomes et al. 2005; Tsiganis et al. 2005; Bottke et al. 2012) could affect the bolide ratio, as could residual planetesimals from accretion or early asteroid belt escapees before they were collisionally evolved (Walsh et al. 2011, 2012; Nesvorný et al. 2017). However, one must be careful about the mixtures of source impactors, for they are somewhat constrained by the crater retention ages—or, at least, the observed number of large impacts—observed on each body (Bottke & Norman 2017); removing the first ∼100–200 Myr of those bodies' surface histories—and therefore those as constraints—could help drive the source impactor mixtures to ones more favorable to solving the mismatch (Morbidelli et al. 2018), though other constraints might not allow this (see Section 5. 5). In support of a time-dependent bolide argument, Morbidelli et al. (2018) and others demonstrated that the Mars:Moon bolide ratio is substantially different depending on the impactor source population. Nesvorný et al. (2017) also ran extensive solar system evolution numerical integrations using different possible initial conditions, and they found the ratio might have started at 2. 8–2. 9, but it evolved to 1. 5–2. 3 after 400 Myr. If the ratio changed while these large, ∼1000 km class craters formed, that would also mean that the Martian crater-based chronology is wrong, moving some ages earlier by up to ≈200 Myr (more time would be needed to account for the same number of craters); implications are discussed in the next subsection. Additionally, dynamical models such as those in Morbidelli et al.

Output: corroborate


Input: Claim: Every individual responds the same way to environmental stimuli. [SEP] Text: Download as MPEG-4 Download as WebM Download as R1-R8 photoreceptors contract photomechanically in vivo, moving back-to-front inside each observed ommatidium We utilized the optical cornea-neutralization technique with antidromic deep-red (740 or 785 nm peak) illumination to observe deep pseudopupils (photoreceptor rhabdomeres that align with the observer’s viewing axis) in the Drosophila eye. High-speed video captures fast rhabdomere movements to bright orthodromic blue-green flashes (470 + 535 nm peaks). The panels show: left, R1-R7 photoreceptor rhabdomere tips moving rapidly back-to-front and returning slower to each 10 ms flash, delivered repeatedly every second; right, the cross-correlated horizontal (blue) and vertical (red) components as the time series of this movement. Grey vertical lines indicate each flash. The rhabdomere movement is caused by the photomechanical photoreceptor contractions (not by muscle activity). These in vivo movements are large, here 1. 7 µm from dark-adapted rest-state; causing up to five degree transient shift in the R1-R6 photoreceptors receptive fields (1. 7 µm (10. 7554/eLife. 26117. 031 Video 4 Download asset This video cannot be played in place because your browser does support HTML5 video. You may still download the video for offline viewing. Download as MPEG-4 Download as WebM Download as R1-R8s contract, the lens above is immobile but a cone-cell aperture, connected to the rhabdomere tips by adherens junctions, moves half as much as the rhabdomeres We used a z-axis micromanipulator to shift and reposition Drosophila in piezo-steps vertically underneath the microscope. This allowed the focused image, as projected on the camera, to scan through each studied ommatidium, providing exact depth readings in µm. We then recorded any structural movements inside the ommatidia to light flashes at different depths; from the corneal lens down to the narrow base, where the cone and pigment cells form an intersection between the crystalline cone and the rhabdomere.

Output: contrast


Input: Claim: Neurogenesis occurs in specific brain regions throughout life. [SEP] Text: In this context, it is helpful to note the complexity of comparing developmental status of human and rodent brain. A useful approach is to focus on a single region or circuit and assess multiple developmental processes, such as neurogenesis, synaptogenesis, dendritic growth, and functional maturity across species (see table in Avishai-Eliner et al. [37] for such comparison of rat, monkey, and human hippocampus). This approach enables studying the role of specific stages of maturation of a given brain region on the susceptibility to seizures and the generation of specific seizure types (38–42). Insight from non-human work has suggested that the child's limbic circuit is characterized by an overshoot of axons in some hip-pocampal pathways (43), and an accompanying overshoot of excitatory synapses and glutamate receptors (31, 32). This apparent augmented excitability is combined with the susceptibility of young children to sustain fever and febrile seizures as well as trauma and infections. Hence, typical seizures in the child include febrile (5, 44, 45) and traumatic (46) seizures, as well as other reactive or provoked seizures. Increasing maturation of neuronal circuits supports rapid propagation and often severe seizures in this age group (41, 42). Brain: Sex-and SeizuresThe spurt in the release of sex hormones that accompanies puberty and adolescence contributes to structural and functional neuronal changes and further maturation of neuronal circuits. Sex-dependent dimorphism further arises in numerous brain regions and circuits (47–49). In addition to the arrival of sex hormones from the gonad and other peripheral sources, sex hormones are also synthesized within brain regions including the hippocampus (50). The effects of the female sex hormones on neuronal excitability are complex. Estrogen is generally believed to promote excitability (51) as well as augmented synaptic plasticity (e. g. , [52]). In contrast, progesterone-derived neurosteroids augment GABAA receptor function (48, 53, 54). The cyclical nature of hormonal release during the menstrual cycle in women promotes cyclical or catamenial seizures and epilepsy, often complicating the management of seizures in women (47, 51). In analogy to the female sex hormones, the effects of testosterone—directly and indirectly—on neuronal excitability are complex (55, 56).

Output: pass


Input: Claim: The impact craters on the Moon provide insights into the history of the solar system. [SEP] Text: (2018) demonstrated that the relative components from different impactor source populations were likely different for the early Moon and Mars, where they estimated that comets accounted for a much larger fraction of impacts on the early Moon than they did on early Mars. Such a difference could invert the early bolide ratio from the roughly 2. 8 in the present day to ~0. 5 early on. Additionally, it must be noted that it is possible—even likely—that the bolide ratio is not only time-dependent as a whole, but is dependent also on impactor size that similarly changes as a function of time. A changing size distribution has been discussed before, such as by Strom et al. (2005, 2015), who described the possibility of "Pop 1" versus "Pop 2" impactors pre- and post-heavy lunar bombardment that followed different size-frequency distributions (SFDs). For the earliest times in the solar system, it is likely that small and large impactors followed the same bolide ratio, however, because there had yet to be much dynamical evolution that would have altered the large versus small bodies differently. Where this becomes potentially important to consider is whether the works quoted above that describe the bolide ratio are describing it for smaller bodies or larger bodies, if the SFD has changed: A "bolide ratio" today of 2. 4 versus a ratio of 1. 0 several billion years ago might apply to objects <10 km across, not to those large enough to create megameter-scale craters. Therefore, the potentially variable bolide ratio as both a function of time and diameter must be considered and better understood. 5. 5. Mars's Early Crater-based is WrongOrientale is well anchored in the lunar chronology, and the absolute model age is unlikely to be inaccurate by more than ∼100 Ma. This gives ∼700–800 Myr to form Orientale and the other several large craters (Figure 2(A)). However, scaling the lunar chronology to Mars incorporates all of the above uncertainties, the uncertainty in the lunar crater chronology function, and the assumption of a time-invariable bolide ratio between Moon and Mars. While relative Martian ages can be anchored with Argyre, its age is still a model age. to ages significantly older than ≈3. 9–4. 0 Ga would not solve the mismatch because there are no obvious large younger features.

Output: corroborate


Input: Claim: Every individual responds the same way to environmental stimuli. [SEP] Text: The left panels show: up, ommatidium lens; middle, basal cone/pigment cell layer; down, R1-R7 photoreceptor rhabdomeres tips during and after flash stimulation. The right panels show the cross-correlation time series of these high-speed videos: up, the corneal lens and the upper ommatidium structures were essentially immobile), and normally remained so throughout the recordings; Middle, cone cells that connect to the rhabdomere tips with adherens junctions (Tepass and Harris, 2007) showed clear light-induced movements; down, R1-R7 rhabdomeres moved half as much as the cone cells above. The high-speed video rate was 500 frames/s. Video playback slowed down and down-sampled to reveal the contractions, which otherwise would be too fast to see with a naked eye. Tables 10. 7554/eLife. 26117. 050 10. 7554/eLife. 26117. 057 Light- PointPeak1 wavelength (nm)Peak1 intensity (106 photons/s)Peak2 wavelength (nm)Peak2 intensity (106 photons/s)No. 14482. 7205712. 805No. 24521. 7905702. 818No. 34482. 6185652. 900No. 44511. 8405763. 020No. 54512. 5705753. 710No. 64512. 2145723. 640No. 74521. 4305752. 020No. 84462. 2035702. 990No. 94531. 4655712. 350No. 104513. 3005785. 100No. 114531. 8775753. 080No. 124551. 7635753. 020No. 134512. 3345753. 440No. 144512. 0095762. 634No. 154542. 4005684. 480No. 164522. 3905724. 165No. 174553. 1905663. 010No. 184521. 9905783. 320No. 194551. 9585783. 336No. 204541. 7455692. 670No. 214502. 6425732. 314No. 224529. 52057213.

Output: contrast


Input: Claim: Neurogenesis occurs in specific brain regions throughout life. [SEP] Text: Influences SeizuresThe incidence of seizures increases in the middle-aged and the elderly (57, 58). This is a result, in part, of the increased incidence of tumors and cerebrovascular diseases including stroke (3). In addition, there are likely intrinsic processes within the aging brain that might promote susceptibility to seizures. For example, an increasingly recognized source of the increased incidence of seizures in the aging brain may derive from increased accumulation of the molecules Tau and amyloid beta. It has been shown that these compounds may interact to influence excitability at several levels (59, 60), thus influencing excitability in both normal and dementing aging individuals. Much more work remains to be done to explain and hopefully prevent the human observational studies on increased seizure susceptibility during aging (61). The nature of seizures in the elderly might differ from those observed earlier in the life cycle. Partial complex seizures may be confused with “senior” moments, and a number of additional factors contribute to the complexity of diagnosing seizures in the elderly (62). Age-the Consequences of Seizures at Different AgesBrain: to the Effects of SeizuresThe neonatal brain is in a stage of rapid flux from both a structural and a functional perspective. As mentioned above, neurons are still being born, circuits are being formed, and synapses continue to be established and mature. Many of these processes are activity dependent, in that they are influenced by synaptic communication. For example, activation of certain synapses is believed to strengthen them at the expense of nonactive synapses that are pruned (63, 64). Clearly, then, a burst of abnormal neuronal activity (a seizure) has the potential to disrupt this activity-dependent process, leading to aberrant hyperexcitable or hypo-excitable circuit. At the structural level, excitatory synapses reside on dendritic spines (65); spine size and integrity, as well as the integrity of the dendrites that carry the spines, are activity dependent (66–69). These observations suggest that seizures might influence the structure of spines and dendrites during development, resulting in stunted, dysfunctional neurons (70–73). At the molecular level, seizures during the neonatal and infancy periods modify neurotransmission through several mechanisms.

Output: pass


Input: Claim: The impact craters on the Moon provide insights into the history of the solar system. [SEP] Text: 1 IntroductionFrequency counting of impact craters on terrestrial planets and moons of the can provide a framework for relative geochronology of the upper planetary crust (Hartmann and Neukum2001; Carr and Head 2010) and, within model-dependent conditions, absolute ages (Neukum and Hiller 1981). It also constitutes a means of probing into paroxysmal phases of meteor showers in the early (Gomes et al. 2005). Numerous spaceborne surveying and remote sensing missions to Mars (Pyle 2012) over the last decades have acquired digital elevation data for the entire planet at usable resolutions, enabling planetary scientists to carry out analysis of the Martian impact craters (e. g. Brunetti et al. 2014). However, counting of myriads of impact craters is a tedious and time consuming task. Subjects of research in geology, and consequently in planetary science, involve the reconstruction of original landforms from their current remnants. Such problems can be dealt with if they are reduced to morphological, and eventually geometrical, problems (Bayer 1985). Many of these problems can be tackled by computer algorithms operating on digital terrain models (DTM). Hence, impact crater detection through computer vision methods may be extremely practical in planetary science as it can automate, and thus expedite, the crater-counting procedure. Computer vision (also known as ‘image understanding’) is a branch of computer science aiming at replicating biological (human) vision through appropriate algorithms so that certain image components (objects) can be detected/recognized by computers (e. g. Haralick and Shapiro 1991). However, planet surface processes (Berman et al. 2009) may induce random and persistent disturbance (noise) to the original structure (signal) over the course of time, resulting in the gradual deformation of the original landform. This is particularly the case of the Martian impact craters whose edges have experienced some degree of erosion (Fig. 1) by the former Martian hydrological cycle (Andrews-Hanna et al. 2007). Fig. 1Source: ESA/DLR/FU Berlin. ( craters on Mars overlapping with relict drainage network in Osuga Valles, 170 km south of Eos Chaos, Valles Marineris. Image center at 15°S/322°E. Image from on Mars Express.

Output: corroborate


Input: Claim: Every individual responds the same way to environmental stimuli. [SEP] Text: solstitialis populations sampled around the globe, indicating that the species invasive success is not due to changes in genome size or ploidy level. in ploidy level have been reported to be important for the invasive success of some plants species (et al. , 2011), by altering morphological, physiological and ecological parameters which can confer hybrid vigor, stress resistance, competitive advantages, or increased phenotypic plasticity, like in the case of the tetraploids of Centaurea stoebe L. (Hahn, Buckley & Müller-Schärer, 2012). Additionally, there are a series of associated “genome size constrained traits”, related mostly to reproduction and dispersal, which dictate the ecological niche a species can access (et al. , 2011). In contrast, several studies support the hypothesis that a smaller genome can contribute to some species invasive potential by boosting early plant growth and enhancing competitive ability (Bennett, Leitch & Hanson, 1998; Grotkopp et al. , 2004; Beaulieu et al. , 2007; Lavergne, Muenke & Molofsky, 2010; Suda et al. , 2015). For instance, Phalaris arundinacea L. (reed canary grass, Poaceae) in the USA underwent a quick and significant reduction in genome size compared to the native European genotype, which was correlated with some advantageous phenotypic effects and enhanced aggressiveness (Lavergne, Muenke & Molofsky, 2010). A list comparing the ploidy level of 128 worst invasive plant species worldwide, was recently made available by et al. (2011), indicating that a quarter of them possess at least two different ploidy levels. An interesting example is C. stoebe (spotted knapweed) which occurs both as a diploid and tetraploid, with only the latter cytotype becoming invasive in the Western parts of the USA (Mráz et al. , 2011). However, for many invasive species, ploidy levels and genome size are unknown or have not been thoroughly investigated. Centaurea L. is one of the most species rich genera in the Asteraceae (Bremer, 1994). species have been introduced into new non-native regions, where many of them have become invasive.

Output: contrast


Input: Claim: Neurogenesis occurs in specific brain regions throughout life. [SEP] Text: Neonatal seizures may directly influence the effects of activation of GABA-A receptors (74–77) and alter receptor expression at both excitatory and inhibitory synapses. For example, such seizures modify the expression of glutamate receptors of various types (78–81), GABA receptors (82), and a number of additional important ion channels (83–86). Notably, both the structural and molecular changes provoked by neonatal seizures might be persistent (87, 88). the Life CycleIn both human and animal models, prolonged seizures and status epilepticus appear to result in loss of specific neuronal populations in hippocampus and the hilus of the dentate gyrus (89–94), as well as other vulnerable brain regions (for examples, see Cavalheiro et al. [90], Motte et al. [93], Pitkänen et al. [95], and Kubová et al. [96]). However, the majority of evidence suggests that even prolonged seizures and SE are less likely to provoke cell death during development (70, 71, 97–102). Reorganization of neuronal connectivity is another common outcome of seizures in the mature brain. Typical is axonal “sprouting” and the formation of new synapse (103–107). This process, which might be driven in part by the loss of neuronal targets of the affected axons, is also more attenuated during development (108, 109). Subtle changes in neuronal structure, including loss of dendritic spines and synapses (70, 110), with potential loss of hippocampal volume (111) are found. Thus, during the developmental stages of infancy and childhood, rodent brain seems more resilient to seizure-induced excitotoxicity. However, the age-specific mechanisms responsible for this relative resilience are not fully understood. Understanding why neurons in hippocampus and other vulnerable regions do not die, when the inciting seizures are prolonged and severe is of paramount clinical importance. The underlying mechanisms might enable future protection of neurons in the adult brain from seizure-provoked death. One potential mechanism for this resilience of neurons in immature brain to long seizures and status epilepticus is the relatively mild inflammation in response to seizures during development (112, 113). This is in contrast to the adult, where cytokines and related mediators are both released from injured cells and contribute to neuronal death (113).

Output: pass


Input: Claim: The impact craters on the Moon provide insights into the history of the solar system. [SEP] Text: ~50 or 570 ka old Lonar crater, India, was excavated in the flood basalt of Cretaceous age by the impact of a chondritic asteroid. The impact-spherules known from within the ejecta around this crater are of three types namely aerodynamically shaped sub-mm and mm size spherules, and a sub-mm sized variety of spherule, described as mantled lapilli, having a core consisting of ash-sized grains, shocked basalt and solidified melts surrounded by a rim of ash-sized materials. Although, information is now available on the bulk composition of the sub-mm sized spherules (Misra et al. in Sci 7:1001–1018, 2009), almost no idea exists on the latter two varieties. Here, we presented the microprobe data on major oxides and a few trace elements (e. g. Cr, Ni, Cu, Zn) of mm-sized impact spherules in unravelling their petrogenetic evolution. The mm-sized spherules are characterised by homogeneous glassy interior with vesicular margin in contrast to an overall smooth and glassy-texture of the sub-mm sized spherules. Undigested micro-xenocrysts of mainly plagioclase, magnetite and rare clinopyroxene of the target basalt are present only at the marginal parts of the mm-sized spherules. The minor relative enrichment of SiO2 (~3. 5 wt% in average) and absence of schlieren structure in these spherules suggest relatively high viscosity of the parent melt droplets of these spherules in comparison to their sub-mm sized counterpart. Chemically homogeneous mm-sized spherule and impact-melt bomb share similar bulk chemical and trace element compositions and show no enrichment in impactor components. The general depletion of Na2O within all the Lonar impactites was resulted due to impact-induced volatilisation effect, and it indicates the solidification temperature of the Lonar impactites close to 1,100 °C. The systematic geochemical variation within the mm-sized spherules (Mg# ~0. 38–0.

Output: corroborate


Input: Claim: Every individual responds the same way to environmental stimuli. [SEP] Text: For instance, the US Weeds list (2017), includes no fewer than 13 taxa, but ploidy level for many of these is unknown or uncertain. In particular, C. solstitialis is a Eurasian native annual herb which was introduced into the Americas and Australia during the last two centuries (Barker et al. , 2017) and became an impactful invader in the former case. In the invaded ranges, C. solstitialis forms dense stands that displace native plants species and reduce considerably livestock grazing capacity and forage value (Eagle et al. , 2007). It alters ecosystem functions by depleting soil water and nutrients through an extensive root system (DiTomaso, 2000), and can cause a neurological disorder in horses similar to human Parkinson (Chang et al. , 2011). As an economically important plant, the species has been the subject of intensive research, and significant differentiation between native and non-native ranges have been reported for plant size (Eriksen et al. , 2012; Graebner, Callaway & Montesinos, 2012; García et al. , 2013; Dlugosch et al. , 2015), growth rates (Graebner, Callaway & Montesinos, 2012), germination (Hierro et al. , 2009), competitive ability (Montesinos & Callaway, 2017), and reproduction (Montesinos, Santiago & Callaway, 2012), among others. Such changes suggest diverging local adaptation occurring among native and non-native ranges, and hypothetical changes in genome size and ploidy level could be potentially responsible for at least some of the observed trait-shifts. Until now, only three genome size estimates were available in the literature for C. solstitialis: two from the native range (Bulgaria: 1. 74 pg/2C, one accession, in Bancheva & Greilhuber, 2006; and Croatia: 1. 95 pg/2C, five accessions, in Carev et al. , 2017) and another from an invasive population in western USA: 1. 66 pg/2C, thirty accessions (Miskella, 2014). Based on these few studies, C. solstitialis had been reported to be diploid (Dlugosch et al. , 2013; Rice et al. , 2015) with 2n = 2x = 16 chromosomes.

Output: contrast


Input: Claim: Neurogenesis occurs in specific brain regions throughout life. [SEP] Text: A second mechanism might involve the resilience of mitochondria in the immature brain to accumulation of reactive oxygen species (ROS), which promotes mitochondrial injury and cell death (114, 115). During adult SE, metabolic demand in neurons results in the formation of ROS and overwhelming of mitochondrial function. In contrast, mitochondria in immature brain are partially uncoupled due to the high basal expression of the mitochondrial uncoupling protein 2 (UCP2). This protein reduces mitochondrial membrane gradient, prevents ROS accumulation, and protects from seizure-induced cell loss (116, 117). Other properties of the developing brain, potentially including higher levels of BDNF and other growth factors might protect neurons from excitotoxic injury. Notably, the paucity of cell loss does not indicate that seizures during infancy or childhood do not have significant sequelae. Indeed, a large body of existing and emerging literature suggests that functional (45, 118) as well as structural changes in neurons may be induced by seizures throughout life, and may contribute to cognitive deficits and emotional dysfunction (119). during AgingAn important correlate (comorbidity) of seizures and epilepsy involves cognitive deficits (110, 120–122). In humans, it is more difficult to discern the relationship of the epilepsy and the cognitive defects (122). Temporal lobe or limbic seizures propagate through the same neuronal pathways that are engaged in learning and memory processes (111). Thus, seizures might directly cause such problems; alternatively, the abnormalities that result in the seizures might independently provoke cognitive dysfunction. Work in experimental animal models demonstrated that seizures, and even interictal activity, reduce cognitive performance (118). Indeed, in both humans and animals, rapid seizure-induced injury to dendritic spines and the synapses that they carry might underlie some of the cognitive effects of epileptic activity (123). During aging, whereas there does not seem to be a major reduction in the numbers of hippocampal neurons, spine density is reduced in pyramidal cells. This finding, reported in aging monkeys, suggests that the number of synapses is also reduced (124). This loss of functional excitatory synapses might be a basis for reduced cognitive reserve in the aging brain. The aging brain may thus be more vulnerable to seizure-induced loss of additional synapses. Other factors that contribute to vulnerability to cognitive loss that might be provoked by seizures include an established, age-dependent accumulation of mitochondrial injury (125).

Output: pass


Input: Claim: The impact craters on the Moon provide insights into the history of the solar system. [SEP] Text: (2014) have recently reported the 10Be and 26Al exposure ages of four quartz pebbles sampled from the summits of the rim and the topographic high on the ejecta blenket of the Lonar crater. One of this four pebbles yielded the 10Be and 26Al ages close to 37. 5 ka, which is interpreted as the minimum age of formation of the Lonar crater. The other three ages produced far young ages (9–5 ka), which are interpreted due to erosional removal of materials at their sampling sites. These authors also have dated the pre-impact soils from the west of the Lonar crater by 14C dating technique, which yielded a maximum age of the Lonar crater of 40. 7 ± 0. 7 ka. The thermoluminescence dating of three in situ impact-melt bomb samples collected from the northern, western and eastern parts of the Lonar crater rim from within the ejecta blanket yielded a mean age of 52 ± 6 ka (Sengupta et al. 1997). However, the most precise 40Ar/39Ar age of the four impact-melt rocks is much older and is 570 ± 47 ka (Jourdan et al. 2011). The impact- and impact-looking glasses occurring in and around the Lonar crater were classified into two fundamental petrographic classes (Osae et al. 2005). Out of these two classes, only the class I glasses include mm-sized impact-spherules (type ‘a’ subclass) and cm-sized (~≤1 to 30 cm in diameter) impact-melt bombs (type ‘c’ subclass), which were the products of shock-induced melting due to asteroid impact (Fredriksson et al. 1973; Kieffer et al. 1976; Osae et al. 2005). The class I glasses show very restricted occurrences outside the crater rim mostly to the east within the ejecta blanket at present. These are, in general, brown in colour, translucent impact-glasses, showing schlieren and flow structures under the microscope. The unmelted mineral fragments present within these glasses include plagioclase, clinopyroxene and crystals of magnetite of the target basalt. The origin of class II impact-looking glasses, which occur both inside and outside of the crater (Osae et al.

Output: corroborate


Input: Claim: Every individual responds the same way to environmental stimuli. [SEP] Text: fluorescence pulse height; FL vs. FS in log scale and FL vs. SS in log scale. Mean fluorescence values and coefficient of variation (CV value) of the fluorescence of both sample and standard were obtained for at least 1,300 nuclei in each G1 peak, whenever possible. Samples with CV values above 5% were discarded, prepared and ran again. At least three individuals from every population were used to estimate genome size (Table S2), in different days, to account for the variation generated by the flow cytometer. The remaining individuals were analyzed in pool (three or four individuals) to determine ploidy level (Table S2), only. The absolute DNA content of a sample was calculated based on the following formula: 2C nuclear DNA content of the sample = (sample G1 peak mean)/(standard G1 peak mean) × 2C DNA content of standard. Descriptive statistics were calculated for genome size data (mean, standard deviation of the mean, standard error, coefficient of variation and minimum and maximum values) using 2016. Differences in average genome size values among regions were assessed by means of Linear Mixed-with the formulation of Laird & Ware (1982), with a region as fixed factor and population within region as a random nested factor, in R-3. 2. 0 (R Team, 2010). Data was plotted in BoxPlotR (Spitzer et al. , 2014). of fresh leaf tissue sampled from seedlings germinated from wild seeds of individuals from 52 populations from and Australia (Table S1), showed no significant differences in genome size (F5,44 = 0. 58; p = 0. 716) among regions (Fig. 1). All individuals (N = 477) were found to be diploid, presumably with 2n = 16 chromosomes. Average genome size ranged from 1. 70 pg/2C (SD = 0. 06 pg) in Australia and Spain (SD = 0. 06 pg) to 1. 71 pg/2C (SD = 0. 06 pg) in Chile, 1. 72 pg/2C (SD = 0. 06 pg) in Argentina and California (SD = 0. 07 pg) and 1. 73 pg/2C (SD = 0. 07 pg) in Turkey (Table 1). Figure 1: Comparison of genome size among native and non-native genotypes of Centaurea solstitialis.

Output: contrast


Input: Claim: Neurogenesis occurs in specific brain regions throughout life. [SEP] Text: In addition, there is an accumulation of beta amyloid and tau, as described above. These factors, and probably many additional ones that are as yet unknown, combine to exacerbate the potential consequences of seizures on the aging brain. SummaryThe brain evolves throughout life, and this evolution contributes to the probability of the occurrence of seizures, as well as to their type. In addition, the consequences of seizures are significantly influenced by age-specific properties of the brain. Understanding the unique features of the neonatal, child, adult, and aging brain is crucial for optimal diagnosis and treatment of both seizures and their consequences. 7563. 1. Hauser WA. Epidemiology of epilepsy. 1978; 19: 313–339. PubMed2. . Incidence of status epilepticus in Rochester, Minnesota, 1965–1984. Neurology 1998; 50: 735–741. CrossrefPubMed3. . : Prospective incidence study of epileptic seizures in newly referred patients in a island (Martinique). Epilepsia 1999; 40: 1103–1109. CrossrefPubMed4. . Incidence of unprovoked seizures and epilepsy in Iceland and assessment of the epilepsy syndrome classification: A prospective study. 2005; 4: 627–634. CrossrefPubMed5. Shinnar S, Glauser TA. Febrile seizures. J 2002; 17(suppl): S44–S52. CrossrefPubMed6. . Fever, febrile seizures and epilepsy. 2007; 30: 490–496. CrossrefPubMed7. ; for the. Distribution of febrile seizure duration and associations with development. 2011; XX: XX–XX. 8. . Seizures after stroke: A prospective clinical study. 2001; 49: 33–36. PubMed9. Maytal J, Shinnar S, Moshé SL, Alvarez LA. Low morbidity and mortality of status epilepticus in children. Pediatrics 1989; 83: 323–331. CrossrefPubMed10. Arzimanoglou A. Outcome of status epilepticus in children. Epilepsia 2007; 48(suppl): 91–93. CrossrefPubMed11. . Status epilepticus. N Med 1998; 338: 970–976. CrossrefPubMed12. '.

Output: pass


Input: Claim: The impact craters on the Moon provide insights into the history of the solar system. [SEP] Text: These are importantly the bulk geochemistry and internal geochemical variations of the mm-sized spherule, possible geochemical fractionation of impactor asteroid components between the Lonar impact-melt bomb and varieties of impact spherules (cf. Mittlefehldt et al. 1992, 1993; Mittlefehldt and Hörz 1998), abundance of platinum group of elements and Cr isotopic composition particularly of the sub-mm sized spherules etc. The main focus of this work is to examine the bulk geochemical composition (along with some trace elements) of the mm-sized impact spherule, along with a detail study on the backscattered electron (BSE) images of these spherule in order to evaluate (1) the mechanism of formation and cooling history of the Lonar impactites, and (2) the possible fractionation of impactor component(s) among the impact-melt bomb, and mm- and sub-mm sized impact spherules. 2 of Lonar Cratercrater is a bowl-shaped, near-circular simple impact crater, with an average diameter of approximately 1,810 m with a circularity of 0. 95, and a depth of approximately 150 m (Fredriksson et al. 1973; Fudali et al. 1980; Koeberl et al. 2004; Kumar 2005; Misra et al. 2010). Except for a small sector in the NE, there is a continuous well developed raised rim encircling the crater, which raises to an average elevation of approximately 30 m above the adjacent plains, and the crater floor lies approximately 90 m below the pre-impact surface. The rim is flanked in all directions by a continuous ejecta blanket that extends outward with a gentle slope of 2°–6° to an average distance of approximately 700 m from the crater rim, except to the west where it extends for little more than a kilometer (Fudali et al. 1980; Misra et al. 2010). The crater floor is presently occupied by a shallow hypersaline and alkaline lake (depth <6 m, pH ~9. 5–10. 5, cf. Komatsu et al. 2014 and 58. 356′N, 76°31. 072′E) (Misra et al. 2009).

Output: corroborate


Input: Claim: Every individual responds the same way to environmental stimuli. [SEP] Text: Skip to Content eLife home page your research Search by keyword or author Reset form my search to 10. 7554/eLife. 46359 Open access Copyright information Version of RecordJuly 22, 2019 Accepted ManuscriptJune 21, 2019 Open annotations (there are currently 0 annotations on this page). 1,667 views 259 downloads 21 6359. Copy to clipboard Download BibTeX Download. RIS Full text Figures and data Peer review Side by side Additional files 10 figures, 1 table and 4 additional files 1 Download asset Open asset Urgent and non-urgent variants of the antisaccade task. (a) The compelled antisaccade task. After a fixation period (150, 250, or 350 ms), the central fixation point disappears (Go), instructing the participant to make an eye movement to the left or to the right (±10°) within 450 ms. The cue is revealed (Cue) after a time gap that varies unpredictably across trials (Gap, 0–350 ms). The correct response is an eye movement (Saccade, white arrow) away from the cue, to the diametrically opposite, or anti, location. (b) The delayed antisaccade task. In this case, the cue is shown before the go signal, during fixation. The interval between cue onset and fixation offset varies across trials (Delay, 100 or 200 ms). In all trials, the reaction time (RT) is measured between the onset of the go signal and the onset of the saccade, whereas the raw processing time (rPT) is measured between cue onset and saccade onset. Figure 2 with 1 supplement Download asset Open asset Perceptual performance in the compelled antisaccade task demonstrates a vortex. Each panel shows a tachometric curve, that is, a plot of the probability of making a correct response as a function of rPT, or cue-viewing time. Colored points are experimental results in overlapping time bins (bin width = 15 ms); light shades indicate ± 1 SE from binomial statistics; black lines are continuous, analytical functions fitted to the data. The vortex is the part of the curve for which saccades are highly likely to be captured and performance drops below chance. It is demarcated by gray shades for individual participants (small panels, P1 – P6) and for the aggregate data set (large panel, All participants).

Output: contrast


Input: Claim: Neurogenesis occurs in specific brain regions throughout life. [SEP] Text: Short-term outcomes of children with febrile status epilepticus. Epilepsia 2001; 42: 47–53. CrossrefPubMed13. Raspall-. The epidemiology of convulsive status epilepticus in children: A critical review. Epilepsia 2007; 48: 1652–1663. CrossrefPubMed14. Towne AR. Epidemiology and outcomes of status epilepticus in the elderly. Neurobiol 2007; 81: 111–127. CrossrefPubMed15. . Treatment of seizure emergencies: Convulsive and non-convulsive status epilepticus. 2006; 68(suppl): S77–S82. CrossrefPubMed16. deToledo-. Basic research in epilepsy and aging. 2006; 68(suppl): S21–S37. CrossrefPubMed17. . Is there more to GABA than synaptic inhibition? Neurosci 2002; 3: 715–727. CrossrefPubMed18. Ben-Ari Y, Spitzer NC. Nature and nurture in brain development. 2004; 27: 361. CrossrefPubMed19. Hollrigel GS, Soltesz I. Slow kinetics of miniature IPSCs during early postnatal development in granule cells of the dentate gyrus. J Neurosci 1997; 17: 5119–5128. CrossrefPubMed20. Represa A, Ben-Ari Y. Trophic actions of GABA on neuronal development. 2005; 28: 278–283. CrossrefPubMed21. . An immature mossy fiber innervation of hilar neurons may explain their resistance to kainate-induced cell death in 15-day-old rats. Res 1994; 79: 47–62. CrossrefPubMed22. Mizrahi EM. Neonatal seizures: Problems in diagnosis and classification. Epilepsia 1987; 28(suppl): S46–S55. CrossrefPubMed23. Scher MS. Controversies regarding neonatal seizure recognition. 2002; 4: 139–158. PubMed24. . Reduced sensitivity of the N-methyl-D-aspartate component of synaptic transmission to magnesium in hippocampal slices from immature rats. Res 1990; 56: 257–262. CrossrefPubMed25. Hestrin S.

Output: pass


Input: Claim: The impact craters on the Moon provide insights into the history of the solar system. [SEP] Text: 2010) using a hand-held X-ray Fluorescence spectrometer over a hundred impactite samples of shocked and melted materials failed to find a sample with a substantial enrichment in Ni comparable to those in the Wabar or Henbury crater samples. Evidence for fractionation of impactor components within the terrestrial impact melt bomb and spherules from other craters are not new. Observations on impactite samples from around 64 ky old Wabar crater, Saudi Arabia, which has a diameter of around 90 m and formed by impact of a IIIAB iron meteorite into a quartz-dominated target, show that the impact spherules contain >10 % meteoritic component, compared to <5 % for the massive impact melts (Mittlefehldt et al. 1992). Recent work by Boslough and Crawford (2008) and Newsom and Boslough (2008) have suggested that these materials could have formed by an airbrust mechanism. Studies on mm- to cm-sized impactites from around 49 ky old and 1. 2 km diameter Meteor (Barringer) crater, Arizona, USA, which was formed by the impact of a IAB iron meteorite on sandstone–siltstone–limestone sequence, also established 15–22 % meteoritic material in the impactites, with the glasses containing a relatively high CaO content and a low meteorite component (Mittlefehldt et al. 1993; Mittlefehldt and Hörz 1998). A similar history of evolution is also observed for the Lonar crater, India, and in addition we observed fractionation of asteroid components within the impact spherules depending in the sizes. While the sub-mm sized Lonar impact spherules contain significant proportion (~12–20 wt%) of impactor asteroid component (Co, Cr, Ni) (Misra et al. 2009), the impact-melt bomb and mm-sized impact spherule from this crater have very similar siderophile element geochemistry to that of the target basalts and do not show any enrichment of impactor components (Table 1; Fig. 8a). The exact mechanism, which resulted in the fractionation of meteoritic components between the impact-melt bomb and impact spherules from the Lonar crater, is still poorly constrained.

Output: corroborate


Input: Claim: Every individual responds the same way to environmental stimuli. [SEP] Text: Results are from trials (between 1366 and 1534 per participant) in which the high-luminance cue (icon) was shown. Figure 2—figure supplement 1 Download asset Open asset Performance in non-urgent antisaccade trials. All data are pooled across participants and sorted by luminance level, high (bright green), medium (grayish green), and low (dark green). Results are shown separately for easy trials (left side), in which the delay between cue and go onset was 100 or 200 ms, and zero-gap trials (right side), in which cue and go onset were simultaneous. (a) Mean fraction correct in easy trials (± 1 SE, from binomial proportion). (b) Mean RT in easy trials (± 1 SE across trials). (c) Tachometric curves from easy trials. (d) Processing time distributions in easy trials. Both correct and incorrect responses are included. (e–h) As in (a–d) except for zero-gap trials. In easy trials, essentially all rPTs correspond to asymptotic performance. In zero-gap trials, the late rise in the tachometric curve becomes partially observable, but the majority of rPTs still correspond to asymptotic performance. Figure 3 Download asset Open asset Perceptual performance varies as a function of cue luminance. (a) Tachometric curves for trials in which the cue had high, medium, and low luminance (indicated by bright, grayish, and dark green points, respectively). Results are for the pooled data from all participants. The vortex shifts to the right and becomes less deep as luminance decreases. (b) Tachometric curves from three individual participants at each cue luminance level, high, medium and low, as indicated by the icons. Gray shades demarcate the vortex of each curve. In each panel, colored points are experimental results and black lines are continuous fits to the data. Figure 4 with 2 supplements Download asset Open asset Perceptual performance quantified across participants and luminance conditions. Each panel shows one particular quantity derived from the fitted tachometric curves, with results sorted by participant (x axes) and luminance level, high (bright green), medium (grayish green), and low (dark green). Error bars indicate 95% confidence intervals obtained by bootstrapping.

Output: contrast


Input: Claim: Neurogenesis occurs in specific brain regions throughout life. [SEP] Text: Activation and desensitization of glutamate-activated channels mediating fast excitatory synaptic currents in the visual cortex. Neuron 1992; 9: 991–999. CrossrefPubMed26. . The distribution of thirteen GABAA receptor subunit mRNAs in the rat brain. III. Embryonic and postnatal development. J Neurosci 1992; 12: 4151–4172. CrossrefPubMed27. Wisden W, Seeburg PH. GABAA receptor channels: From subunits to functional entities. Neurobiol 1992; 2: 263–269. CrossrefPubMed28. . Developmental and regional expression in the rat brain and functional properties of four NMDA receptors. Neuron 1994; 12: 529–540. CrossrefPubMed29. . The K+/Cl− co-transporter KCC2 renders GABA hyperpolarizing during neuronal maturation. Nature 1999; 397: 251–255. CrossrefPubMed30. Brooks-Kayal AR. Rearranging receptors. Epilepsia 2005; 46(suppl): 29–38. CrossrefPubMed31. . Developmental regulation of alpha-amino-3-hydroxy-5-methyl-4-isoxazole-propionic acid receptor subunit expression in forebrain and relationship to regional susceptibility to hypoxic/ischemic injury. I. Rodent cerebral white matter and cortex. J 2006; 497: 42–60. CrossrefPubMed32. . Developmental regulation of alpha-amino-3-hydroxy-5-methyl-4-isoxazole-propionic acid receptor subunit expression in forebrain and relationship to regional susceptibility to hypoxic/ischemic injury. II. Human cerebral white matter and cortex. J 2006; 497: 61–77. CrossrefPubMed33. Ben-. and AMPA receptors: A developmentally regulated ‘ménage à trois. ’ 1997; 20: 523–529. CrossrefPubMed34. . NR2A subunit expression shortens NMDA receptor synaptic currents in developing neocortex. J Neurosci 1997; 17: 2469–2476. CrossrefPubMed35. Pickard L, Noël. Developmental changes in synaptic AMPA and NMDA receptor distribution and AMPA receptor subunit composition in living hippocampal neurons.

Output: pass


Input: Claim: The impact craters on the Moon provide insights into the history of the solar system. [SEP] Text: 2009), the mm-sized spherule from the Lonar crater contains vesicles and micro-xenocrystic plagioclase, pyroxene and titano-magnetite of the target basalt, which are more common towards the marginal part of these spherules, indicating the role of impact-induced spin of their parent liquid droplets within the impact-plume for partial separation of melts from the volatile and micro-xenocrystic phases. These spherules also lack the schlieren structure defined by tiny magnetite crystals, which are common in sub-mm sized spherules. 2. The sub-mm sized Lonar spherule shows enrichment in impactor components (e. g. Cr, Ni), whereas the mm-sized spherule is relatively enriched in Si, Na, K and P, although all the Lonar impactites, in general, are relatively depleted in Na compared to that in the target basalt. 3. The morpho-chemical difference between the Lonar impact-spherules suggest progressively heterogeneous nature of the Lonar impact-plume in terms of temperature and vapourized impactor component particularly at the end of excavation stage of the crater. The central part of the plume was hot (could be more than 1,100 °C) and enriched in vapourized impactor component mostly towards the head of the plume. There was a peripheral part of the impact-plume, which was relatively cool and devoid of impactor components. 4. The trajectory of the sub-mm sized spherule was perhaps sub-vertical and mostly restricted within the hot central part of the plume where they incorporate most of the impactor components through mixing of their parent liquid droplets with the vaporized impactor (and perhaps other) components. On the other hand, the trajectory of the mm-sized spherules was relatively gentle and mostly restricted towards the peripheral part of the impact plume where their parent liquid droplets chilled at relatively low temperature and thus contain relatively more volatile components like Si, Na, K and P but without any component of the impactor. 5. The general loss of Cu from the mm-sized spherule and impact-melt bomb constrain the lower temperature of the peripheral plume more than 760 °C. 10. 1016/j. ijimpeng. 2008. 07. 053 5388.

Output: corroborate


Input: Claim: Every individual responds the same way to environmental stimuli. [SEP] Text: (a) Mean perceptual accuracy, calculated as the average value of the fitted tachometric curve for rPTs between 0 and 250 ms. (b) Vortex time, calculated as the rPT at which the minimum of the fitted tachometric curve is found. (c) Endogenous response centerpoint, equal to the rPT at which the rise of the fitted tachometric curve is halfway between its minimum and maximum values. Figure 4—figure supplement 1 Download asset Open asset Additional quantities that characterize perceptual performance across participants and cue conditions. Each panel shows one particular feature derived from the fitted tachometric curves, with results sorted by participant (x axes) and luminance level, high (bright green), medium (grayish green), and low (dark green). Error bars indicate 95% confidence intervals obtained by bootstrapping. Same format as in Figure 4. (a) Maximum slope attained during the rising phase of the tachometric curve. (b) Vortex depth, equal to the minimum fraction correct. Note that, for participants 1, 4, and 6, the depth is zero for the high-luminance cue. (c) Left edge of the vortex, equal to the rPT at which the dip of the tachometric curve is halfway between chance (0. 5) and its minimum value. Although these metrics are somewhat noisier than those shown in Figure 4, the effects of luminance are again highly consistent across participants, albeit with significant quantitative differences. Figure 4—figure supplement 2 Download asset Open asset Simulated perceptual performance quantified in the same way as the experimental data. Results were obtained with the exact same analyses as those in Figure 4 (Materials and methods), except that they were based on simulated trials. The model data were generated using the best-fitting model parameters for each individual participant. Same format as in Figure 4. Figure 5 with 4 supplements Download asset Open asset Dissociation between perceptual capacity and overall task performance. In each panel, the data from each participant (joined by lines) are shown for trials of high, medium, and low luminance cues (bright, grayish, and dark green points, respectively). Crosses indicate the typical (median) uncertainty (2 SEs) associated with the measurement in each direction. correlations between values on the x and y axes are indicated, along with significance (Materials and methods). The partial correlation eliminates the association due exclusively to luminance.

Output: contrast


Input: Claim: Neurogenesis occurs in specific brain regions throughout life. [SEP] Text: J Neurosci 2000; 20: 7922–7931. CrossrefPubMed36. Ben-Ari Y. Excitatory actions of gaba during development: The nature of the nurture. Neurosci 2002; 3: 728–739. CrossrefPubMed37. Avishai-. Stressed-out, or in (utero)? 2002; 25: 518–524. CrossrefPubMed38. Mares P, Velísek L. N-methyl-D-aspartate (NMDA)-induced seizures in developing rats. Res 1992; 65: 185–189. CrossrefPubMed39. . Corticotropin releasing hormone induced seizures in the infant rats in the amygdala. 1992; 31: 488–494. CrossrefPubMed40. . Febrile seizures: An appropriate-aged model suitable for long-term studies. Res 1997; 98: 265–270. CrossrefPubMed41. Holmes GL, Ben-Ari Y. The neurobiology and consequences of epilepsy in the developing brain. 2001; 49: 320–325. CrossrefPubMed42. Coppola A, Moshé SL. Why is the developing brain more susceptible to status epilepticus? Epilepsia 2009; 50(suppl): 25–26. CrossrefPubMed43. Gomez-. Axonal remodeling during postnatal maturation of CA3 hippocampal pyramidal neurons. J 1997; 384: 165–180. CrossrefPubMed44. Stafstrom CE. The incidence and prevalence of febrile seizures. In: Febrile Seizures. (Baram TZ, Shinnar S, eds. ) San Diego: Academic Press, 2002: 1–25. Crossref45. Dubé. Febrile seizures: Mechanisms and relationship to epilepsy. 2009; 31: 366–371. CrossrefPubMed46. . Pediatric traumatic brain injury: Not just little adults. 2007; 13: 143–152. CrossrefPubMed47. . The influence of gonadal hormones on neuronal excitability, seizures, and epilepsy in the female. Epilepsia 2006; 47: 1423–1440. CrossrefPubMed48. . Endogenous neurosteroid synthesis modulates seizure frequency. 2010; 67: 689–693. PubMed49. .

Output: pass


Input: Claim: The impact craters on the Moon provide insights into the history of the solar system. [SEP] Text: This interpretation is strengthened by the fact that it should be even easier to recognize the polygonality of larger impact crater due to the restrictions of the data, and therefore the percentage of the PICs among small impact craters (12–20 km) is probably even larger than 53%, which includes only the most obvious examples. Fig. 9The diagram clearly shows that the relative abundance of polygonal impact craters increases among the smaller craters compared to larger cratersFull size image We studied the distribution of these two crater types also in terms of geologic environment, as provided by Herrick et al. (1997). This analysis showed the geological environment does not seem to have marked effect on the abundance of polygonal impact craters, and is similar in this respect to Mars (Öhman et al. 2006b). The only slight difference we identified between craters is that PICs seem to be more prevalent on the plains and “normal”-shaped craters more prevalent on fractured plains. However, this geological categorisation does not inform us of the local tectonic environment, which we expected to find is the most important factor leading to the formation of straight rim segments of impact craters (Öhman et al. 2005, 2006a). For example, the tectonics that affect the formation of polygonal craters could be exactly similar in different geologic groups studied, e. g. the regions defined such as “volcano”, “rift”, and “coronae” don’t characterise their regional tectonic environments. Not only are the general geologic settings of polygonal and “normal” impact craters more or less similar (Fig. 10), but also their altitudes show no difference. The mean altitude of PICs is 6051. 86 and other craters 6051. 92. Thus, as could be predicted from their global distribution, the average radius for both groups is similar to the mean planetary radius. Fig. 10The abundance of impact craters in different geological terrains defined by Herrick et al. (1997).

Output: corroborate


Input: Claim: Every individual responds the same way to environmental stimuli. [SEP] Text: (a) Mean observed accuracy versus mean perceptual accuracy. (b) Mean observed accuracy versus mean RT. Average RT data include both correct and incorrect trials. (c) Mean perceptual accuracy versus mean RT. Figure 5—figure supplement 1 Download asset Open asset Dissociation between perceptual capacity and overall task performance based on the curve centerpoint. Same format as in Figure 5, except that the endogenous response centerpoint is plotted instead of the mean perceptual accuracy. (a) Mean observed accuracy as a function of the centerpoint. (b) Mean observed accuracy as a function of mean RT. (c) Centerpoint as a function of mean RT. The centerpoint relates to the mean observed accuracy and the mean RT (this figure) in nearly identical ways as the mean perceptual accuracy (Figure 5), if one takes into account that a lower centerpoint corresponds to better perceptual performance. Figure 5—figure supplement 2 Download asset Open asset Decoupling perceptual and motor performance. All results are based on data aggregated across participants. Each panel compares results in fast (F) versus slow (S) blocks of trials, which were sorted as follows. First, the 30 blocks of trials performed by each participant were ranked, post hoc, according to mean RT. Then the 10 blocks at the top and the 10 at the bottom were designated as the fast and slow blocks, respectively. Finally, the fast and slow blocks were separately pooled across participants to yield two corresponding groups of trials. (a) Mean RT (± 1 SE) in compelled antisaccade trials. Bar colors, bright, grayish, and dark green, correspond to cue luminance, high, medium, and low, respectively. (b) Mean observed accuracy, equal to the measured fraction of correct responses (± 1 SE from binomial proportion), in compelled antisaccade trials. Note that, for a given luminance, the observed accuracy was higher in the slow than in the fast blocks. (c) Mean perceptual accuracy, equal to the mean value of the fitted tachometric curve over the 0–250 ms rPT range (± 1 SE from bootstrap). Note that perceptual accuracy was slightly lower in the slow than in the fast blocks. (d) Tachometric curves for fast (cyan dots) and slow blocks (gray dots). Each panel shows data for a specific cue luminance level, as indicated by the icons. Vertical lines mark the centerpoints of the fitted curves.

Output: contrast


Input: Claim: Neurogenesis occurs in specific brain regions throughout life. [SEP] Text: Reframing sexual differentiation of the brain. 2011; 14: 677–683. CrossrefPubMed50. Zhou L, Fester L, von -. Aromatase inhibitors induce spine synapse loss in the hippocampus of ovariectomized mice. Endocrinology 2010; 151: 1153–1160. CrossrefPubMed51. . Frequency of catamenial seizure exacerbation in women with localization-related epilepsy. 2004; 56: 431–434. CrossrefPubMed52. Kramár. Cytoskeletal changes underlie estrogen's acute effects on synaptic transmission and plasticity. J Neurosci 2009; 29: 12982–12993. CrossrefPubMed53. . Enhanced anticonvulsant activity of neuroactive steroids in a rat model of catamenial epilepsy. Epilepsia 2001; 42: 337–344. CrossrefPubMed54. . Ovarian cycle-linked changes in GABA(A) receptors mediating tonic inhibition alter seizure susceptibility and anxiety. 2005; 8: 797–804. CrossrefPubMed55. . Aromatase inhibitors as add-on treatment for men with epilepsy. Neurother 2005; 5: 123–127. CrossrefPubMed56. Reddy DS, Jian K. The testosterone-derived neurosteroid androstanediol is a positive allosteric modulator of GABAA receptors. J Ther 2010; 334: 1031–1041. CrossrefPubMed57. Hauser WA. Seizure disorders: The changes with age. Epilepsia 1992; 33(suppl): S6–S14. CrossrefPubMed58. . Drug treatment in the elderly. In: Epilepsy: A Comprehensive Textbook. Vol 2. 2nd ed. (eds. ) Philadelphia: & Wilkins, 2008: 1269–1278. 59. Palop JJ, Mucke L. Epilepsy and cognitive impairments in Alzheimer disease. 2009; 66: 435–440. CrossrefPubMed60. . Amyloid-ß/Fyn-induced synaptic, network, and cognitive impairments depend on tau levels in multiple mouse models of Alzheimer's disease. J Neurosci 2011; 31: 700–711. CrossrefPubMed61. Kelly KM. Aging models of acute seizures and epilepsy.

Output: pass


Input: Claim: The impact craters on the Moon provide insights into the history of the solar system. [SEP] Text: and 1, Jiao Wang1,2 & Cong Wan1,2 412 Accesses 1 all metrics craters on the lunar surface have a variety of morphometric characteristics that are very useful in understanding the evolutionary history of lunar landscape morphologies. Based on digital elevation model data and photographs from China’s Chang’E-1 lunar orbiter, we develop morphologic parameters and quantitative methods for presenting the morphometric characteristics of impact craters, analyzing their relational distribution, and estimating the relative order of their formation. We also analyze features in profile where craters show signs of having formed on the edge of previously existing craters to show that superimposed impacts affect morphologic reconstructions. As a result, impact craters have significant effects on the reconstruction of ancient topography and the estimation of relative formation ages. Similar content being viewed by others Progresses and prospects of impact crater studies 4. 5-billion year evolutionary history of the solar system (Ronca 1966; Ouyang 2005). Impact craters are the most obvious and typical geomorphologic units (Ronca 1969; Neukum and Ivanov 1994; Neukum et al. 1975); they form when a planetary body (meteoro, comet, etc. ) impact against the surface (King 1976). The diameters of impact craters on the lunar surface range widely from only a few centimeters to hundreds of kilometers (Peter 1999). For most craters, their rims are higher than the center; as the diameters increase, the morphologic characteristics of specific impact craters appear to become more complex (Oberbeck et al. 1974). The morphometric characteristics of impact craters can provide much information regarding impact characteristics and processes (Hartmann et al. 1981; Cameron 1984). Asteroids or comets striking planetary surfaces generally produce circular impact craters, even when those objects hit at angles substantially off vertical (Melosh 1996). Elliptical impact craters are produced when impacting angles are low relative to the horizontal, with the transition between circular and elongated craters occurring somewhere near 10° (Bottke et al. 2000). Such results have been confirmed by laboratory experiments consisting of small aluminum and Pyrex spheres shot at several km/s into sand or aluminum targets (Burchell and Mackay 1998). Burchell et al.

Output: corroborate


Input: Claim: Every individual responds the same way to environmental stimuli. [SEP] Text: In the high- and low-luminance cases, the blue curve is slightly shifted to the left relative to the gray (asterisks indicate p < 0. 0005 for the difference in centerpoints, from bootstrap). This implies slightly better perceptual performance in the fast than in the slow blocks. Figure 5—figure supplement 3 Download asset Open asset Dissociation between perceptual capacity and overall task performance as seen with the accelerated race-to-threshold model. Results were obtained in the exact same way as those in Figure 5, except that they were based on simulated trials. The model data were generated using the best-fitting model parameters for each individual participant. Same format as in Figure 5. Figure 5—figure supplement 4 Download asset Open asset Model parameters that characterize individual perceptual performance. In each panel, the data from each participant (joined by lines) are shown for trials of high, medium, and low luminance cues (bright, grayish, and dark green points, respectively). Parameter values are as listed in Supplementary file 1. correlations between values on the x and y axes are indicated, along with significance (Materials and methods). The partial correlation eliminates the association due to luminance. (a) Mean perceptual accuracy as a function of the mean afferent delay of the cue (parameter μCUEaff, or mean cue latency). There seems to be a strong, negative association, but it is all due to mutual dependencies on luminance; within each luminance level, cue latency does not predict perceptual accuracy. This is an example of Simpson’s paradox, a statistical effect whereby a trend between two variables disappears or reverses when the data are conditioned on a third variable. (b) Mean perceptual accuracy as a function of the exogenous acceleration (parameter aEX). (c) Mean perceptual accuracy as a function of the endogenous acceleration (parameter aEND). (d) Correlation between endogenous and exogenous acceleration. The negative relationship indicates that participants whose attention is captured strongly by the cue also tend to endogenously shift their visuospatial attention more slowly. Other model parameters showed weaker relationships to perceptual accuracy. Figure 6 Download asset Open asset Three representative single trials of the race-to-threshold model. Traces show motor plans rL toward the left (red) and rR toward the right (black) as functions of time.

Output: contrast


Input: Claim: Neurogenesis occurs in specific brain regions throughout life. [SEP] Text: 2010; 10: 15–20. CrossrefPubMed62. . Epilepsy in the elderly. Semin Neurol. 2008; 28: 336–41. CrossrefPubMed63. Constantine-Paton M, Cline HT. LTP and activity-dependent synaptogenesis: The more alike they are, the more different they become. Neurobiol 1998; 8: 139–148. CrossrefPubMed64. . Refining the roles of GABAergic signaling during neural circuit formation. 2007; 30: 382–389. CrossrefPubMed65. Segal M. Rapid plasticity of dendritic spine: Hints to possible functions? 2001; 63: 61–70. CrossrefPubMed66. . Activity-induced changes of spine morphology. Hippocampus 2002; 12: 585–591. CrossrefPubMed67. Lin B, Kramár. Theta stimulation polymerizes actin in dendritic spines of hippocampus. J Neurosci 2005; 25: 2062–2069. CrossrefPubMed68. . Convergent CaMK and RacGEF signals control dendritic structure and function. Biol 2008; 18: 405–413. CrossrefPubMed69. . Regulation of spine and synapse formation by activity-dependent intracellular signaling pathways. Neurobiol 2010; 20: 108–115. CrossrefPubMed70. Swann JW, Al-. Spine loss and other dendritic abnormalities in epilepsy. Hippocampus 2000; 10: 617–625. CrossrefPubMed71. -Ari Y. Seizure-induced damage in the developing human: Relevance of experimental models. Res 2002; 135: 321–334. CrossrefPubMed72. Baram TZ. Long-term neuroplasticity and functional consequences of single versus recurrent early-life seizures. 2003; 54: 701–705. CrossrefPubMed73. . Molecular signaling mechanisms underlying epileptogenesis. Sci STKE 2006; 2006: re12. CrossrefPubMed74. . Bicuculline induced seizures in infant rats: Ontogeny of behavioral and electrocortical phenomena. Res 1990; 57: 291–295. CrossrefPubMed75. Velísková J, Velísek á D.

Output: pass