Input: Claim: All plants used in traditional medicine are effective for modern ailments. [SEP] Text: Medicinal plants used by traditional healers to treat malignancies and other human ailments in eeOpen access Published: 14 February 2018 Medicinal plants used by traditional healers to treat malignancies and other human ailments in : orcid. org/0000-0002-9474-45741,2, Beyene Petros2 & Zemede Asfaw3 Journal of Ethnobiology and Ethnomedicine 35. 2%); while 64. 7% were retrieved from the wild habitat. Leaves were the main part of the MPs used (42. 9%), followed by fruits/seeds (13%); all preparations were made from fresh materials and about 27. 9% involved boiling. The frequent route of delivery was oral (77. 9%), followed by dermal (17. 6%). About 40. 8% of the MPs were used for treating two or more ailments. About 19. 7% of the MPs were used to treat malignancies (ICF = 0. 86) among which the plant species Sideroxylon oxyacanthum was the most frequently used (FL = 70%). The species Podocarpus falcatus and Hagenia abyssinica were preferred to treat jaundice and deworm in helminthiases, respectively. ConclusionThe study area is very rich in plant biodiversity, and the herbal medicine is an integral part of the traditional healthcare system. The MPs are exposed to various destructive anthropogenic activities, and this situation calls for integrated conservation measures. Furthermore, the rich ethnomedicinal knowledge held by the Sidama community at large and TM practitioners, in particular, needs an in-depth study and documentation. Investigations of the MPs with high ICF, FL, and UVs to malignancies, jaundice, and helminthiases could possibly contribute to future drug development efforts. BackgroundEthiopia is known for its ancient civilization and is home to people of diverse ethnolinguistic backgrounds [1]. It stretches from about 120 m below sea level (the in the Afar depression) to 4543 m above sea level (the highest peak of mountain) [2, 3]. This feature had its share for the creation of varied ecosystems and a high diversity of vascular plants (about 6027 species) with 10% endemism [4,5,6,7].

Output: contrast


Input: Claim: Europa’s subsurface ocean may harbor conditions suitable for life. [SEP] Text: (A) Comparison of Europa's disk-averaged brightness temperatures as a function of frequency from ALMA (weighted averages from this work; purple), other radio/(sub)millimeter facilities including the VLA (de Pater et al. 1984; Muhleman et al. 1986; Butler 2012), the IRAM 30 m dish (Altenhoff et al. 1988), the SMA (Gurwell et al. 2024, private communication), OVRO (Muhleman & Berge 1991), and infrared measurements using SOFIA (de Pater et al. 2021a) and the (de Pater et al. 1989). Predictions of the maximum surface temperatures at visible wavelengths from Morrison et al. (1977) are shown in black. (B) Brightness temperatures as a function of frequency in the (sub)millimeter wavelength regime from both the leading (crosses) and trailing (diamonds) hemispheres as measured by ALMA (this work; purple) and the SMA (Gurwell et al. 2024, private communication; red). Data from the IRAM 30 m telescope are also shown (Altenhoff et al. 1988; blue). Download figure:Standard image High-resolution image Table 3. ΓEff. EmissivityBand(cm)(K)(%)(J m−2 K−1 s−1/2) 3 (3. 05 mm)∼0. 5–178. 19 ± 2. 77 0. 80 ± 0. 036 (1. 25 mm)∼1. 5–379. 78 ± 2. 4664 ± 876 ± 250. 85 ± 0. 027 (0. 87 mm)∼10–2087. 22 ± 3. 3952 ± 7130 ± 270. 80 ± 0. 04 Note. Properties listed are the weighted average of those detailed in Table 2. Download table as: imageIn contrast to the brightness temperatures derived for the other (see, e. g. , de Kleer et al. 2021a; de Pater et al. 2021a, and Camarca et al. 2023 for recent work and literature comparisons) and Pluto (Lellouch et al. 2016), those measured at Europa do not appear to be monotonically increasing as a function of frequency (Figure 4, panel (A)).

Output: pass


Input: Claim: Dopamine is crucial for reward processing and motivation. [SEP] Text: Moreover, evidence for impaired model-based vs intact model-free control in PD (first evidenced by de Wit et al. in JoCN) is not directly relevant here, given the fairly wide gap between the type of inference that is measured in e. g. the two-step task and similar other learning tasks and the contingent reward motivation manipulation measured here. We have shifted our focus away from “model-based vs model-free” and acknowledge that our task does not help understand the traditional distinction between forward planning vs reinforcement learning. We now clarify that the task is probing motivation through action-outcome knowledge, and is related to Pavlovian vs instrumental drives (see response to point 4 for pasted text). Some of these conclusions (e. g. (i)) also counter the hypothesis put forward later in the discussion and illustrated in Figure 6 about the two forms of motivation implicating distinct dopaminergic mechanisms. We have adjusted these claims, and believe the new literature added to the discussion fits with the proposal of two separate systems. 6) Two sets of literature that are directly relevant to this research are absent from the manuscript and need to be incorporated. • The first is (pharmacological and lesion) evidence from work with experimental rodents, but also humans, on dopamine's role in the Pavlovian control of behavior, e. g. on conditioned reinforcement (Parkinson et al; Taylor and Robbins), Pavlovian-to-instrumental transfer (Dickinson et al. , 2001; Wyvell and Berridge, 2000; Talmi et al. , 2008), autoshaping, goal vs sign tracking etcetera. • The second is prior evidence for enhanced effects of reward motivation in PD patients OFF but not ON meds in a manner that depends on dopamine cell loss (Aarts et al. , 2012 and Timmer et al. , 2018). should reflect this prior evidence. In fact, the rationale for the current study is strengthened by the apparent discrepancy between this evidence for enhanced motivation in PD OFF meds (somewhat reminiscent of paradoxical kinesia) and the evidence previously obtained by the authors for reduced motivation in PD OFF meds. We thank the reviewers for pointing out these highly relevant bodies of literature. We have rewritten the Introduction to reflect this, and added them to the Discussion (see above): “Contingent rewards motivate us because we understand the causal relation between successful actions and reward.

Output: corroborate


Input: Claim: All plants used in traditional medicine are effective for modern ailments. [SEP] Text: More than 1000 plant species have so far been reported for use in Ethiopia’s traditional herbal medicine, and about 33 of these species are endemic to the country [8, 9]. Ethiopia is one of the six plant-rich countries of Africa where about 60% of the plants are said to be indigenous and most of them with healing potential [10]. Jansen [11] had once stated that almost all plants of the Ethiopian flora are used medicinally in different parts of the country in one way or the other. In Ethiopia, over 70% of the people depend on traditional medicines (TMs) for their healthcare, and more than 95% of the preparations are made from plant origin [12, 13]. According to various reports, local people in rural Ethiopia mostly rely on TMs for healthcare services and others revert to TM when modern health services fail due to various reasons [14]. Dissatisfaction with modern medicines and lack of their efficacy, especially in the cases of certain human ailments including cancer, liver diseases, herpes zoster, eczema, swelling, and hemorrhoids, were some of the reasons that traditional healing systems were preferred over conventional medicines [15]. There are case reports of TMs being the preferred treatment options for the early stages of some diseases, including malignancies [16]. In Ethiopia, environmental degradation, deforestation, intermittent drought, and various anthropogenic activities are threatening the natural resources in general, and MPs are most affected. A few ethnobotanical studies undertaken in Sidama Zone, where the present study was conducted, showed that TM is an integral part of the healthcare system of the Sidama people [17,18,19]. This corroborates the national report on TM use in healthcare [12, 20]. The hypothesis for the present study emerged from observations on the long history of use of herbal medicine to treat human ailments by traditional healers (THs) among the Sidama people. It was deemed necessary to retrieve essential ethnobotanical information from the THs before the MP resources and the associated indigenous knowledge are lost. Therefore, we hypothesized that the THs that provide treatment for various human ailments have valuable knowledge about the traditional MPs used to treat various malignancies, jaundice, and helminthiases.

Output: contrast


Input: Claim: Europa’s subsurface ocean may harbor conditions suitable for life. [SEP] Text: However, new measurements at frequencies <10 GHz are needed to confirm the discrepancies and large uncertainties found in early VLA observations (de Pater et al. 1984; Muhleman et al. 1986). As noted in previous works (e. g. , de Kleer et al. 2021a), the decrease in brightness temperature measured with descending frequency across the ALMA wavelength range is indicative of the colder temperatures at depth where both the thermal inertia increases and, in the case of our ALMA Band 3 measurements, the emission is sourced from below the thermal skin depth. We find the weighted averages of our leading and trailing hemisphere porosity values to range between 50% and 64%, corresponding to Γeff = 76–140 J m−2 K−1 s−1/2 (Table 3). Our emissivity values are toward the higher end of the range found by Trumbo et al. (2018) for ALMA Band 6 (0. 67–0. 84), while our Band 6 value (both globally and, in particular, on the leading hemisphere) is more toward that derived by the and Radiometer (IRIS) instrument for the surface (0. 9; Spencer 1987). It is reasonable, however, that the measured (sub)millimeter emissivity is lower than those derived from infrared measurements, as has been found with other objects (Lellouch et al. 2016; Brown & Butler 2017; Lellouch et al. 2017; de Kleer et al. 2021a). Comparisons of our globally averaged thermal inertia values to previous measurements of Europa and the other from the surface to ∼10 s of cm are listed in Table 4. A high porosity, low thermal inertia surface for Europa was initially inferred from ground-based eclipse observations at 10 μm (Hansen 1973), and a range of Γ = 40–150 J m−2 K−1 s−1/2 was found from the Galileo/PPR data across the surface (Spencer et al. 1999; Rathbun et al. 2010, 2014; Rathbun & Spencer 2020). 6 observations analyzed by Trumbo et al. (2018) resulted in a global average thermal inertia of 95 J m−2 K−1 s−1/2 and a typical range of ∼40–300 J m−2 K−1 s−1/2, when considered with their best-fit emissivity value of 0.

Output: pass


Input: Claim: Dopamine is crucial for reward processing and motivation. [SEP] Text: […] We tested the two predictions that dopamine is involved in motivation by expected rewards, and by contingent rewards. ” 7) The current version of the Introduction (as well as some of the discussion) is structured based a contrast between model-based versus Pavlovian control of behavior that does not do justice our understanding of these concepts from classic learning theory. For example, the statement that “Motivation by reward expectation, independent of what an agent does, is model-free” should be rephrased. Pavlovian control can be model-free or model-based (Dayan and Berridge, 2014, CABN or Bornstein and Daw, 2011, Neurobiol). Related to this is my issue with the conclusion in the Discussion (see above). We thank the reviewer for advising on these very relevant distinctions, which we now make in our narrative. We have rewritten the Introduction and the discussion to modify these claims. We had previously attempted to suggest that model-based reasoning could underlie the PD ON benefit, although we were not clear enough that this was only one possibility. We have refocused the paper on the more clear distinction between goal-directed action-outcome and Pavlovian stimulus-outcome associations (see responses above). 8) Some of the statistical choices need to be justified and, data presentation optimized. • The use of peak velocity residuals, corrected for amplitude, should be justified more clearly. We have justified this (please see response to point 2 above). • It would also be good to clarify the rationale for using these residuals rather than correcting the velocities for amplitude with a covariate of no interest e. g. in a trial-wise mixed linear regression analysis. We have added the following to the Materials and methods section, justifying our use of residuals in ANOVA: “To remove the main sequence effect of amplitude on velocity (Bahill et al. , 1975; Harris and Wolpert, 2006), we regressed velocity against amplitude and took the peak velocity residuals as our measure of interest. […] Our findings did not qualitatively change when we used the covariate approach instead. ” • The use of mixed linear modeling would allow both between- as well as within-subject variability to be taken into account. Was this considered? We planned in advance to use repeated measures ANOVA (i. e. a mixed linear model on the condition means).

Output: corroborate


Input: Claim: All plants used in traditional medicine are effective for modern ailments. [SEP] Text: The opposite ones (plants with male reproductive structures) are considered poisonous or toxic and are not considered for remedy preparation. Diseases treated by the THsIt was recorded that more than 39 different human sicknesses were treated by the THs in the study area using remedies from MPs. The most widespread disease conditions in humans, according to the informants, include various forms of malignancies,Footnote 2 jaundice (especially in children), helminthiases, bacterial infections, malaria, chronic obstructive pulmonary disease (e. g. , asthma and Usso—a stabbing chest pain), diarrhea, swelling, common cold, febrile illnesses (‘lammootta’ or ‘dingetegna’), toothache, gastritis, diabetes, various wounds, and unspecified headaches. A considerable proportion of MPs was found to be used to treat various forms of malignancies (19. 7%), non-infectious diseases (e. g. , diabetes, blood pressure, asthma, and gastritis) (13. 2%), and helminthiases (8. 5%). As explained by the THs, some disease conditions are understood, defined, and expressed in a unique way. The indigenous nature of the medical system in the area is evident from local terminologies applied to the diseases/illnesses and health status of people described by the THs and the community at large. For example, an acute ailment characterized by pain of the hip, irritation during urination, sweating, and loss of appetite is referred to as ‘arrisho’. A painful illness with fever and swelling on any part of the body, especially on the legs, is known as ‘Buutaame’. During treating this illness traditionally, the TM practitioner usually utters the words either fincami! (to mean “disappear”/“be vanished”) or dhoohi (to mean “burst out”) while deeply looking at the swelling. ‘Lammootta’ is an ailment characterized by acute febrile illness and sudden headache that could kill within 2 days if left untreated. Likewise, ‘usso’ is a characteristically severe disease condition with stabbing pain, which is accompanied by sweating and coughing.

Output: contrast


Input: Claim: Europa’s subsurface ocean may harbor conditions suitable for life. [SEP] Text: 75. These values fall within the range of the Galileo/PPR measurements, and our measured ALMA Band 6 average is similar to their best-fit, global thermal inertia value, despite differences between the models with regards to the treatment of subsurface emission. 7 average, though larger, still falls within the range of previously measured values, as well as those found by Trumbo et al. (2018) in various portions of the surface at slightly lower depths. The derived thermal inertia values from the ALMA observations fall closer to the higher thermal inertia component of the two-component model of Spencer (1987) using Voyager observations. Table 4. Inertiae of the Galilean SatellitesObjectΓ a Facility/Instrument2. 24 mMorrison & Cruikshank (1973) 50 ± 5Voyager/IRISSpencer (1987) 16 ± 2, 300 ± 200 (2C)⋯⋯ 70Galileo/PPRSpencer et al. (1999) 40 − 150⋯Rathbun et al. (2010) 95ALMATrumbo et al. (2018) 40–300⋯⋯ 87, 105 c Galileo/PPRRathbun & Spencer (2020) ALMA (Band 3)this work 76 ± 25ALMA (Band 6)⋯ 130 ± 27ALMA (Band 7)⋯ Ganymede14 ± 2, >300 (2C)Maunakea 2. 24 mMorrison & Cruikshank (1973) 70 ± 20Voyager/IRISSpencer (1987) 22 ± 2, 500 ± 100 (2C)⋯⋯ 16 ± 6, 1000 ± 500 (2C)⋯⋯ ALMA (Band 3)de Kleer et al. (2021a) ALMA (Band 6)⋯ ALMA (Band 7)⋯ Callisto10 ± 1, >300 (2C)Maunakea 2. 24 mMorrison & Cruikshank (1973) 50 ± 10Voyager/IRISSpencer (1987) 15 ± 2, 300 ± 200 (2C)⋯⋯ 600–1800ALMA (Band 7)Camarca et al.

Output: pass


Input: Claim: Dopamine is crucial for reward processing and motivation. [SEP] Text: can be motivated when reward depends on performance, or merely by the prospect of a guaranteed reward. Performance-dependent (contingent) reward is instrumental, relying on an internal action-outcome model, whereas motivation by guaranteed reward may minimise opportunity cost in reward-rich environments. Competing theories propose that each type of motivation should be dependent on dopaminergic activity. We contrasted these two types of motivation with a rewarded saccade task, in patients with Parkinson’s disease (PD). When PD patients were ON dopamine, they had greater response vigour (peak saccadic velocity residuals) for contingent rewards, whereas when PD patients were OFF medication, they had greater vigour for guaranteed rewards. These results support the view that reward expectation and contingency drive distinct motivational processes, and can be dissociated by manipulating dopaminergic activity. We posit that dopamine promotes goal-directed motivation, but dampens reward-driven vigour, contradictory to the prediction that increased tonic dopamine amplifies reward expectation. expend more effort when their actions can lead to rewards, as the value of the reward offsets the extra effort expended to attain them (Kool and Botvinick, 2018; Manohar et al. , 2015; Niv et al. , 2006; Shenhav et al. , 2017). They will even do so if the extra effort does not increase the reward they receive (Glaser et al. , 2016; Milstein and Dorris, 2007; Xu-Wilson et al. , 2009), indicating that mere expectation of reward is enough to justify the effort cost. Motivation, which promotes this effort expenditure, has two facets: it allows actions to be directed towards goals, and it energises our actions when rewards are expected (Niv et al. , 2006). These two aspects are not always coupled. For example, employees might be salaried, where a fixed reward is guaranteed irrespective of achievements, or they might receive merit-based pay that is contingent on meeting performance targets (Lazear, 2000). Contingent rewards motivate us because we understand the causal relation between successful actions and reward. This is instrumental, in that we apply knowledge of action-outcome associations. For instance, people must realise that merit-based pay depends on their performance for it to incentivise them. In animals, dopaminergic input to dorsal striatum is necessary for instrumental motivation (Lex and Hauber, 2010b).

Output: corroborate


Input: Claim: All plants used in traditional medicine are effective for modern ailments. [SEP] Text: Parts of the MPs used by healers for treating patientsThe study revealed that various parts of plants singly or in combinations were used to treat specific ailments in the area (Fig. 2 and Table 2), as explained by THs. Leaves were the most widely used part of MPs with 42. 9% usage followed by fruits/seeds (13%). Flowers and whole aerial parts of MPs (1. 3% each) were the least used for remedy preparation. Fig. 2Parts of MPs used by the TM practitioners of Megera and adjacent kebeles to treat various human illnesses (%)Full size imageMedicine preparation, routes of administration, and dosagePreparations of TMs from plant parts involved boiling (about 27. 9%), concoction (about 15. 5%), cold maceration, pounding, and decoction. All the TMs were prepared from fresh plant materials for immediate application, as healers believed that fresh materials are more efficacious than stored ones. Water was the most common solvent used, and in some preparations, honey (7. 4%), salt (2. 9%), and sugar (1. 5%) were added to it. The THs claimed that these additives either improve the flavor and taste or reduce the toxicity of the medicine. The most common route was oral (77. 9%) and this is followed by dermal application (17. 6%) (Fig. 3). Oral route involved drinking (64. 1%), eating (18. 9%), chewing (13. 2%), and drenching (3. 8%). Fig. 3Routes of delivery of the remedy by TM practitioners of the study areaFull size imageThe dosage of the remedy given by the THs was determined by inquiring about the age, fitness status, health history, the duration of the illness, presence or absence of pregnancy in women, and other related factors. In case of sensing possible overdosage, the THs recommend a cup of milk, which they believe to minimize possible side effect(s). The measurements of dosage reported include cup, fist, palm, spoon, drops, fingers, and any locally available measuring item.

Output: contrast


Input: Claim: Europa’s subsurface ocean may harbor conditions suitable for life. [SEP] Text: (2023) 15–50, 1200–2000 (2C)⋯⋯ Io38 ± 3, >300 (2C)Hale ObservatoryHansen (1973) 13 ± 4, >300 (2C)Maunakea 2. 24 mMorrison & Cruikshank (1973) 56, 5 d IRTFSinton & Kaminski (1988) 25, 100 d HSTKerton et al. (1996) 70Galileo/PPRRathbun et al. (2004) 40, 100 d Galileo/PPR⋯ 20 ± 10, 200 ± 50 d HST, Galileo/PPRWalker et al. (2012) 50 e Gemini/ (2016); de Pater et al. (2020) 320 e ALMet al. (2020) Notes. a Best-fit values or ranges across the surface are listed, depending on the data analyzed. Measurements represent the thermal inertia of Europa's surface in some instances (e. g. , infrared measurements) down to ∼10 s of cm (e. g. , ALMA Band 3). Models using 2 thermal inertia components are denoted as "2C," and include values for both model components. b The value for Europa in Morrison & Cruikshank (1973) was estimated only. c Values listed refer to proposed plume locations on Europa. d Values listed for Io correspond to frost and non-frost-covered surfaces. e Values derived for eclipse cooling of Io based on the Spectrograph (TEXES) instrument on the Gemini telescope (Tsang et al. 2016) and ALMA observations (de Pater et al. 2020). Download table as: imageOur retrieved values are consistent with previous studies indicating that Europa's surface is covered in young, refractory regolith that may extend down to >m depths, as probed by radar (Moore et al. 2009). From the range of previously derived thermal inertia values at ∼millimeter depths (Table 4), Europa likely has a more porous surface than what we find for the upper ∼10 s of cm, which changes to a less porous, higher thermal inertia subsurface within ∼10 s of mm. The relatively low spread of our porosity results—both in average and hemispheric quantities—indicates that Europa's subsurface porosity does not change significantly over the top ∼1–20 cm of regolith.

Output: pass


Input: Claim: Dopamine is crucial for reward processing and motivation. [SEP] Text: , 2017), which reveals that both contingency and expectation can separately motivate behaviour, and that these effects are independent rather than correlated or antagonistic, suggesting distinct mechanisms. We used this incentivised saccade task (Manohar et al. , 2017) here to test PD patients ON and OFF their dopaminergic medication, along with healthy age-matched controls. We tested the two predictions that dopamine is involved in motivation by expected rewards, and by contingent rewards. promotes contingent motivation and attenuates reward-expectation motivation Participants made saccades to a target after hearing cues indicating how reward would be determined (Figure 1b). To measure motivation by contingent rewards, we compared trials where rewards were delivered depending on participants’ response times (Performance), to trials where rewards were given with 50% probability (Random). We matched the average reward rate so that both these conditions had identical reward expectation and uncertainty, and only differed in their contingency. To measure motivation by reward expectation, we compared trials with a guaranteed reward (10 p) to those with a guaranteed no-reward (0 p). In both these conditions rewards were delivered unconditionally, and only differed in terms of expected reward. We tested 26 PD patients ON and OFF dopaminergic medication (PD ON and PD OFF) and 29 healthy age-matched controls (HC) on a rewarded eye-movement task that separated effects of contingent and non-contingent motivation (see Figure 1a for task, see Table 1 for participant details). In all trials, feedback was given about whether the response was fast or slow, in addition to the reward received, to control for intrinsic motivation. A saccade’s velocity is tightly governed by its amplitude, a relation known as the ‘main sequence’ (Bahill et al. , 1975). To account for this, we regressed out the effect of amplitude on peak velocity leaving peak saccade velocity residuals as our main measure of response vigour (see Figure 1e), as in previous work (Blundell et al. , 2018; Manohar et al. , 2017; Muhammed et al. , 2020; Muhammed et al. , 2016; et al. , 1990). This measures how much faster each saccade is than the speed predicted from its amplitude.

Output: corroborate


Input: Claim: All plants used in traditional medicine are effective for modern ailments. [SEP] Text: The amount of the MP chewed, swallowed, eaten, or drenched and the duration of remedy application are inconsistent among the THs. Traditional MP species used for the treatment of malignancies, jaundice, and helminthiasesBased on the frequently reported diseases, identification and ranking of major MPs used for the treatment of various forms of malignancies/cancers, jaundice (especially in children), and deworming in helminthiases are summarized in Tables 4, 5, and 6. Table 4 lists 14 MPs used to treat malignancies, whereas Table 5 lists 5 MPs claimed to have anti-jaundice activity. Table 6 lists 6 MPs used to deworm in helminthiases, including Hagenia abyssinica, the well-known taenicide [34, 35]. Table 4 MPs used to treat various forms of malignancies in Megera and adjacent kebelesFull size tableTable 5 MPs used to treat jaundice in Megera and adjacent kebelesFull size tableTable 6 MPs used to deworm in helminthiases in Megera and adjacent kebelesFull size tableThe analysis of p0. 97 and the lowest 0. 86 for malignancies/cancer, according to the THs (Table 10). Table 10 Results of informants consensus factor (ICF) for most prevalent human illnesses in Megera and adjacent kebelesFull size tableMPs with high comparative advantages against malignanciesFrom among the most frequent diseases where patients in the study area usually showed more p11. It can be seen that Sideroxylon oxyacanthum was picked as the best TM to treat malignancies followed by Zanthoxylum chalybeum. Bersama abyssinica was the least popularly picked MP among the topmost species. In both preference ranking and pair-wise comparison matrices, two plant species were topping the lists, Sideroxylon oxyacanthum and Zanthoxylum chalybeum, and these species were also among those that had high informant consensus.

Output: contrast


Input: Claim: Europa’s subsurface ocean may harbor conditions suitable for life. [SEP] Text: However, the derivation of a compaction length scale (as was done for Ganymede by de Kleer et al. 2021a) may be possible with future ALMA studies at other frequencies. We find that the Γeff values are lower than those found for Ganymede and Callisto in the near subsurface (de Kleer et al. 2021a; Camarca et al. 2023), and like Ganymede in being much lower than solid ice (Γ = 2000 J m−2 K−1 s−1/2). Though thermal inertia values of the surfaces are generally larger than those of the icy Saturnian satellites as found by the (CIRS; Howett et al. 2010, 2014, 2016; Ferrari 2018), Cassini microwave observations of Iapetus and Rhea reveal elevated thermal inertiae (Γ>100) at depths of a few meters (et al. 2014; Bonnefoy et al. 2020; et al. 2023). The thermal inertiae derived for both the Galilean and Saturnian satellites at depth are larger still than those found for Pluto, Charon, Centaurs, Trans-Neptunian Objects, and main-belt asteroids using Herschel, ALMA, and the VLA, where typically Γ < 30 J m−2 K−1 s−1/2 or even of order unity (Keihm et al. 2013; Lellouch et al. 2016, 2017). 4. 2. Fitting for the properties of each ALMA integration independently allowed us to investigate the previously observed differences between Europa's leading and trailing hemispheres at ∼cm depths. Although these differences are rendered somewhat minor due to the large uncertainties, we indeed find differences in the measured brightness temperature and best-fit porosity between each hemisphere across ALMA frequency bands (Table 2, Figure 4, panel (B)); the conversion from porosity to Europa's effective thermal inertia (Equation (1)) makes this dichotomy more apparent. We generally find that Europa's trailing subsurface is warmer and less porous—or with elevated Γeff—compared to the leading hemisphere. While our hemispheric porosity and thermal inertia models do not provide perfect fits to the data, the single value porosity models yield residuals often <5 K.

Output: pass


Input: Claim: Dopamine is crucial for reward processing and motivation. [SEP] Text: **=p < 0. 01 (independent samples t-test). ACE = Addenbrooke’s Cognitive Exam, AMI = Apathy and = and Depression scores (A and D given separately), BDI-II = Inventory-II, FSS = -III = Unified Parkinson’s disease rating scale Part 3, performed ON and OFF medication, LED = Equivalent Dose, # on agonists = number of patients taking dopamine agonists in addition to levodopa. PDHCNumber2629Age67. 69 (1. 48)67. 41 (6. 83)Gender (M:F)19:715:14ACE93. 04 (6. 47)97. 10 (2. 11)**AMI1. 48 (0. 56)1. 28 (0. 47)HADS-A2. 92 (2. 92)4. 29 (2. 79)HADS-D2. 50 (1. 84)2. 17 (1. 83)BDI-II4. 90 (3. 60)5. 84 (3. 78)FSS3. 19 (1. 21)3. 02 (1. 03)UPDRS-III ON26. 69 (9. 20)N/-35. 04 (11. 17)N/ALED490. 23 (324. 28)N/A# on agonists6N/A Dopaminergic medication significantly modulated how contingent and guaranteed motivation affected motor vigour (Figure 2a, three-way interaction on peak velocity residuals, p=0. 0023; see Table 2 for statistics). This was because, when ON medication, patients were motivated by contingency but not reward expectation (separate two-way ANOVA in PD ON: contingency*motivation, p=0. 0170; see Supplementary file 1A), whereas after overnight withdrawal of medication there was a borderline significant interaction in the opposite direction, as PD OFF were motivated by reward expectation but not contingency (: p=0. 0501; Supplementary file 1A). This indicates that when PD patients were ON medication, motivation was strongest when reward was contingent on performance, but when they were OFF medication, patients were motivated by guaranteed rewards. Figure 2 Download asset Open asset Differential effects of dopamine on two types of motivation.

Output: corroborate


Input: Claim: All plants used in traditional medicine are effective for modern ailments. [SEP] Text: Table 11 Pairwise comparison of MPs used to treat malignanciesFull size tableFidelity level of anticancer herbal medicinesThe proportion of informants claiming the widespread use of Sideroxylon oxyacanthum, Zanthoxylum chalybeum, and Dovyalis abyssinica against malignancies was 70% for Sideroxylon oxyacanthum, 55% for Zanthoxylum chalybeum, and 45% for Dovyalis abyssinica. The highest informant consensus for Sideroxylon oxyacanthum indicates that it is perceived as the best MP to treat malignancies. Plants with multiple medicinal usesMost (59. 2%) MPs reported from the study area were used to treat single illness. However, about 40. 8% of the MPs were reported to have medicinal roles for two or more illnesses (Table 12) and with 58. 3% of the remedies for different illnesses prepared from the same part of the MP. However, only 37. 5% of the remedies with multiple medicinal uses were reported to have the same method of preparation, implying that the same part of the plant can be used for various ailments when prepared in a different way. Table 12 MPs used to treat two or more human ailmentsFull size tableMarket values of the MPsThe majority (77. 5%) of MPs reported from the study area were limited to usage only when processed and given by THs. Therefore, they were not sold in the open markets for their medicinal values. However, it was documented during the market survey that some of the MPs were known for their other use values and were sold in the local markets. These plants included Allium sativum, Zingiber officinale, and Ruta chalepensis, marketed as spices; Citrus aurantifolia, Carica papaya, Ensete ventricosum (the staple food in the area), Garcinia buchananii, Mangifera indica, Musa x paradisiaca, Passiflora edulis, Prunus persica, and Solanum nigrum, sold as foodstuff.

Output: contrast


Input: Claim: Europa’s subsurface ocean may harbor conditions suitable for life. [SEP] Text: Localized anomalous temperature features correspond to areas of high porosity or emissivity (positive residuals), or less porous, less emissive, elevated thermal inertia surfaces (negative residuals). Overall, we find higher magnitude negative thermal anomalies than positive ones, particularly on the leading hemisphere; as a result, there exists a range of porosities and thermal inertiae corresponding to the largest thermal features that are not well described by the global average values presented in Table 3. While the best-fit Γeff values are lower on the leading hemisphere, the larger magnitude negative residuals may indicate high thermal inertia regions at the midlatitudes (compare negative residuals in Figures 2 and 3). 6 and 7 trailing hemisphere observations (6T1, 6T2, and 7T) are generally better fit by a single porosity or thermal inertia value, with the largest residuals being toward the limb (those off-disk are likely artifacts induced through minute differences in model and data positioning) and at equatorial latitudes toward the center of the trailing hemisphere. In particular, the lowest magnitude residuals are found in the antiJovian swath mapped with the Band 7 observations (7T; Figure 3, panels (D), (H)). Here, the model provides a fit to the data to within ±1 K, indicating that a near-surface (∼1 cm depth) porosity of 50%—or an effective thermal inertia of 140 J m−2 K−1 s−1/2—may be sufficient to describe the large banded and ridged plains that cover the surface from ∼150°W to 240°W (Leonard et al. 2017), or that the processes that generate inhomogeneous porosity surfaces on the other hemispheres are not as efficient here. Variations in our thermal residuals could be due to emissivity or thermal inertia variations across the surface—the former an indication of physical (sub)surface properties (e. g. , surface roughness, subsurface dielectric properties, grain sizes) that were not correctly accounted for in our model of Europa's regolith. Rough or irregular terrain would elevate surface temperatures; this, along with volume scattering, are facets to be added to the model in the future. Trumbo et al.

Output: pass


Input: Claim: Dopamine is crucial for reward processing and motivation. [SEP] Text: The mean measures for the four conditions (Performance, Random, Guaranteed 10p, Guaranteed 0p) for each variable, with individual data points. The difference between Performance and Random shows the effect of Contingent motivation, while the difference between 10p and 0p shows the motivating effect of reward expectation. (a) Peak velocity residuals indexed behavioural vigour. When ON dopamine, patients were motivated to invigorate their saccades when reward depended on response time, but not when expecting a guaranteed reward. In contrast, when OFF dopamine, vigour was driven by expectation of guaranteed reward, but not by contingency (F (1, 200) = 9. 5190, p =. 0023, ηp2 =. 0454). (b) HC were similar to PD ON dopamine (please note the different y-axis limits). (c–e) No dopaminergic effects were observed for (c) saccade amplitude, (d) saccade RT, (e) endpoint variability, or (f) raw peak velocity, although PD patients had slower, smaller and more variable saccades than HC. All measures are in visual degrees, except saccade RT (ms). Error bars show within-subject SEM. Statistics are presented in Table 2. Data are available in Figure 2—source data 1. Figure 2—source data 1 Source individual data for all saccade measures for and HC. The figures can be constructed using the DrawSaccadeFigures. m Matlab file available from the ContingentAnalysis GitHub repo (see Data and section of manuscript). Download elife-58321-fig2-data1-v3. mat. zip Table 2 Statistics for main behavioural analyses. Three-way (motivation*contingency*drug) repeated-measures ANOVA on each behavioural measure, for the PD patients ON and OFF medication. An effect of contingency means the guaranteed conditions (10 p, 0 p) were different to the contingent conditions (Performance, Random). An effect of motivation means the 10 p and Performance conditions were different to the Random and 0 p conditions. An interaction of the two means that contingent rewards differed from guaranteed rewards. * Motivation * Drug condition means that the effects of contingent and non-contingent rewards differed by PD medication state. Significant effects are highlighted in red. *p < 0. 05, **p < 0. 01.

Output: corroborate


Input: Claim: All plants used in traditional medicine are effective for modern ailments. [SEP] Text: Other marketable plants included Olea europaea (a fumigant for utensils to keep dairy products and for pleasant smell of traditional houses), Rhamnus prinoides (as an additive to fermented beverages), Coffea arabica (for drinking as hot beverage), and Ricinus communis for smearing the ‘injera’(traditional thin, spongy bread made in Ethiopia) baking plates. Secrecy of TMs among the practitionersTM practitioners of Megera and adjacent kebeles were found to keep their knowledge of traditional herbal medicines away from the community to retain its secrecy. Especially, the elderly practitioners collect and process the remedy in strict secrecy. They asserted that they do this in order to sustain the income they earn by giving the remedy for the customers who consult them for their health problems. Some also mentioned a belief that if the plant is widely known by the community, the potency of the plant will be lost. Some also associate the secrecy of the traditional medicinal knowledge with rituals of gods, claiming that the gods do not allow disclosing the MPs as long as they live healthily on the face of the earth [Personal communication, Wobbisa]. DiscussionTM is an important and often underestimated part of healthcare, and it is practiced in almost every country in the world, and demand for its services is currently increasing in the form of alternative medicine. It is the main source of healthcare, and sometimes the only source of care, due to its closeness to the ordinary rural communities and its accessibility and affordability in view of the rising healthcare costs [36]. Ethiopians, by and large, depend on TM for their primary healthcare due to limited access to functional modern healthcare facilities, affordability, cultural acceptability of healers, perceived efficacy against certain types of diseases, and the belief that TM has low side effects [15, 37,38,39]. As a result of improved access to modern medicines and environmental degradation, both traditional knowledge and the plants that have been in use as medicines, for millennia, are highly threatened. However, in spite of this environmental degradation by anthropogenic activities and periodic droughts, there are still many MP species in different parts of Ethiopia [12, 38, 40,41,42].

Output: contrast


Input: Claim: Europa’s subsurface ocean may harbor conditions suitable for life. [SEP] Text: (2018) found residuals across the disk between ∼10 and −8 K, which could be accounted for by varying the emissivity by ±10% of their derived best-fit value of 0. 75; alternatively, the anomalies could be inferred as thermal inertia variations ranging from 40 to 300 J m−2 K−1 s−1/2 or more. In our case, the largest magnitude residuals are smaller (+5 to −6 K), but deviations from the best-fit models remain. These may similarly be expressed as variations in emissivity from ∼0. 75 and 0. 9, and thermal inertia values <50 (warm residuals) or >200–300 J m−2 K−1 s−1/2 for the coldest residuals. As in de Kleer et al. (2021a), higher thermal inertia models produce diminishing improvements in model comparisons, preventing the highest negative residuals (those on the leading hemisphere at midlatitudes) from being well quantified. Positive residuals are likely elevated porosity (or low thermal inertia) surfaces, indicating that localized regions on both the subJovian leading and trailing hemispheres are highly porous from the surface down to ∼1–3 cm. To better facilitate the comparison of thermal anomalies to known geological and compositional terrain, we projected ALMA residual maps into cylindrical coordinates shown in Figure 5. The models here are generated for the global average values listed in Table 3, so that anomalies represent deviations from the global average as opposed to hemispheric best-fits. Latitudes corresponding to large (>75°) emission angles were excluded due to edge artifacts. Though the depths probed by the ALMA Band 6 and 7 (λ = 1. 25 and 0. 88 mm) measurements are different, the residual patterns in Figures 2 and 3 are largely similar between the two where projected longitude ranges overlap. We combined Band 6 and 7 observations (including overlapping regions through averaged measurements) into a single residual map, which comprises most surface longitudes (Figure 5, panel (B)). Since the Band 3 residuals are not as statistically significant as those exhibited by the Band 6 and 7 data, they were not included in this average but are shown for comparison in Figure 5 (panel (A)). Some artifacts occur where the Band 6 and 7 residual maps overlap, and minor discrepancies between residual magnitudes exist, particularly on the leading hemisphere.

Output: pass


Input: Claim: Dopamine is crucial for reward processing and motivation. [SEP] Text: 0027Contingency * Motivation * Drug2. 4061. 1224. 0119 To confirm that the effects on peak velocity residuals were not driven by changes in other aspects of saccades, the same 3-way ANOVA was run on each of the other saccade measures. There were no significant effects on saccadic amplitude (see Table 2 and Figure 2c). Saccadic RT had an effect of contingency as saccades started faster for Performance and Random conditions than 10 p or 0 p conditions (Figure 2d, p=0. 0396). Endpoint variability had a contingency*motivation interaction (Figure 2e, p=0. 0482) as variability was higher for 0 p condition. Raw peak velocity had an effect of motivation, as both types of motivation increased speed (Figure 2f, p=0. 0110), although this will include effects of changes in amplitude (via the main sequence) which showed a borderline significant effect of motivation (Figure 2c, p=0. 0607). The HC peak velocity residuals were not affected by contingency, motivation or the interaction (p>0. 05; see Table 3), suggesting that healthy older adults do not adjust their response vigour for contingent or guaranteed rewards. There were also no significant effects on amplitude, saccadic RT, or raw peak velocity in HC, although endpoint variability did have a significant contingency*motivation interaction (p=0. 0048; see Table 3). Post-hoc pairwise comparisons showed this was due to guaranteed rewards significantly reducing variability (p=0. 0316), while contingent rewards did not (p=0. 1219). Table 3 Statistics for behavioural analysis on HC saccade data. HC had a motivation*contingency interaction for endpoint variability, as only expected rewards decreased variability. **=p < 0. 01. GroupEffectF (df = 1, 112)pηp2ResidualsMotivation0. 9019. 3443. 0080Contingency0. 3463. 5574. 0031Motivation * Contingency0. 6995. 4047. 0062AmplitudeMotivation2. 3510. 1280. 0206Contingency0. 0255. 8734. 0002Motivation * Contingency1. 2551. 2650. 0111Saccade RTMotivation3. 2227. 0753.

Output: corroborate


Input: Claim: All plants used in traditional medicine are effective for modern ailments. [SEP] Text: And the findings of the present study in a highly limited area in Sidama Zone, where 71 species of medicinally useful plants are in use for the treatment of various human ailments, are an indication of the potential for the conservation of MPs in the country. Shrubs make a larger proportion of the MPs used in the study area, and this finding agrees with previous reports [13, 43,44,45,46]. This could be attributed to the common pattern of growth forms in the study area [47]. However, reports elsewhere showed that herbs were the frequently used MPs, which have a higher relative abundance of herbs as compared to other life forms [48,49,50]. This could further relate to the abundance of areas with bushy vegetation in the first case and less woody species in the second. The present findings revealed that the families Lamiaceae (six species), Asteraceae, Euphorbiaceae, and Rubiaceae (four species each) encompass more numbers of MP species. These families are among the MP families topping the list in other reports from different parts of the country, and their higher proportion in the flora of Ethiopia substantiates this report, implying documentation of wide distribution and higher number of species of these families throughout the country [13, 38, 51, 52]. In the present study, it was determined that 19. 7% of the MPs were used to treat various forms of malignancies. Reports from other parts of the country also substantiate the present finding [13, 20]. Plants have a reputable contribution to the discovery of anticancer bioactive compounds [53]. Polyphenols, brassinosteroids, and taxols, among others, have experimentally proven anticancer activities [53,54,55]. It was also found that the most widely used part of the MPs was the leaf, and this finding agrees with previous reports [19, 42, 49, 52, 56,57,58,59,60,61,62]. Naturally, the plants are surrounded by a series of potential threats, and evolutionarily, they have developed strategies of defense against the attacks of various pathogens (e. g. , bacteria, viruses, fungi, nematodes, mites, insects), herbivores, and various kinds of abiotic stresses [63]. Therefore, plants produce ranges of organic compounds known as secondary metabolites, which a priori is not directly involved in their growth and development.

Output: contrast


Input: Claim: Europa’s subsurface ocean may harbor conditions suitable for life. [SEP] Text: Additionally, because these measurements probe different depths in the subsurface and different portions of Europa's day, this map is used only for comparative purposes. However, this combined distribution reveals the significant positive thermal distributions across both the subJovian leading (∼30°W–90°W) and trailing (∼270°W–330°W) hemispheres, and the negative residuals present on the leading hemisphere at the midlatitudes. Furthermore, the redundant Band 6 observations corroborate the cool residual patterns in the southern, trailing hemisphere, and around Pwyll crater (271°W, 25°S), which were observed across observations and at slightly different local Europa time. While the residual maps from Band 3 appear to correlate somewhat with known terrain features (Figure 5, panel (A)), there are few locations where these residuals are greater than 3× the background rms; as such, we note these correlations with caution. Figure 5 (panel (C)) shows the regions from the averaged Band 6 and 7 map (Figure 5, panel (B)) where residual magnitudes are greater than 3× the observation rms noise (colored contours) overlaid on a composite image mosaic from the Voyager 1, 2, and Galileo spacecraft. 11 Reset image size Figure 5. (A) ALMA Band 3 (3. 05 mm) residuals from 50% porosity models projected into cylindrical latitude and longitude coordinates, and only including data for emission angles less than 75°. The synthesized ALMA beam for each observation (without projecting to cylindrical coordinates) is shown below both leading and trailing hemisphere projections as a hashed ellipse. (B) Combined residuals from Band 6 (1. 25 mm) and Band 7 (0. 88 mm) models of the global average values of Europa's leading and trailing hemisphere (64% in Band 6, 52% in Band 7) projected in cylindrical latitude and longitude coordinates. The representative average ALMA beam over all Band 6 and 7 observations is shown as the hashed ellipse for comparison. (C) Averaged positive (light-red solid contours) and negative (light-blue dashed contours) residuals from (B) with magnitudes >3 × the average rms (∼0. 8 K) overlaid onto a deprojected mosaic of Europa's surface from Galileo SSI and Voyager images.

Output: pass


Input: Claim: Dopamine is crucial for reward processing and motivation. [SEP] Text: 0280Contingency2. 5743. 1114. 0225Motivation * Contingency2. 7992. 0971. 0244Endpoint VariabilityMotivation0. 9304. 3368. 0082Contingency0. 6651. 4165. 0059Motivation * Contingency8. 2781**. 0048. 0688VelocityMotivation1. 1321. 2896. 0100Contingency0. 1615. 6885. 0014Motivation * Contingency0. 2538. 6154. 0023 We also compared both PD ON and OFF separately against the HC with three-way mixed ANOVA, to see under which conditions patients deviated from healthy behaviour. As expected, HC had overall larger amplitudes, quicker saccadic RTs and lower endpoint variability than both PD ON or OFF (Figure 2, see Supplementary file 1B-C for statistics). The use of peak velocity residuals rather than raw velocity factors out the effects of PD on movement amplitude, allowing comparison of the motivational changes in velocity while controlling for differences in the main sequence (Bahill et al. , 1975; Manohar et al. , 2017). HC did not significantly differ from PD ON or OFF in peak velocity residuals, although their pattern was numerically closest to PD ON with greater contingent motivation. We additionally checked whether there were practice effects in the PD patients, in case patients behaved differently on their second session due to different expectations. We found no effects or interactions of session on any measure in PD patients (p>0. 05). Velocity profiles The effects above demonstrate peak velocity shows strong effects of reward and dopamine, so next we examined the time-course of how velocity was modulated during a saccade. We computed the velocity across time within the movements, and compared the reward effects for PD ON and OFF using cluster-wise permutation tests. Contingent rewards (Performance – Random) did not significantly affect velocity or acceleration for PD ON or OFF, as permutation tests for each condition and the difference between conditions found no significant clusters (cluster-wise permutation tests: p>0. 05; Figure 3a&b). However, guaranteed rewards (10 p – 0 p) lead to greater velocity early in the saccade for PD OFF (p<0. 05; Figure 3c), which was significantly different from PD ON (p<0. 05).

Output: corroborate


Input: Claim: All plants used in traditional medicine are effective for modern ailments. [SEP] Text: Arguably, the leaves are exposed more to the enemies, and these chemicals, therefore, play a defensive role [64, 65]. Thus, an approach of using leaves as a major part of a plant for a remedy preparation could be taken as an indicator of scientific relevance. It also is noteworthy that zoopharmacognostic approach (observation of animal self-medication behavior) where animals consume mainly leaves of certain plants had led historically to the discovery of some aliphatic drugs, and this further establishes the preferential use of leaves as a source of TMs [66, 67]. Furthermore, harvesting aerial parts, such as leaves, poses less threat to the MPs when compared to exploiting the roots and barks, as also argued in other reports [42, 58, 68]. In the study area, all the TMs are said to be used preferably in their fresh forms, and this may compromise the sustainability of the MPs in the long run as it would be exploited extensively every time the remedy will have to be prepared. Other researchers [58, 69] have also expressed similar concerns. Since the majority (64. 7%) of the MPs collected from the study area were found in the wild habitats, the high risk of MP destruction by anthropogenic activities, on top of ensuing climate change, is a matter of serious concern. The anthropogenic activities driven by population growth are real and put pressure on natural resources. These include agricultural expansion, tree cutting for urbanization, house construction, firewood, fodder, drought, overgrazing, and charcoal making which serve as major threats to the MPs [46, 59, 70]. It was found that THs of the study area keep the MPs in strict secrecy and transfer their knowledge to their trustworthy elder sons only at an advanced age. This is a matter of concern because in the process, there might be misrepresentation, distortion, incompleteness, or omission of the original information as this is done orally [40, 52]. Though keeping the MPs away from the home gardens is believed to ensure the secrecy by the practitioners, it renders the MPs to grazing and unsustainable use [46]. Conversely, one report argues that keeping the MPs in strict secrecy contributed to sustaining the MPs [45], and it has an added advantage of safety against improper self-medication, which could be dangerous in the case of some plants. The finding that 15.

Output: contrast


Input: Claim: Europa’s subsurface ocean may harbor conditions suitable for life. [SEP] Text: Europa's surface quadrants are demarcated by dotted lines (Doggett et al. 2009). Relevant geographic features are labeled and approximate outlines defined by Leonard et al. (2017) are shown in all panels: black contours show Europa's chaos regions, and purple contours show the locations of the ringed terrain and ejecta blankets surrounding Pwyll, Tyre, and Taliesin craters. Artifacts exist in both the colormap in (B) and contours in (C) due to the combination of data from multiple executions in both ALMA bands. Download figure:Standard image High-resolution image Although colocated features exist between the ALMA Band 6 and 7 data both in the best-fit (Figures 2 and 3) and the global average (Figure 5) residuals, these patterns do not always correlate particularly well with known geographic features or Europa's albedo distribution. This was previously noted in studies with the Galileo/PPR (Rathbun et al. 2010) and ALMA (Trumbo et al. 2018), and may result from subsurface properties that vary with the composition or structure (e. g. , crystalline water ice) rather than macroscale surface terrain. Rathbun et al. (2014) found generally higher thermal inertia values on Europa's trailing hemisphere from Galileo/PPR data, though their trailing hemisphere values were of lower magnitudes overall than we find here as inferred through porosity models. A slight difference was found by Rathbun et al. (2014) between chaos and plains regions across the disk, with the latter requiring slightly lower thermal inertias, but the correlation with longitude was stronger than with terrain type; our significantly elevated Γeff values on the trailing hemisphere corroborate this observation. Our observations do not show residuals indicative of the focusing effect of low energy ions and charged p5. 5–6 K) thermal anomalies at the midlatitudes of the leading hemisphere. These locations, while not colocated with known geographic features, align well with the pure, crystalline water-ice distribution found by previous studies (Hansen & McCord 2004; Brown & Hand 2013; Ligier et al. 2016). Galileo PPR measurements showed warmer nighttime temperatures at midlatitudes than the equator on the leading hemisphere, which were attributed to higher thermal inertia values or endogenic heating (Spencer et al.

Output: pass


Input: Claim: Dopamine is crucial for reward processing and motivation. [SEP] Text: Acceleration traces showed this was due to PD OFF having greater acceleration early in the movement (Figure 3d, p<0. 05). HC showed no effects of contingent or guaranteed rewards on velocity or acceleration, perhaps unsurprising as there were no differences in overall velocity as reported above. Permutation testing revealed no differences between HC and PD ON or OFF for velocity or acceleration (p>0. 05). Figure 3 with 1 supplement see all Download asset Open asset Motivational effects on instantaneous velocity and acceleration within a saccade. The top row shows the effects of contingent rewards (i. e. measures in Performance conditions minus the Random condition), and the bottom row shows effects of guaranteed rewards (10 p condition minus 0 p condition). The x-axis is % of normalised time where 0 indicates the start of a saccade, and 100 is the end. The instantaneous velocity (a and c) is increased by contingent (a) and guaranteed (c) rewards, and PD patients OFF have an earlier and greater increase in velocity for guaranteed rewards than PD ON. The orange bar shows time-points where PD OFF had velocity significantly greater than zero (cluster-wise permutation tests, p<0. 05), the black bar shows time-points where PD ON and OFF significantly differed (PD ON and HC did not differ from zero, so there are no blue or yellow bars). Acceleration traces (b and d) showed this was due to guaranteed motivation increasing acceleration at the start of the movement for PD OFF (d; significant cluster, p<0. 05). Shading shows SEM. Source data are available in Figure 3—source data 1. Figure 3—figure supplement 1. Individual participants’ velocity and acceleration traces. Figure 3—source data 1 Source individual data for saccade velocity and acceleration for and HC. The figures can be constructed using the DrawVelFigures. m Matlab file available from the ContingentAnalysis GitHub repo (see Data and section of manuscript). Download elife-58321-fig3-data1-v3. mat. zip Faster movements are known to be more error-prone (Harris and Wolpert, 1998; Harris and Wolpert, 2006), but motivation can attenuate this effect, making movements more accurate (Manohar et al. , 2019).

Output: corroborate


Input: Claim: All plants used in traditional medicine are effective for modern ailments. [SEP] Text: 5% of the MP preparations were made by mixing two or more plants as a single remedy, could be explained by the assumption that a cocktail of plant material would be more effective in addition to maintaining the secrecy of the MPs. Furthermore, Megersa and co-workers [58] had reported that using such concoction is believed to increase the strength and efficacy of the remedy. Others have also argued that mixing two or more remedies helps to avoid or minimize possible side effect(s) [13]. The reports of the THs have also indicated the toxicity of some MPs, such as Hagenia abyssinica, a widely used anti-helminthic MP, which also was corroborated by other reports [35]. Reports from laboratory animal tests have shown that many reputable plants are medicinally used for centuries to have potential toxicity on blood parameters and histopathology of internal organs [71]. Therefore, it is recommendable that in vivo and in vitro toxicity investigations on the frequently used TMs must be conducted to avoid possible toxic effects of the MP reported in the present study. Furthermore, one of the challenges identified by the present study was the inconsistency of the dosage from one preparation to the other even for the same kind of illness. However, in some cases, these variations are in relation to age, physical status, the course of illness, presence or absence of pregnancy, and other concomitant illness as also reported by earlier workers [42, 46, 50, 58]. Thus, the lack of precise dosage is one of the drawbacks of traditional medicine practices, as also emphasized by others [12, 72]. The community of the study area relies on mixed agricultural practices involving both crop farming and livestock rearing. Due to a shortage of farmland, farm expansion into the woodlands is affecting the vegetation cover and hence the MPs in the area. Furthermore, cattle, sheep, and goats compose main livestock reared in the area, and some of the MPs are collected as forage for the livestock, as also reported elsewhere, and goats are known to forage on open fields on various MPs [58]. Thus, the reality of existential threats to the sustainability of valuable MPs of the area is a serious one. One of the greatest challenges in ethnomedicinal researches is the issue of access and benefit sharing (ABS).

Output: contrast


Input: Claim: Europa’s subsurface ocean may harbor conditions suitable for life. [SEP] Text: 1999; Rathbun et al. 2010), though Trumbo et al. (2018) found a reduced emissivity (0. 66) may be responsible for their cold residual at northern midlatitudes. These regions are impacted by only the highest energy (≥1 MeV) ions and p0. 5–1 cm (Moore et al. 2009), which bounds our Band 7 and 6 measurements (see 7. Data from ALMA bands 8 and 9 (385–500 and 602–720 GHz, respectively) may be more comparable to Galileo PPR and other IR observations that probe the shallow subsurface, while polarization measurements may reveal more about the (sub)surface roughness, scattering, and dielectric properties. 5. ConclusionsThrough the analysis of multiple ALMA observations of Europa across three frequency bands—Band 3 (97. 5 GHz; 3. 05 mm), Band 6 (233 GHz; 1. 25 mm), and Band 7 (343. 5 GHz, 0. 88 mm), which sound to depths of ∼0. 5–20 cm—we are able to infer the best-fit hemispheric and global average thermophysical properties and brightness temperatures of the near subsurface at an average resolution of ∼500 km. The comparison of the ALMA data to thermal models, incorporating subsurface emission and change in surface properties with depth (de Kleer et al. 2021a), allowed for the retrieval of porosity and emissivity values at discrete depths of ∼0. 5–1, 1. 5–3, and 10–20 cm. Through these derived properties, we conclude the following:1. The derived, effective thermal inertia (Γeff) values of 56–184 J m−2 K−1 s−1/2 for Europa are within the ranges found previously through studies of Voyager and Galileo data at the surface, and are comparable to those retrieved by Trumbo et al. (2018) from separate ALMA Band 6 observations using different modeling methods. 2. Data from ALMA Band 3 revealed colder subsurface temperatures—though within the errors of those measured in ALMA Band 6 and 7—that originate from below the thermal skin depth. As a result, the thermophysical properties were inferred indirectly because models of subsurface emission for a range of porosity and thermal inertia values yielded similar, degenerate fits.

Output: pass


Input: Claim: Dopamine is crucial for reward processing and motivation. [SEP] Text: When examining the dopaminergic effects (a and e: PD ON – OFF), a significant cluster was found, such that patients differed in their correlations early in the saccade when rewards were guaranteed (e). This was due to guaranteed rewards increasing early correlation only for PD OFF (g). The time of this increase matches the time of increased acceleration shown in Figure 3d. There was also a small cluster of significant difference between PD ON and OFF for contingent rewards (a), but there were no clusters within ON (b) or OFF (c) separately. HC had no clusters of significant differences (d and h). Source data are available in Figure 4—source data 1. Figure 4—source data 2. Individual data for autocorrelation. Figure 4—figure supplement 1. Motivational effects on saccade time-time covariance within saccades. Figure 4—source data 1 Source individual data for autocorrelation coefficients for and HC. The figures can be constructed using the DrawAutocorrelFigures. m Matlab file available from the ContingentAnalysis GitHub repo (see Data and section of manuscript). Download elife-58321-fig4-data1-v3. mat. zip Figure 4—source data 2 Individual participants’ autocorrelation matrices. Individual data showing each participant’s mean effects of contingent (Performance – Random) and guaranteed (10 p – 0 p) rewards on (Fisher transformed) eye-position autocorrelation matrices. Blank matrices for PD patients reflect excluded participants. Download elife-58321-fig4-data2-v3. pdf No correlation of the velocity effects for the distinct motivational processes Previous work had shown that motivation by contingent and guaranteed reward did not correlate across participants (Manohar et al. , 2017), so we asked whether dopamine’s effects upon these two types of motivation was also uncorrelated. We found no correlation between effects of contingent and guaranteed rewards on peak saccade velocity residuals in or HC separately, nor a correlation between medication states, nor between the drug-induced changes in the effects (p>0. 05; see Figure 5 legend for statistics). This suggests that the two effects are separate and independent, and not antagonistic within the same person.

Output: corroborate


Input: Claim: All plants used in traditional medicine are effective for modern ailments. [SEP] Text: We recommend an in-depth experimental investigation of the frequently cited MPs believed by the THs to have high comparative advantages over others in treating various malignancies, jaundice, and helminthiases. This would possibly contribute to the current global drug development endeavors. NotesEpiphytes are collected by the THs, boiled, and filtered, and the filtrate is given orally to treat emaciated malnourished infants. The term “malignancy” is used to define conditions/diseases in which neoplastic cells divide without control and can invade nearby tissues. It constitutes an enormous burden globally, and the world is facing stern challenge of drug resistance that leads to treatment failure and disease recurrence. AbbreviationsABS: Access and benefit sharing FL: Fidelity level ICF: Informant consensus factor MP/MPs: Medicinal plant(s) TH/THs: Traditional healer(s) TM/TMs: Traditional medicine(s) UV: Use value 2004. p. 81–91. 2009. 2016. Accessed 14 Mar 2017. . Ecosystems of Ethiopia. In: Strategy and (NBSAP) project. Addis Ababa: IBCR; 2003. 2007. 45. 1991. p. 75. 2014. 2007. 1984. p. 763–6. Jansen PCM. Spices, condiments and medicinal plants in Ethiopia, their taxonomy and agricultural significance. Wageningen: Pudoc publishers; 1981. 9. 25. 384. 39. 90. 10. 1155/2016/9690164:9690164. . Indigenous knowledge on the use and management of medicinal trees and shrubs in Dale District, Sidama Zone, southern Ethiopia. Appl. 2015;14:171–182. Regassa R. Assessment of indigenous knowledge of medicinal plant practice and mode of service delivery in Hawassa city, southern Ethiopia. J Res. 2013;7(9):517–35. 1989. CSA. Population projection of Ethiopia for all regions at Wereda level from 2014–2017. Addis Ababa: Republic of (CSA); 2013. p. 118. 2015. Health Department. A summary of top ten human infections reported from health centers of the woreda (annual report summary). Yirgalem; 2015. .

Output: contrast


Input: Claim: Europa’s subsurface ocean may harbor conditions suitable for life. [SEP] Text: The residuals are of less statistical significance than those found with the higher frequency ALMA bands. 3. Model comparisons with ALMA Band 6 and 7 data show both positive and negative thermal anomalies of at least 6σ, though the total magnitudes are often <5 K. The lowest residuals (<1 K) were found for Europa's trailing antiJovian hemisphere (our image 7T), which is best fit using a global porosity model (50 %) at ∼1 cm depths. 4. The derived porosity and brightness temperature values differ between hemispheres consistently between frequency bands; we find that Europa's leading hemisphere is generally cooler and more porous, though large, cold thermal anomalies exist in regions that may harbor significantly elevated thermal inertia regolith. 5. Despite the differences between leading and trailing hemispheres, the best-fit porosities between bands on the same hemisphere are similar enough that a compaction length scale cannot be derived. As such, we find no evidence for large changes in porosity or thermal inertia over the upper ∼1–3 cm. 6. We find that thermal anomalies only partially align with geographic features in a consistent way, with larger magnitude positive anomalies colocated with Tara, Powys, and Annwn regiones, and negative anomalies with Dyfed regio and the vast rays and ejecta of Pwyll crater on the trailing hemisphere. Negative thermal anomalies on the leading hemisphere—the largest we observe of all residual temperatures—are colocated with regions of more pure, crystalline water ice. These may be due to elevated thermal inertia terrain or a decrease in emissivity that only extends to <10 cm. Positive anomalies exist in regions with previously observed salt or CO2 features and, to some extent, chaos regions (Leonard et al. 2017). 7. Since the depths probed by (sub)millimeter observations are below the upper layer of amorphous ice and the regolith affected by micrometeorite gardening (Hansen & McCord 2004; Moore et al. 2009), our observations are more likely sensitive to the distribution of pure, crystalline water ice, though warm anomalies may be linked to the mixture of both endogenic and exogenic processes (e. g. , hydrated materials mixed with chaos terrain).

Output: pass


Input: Claim: Dopamine is crucial for reward processing and motivation. [SEP] Text: Our results align with rodent work demonstrating that dorsomedial striatum dopaminergic lesions impair action-outcome associations, such that animals continue to respond to previously rewarding cues even when action-contingency is removed (Lex and Hauber, 2010b). At a more general level, our result is also consistent with dopamine being necessary for behaviours involving a causal state-action-state model (Sharpe et al. , 2017), but not simple value-guided actions (Sharp et al. , 2016). Our finding reveals that dopaminergic medication attenuates the cue-driven reward expectation effect on vigour can be contrasted with previous work suggesting that tonic dopamine couples vigour to average reward rate (Beierholm et al. , 2013; Niv et al. , 2007). Our adaptive reward schedule held the average reward rate constant over time, while manipulating the average reward rate within each condition, such that the guaranteed 10 p and 0 p trials had different expected rewards. Dopamine might reduce these expectation effects through a different mechanism; the guaranteed cues elicit Pavlovian signals that track expected rewards across states and cues rather than time. Our result implicates dopamine in this signalling, but the direction of effect contrasts with naïve predictions. Dopamine is necessary for Pavlovian-to-Instrumental transfer (Hall et al. , 2001; Kelley and Delfs, 1991; Wyvell and Berridge, 2000) via the nucleus accumbens. In contrast, we show that reward expectation influences vigour when dopaminergic tone is low, yet does not when dopaminergic tone is high. This aligns with the finding that slow, tonic dopaminergic activity is not related to Pavlovian-to-Instrumental transfer (Wassum et al. , 2013). A possible explanation is that being ON dopamine led to a saturation in tonic dopamine leaving little room for phasic cue-related reward expectation signals. But if this were the case, one might expect generally higher velocities when ON, compared to PD OFF, which was not seen. Because our contingent and random conditions were matched for average reward rate, and thus opportunity cost, invigoration by contingent reward indicates a truly instrumental effect. An alternative explanation for the discrepancy with previous research showing dopamine encodes reward rate, is that the previous studies did not fully decouple contingent and non-contingent motivation.

Output: corroborate


Input: Claim: All plants used in traditional medicine are effective for modern ailments. [SEP] Text: -19 PreprintsProtocolsVideosJournalsTools & a 10. 21203/rs. 3. rs-183128/v1This work is licensed under a CC BY 4. 0 LicenseStatus:PostedVersion 1posted You are reading this latest preprint versionAbstractBackgroundPlants have been used as a traditional medicine for many years for the people of Wolaita, Ethiopia. The aim of the study was to record these local knowledge of the peoples who inhabit the district. MethodsA semi-structured interview was conducted with a total of 60 informants. ResultsTotally, 50 species belonging to 24 families were identified to treat 28 human and livestock ailments. Solanaceae (14. 3%) was the most abundant family whereas; the rosaceae (1. 00) had the highest family use value (FUV). Most of the plants (82%) were reportedly used to treat human diseases. Herbs (34%) were the dominant growth habits, followed by trees (33%). The leaves (30%) were identified as the most used plant part. The most common methods of remedy preparations were eating and chewing (18. 2% each) followed by grinding (13. 61%). Oral (73. 3%) was the major route of administration, followed by dermal (21. 7%). The cardiovascular system diseases category (1. 00) had a higher informant consensus factor value followed by the fever disease category (0. 90). Croton macrostachyus Hochst. ex Delile, Commelina benghalensis L. , Triticum dicoccon (Schrank) Schübl and Pentas spp. (100%) had a higher fidelity level to treat swelling, chirt (skin diseases), weight gain, and bone fractures, respectively. Persea americana Mill. was ranked highest as the most preferable medicinal plant for various purposes by local people, followed by Acacia abyssinica Benth. The principal threatening factors reported were charcoal production (26%), agricultural expansion (15%), and firewood (14%). Out of the plants and their uses documented, 16% of the medicinal plants and 28. 6% of the uses were novel. ConclusionsThe present study indicated the existence of indigenous knowledge of medicinal plants to treat human and livestock ailments. Therefore, there should be mentoring for the local people in the study area to conserve their indigenous knowledge and resources.

Output: contrast


Input: Claim: Europa’s subsurface ocean may harbor conditions suitable for life. [SEP] Text: ALMA Bands 4 and 5 (∼120–230 GHz) may probe just above the interface where our Band 3 observations are no longer sensitive to diurnal variability (just at the thermal skin depth or above), while ALMA Bands 8 and 9 (∼385–720 GHz) sound the very upper subsurface (∼ mm depths), which may provide a means to derive the compaction length scale of the shallow subsurface and more properly constrain the ALMA Band 3 measurements. The higher ALMA frequency observations are more readily comparable to measurements of the surface properties derived from IR data, while VLA observations at high resolution would probe >m depths; data from the Juno/MWR will provide constraints on the thermophysical properties at even greater depths. Tracing thermal emission from radio to infrared wavelengths will help elucidate the influence of external and internal processes on Europa's subsurface properties and structure, and in addition inform our understanding of the surfaces of other icy satellites. 8280. This research was also funded in part by the Heising-through grant #2019-1611. Funding for this paper was provided by the program (through 80NM0018F0612) for A. E. T. , K. d. K. , A. A. Contributions from A. A. were carried out at the Laboratory, of Technology, under a contract with the (80NM0018D0004). We acknowledge support from the under grant #DGE-1745301 to M. C. We would like to acknowledge the staff for their expertise and help reducing data associated with this project, and in particular to R. Loomis and L. Barcos-Muñoz for their assistance during an ALMA face-to-face visit. We would also like to acknowledge A. Moullet and R. Moreno for their contributions to the original ALMA proposal on which these observations were based. This paper makes use of the following ALMA data: ADS/JAO. ALMA#2016. 1. 00691. S. ALMA is a partnership of ESO (representing its member states), NSF (USA), and NINS (Japan), together with NRC (Canada), MOST and ASIAA (Taiwan), and KASI (Republic of Korea), in cooperation with the Republic of Chile. is operated byNRAO, and NAOJ.

Output: pass


Input: Claim: Dopamine is crucial for reward processing and motivation. [SEP] Text: Instead, controls had lower motor variability when rewards were guaranteed, but no other significant motivation effects. This leads to a pattern where PD ON show contingent motivation, PD OFF show reward-expectation effects, and HC show neither. As these effects themselves are not statistically different between groups, we are limited in the conclusions that we can draw about them. Numerically, controls show a similar pattern to PD ON (Figure 2a), with faster velocity residuals for contingent rewards, which could suggest that dopaminergic medication is restoring healthy function, but care must be taken with this interpretation. The lack of either type of motivation in the older HC is surprising given that in healthy young adults, both contingent and guaranteed rewards increase saccade velocity (Manohar et al. , 2017). This could suggest ageing decreases both contingent-motivation and reward-expectation, although a study directly comparing ages would be needed to conclude this. The motivational effects reported here were not related to any pupillary responses, unlike our previous findings in young people, which may be due to both ageing and PD decreasing the influence of rewards on pupil size (Manohar and Husain, 2015; Muhammed et al. , 2016). Additionally, while the two distinct motivational effects on velocity were uncorrelated within PD patients, it is possible that subgroups of patients showed different effects. For example, whether patients were on D2 agonists (Bryce and Floresco, 2019) or had tremor-dominant disease (Wojtala et al. , 2019) might be relevant. However, this study was not powered to detect such differences as only six patients were taking agonists in addition to levodopa. Considering the neuroanatomical differences between contingent motivation and reward expectation may help to explain our results. The nucleus accumbens and ventral pallidum modulate their activity by reward expectation (Mohebi et al. , 2019; Tachibana and Hikosaka, 2012), while the caudate nucleus is active when rewards are contingent on behaviour (Lex and Hauber, 2010a; Tricomi et al. , 2004). Both the caudate and accumbens/pallidum project to the output nuclei of the basal ganglia, allowing saccade initiation via the superior colliculus, which controls not only the direction of saccades, but also their instantaneous velocity during the movement (Smalianchuk et al.

Output: corroborate


Input: Claim: All plants used in traditional medicine are effective for modern ailments. [SEP] Text: Translational MedicinedistrictEthnic rural culturesEthnomedicineTherapeutic plantsTraditional knowledgeWolaita peopleFiguresFigure 1Figure 2Figure 3Figure 4Figure 5Figure 6Figure 7Figure 8Figure 9IntroductionHuman beings have relied on nature for their basic requirements as the source of medicines, shelters, food, fragrances, clothes, flavors, fertilizers, and means of transportation throughout their lives. Well before the prehistoric era, plants were used for medicinal purposes to treat and cure diseases and to improve the health and well-being of humans and livestock. The majority of the populations in most of the developing countries depend on plants for primary healthcare [1] [2]. The medicinal plants are the source for the discovery of novel drugs and a quarter of the modern drugs contain one or more active principles of plant origin [3] [4]. According to Ohigashi [5], the top 25 best-selling medicines in the world originated from plant materials and still form the basis for modern health systems. The significance of medicinal plants to human livelihoods is essentially immeasurable [6]. In Ethiopia, 80% of the people use medicinal plants and their products for remedies. However, the knowledge and use of plants in many ethnic rural cultures has not been studied [7] [8]. Even though, medicinal plants are remaining the most important and sometimes the only source of therapeutics [9]. The community utilizes roots, barks, and other parts of the plant to make phytotherapies [10] and in the process they have developed their own local knowledge. This knowledge is transferred orally from one generation to the others via herbalists and well-informed elders. The traditional local doctors would be the best source of information about the medicinal values of the plants. Many practicing local doctors are still present in Ethiopia but, with the progress of modern medicine, the influence and the number of those doctors are decreasing rapidly. Despite their use as a source of medicine since time immemorial, the study and recording of medicinal plants has recently begun [11]. A few studies have been conducted and documented the medicinal properties of locally available plants, parts used, and ways of applications in southern Ethiopia, Assegid and Tesfaye [12] in district, Chama [13] in district, Mirutse et al. [14] and Giday et al. [15] in Sheko, Agisho et al.

Output: contrast


Input: Claim: Europa’s subsurface ocean may harbor conditions suitable for life. [SEP] Text: Observatory is a facility of the Foundation operated under cooperative agreement by Associated Universities, Inc. 6. Image targeting Europa's leading hemisphere in Band 7 (top right-hand side) with Ganymede in the extended ALMA field (lower left-hand side), approximately 15'' away. Primary beam correction has been applied to normalize the gain across the extended FOV. The ALMA beam size appears as the white ellipse in the lower left corner. Download figure:Standard image High-resolution image Figure 7 shows the difference in residual maps corresponding to imaging performed without the inclusion of Ganymede (A), and with Ganymede (B), as in Figure 6, using a nominal global thermal inertia model with Γ = 75 J m −2 K−1 s−1/2. Large, off-disk image artifacts are present in the smaller image (created without the inclusion of Ganymede; Figure 7(A)), which are removed when the larger image is created including Ganymede (Figure 7(B)). Similar artifacts were present in the initial imaging of the Band 3 trailing hemisphere observation due to the interference of Callisto. As in Figures 2(C), (F), the image in Figure 7(B) shows localized thermal anomalies on Europa's disk only following the inclusion of Ganymede. Following these minor procedures, a reduction in background signal by factors of ∼2–4 were achieved for these observations—largely through the decrease in the background interferometric artifacts. The final image S/N of >100–200 is much more comparable to the other observations where interloping satellites did not affect the data. Reset image size Figure 7. Comparisons of ALMA Band 7 residuals of Europa's leading hemisphere: the initial deconvolution, without taking into account the interloping satellite (A), and the final deconvolution with the inclusion of Ganymede (B); the latter is comparable to Figure 6 (C). Note the change in colorbar scale between the two images. Europa's surface is shown (dashed circle), as are separate contours for each image (solid lines): 1σ intervals (A) and 3σ intervals (B).

Output: pass


Input: Claim: Dopamine is crucial for reward processing and motivation. [SEP] Text: , 2018). We propose contingent motivation and reward expectation both lead to motivational signals affecting the superior colliculus’ activity controlling the velocity and acceleration of saccades, and these are differentially affected by dopamine (Figure 7), although we remain agnostic as to the mechanism for this difference. Possibilities include the two systems receiving input from separate regions of the dopaminergic system which are differentially depleted in PD (e. g. dopamine overdose hypothesis [Cools, 2006]), differences in ‘global’ and ‘local’ dopamine signals (Mohebi et al. , 2019), or differences in D1-like and D2-like receptor expression within these systems (Surmeier et al. , 2007; Yetnikoff et al. , 2014). Further studies should address this question of the underlying mechanism. We have shown that in PD, dopaminergic medication boosts motivation by contingent rewards, but reduces motivation by expected reward. Nonspecific invigoration by reward may thus be generated by a different neural system than goal-directed motivation. This suggests that dopaminergic medication may be a potential treatment for impairments in contingent motivation, but not for deficits related to reward expectation. Materials and methods PD patients were recruited from volunteer databases in the University of Oxford. They were all taking levodopa medication, and some were also taking monoamine oxidase inhibitors and/or dopamine agonists (Table 3). They were randomly assigned to be tested ON or OFF medication first, and withdrawn from standard release medication for 16+ hours and controlled-release medication for 24+ hours. Two patients did not complete both sessions, and two did not have enough trials that passed all the criteria (see Analysis section) so were excluded, leaving 26 patients. Thirty healthy controls (HC) were recruited from volunteer databases also, and tested once, and one HC was excluded for insufficient trials passing the criteria. We recruited 30 participants in each group as this was the sample size used in previous experiments with this task and yielded robust effects (Manohar et al. , 2017). Sensitivity power calculations showed this would detect effect sizes above 0. 46 (Faul et al. , 2009) (α = 0. 05, power = 0. 8, sample size = 30), although as we only included 26 PD in the analysis, this effect size rose to 0. 5.

Output: corroborate


Input: Claim: All plants used in traditional medicine are effective for modern ailments. [SEP] Text: FL is used to calculate the percentage of informants claiming the use of a given species for a particular purpose in a given cultural group or to determine the most preferred plants for a treatment of a particular ailment and calculated as: FL (%) = Np/N × 100 Where: Np is the number of informants that claim a use of a plant species to treat a particular ailment. N is the number of informants that claim the plant as a medicine to treat any given ailment. The plant species that are widely used to treat a particular ailment by the local people have higher FL values than those that are less popular [23]. Value (FUV). FUV signifies the use-value of a given plant family that is used as medicine for a particular disease. It is calculated as: FUV = ∑UVs/Ns Where: ∑UVs is the sum of the use-values for all species belonging to a particular family. Ns is the total number of species in the same family. High values of FUV might be because the plant species were cited by a large number of people in the study area [24]. Informant consensus factor (ICF). ICF was calculated using the formula ICF = Nur-nt/nur-1, where ICF denotes the informant consensus factor, nur is a number of use 0. 00 to 1. 00. High ICF values are obtained when only one or a few plant species are reported to be used by a high proportion of informants to treat a particular ailment. Low ICF values indicate that informants disagree over which plant to use. Direct matrix ranking Key informants evaluated the functionality of multifunctional medicinal plants to the local people and indicated their scores for each medicinal plant (on a scale of 1 to 5). Based on use criteria (5 = best; 4 = very good; 3 = good; 2 = less used; 1 = least used and 0 = no value) Nine medicinal plants were selected to be evaluated in six usage categories. Preference ranking A preference ranking of six medicinal plants that were reported as effective for treating a particular ailment was conducted by using those six key informants by following [1]. Hence the most occurring disease treated by more medicinal plants was given least (1) and highest (5) score by key informants. This scoring and ranking system was also applied for the other seven medicinal plant species on their degree of local scarcity.

Output: contrast


Input: Claim: Europa’s subsurface ocean may harbor conditions suitable for life. [SEP] Text: Download figure:Standard image High-resolution image For future observations of the interior Galilean Satellites—as well as those for the Giant Planets—a careful consideration of the positions of neighboring satellites should be considered, in addition to the primary body, when imaging individual satellites. Other means of removing the effect of nearby planetary bodies in interferometric observations (e. g. , de Pater et al. 2019) can achieve similar results and may be preferable for different observational situations. In particular, it is worth noting that the simple approach employed here is only effective when the observational duration is short, such that the objects do not move significantly with respect to one another on the sky. 8. Comparison of residuals for Europa's leading hemisphere in ALMA Band 3 using two different global porosity models: 20% (A) and 70% (B). Europa's surface is denoted by a dashed circle. Contours, increasing in 3σ intervals, are shown (solid lines). Download figure:Standard image High-resolution image Here, P is the diurnal period of Europa. For temperatures relevant to Europa's near surface, δT ranges from ∼5 to 15 cm depending on porosity or Γeff. This value can be compared to the electrical skin depth, δE which governs the sensitivity of different wavelengths to thermal emission vertically throughout the ice crust:where λ is the wavelength, and κ is the imaginary portion of the complex index of refraction, which itself depends on the ice porosity, dust mass fraction, and temperature (see Section 3 of de Kleer et al. 2021a). An example of how δE varies across notional ALMA frequency bands for a range of temperatures appropriate for Europa and a surface porosity of 50% is shown in Figure 9. These calculations include the multiplicative scale factor applied to κ as discussed in Section 3. Reset image size Figure 9. Electrical skin depth as a function of frequency in the range of ALMA receiver bands for temperatures relevant to Europa's surface and near subsurface for a global 50% porosity model. Download figure:Standard image High-resolution image For a range of porosity values and relevant temperatures, the comparison of both δT and δE (including the applied scale factor, as in Figure 9) are shown in Figure 10.

Output: pass


Input: Claim: Urban heat islands can exacerbate climate change effects. [SEP] Text: ; the patterning of UHI phenomenon; the measures adopted to fight the intensification of UHI; the survey techniques used to study the phenomenon). Many relationships were found in literature to assess the UHI phenomenon based on different kinds of data. Namely we have a collection of indices to establish the increase of temperature and the maximal increase of temperature based on: Population data; Urban geometric factors of buildings as well as infrastructures; Meteorological data. 1. b. scheduling of existing infrastructures to meteorological and environment data assessment in different project areas. A big range of methods can be adopted in order to study the UHI phenomenon. For each project area different data can be available. Based on this availability or lack of information DSS is able to provide as much as possible of accuracy in the results. 2. Urban planning and land use regulation Urban planning and land use regulation assume an important role to regulate the possible actions of adaptation and mitigation. DSS take into account these in order to formulate answers. Of course these are not static and can be supported by the DSS to assess and to plan in a better way the urban development taking into account in particular: 2. a. Review of different rules and regulation set up by involved local government (reviewing of the local main rules and regulations to plan the urban development and the land use; incentives and regulatory actions in support of environmental restoration, energy conservation and to fight climate change put in act from the different local authorities). 2. b. Review of the main European legislation concerning urban and spatial planning and concerned issues. Action 3. 2. approaches the problem of UHI vs Climate Change: it aims to study the interaction between UHI and climate change phenomena as well as to understand the influences and correlations between them. Thanks to this Action have been set up indicators establishing relations among urban planning and human activities (main causes of UHI) with climate change trends, estimated on the basis of temperature shifting and other parameters. Regional climate model simulations are able to provide an estimation of the future climate scenarios (temperature, humidity, precipitation, wind speed, cloud cover, etc. ) which may serve as outer conditions for the assessment of UHI phenomenon in the CE cities. The simulations can be made with WRF, e. g. , for a time slice of 10 years and statistical output on means and standard deviations of the meteorological variables can be supplied.

Output: corroborate


Input: Claim: All plants used in traditional medicine are effective for modern ailments. [SEP] Text: ResultsComposition, ways of remedy preparation, and utilization of medical plants Totally, 50 medical plants belonging to 24 families were identified in the study area. The most common human ailments in the study area were stomachache, common cold, malaria, tonsillitis, diabetes, toothache, rabies, intestinal parasites, skin disease, headache, and snakebite. Most medicinal plants prescription (70%) was orally administered and followed by dermal and nasal. The investigation of the remedy’s preparation indicated that grinding, crushing, chewing, and boiling was the majorities of remedies modes of preparation (Table 1). Solanaceae (14. 3%) was the dominant family followed by Asteraceae (10. 2%), Poaceae (10. 2%), Euphorbiaceae (8. 16%), Lamiaceae (6. 12%) and Musaceae (4. 1%). The family Rubiaceae, Myrtaceae, Fabaceae, and Brassicaceae were each with 4. 08%. and Flacourtiaceae were each with 2. 04%. Family use value The number of species within a family was calculated to get their Value. The result showed that Rosaceae had a high FUV (1. 00), followed by Commelinaceae (0. 98), Musaceae (0. 97), and Rubiaceae (0. 93). In contrast Flacourtiaceae (0. 15) has lower FUV followed by Scrophulariaceae (0. 27). Therapeutic indications In the study area, 28 ailments affecting humans and livestock were identified in 11 categories (Table 2). Each of the majority of species (22. 58%) were indicated to treat gastrointestinal ailments, followed by dermatological infections/diseases (12. 9%), skeletomuscular system disorders (9. 67%), respiratory systems diseases (19. 35%), genitourinary ailments (3. 2%), poisonous bites (6. 5%), cardiovascular system diseases (3. 2%), endocrine/metabolic/nutritional (6. 5%), sensory neuron disease (3. 2%), fever (3. 2%) and general and unspecified ailments (9. 7%) (Fig. 2). Used forms, habit, and used parts of the plants Medicinal plants were mainly used in fresh form (65. 62%), 25% of it was used in dried form and the remaining 9. 38% was used in fresh and dried forms (Fig. 3).

Output: contrast


Input: Claim: Europa’s subsurface ocean may harbor conditions suitable for life. [SEP] Text: As the porosity of the ice increases, the depth at which thermal emission may be sensed remotely increases (solid curves in Figure 10); conversely, the thermal skin depth decreases (dashed lines in Figure 10), and as a result the diurnal variability influences more shallow layers with higher porosity. In addition to the aforementioned parameters, the dust mass fraction alters the range of depths sounded by radiation—increasing the dust fraction decreases δE. As such, there exists a parameter space in which δE > δT manifesting as residuals with minimal temperature variability across longitudes and at multiple porosity values, as we find in ALMA Band 3. Considering permutations of Figures 9 and 10, we find that a porosity of ∼40% marks a physically realistic lower bound for depths down to ∼20 cm, as sounded by ALMA frequencies of ∼100 GHz. There is no combination of parameters for which these data could be sensitive to emission from the subsurface for porosities lower than 30% while simultaneously sounding depths below the thermal skin depth, which would thus manifest more significant thermal anomalies. Though higher porosity values (e. g. , >70%) allow for sensitivity far below δT we assume that the ice at depth is no more porous than that of the (near) surface. These physical constraints allow us to define the bounds for porosities as measured at low frequencies, and thus we infer a porosity of or for ALMA Band 3, sounding between ∼8 and 20 cm depending on temperature, porosity, and dust fraction. Reset image size Figure 10. Electrical skin depth (δE ) curves (solid lines) as a function of temperature for a range of global porosities at 97. 5 GHz (∼3 mm), as covered by continuum observations in ALMA Band 3. Temperature bounds are set by the predicted variability Europa's surface experiences throughout a nominal diurnal cycle for a given porosity value. The dust fraction is set to 0. 3. Thermal skin depths (δT ) over the range of temperatures are plotted (dashed lines) for 10, 30, 50, and 70% porosity models, illustrating the depths needed for derived δE values to be below δT and thus not exhibit temperature anomalies due to diurnal variability. Download figure:Standard image High-resolution image Future observations with ALMA at intermediate frequencies (e. g.

Output: pass