Input: Claim: Decomposers like fungi and bacteria recycle organic matter, enriching soil fertility. [SEP] Text: Our objectives were to (i) quantify the effect of BS addition on the soil microbial biomass and OM mineralization, (ii) determine changes in the composition of the soil microbial communities (iii) identify whether microbial changes concern indigenous soil microorganisms or specific microorganisms that are naturally present in the BS. We hypothesized that changes in both the composition and biomass of the microbial communities induced by the BS will increase the mineralization of the OM derived from crop residues. Using soil microcosm incubations, we monitored the microbial biomass carbon as well as the organic carbon (orgC) mineralization and we analyzed the changes in microbial diversity following the addition of a BS by using a 16S rRNA gene and ITS amplicon sequencing approach. We demonstrated in this study that an agricultural soil BS increased the orgC mineralization and induced subtle changes in the composition of the microbial communities, in particular by sustaining certain microbial decomposers. 2. Materials and methods 2. 1 Soil and biostimulant characteristics Topsoil (0–20 cm depth) that was used as starting material for conducting the lab incubation experiment was collected on a private agricultural site dedicated to experimental studies (the site of La Jaillière, France, 47°27'06. 3"N/0°57'58. 4"W) for which no specific permission was required. Also, this study did not involve endangered or protected species. The soil was analyzed for its physico-chemical characteristics according to Carter and Gregorich [20] and had a pHwater of 6. 7, a texture composed of 57% silt, 26. 3% sand and 15% clay and it contained 1. 7% of OM (i. e. 0. 99% orgC) and 0. 09% of total nitrogen (Ntot). The biostimulant developed and provided for free by the company BIO3G is in solid form, composed of natural raw materials without any additives, and is intended for application on crop residues before they are buried in the soil. It had a pHwater of 6. 25 ± 0. 0845 and it contained 35% of OM (i. e. 20. 4% orgC) and 2. 15% of total N as well as several labile organic compounds (low-weight molecules) such as amino acids. More information on the composition of the BS is given in Table 1.

Output: corroborate


Input: Claim: Tree rings cannot be used to study past volcanic activity or environmental disturbances. [SEP] Text: Likewise, BAI/basal area has a negative trend with age that is particularly steep when trees are young and BAI/basal area is nearer to one. Hence, it should be obvious that use of BAI or BAI/basal area may include biases in tree growth trends and should not be compared when groups of trees differ in age or size. Overall, BAI or BAI/basal area methods may not be an improvement over conventional detrending methods for comparison to stable isotopes in the same tree rings, particularly for studies of trees that are young (i. e. , <100 years in age). The carbon isotopes of tree-rings can change as trees grow, and depending somewhat on species and stand density, foliage is displayed at further distances from soil water sources as they get taller and form larger branches (McDowell et al. 2011). This change in stature results in a greater hydrostatic gradient in water potential and higher hydraulic resistance that impacts canopy-level stomatal conductance and thus iWUE. Such long-term trends owing to changes in tree stature can be mistakenly attributed to climate and/or CO2, so care should be taken to minimize the potential for this bias by considering it in assessments of carbon isotope responses to long-term environmental change (Brienen et al. 2017). If neglected, this bias could result in an over-estimation of how CO2 modifies leaf gas exchange. Several studies have, however, highlighted that δ13C mainly has age-related trends in the first few decades, forming a so-called juvenile trend, but not later on (Gagen et al. 2007; McCarroll and Loader 2004). This problem can be avoided by simply not using the juvenile phase or by applying appropriate corrections if known for a specific species or site (Vadeboncoeur et al. 2020). The age-trend can well be tested for trees growing in pre-industrial times where there are no strong variations in CO2-concentration by aligning them according their cambial age. This was done in a recent study with coastal redwood trees where indeed the age-trend was strongest in the first few decades of their life, but extended several centuries before finally levelling off (Voelker et al. 2018) (Fig. 17. 1).

Output: contrast


Input: Claim: The impact craters on the Moon provide insights into the history of the solar system. [SEP] Text: Mass movement caused by structural factors is widespread on the Moon, and it is an important geological effect to consider when reconstructing impact craters and other landform morphologic types (Muthch 1972), thus in these cases, the relative impact order of craters was difficult to infer. 5. 2 Characteristics of Edge-Craters on Impact Developmentcrater (22. 0°S, 4. 0°W) as an example, the profile map shows the morphometric characteristics of the crater with a small crater superimposed on its left side in Fig. 8 left. The floor of the superimposed small impact crater is deeper than that of the larger one. Using the centroid of the floor of Thebit crater as a central point, a symmetric line to the right profile was drawn. This line, the dotted one in Fig. 8 right, can be regarded as the original left side of the profile from the older crater. It can be seen that the small superimposed crater impacted at the rim of the bigger crater, and the height of the rim was altered by about 4,500 m. Furthermore, two-third of the left part of the Thebit crater is eroded, which implies that the depth of the secondary impact craters may have close relations with the crater size, impacting velocity, change of rock density after the first impact and degree of erosion. This aspect is worth further investigation. Fig. 8Terrain estimating recovery for Thebit craterFull size image From the above profile analysis, the superposition of different edge-intersected types is seen to make a big difference in lunar morphology transformations. Such differences should be connected to the overlaid position and diameters ratios of two craters. Also, the results may be affected by the impacting angle, the thickness of the lunar regolith, and/or the age gap between two impact craters. The characteristics of superimposed craters can help quantitatively understand the effects of impact on crater development based on the morphologic parameters of edge-intersected craters as previously mentioned. We use parameters such as Ra/Rb, L/Rb and Ea/Eb to quantitatively analyze the correlations among them. According to Table 3, Ra/Rb, L/Rb as a variable, and Ea/Eb as a dependent variable can be used as part of a multiple linear regression analysis procedure supported by SPSS software.

Output: pass


Input: Claim: Decomposers like fungi and bacteria recycle organic matter, enriching soil fertility. [SEP] Text: microbial biomass values obtained for the SS treatment were in agreement with another study that reported values ranging from 67 μg C g-1 dry soil to 166 μg C g-1 dry soil in 13 agricultural soils [38], while the C microbial biomass of the SBS treatment was closer to that observed in forest soils (215 μg C g-1 dry soil) but lower than those in grassland soils (250 μg C g-1 dry soil) [39]. Download: PPTPowerPoint slidePNGlarger imageTIFForiginal imageFig 1. Cumulative kinetics of the orgC mineralization and microbial biomass carbon in, the control soil (CS), the soil with straw (SS) and the soil with straw and the BS (SBS). The error bars indicate the standard errors of the C-CO2 emission mean values (n = 3). At each sampling date, the data indicated with different letters are significantly different according to the Kruskal-Wallis test. The microbial biomass carbon in the control soil was not determined (ND). The C-CO2 emission and microbial biomass are “expressed” per g of dry soil (d. w. ). The (*) correspond to significantly different values of microbial biomass carbon. hypothesized, mineralization and microbial biomass were increased in the presence of the BS. These results are in agreement with the results of other studies with regards to the effect of other BS on soil microorganisms. Chen et al. [40,41] demonstrated that soil amendments using two BS stimulated the microbial activity and increased the decomposition rates of straw more than two-fold compared to that in the control soil, as well as the mineralization of soil OM. Another study by Tejada et al. [42] demonstrated that four BS applied on the soil, which differed in terms of their chemical composition, enhanced the soil enzymatic activities and increased both the fungal and bacterial biomass by two or three fold, depending on the BS. The increases in the C-CO2 emissions and the enhanced microbial biomass storage in SBS compared to SS corresponded to a total of 460 μg orgC g-1 dry soil that could not be attributed to the addition of orgC contained in the BS itself since it only corresponded to an input of 4 μg of orgC g-1 dry soil.

Output: corroborate


Input: Claim: Tree rings cannot be used to study past volcanic activity or environmental disturbances. [SEP] Text: Nevertheless, the strong increases in iWUE as a result of the atmospheric CO2-increase has been found to be widespread and thereby clearly cannot be an artefact (Guerrieri et al. 2019). 4 Combination of Growth and iWUE: of DroughtThe combination of conventional dendrochronological analyses of growth and stable isotope methods can be very powerful. With a multi-proxy approach, the particular strength of tree rings is taken full advantage of as all the measurable parameters originate from the same absolutely dated rings, but contain different environmental information. Tree ring widths or basal area increments provide cumulative growth information that is related to the complex interplay of environmental conditions and limiting factors to xylogenesis during the growing season, whereas stable isotopes measured in the cellulose of these tree rings are rather recording the physiological conditions at the canopy level. Stable isotopes are also influenced by seasonal timing of wood formation as periods of extreme growth limitation, e. g. drought, may not be reflected in the isotope signal of the tree ring when xylogenesis is halted (Sarris et al. 2013). Furthermore, drought legacy effects may differ between tree-ring width and stable isotopes as the recovery after an extreme event may be different for the two parameters (Szejner et al. 2019). Hence, stable isotopes can help decipher causes of growth variations more clearly in many cases. Tree growth and iWUE may or may not show similar trends and may also display positive or negative correlations. With careful consideration of biological trends due to tree age and size, the combined analysis of tree growth and iWUE or carbon isotope discrimination can help to decipher what relevant environmental mechanisms may be impacting trees by affecting leaf gas exchange, growth, or both factors together (Brienen et al. 2021; Sun et al. 2018; Voelker et al. 2014). This multi-proxy approach may be particularly relevant for better understanding tree responses to climate warming and various aspects of drought (Levesque et al. 2014). Indeed, the area of land classified as very dry has more than doubled globally in the last 50 years and accordingly drought conditions are affecting many forest ecosystems, resulting in reduced growth and increased stress and tree mortality (Allen et al. 2010).

Output: contrast


Input: Claim: The impact craters on the Moon provide insights into the history of the solar system. [SEP] Text: on Earth with a Diameter of More than 200 km:. A. Ivanov1 240 all metrics AbstractThe three largest impact craters, the remains of which have been found on Earth to date, had diameters of about 200 km immediately after formation. The search for traces of larger impact structures continues. This paper presents the results of numerical modeling of the formation of terrestrial impact craters larger than those already found. It is shown that the inferred geothermal gradient significantly influences the initial geometry of the impact melt region, which may facilitate the search for the remains of deeply eroded ancient impact structures. Similar content being viewed by others Consequences 0. 5 to 1 billion years. The only planet where we can use geology and geophysics to find ancient craters is Earth. Despite the mobile lithosphere and plate tectonics, more than 150 impact structures (or their remains) have been found on Earth. Three impact structures are of particular interest– Vredefort, Sudbury, and Chicxulub. They are often called “Three” or “Three of a Kind” (Grieve and Therriault, 2000). The original (“fresh”) diameter of all three structures is estimated to be about 200 km. Two structures are very ancient (Vredefort is about 2 billion years old, and Sudbury, about 1. 85 billion years old). The youngest structure, Chicxulub, 65 million years old, is overlain by younger sediments. Sudbury’s structure has been subjected to severe erosion and tectonic deformation. structure has been eroded to a depth of 6 to 8 km, allowing previously buried levels of the crust to be studied. The problem discussed below is what terrestrial impact structures larger than the would look like. A partial answer may be found on Venus. The estimated impact rate of asteroids of the same size (“bolide ratio”) is approximately 0. 7 of the Earth’s value (see review by Werner and Ivanov, 2015). On Venus, with an estimated global surface age of less than one billion years, ten craters with a diameter of more than 100 km and one crater with a diameter of more than 200 km are observed (crater Mead, D = 270 km, Fig. 1). The height/depth scale is relative to the deepest measured point near the center of the crater.

Output: pass


Input: Claim: Decomposers like fungi and bacteria recycle organic matter, enriching soil fertility. [SEP] Text: Similarly, this stimulation of the microbial activity could not be due to soil N enrichment coming from the BS since it only corresponded to an input of 0. 41 μg of total N per gram of dry soil which was negligible compared to the initial content in the soil (Table 1). Tejada et al. [42] highlighted a better stimulation of soil enzymatic activities in BS-amended soil than with other sources of organic matter applied to the soil. As suggested by Parrado et al. [43], the higher stimulation of the soil microbial community may have been due to the application of a BS with high contents of low molecular weight proteins that can be directly assimilated by the soil microorganisms. Our study showed that the BS used significantly increased the OM mineralization and microbial biomass, without adding a significant amount of orgC or total N. It is possible that the BS may have supplied proteins with low molecular weight, amino acids [44] or growth factors such as phytohormones [45] that stimulated the microbial community, although these factors have not been studied here. However as we can see in Table 1, amino acids are widely present in the BS and they are used in protein synthesis or can be directly absorbed by the soil microorganisms as an alternative source of nitrogen and carbon [46]. It has also have been reported that they enhance soil respiration and microbial biomass activity [47]. Furthermore, it is well documented that the incorporation of fresh OM in soil may increase SOM degradation [48,49]. For example, by using a 13C labeled wheat residue, Pascault et al. [50] demonstrated a higher release of 12CO2 with wheat residues compared to the non-amended control soil, pointing to a priming effect of native unlabeled SOM. The changes in the native SOM degradation as a result of an exogenous substrate depends on the substrate quality [51]. The input of crop residues that are known to decompose slowly result in a rapid response from the microorganisms by producing enzymes that are able to degrade this exogenous organic matter [52]; hence, microorganisms are also able to decompose SOM [53]. Other studies using low molecular weight substances such as glucose or amino acids also demonstrated the occurrence of a priming effect [54,55] and this type of molecules was present in the BS.

Output: corroborate


Input: Claim: Tree rings cannot be used to study past volcanic activity or environmental disturbances. [SEP] Text: For example, in areas such as the Central Mediterranean, Central and Western Europe, California and much of the States and elsewhere, warmer temperatures have amplified droughts (Dai 2013). California and the west US coast in particular has undergone recent extremes (Keen et al. 2022) that are expected to become more severe in the future based on climate model predictions (Wang et al. 2017; Yoon et al. 2015). These projections are further supported by long tree-ring isotope chronologies that demonstrated greater hydroclimate variability during the warmer Anomaly and the period of recent warming compared to the colder Age (Voelker et al. 2018). Considering projections of increased drought frequency and severity, there is a crucial need to understand mechanisms leading to drought-induced tree mortality, which may be provided by investigating how some trees, species and different forest ecosystems have responded to acute or chronic drought stress (Allen et al. 2010). Although drought-related physiological effects on trees have long been been studied, the significance of different mechanisms is still unclear (McDowell et al. 2008). When pests and pathogens do not act as the primary cause of tree mortality, the most important processes leading to death are hydraulic failure (desiccation) in extreme drought events and a reduction of the trees’ carbon storage through gradual depletion of carbohydrates (starvation) induced by protracted drought episodes. The mechanism of carbon starvation is likely related to water-use efficiency, as plants may reduce stomatal conductance strongly to avoid loss of water, and therefore this process may be elucidated using stable carbon isotopes. In such a situation, the plant is no longer capable of producing enough non-structural carbohydrates to maintain essential metabolic functions and stored non-structural carbohydrates are inaccessible due to compartmentalization and lack of enzymatic energy (Sala et al. 2010). Studies of trees that survived or died during intense periods of drought have been particularly effective at applying tree-ring growth and stable carbon isotopes to highlight physiological factors that ostensibly predisposed trees to mortality. One of the first such investigations to do so used a rather narrow time window for assessment, but nonetheless found that trees that died during a severe drought had similar iWUE, but lower tree growth rates, compared to co-occurring trees that survived (McDowell et al. 2010). However, the surviving trees showed a strong climatic sensitivity of gas exchange (i. e.

Output: contrast


Input: Claim: The impact craters on the Moon provide insights into the history of the solar system. [SEP] Text: The undulating terrain around the crater limits the accuracy of depth determination to between 1 and 1. 4 km. More accurate profiles based on primary radio altimeter data presented by Ivanov and Ford (1993) give approximately the same picture (see Fig. 2 by Ivanov (2005)). Fig. 1. Image of the largest known impact crater on Venus, called Mead, with a diameter D = 270 km (top). Elevation profiles along three diameters (dashed, dotted, and solid curves) through Mead crater (bottom). The image and elevation profiles were constructed by the author using the publicly available JMars software ( based on data from the Magellan spacecraft mission to Venus ( size imageFig. 2. Impact crater Rachmaninov (D ~300 km) on Mercury (top) and the elevation profile of the surface along the diameter of the crater (bottom). The inner crater is about 4. 5 km deep. The image and altitude profiles were constructed by the author using the publicly available JMars software ( based on the results of the Messenger spacecraft flight to Mercury ( size imageThe following craters in descending size have diameters of ~180 km (Isabella) and ~150 km (Meitner). Estimates of the accumulation time of all observed Venusian craters are in the intervals: (1) less than 750 Ma (McKinnon et al. , 1997), (2) 200–600 Ma (Strom et al. , 1994), and (3) much smaller values, ~180 ± 70 Ma (Bottke et al. , 2016). The large variation of these estimates is explained mainly by the permanent improvement of models for the evolution of the orbits of crater-forming small bodies and the refinement of the ratio of the frequencies of impacts on the Moon, Earth and Venus (Werner and Ivanov, 2015). Despite these uncertainties, the presence on Venus of ten impact craters with D > 100 km, formed over a period of 200 to 600 million years (Schaber et al. , 1992), should correspond to the same number of impact craters accumulated over a period of 1–2 billion years on the Earth’s continents (considering that their area is a third of the Earth’s surface). Note that for craters with a diameter of more than 100 km, the dense atmosphere of Venus can neither destroy nor slow down the projectile.

Output: pass


Input: Claim: Decomposers like fungi and bacteria recycle organic matter, enriching soil fertility. [SEP] Text: Previous studies have reported that the abundance of Bacteroidetes was highest in soils with high C availability and was positively correlated with the C mineralization rates [60] and that active Bacteroidetes members were some of the initial metabolizers of the labile carbon inputs [61]. These are consistent with our observation, the highest abundance of Bacteroidetes at 49 days being probably linked to the use of labile C in the soil microcosm during the course of the incubation. In addition, the soil pH could have played a role in these bacterial community changes in the SBS treatment. We showed that the abundance of Bacteroidetes was higher in soil with higher pH, which is in agreement with Lauber et al. [62] who demonstrated a significant and positive correlation between Bacteroidetes abundance and soil pH (for pH values ranging from 4 to 8). At the opposite, our findings on Planctomycetes, were inconsistent with the recent report of Zhang et al. [63]. Whereas the latter authors showed a decrease in the Planctomycetes abundance from acidic to near-neutral pH values and then an increase from near-neutral to alkaline pH values, we demonstrated an increase from moderately acidic to near-neutral pH values. 3. 2. 2 Fungal phyla. The addition of the BS induced greater changes in the composition of the fungal phyla since the relative abundances of Zygomycota was significantly higher in SS than in SBS from 19. 7% to 31. 6% and Ascomycota tended to be lower from 47. 9% to 35. 3%, respectively (Fig 2B). Generally, fungi grow well and tolerate acidic soils better than bacteria [64], but some fungi belonging to phylum of Zygomycota and saprotrophic species (e. g. Amblyosporium, Pseudombrophila, Coprinus, Mortierella) have been shown to grow well in neutral to slightly alkaline conditions [65–67]. These findings are consistent with our results and suggest that the addition of the BS induced changes in fungal communities through its pH neutralizing effect.

Output: corroborate


Input: Claim: Tree rings cannot be used to study past volcanic activity or environmental disturbances. [SEP] Text: Since so few studies have demonstrated evidence for how A has formed the primary physiological constraint on interannual variability on tree-ring carbon isotopes and iWUE, a few examples warrant specific mention here because they may continue to lead to particularly novel insights. Two forest health studies on species located in the eastern have shown that iWUE has been strongly influenced by sulfur emissions and associated acidic deposition that increased during most of the twentieth century and then showed a reversal in trend near 1980 after US federal legislation and enforcement was increasingly implemented from 1963 through 1990 (Mathias and Thomas 2018; Thomas et al. 2013). The authors concluded that increasing A was an important component for explaining recent tree recovery. Other records where inter-annual variability in tree-ring isotopes were controlled by how A was modified by temperature and/or sunshine occurred in cold northerly regions such as and Sweden (Loader et al. 2013; Young et al. 2012). Alternatively, Voelker et al. (2019b) showed that similar constraints on A by temperature could be identified in temperate trees growing adjacent Lake Superior, which modulates near-lake air temperature regimes due to the large heat capacity of the lake reflecting previous winter conditions during spring and early summer. The last study was careful to utilize only “middlewood” formed during the early growing season, which contrasts with many other studies of drought stress that focus on whole rings or latewood. Hence, this emphasizes the need for future studies of tree-ring isotopes to carefully consider which intra-annual sampling scheme may be most appropriate where differences in the primary constraints on leaf carbon uptake may shift on a seasonal basis between photosynthetic rates and stomatal conductance (see also Chap. 15). Finally, Breinen et al. (2021) has shown that during understory phases of tree development, tree growth is often negatively correlated to carbon isotope discrimination but had neutral or weak positive correlations once the same trees were in canopy dominant positions, which implies that both the photosynthetic rates and growth of these trees were limited by irradiance when they were in the understory. 6 Large-Scale PatternsModels and (DGVMs) are the workhorses to explore many large-scale terrestrial processes and climate-land biosphere interactions. These models are routinely used to project future changes in climate and processes under anthropogenic forcing in a detailed spatio-temporal context (Sitch et al. 2003).

Output: contrast


Input: Claim: The impact craters on the Moon provide insights into the history of the solar system. [SEP] Text: A tradition has developed (partly under the influence of the extensive literature on penetrating armor with a projectile) to call an impacting high-velocity body (an asteroid or comet nucleus) the term “projectile,” and the upper layers of planets or asteroids, in which an impact crater is formed, as a “target. ” In this case, both the projectile and the target can have a complex structure, for example, the Earth as a target can be considered as a multilayer body consisting of spherical shells reproducing the crust, mantle, and core (see, for example, Ivanov et al. , 2010). The thermodynamic properties of the target material were described, as before, by tables calculated using the ANEOS program (Thompson and Lauson, 1972) with input parameters for granite (Pierazzo et al. , 1997), basalt (Pierazzo et al. , 2005), and dunite (Benz et al. , 1989). Dunite modeled the mantle material, granite on top of basalt (or, for simplicity, homogeneous granite) modeled the rocks of the Earth’s crust. The assumed melting temperatures in the strength model (Collins et al. , 2004) and their dependence on ambient pressure were previously described by Ivanov et al. (2010). In the process of setting up model problems, it was found that in the case of a significant influence of melting on the crater formation process, it is necessary to pay special attention to the model melting curve of the crust and mantle and the use of an acoustic fluidization model, which will be discussed in the next section. Concluding the general description of the model, we note that most of the model options assume a vertical impact of a spherical asteroid (projectile) with a velocity U = 15 km/s. For simplicity, in most versions the projectile was made of the same substance as the top layer of crust. The presented range of model options assumes projectile diameters two and four times larger than the “nominal” projectile forming the Vredefort crater—a sphere with a diameter of 12 to 14 km at an impact velocity of 15 km/s (Ivanov, 2005). These model variants are referred to as 2 × V and 4 × V for brevity.

Output: pass


Input: Claim: Decomposers like fungi and bacteria recycle organic matter, enriching soil fertility. [SEP] Text: Moreover, with the amendment of the straw by itself, the proportion of Basidiomycota tended to be higher in both the SS and SBS treatments compared to the CS treatment resulting in a lower fungal diversity in these treatments (Fig 2B). As a result, the straw input may have selected Basidiomycota which are known litter decomposers able to degrade complex and recalcitrant OM [68,69]. 3. 2. 3 Archaeal phyla. Significant changes were not seen in the archaeal community in the presence of the BS. At the class level, 99% of the archaeal sequences were affiliated with the Group (SCG) in all of the soil treatments. The SCG class falls within the recently described Thaumarchaeota phylum; these archaea are thought to be chemolithoautotrophs that use ammonium as an energy source [70]. To date, there is no proof that organisms belonging to this phylum play a role in orgC mineralization [6]. So far, it appears that Thaumarchaeota are directly involved in nitrogen metabolism and mainly comprise ammonia-oxidizing archaea [71], which is in line with our results where no changes in the community structure of archaea was observed when straw and the BS were added. Furthermore, a study of Hu et al. [72] demonstrated that Thaumarchaeota represented more than 85% of the total archaea in soils with pH higher than 6, which is in agreement with our results: the three soils microcosms are dominated by the Thaumarcheaota and have pH values ranging from 6 to 6. 9. 3. 3 Microbial diversity and richness In order to determine the potential changes in the microbial communities due to the amendments, we compared the richness and diversity of the microbial communities using 16S/ITS1 rRNA amplicons (Fig 2). Statistical differences (P < 0. 05) were observed between the CS and SBS treatments in terms of bacterial richness and the bacterial and fungal Shannon diversity index, as well as between the CS and SS treatments for the fungal Shannon diversity index.

Output: corroborate


Input: Claim: Tree rings cannot be used to study past volcanic activity or environmental disturbances. [SEP] Text: The northermost sites showed the lowest iWUE and also the lowest increase over the twentieth century (60. 3–70. 3 μmol/mol from the first to last decade of twentieth century, i. e. an increase by 16. 6%). They also showed a rather homogenous signal as reflected in relatively low variability among sites. In comparison, the most southern sites, from Mediterranean climate, showed the highest overall values, an increase of 23% over the twentieth century, and also were characterized by relatively high variability among sites, showing that different ecosystems react rather differently to increasing CO2 depending on local site factors. Sites from temperate climates, i. e. intermediate latitudes, showed intermediate overall iWUE, the strongest increase over the twentieth century by 31%, and further a notable increase in the variability over time. This patterns of iWUE-increase might reflect a generally strong, but variable sensitivity to increasing CO2, compared to where temperature (i. e. northern latitude sites) or precipitation (i. e. low latitude mediterrranean sites) have historically been strongly limiting to leaf gas-exchange and growth. Fig. 17. 3Reconstructed iWUE from 27 conifer sites across Europe grouped into different latitudinal bands (a). Variability of iWUE between sites (standard deviation) for these latitudinal bands (b)Full size imageThese analyses clearly demonstrate the usefulness of such networks of tree-ring data for better understanding physiological tree responses to climate and CO2 across different ecosystems. It might be further interesting to consider that net photosynthesis tends to play a larger role in determining growth and δ13C in more energy‐limited environments, such as boreal forests, than in drought‐prone environments. Under scenarios of increasing drought, this may imply that changes in the relative weight of energy and water limitations could be assessed through the combined use of δ13C and tree‐rings. Nevertheless, the interpretation of iWUE-trends is not straightforward and can be enhanced by DGVM-results as shown in another recent study (Frank et al. 2015). Here, increases in European forest transpiration were calculated over the twentieth century, although a general decrease in stomatal conductance was also inferred, which seems at first view to be contradictive.

Output: contrast


Input: Claim: The impact craters on the Moon provide insights into the history of the solar system. [SEP] Text: most runs we use parameters of the acoustic fluidization (AF) model as proposed by Ivanov and Turtle (2001) and Ivanov and Artemieva (2002) to describe the temporary reduction of dry friction in rocks around the resulting impact crater. In some model runs, we vary the selected parameters slightly, examining the model’s robustness to these variations. The most powerful influence is the form of the inferred geotherm—how quickly the temperature of the rock increases with depth T(z) and how close the temperature T(z) approaches the melting temperature Tm(z), which also increases with depth due to increased lithostatic pressure. To model Earth’s largest impact craters, Ivanov (2005) used a geotherm with a linear surface gradient of 13 to 15 K/km. Here we will call it a “cold” geotherm. In an attempt to reproduce the large melting zone relative to the crater, consistent with that proposed by Garde et al. (2012) for the hypothetical Maniitsoq structure, we studied the influence of possible geotherms occurring at some depth close to the melting curve Tm(z). These several options are called “hot” geotherms here. The expected course of these geotherms and melting curves is shown in Fig. 4. Cold and hot geotherms in the case of the Moon and their influence on crater formation were discussed earlier by Ivanov et al. (2010). Fig. 4. Examples of geotherms with relatively low (1—“cold” case) and relatively high (2—“hot” case) estimated near-surface temperature gradients; 3—liquidus and solidus for water-saturated granite (Boettcher and Wyllie, 1968), “G”—experimental point from (Goetze, 1971); 4— the same for dry granite, “L”—liquidus points from (Dell’Angelo and Tullis, 1988), “W”—granite from (Rutter and Neumann, 1995). Dashed lines 4 approximate data for liquidus Tliq(K) = 1156 + 5. 41z (km) and solidus of granite Tsol = 1020 + 5. 41z.

Output: pass


Input: Claim: Decomposers like fungi and bacteria recycle organic matter, enriching soil fertility. [SEP] Text: Because the bacterial and fungal diversities and bacterial richness were not different between CS and SS treatment but significantly lowest in the SBS compared to the CS, this suggested that this lowest diversities and richness could have been induced by a synergic effect of the BS and straw which thereby established a dominance of certain bacteria and fungi. After 49 days of incubations, it is probable that easily degradable compounds gradually gave way to recalcitrant compounds that were more difficult to degrade and which therefore required specific enzymes to do so [52]. Hence, the lowest bacterial and fungal diversity due to the addition of straw and the BS can be explained by the degradation of more recalcitrant compounds that can be carried out by a few groups of organisms with specific functions such as the production of extracellular enzymes [73]. Therefore, due to the soil microbial enzymatic specificity for substrate degradation, a succession of microorganisms is observed throughout the decomposition of the OM [74]. However, further temporal dynamics experiments should be undertaken to clearly determine the microbial community succession in our study. Among the bacterial and fungal phyla enhanced in the presence of the BS after 49 days of incubation, different functional strategies regarding the use of soil carbon can be identified according to the ecological classification scheme suggested by Fierer et al [60]. Planctomycetes are described as a phylum that can exhibit oligotrophic tendencies with slow growth and a K-selected life strategy [75], and Bacteroidetes are mainly copiotrophs [60]. Among the changes detected in the fungal phyla, Zygomycota are known to use readily available sugars and to be the first fungi to colonize a fresh substrate, but are also able to degrade recalcitrant compounds [76,77]. Therefore, at the phylum level, the application of the BS on straw residues sustained several microbial phyla but without any specific functional strategy towards OM decomposition optimization with either oligotrophic or copiotrophic tendencies. Also, we may consider that 49 days of incubation was not long enough to allow microbial successions and the development of specific functional strategies in the soil microbial communities. 3. 4 Microbial recruitment By analyzing the effect of the BS on the structure of the soil microbial community, significant impacts were observed on both bacteria and fungi but not on archaea, (PPLS-DA analysis, P = 0. 004 and 73.

Output: corroborate


Input: Claim: Tree rings cannot be used to study past volcanic activity or environmental disturbances. [SEP] Text: 1 IntroductionKey nutrient for trees, but forming reactive molecules potentially detrimental to forest ecosystems (e. g. , Etzold et al. 2020), N constitutes a central object of research in terrestrial biogeochemistry. After several decades, the substantial body of literature on N in trees reflects the complexity of N cycling through trees, and how some intrinsic and extrinsic processes remain elusive. With anthropogenic emissions of reactive N (Nr) rising globally and driving atmosphere-pedosphere exchanges that can perturb the external terrestrial N cycle, tree-ring δ15N series may record past changes in forest-N cycling. Studies of long tree-ring δ15N series are rare, largely because ring wood includes very low amounts of N relative to carbon, evidently making tree rings difficult for isotopic determination. Additionally, N translocates between trunk rings, dampening environmental isotopic effects in time series. Nevertheless, several studies report δ15N trends interpreted in relations to changes in soil and air conditions. How does N assimilation in non N2-fixing trees operate? Do trees react to changes in air and soil Nr contents? Can tree-ring δ15N series help understand environmental changes? The purpose of this review primarily consists in scrutinizing the current understanding of mechanisms responsible for determining δ15N values in tree rings, appraising the type of information δ15N series can provide, and synthesizing the knowledge gaps of this research domain. 2 The habitual mechanical separation of tree rings from stem samples using fine blades or microtome at the sought time resolution produces wood sub-samples for δ15N analysis. Treating these sub-samples prior to their isotopic analysis generates a debate regarding the utility of removing their mobile N (resins) to prevent producing false trends. But recent investigations suggest this type of pre-treatment does not modify significantly the final δ15N values (Elhani et al. 2005; Bukata and Kyser 2007; Couto-Vázquez and González-Prieto 2010; Caceres et al. 2011; Doucet et al. 2011; Tomlinson et al. 2014). Another observation arguing against pre-treatment is that samples from several species, for instance Pinus ponderosa, Fagus grandifolia and Picea rubens, show no change of concentrations after resin removal (Hart and Classen 2003; Doucet et al.

Output: contrast


Input: Claim: The impact craters on the Moon provide insights into the history of the solar system. [SEP] Text: The “K” signs illustrate the temperature gradient in the Kola superdeep well (Popov et al. , 1999). 5 and 6—Estimated solidus position for the upper mantle (5—fayalite and 6—forsterite). Full size imageHere we should make a few remarks for future improvement of the model. The computer model must describe how density, compressibility, strength/friction, and melting point change with depth. The melting temperature in such a model is important, since its value determines the disappearance of friction near the melting point. The description of the cortex as a single layer with a single function Tm(p) is still often used. To model cratering that penetrates below the crust, we need to assume an initial temperature gradient and an increase in melting temperature with increasing lithostatic pressure. The thermal gradient in the Earth’s crust varies widely due to the diversity of the mineral composition of crustal rocks (see, for example, Miller et al. , 2003; Hasterok et al. , 2019). Drilling of several deep wells up to 10 km in depth revealed deviations from simple thermal conductivity conditions, explained by fluid flow at unexpectedly deep levels (Popov et al. , 1998). In the Kola superdeep well, the temperature gradient at depths of 5–9 km is estimated at ~20 K/km (see Popov et al. , 1998, Fig. 8. 2 there). At depths z ~10 km, the rock temperature reaches ~500 K in the Kola well (Kukkonen and Clauser, 1994; Popov et al. , 1999) and ~550 K in the KTB well (der Bundesrepublik Deutschland, Clauser et al. , 1997). Furlong and Chapman (2013) review the main approaches to constructing the vertical mineral and thermal structure of the Earth’s crust. Temperature at the Moho boundary varies with the magnitude of heat flow, and the apparent absence of molten lower crust requires the mineral composition of the rock to change with depth, so our simple “granite” crust does not work with the typical Tm(p) for “wet granite” (Furlong and Chapman, 2013).

Output: pass


Input: Claim: Decomposers like fungi and bacteria recycle organic matter, enriching soil fertility. [SEP] Text: 5% of variance explained, P = 0. 012 and 51. 5% of variance explained and, P = 0. 65 and 62. 1% of variance explained, respectively, (Fig 3A and 3C). The community structures of the soil bacteria and fungi were affected by the addition of both straw and the BS. These results are in agreement with those obtained by Monard et al. [78] and Pascault et al. [50]: the input of fresh OM (carbon substrate or wheat residues, respectively) on the soil induced changes in the soil microbial community structures by selecting and stimulating specific groups of bacteria. Download: PPTPowerPoint slidePNGlarger imageTIFForiginal imageFig 3. a and c) Powered partial least squares discriminant analysis (PPLS-DA) describing the bacterial and fungal community structures at the OTU level. The three soil treatments () exhibited significant different compositions in terms of their bacterial and fungal communities. The CS groups represent the soil control samples, the SS groups correspond to the soil with straw samples and the SBS groups represent the soil with straw and BS. b and d) Ternary plots describing the distribution of the bacterial and fungal OTUs between the soil treatments (grey circles) showing the enriched (green circles) and depleted (red circles) OTUs after the BS amendment. This analysis was performed on the relative abundances for the bacteria and fungi matrices. Each circle depicts one individual OTU. The size of the circle reflects the relative abundance (RA) of the OTU. The position of each circle is determined by the contribution of the indicated compartments to the RA. An extract from S2 and S3 Tables is presented which shows the RA and affiliation of some of the most abundant enriched OTUs. performed in order to identify the bacterial and fungal OTUs that were responsible for the differences that were observed in the communities when the BS was added (Fig 3B and 3D). Out of a total of 8 697 bacterial OTUs and 842 fungal OTUs, 132 and 6 of these OTUS, respectively, were enriched after the addition of the BS, except for fungal OTU2492 which was also highly detected in the straw (718. 3 ± 76. 8 sequences).

Output: corroborate


Input: Claim: Tree rings cannot be used to study past volcanic activity or environmental disturbances. [SEP] Text: 2011). On another note, regardless of pre-treating wood samples or not, several studies have clearly shown trends of higher N concentrations in rings (and coniferous leaves) grown during sampling years, relative to concentrations in previous years. The general pattern forms an increasing trend from the heartwood-sapwood transition to the most recent ring; a physiological effect typical of N translocation. In addition, tree-ring N concentrations show poor inter-tree and inter-species coherence. These observations make N concentrations in tree rings (and dated coniferous leaves) useless in environmental research (Hart and Classen 2003; Saurer et al. 2004; Savard et al. 2009; Gerhart and McLauchlan 2014). However, this inter-ring N mobility does not seem to affect the final tree-ring δ15N values (Doucet et al. 2011). For isotopic analysis, wood samples wrapped in tin capsules drop automatically from a carousel into an elemental analyser (EA) in continuous flow (CF) with an isotope ratio mass spectrometer (IRMS). The analytical procedure involves combustion in a reaction tube producing N2O, followed by a reduction to N2, which produces the analyses calibrated relative to air N2 (set at 0‰). Tree-ring wood harbors very low concentrations relative to roots or leaves (Scarascia-Mugnozza et al. 2000), and high C/N ratios, making its isotopic analysis difficult. For that reason, the EA-system for δ15N analysis needs close monitoring for performing complete combustion to prevent CO+ derived interferences at masses 28 and 29. A CO trap installed between ovens and GC columns helps for that step. The low N concentrations in wood make internal standards a requirement to avoid poor analytical accuracy from low peak to background ratios (Couto-Vázquez and González-Prieto 2010). Inserting several internal wood standards in sample batches allows monitoring the external precision and accuracy of the complete laboratory procedure. Whole wood materials from three species of trees recently proposed as 2. 4 to +1. 8‰) than the natural extent in tree rings (generally between −10 and +5‰).

Output: contrast


Input: Claim: The impact craters on the Moon provide insights into the history of the solar system. [SEP] Text: For areas with thick crust (up to 55 km, for example in Finland), geological and geophysical analysis indicates a relatively cold asthenosphere with T ~ 700 K at a depth z ~ 55 km and T ~ 1400 K at a depth z ~ 180 km (Kukkonen, 1998). Regional variation in the mineral and thermal structure of the crust may be significant (see, e. g. , Schutt et al. , 2018; Puziewicz et al. , 2019) and future models should be reformulated using more recent geophysical data (Cammarano and Guerri, 2017; Artemieva and Shulgin, 2019). The mantle temperature profile is approximately modeled as an adiabat of a suitable pyrolite composition, limited by elastic wave velocities (Stixrude and Lithgow-Bertelloni, 2011). Thermal gradients in the range of 0. 5 to 1 K/km seem to be a good choice to start modeling. One of the disadvantages of the matter models most often used in calculations is the oversimplification of the description of rock melting. To correctly interpret the results, we must make some notes about possible inaccuracies. (1) The presented modeling results have been accumulated over the past 15 years, when the ANEOS equation of state used to construct EOS tables did not include an explicit description of melting (see for a review and ways to improve the model by Collins and Melosh (2014)). Even after recent improvements, ANEOS still describes melting in a “metallic” style: a jump in entropy at a constant temperature at a given pressure. True melting of multimineral rocks is a complex dynamic process. The complex behavior of the solidus and liquidus curves of crustal rocks depends on the water content in the first 50 km (p ~ 1. 2 GPa or ~12 kbar), and the static solidus temperature can decrease with depth (Katz et al. , 2003). The mineral composition of the material between the solidus and liquidus can change over time; experiments to determine the mineral composition of a partial melt can last from 100 to 200 h (see, for example, Pichavant et al. , 2019).

Output: pass


Input: Claim: Decomposers like fungi and bacteria recycle organic matter, enriching soil fertility. [SEP] Text: Among the bacterial and fungal enriched OTUs, 83 were specific to the three soil microcosms and the other OTUs were detected at low levels in the BS and/or straw alone. Furthermore, according to the BLASTn analysis of the representative sequences of these enriched OTUs, they were all highly similar to the sequences obtained from the microorganisms extracted from the soil environment. This further supports the idea that the BS acted by stimulating specific indigenous microorganisms in the soil. Among the most enriched OTUs in the SBS treatment compared to the SS treatment (Fig 3B), specific groups of bacteria were detected such as an unknown genus within the Cytophagaceae family (S2 Table; OTU428, OTU495, OTU1016, OTU1771, OTU2157) known to degrade complex carbohydrates [79], Phaselicystis sp. (OTU151) which appears to be distributed in soil samples containing decaying plant materials [80], an unknown genus within the Verrucomicrobia phylum (OTU679, OTU1362, OTU1883, OTU570, OTU1069, OTU959, OTU3594, OTU1413) known to have an abundance that is positively correlated with recalcitrant C compounds [81] and Pseudomonas sp. (OTU1435, OTU942, OTU41, OTU3, OTU596) which are ecological opportunists (r-strategist) [61]. Two fungal OTUs were enriched in the SBS treatment compared to the SS treatment. They were highly similar to Ramicandelaber sp. (OTU364) and Mortierella sp. (OTU2889) which belong to the phylum Zygomycota. Zygomycota are known to exhibit a wide range of functional capabilities and to degrade both labile and recalcitrant compounds [76,77]. Moreover, Ramicandelaber sp. and Mortierella sp. are usually saprophytic in soil [82] and Mortierella sp. are P-solubilizing fungi and have been shown to increase urease activity when inoculated in the rhizosphere of Malvaceae [83]. This involvement in the P and N cycles in the soil should have a positive effect on plant growth.

Output: corroborate


Input: Claim: Tree rings cannot be used to study past volcanic activity or environmental disturbances. [SEP] Text: The relative p3. 3 N Remobilization, Inter-ring Translocation and StemsMany studies explain well the fractionation along the length of trees, from root to stems and leaves (Yoneyama et al. 1998; Gebauer et al. 2000; Evans 2001). Briefly, after assimilation of N-species by trees, enzymatic functions transform NH4+ and NO3− into amino acids (Handley et al. 1998). As mentioned previously, these steps generally enrich the reactants in 15N and deplete the products (Yoneyama et al. 1998; Gebauer et al. 2000). Research efforts also indicated that deciduous trees store N in their bark and wood, whereas coniferous trees predominantly store N as photosynthetic proteins in their youngest needles. The remobilization of these amino acids is seasonal. During spring, deciduous trees transfer non-structural N compounds (arginine and asparagine) from twigs and coarse roots (and stems) to forming leaves (Bazot et al. 2013; Brereton et al. 2014). For instance, N proportion in twigs of oak trees decreases by 55% during that period. During summer, leaves are the dominant storage of N (>50% in June, compared to only 10% in stems; see also Sect. 12. 3. 1). During autumn, while leaves are shedding, storage begins in stems, coarse roots and twigs. For willow trees, the stems become a major N reserve (Brereton et al. 2014), a pool that new leaves will solicit later on. During spring, coniferous trees transfer N stored in their youngest needles to support new growth of leaves and stems (Millard and Proe 1993; Bauer et al. 2000; Krupa 2003; Millard and Grelet 2010; Couto-Vázquez and González-Prieto 2014). Translocation generates fractionation and systematically decreases δ15N values in old needles relative to young needles (Gebauer and Schulze 1991; Couto-Vázquez and González-Prieto 2010). In contrast, there is no systematic difference between recent and old tree rings as mentioned in Sect. 12. 2.

Output: contrast


Input: Claim: The impact craters on the Moon provide insights into the history of the solar system. [SEP] Text: At high shock pressures, when rocks must melt immediately behind the shock wave front, laboratory experiments demonstrate temporary overheating of the solid (Luo and Ahrens, 2004), once again emphasizing the importance of the kinetic aspects of describing the melting of rocks and minerals. Using existing models, we can only approximately simulate rock melting as an equilibrium process. The model used here assumes a smooth melting curve for each material, Tm(p), with melting temperature increasing monotonically with pressure (Collins et al. , 2004). In the absence of better models, we use the same value Tm(p) to estimate the decrease in rock strength as the material approaches solidus (Ohnaka, 1995). When simulating large-scale impact events, where the initial temperature increases with depth and the final position of the p2. 44 + 1)1/11. 4, proposed in (Presnall and Walter, 1993) for pressures below ~14 GPa (this relationship is written in the style of the SALE program (see Collins et al. , 2004), temperature is measured in K, pressure is measured in GPa). Another endmember olivine composition, fayalite, melts congruently to ~6 GPa (~200 km depth). Previously published experimental data can be interpolated (Akimoto et al. , 1967) with the Simon equation Tm = 1478(p/4. 1 + 1)1/4. 8. Olivines with intermediate Mg/Fe content do not melt congruently, which is not taken into account in our simple model. In addition, model peridotites have a large difference in solidus and liquidus temperatures (Jennings and Holland, 2015). We do not yet have a simple approach to modeling the melting and mechanical properties of multicomponent rocks near the melting curve. For a preliminary search for possible effects, we vary the melt temperature at zero pressure for the model “mantle” material in the range from ~1500 to 2000 K with pressure dependence Tm(p) in accordance with the experimental data given above. In the simulation results presented here, melting point is used primarily to describe the thermal softening of rock near the solidus.

Output: pass


Input: Claim: Decomposers like fungi and bacteria recycle organic matter, enriching soil fertility. [SEP] Text: Most of the enriched OTUs detected were linked to groups that contain known bacterial and fungal decomposers. ConclusionAfter seven weeks of incubation in soil microcosms, the biostimulant (BS) applied on the straw residues in the soil significantly improved the orgC mineralization, increased the soil microbial biomass and induced changes in both the soil bacterial and fungal communities. At the phylum level, the action of the BS was related to subtle changes in the composition of the soil indigenous bacterial and fungal communities presenting different functional strategies with regards to the use of soil carbon. However, no significant changes in the archaeal community could be identified. At the OTU level, some OTUs were enriched in the presence of the biostimulant and were identified as decomposers able to degrade both labile and more recalcitrant organic substrates suggesting that specific soil bacterial and fungal OTUs were recruited therefore leading to lowest soil microbial richness and diversity. To confirm this possible recruitment by the BS, further analyses using labelled 13C straw would be useful to identify the active microbial decomposers and to determine if the straw and BS inputs could have promoted a priming effect. These changes in the soil indigenous diversity induced by the BS might support the activator effect of the BS observed on soil OM mineralization. This cannot be attributed to either (i) the negligible orgC, total N contents of the BS, or (ii) the inoculation of specific microorganisms naturally present in the BS. Thus, the BS may act through other ways. Through its pH neutralizing effect, it may have induced changes in the bacterial and fungal communities, and/or through the supply of amino acids, micronutrients or growth factors that stimulate the microbial communities. Further dedicated analyses are needed to confirm this hypothesis. Supporting informationS1 Table. Number of remaining sequences and OTUs for bacteria, archaea and fungi after each steps of Frogs and pipelines for the 9 soil microcosms and the BS and straw samples (n = 6). S2 Table. Relative abundance and taxonomy affiliation of each enriched OTUs, in SBS compared to SS, in BS, straw and soil samples. BS: biostimulants samples, CS: control soil, SS: soil with straw, SBS: soil with straw and BS (<0. 05). S3 Table.

Output: corroborate


Input: Claim: Tree rings cannot be used to study past volcanic activity or environmental disturbances. [SEP] Text: The remobilization steps described above may largely explain why foliage and tree-ring δ15N trends in coniferous trees are different from broad-leave trees (Pardo et al. 2006; Gerhart and McLauchlan 2014; Tomlinson et al. 2015). For further assessing the impact of N mobility in stems on growth ring δ15N values, various research groups investigated the distribution of 15N after fertilization or misting labelled-N compounds (e. g. , Elhani et al. 2005; Tomlinson et al. 2014). In such studies, labelled N detected in rings predating and postdating the marking events, clearly indicate that rings include both C-bound and mobile N (not removable by sample pretreatments). However, in most cases, the 15N maximal contents always peak in rings of the marking years (Schleppi et al. 1999; Elhani et al. 2003, 2005; Tomlinson et al. 2014). These experiments indicate that the inter-ring translocation of N does not erase the record (direction and year of changes) of environmental events, but may minimize the extent of its isotopic impact. 4 Tree-Ring δ15N Responses to Changing Conditions4. 1 Physiological ChangesSome studies suggested that physiological functions, for instance lignification, may modify the δ15N values of rings with age of radiata, and proposed further experimentation in order to assess the validity of the hypothesis (Couto-Vázquez and González-Prieto 2010). Acer saccharum and Fagus grandifolia trees investigated for assessing the importance of potentially changing root depth with age on the evolution of δ15N values in leaves (and tree rings by extension) show no significant changes with age, but significant δ15N differences between root, stems and leaves, and averages between the two species (Pardo et al. 2013). These results suggest fractionation during transport and assimilation of N, and physiological differences between species. Such a finding agrees with former studies of temperate trees reporting a general increasing δ15N trend along the height of trees (Kolb and Evans 2002; Couto-Vázquez and González-Prieto 2010), with differences existing between species. 4.

Output: contrast


Input: Claim: The impact craters on the Moon provide insights into the history of the solar system. [SEP] Text: Calculation points 5—9 are taken from modeling results for homogeneous targets with dry friction and thermal softening (Ivanov and Kamyshenkov, 2012). Calculations with a friction coefficient of 0. 6 for U = 5 km/s: 5—spherical projectile; 6—elliptical projectile with a thickness of half the horizontal diameter; 7—friction 0. 6, ANEOS-quartzite target (Melosh, 2007), U = 20 km/s; 8—friction 0. 6, target—CaO (lime), U = 20 km/s; 9—the same as 8, but for U = 30 km/s; and 10—the present paper. Full size imageFig. 6. Calculation points for the depth of the transient crater in a homogeneous target with dry friction (Ivanov and Kamyshenkov, 2012) in comparison with the results of this paper. The same designations are used as in Fig. 5. 1—Generalized dependence on the depth scale of a transition crater in a homogeneous target without strength (Schmidt and Housen, 1987). 2—Calculated dependence for low-velocity impacts on a target with dry friction (Ivanov and Kamyshenkov, 2012). 3—Generalized experimental dependence of the depth of craters in dry sand (Schmidt and Housen, 1987). Full size imageIn this paper, the model considers a layered target (crust over mantle), where the presence of a denser underlying layer can increase the effective density of the target as the transition crater penetrates the denser mantle. After this warning, we present a plot of the model dimensionless diameter of the transition crater in Fig. 5. Dependences for the dimensionless depth of the transient crater are shown in Fig. 6 in comparison with data of Ivanov and Kamyshenkov (2012). Figures 5 and 6 show that for impacts with low velocity (U = 5 km/s), the dependences of transient depths and diameters of model craters to scale on graphs with a double logarithmic scale look like approximately parallel straight lines with interpolation of experimental data for dry sand (Schmidt, 1987; Schmidt and Housen, 1987).

Output: pass


Input: Claim: Decomposers like fungi and bacteria recycle organic matter, enriching soil fertility. [SEP] Text: Services on 10. 4067/S0718-95162013005000047 Plant and soil characteristics affected by biofertilizers from rocks and organic matter inoculated with diazotrophic bacteria and fungi that produce chitosan L. R. Berger1, N. P. Stamford1, C. E. R. S. Santos1, A. D. S. Freitas1, L. O. Franco1, T. C. M. Stamford1. 1Department of Agronomy, Rural of Pernambuco, 52171-900, Recife, Pernambuco, Brazil. *Corresponding author: [email protected] aim of this study was to evaluate the effectiveness of a mixed biofertilizer with phosphate and potash rocks (PK biofertilizer) combined with an earthworm compound inoculated with free living diazotrophic bacteria and Cunninghamella elegans, fungi that produces chitosan, on cowpea nodulation, biomass yield and nutrient uptake. The effects of some chemical attributes from an acidic soil of the were also studied. The treatments were as follows: a) biofertilizer enriched in N by free living diazotrophic bacteria(NPKB), applying crustaceous chitosan (ChCru) at a rate 2 mg mL-1. ; b) NPKB and ChCru at a rate 4 mg mL-1. ; c) NPKB and ChCru at a rate 6 mg mL-1. ; d) NPKB and fungi chitosan (ChFu, 2 mg mL-1); e) NPKB+C. elegans (NPKP); f) NPKB without chitosan; g) mineral fertilizers (NPKF); and h) control without NPK fertilizer and chitosan. Biofertilizer treatments increased cowpea nodules biomass, shoot biomass, and total N, P, and K in the shoots. The largest increase was obtained with ChCru, and the highest rate was obtained with NPKP. Furthermore, biofertilizers reduced soil pH and increased the total N and available P and K. These results reveal the potential of rock biofertilizer mixed with earthworm compound inoculated with free living diazotrophic bacteria and C.

Output: corroborate


Input: Claim: Tree rings cannot be used to study past volcanic activity or environmental disturbances. [SEP] Text: 2 Regional and Global ClimateBased on the concepts explored in the former sections, in theory climatic conditions can imprint the δ15N values transferred to tree rings. Namely, temperature and precipitation variations may modify the soil bioavailable N pools through changes in organic matter degradation, ammonification and nitrification rates, functions of EcM communities, and depth of drawing available soil water and N species (Savard et al. 2009; Courty et al. 2010; Durán et al. 2016). Such changes modify the overall isotopic signal of bioavailable N, which will reverberate in the δ15N values of trees. Indeed, several studies have linked foliar δ15N results from various species of trees with precipitation, showing either direct or inverse correlations depending on the amounts of precipitation considered (Pardo et al. 2006; and 12. 3. 3). Such attempt for quantitative climatic –isotopic correspondence at this resolution may fail. However, tree-ring δ15N series may record low-frequency climate variability. This proposition is supported by a recent investigation of δ15N series in six and ten Picea glauca trees from two Canadian sites (Savard et al. 2020). The results indicate that short-term variations (<7 years) show no inter-tree coherence, whereas middle- (7–15 years) to long-term (>15 years) isotopic changes show strong coherence, encouraging their use as an environmental indicator. One option that may deserve further testing is to pass running averages through long tree-ring δ15N series, and evaluate their correlations with similarly treated climatic series (Savard et al. 2009; similarly treated for global climatic changes, see Sect. 12. 4. 3—cause number 4). As can be seen, climatic tree-ring δ15N studies require further exploration considering that climatic effects may interplay with anthropogenic impacts, and that improved knowledge on that front may help deciphering intricate δ15N responses of trees to intrinsic and extrinsic triggers. 4. 3 Anthropogenic ImpactsThere are four main reasons why anthropogenic N emissions are expected to affect the δ15N values in rings of specific species of trees. (1) Shifts in signals in N forms assimilated by trees through addition of large anthropogenic N loads with isotopic ratios markedly different from natural N isotopic abundance.

Output: contrast


Input: Claim: The impact craters on the Moon provide insights into the history of the solar system. [SEP] Text: In this version, a three-layer target model is used—the upper crust (dark gray tone), the lower crust (lighter tone), and the mantle (darker tone deeper than 50 km). Fig. 7. Deformation and movement of material in the central part of a model crater on the scale of the crater Vrederfort. The distances along the axes are given in km. The time after impact is indicated above each figure. Full size imageFigure 7 illustrates that the transient crater for an impact of this size (depth and diameter of about 30–40 km) is large enough for the crustal rocks to move back to the center during gravitational collapse and push up most of the impact melt that was initially “smeared” across the bottom of the transition crater. During collapse, the future horizon after impact erosion reaches its final position approximately 180 s after impact, and subsequent motion is concentrated in the collapsing central uplift (see studies of central uplift collapse in Morgan et al. , 2016; Baker et al. , 2016). Using the same set of model parameters as in the crater Vredefort formation model described above, we increased the size of the projectile by a factor of 2 and 4 (the corresponding models are named 2 × V and 4 × V), correspondingly increasing the size of the computational cell at a constant resolution of 20 CPPR (20 cells per projectile diameter). Here a new problem for modeling arises—can we assume that the model of temporary reduction of dry friction due to acoustic fluidization (AF model, Melosh and Ivanov, 1999) works for deep mantle rocks in the same way as for crystalline crustal rocks? More generally, is our modeling experience applicable to reproducing the temporary reduction in dry friction around a nascent impact crater for deep mantle rocks at higher pressures and temperatures? Without a clear answer to this question, we started with two versions of the models—with and without the use of the AF model for mantle rocks. The model results for options 2 × V and 4 × V are presented in Figs. 8–10. Modelling with a projectile doubled in diameter (2 × V, Fig. 8) show the absence of impact melt in the mantle. The use of the AF model for the mantle affects the geometry of the mantle uplift, but does not affect the main result of doubling the size of the projectile—the appearance of a deep, melt-filled neck in the center of the crater.

Output: pass


Input: Claim: Decomposers like fungi and bacteria recycle organic matter, enriching soil fertility. [SEP] Text: elegans (fungi chitosan) for plant production and nutrient uptake. The biofertilizer may be an alternative for NPK fertilization that slows the release of nutrients, favoring longterm soil fertility. Keywords: Biopolymer, free living diazotrophic bacteria, Cunninghamella elegans, nitrogen fixation, Vigna unguiculata 1. growing world population and demand for fertilizers have led to changes in agricultural cropping systems and intensified the use of new techniques to produce maximum yields from field crops. The use of legume species is of great importance because they may provide nitrogen to the system through N2 fixation and supply nitrogen without the application of mineral fertilizers (Kuhn, 2007). Soil acidity is one of the most important factors that requires consideration, especially because of the effects of increased exchangeable aluminum on the nutrient uptake reduces the soil's pH, which negatively affects nutrient availability (Stamford et al. , 2008). Several studies conducted on acidic soil from rainforest regions have shown that plant yield is reduced as a function of acidity. These studies indicated that it is controlling this specific problem will improve the productivity and quality of crops (Stamford et al. , 2007, 2008). Biofertilizers produced with P and K rocks that are sulfur inoculated with oxidizing bacteria that produces sulfuric acid (et al. , 2006) contributes to reduced soil pH. Therefore, it is necessary to use organic matter with high pH to control the acidic effects of rock biofertilizers (Lima et al. , 2010). Studies carried out in tableland soil from the reported that sulfur inoculated with Acidithiobacillus is a promising material for soil fertilization because it releases P and K from rock minerals, which reduces the nutrient deficiency of acidic soils used to grow different crops (Stamford et al. , 2008, Lima et al. , 2007, Moura et al. , 2007). The incorporation of organic matter increases the microbiological activity and enhances the physical and chemical conditions of soil. However, in many cases, these materials contain low concentrations of N. Biological nitrogen fixation (BNF) is one of the most fundamental processes used to supply N to the soil, especially in combination with organic matter (Lima et al. , 2010).

Output: corroborate


Input: Claim: Tree rings cannot be used to study past volcanic activity or environmental disturbances. [SEP] Text: (2) Change in N availability of the forest ecosystem due to high anthropogenic N supply relative to demands, modifying the overall soil N isotopic contents. (3) Modifications of the overall soil microbial structure and related N dynamics having an impact on the signal of N assimilated by stems under moderate anthropogenic N deposition. (4) Global change (climate and pCO2) interplaying with one or a combination of the former causes. In the first case, much of the N in trees derives from the inorganic soil N pool (NH4+ and NO3−), which forms only a small portion of the total soil N, but that has δ15N signals that may vary with changes in environmental conditions, particularly with enhanced N deposition from anthropogenic emissions. After transition of N contaminants in the soil compartments, trees assimilate anthropogenic N through roots, or root N possibly combines in stems with anthropogenic N transiting through leaves. Key studies have invoked changes in the isotopic signals of assimilated N to account for shifts in tree-ring δ15N values (Saurer et al. 2004; Savard et al. 2009). However, determining the cause of changes in tree-ring δ15N series is possible only when N deposits chronically and in abundance, from a dominant source with δ15N values deviate significantly from soil N, and if the other potential causes for change do not blur this effect. In the second case, increased N deposition in temperate and boreal forest ecosystems may cause acidification of soils, and nutrient nitrogen imbalances in trees (Aber et al. 1998; Högberg et al. 2007). The soil N status may pass from semi-closed to open, if a high N supply exceeds demands. Such a forest soil would see a high rate of 15N-poor nitrate loss through leaching, increasing the overall δ15N values of the residual pool (Fig. 12. 2). The chronic exposure of a forest to such a rate of N input would generate a long-term δ15N increase in tree rings. In contrast, a decrease of anthropogenic N supply would generate a decrease in long-term tree-ring δ15N series in the recovering forests. This interpretation explains the declining δ15N series over 75 years in Picea rubens trees of the central Appalachians (Mathias and Thomas 2018).

Output: contrast


Input: Claim: The impact craters on the Moon provide insights into the history of the solar system. [SEP] Text: Fig. 8. The final (~18 min after impact) cross-section of the model crater for an projectile with twice the diameter (relative to the Vredefort crater projectile) (model V × 2, Dpr = 28 km, and U = 15 km/s), calculated without using the AF model (acoustic fluidization model) in the mantle (a) and using this model (b). The position of the impact melt is indicated in pink. Other color variations reflect different levels of rock damage (Collins et al. , 2004). Horizontal and vertical distances are in km. Full size imageFig. 9. Final (~18 min after impact) cross-section of a model crater for quadruple (relative to the Vredefort crater projectile) projectile diameter (denoted 4 × V, Dpr = 57 km, and U = 15 km/s) calculated without using the acoustic fluidization model for mantle material (a) and using this model (b). Other color variations reflect different levels of rock damage (Collins et al. , 2004). Horizontal and vertical distances are in km. Full size imageFig. 10. Profiles of model craters for options 2 × V (a) and 4 × V (b) with high vertical magnification to show the relatively shallow depth (~1. 5 and ~3 km, respectively) of the final craters with apparent diameters of ~300 and ~500 km. Small graduations on the vertical axis correspond to the sizes of the calculation cells Δx = 0. 7 km (2 × V option) and Δx = 1. 4 km (4 × V option). The profiles in panels (a) and (b) correspond to calculations using the model of acoustic fluidization in the mantle (1) and without using it (2). Full size imageThe next doubling of the projectile size to 56 km (4 × V) at the same impact velocity and the same target structure leads to impact melting of the mantle and an increase in the volume of the melt “lake” in the center of the crater (Fig. 9). Here, the influence of turning on/off AF effects in the mantle material is even less noticeable than in the 2 × V variant as increased lithostatic pressure and temperature lead to plastic behavior of the mantle material even without an additional decrease in dry friction associated with acoustic fluidization.

Output: pass


Input: Claim: Decomposers like fungi and bacteria recycle organic matter, enriching soil fertility. [SEP] Text: The natural rock P and K biofertilizer was analyzed using the (A) Mehlich 1 and (B) an extraction using citric acid (2 g kg-1) methods, according to Embrapa, (2009), yielding the following results: (P biofertilizer)-pH = 3. 8, available P (A) = 60 (g kg-1) and (B) = 48 (g kg-1); (K biofertilizer-BK)- pH = 3. 3, available K (A) = 10 (g kg-1) and (B) = 5 (g kg-1). 2. 2. Production of biofertilizer with free living diazotrophic bacteria and C. elegans The organic biofertilizer was produced by applying the selected free living bacteria to the earthworm compound. The isolate (NFB 1001) was cultured in LG liquid media (50 mL) in 125 mL Erlenmeyer flasks, shaken (180 rpm) for 96 h at ±28 °C and applied at 100 mL per tray, according to Lima et al. (2010). After inoculation, the trays were incubated for 30 days at 28 ±5 °C. The humidity was maintained near the water holding capacity using distilled water, according to Stamford et al. (2008). Samples were collected, and the total N content was determined by the Kjeldhal method, using the Kjeltec auto analyzer (1030 Model). Chemical analysis of the earthworm compound revealed the following: pH 7. 15, organic carbon 100. 7 g kg-1, total N 8. 6 g kg-1, total sulfur 2. 98 g kg-1 and total P 11. 2 g kg-1. The earthworm compound (3 dm3) and the PK biofertilizers (1 dm3) were mixed to produce the biofertilizer (NPKB). After the production of the biofertilizer (NPKB), we added a micelial biomass of the Mucorales fungi, Cunninghamella elegans (UCP 542), which produce sufficient chitin (140 mg g-1) and chitosan (80 mg g-1) in the cellular wall, as reported by Franco et al. (2004).

Output: corroborate


Input: Claim: Tree rings cannot be used to study past volcanic activity or environmental disturbances. [SEP] Text: In the third case, a combination of modified biogeochemical processes under low to moderate long-term exposure to anthropogenic N inputs alters the overall signal of soil N species prior to their assimilation by trees. On a theoretical basis, one can conceive that microbial communities in forest soils with very low N availability (<1 kg/ha/y) will quickly adapt to enhanced input and chronic exposure to anthropogenic N. As mentioned in Sect. 12. 3. 2, in such conditions, existing EcM communities may thrive or shift in terms of diversity, and rates of bacterial N transformation may change. A study of four different deciduous species of trees in Indiana (USA), found long-term increasing and decreasing δ15N trends explained by species-specific p2. Further along this line, at the global scale, rising atmospheric CO2 may have generated decreasing foliage and tree-ring δ15N trends through the last 150 years due to prolonged growing seasons, increased photosynthesis and overall enhanced plant-N demands, ultimately lowering the terrestrial N availability (Craine et al. 2019). To summarize, tree-ring series may record changes in the forest N cycle or reflect successive N-cycling patterns, but the potential causes for these changes are complex and rigorous interpretations require excellent knowledge of the setting in which trees are growing. Given the attenuated nature of the isotopic changes due to intra-tree N remobilization and intricate enzymatic fractionations along the assimilation path within trees, attempts to quantify anthropogenic impacts on the forest N cycle using tree rings or leaves could be scant. On a more positive note, recognizing and dating perturbations of the forest N cycle using tree-ring δ15N series appears achievable. 4. 4 Other ApplicationsThe literature also documents several applications other than the ones presented in Sects. 12. 4. 1, 12. 4. 2 and 12. 4. 3. For tropical and N2-fixing trees, the reader can consult Craine et al. (2015). Boreal wetland and tropical trees emit N2O (Rusch and Rennenberg 1998; Welch et al. 2019), a process significant for understanding the global N cycling, for which δ15N results in stems and emitted gasses may turn useful. Moreover, tree-ring δ15N applications exist on effects of wild fires (Cook 2002; Beghin et al. 2011; Hyodo et al.

Output: contrast


Input: Claim: The impact craters on the Moon provide insights into the history of the solar system. [SEP] Text: Note that during the estimated ~1000 s, the motion of matter in the molten zone still does not stop. And we can observe the slow gravitational separation of the molten crustal material of lower density and the denser melt of the mantle matter. For this scale of impact event, the final geometry of the melt zone will be established after prolonged thermal cooling, with possible differentiation of new rocks crystallizing from the impact melt. In Fig. 10 we compare the profiles of model craters for the model variants shown in Figs. 8 and 9. In Fig. 10, the interval of graduating marks on the vertical axis is equal to the size of the calculation cell to emphasize the approximate nature of the obtained profiles. The final crater profile is covered by only 5–8 vertical computational cells, which leads to low spatial resolution regarding the “accurate” shape of the crater. Within the current spatial resolution limitations, we can only state that the simulated craters have a flat bottom (±1 cell undulations), a depth of 2 to 3 km, and a crater rim raised 2. 5 to 3 km above the level of the original target surface. In general, the crater geometry obtained in the model does not contradict the available information on large impact structures on the Moon, Venus, Mars, and Mercury (Figs. 1–3). (and possibly other planetary bodies), the observed modern topography may differ from the model geometry immediately after the impact due to slow processes such as viscous relaxation (Karimi and Dombard, 2017). is believed that large eroded structures would be found on a geologically active Earth (Plado et al. , 1999). Therefore, the main interest is to identify initially deep impact structures that can be exposed by erosion. The rate of erosion for the two largest impact structures (Vredefort and Sudbury) is estimated to be 6–8 km within ~2 Ga after their formation (Ivanov, 2005). On the modern erosional cross-section we see mainly impact-altered rocks raised from initial depths of the order of 1/10 D and the remains of the original impact melt basin (severely deformed by post-impact tectonics). For the 2 × V and 4 × V scale impacts studied, we gain some insight into the possible position of the impact melt, since in these cases the modeled position of the impact melt indicates a larger melt pool depth. Volume of melt.

Output: pass


Input: Claim: Mycorrhizal fungi improve water and nutrient uptake for plants in nutrient-poor soils. [SEP] Text: -19 PreprintsProtocolsVideosJournalsTools & a 10. 21203/rs. 3. rs-2321445/v1This work is licensed under a CC BY 4. 0 LicenseStatus:Published05 Apr, 2023Read the published version in Plant and Soil →Version 1posted 5You are reading this latest preprint versionAbstractPurpose: In the scenario of an increased atmospheric CO2 concentration, nutrients are reduced in all vegetables. In this context, arbuscular mycorrhizal fungi (AMF) could enhance nutrient concentration in edible portions of plants, including tomato. However, field studies on tomato AMF inoculation are scarse. AMF species belonging to Gigasporaceae and Glomeraceae families known to vary in life-history strategies may determine differential effects on plant nutrient benefits and residue decomposition. Despite this, the effect of different life-history strategies on nutrient acquisition of tomato fruits has not yet been investigated. Methods: We studied the effect of inoculation of two tomato varieties with AMF belonging to Glomeraceae and Gigasporaceae. Fungal establishment, yield, fruit nutrient concentration, litter decomposition, and bacterial and fungal abundances in soil were assessed in a two-year field trial under organic agriculture. Results: promoted the concentration of nutrients in tomato fruits compared to Glomeraceae. A variability in AM fungal colonization and fruit nutrient concentration occurred within Glomeraceae. Scutellospora pellucida increased the yield (+27%) of var. respect to Gigaspora gigantea. In var. Rio Grande, Funneliformis mosseae determined a litter degradation similar to controls and lower than Sclerocystis sinuosa and Gigasporaceae species, which showed the highest decomposition rates. AMF inoculation promoted soil total bacterial and fungal abundance and fungal:bacterial (F:B) ratio compared to controls, and members of Gigasporaceae had the highest F:B ratio. Conclusion: These findings strongly support that AM fungal life-history strategy should be considered in biofertilizer development to enhance the nutritional value of vegetables under organic farming systems.

Output: corroborate


Input: Claim: Tree rings cannot be used to study past volcanic activity or environmental disturbances. [SEP] Text: 2012), clear cutting (Pardo et al. 2002; Bukata and Kyser 2005), and bird nesting (Mizota 2009; Holdaway et al. 2010; Larry et al. 2010). Understandably, researchers should select sites devoid of these perturbations in order to achieve meaningful results and refine our understanding of climatic and anthropogenic influences on tree-ring δ15N series. 5 Studies dealing with the assimilation of N through either leaves or roots have mostly operated independently, with root assimilation experiments disregarding the potential foliar assimilation, and vice versa. As a consequence, the proportions of N in stems contributed from the foliar and rooting systems still need resolving even if these proportions are highly pertinent for relating tree-ring δ15N values to mechanistic processes and environmental changes. As with ice cores, lakes sediments and skeletal corals reflecting complex and irrefutable anthropogenic impacts on the atmospheric, aquatic, and marine N cycling, tree-ring series likely represent another natural archive offering potential for unravelling impacts on forest N cycling. Although each archival system potentially offers many applications, in all cases the interplaying mechanisms responsible for changes through time need to be further constrained. With trees, difficulties arise from the requirement to have an excellent understanding of soil conditions to interpret tree-ring trends adequately. Further research should address the knowledge gaps on the steps of fractionation of individual bioavailable N forms in the soil compartments. Similarly, the role of EcM should be explored as it might be effective or non-effective during the transfer of N forms to roots under the broad ranges of existing soil conditions. Tree-ring studies seldom involve the investigation of the full spectrum of N transformations in the air–soil-tree continuum. However, such an interdisciplinary approach may solve several questions regarding the extrinsic controls on tree-ring δ15N changes, perhaps with the combination of running well-adapted models of soil N budgets.

Output: contrast


Input: Claim: The impact craters on the Moon provide insights into the history of the solar system. [SEP] Text: In the presented simulation, we estimated the volume of the impact melt as the total volume of computational cells with a final temperature above the solidus of the target material. Some of the molten p0. 0007–0. 0014) × D3. 3 (volume is in km3 and diameter is in km), where the uncertainty in the numerical coefficient reflects the possibility of ejection of part of the melt outside the central region (Werner and Ivanov, 2015). Fig. 11. Estimation of the volumes of impact melt in known terrestrial meteorite craters from the work (Cintala and Grieve, 1998): 1—observations, 2—maximum estimates, and 3—model results of this paper. Solid and dotted trend lines are described in the text. Full size image“Hot rod. ” Comparing model impacts with a basic scale of 1 × V (1 × Vredefort, Fig. 7) and impacts with a twofold and fourfold increased diameter of possible projectiles (2 × V, Fig. 8; and 4 × V, Fig. 9), we note the main observable effect: in larger craters, the uplift collapse of the transition crater floor does not push the impact melt upward, creating a shallow melt pool surrounding the central ridge in well-preserved craters such as the Boltyshsky crater, Ukraine (Valter et al. , 1982; Grieve et al. , 1987). Instead, the impact melt is “squeezed” by the rocks of the collapsing transition crater, forming a relatively narrow vertical region of molten material—a “hot stock. ”The idea of a “hot rod,” or a vertical throat filled with melt, at the center of a collapsed transition crater, was proposed by Senft and Stewart (2011) for craters on icy bodies. Our model reproduces a similar mechanism for stone bodies. When the volume of impact-molten rocks becomes comparable to the volume of the transition crater, the movement of rocks during crater collapse “captures” the impact melt near the vertical central axis and the rise of the crater bottom does not have time to push all the melt onto the surface of the central mountain, which occurs in models of the formation of craters with a diameter of <200 km.

Output: pass


Input: Claim: Mycorrhizal fungi improve water and nutrient uptake for plants in nutrient-poor soils. [SEP] Text: biofertilizationarbuscular mycorrhizal fungisingle isolate inoculumcrop yieldnutrient uptakeslitter bagsbiofertilizationarbuscular mycorrhizal fungisingle isolate inoculumcrop yieldnutrient uptakeslitter bagsFiguresFigure 1Figure 2Figure 3Figure 4Figure 5Figure 6Figure 7IntroductionTomato (Solanum lycopersicum L. ) is the second most important vegetable in the world, after potato (database, average period 2011–2020; and one of the most studied fleshy fruits (Singh et al. 2021). Tomato fruits are nutrient dense and represent an important source of health-promoting compounds (Chaudhary et al. 2018; Dorais et al. 2008). Due to their importance in human health, the study of sustainable approaches, such as plant microbial biostimulants (González-González et al. 2020; Sharma et al. 2017) to improve the production and nutritional value of tomato is of great relevance to producers as well as consumers (Baulcombe et al. 2009). This is especially true in the recent scenario of “hidden hunger” due to shortage of micronutrients in crops that has been determined by several factors, among which plant breeding, agronomic management and the increase of atmospheric CO2 (Gruda 2005; Myers et al. 2014; Scharff et al. 2022). Indeed, elevated atmospheric CO2 concentrations have been shown to strongly reduce nutrient concentrations (e. g. , and Zn) in almost all staple crops (Gojon et al. 2022) and vegetables (Dong et al. 2018), including tomato (Tripp et al. 1991; Pimenta et al. 2022). Beneficial microorganisms, such as arbuscular mycorrhizal fungi (AMF) could represent an important tool for enhancing tomato yield and mineral nutrient concentration (e. g. , Coccina et al. 2019; Hart et al. 2015; Lehmann et al. 2014; Lehmann and Rillig 2015; Pellegrino et al. 2020), since they promote plant nutrient acquisition also under elevated atmospheric CO2 concentrations (Baslam et al. 2012; Terrer et al. 2021).

Output: corroborate


Input: Claim: Tree rings cannot be used to study past volcanic activity or environmental disturbances. [SEP] Text: AbstractTree-ring studies in the and in regions characterized by Mediterranean climates are scarce because of a lack of old trees and difficulties related to the clear identification of individual rings. You have full access to this open access 21. 1), which help to reconstruct past climate and retrospectively assess tree responses to the environment (McCarrol and Loader 2004). The values of the isotopic ratios reflect the extent to which the heavier isotope is discriminated compared to the lighter one during the physical and chemical processes involved in the synthesis of plant organic matter (Farquhar et al. 1989). Table 21. 1 Summary of the main aim and outcomes of studies measuring stable isotopes in Mediterranean tree rings. 21. 1). The main factors leading to the formation of Mediterranean-type climates are air circulation, latitude, topography, and the surface temperature of the surrounding water. Fig. 21. 1a Map of the showing locations of stable isotope tree-ring studies. The main findings of these studies are summarized in Table 21. 1. Background map showing Mediterranean climates according to Köppen classification. b and Lieth climate diagrams depicting the climate of two typical Mediterranean areas. Lower diagram: Capri (an island in the Tirrenic sea); upper diagram: Tramonti, at a higher altitude (period 1960–2010). c A few examples of Mediterranean species. Clockwise from top left: Pinus halepensis Mill of southern Spain; Quercus ilex L from southern Italy; Euphorbia dendroides L. : winter habitus and summer habitusFull size image2. 1 and VegetationMediterranean plants are adapted to this climate and cope with summer drought through several changes at the phenological, morphological, physiological,or biochemical levels (Pignatti 2008). These adaptations influence all relevant ecophysiological processes, i. e. , transpiration and carbon assimilation, as well as the isotopic signal imprinted in plant organic matter. Hence, the isotopic composition of the wood material of Mediterranean trees reflects their functionality and adaptation strategies. To cope with drought stress, two main strategies are observed in Mediterranean plants: avoidance and tolerance (Pignatti 2008). Many species survive summer drought by avoiding it through summer dormancy. This strategy is adopted by annual and perennial herbs and by woody species. Annual herbs have a very short life cycle that starts in late winter so that fruits are mature at the beginning of summer.

Output: contrast


Input: Claim: The impact craters on the Moon provide insights into the history of the solar system. [SEP] Text: : Planets, 2023, vol. 128, no. 8, p. e2023JE007823. Artemieva, I. M. and Shulgin, A. , Making and altering the crust: A global perspective on crustal structure and evolution, Earth Planet. Sci. Lett. , 2019, vol. 512, 16. 163. 131. 244. 647. 2036. Cammarano, F. and Guerri, M. , Global thermal models of the lithosphere, Geophys. J. Int. , 2017, vol. 210, no. 1, 72. 912. 8441. 2619. 2664. Collins, G. S. , Melosh, H. J. , and Ivanov, B. A. , Modeling damage and deformation in impact simulations, Meteorit. Planet. Sci. , 2004, vol. 39, no. 2, 231. 515. 731. 410. 5249. ADS 210. 23. 1230. 338. 62. 5375. 683. 2777. Huber, M. S. , Kovaleva, E. , Rae, A. S. P. , Tisato, N. , and Gulick, S. P. S. , impact structures be discovered? A case study from Earth’s largest, most deeply eroded impact structure, J. Geophys. Res. : Planets, 2023, vol. 128, no. 8, p. e2022JE007721. Ivanov, B. A. , Numerical modeling of the largest terrestrial meteorite craters, Sol. Syst. Res. , 2005, vol. 39, 409. 630. 430. 690. Ivanov, B. A. and Kamyshenkov, D. , Impact cratering: Scaling law and thermal softening, Lunar and Planet. Sci. Conf. 43, 2012, p. 1407. Ivanov, B. A. and Melosh, H. J. , Impacts do not initiate volcanic eruptions: Eruptions close to the crater, Geology, 2003, vol. 31, no. 10, 872. 49. 1284. Jennings, E. S. and Holland, T. J. B.

Output: pass


Input: Claim: Mycorrhizal fungi improve water and nutrient uptake for plants in nutrient-poor soils. [SEP] Text: Arbuscular mycorrhizal fungi (AMF, phylum Glomeromycota, Tedersoo et al. 2018) are beneficial microbial symbionts, ubiquitous in natural and agricultural ecosystems (Brundrett and Tedersoo 2018). They establish a symbiosis with the majority of plant species in terrestrial environments (ca. 67% of plant species) (Bueno et al. 2019; Maherali et al. 2016), supplying mineral nutrients to the plants (mainly P) in exchange for photosynthetically fixed carbon (C) (from 4–20% of the photosynthates) in the form of lipids as well as sugar (Bago et al. 2000; Jiang et al. 2017; Luginbuehl et al. 2017). Carbon-mineral exchanges between host and fungus occur through arbuscules, namely highly branched fungal structures present in cortical root cells (Parniske 2008). These fungi represent fundamental factors of plant productivity (Pellegrino et al. 2015; Zhang et al. 2019) since they are capable, through their extraradical mycelium, to promote plant uptake and translocation of nutrients (e. g. , P, Fe, Zn, Cu and Mn) (Lehmann et al. 2014; Lehmann and Rillig 2015) and to mediate their transfer among plants linked by a common mycorrhizal network (Cardini et al. 2021; Javot et al. 2007; Jin et al. 2005; van der Heijden and Horton 2009). The effect of AM fungal inoculation on AM fungal root colonization, plant growth, and nutrient acquisition (P, Fe, Cu and Zn in shoot and roots; Ca, K, P, and Zn in fruits) in different varieties of tomato has been well documented in microcosm, also under low and moderate salinity stress (e. g. , Al-Karaki et al. 2000, 2001; Giovannetti et al. 2012; Hart et al. 2015). In pot conditions, tomato yield was unaffected or positively or negatively affected by AM fungal inoculation, applying distinct AM fungal species (Giovannetti et al. 2012; Hart et al. 2015). Similarly, fruit N concentration was unaffected or positively affected, according to the identity of the inoculated AM fungus (Hart et al. 2015).

Output: corroborate


Input: Claim: Tree rings cannot be used to study past volcanic activity or environmental disturbances. [SEP] Text: 2016), stable isotopes within tree rings (on tree-ring sub-sections, Klein et al. 2005; in continuum by laser ablation, Battipaglia et al. 2010a, b; 2014a) and a combination of methodologies (Zalloni et al. 2018, 2019; Balzano et al. 2018; Castagneri et al. 2018). 4 Carbon and Isotopes in of Mediterranean Species4. 1 Mediterranean species, which grow in climates characterized by summer drought and wet periods during the growing season, show wood structure adjustments that are mostly related to the need to maintain high conductivity when water is available, and to prevent xylem embolism when dry conditions occur (Cherubini et al. 2003; and Aronne 2012; Meinzer et al. 2010; Sperry et al. 2008). Tree-ring formation is therefore directly influenced by these adjustment processes and carbon stable isotopes can investigate the link between xylem hydraulic properties and the related physiological mechanisms. Water shortage negatively influences carboxylation rates by reducing the CO2 concentration in the gaseous spaces within the plant (Ci) due to stomata closure, causing a decrease in carbon isotope discrimination (Farquhar et al. 1989; Scheidegger et al. 2000). Many studies conducted in Mediterranean climates have shown that plants growing under water stress (stress induced by low soil water content and high evaporative atmospheric demand) produce tree-rings with higher δ13C (Ferrio et al. 2003; Battipaglia et al. 2010a; Maseyk et al. 2011). However, leaf water availability ultimately influences tree-ring δ13C. This availability is a consequence not only of soil water content, but also of the physical structure and hydraulic resistance along the plant xylem and the way the plant transports and uses water (e. g. leaf phenology) (Masle and Farquhar 1988; Warren and Adams 2000). Further, tree δ13C is influenced by the leaf-to-air vapour pressure deficit (VPD), which is the driving force for transpiration. Studies on isotope-climate relationships have shown that mean annual precipitation controls carbon discrimination (Δ13C) in several forest ecosystem types (Schulze et al. 1998; Diefendorf et al.

Output: contrast