Input: Claim: Taking breaks from social media can have positive effects on mental health. [SEP] Text: (Female, 19–20)Use as HabitualA common behavior reported by most participants was using their cell phones upon waking up or early in their day. Scrolling through various social media platforms upon waking up became a behavior. The amount of time they spent on the platforms upon waking up varied across participants and some stated negative outcomes associated with the behavior including observing posts that caused concern and impacted the rest of their day. I always check social media probably first thing the morning. . . The whole inflammatory situation. . . you wake up you check your phone, you see. . . posts about, I don’t know whether it’s COVID cases rising. . . political issues or something. . . and those issues. . . get you inflamed for the morning and for the rest of the day. . . you only think about that. I think that’s a very negative impact. (Male, 19–20)Participants also reported using social media consistently throughout the day and feeling a sense of urgency to check their social media platforms often. They acknowledged that the tendency was habitual, stating that often there was no reason to check their social media platforms; they simply felt a strong desire to open the app regardless of the situation. Even during class, you know like I find myself leaning towards wanting to go on my phone, like you just feel like you have tendencies to just—even if you know there is nothing happening, I just feel like I need to just unlock my phone and just see the app. Even if it’s for five seconds I just have—like it just scratches an itch in my brain. (Non-binary, 19–20)Inability to FocusParticipants spoke of the time investment involved in using social media. Many reported using social media for extended periods of time, while lacking awareness of their usage. Participants acknowledged the ease of which social media passes time and how hours could pass while scrolling without them noticing. I noticed from when I would go on it, I would be on it for like hours and time would pass and I would be like, oh, what just happened? I just went on, just eating dinner and now it’s like nine o’clock. (Non-binary, 19–20)The time investment of using social media negatively impacted the productivity of the participants and they found it to be stressful. Participants reported the lack of productivity affecting their schoolwork primarily.

Output: contrast


Input: Claim: Nosema ceranae is a microsporidian parasite affecting honeybee health and productivity. [SEP] Text: 3% of the variance) of the 274 haplotypes, whatever their frequency, representing 43 coding markers from the SWIO isolates. (e) PCA (56. 1% of the variance) of the 362 haplotypes, whatever their frequency, representing 29 non-coding markers from the SWIO isolates. (f) PCA (68. 4% of the variance) of the 142 haplotypes, whatever their frequency, representing 11 microsatellites markers from the SWIO isolates. Full size imageAlthough clonal control did not show any sequence variation, some rare haplotypes may still be originated from amplification or sequencing errors36. In order to rule out any bias, the same analyses were performed removing all rare haplotypes (Fig. 4c). An almost identical distribution was observed, demonstrating that the structure of the parasite population is poorly affected by rare haplotypes. Thus, at this scale of deep multilocus sequencing, the artifactual or technical variations of the haplotypes that may have occurred did not change the observed structure. As coding and non-coding regions may be submitted to different evolutionary processes, PCAs were also performed separately on the coding markers (Fig. 4d), the non-coding markers (including microsatellites, Fig. 4e) and on microsatellites only (Fig. 4f). While the isolates distribution varied, groups were mostly maintained, showing that both coding and non-coding regions, including microsatellites only, allowed structuring populations. NJ clustering showed that all Reunion island and one Seychellois isolates were grouped together, as well as the isolates from Mauritius and Rodrigues and the isolates from Madagascar (Figure S3). The two other Seychellois isolates and the ones from Comoros formed a last group. When including the outgroups, the Malagasy group was included in a Madagascar-Comoros-Seychelles group. and the Reunion isolates were grouped together. The other outgroup isolates and MAD26. 1 form a group with long branches. Not considering the outgroups, and showed uncorrected p-values that were below 0. 05 between all the SWIO subgroups expect between Seychelles and Comoros and Seychelles and Madagascar for. However, differences were considered significant for Bonferroni-corrected p-values.

Output: pass


Input: Claim: VR technology helps students learn by providing a visual and hands-on experience. [SEP] Text: Teachers can rent six small robots, playing cards, and teaching accessories such as activity mats and charging stations for 2 weeks. The small robots are programmable with four buttons and can be moved over a map easily. Before renting those sets, teachers get a short workshop at ETH where they learn about basic robotic science. Elementary schools can participate in a similar project. Teachers are trained by a research team from ETH, who also give advice and support while using the technology in the classroom. Topics of this project are the concept of computational thinking and the functionality of robots. Lessons are arranged as project-based learning, and pupils learn to program robots playfully. A different project of the ETH is the “RoboMINT” in which children learn to build a robot. In a “Dancebot course,” pupils learn to solder and program a dance-choreography for the robot they have built. A second course uses small lights attached to a robot and a camera with long time exposure to draw a picture. For the picture, the robot uses a coded paper to follow lines. The sets can be rented for free [12]. (DNALC), which is promoted by the of America’s Harbor Laboratory, a private, not-for-profit research and education institution at the forefront of molecular biology and genetics, offers class field trips and summer schools devoted entirely to public genetics education [13]. 3. 4. Student laboratories for disabled childrenand the Technikum29, the & has provided Anna-Freud-School in Cologne with an accessible laboratory for pupils. Laboratory equipment and computerized workplaces were purchased with the budget of 22,000 Euros. These new features allow children with disabilities to work on projects independently and to identify and nurture talents early. In this way, the school is able to promote pupils who are physically disabled or have a chronic or psychosomatic illness. supports projects, which are used to complement lessons in school and to draw interest in natural science and technology [14]. School for the Blind in Massachusetts (USA) offers short courses in robotics for secondary school students (Grades 6–10), who can learn about the highly sought-after skills of mechanical and electrical engineering, computers, math, and science. Participants work with their peers and knowledgeable staff to build basic robots and program them to complete simple tasks. Inconveniently, though, this course is currently not offered on a regular basis.

Output: pass


Input: Claim: Taking breaks from social media can have positive effects on mental health. [SEP] Text: Some observed a feedback loop in which stress from school would lead to social media use, which ultimately caused a lack of productivity leading to more stress from school. I think that I’m only on my phone for like 20 minutes. . . like it goes on for like three hours. And then at the end of it. . . I feel like I’m cramming projects. . . on the last second. (Female, 21–22)Participants attributed their worsening attention spans to their social media use. The immediate gratification associated with using social media, for example, scrolling through Instagram or watching ten 1-min TikTok videos, impacted their ability to focus on important tasks, such as working on assignments or paying attention in class, for long periods of time. I really don’t have an attention span for anything longer than half an hour, whereas before the pandemic, I felt like I could definitely sit down and study for longer without taking breaks. (Female, 19–20)of the PandemicSocial ConnectednessA majority of participants agreed that most communication with family and friends during the pandemic was through social media platforms. With the implementation of public health restrictions, social media became the center of communication by which participants could interact with friends and family who lived abroad. For many participants, social media has become the primary form of communication, replacing more traditional forms such as phone calls or text messages. Participants mentioned the utility of social media for meeting new people, especially in a university setting. I think without social media it will probably be hard for me to keep in touch with my friends back home and also my family as well. So it’s just like a really convenient thing for me to use. (Female, 19–20)Some participants acknowledged the positive impact that social media had on their relationships. Social media allowed for easy, reliable, and quick communication with family, friends, and peers which allowed for more frequent contact. New connections were also possible through online chat rooms and group chats. Social media provided a sense of normalcy that was lost during the pandemic due to public health restrictions. Social media allowed participants to maintain contact with distant family, friends, and peers through posts and messaging, which alleviated symptoms of loneliness and isolation. I guess, the feeling of wanting to be connected with people. . . if I didn’t have social media, how would I stay close to everybody?

Output: contrast


Input: Claim: Nosema ceranae is a microsporidian parasite affecting honeybee health and productivity. [SEP] Text: Significant difference was observed between La Réunion and Mauritius/Rodrigues (p = 0. 010), La Réunion and the Comoros archipelago (including Mayotte, p = 0. 002), La Réunion and Madagascar (p = 0. 030), Mauritius and the Comoros (p = 0. 027). Removing the divergent MAD26 isolate did not change the results. Similar results were also obtained excluding the rare haplotypes or using the coding or non-coding markers only. A supplementary significant difference was observed between the Comoros and Madagascar using the coding regions or the microsatellites only. To get into more details, fixation indices were calculated for every marker with and without the divergent MAD26. 1 isolate (Table S4). Except the invariable 001DR marker, all markers significantly differed within the whole populations (FST) and between groups (FSC) whereas significance varied with marker when comparing populations among groups (FCT). Altogether, these results confirmed the distribution depicted with PCAs and the geographical grouping. DiscussionThe present study allowed the differentiation on V. ceranae isolates based on the high throughput sequencing of numerous genomic loci. It demonstrated that allele or haplotype frequency, whatever their nucleotide diversity, can be used to study Vairimorpha population structure. The data explained, at least partly, why the former cloning-sequencinq approaches could not resolve sub-populations. The major haplotypes represented 95. 7% of the reads, including 86 haplotypes whose frequency where higher than 0. 12 in all the isolates. As many major haplotypes are present in most or all individuals, the sequencing of a limited number of haplotypes in one isolate cannot resolve any differentiation. For instance, single cloning procedure would most probably lead to the sequencing of one major allele, and lead to wrong topology assertions. Moreover, as most alleles were ubiquitous, no topology could be established based on their sequences alone. In accordance with the genome analysis of isolates performed by Peters et al. 36, the data confirmed that discrimination of V. ceranae sub-populations can be performed through multilocus and genome-wide analyses. In the present work, the coverage was much higher (several thousand reads per marker and per isolate) than in previous whole genome analyses35,36,40, possibly allowing finest differentiation.

Output: pass


Input: Claim: VR technology helps students learn by providing a visual and hands-on experience. [SEP] Text: Learning about robotics is an enjoyable and exciting way for students to increase knowledge in the areas of science, mathematics, and technology and provide students with an opportunity to gain first insights. Our extensive research has shown that around the globe, there are laboratories available that also work in equal or related fields of robotics, though very few are both constantly available for students and offering a chance at hands-on experience. To foster an interest in STEM-fields, it is necessary to involve pupils in the process of programming a robot playfully. Technical universities in Germany and Switzerland already offer a broad range of courses for pupils to learn basic programming starting at a young age. In recent years, reform efforts in science curriculum have stressed the integration of educational technology into teaching and learning purposes. Teachers and educators face the challenge and the chance to explore inventive ways in which new technologies can be utilized to improve accessibility to science for students with visual impairments. Integrating students with disabilities in student laboratories is an effort that not only encourages interest in STEM-fields but also shows these individuals opportunities for their future careers. Technological resources for people who are visually impaired, like Braille generating software, Braille printers, screen-reader software, and speech synthesizers, already exist. Teachers, educators, and educational institutions need to realize the student-oriented benefits and put more effort into accommodating students with (visual) impairments in STEM education. An awareness, and furthermore, an understanding of the academic needs of students with (visual) impairments are essential in striving toward this goal. Unless many institutions and educators stress the need to integrate students with (visual) impairments in their scientific programs, there is still a long way to go. Fully accessible participation in science will be beneficial for all students and a rewarding experience for teachers. Advertisement 4. Original course design: “Roborescue” and “Rattlesnake”high school students are given the chance to gain insight by using LEGO Mindstorms construction sets in a school laboratory and constructing and programming various robot models. They are using the graphical programming interface NXT-G to discover an easy introduction to programming, since it is suitable for nonprofessionals [15]. To prepare and motivate students for a future career in robotics, the course program allows students to try their hand at building, programming, and testing robots in a highly interactive and playful environment.

Output: corroborate


Input: Claim: Taking breaks from social media can have positive effects on mental health. [SEP] Text: And how would everyone know what I’m up to or how would I know what everyone else is up to? Yeah, I think it’s just me wanting to be in the loop, kind of, and being connected with everyone’s lives I guess. (Female, 21–22)Some participants experienced a sense of community on social media, mainly through group chats with students and friends as well as through interaction with individuals or groups who share similar interests, hobbies, and ideas. However, some participants felt that social media did not provide a sense of community as social comparison and fake portrayals of life are common on the platforms. I’m watching all these things that I’m interested in and other people are interested in, so it kind of creates this sense of community where. . . if you didn’t already have people in your life. . . who they aren’t interested in the same things as you, you’ll find that community—your sense of community online even if you’re not talking to them one-on-one. (Female, 19–20)Participants also outlined how social media acts as modern news sources by allowing them to acquire knowledge of events happening domestically and globally. This had implications with respect to the pandemic as social media allowed participants access to information on important topics such as COVID-19-related global and domestic news. Stress ReliefMost participants relieved stress through their social media use despite acknowledging how social media causes stress. Participants reported using social media during stressful moments to distract them from the stressor. Social media use was described as a good mechanism for relaxing and de-stressing, however most participants stated that using social media during stressful moments was not always effective and other methods of stress relief should be pursued. In a way it allows me to kind of escape my life and see what’s going on in other people’s lives and I’m like, OK, that seems like fun, people are doing great; the pandemic isn’t so bad. So, that’s kind of what social media is for me, it’s kind of a way to escape reality for a few moments, whether that’s studying and me being stressed, I could just be like, OK, time to take a break and just not pay attention to that.

Output: contrast


Input: Claim: Nosema ceranae is a microsporidian parasite affecting honeybee health and productivity. [SEP] Text: Yet, as the frequency of major haplotype was sufficient to assess population structure (Fig. 4c), one may wonder if such high coverage was necessary. Estimations have been made to test which reduced datasets may still assess the population structure. A discriminating PCA distribution appeared with a coverage as low as 20 reads per marker and per isolate, and the removal of singletons (Fig. S4). Noteworthy, no structuration appeared using the 10 most polymorphic markers with a coverage of 200, supporting the need for genome-wide analysis. Sequence quality, e. g. performing high fidelity amplification, ought to be of importance as it influences SNP distribution, and consequently haplotype frequency, and was shown to erase evidences for recombination36. For instance, a comparative analysis of V. ceranae genomes suggested that some SNPs were study-specific and thus did not depict true population differentiation36. Fortunately, the observed population structure was maintained analyzing the major haplotypes only, i. e. removing all possibly biased haplotypes. In conclusion, the frequency-based differentiation of isolates should rely on multiple informative loci, ideally genome-wide analyses, and a moderate sequencing coverage. Sequencing (GBS) could also be a method of choice as its strategy differs from the present one only in the unchosen loci that are linked to restriction sites. The three Vairimorpha species infecting the honeybee have been detected in some African regions7,41,42 but no ascertained data are available concerning their prevalence. Here a very limited number of honeybees sampled in continental Africa carried Vairimorpha spores (Table S1) with only 2 individuals from the same colony in Senegal. The data suggested that the parasite had a low prevalence in continental Africa, while it was common in the SWIO, reaching 100% of the colonies in La Réunion39. More comprehensive data would be needed to test hypotheses that can be formulated upon these findings. Honeybee subspecies in Africa mostly belong to the A-lineage, with other lineages present in the north of the continent43,44. If the genetic background of the A-lineage would confer resistance to V. ceranae and a limitation of its spread, its absence would also be in some of the SWIO islands, such as Madagascar and the Comoros, were only the A-lineage is present. Climate and temperature could also influence V.

Output: pass


Input: Claim: VR technology helps students learn by providing a visual and hands-on experience. [SEP] Text: In order to captivate students, the course allows them to create either a “rescue robot” [16] that can search for virtual victims in a simulated rescue mission or a “rattlesnake” that snaps shut when someone crosses its field of vision. The choice of the scenario is subject to the age of the students—lower grades create a rattlesnake, (which is easier to build and to program) while junior and senior classes go on a more complex rescue mission. The four main phases of the course are: the introduction, which gives basic information; the construction; the programming process; and the reflection or evaluation phase. To follow along a learning process, the underlying didactic course concept focuses on individual practical, experimental, and playful experiences [15]. In accordance with the feedback of the course participants, this course design was chosen to build up an extracurricular learning venue for students with visual impairment and blindness to give them first insights into robotics. The educational laboratory is not located at the students’ respective schools; rather, it has been set up at. This allows high school students to take a peek into the daily routine at university and is also meant to facilitate the decision-making process when it comes to choosing further steps after graduating from high school [17]. Advertisement 5. Enabling higher accessibility for visually impaired students5. 1. Expert design workshopsTo facilitate the process of redesigning the robotics course in order to reach a higher level of accessibility for students with visual impairment as well as blindness, researchers from invited a team of interdisciplinary experts to a series of workshops. The roadmap of the redesign was developed within these workshops. The main goal was defined as follows: to identify the key aspects of required adjustments. During the workshops, the participants gradually developed a grid of these requirements. In a first step, they divided the course into its individual phases based on the established approach by Vieritz et al. [18]. They used the different phases of the course and analyzed the requirements and necessary adjustments for each individual part compared to those of the original course design. These phases consist of the introductory part, the construction phase, the programming phase and the phase for reflection. Combining their different experiences and testing single elements by simulating specific eye dysfunctions, the experts came to results in terms of requirements for each phase. These results are presented and discussed in the 5. 2.

Output: corroborate


Input: Claim: Taking breaks from social media can have positive effects on mental health. [SEP] Text: (Female, 19–20)I don’t think it’s the only tool that should be used, I think it’s just one of the tools that is satisfactory to relieving stress, there is so many other things you can do. Even at home, like let’s say cooking, or other hobbies that you can take part of. But social media is just a small, little part of it to help you relieve the stress, I would say. (Female, 17–18)Some participants gathered inspiration from their social media platforms which benefited them throughout the pandemic. The vast array of content available on social media platforms, including culinary, exercise, educational, and artistic accounts provided participants with inspiration and motivation. One outlined how certain content on social media provided optimism for the future. it was more of a motivating factor for me because it gave me all these ideas for what I could do once the lockdown restrictions lifted, so I could try to focus on that and be optimistic rather than take that to heart and feel more sad about it. (Female, 19–20)In addition to inspiration, social media provided participants with a creative outlet where they could post about their hobbies, interests, and ambitions. Some participants used social media to promote their businesses, outlining the benefits of advertising on social media. I feel like it was a really good creative outlet for a lot of people. A lot of people used it, from what I know, to connect with other people who had their same—like hobbies or interests. . . it was a good platform for like people to like monetize their hobbies, which I know is really big. A lot of people were into like pottery or candle making and they finally took the leap into trying to monetize whatever they were doing. (Non-binary, 19–20)Cost–most participants were displeased with their increased social media use during the pandemic lockdowns. Most of the discontent stemmed from an over-reliance on social media, lack of productivity, and mental strain associated with excess use. sometimes I feel actually really disgusted with myself when I go online for like the amount of time I do and I just feel like I could have been doing something a lot more productive. Even if I wasn’t doing school like I could have done something a lot more. (Male, 17–18)One participant described a cycle of deleting social media apps only to download them again in the future.

Output: contrast


Input: Claim: Nosema ceranae is a microsporidian parasite affecting honeybee health and productivity. [SEP] Text: 4, S1 and S2). These was in good accordance with the genome analyses of Peters et al. 36. The strong divergence between the SWIO and outgroups isolates suggested that the V. ceranae population in the SWIO may have a common origin and had enough time to diverge in allele frequency since its introduction. As the number of isolates in outgroups was restrained it was not possible to propose a geographic origin for this introduction. However, the proximity of the Swiss isolate with the population from la Reunion could be a hint towards a European origin (Fig. 4a). The data also revealed, for the first time, fine local geographical patterns, despite the genetic proximity between SWIO isolates. The population structure within the SWIO appeared very robust as it was maintained with or without the outgroups, with or without the divergent Malagasy isolate, using all haplotypes or only the major ones, using all markers or only the coding or non-coding ones (Fig. 4). Samples were mostly grouped by island or Archipelago, with the exception of one Seychellois isolate, one strongly divergent Malagasy isolate and the Mayotte isolate. Each insular group seemed to possess allelic frequencies differentiated from another and the organization of the insular populations was coherent with the geography of the SWIO. Such a genetic clustering was observed for honeybee populations in the SWIO as well as other archipelagos38, suggesting a similar insular evolution of both hosts and parasites. The discrimination of insular groups suggested that (1) there has been enough time since the parasite introduction to install divergences in the allelic frequency between areas and that (2) if there were gene flows between areas or from outside the SWIO through new introductions, they have not been sufficient to erase these divergences. Gene flow between islands could not be demonstrated by the present work, but the proximity of one Seychellois isolate and of the Mayotte isolate with those from la Réunion (the last two are French islands) could suggest such exchanges. However, the apparent absence of parasite substructure within islands or archipelagos may indicate that gene flow within these areas, i. e. through the exchange of parasite between colonies, had been sufficient to maintain allelic homogeneity. For instance, the closer proximity of isolates within La Réunion (Fig.

Output: pass


Input: Claim: VR technology helps students learn by providing a visual and hands-on experience. [SEP] Text: ” (3-degree scale from 1 = too easy to 3 = too difficult), the questionnaire includes open questions that allow room for comments and suggestions for improvement. The pupils (n = 8) mentioned, on a 6-degree scale, that the presentation was very exciting (Median = 1. 25), that the programming had been very good (M = 1) and that they learned something (M = 1. 13). Every pupil also said that they enjoyed the course and that he/she would like to visit the course again. Some of the students mentioned in the open questions section that they wanted a successor program, which will be developed as a consecutive step. Due to the small sample size, the statistical power of the results is reduced and statistical relevance of the quantitative data needs to be discussed. However, from a qualitative point of view with regard to the frequently given feedback, the analysis showed that the students’ enthusiasm, interest, and appreciation for the courses were high among both teachers and students. Advertisement 7. Conclusion and outlookTo keep up the interest in STEM-fields, it is necessary to involve pupils in the process of programming playfully. Technical universities in Germany and Switzerland already offer a broad range of basic programming courses for pupils starting at young age. Additionally, to encourage applied computer science in school, some institutions offer robot kits and teaching materials. Integrating students with visual impairment or blindness in student laboratories is a chance to not only encourage interest in STEM-fields but also to show these individuals opportunities for the future. Science curriculum reform efforts have emphasized the integration of educational technology into teaching and learning purposes in the past years. Teachers and educators are asked to explore further ways in which new technologies could be utilized to improve access to science for students with visual impairments. The paper has described the process of redesigning of a robotics course from an educational robotics laboratory to increase accessibility of the course for students with visual impairments. The evaluation of the workshop has informed a concept for the redesign, which has been implemented and is currently being tested in a second run with various groups of students with visual impairments. The developed grid of the workshop suggests that adjustments to the designated phases of the lecture can provide a higher level of accessibility. A first anecdotal but enthusiastic assessment from the students who participated leads to the assumption that the applied suggested changes were successful.

Output: corroborate


Input: Claim: Taking breaks from social media can have positive effects on mental health. [SEP] Text: , 2018). Individuals in this period of development may be more susceptible to the negative outcomes associated with social media use (Schimmele et al. , 2021). As a result of the lack of interaction with others due to social restrictions, as well as the nature of the developmental period, the adverse mental health outcomes reported by Statistics Canada, and described in this study, may be linked to these processes. Our finding is in agreeance with Bonsaksen et al. (2021) whose findings suggest that increased social media use is related to emotional loneliness in young adults. In addition, the awareness that one’s relationships are degrading may exacerbate loneliness and adverse mental health outcomes. Students described how a lack of social interaction in academic situations, including having online classes and the closure of student spaces on campus, hampered their ability to maintain relationships, ultimately degrading them over time. Since social restrictions are beyond the control of the student, their awareness of their degrading relationships may have been more significant. However, participants expressed the utility of social media for communication which prevented symptoms of loneliness. This is contrary to current literature which suggests that decreasing social media use can reduce symptoms of loneliness and depression (Hunt et al. , 2018). This contrast could represent the new challenges associated with communication and socialization during the COVID-19 pandemic. In past studies, participants were able to interact with others in-person, with or without social media at their disposal. During the lockdown phases of the pandemic, individuals had few options for communication, and thus social media was utilized, with benefits emerging. The change in conditions is represented in a study conducted by Thygesen et al. (2022) which found that better mental health was related to social media use in the context of maintaining relationships during the pandemic. Stress and Social ComparisonThe relationship between social media and stress is dynamic as social media helps reduce stress in certain situations while inducing stress in others. Social comparison led to stress and was prevalent in the interviews and impactful enough to justify its own theme. The experiences of the participants demonstrate that social comparison through social media can have adverse mental health effects. Bonsaksen et al. (2021) found that young adults’ inclination to social comparison may explain increased loneliness among that age group. Our findings support this hypothesis as most participants reported experiencing loneliness and isolation during the pandemic while also citing the negative impacts of social comparison through social media.

Output: contrast


Input: Claim: Nosema ceranae is a microsporidian parasite affecting honeybee health and productivity. [SEP] Text: 4) could be linked to a transfer of parasites facilitated by the small size of the island, the high colony density (> 20,000 colonies declared in 2020 for 2 512 km255), the absence of overwintering and apicultural practices such as the transhumance of beehives following resource cycles. In contrast, in the Comoros Archipelago, where beekeeping is poorly developed and honeybee populations are structured by island38, V. ceranae isolates showed higher within-group distances. The malagasy MAD26. 1 isolate strongly differed from all other SWIO isolates (Fig. 4). Its divergence might even have been underestimated as PCR amplification seemed less efficient for many markers. It is possible that primers used were not optimal for this isolate and did not allow the amplification of all haplotypes. Thus it cannot be excluded that, as for A. dorsata, there would be specific allele content in this isolate and that the observed frequencies might have been misevaluated. The clear divergence of this Malagasy isolate from the other SWIO isolates, with a distance comparable to the ones of the A. ceranae and A. dorsata isolates, suggested that it could belong to a distinct cluster of V. ceranae parasites. The origin of such variation could reflect an independent introduction of V. ceranae in this area of Madagascar, that originated from a source distinct from the rest of the SWIO and that erased the original SWIO signature if V. ceranae was already present. It could also reflect an accumulation of divergence in allele frequency in an isolated area of this huge continental island where transhumance is hardly practiced. The distribution of haplotype frequencies, with three peaks at 0. 25, 0. 5 and 0. 75 (Fig. 2) was similar to the distribution previously observed in genome data by Pelin et al. 35, confirming that V. ceranae may be polyploid, at least tetraploid. Another genome analysis of parasite isolated in A. mellifera and A. ceranae in Thailand, showed only a high peak at 0. 5, suggesting diploidy36. In our data the Thai isolates from A. ceranae and A. dorsata did not show such a unique peak at 0. 5 but rather three as mentioned above. The results are not incompatible.

Output: pass


Input: Claim: VR technology helps students learn by providing a visual and hands-on experience. [SEP] Text: Third, technology, learning, and instruction should be viewed as a tripartite model that supports and facilitates students’ academic success, and develops educators’ critical thinking skills as they practice technology integration and “examine the appropriateness of the technologies they are using and whether such technologies are compatible with their lesson plan and learning outcomes” (p. 68). Finally, according to Okojie et al. (2006), technology integration is a major element of the instructional milieu that needs to be acknowledged by educators trying to implement technology in their classrooms. Failure to consider the strong association between technology integration, learning, and instruction will degrade the quality of education in a technology-based learning environment and lead to poor use of technology for instructional and learning purposes. Similarly, the technological and pedagogical content knowledge framework (TPACK) posits that a complex array of factors are in play when teachers use technology for instructional purposes (Koehler & Mishra, 2008), and all factors are required for successful integration. Scherer et al. (2021) relied on the TPACK framework in their international study to develop profiles of teacher readiness in higher education to take up online teaching in response to the COVID-19 pandemic. Using latent profile analysis, the study team identified low readiness, inconsistent readiness, and high readiness with culture and prior experience, among others factors, as determinants of profile membership. They noted that countries with long-term goals also were more likely to have higher education teachers who exhibited high readiness. In line with the explanation above, technology integration is defined for the purposes of this study as the directed use of technological resources, such as hardware, software applications, communication devices, online learning platforms, and electronic media, in a classroom setting to support and promote instruction, enhance student learning, and improve the overall quality of education. 2. 3 Technology integration in education is considered a powerful instructional tool that enhances students’ academic achievement (Anderson & Horn, 2012; Anthony et al. , 2020; Safar & Alkhezzi, 2013; Stanley, 2013; Tang & Austin, 2009) and provides students with advanced educational experiences beyond the scope of traditional classrooms (Schindler et al. , 2017; Wegner et al. , 1999).

Output: corroborate


Input: Claim: Taking breaks from social media can have positive effects on mental health. [SEP] Text: However, in contrast to the literature, the participants in the current study expressed comparisons based on lifestyle more frequently than comparisons of body image, suggesting that the pandemic influenced how individuals compare themselves to others online. For example, due to the severe public health restrictions in Ontario, participants frequently reported feeling lonely or distraught after viewing individuals on social media partaking in events such as traveling or large social gatherings. Although this likely occurred prior to the pandemic, social restrictions may have exacerbated these experiences of comparison. Social media allowed individuals to observe the lives of others, specifically those who were living in restriction-free or fortunate circumstances. Participants compared themselves to others who they perceived as being in a more advantageous position than themselves as these individuals were able to portray their restriction-free life on social media. This supports the upward social comparison theory described in the literature, which posits the effects of screen time on mental health are a product of the content consumed by the user, ultimately contributing to adverse mental health outcomes such as depression (Boers et al. , 2019). Contrary to existing studies (Chew et al. , 2020; Savitsky et al. , 2020; Wang et al. , 2022), our findings show that the COVID-19 pandemic did not act as a stressor past the initial phases and lockdown periods of the pandemic. The consequences of the outbreak provided more stress to students than the actual pandemic itself. This is in agreeance with Visser and Law-van Wyk (2021) who found that mental and emotional health was not impacted by potential infection. Impact on Academic PerformanceThe literature regarding the relationship between social media and academic performance suggests that social media has negative implications on academic outcomes for adolescents and/or university students (Kolhar et al. , 2021; Tsitsika et al. , 2014). In accordance with the literature, participants in our study were concerned their social media use adversely affected their academic performance and school-related stress. One study found that heavy social media use was associated with internalizing problems and poor academic performance in adolescents (Tsitsika et al. , 2014). Internalizing problems includes adverse mental health conditions such as anxiety and depression, which have negative implications for well-being (Luijten et al. , 2021).

Output: contrast


Input: Claim: Nosema ceranae is a microsporidian parasite affecting honeybee health and productivity. [SEP] Text: Tetraploidy does not necessitate all chromatids to differ, as shown for some markers, and local evolutionary processes may result in a reduction of allele diversity toward a bi-allelic content of genes. The available data thus lean towards a tetraploid organism with two heterozygous diploid nuclei, with possible loss of heterozygosity36. The present work depicted a mixed similarity, with few major ubiquitous haplotypes, and diversity, with numerous but rare haplotypes. The allele content, in term of presence, appeared stable, as the major haplotypes were ubiquitous in A. mellifera. This clearly explained that the nucleotide diversity is present within a single colony or a single honeybee as well as between isolates, as observed in many previous studies24,30,31,32,33,34. Only fine frequency assessment allowed geographical clustering. On the other hand, the numerous rare haplotypes that represented only 4. 3% of the reads, highlighted a variable but small portion of allele content. The analysis of haplotypes sequences showed 485 polymorphic sites in the dataset, counting microsatellites as single sites (Table S5). As expected more transitions than transversions were observed, especially in coding regions (Table S6). In coding region, there were lots of non-synonymous polymorphic sites but most of them were observed in rare haplotypes, supporting the difference between major and rare haplotypes. Taking frequencies into consideration there were more synonymous than non-synonymous polymorphic sites. Very few induced a stop codon or a reading frame shift, almost all in rare haplotypes from A. dorsata. To explain this variability, several authors suggested a multiple infection with different strains on V. ceranae24,27,32,34. This implies that repeated infection events would be systematical. The ubiquity and frequency distribution (Fig. 2) of the major haplotypes could also be explained by a single infection with a tetraploid heterozygous parasite that experiences recombination and mutation events. Peters et al. 36 demonstrated that biased polymorphic sites may also be generated during the procedure, especially through low polymerase proofreading activity and sequencing quality. Such mistakes could not be excluded in the present data, as suggested by the introduction of stop codons or reading frame shifts in a few coding haplotypes.

Output: pass


Input: Claim: Trees in urban areas provide shade and help lower city temperatures. [SEP] Text: AbstractShade acclimation response of Norway maple street trees to variable irradiance levels in an urban setting was investigated. Specific leaf area, trunk growth, and crown density were measured in thirteen sites ranging from urban canyons in the business core to open exposures in residential areas of Seattle, Washington. Percentage of potential seasonal input of global shortwave radiation for each site was modeled based on the azimuth and elevation angles of the surrounding horizon topography. Building height in the business core reduced estimated potential seasonal irradiance to 27-90% of that for an unobstructed horizon topography, while those outside the business core had 90-95% of potential irradiance. As potential irradiance decreased these maples exhibited growth responses characteristic of shade acclimation in a dose-response pattern. Specific leaf area increased and trunk growth and crown density decreased to acclimated levels between 70-85% of potential irradiance. Shade acclimation did not detract from the appearance or utility of these trees in the urban canyonPoor vigor and survival of urban trees are often attributed to environmental stresses endemic to cities (6). Investigation of tree growth and urban environmental stress has focused primarily on soil conditions (7). The potential contributions of the urban climate to limiting tree growth in cities, however, have not been widely investigated. Information on tree responses to low light situations, such as that found on the north side of buildings or in urban canyons, has been particularly limited. Radiant-energy input can be less than 10% of fullsun in such situations (3). Kjelgren and Clark (10) reported reduced photosynthesis and trunk growth in sweetgum at an irradiance level of 44% of full sun. They also reported shade acclimation responses that were a function of irradiance level in diverse plantings of sweetgum street trees. Sweetgum (Liquidambar styraciflua) is considered to be a shade intolerant species (5), and how other, more shade tolerant, species respond to variable urban irradiance conditions is uncertain. Kjelgren and Clark’s (10) study also did not control for tree age and genetic diversity. The objective of this study is to evaluate shade response of a single street-tree cultivarto variable urban radiantenergy levels. Materials and MethodsThirteen sites in Seattle, Washington where Acerplatanoides ‘Emerald Queen’ was planted in 1977 were selected for investigation.

Output: corroborate


Input: Claim: Taking breaks from social media can have positive effects on mental health. [SEP] Text: Association (2019) found within Canadian reference data that approximately 45% of students had low to very low awareness of how to access mental health services or resources on campus. In the same study, about 19% of students disagreed that their university environment was one where their mental health was supported; 6. 5% strongly disagreed. University administrations must not only provide adequate resources but also promote the use of these resources so that unfamiliar students can be aware of them. Our study found that social media use among university students has drastically increased since the start of the pandemic which suggests that social media can be used as a potential resource for mental health support. According to Nowrouzi-kia et al. (2021), ICT, including mental health support apps, can provide solutions that university administrations cannot. Although it is somewhat counterproductive considering social media use is linked with adverse mental health outcomes, students already use social media extensively. Thus, ICT should be considered as a support system and universities should seek to develop applications, or social media pages, that target the mental health of students. As its own entity, social media can impact the mental health of individuals in various ways. However, the COVID-19 pandemic changed the behaviors of many with respect to social media, thus altering the complexity of the relationship between social media and well-being. Many participants illustrated that their mental health was both damaged and aided by social media during the pandemic. However, they agreed that the interplay between social media and the pandemic influenced their mental health. Therefore, healthcare providers and policy makers should provide more focus on mental healthcare with regard to access and education. During the COVID-19 pandemic, physical health was of primary concern as social restrictions were implemented to prevent the spread of the virus. Our findings indicate that there should be a strong focus on mental health and how digital and social media can impact it. Study LimitationsThis study is not representative of the Canadian university student population and is not generalizable across larger populations nor is it meant to be. It was designed to provide an in-depth analysis of the experiences of these 15 participants and is bound to have some applicability in other similar settings. Despite the diversity in the sample, a majority of participants were female. The results demonstrate how the impact of social media on students is multifactorial and thus each student, and user of social media, will be influenced differently.

Output: contrast


Input: Claim: Nosema ceranae is a microsporidian parasite affecting honeybee health and productivity. [SEP] Text: However, rare haplotypes could not be only originated from mistakes as stringent filters were applied to avoid them as much as possible and as a clonal plasmid control was used to assess the fidelity of the procedure. The origin of this variation remains unclear. In an evolutionary perspective, authors have debated upon the spread of a sexual population of V. ceranae, as suggested by linkage disequilibrium and recombination estimations27,32,33,34, or a clonal mode of evolution linked to polyploidy31,36. Recurrent recombination events, e. g. between heterozygous chromatids, has been suspected to be abundant24,27,32,33 and could generate a flow of diversity. However, such abundance has been questioned31,56, up to the elimination of any evidence of recombination using high quality data36. In contrast, the ubiquitous presence of a limited number of major haplotypes could be explained by the spread of a clonal tetraploid organism36. Microsporidia are thought to evolve rapidly at the sequence level57. The similar proportion of rare haplotypes towards isolates could involve the continuous apparition of diversity through mutation. The numerous non-synonymous polymorphic sites would thus reflect a high mutation rate rather than diversifying selection. Negative selection pressure would eliminate deleterious alleles and keep the emerging haplotype content at low frequency compared to the major ones. Noteworthy, as recalled by Maside et al. 33, most mutations present in an expanding population have a recent origin and, therefore, are rare. The rare haplotypes could also reflect a spreading population. As the major coding haplotypes are present everywhere, including outside the SWIO, and carry mostly non-synonymous polymorphic sites, they ought to be under selection pressure. Such strong selection would also explain the single haplotype observed for 001DR. However, if the relative pressure between alleles is similar, their variation in frequency should be under no or neutral selection, i. e. close to equilibrium. As a conclusion, the allele diversity of V. ceranae is mostly present within a single honeybee host and can be explained by the maintenance of major haplotypes and the continuous generation of rare alleles mostly subjected to negative selection pressure. The frequency of haplotypes—and the most frequent are sufficient—can differentiate parasite subpopulations.

Output: pass


Input: Claim: Trees in urban areas provide shade and help lower city temperatures. [SEP] Text: After the hearing the suggested the state reevaluate it’s position so they went back to their drawing board and redesigned the intersection and were able to leave the curb in that section at its original location, a condition that they said in the beginning was out of the question. ▄This next case does not specifically fit into the shade tree commission’s responsibility, but I think you will find it interesting. Telephone company employees cut and pruned trees in front of a property for the purpose of clearing their wires and did so, they claimed, because of their responsibility to supply service to the public. The property owner sued, claiming he had lost shade and also aesthetic value to his property. The judge ruled in favor of the property owner. I was particularly impressed with his ruling. “Among the many rights the lot owner has in the street, if not expressly prohibited by the city, is to plant and grow shade and ornamental trees along the edge of the sidewalk in front of his property. This is a very valuable right. As a rule shade and ornamental trees are very desirable in front of a residential property. They contribute no little to the comfort and enjoyment of a home. Not only that, shade trees of a city are conductive to the public health, comfort, enjoyment, and well being of her citizens. On that account most of the cities of the State encourage the property owners to plant and grow such trees in front of their properties, and pass laws protecting the trees from injury and prescribe penalties for those who do injury to them. No one has the right or power to deprive the property owner of these trees or his right to maintain them in the street, except the city itself, or such as it may authorize. Even that power is not absolute. It must be exercised with prudence and within reason and not wantonly and willfully. ”▄A limb from a tree that was within the right of way of the highway fell and instantly killed the driver of a passing car. His widow sued claiming the state had the responsibility to inspect the trees periodically which would have shown the dangerous condition of the tree limbs. The state claimed it was unreasonable to expect them to inspect each and every tree along its extensive highway system and that the falling of the limb was an act of God. The courts ruled for the widow declaring the State has the responsibility to ensure the roads were safe for the traveling public and this includes the trees and especially those that might fall into the roadway.

Output: corroborate


Input: Claim: Taking breaks from social media can have positive effects on mental health. [SEP] Text: AbstractMost studies addressing social media use as a normal social behavior with positive or negative effects on health-related outcomes have conceptualized and measured social media use and its effects in terms of dose–effect relations. These studies focus on measuring frequency and duration of use, and have seldom considered users’ emotional connections to social media use and the effects associated with such connections. By using a scale with two dimensions capturing users’ integration of social media use into their social routines and their emotional connection to the sites’ use, the present study has brought preliminary evidence that may help map where social media use, as a normal social behavior, may be considered beneficial or harmful. Data from a nationally representative sample (n = 1,027) of American adults showed that while routine use is associated with positive health outcomes, emotional connection to social media use is associated with negative health outcomes. These associations have been consistent across three health-related outcomes: social well-being, positive mental health, and self-rated health. The data also showed that the strength of the positive and negative associations of routine use and emotional connection with the health outcomes varies across socioeconomic and racial/ethnic population subgroups. Our findings suggest that the link between social media use and health may not only be captured by and explained in terms of conventional dose–effect approaches but may also require a more sophisticated conceptualization and measurement of the social media use behavior. Social media use is an ever-increasing phenomenon of the 21st century. In the United States, about 7 of 10 individuals use social media to connect with others, receive news content, share information, and entertain themselves (Center, 2018). According to a recent study, young individuals pervasively use social media for a variety of reasons including entertainment, identity formation, social enhancement (augmenting offline social status through online interactions), and maintaining interpersonal connections (Ifinedo, 2016). Such uses may hold promises to compensate for the diminishing face-to-face social interaction and the economic, social, and health outcomes resulting from it (Antoci, Sabatini, & Sodini, 2015). Studies suggest that social media can provide individuals with a platform that overcomes barriers of distance and time to connect and reconnect with others and thereby expand and strengthen their offline networks and interactions (Antoci et al. , 2015; Hall, Kearney, & Xing, 2018; Subrahmanyam, Reich, Waechter, & Espinoza, 2008).

Output: pass


Input: Claim: Nosema ceranae is a microsporidian parasite affecting honeybee health and productivity. [SEP] Text: The resulting liquid was transferred into a new tube to get rid of cuticle pieces and boiled again for 10 min. DNA was extracted using the (), with two final elutions with 100 µL EB. The presence of V. ceranae was verified by PCR using the primers MICROmid-F 5′--3′ and -R 5′--AGC-3′9 using Type-it Microsatellite PCR Kit (Qiagen). The absence of Vairimorpha apis was checked using the Na_D1 5′--3′ and Na_R1 5′--3′ primers58. Twenty-eight A. mellifera isolates from different hives were selected in the SWIO, together with three European isolates, one A. cerana and one A. dorsata isolates (Table 1). As the further amplifications failed for the infected isolates from Senegal, there was no continental African outgroup in the study. Markers screening and primer designGenetic markers were selected using the 454 pyrosequencing data of Cornman et al. 40 and the Illumina sequencing data of Pelin et al. 35. The SRA files were extracted and mapped on the V. ceranae PA08 1199 genome35 using the BWA-MEM v0. 7. 12 algorithm59. Mappings were visualized using Tablet software60. All targeted regions were checked visually to choose markers with polymorphic sites and conserved adjacent regions for the design of primers. Three types of markers were designed (Table S2). For markers in coding regions, virulence genes encoding Proteins (PTP1, PTP2, PTP3), Proteins (SWP30) or (EnPB1) were selected as they are known to show variability between or within microsporidian species23,29,31,61. Some of them showed within the mapped sequences. Genes used for fungal or microsporidian phylogenetic analyses (EF-2, RPB1, α-tubulin, hexokinase) were also chosen62,63,64. Other genes showing nucleotide polymorphism in genome data were visually selected. Putative microsatellite sequences, with tandem repeats of di- to penta-nucleotides, were screened in V. ceranae genome using MsatCommander65.

Output: pass


Input: Claim: Trees in urban areas provide shade and help lower city temperatures. [SEP] Text: Furthermore, every homeowner in a bleak new tract wants a tree in front of the house. Major tree species (by general agreement, these are species that exceed 40 feet in height at maturity) should be planted at distances no less than 80 feet apart. An exception is thicket planting in the German style established along highways as a sound barrier. For this purpose, spacings of eight to 10 feet apart are not excessive. But even 3 inch diameter shade trees, when spaced initially at 80 foot distances, look very unimpressive, and the public is bound to wish for a better showing. Here is where properly selected filler trees can fulfill every requirement. The ideal filler tree should have four characteristics. It should be easy to transplant; rapid-growing when young; 30 feet or less in height at maturity, and have showy flowers, good fall color or attractive bark color. By the use of filler planting, a new street can be relatively thickly planted at spaces of 20 to 40 feet apart, which will give an impressive showing when all the trees are young. After a decade in place, the major trees that will comprise the final planting will rapidly outstrip the filler trees and begin to take on some of their final form. Whenever thinning is required, the small-statured filler species can be safely and very inex-pensively removed. Because they are small even at maturity, public outrage at the removal of a large tree is avoided, and this problem need not arise, The final effect is a magnificent avenue of shade trees widely enough spaced so that each can reach its full size and spread, and “forest conditions” in lawns and front yards are avoided. During the 10 to 20 years that the filler trees are in place, the street benefits from their showy flowers or other display. Some varieties of the smaller trees, though rapid-growing when young, mature early and complete their life cycle rapidly in comparison to the larger and slower-growing traditional shade tree species. They are therefore self-limiting in lifespan and fade out just when they would crowd the more permanent species. Mixed plantingsThe city of Angers, France has, for generations, been the center of the French nursery industry. It is natural that, located as it is in the midst of an enormous production of trees and shrubs, it should have a wealth of interesting and unusual street plantings.

Output: corroborate


Input: Claim: Taking breaks from social media can have positive effects on mental health. [SEP] Text: Social networks, particularly offline networks, enable individuals and communities to form and maintain social capital, which allows individuals to draw on resources such as information and social support from other network members (Viswanath, 2008). In other words, individuals who are members of a social network, as opposed to those who are not, have access to information, social support, and other resources such as other network members’ skills and knowledge due to their network membership or social connections. This, in turn, is linked to a variety of positive social outcomes such as trust and reciprocity that engender better health (Ellison, Steinfield, & Lampe, 2007; Nabi, Prestin, & So, 2013; Nieminen et al. , 2013). Different forms of social capital, including social ties, have been positively related to indices of psychological well-being, such as self-esteem and satisfaction with life (Bargh & McKenna, 2004; Ellison et al. , 2007; Helliwell & Putnam, 2004; Nabi et al. , 2013). Researchers now argue that online social media networks enhance the opportunity to form and/or maintain offline social capital (Ellison et al. , 2007; Steinfield, Ellison, & Lampe, 2008; Valenzuela, Park, & Kee, 2009). For example, Ellison et al. (2007) found that apart from the bonding (within a group) and bridging (across groups) forms of social capital, online network tools enable people to remain in touch with a social network after physically disconnecting from it and thereby benefit from a form of social capital called maintained social capital. They found empirical support for this among university students and argued that Facebook use might also be beneficial for users experiencing low self-esteem and low life satisfaction (Ellison et al. , 2007; Steinfield et al. , 2008). Similarly, Valenzuela et al. (2009) found that intense Facebook use is positively associated with students’ life satisfaction, social trust, civic engagement, and participation. A study by Kim and Kim (2017) also indicated that social media use is positively associated with college students’ communication network heterogeneity, which, in turn, is positively related to social capital and subjective well-being. Yet a growing body of research suggests that social media use is negatively associated with health-related outcomes.

Output: contrast


Input: Claim: Nosema ceranae is a microsporidian parasite affecting honeybee health and productivity. [SEP] Text: Sites at the ends of scaffolds and inside coding regions were sorted out. Sites with adjacent sequences represented in several scaffolds were also removed to avoid duplicated loci. Eleven microsatellites were eventually selected. At last, eight non-coding sites were selected by screening for intergenic regions showing polymorphism in genome data. Primers were designed using the primer3 tool and manually modified to be localized outside the variable regions in the mapped genome data. Only primers showing low self-complementation and high specificity were selected. Their theoretical specificity was checked on V. ceranae and A. mellifera genomes, and by BLAST search on the nr and microbial genome databases. For each primer couple, the specificity of the PCR was verified on agarose gel electrophoresis on both infected and uninfected samples. Forty-two primer pairs were eventually selected (Table S2). Amplification and sequencingFor amplification, all primers were carrying a 4-nt tag at their 5′ end: GTCA (tag0), CGAT (tag5) or TGTG (tag6). Tags varied with samples but the same tag was carried by both the forward and reverse primers for a same sample. PCR amplification were carried out using 0. 5 pmol of each primer, 5–220 ng of total DNA and 7. 5 µL of 2 × Type-it (Type-it ) in a total volume of 15 µL. The PCR program consisted in an initial step at 94 °C for 15 min, and 35 cycles at 94 °C for 30 s, 58 °C for 30 s and 72 °C for 30 s, and a final step at 72 °C for 7 min. Negative controls without DNA were included in each reaction set and a clonal control amplification was performed using pGEM®-T () plasmid template to amplify a fragment of the ampicillin resistance bla gene using the TEM-F 5′--3′ and TEM-R 5′--3′ primers derived from Monstein et al. 66. PCR reactions were performed in triplicate and their end products were pooled together. Amplification products were checked by electrophoresis on both agarose gel and QIautomate (). PCR products were quantified on the QIAxcel phoregrams relative to standards of known concentrations.

Output: pass


Input: Claim: Trees in urban areas provide shade and help lower city temperatures. [SEP] Text: Trees are so constructed that they lose large amounts of water vapor to the air by transpiration. Their leaves are perforated with many stomata, microscopic-sized openings, each surrounded by two specialized guard cells. In broadleaved trees, stomata usually occur only on the undersurface of leaves, but in a few species they may be found on both the upper and lower surfaces. Adding to conditions for high rates of water loss from individual leaves is the very extensive leaf area developed by trees. Trees vary greatly in the number of leaves, with conifers having many more than broadleaved trees of comparable age. Whereas a single mature broadleaved tree often bears leaves numbering in the tens of thousands, individual conifers often have millions. For example, a 36-year-old white spruce (Picea glauca) tree had over 5 million needles. In general, leaf size and leaf number in trees are negatively correlated. For example, a 21-year-old catalpa tree had 26,000 large leaves, whereas a citrus tree that was only 12 years old had almost 100,000 small leaves. But whether trees have very many small leaves or fewer large ones, they expose an extensive leaf surface that constantly evaporates water which must somehow be replaced. Transpiration, the loss of water from trees in the form of vapor, is basically an evaporation process. It is modified somewhat by plant structure and stomatal control. Transpiration occurs in two stages involving: 1) evaporation from the wet cell walls into intercellular spaces; and 2) diffusion of water vapor from the intercellular spaces into the outside air. Small amounts of water are lost directly through the epidermal layers of leaves but this amount varies with the thickness of the waxy layer on leaf surfaces, and very small amounts are lost through lenticels of twigs, even from deciduous trees in winter (Kramer and Kozlowski, 1960; Kozlowski, 1958, 1968b, 1971b). The amounts of water taken up by trees and lost to the atmosphere by transpiration are very high indeed. For example, in the southern United States, forests are estimated to lose as much as 8,000 gallons of water per acre per day.

Output: corroborate


Input: Claim: Taking breaks from social media can have positive effects on mental health. [SEP] Text: Although the relationship between social media use and health, particularly mental health, could be bidirectional, most studies in public health focus on the impact of social media use on health-related outcomes. For example, a recent longitudinal study found that Facebook use is generally negatively associated with well-being (Shakya & Christakis, 2017). Importantly, this study indicated that the negative associations of Facebook use are comparable to or greater in magnitude than the positive impact of ofﬂine interactions. Another study examining the influence of Facebook use on subjective well-being over time among young adults found that Facebook, rather than enhancing well-being, may undermine it (Kross et al. , 2013). Several recent studies have also found negative associations of social media use with a variety of indicators of mental health among adolescents and young adults. For example, in a study drawing data from a sample of adolescents and their parents throughout the and Lindsey (2017) found that social media use is moderately and positively related to adolescent-reported fear of missing out and loneliness as well as with parent-reported hyperactivity/impulsivity, anxiety, and depression. Similarly, in a national survey of U. S. young adults, Primack et al. (2017) found that compared with individuals who use 0 to 2 social media platforms, individuals who use 7 to 11 social media platforms have substantially higher odds of having increased levels of depression and anxiety symptoms. In a recent longitudinal study among U. S. adolescents, Ra et al. (2018) have also found a statistically significant but modest association between higher frequency of digital media use and subsequent symptoms of attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder. Although the link between social media use and health has become a growing public health concern, the empirical evidence remains inconclusive (Andreassen, 2015; Berryman, Ferguson, & Negy, 2018; Pantic, 2014), with some studies finding no support for the widely held assumption that social media use decreases real-life social interactions and leads to decreased mental health functioning and well-being (Berryman et al. , 2018; Hall et al. , 2018). Furthermore, despite the fact that social media use has increasingly become popular across all age groups (Smith & Anderson, 2018), most studies have focused on adolescent and young adult samples in college settings (e. g. , Booker, Kelly, & Sacker, 2018; Ellison et al. , 2007; Kross et al. , 2013).

Output: contrast


Input: Claim: Nosema ceranae is a microsporidian parasite affecting honeybee health and productivity. [SEP] Text: For each isolate, all 42 amplicons eventually carried the same tag at both ends and an equimolar mixture of the amplification products was prepared To prepare libraries, 0. 9 µg of the mixtures form three isolates, that carried three different tags, were pooled together with 1. 7 ng of the clonal PCR control (Table S7). Libraries were multiplexed and sequenced on Illumina HiSeq2000 system using 2 × 250 bp paired end protocol by Genewiz (). Sequence analysesSequencing resulted in 91,655,818 paired reads. Sequence quality was checked using the FastQC tool67. Reads with uncalled bases were removed using the vsearch tool68. Remaining reads were assigned to each sample using the tool from the FASTX-Toolkit69. The first 5 bases of demultiplexed sequences were trimmed using the fastx_trimmer tool to remove barcode sequences. Each library had over 80% of reads at Q30 after de-multiplexing, with few biases between libraries. The obtained data clearly exhibited 5′ and 3′ tags that were randomly spread instead of being identical for paired reads, showing that the pairing of reads was unsuccessful. We thus renounced joining paired ends and worked with single reads, i. e. the reads corresponding to each extremity of the amplicons had to be considered as separate genetic markers. In order to improve the quality of data, the last 50/75 nt of demultiplexed reads were trimmed and the resulting sequences were mapped on the marker sequences (genome version of Pelin et al. 35) using the BWA-MEM algorithm with a minimum 100 bp-long alignment option59. 166,993,099 demultiplexed cleaned single reads were mapped on the 42 markers. For alignments, complex sequences with INDEL were manually realigned for a maximum parsimony. Noteworthy, there was a good correlation between the coverage of both ends of markers. A list of haplotypes present in the whole dataset was created, keeping only those that covered more than 1% of the reads of the corresponding marker in at least one honeybee isolate. Using these conditions, the control reads for the clonal bla gene exhibited only a single haplotype for each side of the marker. These resulted in 98,226,822 exploited reads.

Output: pass


Input: Claim: Trees in urban areas provide shade and help lower city temperatures. [SEP] Text: This creates a vicious cycle by which the pedestrian realm in the city becomes less inviting, and people prefer to spend more of their time in air-conditioned buildings and private cars, most of which are still running on fossil fuels. Obviously, such a situation is not sustainable. Solutions, such as renewable energy and electric vehicles, are critical components of practically any positive future scenario, but the vast transformation that is needed will be lengthy and expensive. What has been learned in desert cities is that shorter-term solutions are available and that even simple measures can often make meaningful contributions. Successful strategies of this sort are usually based on the principle of efficiency; that is, making better and wiser use of limited resources. Such strategies could hold valuable lessons for cities that are pursuing sustainability and climate resilience in their future development plans, and perhaps, none is more essential than the cultivation of a city’s “urban green infrastructure,” that is, an integrated network of shade trees and vegetated public spaces, which is adapted to local conditions and local needs. For urban trees to thrive under arid conditions, they require irrigation and maintenance, which may be costly, and in some cases, even unfeasible. It is, therefore, crucial to understand the mechanisms by which they “cool” the open space, and to what extent their beneficial effects on thermal comfort can be achieved when their water requirements are reduced or even eliminated. We might even ask: could a landscape element, which is identical in form to a shade tree, but one that provides no evaporative cooling through leaf transpiration, provide as much relief to a pedestrian standing under its canopy as a tree, which is transpiring normally? A question of this sort was raised by Shashua-Bar et al. [1, 2] in a carefully controlled outdoor experiment comparing the level of thermal stress in two side-by-side courtyards in the hot-arid Negev desert—one covered by irrigated shade trees and the other by an overhead shading mesh. It was found that while the trees and the artificial mesh provided nearly identical shade (both blocking about 75% of the incoming solar radiation), the underside of the tree canopy maintained a much lower radiative surface temperature—typically reaching a peak on summer afternoons of about 32°C (close to the temperature of the surrounding air), while the underside of the mesh was heated to a temperature of over 45°C (Figure 1).

Output: corroborate


Input: Claim: Taking breaks from social media can have positive effects on mental health. [SEP] Text: In line with earlier observations (e. g. , Ellison et al. , 2007; Steinfield et al. , 2008), social media could be a helpful tool that can provide individuals with the opportunity to connect and reconnect (after physical disconnection) and maintain their social capital. On the contrary, the finding that emotional connection to social media use is negatively associated with the three health-related outcomes suggests the need for considering the potential harmful impact of social media use even as a normal social behavior. Here, it should be noted that we chose to consider emotional connection to social media use as a normal social behavior for, at least, the simple reason that the emotional connection scale we used was not an addiction scale. However, given the bidirectional relationship between social media use and mental health, individuals who are emotionally connected to social media use might as well be those who have already been experiencing one or another form of mental disorder. Indeed, Xu and Tan (2012) suggest that the transition from normal to problematic social media use occurs when users regard the social media use as an important or even exclusive mechanism to relieve stress, loneliness, or depression. The findings of this study may have implications for theory and practice. In terms of theory, the study has brought preliminary evidence that suggests the need for going beyond dose–effect approaches in conceptualizing and measuring social media use and its association with health. With this, the study joins the few prior studies that have shown that beyond frequency and duration of use, other aspects of use, such as type of use, should be considered in characterizing the link between social media use and health (Berryman et al. , 2018; Frison & Eggermont, 2015; Woods & Scott, 2016). If replicated, the findings could also inform practitioners in public health or health education that interventions aiming at promoting conscience or rational use of social media may need to be envisaged for the general public. More focused interventions might also target individuals who are emotionally connected to social media use in school or organizational settings. Such interventions could focus on promoting effortful control skills among emotionally involved users, particularly adolescents and young adults. As the volitional aspect of self-regulation, effortful control has been widely shown to be useful in dealing with problematic Internet and social media use (Li, Zhou, Li, & Zhoua, 2016; Lian et al. , 2018; Özdemir, Kuzucu, & Ak, 2014).

Output: contrast


Input: Claim: Nosema ceranae is a microsporidian parasite affecting honeybee health and productivity. [SEP] Text: Except for a very limited number of cases, several thousands of reads were obtained per marker and per isolate, with an average of 36,694 reads per marker and per isolate and more than 1200 reads in 99% of cases. Haplotypes frequencies were calculated per marker and per sample. Statistical analysesAnalyses of molecular variance (AMOVA) were performed using Arlequin software70 using the conventional F-statistics (haplotype frequencies) with 10,000 permutations. Principal component analyses (PCA), Neighbor-Joining (NJ) clustering and multivariate analysis of variance () and analysis of similarities () were performed using PAST software71. Groups of isolates were defined earlier (Table 1). PCAs were performed separately on the 43 coding markers, the 40 non-coding marker (including microsatellites) and the 11 microsatellite markers. They were performed on variance–covariance matrix, either disregarding groups or between groups with eigenanalysis carried out on the group means. NJ clustering was performed using Euclidean similarity indices matrix and 10,000 bootstraps. Non-parametric and were performed using Euclidean similarity index and 1,000,000 permutations. Data availability Demultiplexed SRA data are available in NCBI (796498). 47. (2012). 1476. (2019). 10. (2007). 29. (2013). 95. (2006). 19. (2017). 7279. (2020). 217. (2007). 150. (2018). 1329. (2018). 392. (2010). 2669. (2008). 229. (2023). 8580. (2020). 113. (2012). 196. (2015). 155. (2012). 301. (2017). 79. (2010). 2138. (2012). 1896. (2015). 233. (2011). 94. (2015). 13. (2008). 209. (2009). 95. (2011). 50. (2014). 134. (2011). 413. (2014). 1356. (2013). 481. (2014). 5609. (2015). 216. (2016). 4458. (2015). 889. (2019). 10. 1007/978-3-642-20992-5_1. 9234. (2017). 0466. (2009). 487. (2014). 53. (2017). 3621.

Output: pass


Input: Claim: Trees in urban areas provide shade and help lower city temperatures. [SEP] Text: This is an important contrast since a person in the courtyard is exposed to much more radiant heat when standing under a much hotter surface. Figure 1. Two courtyards, shaded by trees and artificial shading mesh, show differences in radiative surface temperature. Adapted from Shashua-Bar et al. [1, 2]. What accounts for this dramatic difference? Why does the bottom of the tree canopy stay so much cooler, keeping itself no warmer than the air around it, even though it is exposed to just as much sun as the artificial mesh? Certainly, it is connected to the structure of the tree canopy; with its multiple layers of branches and leaves, it intercepts solar radiation mainly at the level of its uppermost foliage, and heat is successively dissipated as it is transferred downward from one layer to the next. This effect of cumulative heat absorption and dissipation over many layers is clearly not present in the single-layer shading mesh, so more of its absorbed solar energy is emitted downward, creating a long-wave “radiator” above the head of a person in the space. We might consider the fact that a mesh with a lighter color (e. g. , white instead of black), and therefore a higher albedo, would moderate this heating effect by reflecting more of the incident sunlight back to the sky, but since it is a woven mesh with spaces between its threads (in order to “breathe” or prevent the trapping of hot air underneath), a higher optical reflectivity would also mean that more sunlight is reflected between threads and downward as well—making it a less effective shading device. In addition to these radiative effects, we might also suspect that the living tree cools itself by the transpiration of water vapor through its leaves, converting absorbed solar radiation from sensible heat (expressed by a rise in temperature) into latent heat (expressed by a rise in humidity). It is well understood that this evaporative cooling effect lowers the temperature of the leaf surface as well as that of the adjacent air, but the extent to which this produces effective cooling at the pedestrian level depends on the actual rate of leaf transpiration in different parts of the canopy [3]. Since different leaves at different locations have very different exposure to solar radiation as well as to other environmental and physiological factors, they do not necessarily transpire at the same rate [4, 5, 6].

Output: corroborate


Input: Claim: Taking breaks from social media can have positive effects on mental health. [SEP] Text: These conflicting effects further complicate our understanding of the role of social media use in daily well-being, since relatedness should be key to promoting well-being at a between-person level (Deci & Ryan, 2008) and on a daily level (Reis et al. , 2000). To date, studies that test the effects of taking a hiatus from online communication have shown mixed effects (Smith & Anderson, 2018). A number of studies suggest naturally occurring increases in social media use are associated with lower psychological well-being (Kross et al. , 2013; Sagioglou & Greitemeyer, 2014), and that taking a break from social media might boost affective processing (Uhls et al. , 2014), but such effects are not consistently positive. Results from Internet-based experiments suggest life satisfaction and positive emotions might be higher among those who intentionally quit Facebook (Tromholt, 2016), whereas evidence from carefully controlled experiments indicates ceasing social media use for brief periods of time can lead to reduced feelings of relatedness with others (Sheldon et al. , 2011). One recent study found life satisfaction is lower among those who reduce their social media platform use (Vanman et al. , 2018), and correlational data suggest that low versus moderate rates of technology use, including social media use, are not beneficial to mental well-being (Przybylski & Weinstein, 2017a). Thus, as this literature has developed, directly conflicting findings frequently arise in the psychological study of technology effects. The goal of the present research was to systematically test the idea that a brief break from social media has meaningful effects on psychological well-being and relatedness, such that they can be felt by the individuals being studied. To this end, we recruited three samples of young adults from the (UK), the (US), and (HK), and conducted a series of within-person field experiments. These experiments were pre-registered prior to data collection, meaning that the authors laid out their reasoning, research hypotheses, and methodological and analytic plans before conducting each of the three studies. This approach to open and reproducible research practices (Wagenmakers et al. , 2012) means that many of the analyses tested are “confirmatory” in that they test a priori, registered hypotheses, whereas others are “exploratory,” in that they test models that were selected after data had been collected.

Output: contrast


Input: Claim: Entomopathogenic nematodes can be used as biological control agents against soil pests. [SEP] Text: Javascript is disabled in your browser. Please enable Javascript to view PeerJ. A new threat to bees? Entomopathogenic nematodes used in biological pest control cause rapid mortality in Bombus terrestris All reviews of published 2023. Peer reviewers are encouraged (but not required) to provide their names to the authors when submitting their peer review. If they agree to provide their name, then their personal profile page will reflect a public acknowledgment that they performed a review (even if the 2015. The first revision was submitted on October 13th, 2015 and was reviewed by 2 reviewers and the Academic Editor. The 2015. Version 0. 2 (accepted) · Oct 29, 2015 · the authors strongly agree that this manuscript should be published without delay, given the potential importance of its findings. Although this work is preliminary, it appears to be scientifically sound, and this phenomenon should be examined at greater depth ASAP. · Oct 26, 2015 Basic reporting Now the papers appears to be well structured highlighting the issues involved. I urge the authors for more detailed investigations in future. Of course this suggestion may not affect the final acceptance of this MS in anyway Experimental design Its ok Validity of the findings seems convincing Additional comments I recommend the acceptance of the MS now Cite this review as (2015) #1 of "A new threat to bees? Entomopathogenic nematodes used in biological pest control cause rapid mortality in Bombus terrestris (v0. 2)". PeerJ Reviewer 3 · Oct 29, 2015 Basic reporting design of the findings comments I am happy with the changes made by the authors. I think that this paper will be of broad interest to the community. Cite this review as (2015) #3 of "A new threat to bees? Entomopathogenic nematodes used in biological pest control cause rapid mortality in Bombus terrestris (v0. 2)". PeerJ 0. 2 (PDF) Download author's response letter - submitted Oct 13, 2015 Version 0. 1 (original submission) · Oct 1, 2015 · All of the reviewers agreed that the findings in this manuscript are important and should be widely known. At the same time two of the reviewers raised methodological concerns that need to be addressed. My reading of Table 1 differs from that of Reviewer 1 in that I think it shows that all of the exposed carcasses have treated have nematodes.

Output: pass


Input: Claim: Trees in urban areas provide shade and help lower city temperatures. [SEP] Text: Recent modeling studies have shed some light on differential leaf transpiration and cooling effects in common urban tree species. Simulations by Pace et al. [4] showed that in Tilia cordata, shading effects contribute the most to the temperature reduction at midday, while on average, under the given environmental conditions, transpiration represented only 12% of the total energy reduction. The reason for this is indicated by the numerical modeling results of Banerjee and Linn [7], who showed that the rate of transpiration increases dramatically with height in the tree canopy. While the nature of these variations was dependent on the particular wind, humidity, and ambient light conditions as well as water availability and tree canopy architecture, in all cases the transpiration rate at the bottom of the canopy was a relatively small fraction (ranging from 10% to 25%) of that at the canopy top. However, while such research has shed light on the spatially heterogeneous nature of leaf transpiration, it has also revealed the complexities of quantifying this heterogeneity within a real tree canopy. The modeling of latent heat exchange between individual tree leaves and the local environment is difficult since it is influenced by the microclimatic conditions and soil water availability as well as the plant’s physiological response. In most canopy models, variables, such as turbulent wind flow, evaporative demand, and anisotropic radiation exchange, tend to be highly simplified, as is the geometric description of the tree canopy itself [8]. In fact, the rate of thermoregulation observed in different canopies can vary widely, even if they have the same leaf area index (LAI), but differ in the vertical distribution of their leaf area density [7]. Therefore, it is important that we pursue in situ observation of radiation and transpiration effects in urban tree canopies and their spatial variance with respect to the cooling benefits they offer pedestrians. Advertisement 2. MethodologyIn order to examine the relative contributions of radiation and transpiration to the “cooling” effect of the bottom of urban tree canopies, we performed controlled outdoor experiments in which we compared different trees of the same species and size, but with the rate of leaf transpiration limited in one case, and unmodified in a simultaneously observed control case. In preparation for the full radiation-transpiration experimental campaign, a pilot study was carried out to provide a preliminary indication of the relevant effects and their general magnitude.

Output: corroborate


Input: Claim: Taking breaks from social media can have positive effects on mental health. [SEP] Text: , 2013), we did not find any evidence that abstaining from social media for one day had significant positive impacts on psychological well-being. Stopping social media for one day—a form of “digital detox”—did not have a measurable impact on positive affect, negative affect, self-esteem, or participants’ satisfaction with their day in our pre-registered analyses. When abstinence did have an effect—that is, in analyses unadjusted for controls, “digital detox” was found to decrease well-being. This pattern was most clear in the case of day satisfaction, the outcome which asked most directly about participants’ quality of life on the day. We did observe partial support for one of our hypotheses—a finding first reported by Sheldon and colleagues (2011), which indicated that suspending Facebook use was associated with lower levels of relatedness need satisfaction. Data from all three experiments indicated that participants reported their levels of social relatedness were both significantly (i. e. , p < 0. 05) and meaningfully (i. e. , η2 > 0. 059) lower on days they successfully cut themselves off from social media. That said, it is noteworthy these effects were no longer in evidence when we held variability in gender constant. This result inspired a number of exploratory analyses. In addition, based on the displacement hypothesis and the subsequent literature, we expected that in the absence of social media mediums for interactions, individuals would use other (and perhaps richer) forms of communication. In an exploratory analysis we tested the expectation that individuals would report more varied forms of communications during social media abstinence days. Again, interestingly, we found that participants reported significantly lower levels of face-to-face, voice, and email interactions on days they abstained from social media. That is, participants did not replace social media time, often thought of as time better spent in other ways, with other forms of socializing. Said differently, this set of results suggests the displacement account provides a poor fit for predicting what people will do when they forgo digital opportunities. Analogue and digital modes of socializing may be as inseparable as qualitative researchers have long argued (Jurgenson, 2011). Limitations and Avenues for Future ResearchThe present study presents a number of limitations which continued research should address to deepen our understanding of social media effects.

Output: contrast


Input: Claim: Entomopathogenic nematodes can be used as biological control agents against soil pests. [SEP] Text: Since GYO is mixture of two species of nematodes, it is difficult to ascertain what actually caused mortality with special reference to Heterorhabditis sp. The authors should mention the species of Heterorhabditis and Steinernema in the product “Own”. Also composition in term of proportion will put more light on our understanding on this aspect. No doubt the data is given on the count of nematode but sometimes in case of mixed infection only one species will outcompete the other. Validity of the findings I am unable to understand that in table 1 in case of VW a large number of carcasses were collected but nematodes were recovered from a very few one. What caused the mortality then? How lowest number is 0 while highest is about 3-6000. Interstingly no difference in mortality between the different nematode concentration treatment groups in GYO but not VW. The author needs to justify. In the abstract authors mention ≥ 80% mortality within the 96 hour. But under methodology section it is written that bee mortality was measured 24, 48 and 72 hours after nematode exposure. Please check Additional comments Of course the paper is well written and i do not find any critical issues about the presentation but the author needs to address these issues before considering the same for publication. Cite this review as (2015) #1 of "A new threat to bees? Entomopathogenic nematodes used in biological pest control cause rapid mortality in Bombus terrestris (v0. 1)". PeerJ Reviewer 2 · Sep 16, 2015 Basic reporting No comments Experimental design No comments Validity of the findings No comments Additional comments This is an interesting paper in the absence of effect entomopathogenic nematodes on mortality of bumble bee Bombus terrestris. It is important to using safe biological control agents pay attention to the unlimited availability and also affects beneficial insects. The 0. 1)". PeerJ Reviewer 3 · Sep 25, 2015 Basic reporting The paper is very clearly written with sufficient background to orientate readers. I would like more details in the methods. Some details I would like to see are: 1 How many colonies are used. I suspect one, which is a bit limiting in terms of predicting how general this is, although the mortality rate is quite amazing. 2 the level of replication is not clear in text.

Output: pass


Input: Claim: Trees in urban areas provide shade and help lower city temperatures. [SEP] Text: At the bottom of the stressed canopy, however, single-leaf transpiration declined only slightly (by about 0. 4 mmol m−2 s−1) relative to the control, as both were very low to begin with (Figure 8). Figure 8. Leaf transpiration Tr in the two trees (T1 = control; T2 = water stress from June 19), comparing sunlit (canopy top) and shaded leaves (canopy bottom) in the afternoon hours (13:30–14:30). These empirical findings largely reinforce the numerical modeling results of Banerjee and Linn [7], which found that under warm, dry, and sunny conditions, leaf temperature at the top of the tree canopy was slightly above ambient air temperature (25°C), while leaf temperature at the bottom of the canopy was several degrees lower than air temperature. Similarly, our data generally agreed with those models in terms of the transpiration rate at the bottom of the canopy, which, in both cases, was very low compared to that at the top—with reductions in the range of 75–90% depending on the environmental conditions and canopy structure. However, in terms of water availability, Banerjee and Linn [7] found that well-watered trees maintained somewhat lower temperatures and higher transpiration rates than those which were water-stressed. Advertisement 4. ConclusionsThe results of this study show how transpiration plays a role in lowering the surface temperature of sunlit leaves at the top of an irrigated tree canopy but does not have consistent effects in the lower part of the canopy—where limited exposure to solar radiation reduces the stomatal conductance of leaves whether the tree is irrigated or not. Since the bottom part of the canopy maintains lower leaf surface temperature in both cases, we can make the following conclusions:The radiative temperature of the underside of the tree canopy is mainly regulated by the cumulative shading effects of the multiple leaf layers above and to a much lesser extent by transpiration from the bottom leaves. This means that drought-resistant tree species, whose transpiration rate might be limited, can still be valuable for improving pedestrian thermal comfort because the “cooling” they provide is mainly due to the radiative effects of shading.

Output: corroborate