Input: Claim: Taxation is always harmful to economic growth. [SEP] Text: Thus, in this case, the estimates confirm the pattern that we see with our three main measures of capital taxation. Greater reliance on capital taxation does not appear to be systematically linked with lower economic growth. 4. 2 Heterogeneity across countriesThe regression estimates presented thus far do not lend support to the conventional wisdom that capital taxation is harmful for economic growth. In all of the specifications of Table 1, we find the association between capital taxation and economic growth to be strongly or weakly positive. In this section, we further explore whether this effect is similar across more and less developed countries or whether there is some heterogeneity across countries in this respect. For this purpose, we construct a ”Low-Income” dummy variable to separate the relatively less developed countries in our sample from the relatively more developed ones. This dummy is then interacted with our different capital taxation measures to allow for their effect to differ for less developed countries. To estimate the correct income threshold below which the effect of capital taxation on growth should be different, we first employ a threshold regression on the countries for which we have data for the entire period from 1965 to 2014. Then we apply the estimated threshold value of income to the whole of our sample. Beyond that, we also consider a continuous interaction effect where the nature of the association between capital taxation and growth is allowed to vary with a country’s relative income level. For this analysis, we focus on the three main measures of capital taxation for which we have good data coverage and for which we can estimate our main regression specification based on roughly the same sample of countries. Footnote 5 The estimation results from these regressions are presented in Table 2. Table 2 Estimation results with interactions for main capital tax measuresFull size tableColumns (1), (2) and (3) of Table 2 present the estimation results when the ratio of corporate taxes to total taxation is used as our main measure of capital taxation. The first column shows the estimates for the threshold regression, which necessitates the use of a fully balanced panel throughout our sample period from 1965 to 2014. This leaves us with a sample of 23 countries. Based on a goodness of fit criterion, the threshold regression suggests a differential effect of capital taxation on growth for countries whose per capita income levels are below a value of approximately 13,500 in terms of constant 2005 dollars. This estimated differential effect is also highly statistically significant.

Output: contrast


Input: Claim: Lactic acid bacteria are important for fermentation processes. [SEP] Text: Lactiplantibacillus plantarum transcriptome under extracellular electron transfer (EET)-conducive conditions. 10. 1101/2021. 05. 12. 443930 1614. 684. 1973. 2120. PubMed 753. PubMed 3585. PubMed 28. 113. 257. PubMed 314. 330. 10. 1101/2021. 05. 26. 445846 2357. PubMed 135. 238. PubMed 48. PubMed 4516. 703. 2776. 86. PubMed 648. PubMed 4564. PubMed 161. PubMed 18. PubMed 470. PubMed 117. 412. PubMed 106. PubMed 4723. 1717. 677. 103. 125. 932. PubMed 19. PubMed 18. PubMed 791. PubMed 7506. PubMed 5. 0: a hierarchical, functionally and phylogenetically annotated orthology resource based on 5090 organisms and 2502 viruses Research 47:D309–D314. PubMed 3351. PubMed 681. PubMed 4. 81. PubMed 7198. 17. 399. 236. PubMed 10. 1017/9781316761625 1909. PubMed 98. PubMed 120. PubMed 6. 10. 1101/601666 359. 2123. PubMed 850. 2079. PubMed 930. 144. 6899. PubMed 1462. 408. 550. 5616. 208. 3973. PubMed 874. 4989. PubMed 175. PubMed 2648. PubMed 381. 25. 14. 394. 865. 353. 1320. 153. 4603. 1. 58. PubMed 17. PubMed 607. PubMed 957. 921. 220. 388. 62. 305. 769. 878. 247. 20. 2650. PubMed 773. PubMed 797. PubMed 781. 2948. 1319. 2926. 217. 1678. PubMed 15. 494. 103. PubMed 139. PubMed 7728. 40. 473. 14. PubMed 583. PubMed 185. 20. PubMed 10. 1093/femsec/fiy084 PubMed 2008. PubMed 2858. 1231.

Output: pass


Input: Claim: Astrobiology explores the potential for life beyond Earth. [SEP] Text: , Luger and Barnes, 2015; Bolmont et al. , 2017). This means that planets could meet multiple metrics for what a habitable planet should look like, such as their mass, radius, and the amount of energy they receive, but lack water, a necessary condition for life. Despite these concerns, there are several interesting targets that could be habitable. 7. 2. 10. 1. Proxima CentauriThe closest star to the Sun, (commonly referred to as Proxima), is a mere 4. 2 light-years away. Proxima is a cool star with an effective temperature of ∼3000 K, about half that of the Sun, and is roughly 12% the mass of the Sun. In 2016, from radial velocity measurements, Anglada-Escudé et al. (2016) reported a likely rocky planet in the habitable zone of Proxima. Following exoplanetary naming conventions, the planet was named b (also called Prox. Cen. b or Proxima b). The potential habitability of Proxima b has been considered in detail by numerous studies (e. g. , Ribas et al. , 2016; Turbet et al. , 2016; Kane et al. , 2017; Meadows et al. , 2018; et al. , 2019; Salazar et al. , 2020). From various climate and planetary models, studies of the habitability of Proxima b have found that it may indeed support a habitable surface, and possibly life. However, as is the case with all planets, our understanding of habitability on Proxima b depends on numerous factors, including atmospheric composition, possible spin–orbit resonance, precise mass and radius, orbital eccentricity, outgassing rate, stellar activity, and more (see 7. 1. 4. 1 in the supplementary material). Telescope (JWST) may be able to constrain some of these properties, even though Proxima b does not transit its host star (Turbet et al. , 2016). 7. 2. 10. 2. -1Approximately 40 light-years from Earth sits -1, a cold M dwarf star with an effective temperature of just ∼2600 K, less than half that of the Sun.

Output: corroborate


Input: Claim: Taxation is always harmful to economic growth. [SEP] Text: For the sub-sample of high-income countries the effect, captured by the baseline capital taxation coefficient, is strongly positive as in Table 1. For the sub-sample of low-income countries, on the other hand, the corresponding effect, obtained by summing up the baseline and interaction term coefficients, is effectively negative. In the second column of Table 2, we estimate the same interaction effect using our full sample of countries including those for which the data for some years are missing. For this estimation, we employ the same income cutoff point identified by the threshold regression in order to define our low-income dummy. As the estimation results reveal, we find again the corporate taxation ratio to be positively associated with growth rates for high-income countries. Yet, this is clearly not the case for low-income countries. The estimated interaction effect with the low-income dummy is negative and statistically significant. Moreover, in this case, the net effect for the low-income countries is estimated to be not different from zero. In the third column of Table 2, we go beyond a dichotomous split between high- and low-income countries. As an alternative, we allow the effect of capital taxation to change continuously as a country moves down along the world income distribution. We do this by interacting the corporate tax ratio with an indicator of a country’s relative position in the world income distribution. This indicator is defined as the income level of the world’s richest country in any given year divided by a country’s own income level in that same year. This variable ranges from 1 for the world income leader in each year to around 45 for the poorest country in our sample. As the estimates reveal, we again observe a significantly positive base effect of the corporate tax ratio on economic growth for high-income countries. As the negative interaction effect shows, however, the effect turns negative as we move down the income distribution. To properly assess this effect, it is useful to look at the corresponding marginal effect plot, which we show in panel (a) of Fig. 1. The graph shows the marginal effect of the corporate tax ratio on real GDP growth for different values of relative income. Moreover, the dotted lines indicate a 95% confidence interval and the histogram shows the distribution of the relative income variable. Footnote 6 From this graph it is clear that for high-income countries, with relative income levels close to 1, the effect of corporate taxation is estimated to be positive and statistically significant.

Output: contrast


Input: Claim: Lactic acid bacteria are important for fermentation processes. [SEP] Text: From cocoa fruit to chocolate. The first steps of the cocoa processing chain take place at farms in the cocoa-producing countries around the equator. Fermented dry cocoa beans are further processed into chocolate and other cocoa products in factories worldwide. *Grinded cocoa nibs form cocoa mass or cocoa liquor, depending on the temperature. Cocoa mass/liquor is used for the production of both dark and milk chocolates, together with cocoa butter and sugar. **Milk powder is used for the production of milk and white chocolates, the latter further involving only cocoa butter and sugar. Open in new tabDownload slideFermented dry cocoa beans are the principal raw material for the production of chocolates and other cocoa-based (food) products (Schwan and Wheals 2004; Afoakwa et al. 2008; Lima et al. 2011; Saltini, Akkerman and Frosch 2013; Badrie et al. 2015; Schwan, Fleet and Afoakwa 2015; Pereira, Soccol and Soccol 2016; and Weckx 2016a,b; Ozturk and Young 2017; Muñoz et al. 2019). Whilst the demand for fermented dry cocoa beans is increasing, chocolate manufacturers as well as consumers are concerned about the economical, ethical, environmental and social sustainability of cocoa manufacturing throughout its whole production chain. High demands may result in an expansion of the cocoa plantations at the cost of forest area, affect global warming, create potential irregular work situations, intensify the use of agrochemicals (fertilizers and pesticides), increase residual biomass if not dealt with properly (cocoa pod husks, cocoa bean shells and cocoa pulp sweatings), and parallel cocoa bean price fluctuations and speculations, etc. (Wessel and Quist-Wessel 2015; Kongor et al. 2016; Konstantas et al. 2018; Vásquez et al. 2019). Besides expansion of the cocoa production area and improvement of the cocoa yields, alternative fermentation practices, such as novel fermentation methods or the use of functional starter cultures, can be applied to improve the yield of well-cured cocoa beans and the farmers’ income.

Output: pass


Input: Claim: Astrobiology explores the potential for life beyond Earth. [SEP] Text: -1 hosts seven small planets named -1 b, c, d, e, f, g, and h, with b the innermost and h the outermost (Gillon et al. , 2017). The planets span the width of the habitable zone of -1 and beyond, providing a planetary system where the effect of orbital distance on habitability can be probed. The potential habitability of the -1 planets has been extensively modeled (e. g. , O'Malley-James et al. , 2017; Vida et al. , 2017; Wolf, 2017; Dong et al. , 2018; Lincowski et al. , 2018; Papaloizou et al. , 2018). Further, the -1 planets transit their star, making it possible to characterize their mass and radius (e. g. , Grimm et al. , 2018). While models of the -1 planets indicate they may be habitable, particularly d and e, future observations from ELTs and JWST will further constrain the potential habitability of these planets and make detailed measurements of their atmospheric composition (e. g. , Lincowski et al. , 2018). 7. 2. 10. 3. Considerations for water worldsWater worlds (often taken to mean > 1% H2O by mass) are an important class of rocky exoplanets. Water worlds are expected to be quite common (Raymond et al. , 2004; Zeng et al. , 2019), and their relatively high potential for habitability (Kite and Ford, 2018) renders them a vital topic for study. For comparison, Europa is at least 6% H2O by mass (Anderson et al. , 1998), and Earth has well below 1% H2O by mass. The composition, chemistry, and dynamics of the oceans of water worlds are critical to understanding their potential habitability. The large mass fraction of water required implies that water worlds are made mainly of cometary material (Léger et al. , 2004). CO2 is a common volatile component of cometary material (Mumma and Charnley, 2011). To prevent overheating by a strong greenhouse effect, an efficient CO2 sequestration mechanism may be important (Marounina and Rogers, 2020), perhaps implying that the habitable zone for water worlds is shifted farther from the star.

Output: corroborate


Input: Claim: Taxation is always harmful to economic growth. [SEP] Text: Moving down the income distribution the effect becomes smaller and eventually turns negative for low-income countries. Fig. 1Marginal effect plots for relative income. graphs show the marginal effect of different measures of capital taxation on real GDP growth for different values of relative income. The dotted lines indicate a 95% confidence interval and the histogram represents the distribution of relative incomeFull size imageSimilar effects are observed for the other capital taxation measures. In columns (4), (5), and (6) we look at the broad capital taxation ratio. Column (4) again starts with the threshold regression for a balanced panel of countries. In this case again, as indicated by the coefficient on the interaction term, there is a difference between the effect of the capital tax ratio for high- and low-income countries which is significant at the 5% level. This is despite the fact that the effect for the high-income countries is positive but statistically insignificant. Thus, the net effect for low-income countries is negative but close to zero. Moreover, we should note that the threshold identified here is virtually identical to that in column (1). When the same absolute threshold is again applied to a wider sample in column (5), we observe the same pattern as in column (2). There is a highly statistically significant difference in the effect between the two groups of countries, with a positive effect of capital taxation on growth for the high-income countries and an almost zero effect for the low-income ones. The obtained pattern is similar also when we use a relative income interaction in column (6). This can again be illustrated with the marginal effect plot in panel (b) of Fig. 1. This plot is nearly identical to the one from panel (a) and, hence, suggests the same conclusions. Lastly in columns (7), (8), and (9) we repeat the same set of regressions employing this time as the measure of capital taxation our constructed effective average capital tax rates. Looking first at the threshold regression for the balanced panel in column (7) we see a clear difference in the effect for high- and low-income countries. For the high-income countries, the relationship between effective average capital tax rates and growth rates is positive and statistically significant, while for low-income countries the estimated relationship is effectively zero.

Output: contrast


Input: Claim: Lactic acid bacteria are important for fermentation processes. [SEP] Text: 2011; Saltini, Akkerman and Frosch 2013; and Weckx 2016b; Muñoz et al. 2019). Although 4 days seem to be optimal, the fermentation may last from 2 to 10 days or it may even be that no intentional fermentation set-up is foreseen (Schwan and Wheals 2004; Rodriguez-Campos et al. 2011, 2012; Lefeber et al. 2012; Papalexandratou et al. 2013; Maura et al. 2016; Mayorga-Gross et al. 2016; and Weckx 2016b; Muñoz et al. 2019). Overall, the fermentation duration depends on the cocoa variety and the local farming practices applied. If the fermentation lasts longer than 4 days, bacilli can also grow under the aerobic conditions, but they are rather undesirable because of the production of off-flavours, such as short-chain fatty acids and ammonia (Ardhana and Fleet 2003; Schwan and Wheals 2004; Nielsen et al. 2007a; Lima et al. 2011; Pereira et al. 2012, 2013a; Pereira, Magalhães-Guedes and Schwan 2013b; Ho, Zhao and Fleet 2014; Kouamé et al. 2015a,b; and Weckx 2016b; Miguel et al. 2017; Agyirifo et al. 2019; Hamdouche et al. 2019; Papalexandratou et al. 2019). Similarly, the growth of filamentous fungi can cause off-flavour and mycotoxin formation (Ardhana and Fleet 2003; Schwan and Wheals 2004; Guehi et al. 2007, 2008; Sánchez-Hervás et al. 2008; Copetti et al. 2010, 2011, 2014; Mounjouenpou et al. 2010; Lima et al. 2011; Kedjebo et al. 2015; and Weckx 2016b; Agyirifo et al. 2019). These bacilli and filamentous fungi may thus cause spoilage, although they are sometimes considered as beneficial contributors to pectinolysis; certain Bacillus species are even linked with pyrazine production (Ardhana and Fleet 2003; Schwan and Wheals 2004; Ouattara et al. 2008, 2011; Lima et al.

Output: pass


Input: Claim: Astrobiology explores the potential for life beyond Earth. [SEP] Text: Outgassing of magmas underneath an ocean may be suppressed by high overburden pressure (Journaux et al. , 2020; Krissansen-Totton et al. , 2021). This likely reduces geochemical cycling and feedbacks (Noack et al. , 2016), but it is not necessarily a detriment to the maintenance of habitable temperatures (Kite and Ford, 2018). The presence of high-pressure ice phases deep in the oceans of water worlds may impede water–rock reactions (Journaux et al. , 2020; Marounina and Rogers, 2020) thought to be important for creating habitable conditions by preventing contact between liquid water and silicates. However, convection in high-pressure ices may facilitate mixing and contact between the ocean and silicates (Kalousová et al. , 2018). Because sub-Neptunes make up a large fraction of the exoplanets detected to date (Otegi et al. , 2020), understanding whether and how they may evolve into water-rich super-Earths is essential to assessing the potential habitability of such planets. Water-rich sub-Neptunes may lose their volatile envelope as they migrate close to their parent star or as the star brightens over time, leaving behind a water world (Luger et al. , 2015). Dissolution of H2O into iron-rich silicates may buffer the water content of sub-Neptunes as they lose the remainder of their volatile envelope, potentially maintaining a long-lived, H2O-dominated atmosphere (Kite and Shaefer, 2021) that may overlay a water world. Ultimately multiple, common planetary evolution pathways may result in the formation of water worlds. 7. 3. ConclusionUnderstanding the extant conditions and history of the bodies in the Solar System, especially in the context of life as we know it on Earth, is vital to the study of how life gains a foothold and evolves along with planetary bodies. Applying methods from a wide variety of scientific disciplines is an essential part of our developing knowledge of habitable environments in the Solar System. The more we learn about Earth and the potentially habitable worlds in our planetary neighborhood, the better we are able to apply those lessons to other star systems and the multitudes of worlds they contain. The same is true in reverse—studying the plethora of known exoplanets puts the into context. Assessing the habitability of a particular environment is an exercise in synthesis.

Output: corroborate


Input: Claim: Taxation is always harmful to economic growth. [SEP] Text: Applying to the full sample the estimated absolute income threshold, which also in this case corresponds to approximately 13,500 in terms of constant 2005 dollars, we obtain the results of column (8). The pattern that we obtain is the same, but more precisely estimated: a highly significant positive effect in high-income countries and similarly a significant difference with low-income countries. The same pattern is observed when employing the relative income variable instead in column (9). Examining the marginal effect plot in panel (c) of Fig. 1 is also reassuring. In countries where income levels are higher the effect of capital taxation on growth appears to be positive, whereas in countries with lower income levels the effect is negative. Overall the results reported in this section suggest the presence of clear differences across countries in how capital taxation affects economic growth. Exploring the nature of this heterogeneity, we provide evidence that it is related to a country’s level of development. In high-income countries that operate close to the technology frontier and whose relative income levels are high, we find that greater reliance on capital taxation relative to other forms of taxation tends not to be particularly harmful for growth. In low-income countries, however, that operate further away from the technology frontier and whose relative income levels are low, we find the effect of capital taxation to be closer to being negative, as conventional wisdom suggests. This pattern can also be shown to be robust to the inclusion of several additional control variables which relate to other tax policy variables and to other factors influencing the relationship between capital taxation and economic growth. This is shown in greater detail in Table 7 in “Section C” of 4. 3 Correcting for endogeneity: GMM resultsThe regression results presented up to this point, although robust, may still be subject to various types of biases. Particularly relevant in our empirical context is the dynamic-panel bias due to the presence of a lagged dependent variable among the regressors and the endogeneity bias caused by correlation of some of the regressors with the error term. In the former case, the positive correlation between the lagged value of income and the error term of the regression is likely to attenuate the coefficient estimates on the dependent variables and to make an otherwise negative coefficient on capital taxation appear insignificant. In the latter case, the resulting endogeneity bias may shift the estimated coefficients either upward or downward.

Output: contrast


Input: Claim: Lactic acid bacteria are important for fermentation processes. [SEP] Text: 2011; Kouamé et al. 2015a,b; and Weckx 2016b). Enterobacterales (e. g. soil- or plant-associated Erwinia, Pantoea and Tatumella species) occur transiently in the beginning of the fermentation of the cocoa pulp-bean mass and may participate in the degradation of pulp pectin and citric acid (Garcia-Armisen et al. 2010; Lefeber et al. 2011a; Papalexandratou et al. 2011c, 2013, 2019; Illeghems et al. 2012; Pereira et al. 2012; Pereira, Magalhães-Guedes and Schwan 2013b; Ho, Zhao and Fleet 2014; Hamdouche et al. 2015, 2019; Illeghems, Weckx and 2015b; and Weckx 2016b). They can be responsible for the production of gluconic acid from glucose as well, which is considered undesirable and impacts the glucose-dependent growth of yeasts and LAB, although gluconic acid may provide the cocoa beans with a mild herbal flavour and mask bitterness caused by caffeine (Lefeber et al. 2011a; Papalexandratou et al. 2011c, 2019). Whereas the microbiology of the cocoa fermentation process was initially studied culture-dependently only [since the 1950s; reviewed in Schwan and Wheals (2004), Thompson et al. (2013) and and Weckx (2016a)], cocoa fermentation studies from 2000 on started with phenotypic identification of picked colonies [e. g. Ardhana and Fleet (2003) and Kostinek et al. (2008)]. This was later followed by molecular identification and amplicon sequencing of the isolates [since 2005; e. g. Jespersen et al. (2005) and Camu et al. (2007)], culture-independent community profiling methods such as DNA-based fingerprinting [since 2005; e. g. Nielsen et al. (2005) and Camu et al. (2007)] and (shotgun) metagenomics (since 2012) that can both unravel the microbial species diversity [e. g. Garcia-Armisen et al. (2010), Illeghems et al. (2012) and Agyirifo et al.

Output: pass


Input: Claim: Astrobiology explores the potential for life beyond Earth. [SEP] Text: Prospects for metazoan life in sub-glacial Antarctic lakes: the most extreme life on Earth? Published online by Press: 15 January 2019 [Opens in a new window]andClaus-Show author details Sven Thatje* Affiliation: School of Ocean and Earth Science, University of 14 3: School of Ocean and Earth Science, University of 14 3-Affiliation: 3 0ET, Cambridge, UK * Author for correspondence: Sven Thatje, E-mail: sthatje@icloud. com 0. 2 mb) View PDF [Opens in a new window] Save to to Save to & Permissions [Opens in a new window] 400 subglacial lakes are known from Antarctica. The question of whether life unique of subglacial lakes exists has been paramount since their discovery. Despite frequent evidence of microbial life mostly from accretion ice, subglacial lakes are characterized by physiologically hostile conditions to metazoan life, as we know it. Pure water (salinity ≤0. 4–1. 2%), extreme cold (−3°C), high hydrostatic pressure, areas of limited or no oxygen availability and permanent darkness altogether require physiological adaptations to these harsh conditions. The record of gene sequences including some associated with hydrothermal vents does foster the idea of metazoan life in Lake Vostok. Here, we synthesize the physico-chemical environment surrounding sub-glacial lakes and potential sites of hydrothermal activity and advocate that the physico-chemical stability found at these sites may be the most likely sites for metazoan life to exist. The unique conditions presented by may also offer an outlook on life to be expected in extra-terrestrial subglacial environments, such as on Jupiter's moon Europa or Saturn's moon Enceladus. pressurehydrothermal ventLake Vostokmicrobiologymetazoanphysiologysub-glacial life 10. 1017/S1473550418000356 [Opens in a new window] © Press 2019 since the discovery of subglacial Antarctic lakes, the possibility of life unique to this environment has fascinated science. Recent taxonomic classifications for gene sequences obtained from accretion ice of in (Shtarkman et al. , 'Elia, Morris and Rogers2013) and from lake water and sediments in subglacial lake Whillans in (Christner et al.

Output: corroborate


Input: Claim: Taxation is always harmful to economic growth. [SEP] Text: Overall the results of Table 3 suggest that the potential endogeneity biases are not the reason for the observed differential effect of capital taxation on economic growth between high- and low-income countries. For all regressions in Table 3, we also report the results of two key specification tests, the Hansen J-test for instrument exogeneity and the Arellano–Bond test for second-order autocorrelation. A significant Hansen J-statistic would indicate that some of the instruments are likely not exogenous. Similarly, a significant test statistic for the Arellano–Bond autocorrelation test would indicate that some of our instruments are potentially correlated with the error term. As indicated by the reported p-values, the J-test statistic is in all cases insignificant. For the autocorrelation test statistic for the BB estimates the p-values fall in between the 5% and the 10% level. Given that this does not seem to be the case for the AB estimates, it seems that the issue lies with the use of the lagged first differences as instruments which are employed in the BB estimation but not for the AB estimation. 4. 4 Results with annual dataThe consistency of the results obtained thus far should increase our confidence in the conclusion that at least in developed countries capital taxation does not appear harmful for economic growth and that this is less the case among developing countries. Yet, in our estimation approach to this point we have not fully utilized the annual frequency of the observations in our data set. Given the nature of our data, an alternative approach is to estimate the effect of capital taxation on growth rates using the panel error-correction estimation techniques developed by Pesaran et al. (1999). et al. (1999), we can separately estimate the short-run response of the dependent variable to changes in the independent one from the long-run relationship between these variables.

Output: contrast


Input: Claim: Lactic acid bacteria are important for fermentation processes. [SEP] Text: However, the yeasts are responsible for the depectinization of the pulp through pectinase (pectin methylesterase and polygalacturonase) activities (Schwan and Wheals 2004; Meersman et al. 2015, 2017; Samagaci et al. 2016). This causes the so-called sweatings of the cocoa fermentation process, consisting of a drainage of the depolymerized pulp as white-yellow to reddish liquid, that either penetrate into the ground or are collected for further valorization (Schwan and Wheals 2004; Vásquez et al. 2019). Yet, studies focusing on the (bio)chemical analysis of sweatings are very scarce (Schwan and Wheals 2004; Papalexandratou et al. 2011c; Vásquez et al. 2019). Also, the protease activity of the yeasts may contribute to a reduction of the shell material of the cocoa beans, which may make them weaker and hence more accessible to an influx of pulp and/or microbial metabolites upon fermentation (Ho, Zhao and Fleet 2014; Visintin et al. 2016). Furthermore, the yeasts produce glycerol through glycolysis, which contributes to a sweet taste and enhanced mouthfeel (Fig. 2; Rodrigues, Ludovico and Leão 2006; Dzialo et al. 2017). Organic acids are also formed by yeasts, including acetic acid and succinic acid through pyruvate metabolism and tricarboxylic acid (TCA) cycle activity, respectively (Fig. 2). They contribute to the acidity of the beans. Further, the yeasts produce acetoin from acetaldehyde (green apple notes), which can be further reduced to 2,3-butanediol; similarly, diacetyl can be reduced to acetoin and 2,3-butanediol (Fig. 2). Moreover, the yeasts generate both flavour precursor molecules and flavour-active compounds, such as higher alcohols (e. g. 3-methylbutanol and 2-phenylethanol) and esters (e. g. ethyl acetate, ethylphenyl acetate and phenylethyl acetate), contributing to the floral and fruity notes of the cocoa beans (see below).

Output: pass


Input: Claim: Astrobiology explores the potential for life beyond Earth. [SEP] Text: , and Vick-Majors2014) again stimulate the discussion on the existence of subglacial lake life, and its origins. Such mostly pure water, high hydrostatic pressure, low temperature and locally oxygen-limited environments (Siegert et al. , Reference Siegert, Ellis-Evans, Tranter, Petit, Slamantin and Priscu2001) may be challenging for life. However, improved knowledge of the physico-chemical environment prevailing in subglacial lakes has questioned how isolated – and unique – these environments really are. More attention must be paid to the physical and physiological instability of these systems over geological timescales when assessing conditions for the evolution – and endurance – of subglacial life. We hypothesize that the most stable conditions in subglacial lakes, allowing the development of unique metazoan life, may be around hydrothermal vent activity (Fig. 1). Fig. 1. Schematic representation of the physico-chemical conditions potentially found in a stable subglacial lake. Modified after Bentley et al. (and Le Brocq2011). Melting of basal ice releases oxygen, leading to circulation within the lake. Areas of low oxygen most likely prevail in areas of ice accretion. Under the high-pressure conditions found, water temperature reaches exceptionally low levels for a liquid water body. Hyperbaric conditions to life is the largest of nearly 400 subglacial Antarctic lakes, which are often connected by rivers and streams, and is covered by nearly 4 km-thick ice (Siegert et al. , Reference Siegert, Ellis-Evans, Tranter, Petit, Slamantin and Priscu2001; Wright and Siegert, and Siegert2012). The ice thickness varies between 3759 m over the south and 4150 m over the north of the lake. The depth of the lake also varies, reaching at least 1000 m on its southern side, although the lake floor may be covered with thick glacial sediment deposits typical of subglacial environments (Souchez et al. , Reference Souchez, Petit, Tison, Jouzel and Verbeke2000; Siegert et al. , Reference Siegert, Ellis-Evans, Tranter, Petit, Slamantin and Priscu2001; Bentley et al. , and Le Brocq2011).

Output: corroborate


Input: Claim: Taxation is always harmful to economic growth. [SEP] Text: Furthermore, there is a statistically significant difference with its effect in low-income countries. The estimated magnitudes of the effects are smaller in this case, but this is because of the higher frequency of the data. Footnote 9 The within R-squared reported in the table is substantially lower than the values we obtained before, which is the result of employing annual data rather than averages and of having the growth rate as the dependent variable instead of the level of GDP per capita. Proceeding to the DFE estimates in columns (2), (5), and (8), we can now compare the long- and short-run coefficient estimates in Tables 4 and 5. The pattern that emerges is again similar. For high-income countries, we see a positive association between all three measures of capital taxation and growth, both in the long run and in the short run. Regarding the interaction effect, however, we see that while the short-run coefficients are significant for all three variables, the long-run coefficients are only significant for one of the three, namely the broad capital tax ratio. Thus, according to the DFE estimator, which constrains the short- and long-run coefficients to be the same for all countries, the differential effect of capital taxation on growth appears to be mostly of a short-run nature. Turning to the PMG estimates, however, which relax this homogeneity assumption with respect to the short-run coefficients, suggests a different conclusion. Comparing the estimates reported in columns (3), (6), and (9) of Tables 4 and 5, we see again for high-income countries a positive association between all three measures of capital taxation and growth rates, both in the long run and in the short run. In the case of the interaction effect, however, we see this time that for all three variables the short-run coefficients are statistically insignificant, while the long-run coefficients are negative and significant. This suggests that the assumption of homogeneity of the short-run coefficients imposed by the DFE estimator may have been too restrictive and the correct conclusion is that the differential effect of capital taxation on growth is more of a long-run nature.

Output: contrast


Input: Claim: Lactic acid bacteria are important for fermentation processes. [SEP] Text: Yeasts produce higher alcohols either catabolically, via the Ehrlich pathway involving consecutive transamination, decarboxylation and dehydrogenation of amino acids, or anabolically, as side-products of amino acid biosynthesis starting from pyruvate (Fig. 2; Rodrigues, Ludovico and Leão 2006; Dzialo et al. 2017). Esters are the condensation products of ethanol and medium-chain fatty acids or higher alcohols and acetic acid, yielding ethyl esters and acetate esters, respectively. The production of these flavour-active compounds makes the yeasts indispensable for a successful cocoa fermentation process, as these compounds can influence the final chocolate aroma profile (Lefeber et al. 2012; Ho, Zhao and Fleet 2014; Meersman et al. 2015, 2016; Papalexandratou and Nielsen 2016; Ho, Fleet and Zhao 2018). During the anaerobic phase, the temperature of the fermenting cocoa pulp-bean mass increases from around 25–30°C to 35–40°C, due to the fermentation activities. Depectinization and drainage of the cocoa pulp, which enhances with the increasing temperature (either by irreversible degradation of structural components of the pulp pectin or by increased activity of yeast endopolygalacturonase), reduces the pulp viscosity and, together with regular mixing of the cocoa pulp-bean mass, allows air ingress, which favours the growth of the residing bacteria (Schwan and Wheals 2004; and Weckx 2016b; Meersman et al. 2017). The ethanol produced by the yeasts partly penetrates into the seed cotyledons, is oxidized into acetic acid by AAB later in the fermentation process, flows away with the sweatings, or evaporates (Fig. 2; Schwan and Wheals 2004; and Weckx 2016b). A rather wide yeast species diversity has been recovered from fermenting cocoa pulp-bean mass, belonging to mainly the genera Candida, Hanseniaspora, Pichia and Saccharomyces (Ardhana and Fleet 2003; Jespersen et al. 2005; Nielsen et al. 2005, 2007a; Gálvez et al. 2007; Daniel et al.

Output: pass


Input: Claim: Astrobiology explores the potential for life beyond Earth. [SEP] Text: , Reference Takai, Nakamura, Toki, Tsunogai and Miyazaki2008). It should be highlighted, however, that vent metazoans thrive at much lower temperatures, in rare cases of up to 55°C (Ravaux et al. , and Shillito2013). Most sessile fauna shows preference for even lower temperatures of 5–11°C, while motile fauna is often found at higher temperatures (30–38°C), depending on the species and vent site (e. g. Takai et al. , Reference Takai, Nakamura, Toki, Tsunogai and Miyazaki2008; Ravaux et al. , and Shillito2013; Thatje et al. , Reference Thatje, Marsh, Roterman, Mavrogordato and Linse2015). Life, as we know it The unique challenges to life on Earth presented by may also offer the best perspective on life to be expected in extra-terrestrial subglacial environments, such as on Jupiter's moon Europa (Carr et al. , and Veverka1998). Europa has a hot inner core and is suspected to have local tectonic activity, and its water is also pure or of very low salinity. Further, molecular hydrogen has been found in plumes of ice-covered Saturn's moon Enceladus, and it has been suggested that the most plausible source of this hydrogen is ongoing hydrothermal reactions of rock containing reduced minerals and organic materials (Waite et al. , and Boltons2017). In such environments, some kind of chemosynthesis is the most likely source of energy for the evolution and sustenance of life, at least as we know it. Hydrothermal features in subglacial may be the best place to look for deep branching lineages of metazoans that have evolved in a way that is analogous to life on Europa and Enceladus. Therefore, and despite all recent controversy, the increased evidence for chemosynthetic life in should not be ignored; may provide unique opportunities to the study of the origins of (metazoan) life. physico-chemical environment of subglacial lakes is from a physiological point of view strikingly different from any conditions found elsewhere in limnic and marine environments on Earth.

Output: corroborate


Input: Claim: Taxation is always harmful to economic growth. [SEP] Text: In addition to the differences in the estimates for the capital taxation measures and their interactions with the low-income dummy, there are a number of additional differences between the DFE and PMG estimators in the obtained estimates for the other regressors, which suggest that the PMG estimator is a better choice. Overall with the PMG estimator the statistical significance of the long-run coefficients for our other regressors is higher than with the DFE estimator. Instead with the DFE estimator we tend to find statistically significant short-run coefficients for many of the variables, while with the PMG estimator this is only the case for the investment share. The DFE estimator, however, assumes no difference in the short-run coefficients across countries. If the assumption is inaccurate, though, the obtained estimates would be inconsistent and the importance of short-run dynamics will be overstated. On the other hand, the PMG estimator, which allows the short-run coefficients to vary across countries, is more conservative in this respect. This should be the case, if countries’ short-run growth trajectories vary due to differences in business cycle dynamics. This possibility is supported by the results of a simple Hausman test which indicates that the restriction of homogeneity in long-run coefficients is quite reasonable, yet less so in short-run coefficients. Footnote 10 Overall, these patterns and the comparison with our analysis based on averages from the previous section indicate that the PMG estimates provide a more consistent picture for the effect of capital taxation on growth. Footnote 11 This effect is primarily a long-run effect which consistently varies between high- and low-income countries. 5 Model descriptionHaving documented the differential nature of the relationship between capital taxation and economic growth across high- and low-income countries, we now proceed to rationalize it in the context of a model of endogenous growth. This rationalization is important as none of the existing theoretical contributions in the literature can justify why capital taxation is more detrimental for growth in developing than in developed countries, as our empirical results suggest. While several of the papers, discussed in Sect. 2, indicate that under some circumstances rates of capital taxation should be positive, these circumstances appear more relevant for developing than for developed countries. Footnote 12To account for why capital taxation is more detrimental for growth in developing countries, we propose a model where the rate of economic growth is endogenous and explicitly linked with capital taxation.

Output: contrast


Input: Claim: Lactic acid bacteria are important for fermentation processes. [SEP] Text: 2009; Nielsen, Jakobsen and Jespersen 2010; Papalexandratou and 2011; Papalexandratou et al. 2011c, 2013, 2019; Illeghems et al. 2012; Pereira et al. 2012, 2013a, 2017; Crafack et al. 2013; Meersman et al. 2013; Moreira et al. 2013, 2016, 2017; Pereira, Magalhães-Guedes and Schwan 2013b; Ho, Zhao and Fleet 2014, 2015; Ramos et al. 2014; Arana-Sánchez et al. 2015; Batista et al. 2015, 2016; Hamdouche et al. 2015, 2019; Koné et al. 2016; Maura et al. 2016; Menezes et al. 2016; Miescher Schwenninger, Freimüller Leischtfeld and Gantenbein-Demarchi 2016; Samagaci et al. 2016; Visintin et al. 2016; Koffi et al. 2017; Miguel et al. 2017; Bastos et al. 2018; Ho, Fleet and Zhao 2018; Mota-Gutierrez et al. 2018, 2019a,b; Romanens et al. 2018; Agyirifo et al. 2019; Almeida et al. 2019; Lee et al. 2019; Ooi, Ting and Siow 2020). The most frequently isolated yeast species are Hanseniaspora opuntiae in the beginning to the middle of the cocoa fermentation process, and Saccharomyces cerevisiae—and in some cases Pichia kudriavzevii—from the middle and later time points of the fermentation process. However, other species of Hanseniaspora and Pichia, and even diverse Candida species (and species of other genera) may occur, reflecting a great species diversity among the predominant yeast genera occurring during cocoa fermentation processes; this also reflects their various and independent origins (Jespersen et al. 2005; Meersman et al. 2013; Ludlow et al. 2016; Maura et al. 2016; Koffi et al. 2017; Pereiraet al. 2017). All these yeast species mainly differ in acidic, ethanol and heat tolerances, explaining their successive growth and prevalence, although substrate competitiveness may not be excluded (Daniel et al.

Output: pass


Input: Claim: Astrobiology explores the potential for life beyond Earth. [SEP] Text: Dehydration could possibly occur due to nanoconfinement (Muñoz-Santiburcio and Marx, 2017) in metal sulfides at alkaline vents, yet, at present, high water activity does not seem consistent with an origin of life (Frenkel-Pinter et al. , 2021). Thus, while some considerations favor a cyanosulfidic model, other models, including an origin of life at seafloor vents, are not ruled out. Here we focus on the potential for evaluating a possible cyanosulfidic origin of life on Mars. 2. Problems with an Origin of Life on Earth2. 1. was an ocean worldThe cyanosulfidic origin theory is compelling, yet current data suggests that early Earth was a water world (Fig. 1A), with little to no sub-aerial continental crust before 3. 5 Ga (Bada and Korenaga, 2018), reaching 1–2% land by 3. 0 Ga and 5–8% by 2. 5 Ga (Flament et al. , 2013; Lalonde and Konhauser, 2015). Consistent with these findings, recent analysis suggests initiation of continental weathering between 3 and 2. 5 Ga (Johnson and Wing, 2020). This would have limited the land area suitable for a cyanosulfidic origin of life to regions such as volcanic island hot spots (Bada and Korenaga, 2018). FIG. 1. Planetary context for a hypothesized cyanosulfidic origin of life on Mars and its transport to Earth via lithopanspermia. The horizonal axis for all panels is billions of years ago (Ga). (A) had orders-of-magnitude more land area available to support a cyanosulfidic origin of life. (B) Life arising on early Mars would have been protected by a magnetic field and thicker atmosphere (∼0. 5 bar) than at present. The lack of a rock record prevents similar knowledge of early Earth, although it is likely Earth's dynamo had started by 3. 4–3. 45 Ga (Tarduno et al. , 2010). (C) Impact cratering on early Mars, especially from ∼4. 2 to ∼3. 8 Ga, would have provided both habitable environments for life to arise as well as facilitate its transport to Earth via meteoritic ejecta.

Output: corroborate


Input: Claim: Taxation is always harmful to economic growth. [SEP] Text: The baseline effect of capital taxation on growth remains positive for high-income countries and the interaction effect for low-income countries is in all cases negative and statistically significant. Columns 2, 5 and 8, present the estimation results when we control for a measure of labor taxation. The exact measure of labor taxation that we employ in each of the three columns follows the respective measure of capital taxation. Thus, in column 2 we control for a narrow measure of the labor tax ratio, reflecting just personal income taxes of individuals, in column 5 we control for a broader labor tax ratio and in column 8 we control for the effective average rate of labor taxation. The exact description of all three measures is provided in “Section B” above. In all three cases, we do not see that the inclusion of these controls dramatically alters our main findings. Moreover, the coefficient estimates that we obtain for our labor tax measure in columns 2 and 5 are statistically insignificant. Only in column 8, we see a clear negative and statistically significant relationship between the effective rate of labor taxation and economic growth, suggesting that high rates of labor taxation are growth retarding. Controlling for this effect slightly weakens the positive association between capital taxation and economic growth for high income countries and makes the corresponding one for low-income countries more negative. Yet, qualitatively it does not alter our main finding. Columns 3, 6 and 9, present the estimation results when we control for a measure of consumption taxation. Again in this case, we use three measures of consumption taxation that match with our employed measures of capital taxation. In column 3, we control for a narrow consumption tax ratio, reflecting just general taxes on good and services, in column 6 we control for a broader consumption tax ratio, and in column 9 we control for the effective average rate of consumption taxation. In parallel to the results that we obtain for labor taxation, we find the estimates for both the narrow and the broad consumption tax ratio to be statistically insignificant and not to change the estimates for main regressors. However, for the effective rate of consumption taxation we find it to be positively associated with growth rates. Controlling for this effect, as can be seen, slightly strengthens the positive association between capital taxation and economic growth for high-income countries and makes it more negative for low-income countries. Qualitatively, though, it does not alter our main findings.

Output: contrast


Input: Claim: Lactic acid bacteria are important for fermentation processes. [SEP] Text: Although lactic acid itself may not play the same role as acetic acid in modulating bean pH, peptides and flavanols, the effects of citric acid conversion in the pulp (avoiding citric acid transfer into the beans) and reduction of fructose to mannitol (possibly diffusing into the beans) can result into other processes that contribute to the cocoa flavour than those caused by acetic acid. This refers in particular to the conversion of amino acids in the pulp (contributing to cocoa flavour production as yeasts do) and the provision of a sweet and cool taste due to mannitol accumulation (Lefeber et al. 2010, 2011b; and Weckx 2016a,b; John et al. 2020). As is the case for acetic acid, lactic acid may display a flavanol-protective effect, i. e. reducing polyphenol degradation (Evina et al. 2016; John et al. 2019). Desirable volatile organic compounds contributing to the cocoa flavour produced by LAB encompass pyruvate metabolites (diacetyl and acetoin; buttery/creamy notes) and amino acid conversion metabolites, such as the aldehydes 2-methylbutanal and 3-methylbutanal (malty and chocolate notes) produced from isoleucine and leucine, respectively, as well as benzaldehyde (almond and bitter notes) produced from phenylalanine (see below). The exhaustion of the energy sources glucose and fructose, a continuous increase of the ethanol, lactic acid and acetic acid concentrations, and a rise in temperature of the fermenting cocoa pulp-bean mass eventually cause a decline of the LAB counts and a further decline of the yeast counts (Schwan and Wheals 2004; and Weckx 2016b). The LAB species diversity recovered from fermenting cocoa pulp-bean mass is rather restricted. Fructophilic species that occur in the early stages of the cocoa fermentation process encompass Fructobacillus pseudoficulneus, Fructobacillus tropeaoli and Leuconostoc pseudomesenteroides, as well as Lactobacillus plantarum, the latter species being reclassified as Lactiplantibacillus plantarum (Ardhana and Fleet 2003; Camu et al. 2007, 2008a; Gálvez et al.

Output: pass


Input: Claim: Astrobiology explores the potential for life beyond Earth. [SEP] Text: Volcanism would have played a role in facilitating a cyanosulfidic origin of life (Sasselov et al. , 2020) in combination with hydrothermal subsurface activity and ephemeral surface waters. The aqueous record of this time and the geochemical transformation of Mars is recorded by the presence of hydrated silicates and salts, with sulfates as a particularly important record of early oxidation on Mars in comparison to Earth, where widespread oxidation occurred over a billion years later. (D) If a cyanosulfidic origin of life occurred on early Mars, such life could have been transferred to Earth around the time of, but not necessarily coincident with, the last universal common ancestor (LUCA). For example, LUCA may have existed on Mars, and life on Earth could have arrived via multiple transfer events. Estimated timing of Mars' processes are as reported by Ehlmann et al. (2011). In contrast, the land area on early Mars was orders of magnitude greater than on early Earth. Estimates of the water inventory on Mars at the Noachian/Hesperian boundary range from tens of meters (Carr and Head, 2015) to ∼1 km global equivalent layer (Kurokawa et al. , 2014). The upper bound assumes a putative northern ocean after formation of the martian dichotomy, for example, the Borealis basin resulting from a massive impact event (Andrews-Hanna et al. , 2008) at or before 4. 2 Ga and possibly as old as 4. 5 Ga (Mittelholz et al. , 2020). Even in the most extreme scenarios, Mars would have had orders-of-magnitude more land area than early Earth. A possible resolution for a cyanosulfidic origin of life on early Earth is that closed-basin lakes in volcanic island hot spots might represent ideal locales for concentration of cyanide salts (Toner and Catling, 2019). In these regions, chemical weathering of mafic/ultramafic rocks could produce alkaline lakes and lead to ferricyanide salt precipitation. Under this scenario, favorable conditions could lead to a rapid boot-up of life despite limited land area. However, similar conditions were likely present on early Mars and potentially orders of magnitude more common.

Output: corroborate


Input: Claim: Taxation is always harmful to economic growth. [SEP] Text: Beyond controlling for these variables, in regressions that we do not report here, we have also checked how our estimation results are potentially affected by the inclusion of other related variables. In particular, we have considered the role of political institutions, proxied by a country’s polity score, the role of economic institutions, proxied by the ICRG quality of governance index, and the role of a country’s level of economic freedom, proxied by Heritage Foundation’s economic freedom index. In all cases, however, we found the coefficient estimates for these additional variables to be statistically insignificant and their inclusion not to alter our findings in any important way. 1. 3. 2 Robustness checks with alternative thresholdsAs a further check on our main findings, in this subsection we also explore how our estimation results change when we consider alternative threshold effects that go beyond the simple low-income dummy on which we focus in most of our regression tables. Specifically, for our main specification with the binary threshold dummy we consider three alternative dummies separating our sample of countries based on (a) their share of total tax revenue in GDP, (b) their effective average rate of labor taxation, and (c) their effective average rate of consumption taxation. As in the previous subsection, we perform this robustness check for all three main measures of capital taxation. Table 8 Robustness checks with alternative thresholdsFull size tableFor the purpose of this estimation, we follow the same approach as with the estimation of the threshold for our main regression specification. This means that we first estimate a threshold regression for our balanced sub-sample where we allow the effect of capital taxation to vary with each country’s share of total taxation in GDP, its effective labor taxation rate and its effective consumption taxation rate. Based on the estimated threshold value, we construct a dummy variable for our full sample of countries and explore whether the effect of capital taxation on growth varies for countries above and below that threshold. The resulting estimates, presented in Table 8, provide some evidence that the heterogeneity in the effect of capital taxation on growth across countries is linked with their tax structure. In all cases, we find the estimated interaction effects to be negative. Yet, only in the case of the dummy variables based on total taxation and labor taxation we find a statistically significant interaction term with any of our three main measures of capital taxation.

Output: contrast


Input: Claim: Lactic acid bacteria are important for fermentation processes. [SEP] Text: 2007; Nielsen et al. 2007a; Kostinek et al. 2008; Lefeber et al. 2011a; Pereira et al. 2012, 2013a; Papalexandratou et al. 2013; Snauwaert et al. 2013; Pereira, Magalhães-Guedes and Schwan 2013b; Ho, Zhao and Fleet 2014, 2015; Ramos et al. 2014; Hamdouche et al. 2015; Bortolini et al. 2016; Miescher Schwenninger, Freimüller Leischtfeld and Gantenbein-Demarchi 2016; Moreira et al. 2016, 2017; Visintin et al. 2016; Miguel et al. 2017; Bastos et al. 2018; Romanens et al. 2018; Agyirifo et al. 2019; Lee et al. 2019). Strictly heterofermentative LAB species that prevail during the middle and late phases of the cocoa fermentation process are mostly represented by Lactobacillus fermentum, which has been reclassified as Limosilactobacillus fermentum (Camu et al. 2007, 2008a; Nielsen et al. 2007a; Kostinek et al. 2008; Lefeber et al. 2011a; Illeghems et al. 2012; Pereira et al. 2012, 2013a; Moreira et al. 2013, 2017; Papalexandratou et al. 2013, 2019; Pereira, Magalhães-Guedes and Schwan 2013b; Ho, Zhao and Fleet 2014; Ramos et al. 2014; Hamdouche et al. 2015, 2019; Illeghems, and Weckx 2015a; Batista et al. 2016; Bortolini et al. 2016; Miescher Schwenninger, Freimüller Leischtfeld and Gantenbein-Demarchi 2016; Visintin et al. 2016; Miguel et al. 2017; Bastos et al. 2018; Mota-Gutierrez et al. 2018; Romanens et al. 2018; Agyirifo et al. 2019; Lee et al. 2019). These species differ in their capacities to use glucose, fructose and/or citric acid.

Output: pass


Input: Claim: Astrobiology explores the potential for life beyond Earth. [SEP] Text: Thus, if cyanosulfidic life is easy to start up, then a cyanosulfidic origin would be all the more likely on Mars and might have occurred earlier, all other factors being equal. While the rock record of early Earth has been largely lost, on Mars this record remains, making it feasible to seek direct evidence of cyanosulfidic chemistry in ancient rocks there. 2. 2. The atmospheric rise of oxygen on Earth took place more than a billion years after fixation of the genetic codeAdditional support for a martian origin of life on Earth comes from amino acids and the evolution of the genetic code itself. Granold et al. (2018) proposed that the genetic code used a simpler set of amino acids and that the final diversification of amino acids happened in response to oxygen, suggesting that the diversification was late, in other words, coincident with the appearance of early local oxygen on Earth. It this hypothesis is correct, it would imply exposure to oxidizing conditions on early Earth. However, genomic, fossil, and geological evidence suggests that fixation of the genetic code and oxidation on early Earth are separated in time by more than 1 billion years. The geologic record has revealed that Earth was largely devoid of oxygen for its first 2+ billion years, and appreciable quantities only accumulated after cyanobacteria invented oxygenic photosynthesis, resulting in the great oxidation event (GOE) (Harel et al. , 2015). While the GOE occurred around 2. 33 Ga (Luo et al. , 2016), evidence for early local oxidative weathering suggests there could have been transient local oxygen pulses at or before 3 Ga (Crowe et al. , 2013; Mukhopadhyay et al. , 2014). Nevertheless, the late diversification is problematic because the root of the archaeal phylum Euryarchaeota, which arose after LUCA, has been dated to >4 Ga (Wolfe and Fournier, 2018) (Fig. 1D), and the genetic code must have been fully established before this time (Fournier and Alm, 2015; Weiss et al. , 2016), including use of selenocysteine by LUCA (Weiss et al. , 2016). Time-calibrated phylogenomics extending this deep into life's history comes with caveats and wide error bars, yet it highlights a >1. 5 billion-year inconsistency.

Output: corroborate


Input: Claim: Fungal spores are among the most abundant airborne particles. [SEP] Text: Javascript is disabled in your browser. Please enable Javascript to view PeerJ. Related research -fungal networks are more sensitive to grazing exclusion than bacterial networks View 10. 7717/peerj. 9986 Published 2020-09-18 Accepted 2020-08-27 Received 2020-04-30 glareosa, Desert steppe, Grazing exclusion, Microbial communities, Co-occurrence networks Copyright © 2020 Chen et al. is an open access 2020. Soil fungal networks are more sensitive to grazing exclusion than bacterial networks. PeerJ 8:e9986 microbial communities play a crucial role in ecological restoration, but it is unknown how co-occurrence networks within these communities respond to grazing exclusion. This lack of information was addressed by investigating the effects of eight years of grazing exclusion on microbial networks in an area of Stipa glareosa P. Smirn desert steppe in northern China. Here, we show that fungal networks were more sensitive to grazing exclusion than bacterial networks. Eight years of grazing exclusion decreased the soil fungal community stability via changes in plant composition and reductions in soil total organic carbon, in this case triggering negative effects on the S. glareosa desert steppe. The results provide new insights into the response mechanisms of soil microbes to grazing exclusion and offer possible solutions for management issues in the restoration of degraded desert steppe. has a long history and remains the common land use type in grasslands (Bai et al. , 2004). However, overgrazing has led to serious deterioration of grassland ecosystems in China during the past three decades (Hoffmann et al. , 2008; Li et al. , 2008). In response to regional environmental problems, the Chinese government launched some grassland restoration programs, such as the “lands to Grasslands” in 2003 and the “Protection Program” in 2011, to mitigate grassland degradation by prohibiting grazing and increasing grassland vegetation biomass (Hao et al. , 2014; Bryan et al. , 2018). In these projects, various degraded grasslands were fenced for different numbers of years and grazing was permanently prohibited. Therefore, grazing exclusion has been widely used in for curbing grassland degradation and restoring damaged ecosystems (Bai et al. , 2004; Hao et al. , 2014). However, the effects of grazing exclusion are controversial depends on its vegetation types, environmental conditions, and duration (Jing et al.

Output: pass


Input: Claim: Lactic acid bacteria are important for fermentation processes. [SEP] Text: This overoxidation causes a slight pH increase, whereas the high temperature finally halts the cocoa fermentation process, resulting in a decline of the yeast, LAB and AAB community counts but possibly favouring the outgrowth of residing Bacillus spores (Schwan and Wheals 2004; and Weckx 2016b; Figueroa-Hernández et al. 2019; Muñoz et al. 2019). The AAB species diversity recovered from fermenting cocoa pulp-bean mass is even more restricted than that of the LAB. It encompasses Acetobacter ghanensis and Acetobacter senegalensis that mainly occur at the start of the cocoa fermentation process, whereas A. pasteurianus—and in some cases Acetobacter lovaniensis, Acetobacter syzygii, or Acetobacter tropicalis—prevail during the last phase of this process (Ardhana and Fleet 2003; Camu et al. 2007, 2008a; Cleenwerck et al. 2007, 2008; Gálvez et al. 2007; Nielsen et al. 2007a; et al. 2008; Papalexandratou et al. 2009, 2011a,b,c, 2013; Lefeber et al. 2011a; Illeghems et al. 2012; Pereira et al. 2012, 2013a; Romero et al. 2012; Romero-Cortes et al. 2012; Crafack et al. 2013; Meersman et al. 2013; Pereira, Magalhães-Guedes and Schwan 2013b; Ho, Zhao and Fleet 2014, 2015; Ramos et al. 2014; Yao et al. 2014; Soumahoro et al. 2015; Batista et al. 2016; Bortolini et al. 2016; Miescher Schwenninger, Freimüller Leischtfeld and Gantenbein-Demarchi 2016; Moreira et al. 2016, 2017; Visintin et al. 2016; Bastos et al. 2018; Ho, Fleet and Zhao 2018; Mota-Gutierrez et al. 2018; Romanens et al. 2018; Agyirifo et al. 2019; Hamdouche et al. 2019; Lee et al. 2019).

Output: pass


Input: Claim: Astrobiology explores the potential for life beyond Earth. [SEP] Text: Thus, the timing of the fixation of the genetic code does not align with the inferred oxidation state of early Earth. However, on Mars, surface conditions became oxidizing much earlier, as discussed later in Section 3. 3. 3. Origin and Evolution of It on Mars3. 1. A cyanosulfidic origin of life on Mars? is dry and cold (Savijärvi et al. , 2019), yet early Mars was habitable for life as we know it, with significantly more water than is present today (Ehlmann et al. , 2011; Kurokawa et al. , 2014; Alsaeed and Jakosky, 2019). Availability of the main elements used by life (C, H, N, O, P, and S) and energy sources including variable redox states of iron and sulfur minerals are recorded in the stratigraphy of (Grotzinger et al. , 2015; Hurowitz et al. , 2017). Widespread clay minerals confirm extensive periods of subsurface water-rock interactions before 3. 7 Ga (Fig. 1C) yet also suggest even early Mars had mostly cold and relatively arid surface conditions (Ehlmann et al. , 2011), which could have aided accumulation of organic molecules through concentration and low hydrolysis rates. Sasselov et al. (2020) delineated a plausible pathway for a cyanosulfidic origin of life on early Mars. They suggest that igneous intrusions, volcanism, or impacts interacting with cyanide salt deposits could have generated the relevant feedstocks to produce nucleotide, amino acid, and lipid precursors. Here, we also suggest a Mars cyanosulfidic origin of life could have seeded life on Earth, resolving the inconsistencies previously noted for an origin of Earth life on Earth. Lightning would have provided hydrogen cyanide (HCN), representing a total fixed nitrogen budget on par with that of early Earth (Segura, 2005). Meteorite impacts (Fig. 1C) may also have generated HCN and provided phosphate (Pasek and Lauretta, 2005). Sulfite would likely have been available on early Mars as a consequence of volcanic SO2, a CO2 atmosphere, and low temperatures (Marion et al. , 2013); later oxidation would have led to the formation of sulfate minerals, consistent with remote sensing (Flahaut et al.

Output: corroborate


Input: Claim: Certain fungi can decompose organic matter, contributing to nutrient cycling. [SEP] Text: 0010[beetle regulation;biodiversity;deadwood;ecosystem services;engineers;heartwood fungus;keystone species;saproxylic;secondary cavity nesters;woodpeckers]Woodpeckers are prominent examples of ecosystem engineers because they excavate cavities in woody plant tissue, transforming habitat in ways that create shelter for other cavity-dwelling organisms. While the potential keystone role of woodpeckers in cavity-nesting bird communities is well documented, less is known about the importance of their feeding activity. Many woodpecker species drill holes in wood and consume numerous saproxylic insects; and some create sap wells that provide a rich food source for other sap-feeding organisms. Through their cavity-excavating and feeding activity, woodpeckers likely contribute significantly to decomposition cycles, food webs, and biodiversity in forest ecosystems. As with most birds, however, the ecological impacts of woodpeckers have rarely been quantified in terms of the ecosystem services they provide. We discuss the ecosystem services provided by woodpeckers and point out knowledge gaps and research needs that must be addressed before full valuation of these services can be carried out. (pages 298 - 320)This 10. 7208/chicago/9780226382777. 003. 0011[agricultural areas;agroforests;ecosystem services;frugivores;granivores;insectivores;nectarivores;omnivores;primary forests;species richness]Although most bird species avoid agricultural areas, nearly a third of all birds regularly to occasionally use such habitats, often providing important ecosystem services like pest control, pollination, and seed dispersal. Combining literature review with large-scale analyses of the ecological characteristics of the world’s birds, I compared tropical bird species that prefer forests, agricultural areas or both, with respect to body mass, diet, range and population size, frequency, conservation status, habitat and resource specialization. Compared to primary forests, species richness of large frugivorous and insectivorous birds (especially terrestrial and understorey species) often decline in agroforests. In contrast, nectarivores, small-to medium insectivores (especially migrants and canopy species), omnivores, and sometimes granivores and small frugivores do better, frequently by tracking seasonal resources.

Output: contrast


Input: Claim: Lactic acid bacteria are important for fermentation processes. [SEP] Text: These species differ in the speed with which they can oxidize ethanol and lactic acid simultaneously (Moens, Lefeber and 2014). The prevalence of A. pasteurianus strains is due to their ethanol-, lactic acid- and mannitol-oxidizing capacities and their tolerances toward acidity and heat (Lefeber et al. 2011b; Illeghems, and Weckx 2013; Moens, Lefeber and 2014; Illeghems et al. 2016). The growth of glucose-oxidising Gluconobacter and Gluconacetobacter species that can be present in the fermenting cocoa pulp-bean mass is not desirable, as this may lead to the production of gluconic acid, when ethanol and lactic acid are depleted. This mainly occurs when no appropriate substrate degradation and metabolite production by the prevailing microorganisms occurs in the first phase of the cocoa fermentation process, leaving glucose and gluconic acid for AAB and yeast growth late in the fermentation process and possibly producing off-flavours (Papalexandratou et al. 2011c; Moens, Lefeber and 2014). Drying phase Drying, either sun drying on platforms or artificial drying, of the fermented cocoa beans reduces their moisture content and hence the occurrence of living microorganisms (Schwan and Wheals 2004; and Weckx 2016a,b; Figueroa-Hernández et al. 2019; Muñoz et al. 2019). Under conditions of a higher temperature, higher pH and higher availability of oxygen during the drying step compared to the fermentation step, certain yeast, LAB and AAB species can be recovered, besides bacilli and filamentous fungi (Schwan and Wheals 2004; Hamdouche et al. 2015; Romanens et al. 2018). During the drying phase, several cocoa bean compounds are degraded or modified and others can be produced (e. g. tetra- and trimethylpyrazines through Maillard reactions under the appropriate environmental conditions). Enzymatic and non-enzymatic conversions inside the cocoa beans during cocoa fermentation Anaerobic and aerobic phases The acetic acid produced by the AAB penetrates into the cocoa seeds and decreases the pH of the cotyledons from 6. 5 to 4.

Output: pass


Input: Claim: Astrobiology explores the potential for life beyond Earth. [SEP] Text: , 2010) and in situ measurements (Rapin et al. , 2019). The presence of sulfites would also help explain the relative dearth of carbonates on Mars (Marion et al. , 2013). 3. 2. An RNA world on Mars? A cyanosulfidic origin of life (Patel et al. , 2015; Sasselov et al. , 2020) would produce all the building blocks required for an RNA-protein world (Goldman et al. , 2010; Harish and Caetano-Anollés, 2012). What we are still lacking is knowledge about whether ancient Mars, especially before the Noachian-Hesperian boundary (Fig. 1), was conducive to the formation, stabilization, and evolution of an RNA-protein world and ultimately cellular life. Hints are beginning to emerge: Mojarro et al. (2020) evaluated plausible divalent cations (Fe2+, Mg2+, and Mn2+) at different pH conditions and found the lowest rate of metal-catalyzed hydrolysis of RNA for Mg2+ at pH 5. 4, rather more acidic than the circumneutral conditions suggested by the cyanosulfidic model (Sasselov et al. , 2020). Bray et al. (2018) found that Fe2+ and Mn2+ can replace the modern role of Mg2+ for ribosomal RNA folding and translation in anoxic conditions, relevant to early Earth or early Mars. An improved understanding of Mars' redox history is necessary to understand the potential origin and evolution of an RNA world on Mars. For all known life, DNA ultimately replaced RNA as the carrier of hereditary information. However, if an RNA-protein world evolved on Mars, we may still be able to sample fossilized or extant traces of it in the subsurface, or may find, like all known Earth life, that its role in heredity has been displaced by DNA. 3. 3. Mars surface redox evolution occurred earlier than on EarthWhile an oxidizing atmosphere on Earth arose due to biological production of oxygen, oxidation on Mars is thought to have resulted from crustal water sequestration (Tuff et al. , 2013; Wade et al. , 2017) as well as photolysis of water and subsequent loss of hydrogen (Hartman and McKay, 1995; Kurokawa et al.

Output: corroborate


Input: Claim: Curcumin, found in turmeric, has anti-inflammatory properties. [SEP] Text: However, there is limited evidence in the possible ameliorative effect of curcumin against ACR-induced neurotoxicity. Prasad and Muralidhara [22] have demonstrated the neuroprotective effect of curcumin in an ACR model of neurotoxicity in an insect species, Drosophila melanogaster. A recently published study [23] reported that curcumin would exert a protective effect against ACR-induced spatial memory impairment in rats. However, the anti-apoptotic, antioxidant and anti-inflammatory activities of curcumin have not been well evaluated in ACR-induced neurotoxicity. In the present study, we identified whether curcumin could exert protective effects against neuron apoptosis, oxidative stress and inflammatory response caused by ACR exposure in rats. MethodsChemicals ACR and curcumin were purchased from Amresco Co. () and Sigma chemicals Co. (St. ), respectively. Experimental design Male Sprague-Dawley rats, weighing 200-220 g, were obtained from Center (Hubei, China). Rats were housed in standard translucent cages (5 animals/cage) under controlled standard conditions (23 ± 2 °C, 55 ± 5% relative humidity, 12 h light/dark cycle) with restricted access to standard rat chow and free access to tap water. After acclimation for 1-week, healthy animals were randomly assigned into 4 groups (10 rats per group): normal control group; ACR-intoxicated control group; low-dose (50mg/kg) curcumin treatment group and high-dose (100 mg/kg) curcumin treatment group. A dose of 40 mg/kg ACR (dissolved in normal saline) was intraperitoneally injected every other day for 4 weeks in all animals except the normal control group. The normal rats received saline as control. Meanwhile, rats in the curcumin treatment groups were daily administered with curcumin at the corresponding oral administration dose for 4 weeks. The doses of ACR and curcumin were chosen based on the previous study [5] and preliminary experiments. The normal and ACR-intoxicated control animals were orally administered with the same volume of distilled water. Body weight and behavioral alterations were monitored once a week. At 24 h after the last administration, all animals were euthanized by CO2 asphyxiation, brain tissues were quickly collected.

Output: contrast


Input: Claim: Lactic acid bacteria are important for fermentation processes. [SEP] Text: 8; due to this low pH in the cotyledons, the undissociated acetic acid kills the seed embryo, together with the ethanol ingress and the heat effect of the fermentation process (Fig. 2; Schwan and Wheals 2004; Misnawi 2008; Kongor et al. 2016; and Weckx 2016a,b; Muñoz et al. 2019). This prevents seed germination and destroys the internal seed cotyledon structure completely. These physicochemical changes result in desirable enzymatic and non-enzymatic conversions and the release of seed compounds, as mentioned above. All this is affected by the length of the anaerobic and aerobic phases, which is determined by the fermentation progress that in turn determines the speed of the courses of the pH decrease and temperature increase, the duration and extent of the seed acidification, the final seed pH (poorly fermented beans have a high pH of 5. 5–5. 8, whereas well-fermented beans have a low pH of 4. 7–5. 4) and the oxygen tension (Schwan and Wheals 2004; Afoakwa et al. 2008; and Weckx 2016a,b; Muñoz et al. 2019; John et al. 2020). Hence, the different endogenous enzymes will become gradually activated and inactivated as a function of time during the fermentation and drying steps [older literature reviewed in Schwan and Wheals (2004), Kongor et al. (2016), and Weckx (2016a,b), Muñoz et al. (2019) and Rawel et al. (2019)]. During the aerobic phase, the seed polyphenol oxidase becomes active (Fig. 2). Its pH optimum is situated at a slightly acidic pH of 5. 4, but the enzyme is gradually inactivated during fermentation and drying. Because it produces quinones from (epi)catechin through oxidation, it contributes to the desirable brown pigmentation of the cured cocoa beans. During the preceding anaerobic phase, the seed invertase, glycosidases and proteases are active (Fig. 2). The invertase, optimally active at an acidic pH of 4. 5, is active mainly at the beginning of the fermentation process and hydrolyses sucrose into the reducing sugars glucose and fructose that serve as flavour precursors.

Output: pass


Input: Claim: Astrobiology explores the potential for life beyond Earth. [SEP] Text: , 2014; Alsaeed and Jakosky, 2019; Fedorova et al. , 2020). The present-day surface of Mars is highly oxidizing, and this state has likely persisted for billions of years as inferred from manganese hydroxides identified at Gale and (Noda et al. , 2019). On Mars, the transition to more oxidizing conditions is recorded by the deposition of sulfates (SO42- with oxidation state S6+) from approximately the Noachian-Hesperian transition (3. 7 Ga) onward (Fukushi et al. , 2019; Rapin et al. , 2019) (Fig. 1C). This is consistent with orbital observations of Noachian-aged Fe3+-bearing clay minerals (e. g. , associated with surface oxidation) and in situ detection of their purported ferrous smectite precursors (Chemtob et al. , 2017). As the full range of sulfate deposits on Mars has yet to be identified, oxidation may also have occurred earlier. Recent modeling work demonstrates that Mars may have transitioned between reducing and oxidizing conditions repeatedly early in its history (Wordsworth et al. , 2021). Furthermore, the relative absence of pre-Hesperian sulfate may be explained by a combination of dissolution under reducing conditions, as well as widespread thermochemical sulfate reduction due to bolide impacts, which declined over time (Wordsworth et al. , 2021). Thus, the inferred timing of surface oxidation on Mars is consistent with a potential role of oxidation in shaping fixation of the genetic code, followed by meteoritic transfer of life to Earth. This resolves the problematic interpretation (Granold et al. , 2018) that the genetic code was not fixed until 1. 5 Ga after the timing predicted by genetic evidence (Fournier and Alm, 2015; Weiss et al. , 2016; Wolfe and Fournier, 2018) and is consistent with the antiquity of antioxidant enzymes and recent work suggesting a potential role for reactive sulfur species in their evolution (Neubeck and Freund, 2020). 3. 4. Phosphate availability was likely higher on early Mars than on early EarthEarly nucleic acid–based life would have required phosphate to build informational polymers and store energy. Release rates for phosphate-bearing minerals are estimated to be 45 times higher for Mars compared to Earth, with ∼2 × higher equilibrium phosphate concentrations (Adcock et al. , 2013).

Output: corroborate


Input: Claim: Curcumin, found in turmeric, has anti-inflammatory properties. [SEP] Text: However, there is limited evidence in the possible ameliorative effect of curcumin against ACR-induced neurotoxicity. Prasad and Muralidhara [22] have demonstrated the neuroprotective effect of curcumin in an ACR model of neurotoxicity in an insect species, Drosophila melanogaster. A recently published study [23] reported that curcumin would exert a protective effect against ACR-induced spatial memory impairment in rats. However, the anti-apoptotic, antioxidant and anti-inflammatory activities of curcumin have not been well evaluated in ACR-induced neurotoxicity. In the present study, we identified whether curcumin could exert protective effects against neuron apoptosis, oxidative stress and inflammatory response caused by ACR exposure in rats. MethodsChemicals ACR and curcumin were purchased from Amresco Co. () and Sigma chemicals Co. (St. ), respectively. Experimental design Male Sprague-Dawley rats, weighing 200-220 g, were obtained from Center (Hubei, China). Rats were housed in standard translucent cages (5 animals/cage) under controlled standard conditions (23 ± 2 °C, 55 ± 5% relative humidity, 12 h light/dark cycle) with restricted access to standard rat chow and free access to tap water. After a 1-week acclimation period, all animals were randomly divided into 5 groups of 10 rats in each group: (1) normal control group; (2) ACR-intoxicated control group; (3) low-dose (50mg/kg) curcumin treatment group and (4) high-dose (100 mg/kg) curcumin treatment group. Animals in 2-4 groups were intraperitoneally injected with ACR dissolved in normal saline at the dose of 40 mg/kg every other day for 4 weeks. The normal rats received saline as control. Meanwhile, rats in the curcumin treatment groups were daily administered with curcumin at the corresponding oral administration dose for 4 weeks. The doses of ACR and curcumin were chosen based on the previous study [5] and preliminary experiments. The normal and ACR-intoxicated control animals were orally administered with the same volume of distilled water. Body weight and behavioral alterations were monitored once a week.

Output: contrast


Input: Claim: Lactic acid bacteria are important for fermentation processes. [SEP] Text: Invertase loses its activity upon fermentation, due to the increasing temperature. The glycosidases α-arabinosidase and β-galactosidase, optimally active under acidic conditions (pH 4. 0–4. 5), elaborate sugar moieties from anthocyanins (arabinose and galactose from cyanidin-3-α-L-arabinoside and cyanidin-3-β-D-galactoside, respectively) and convert them into anthocyanidins. Moreover, glycosylated terpenoids (e. g. linalyl glycoside) are hydrolysed enzymatically. Proteases, mainly aspartic endoprotease (optimally active at an acidic pH of 3. 5) and serine carboxypeptidase (optimally active at a higher but slightly acidic pH of 5. 8), act on a vicilin-class (7S) globulin (composed of three subunits of 47, 31 and 15 kDa, respectively) and an albumin (21 kDa), the main cocoa seed proteins. Major differences in protein content of non-fermented cocoa beans are attributed to their geographical origin (Kumari et al. 2018). However, a similarity in protein profiles of cocoa beans from the same region does not necessarily mean that they belong to the same cocoa hybrid (Kumari et al. 2018). The cooperative action of both proteases is necessary to form the desirable cocoa aroma precursors to generate volatile organic compounds with cocoa-specific and nutty notes (Voigt, Taube and Wöstemeyer 2018). This greatly depends on the degree and time course of acidification, given their different pH optima. In particular, the aspartic endoprotease releases a limited number of hydrophobic oligopeptides, more from the cocoa seed vicilin than albumin, in a differential and sequential cleavage site-specific way. These hydrophobic oligopeptides are then converted by the cleavage-specific exo-carboxypeptidase into tens to hundreds of hydrophilic peptides.

Output: pass


Input: Claim: Astrobiology explores the potential for life beyond Earth. [SEP] Text: Reconstructed optimal growth temperature (OGT) across the tree of life suggests hyperthermophily at the base of the Archaeal and Bacterial domains but a colder OGT for LUCA of ∼45°C (confidence interval 33–68°C) (Groussin et al. , 2013), consistent with non-sterilizing temperatures during meteoritic ejection (Weiss et al. , 2000). Under this scenario, the transfer of life to Earth (Fig. 1D) need not have taken place before LUCA; if multiple transfers occurred, then LUCA may have existed on Mars. Indeed, large meteorite impacts may have transported life either direction between the planets until the geologically recent past (Worth et al. , 2013). 4. A for Life on Consistent with Genetic and Geological EvidenceWhat we know about early Mars is consistent with the cyanosulfidic origin of life, and conditions there would have provided orders of magnitude more land area for prebiotic chemistry to cross the threshold to life. The Noachian-Hesperian transition and commensurate changes in surface redox balance on Mars are also consistent with the timing of fixation of the genetic code (Fournier et al. , 2010; Fournier and Alm, 2015) and the antiquity of antioxidant enzymes (Neubeck and Freund, 2020). Theoretical (Mileikowsky et al. , 2000; Worth et al. , 2013) and experimental (Weiss et al. , 2000; Horneck et al. , 2008) studies of lithopanspermia imply that Earth, Mars, and Venus would have shared viable microbes (Worth et al. , 2013), if present in ejecta, and subsequent genetic evidence is consistent with this timeline. Other options are possible (McKay, 2010): If cyanosulfidic chemistry and the transition to life is a planetary phenomenon (Sasselov et al. , 2020), relatively fast and easy given the right conditions, then we may find that such life evolved independently on both early Mars and early Earth, despite the latter's dearth of sub-aerial crust. If booting up life is harder or rare, this would raise the prior that we may share common ancestry with any life on Mars. Finding no life on Mars would be incredibly revealing, because it would suggest life is a rare event requiring very particular circumstances.

Output: corroborate


Input: Claim: Curcumin, found in turmeric, has anti-inflammatory properties. [SEP] Text: However, there is limited evidence in the possible ameliorative effect of curcumin against ACR-induced neurotoxicity. Prasad and Muralidhara [22] have demonstrated the neuroprotective effect of curcumin in an ACR model of neurotoxicity in an insect species, Drosophila melanogaster. A recently published study [23] reported that curcumin would exert a protective effect against ACR-induced spatial memory impairment in rats. However, the anti-apoptotic, antioxidant and anti-inflammatory activities of curcumin have not been well evaluated in ACR-induced neurotoxicity. In the present study, we identified whether curcumin could exert protective effects against neuron apoptosis, oxidative stress and inflammatory response caused by ACR exposure in rats. MethodsChemicals ACR and curcumin were respectively purchased from Amresco Co. () and Sigma chemicals Co. (St. ). Experimental design Male Sprague-Dawley rats, weighing 200–220 g, were obtained from Center (Hubei, China). Rats were housed in standard translucent cages (5 animals/cage) under controlled standard conditions (23 ± 2 °C, 55 ± 5% relative humidity, 12 h light/dark cycle) with restricted access to standard rat chow and free access to tap water. After a 1-week acclimation period, all animals were randomly divided into 5 groups of 10 rats in each group: (1) normal control group; (2) ACR- intoxicated control group; (3) low-dose (50mg/kg) curcumin treatment group and (4) high-dose (100 mg/kg) curcumin treatment group. Animals in 2–4 groups were intraperitoneally injected with ACR dissolved in normal saline at the dose of 40 mg/kg every other day for 4 weeks. The normal rats received saline as control. Meanwhile, rats in the curcumin treatment groups were daily administered with curcumin at the corresponding oral administration dose for 4 weeks. The normal and ACR-intoxicated control animals were orally administered with the same volume of distilled water. Body weight and behavioral alterations were monitored once a week. At 24 h after the last administration, all animals were euthanized by CO2 asphyxiation, brain tissues were quickly collected.

Output: contrast


Input: Claim: Lactic acid bacteria are important for fermentation processes. [SEP] Text: This lowers the ratio of vicilin to albumin seed proteins and increases the amounts of oligopeptides and free hydrophobic amino acids, in particular isoleucine, leucine, valine, alanine, phenylalanine and tyrosine. Such hydrophilic peptides and hydrophobic amino acids serve as cocoa flavour precursors (de Brito et al. 2000; Bucheli et al. 2001; Buyukpamukcu et al. 2001; Amin et al. 2002, 2003; Laloi et al. 2002; Yusep et al. 2002; Schwan and Wheals 2004; Guilloteau et al. 2005; Rohsius, Matissek and Lieberei 2006; Jinap et al. 2008; Kratzer et al. 2009; Adeyeye et al. 2010; Bertazzo et al. 2011; Romero-Cortes et al. 2013; Marseglia et al. 2014; Kadow et al. 2015; Caligiani et al. 2016; Hue et al. 2016; John et al. 2016, 2019, 2020; Kongor et al. 2016; Kumari et al. 2016, 2018; Mayorga-Gross et al. 2016; Sousa et al. 2016; Voigt et al. 2016; Janek et al. 2016a,b; Apriyanto et al. 2017; D'Souza et al. 2018; Moreira et al. 2018; Voigt, Taube and Wöstemeyer 2018; Rottiers et al. 2019; Scalone et al. 2019). The peptide profiles of cured beans in terms of number, diversity and relative abundance reflect their fermentation degree. This is independent of their geographical origin, which is not the case for the protein contents of the beans (Mayorga-Gross et al. 2016; D'Souza et al. 2018; Kumari et al. 2018). A maximum number of peptides is found after 48–96 h of fermentation (Mayorga-Gross et al. 2016; D'Souza et al. 2018; Muñoz et al. 2019). However, the size of the peptides decreases as a function of the fermentation time, although several small peptides can originate from degradation of multiple proteins (other than vicilin and albumin).

Output: pass


Input: Claim: Astrobiology explores the potential for life beyond Earth. [SEP] Text: Given the inconsistencies between the inferred history of life as we know it and Earth's geologic history, it is plausible that life on Earth could have originated on Mars (McKay, 2010). Such a history, while incredible, is a story of our past that is consistent with the available genetic and geological evidence. It is also testable. 5. Ongoing and for the Mars 2020 Perseverance rover will focus on habitability and evidence of ancient, and not extant, life (Williford et al. , 2018), it can seek to confirm or refute conditions consistent with a cyanosulfidic origin of life (Sasselov et al. , 2020), as well as seek chemical precursors to life and identify high-abundance organics. is a 45 km diameter impact crater that once harbored an open-basin lake system recorded by sedimentary deposits, deltas, and other features associated with fluvial activity that may have ended by around the Noachian-Hesperian boundary or earlier (Goudge et al. , 2018). Analysis of the western fan deposit at the crater inlet has identified clay minerals (Fe/Mg-smectite) and stratigraphy that likely records an extended history of early Mars, drawn from a watershed much larger than the crater, which includes smectites, olivine, and Mg-rich carbonate-bearing terrains, among others (Goudge et al. , 2015). Beyond likely having been habitable itself, and the associated watershed should provide access to samples originating in a diverse set of other potentially habitable environments, and the lacustrine setting implies access to a well-ordered stratigraphic record of the Noachian period on Mars. Because the fluvial activity associated with lacustrine sedimentary deposits at likely ended by 3. 8 Ga, evidence within those deposits of increasing oxidation over time would be consistent with the ancestral relationship scenario. Alternatively, a relatively reducing surface environment up to 3. 8 Ga would not rule out life as we know it on Mars but would weaken the case for any ancestral relationship, at least one linked to the source region. For comparison, sedimentary rocks within Gale Crater, which formed between 3. 6 and 3. 8 Ga, record a mix of oxidation states even within the base of the stratigraphic section (Grotzinger et al.

Output: corroborate


Input: Claim: Curcumin, found in turmeric, has anti-inflammatory properties. [SEP] Text: Scale bar indicates 250 µm and is applicable to other imagesFull size image Cur and SLCP treatments decreased Iba-1-IR and GFAP-IR in entorhinal cortex of 5xFAD miceThe entorhinal cortex is the major input and output structure of the hippocampal formation and is involved in the maintenance of cortico-hippocampal circuits. The number of Iba-1-IR microglia were significantly decreased (p < 0. 01) in both the 2- and 5-day Cur or SLCP treatment groups (Fig. 13a, b). Significant decreases (p < 0. 01) of Iba-1-IR cells were observed in the 5-day group in comparison to 2-day group, with the SLCP-treated mice having fewer Iba-1-IR cells than those receiving Cur (Fig. 13a, b). In contrast, 2 days Cur treatment did not reduce the number of GFAP-IR astrocytes, whereas both Cur and SLCP significantly decreased (p < 0. 01) GFAP-IR after 5 days of treatment. We also found there was a significant decrease (p < 0. 01) in the GFAP-IR between the Cur and SLCP groups after 5 days of treatment (Fig. 13a, c). Fig. 13Cur and SLCP reduce neuroinflammation in entorhinal cortex in 5xFAD mice. The 5xFAD mice were treated with Cur or SLCP for 2- or 5-days, sacrificed, and their brain sections were collected and immunolabeled for Iba-1 and GFAP. The number of labeled Iba-1-IR (a, b) and GFAP-IR (a, c) cells was significantly reduced (**p < 0. 01) in the entorhinal cortex in comparison to vehicle-treated 5xFAD mice. Significant reduction in both GFAP-IR and Iba-1-IR was observed after 5 days, in comparison to those receiving 2 days, of treatment (b, c).

Output: pass


Input: Claim: Lactic acid bacteria are important for fermentation processes. [SEP] Text: These peptide profiles or the number of the diverse peptides can thus serve as a biomarker for the degree of fermentation and hence replace the classical cut test (qualitative colour-based model) or fermentation index measurement (quantitative colour-based model) (Misnawi 2008; Aculey et al. 2010; Romero-Cortes et al. 2013; D'Souza et al. 2018; Hinneh et al. 2018; Kumari et al. 2018). However, only certain peptides are considered as being of influence on the unique cocoa aroma, although their number is still a matter of debate (Buyukpamukcu et al. 2001; Marseglia et al. 2014; Kumari et al. 2016, 2018; Voigt et al. 2016; D'Souza et al. 2018; Voigt, Taube and Wöstemeyer 2018; Scalone et al. 2019). Moreover, in vitro proteolytic digestions of cocoa vicilin indicate that short peptides (formed at acidic pH of 4. 4–5. 2) might be cocoa-specific aroma compound precursors, whereas slightly longer peptides (formed at slightly acidic but higher pH of 4. 8–5. 6) might be nutty-specific aroma compound precursors (Voigt, Taube and Wöstemeyer 2018). Hence, cocoa fermentation processes that result in a strong acidification inside the beans, the pH of which decreases below 5. 2, could result in cured cocoa beans with a high cocoa aroma. In contrast, those processes that result in a weak acidification inside the beans, leading to a pH above 5. 2, could result in cured cocoa beans with a high nutty aroma. This again underlines the importance of the extent and speed of the pH course inside the cocoa beans during fermentation. Cocoa bean flavour formation Chocolate possesses a characteristic aroma and taste, composed of acidity, astringency and bitterness, and cocoa/coffee/nutty/roasted, floral, fruity and spicy notes, besides delivering a melt-in-the-mouth pleasure (Frauendorfer and Schieberle 2006, 2008, 2019; Afoakwa et al. 2008; Diab et al.

Output: pass


Input: Claim: Astrobiology explores the potential for life beyond Earth. [SEP] Text: Thus, it may be feasible to use a similar approach in Jezero Crater, leveraging prior wind analysis (Day and Dorn, 2019) and in situ measurements ([MEDA]) to assess access to low exposure age stratigraphy. Because accessible exposure ages may still be large, drilling, including, in future missions, below the 1–2 m penetration depth of space radiation, remains critical for accessing undegraded samples. Notably, the ExoFranklin rover includes a drill capable of reaching 2 m; its planned landing site, Oxia Planum, offers another opportunity to seek evidence of cyanosulfidic chemistry, with rocks dating from 3. 6–4. 0 Ga and evidence of past aqueous activity (Gary-Bicas and Rogers, 2021; Quantin-Nataf et al. , 2021). While several Mars 2020 rover instruments (SuperCam [Wiens et al. , 2017], [Beegle et al. , 2013], PIXL [Allwood et al. , 2015]) will be used to detect or infer the presence of organics and specific chemical moieties, they may lack the ability to uniquely identify specific molecules. Analyser (MOMA) instrument on the rover may enable detection, if present, of organics with chain or ring-based structures, and will characterize molecular weight distribution patterns and chirality (Goesmann et al. , 2017). Instruments in development could one day target nucleic acids (Carr et al. , 2016; Mojarro et al. , 2019) and polypeptides (Ohshiro et al. , 2014; Carr et al. , 2020). 6. Conclusionslikely offered more opportunity for cyanosulfidic prebiotic chemistry to cross the threshold to life than early Earth, including cold temperatures to stabilize accumulation of organics and orders-of-magnitude more land area. Mars' earlier transition to oxidizing conditions could have played a role in fixation of the genetic code on a timeline consistent with genetic evidence. Furthermore, all steps in the meteoritic transfer of life from Mars to Earth have been theoretically or experimentally verified, and such a transfer is consistent with genetic evidence. Mars 2020 and the planned rover are well positioned to test the plausibility of a cyanosulfidic origin of life on Mars, search for ancient evidence of life, and constrain the evolution of Mars' oxidation state over time.

Output: corroborate


Input: Claim: Willow bark has been used historically for pain relief due to its salicylic acid content. [SEP] Text: xlsx Figure 3—video 1 Download asset This video cannot be played in place because your browser does support HTML5 video. You may still download the video for offline viewing. Download as MPEG-4 Download as WebM Download as Ogg Three-dimensional render showing STORM images of endogenous OXT and Lifeact-EGFP in neurohypophyseal synapses. Figure 4 Download asset Open asset Robo2 regulates synaptic actin dynamics. (A) robo2 is expressed in larval zebrafish neurosecretory preoptic area (NPO) and colocalizes with Oxytocin neurons. Confocal Z-stack images showing fluorescent in situ hybridization (FISH) of transgenic larvae Tg(oxt:EGFP) (3 days post-fertilization (dpf)) using probes directed against robo2 mRNAs (magenta), followed by anti-EGFP staining. The neurosecretory preoptic (NPO) area in which OXT neurons were labeled is shown. Scale bar: 20 µm. (B,C) Real-time monitoring of synaptic actin dynamics in live transgenic reporter Tg(oxt:Gal4; UAS:Lifeact-EGFP) larvae mounted in 0. 1% low-melt agarose and imaged using multi-photon microscopy upon after Photobleaching (FRAP) (B). Time-series images of FRAP experiment in a neurohypophyseal synapse with Lifeact-EGFP expression (C). Scale bar: 200 nm. (D–F) Assessment of synaptic actin dynamics in robo2 mutant using the transgenic actin dynamics reporter Tg(oxt:Gal4; UAS:Lifeact-EGFP) larvae. Graph showing the normalized FRAP profile of Lifeact-EGFP fluorescence intensity in 6-dpf robo2+/+ (n = 19 synapses from seven larvae) and robo2-/- (n = 21 synapses from seven larvae) (D) (***p<2e-16) for genotypeXtime interaction effect in a linear mixed effects model to account for inter-synapse and inter-genotype variability (see Materials and methods).

Output: pass