Input: Claim: Sea turtles navigate using the Earth’s magnetic field. [SEP] Text: That thin shell layer, being in the “core-mantle” border zone, is warmed to 4510 K (the initial temperature on the line of 4500 K) by the heat of the core Q thermocurrents (see Table 2). Its difference reaches 10 K, let us denote it as Т1. Let us take the temperature of the Earth’s bottom surface as Т2 = 273. 1 K. In this connection, a simplified heat-exchanging model of Earth can be represented as a hollow spherical shell with two sides. One of them is the inner one with radius R Σ = 3. 65 × 10 6 m corresponding the surface of the Figure 3. Climatic curve of the for the last 500 thousand years (the picture was taken from an internet-6. 37 × 10 6 m corresponding the bottom surface. The inner side is affected by the inner core heat Q b c = 2. 25 × 10 14 J year (see Table 2). Let us take thermal conductivity coefficient of the spherical shell equal to the constant thermal conductivity coefficient of the lower mantle: λ = 2. 5 W (m・K)−1 [48]. At the same time the inner side is overheated with the heat Q by T1 = 283. 1 K (10˚C), and the outer side is Т2 =273. 1 K (0˚C) at the beginning, but after heating it gets Т2 = Х K. To find Т2 the homogeneous differential heat equation in spherical coordinates can be used [49] : ∇ 2 T = d 2 T d r 2 + 2 r d t d r = 0 (16) Nevertheless, these values of interglacial periods (warming) or cooling can be essentially clarified, if there was exact data of the β coefficient value for not only pure metals, but different materials of the planet’s shells, more complicated ones.

Output: pass


Input: Claim: The majority of greenhouse gases, like carbon dioxide and methane, trap heat in the Earth's atmosphere, contributing to global warming. [SEP] Text: * These estimates are direct contributions through the emissions of the gases. Figure 4 shows the distribution of radiative forcing. We can see that the saturated absorption regions, 5–7 μm for water vapor and 16–18 μm for CO2, do not affect the radiative forcing, whereas the unsaturated area does. Nevertheless, the CO2 absorption in the range 9–11 μm is negligibly small (Figure 2(b)), contributing 10% of the radiative forcing because terrestrial radiation is maximal in this range. The robustness of the proposed model must be confirmed by testing the sensitivity of the results to changes in certain parameters. A change in water vapor concentration does not affect the radiative forcing considerably. The increase in radiative forcing is around 1% even when water vapor concentration decreases by 5%. Moreover, the outgoing flux density decreases as the lapse rate increases. For a change of 10% in the lapse rate, the radiative forcing values change between about 3% and 6%. Figure 4. Radiative forcing spectra calculated with the precise absorption spectra: CO2 (red), CH4 (green), and N2O (blue). There are some sources of the uncertainties in this calculation. The first is assuming that the absorption spectra of greenhouse gases in each layer are proportional to only their number density. However, the absorption spectrum also changes with pressure and temperature in the layer: absorption line width broadening is caused by the thermal motion of the molecules and the collisions between them, both of which depend on pressure and temperature. [13,14]This effect is captured by a0(λ) provided by SpectralCalc. However, the effects of the other layer are approximated as the effects of the zeroth layer for simplicity. These differences in the spectra in each layer will produce uncertainties in the outgoing fluxes. The second source of uncertainty is ignoring the radiative transfer of incident solar radiation in the near-infrared region. The absorption and emission at 2. 6–3. 5 μm may not be negligible since the solar intensity in the region is 5–8 W m–2 μm–1 (the maximum intensity of the terrestrial radiation is about 25 W m–2 μm–1, as shown in Figure 3). Therefore, the outgoing flux contains some uncertainties. Figure 5 shows the calculated radiative forcing for each increasing greenhouse gas from the pre-industrial era to the present age.

Output: corroborate


Input: Claim: Ocean acidification will completely destroy all marine ecosystems by 2050. [SEP] Text: The effects of lake acidification on diadromous fish (those migrating between marine and fresh water) are well known, but using these observations to suggest OA effects is potentially misleading due to (i) large physiochemical differences between fresh and acidified marine waters and (ii) high physiological variability between diadromous and marine species [298, 299]. Also, fluctuations in in [H+] seen in lake acidification are orders of magnitude greater than those in the ocean [298]. As with the invertebrates, OA effects in fish are expected to occur during the vulnerable developmental stage, and these effects appear to be species specific. The acid-base regulatory mechanisms of the larval stage remain rudimentary until gills have formed and respiration switches from cutaneous to branchial [300]. Developmental responses are thought to be more the result of CO2 toxicity rather than through pH acting alone [301, 302]. There are limited OA studies on fish species that occur in our region. Hurst et al. [303] showed that the effects of OA on the growth of larvae were minor and varied greatly within treatments (S2 Table, Fig. 4). Slightly higher growth rates in elevated PCO2 conditions (Table 1) proved non-significant. Other studies on Atlantic temperate fish species (cod and herring), closely related to those in BC waters, found no significant effects on sperm motility, embryogenesis, egg survival, or the development of skeletal, heart, and lung tissue [300, 304, 305]. Despite these benign effects, researchers have found some developmental anomalies. Franke and Clemmesen [305] showed an inverse relationship for between PCO2 and the ratio RNA/DNA at hatching, potentially reducing protein biosynthesis and growth. Frommel et al. [300] found significant tissue damage in liver, pancreas, kidney, eye, and gut of larvae under elevated PCO2 Baumann et al. [306] demonstrated that increasing PCO2 caused a 74% reduction in survival and an 18% reduction in length of embryos of a ubiquitous estuarine fish called (Menidia beryllina). Any significant developmental effect could alter the abundance and diversity of marine fish populations. Otoliths (ear bones) are aragonite-based structures that fish use to sense acceleration and orientation.

Output: contrast


Input: Claim: Sea turtles navigate using the Earth’s magnetic field. [SEP] Text: Without speaking much of deducing that solution, here is the final solution of the differential heat equation at the Dirichlet boundary conditions T ( 1 F o ) = T 1 = const for X > 273. 16 K и T 2 = 273. 16 K at τ = 0 [52] [53] : T ( X F o ) = T 1 + 2 [ T ( X 0 ) − T 1 ] ∑ n = 1 ∞ ( − 1 ) n + 1 sin ( δ n X ) δ n X exp [ − ( δ n ) 2 F o ] (22) where F o = λ ⋅ τ c ′ p R 2 is Fourier’s number; Λ 1 = ( − 1 ) n + 1 sin ( δ n X ) X is the lambda function; X = r R is the dimensionless radial coordinate of a random point of the sphere; r is the radial coordinate a random point of the sphere, m; R is the inherent size of the sphere body, m; τ is the time, s; c ′ p = ρ ⋅ c p is the specific volumetric isobaric heat capacity of the lower mantle ores, which is distributed over both the upper mantle and the Earh’s crust contingently, J・(m3・K)−1; ρ is the average density of the ores of the lower mantle, the upper mantle and the Earth’s crust, 4500 kg/m3; cp is the specific mass isobaric heat capacity, 1260 J・(kg・K)−1 [54] T 1 is the temperature of the inner side (surface) when X = 0. 54 and τ = 0 equals 283. 2 K; δ n = n π at n = 1 2 ⋯ ∞ is nth root of the characteristic equation sin ( δ n ) = 0 for the Dirichlet boundary conditions; λ is the thermal conductivity coefficient, it is 2. 5 W/(m∙K) for the lower mantle [54] Substituting the above numbers into the Equation (22), here is the solution for the temperature, which is demonstrated in Figure 4 and Table 4. As seen from Figure 4. Graph of the temperature of the surface warming by the earth’s thermoelectric currents inner core.

Output: pass


Input: Claim: The majority of greenhouse gases, like carbon dioxide and methane, trap heat in the Earth's atmosphere, contributing to global warming. [SEP] Text: This result implies that each radiative forcing becomes slightly rounded due to saturation over the specific wavelength areas and it is linearly approximated by the gas’s concentration: the radiative forcing per ppmv of CO2 is 0. 025 W m–2; CH4, 0. 7 W m–2, and N2O, 3. 5 W m–2. Figure 5. Calculated radiative forcings for increasing concentrations of greenhouse gases: (a) CO2, for every 20 ppmv from 280 ppmv to 380 ppmv; (b) CH4, for every 0. 1 ppmv from 0. 7 ppmv to 1. 7 ppmv; (c) N2O, for every 0. 005 ppmv from 0. 270 ppmv to 0. 320 ppmv. 3. 2. Estimation of global warming potentialGWP is defined as the radiative forcing per unit mass of released greenhouse gas i relative to that of CO2. It is necessary to integrate the radiative forcing for a reference time since the number of gas molecules decreases with time. Protocol is based on GWPs from pulse emissions over a 100-year time frame. For simplicity, the GWP of greenhouse gas i for its 100-year effect is approximated asGWPi=(ΔF/Δn)i/Mi×∫0100e−t/τidt(ΔF/Δn)CO2/MCO2×∫0100e−t/τCO2dt,E18 where ΔF Δn is the radiative forcing per unit increased concentration and M is the molecular mass of the greenhouse gas. The mean residual life of a greenhouse gas over 100 years is given by∫0100e−t/τdt,E19 where τ is its lifetime. The lifetimes of CH4 and N2O are 12. 4 and 121 years, respectively, according to the. [2] For CO2, the mean residual life is given as follows:∫0100(0. 217+0. 259 e−t/172. 9+0. 338 e−t/18. 51)dt. [15]E20 The GWPs of CH4 and N2O for the 100-year effect are calculated as 27. 24 and 242. 2, respectively, using ΔF as obtained in Section 3. 1.

Output: corroborate


Input: Claim: Ocean acidification will completely destroy all marine ecosystems by 2050. [SEP] Text: In some species, otoliths grow larger when larval fish are exposed to elevated PCO2 (e. g. Bass, a species found in BC waters [307]; [308] and tropical clownfish [309]). Under elevated PCO2 pH is regulated in the endolymph sac surrounding the otolith resulting in increased CaCO3 precipitation and enhanced otolith growth for those species [309]. An increase in otolith size may enhance hearing range [310], which might help or harm fish depending on sensitivity to important auditory cues or disruptive background noise [310]. Behavioural responses have recently been documented at elevated PCO2 for larvae of tropical reef fish. In particular, behaviour to olfactory, auditory, and visual cues changes when larvae are selecting habitats and responding to predators [311–315]. Additionally, elevated PCO2 reduces learning abilities related to predator avoidance [316] and changes the propensity of larval reef fish to turn left or right (lateralisation) [317]. These behavioural changes can expose larval fish to increased mortality risk, which has important fitness consequences [313, 318]. Given possible behavioural effects on predators as well as prey under elevated PCO2 community-level responses are difficult to predict [318, 319]. Relatively few studies have investigated behavioural changes to OA in temperate species (three exceptions being [320–322]), and none have examined commercially important species in BC waters. The larvae of (Gasterosteus aculeatus), a species found in marine and fresh water on the BC coast, exhibit behavioural disturbances (e. g. reduction in boldness and curiosity), compromised learning abilities, and declines in lateralisation when reared in elevated PCO2 [320]. These responses are surprising given the physiological plasticity of this species, which is expected to confer enhanced acclimatisation abilities to environmental challenges. These results suggest that sensitivity to OA is not limited to species occupying narrow ecological niches, such as tropical reef fish [320]. Elevated PCO2 can disrupt the functioning of GABAA (γ-Aminobutyric acid) receptors, the main inhibitory neurotransmitter receptors in the fish brain [323]. Normally, the opening of these receptors results in an inflow of Cl− and HCO3− ions over the neuronal membrane, leading to inhibition of the neuron. When concentrations of intracellular Cl− and HCO3−are altered (e.

Output: contrast


Input: Claim: Sea turtles navigate using the Earth’s magnetic field. [SEP] Text: Table 4. Calculation of bottom surface heat temperature by Earth’s thermoelectrical currents. the latter, the temperature graph goes asymptote at τ = 20 s and varies within (283. 125 ¸ 283. 175) K or (9. 966 ¸ 10. 015)˚C, that confirms the pervious calculation enough. Besides, Figure 4 also shows that it takes heat only 20 s. to move from the border “core-lower mantle” to the bottom surface. Note, that the performed calculations are simplified and preliminary for now, because the taken model does not take into consideration other values of the thermal conductivity coefficients of the transitive zone C shells, the lower mantle B and the Earth’s crust A. That is why accurate calculations for the spherically heterogeneous heat-exchange model of Earth can differ from the obtained results noticeably because the thermocurrens under different continents are heterogeneous. 7. Features of the Behavior of Earth’s Associated to the Core’s The calculated magnitude of the magnetic induction В T T l o w can be real only if the used physical parameters and constants strictly meet the requirements of the physical law within which one or the other phenomenon can be correctly described, emergence and development of the Earth’s magnetic field in particular. The calculations analysis shows that the main element of their conformity is geothermoelectrical field ЕТ with its small intensity according to (3). At the same time, the known scientific conception of a planet’s metal core allowed to use the averaged temperature coefficient β, which is 0. 0001 V/K for pure metals. The magnitude of the latter affects all the following parameters: ЕТ, j, Ilow, which form the magnetic induction of the Earth’s field В T T l o w. That is why all the deliberate deviations from this value makes the В T T l o w magnitude get too low or extremely high. Hence, the taken magnitude β which is close to 0. 0001 V/K indicates high probability of our planet’s core being metal. Besides, the planet’s inner core electroconductivity σ affects the В T T l o w magnitude, but in a less degree. Thus, for instance, σ, which was taken by selecting, is equal to 5.

Output: pass


Input: Claim: The majority of greenhouse gases, like carbon dioxide and methane, trap heat in the Earth's atmosphere, contributing to global warming. [SEP] Text: They are listed in Table 3 along with the IPCC estimates. The GWP of CH4 is very close to the IPCC estimate whereas the radiative forcing value is not. Greenhouse gas Δn (ppmv) τ (years) GWP This work IPCC Carbon dioxide 112 * 1 1 Methane 1. 08 12. 4 27. 2 28 Nitrous oxide 0. 054 121 242 265 Table 3. Increased concentration Δn from 1750 to 2011, lifetime τ, calculated GWP, and IPCC estimate of GWP over an interval of 100 years for each greenhouse gas. * For carbon dioxide, the IPCC uses the parameters in Eq. (20) which represent the mean residual life, without defining its lifetime. [15]3. 3. Radiative forcing and surface temperatureFinally, we estimate the increase in the Earth’s temperature by using radiative forcing. In the pre-industrial era, the incoming solar radiation flux at the tropopause exactly balanced the outgoing solar radiation flux reflected by the Earth system and the outgoing terrestrial radiation. Let the outgoing terrestrial radiation be approximated roughly asF¯=(1−f) σT04,E21 where f is the mean absorption of the terrestrial radiation at the tropopause, T0 is the surface temperature and σ is the Stephan–Boltzmann constant. Increasing abundance of a greenhouse gas (e. g. , CO2) decreases the mean absorption by Δf. FCO2=(1−f−Δ f) σT04. E22 The perturbation Δf is related to radiative forcing by using Eqs. (21) and (22):Δ f=ΔFCO2σT04. E23 Assuming Δf is maintained for some time, a new equilibrium state will develop in which the surface temperature has increased by ΔT. At the new radiative equilibrium, the outgoing terrestrial flux at the tropopause does not change if the incoming solar flux and the outgoing solar flux reflected by the Earth system are unchanged. Therefore,(1−f) σT04=(1−f−Δ f) σ(T0+ΔT)4. E24 Ignoring the second-order and higher terms in Eq. (24), we obtainΔT=Δ f4(1−f)T0. E25 Substituting Eqs.

Output: corroborate


Input: Claim: Ocean acidification will completely destroy all marine ecosystems by 2050. [SEP] Text: g, when fish with strong acid-base regulatory systems are exposed to higher environmental PCO2, the flow of ions can be reversed, resulting in neuronal excitation instead of inhibition. Such changes have been associated with dramatic shifts in behaviour and sensory p0. 2 dB) over the next few centuries and negligible in the context of the current noise associated with shipping [335]. Marine mammal synopsis Marine mammals will likely be affected by OA indirectly through food web changes, however direct impacts are not anticipated. While noise levels will increase with OA, this increase will not be large enough over the next few centuries to affect animals that rely on underwater sound. DiscussionWe have described the marine ecosystem in the temperate coastal northeast Pacific region at present, and then its response to OA. However, the available information is limited. For some organisms, no OA studies exist (e. g. Geoduck Clam, rockfish, S1 Table). In general there are more studies, with respect to distributions and OA impacts, on species that are easier to observe, are of commercial value (e. g. oysters, S1 Table) or that threaten human health (e. g. harmful algae, S1 Table). The results of studies like these are often adopted when similar research on native organisms is not available (as we have done), limiting the ability to predict responses with confidence. Furthermore, OA is only one aspect of climate change and predicting shifts in marine ecosystems, and the degree to which they are caused by natural or anthropogenic forcing, is a highly complex problem. In the following, we discuss these and other issues that influence our evaluation. number of studies related to OA is growing rapidly (e. g. S1 Table). While experiments in these studies are highly valuable, translating their results into changes in the real world is challenging. For example, wild populations of marine organisms will adapt (both physiologically in a single lifespan and genetically over multiple generations) to their changing environment, which is difficult or impossible to capture in vitro. However, using temperature-dependent adaptation as a guide, Kelly and Hofmann [336] caution that the ability to adapt to changing pH may be limited. In addition, food-web interactions and responses to OA are extremely difficult to predict, but will influence marine populations and could tip the balance from an overall negative impact to a positive one for a given species if a key predator is removed.

Output: contrast


Input: Claim: Sea turtles navigate using the Earth’s magnetic field. [SEP] Text: 0 × 105 S/m and meets the calculated magnitude of the geomagnetic field on the planet’s equator, which is 3. 64 × 10−5 T. But if one takes the electroconductivity of about 1. 0 million cm/m, the magnetic field on the equator will be 6. 98 × 10−5 T, which is much higher than the real magnitude of В0. Therefore, the present range of the planet’s core electroconductivity 0. 1 ÷ 1. 0 million S/m can be constricted to some extent. Besides, the considered model allows to explain the tilt of the magnet axis toward the Earth’s one by the Coriolis forces affecting the electron currents. The preliminary calculation shows that the Coriolis forces can displace the normal from the axis of rotation to the electron circular path plane by about 100 - 110 to the West, which corresponds the modern magnetic axis of Earth. It is important to notice, that the suggested model allows to explain the causes of smallness or absence of magnetic fields of the other planets more correctly. In particular, any cooled planet with a cold metal core can have only a relict magnetic field. 8. 3. 52 × 109 А, see Table 2) because there are electrons in the core with sum mass of 5. 1 × 1019 kg. The latter’s moving cause appearance of the primary toroidal magnetic field, which is spherically asymmetric because of the thermo e. m. f. and the Earth’s inertial forces. The secondary poloidal field is self-generated through the central channel in the toroidal field and is dipole with two oppositely directed magnetic poles. Thermoelectrical currents energy, as the calculations show, is enough not only for generating the Earth’s main dipole magnetic field on its early formation phase, but for maintaining it at the modern level of (3 - 5) × 10−5 T for a long time. Thermoelectrical model of the Earth’s geomagnetic field is a brand new one and it is close enough to the real thermoelectrical processes of Earth. The latter are universal from the physical point of view and proceed inside our planet according to the known physical laws, which do not need any theoretical limitations or additions for the model to function.

Output: pass


Input: Claim: The majority of greenhouse gases, like carbon dioxide and methane, trap heat in the Earth's atmosphere, contributing to global warming. [SEP] Text: (21) and (23) into Eq. (25) gives the relationship between ΔT and ΔFCO2:ΔT=ΔFCO24F¯T0. E26 By substituting the numerical values in Table 2, we can estimate that the Earth’s surface temperature has risen by ΔT=0. 88 K as a result of the CO2 increase since 1750. Then, in the new equilibrium state, the surface temperature is T0′=T0+ΔT=288. 9 K and the lapse rate should be –6. 6 × 10–3 K m–1 due to the temperature invariance at the tropopause. Next, the outgoing flux density at the tropopause with the surface temperature T0′ is calculated. This value is close to F¯. The radiative forcing of CO2 is dominant, and the radiative forcings of other greenhouse gases nearly balance with negative radiative forcings (e. g. , of aerosols). As a result, the influence of all radiative forcings is almost equivalent to the influence of CO2. Figure 6 shows the surface temperature increase due to CO2 considering radiative forcing when the atmospheric CO2 concentration increases to twice that in the pre-industrial era. In the future (when the CO2 concentration exceeds 390 ppmv), the surface temperature increase per 20 ppmv CO2 is about 0. 1 K. Figure 6. Surface temperature increase due to the radiative forcing of CO2 when the atmospheric CO2 concentration increases to twice that in the pre-industrial era. Advertisement 4. ConclusionsThe one-dimensional radiative equilibrium model can estimate the radiative forcing and global warming potential of anthropogenic greenhouse gases by using their absorption spectra at Earth’s surface and number densities. Under some approximations, radiative forcing values are calculated higher than the IPCC estimates; CO2, 39%; CH4, 33%; and N2O, 12%. Calculated values of global warming potential are very similar to IPCC estimates. Furthermore, increases in Earth’s surface temperature due to radiative forcing can be easily estimated by the model. 1. This 2. "2013: Science Basis" (2014), M. D. Mastrandrea and S. H. Schneider, "GW-2: Global Warming," Am. J. Phys. 76, 608-614 (2008).

Output: corroborate


Input: Claim: Ocean acidification will completely destroy all marine ecosystems by 2050. [SEP] Text: Ecosystem effects resulting from OA have previously been identified as a key knowledge gap [337]. Furthermore, different life stages, particularly the juvenile stage (e. g. echinoderms), often display increased susceptibility to OA, but the impact of exposure of one life stage to low pH conditions on the subsequent life stages has only rarely been studied (but see [206, 212]). Similarly, even in organisms that have been comparatively well studied, not all life stages have been considered and certainly not within the context of the variability in natural conditions (Fig. 2). Manipulated experiments generally consider present-day atmospheric conditions (∼360–400 μatm) to be the control PCO2 level and all treatments above that to be ‘elevated’. Meanwhile PCO2 varies significantly with depth, and is naturally high in the north Pacific [28]. We quantify ‘elevated’ based on the local PCO2 levels at the depths of the organisms in question (Table 1). The combined effect of coastal upwelling, and local remineralisation of high production [27], results in exceptionally high (and variable) subsurface PCO2 on the outer BC shelf (Fig. 2). In local and connected inshore waters subsurface PCO2 is also high (unpublished data, DI; [6, 31]). Thus, many marine organisms in our region are currently experiencing conditions that are viewed as ‘elevated’ in the literature (Fig. 2; S2 Table). In addition, laboratory treatments often specify environmental conditions (e. g. temperature, PCO2) that do not occur in nature and are unlikely to occur, at least locally (e. g. [31]). Exposure time may also limit the interpretation of results, as there are distinct differences between treatments that are ‘shocked’ and those that are allowed to acclimate (e. g. [87, 248]). Finally, defining the carbon state in seawater is not trivial [10] and requires that at least two of the four carbon parameters (2, pH) be measured. The quality of the measurements and manipulation in the laboratory work cited here is variable.

Output: contrast


Input: Claim: Sea turtles navigate using the Earth’s magnetic field. [SEP] Text: For the first time the considered EMF model in comparison with the magnetohydrodynamo model can give physically and logically reasonable answers to the questions related to the behavior of a geomagnetic field in space and time. In particular, this model lets us explain the cause of the magnetic fields inversion, forecasts the magnitude of the residual (mantle) magnetic field during the polarity reversal and cyclic change of warming and cooling periods, it also clarifies the magnitude of the Earth’s core electroconductivity and structure, allows to use a new and physically justified mechanism for calculating electrical and, indirectly, lithological characteristics of the Solar system planets. The latter, i. e. inversion problem solving, is likely if the magnetic fields of those planets are measures beforehand by spacecraft. For the first time the temperature which the bottom surfaces of the continents and oceans bottom warm up to in case when the core’s thermocurrents move to the lower mantle was calculated using the thermoelectrical model of the Earth’s magnetic field. Nevertheless, noe the considered thermoelectrical model of the Earth’s magnetic field is on its first stage, so this is a protomodel. It is based on the description of a homogeneous structure of a magnetic field, which should be the reason for developing a real heterogeneous model, using differential equations. to Abramovich S. А. for checking mathematical calculations and Proskurnina T. V. for efforts to translate the manuscript to English. The manuscript “Thermoelectric currents of earth’s core generate the earth’s magnetic field” was not published in any magazine and it is not being edited in any editorial office. An 2001. DOI:10. 1088/1755-1315/44/2/022001 I made the manuscript on my own in the University, where I am working. Here is no competing finantial or any other interests of any organization as I did not get any subsidies, grants or ordinary shares. I, A. N. Dmitriev, am the only author of the manuscript and there is no legal claim to me from anyone. The manuscript author, A. N. Dmitriev. Submit or recommend next manuscript to SCIRP and we will provide best service for you: Accepting pre-submission inquiries through Email, Facebook, LinkedIn, Twitter, etc.

Output: pass


Input: Claim: Renewable energy sources, like wind and solar power, are being promoted as a way to reduce greenhouse gas emissions. [SEP] Text: > Vol. 3 No. 4, November 2012 Cost and of () Seth Blumsack, John and of Energy and. . DOI: 10. 4236/sgre. 2012. 34041 5,866 Downloads 8,929 Views 315. doi: 10. 4236/sgre. 2012. 34041. 1. integration of renewable electric generation resources, particularly solar and wind, into existing energy production and delivery systems, is considered to be a major technical and economic challenge. Variability of both wind and solar resources introduces additional stochastic components to the operational objective of balancing supply and demand across power control areas on a real-time basis; and presents planning challenges to system operators and generating companies that must make investment portfolio decisions to accommodate increased renewable energy penetration. Integration costs are expected to rise along with penetration levels, with recent reports suggesting costs of $2/MWh to $9/MWh [1] once wind penetration reaches 20% [2]. A number of different operational strategies are possible to achieve large-scale penetration of wind and solar energy. One such strategy would expand the use of frequency regulation and balancing energy services to compensate for unforecasted deviations in wind and solar power output. These so-called ancillary services are currently utilized in large-scale electricity systems to balance unexpected deviations in the supply-demand balance caused by volatile electricity demand or unplanned outages at generation or transmission assets. Such ancillary services can be provided on the supply side or the demand side. While system operators are experienced in procuring and dispatching ancillary services to handle fluctuations in the supply-demand balance, it is less clear whether existing ancillary services, and the various types of markets through which they are procured, are adequate to support the large-scale integration of wind and solar resources while maintaining high reliability and reasonable costs [3]. Wind and solar resources could also self-provide balancing energy by coupling their output with a controllable resource to provide a firm energy schedule to the system operator. The controllable resource essentially provides some amount of “fill-in” power to compensate for the variable resource. This coupling could be contractual, in which the wind or solar resource signs a physical energy purchase contract with a complementary resource; or the coupling could occur through horizontal integration, where a single generation operator manages the output of the variable and controllable resource to provide the firm energy schedule.

Output: corroborate


Input: Claim: Ocean acidification will completely destroy all marine ecosystems by 2050. [SEP] Text: While the high degree of accuracy and precision required by chemical oceanographers [10] is in general not necessary to obtain insight from biological manipulation experiments, the equations that define the carbon system lead to compounding errors when calculating one of the unknowns. Thus, a moderate uncertainty in PCO2 may translate to an estimated pH that has little, or no meaning. We urge the reader to consult S2 Table where all available detail for each experiment cited has been summarised. Climate change—the whole picture The ocean has absorbed a significant portion of the anthropogenically produced carbon [2] and that has caused on average a 30% change in surface ocean acidity [5]. However the annual variability in surface PCO2 and pH in dynamic regions like the BC [24] and WA [31] coasts is generally more than two orders of magnitude greater than the annual atmospheric increase in CO2. In other words, we expect the OA trend to be present, but overlaid is a signal with large amplitude. Climate change may alter this dynamic natural cycle so that negative impacts associated with high acidity are experienced earlier in the coastal northeast Pacific than elsewhere, regardless of OA. There are critical times during the year when carbon conditions (particularly in the upper mixed layer; 20–30 m on the outer coast; ∼10 m or less in protected waterways) change dramatically. For example, the spring bloom in the Strait of Georgia causes a large and rapid increase in surface pH (Maley pers. comm. , University of British Columbia, Vancouver BC) and the timing of this event varies significantly from year to year [338]. On the outer shelf, the onset of summer upwelling brings lower pH water over the continental shelf and decreases pH (on average) throughout the entire water column. Climate change may alter the strength, timing [339–341], or even the variability in the timing, of such events. Thus, the influence of climate change on weather may play a critical role, that will only be exacerbated as OA progresses. In addition to changing weather, sea surface temperatures are expected to increase and subsurface O2 is expected to decrease (leading to increased occurrence of hypoxia) with climate change, concurrent with OA. Temperature has a large effect on marine organisms because metabolism increases as the ocean warms, consequently increasing energetic costs. As a result, changes in present-day distributions of marine organisms have already been linked to changes in temperature [342].

Output: contrast


Input: Claim: Sea turtles navigate using the Earth’s magnetic field. [SEP] Text: A wide selection of journals (inclusive of 9 subjects, more than 200 journals) Providing 24-hour high-quality service User-friendly online submission system Fair and swift peer-review system Efficient typesetting and proofreading procedure Display of the result of downloads and visits, as well as the number of cited 308. Elsevier Pub. Co. [2] Bourgoin, M. , Odier, P. , Pinton, J. F. and Ricard, Y. (2004) Study of in Magnetohydrodynamics. Physics of Fluids, 16, 2529-2547. [3] Giesecke, A. , et al. (2010) in Non-Uniform Domains. Geophysical & Dynamics, 104, 505-529. [4] Gailitis, A. , Lielausis, O. , Platacis, E. , Gerbeth, G. and Stefani, F. (2003) Dynamo Experiment. Surveys in Geophysics, 24, 247-267. [5] Verhille, G. , Plihon, N. , Bourgoin, M. , Odier, P. and Pinton, J. F. (2010) Experiments. Reviews, 152, 543-564. [6] Sokolov, D. D. , Stepanov, R. A. and Frik, P. G. (2014) Dynamo: Models to Laboratory Experiment. Success of Physical Science, 184, 313-335. [7] Dolginov, A. Z. (1987) Origins of of Earth and Celestial Bodies. Success of Physical Science, 152, 231-262. [8] Zeldovich, J. B. and Ruzmaikin, A. A. (1987) as a Source of Planetary, Solar and Galactic Magnetism. Success of Physical Science, 152, 263-284. [9] Arseniev, S. A. (2015) of Field of Earth and Planets. of Humanitarian and Natural Science, 4, 313-321. [10] Elsasser, W. M. (1939) On the Origin of the Earth’s Magnetic Field. Physical Review, 55, 489-498. [11] Vestine, E. H. (1954) The Earth’s Core.

Output: pass


Input: Claim: Renewable energy sources, like wind and solar power, are being promoted as a way to reduce greenhouse gas emissions. [SEP] Text: The provision of fill-in power for wind turbines has been studied for hydroelectric dams [3], compressed air energy storage [4], and hybrid fill-in systems consisting of natural gas turbines that compensate for “slow” fluctuations and battery energy storage that compensate for “fast” energy storage [5]. The increased use of ancillary services versus the coupling of variable and controllable resources is an unsettled topic in the electric utility industry and in the relevant research literature. We choose to assess the direct coupling of variable and controllable resources; in particular we assess how coupling multiple variableresources affects the utilization of the controllable resource. Specifically, we compare the costs and emissions of two coupled energy systems with a base-case system featureing a natural gas combustion turbine that produces a constant amount of electric energy. For comparison, we couple the natural gas turbine with an equivalently-sized wind energy installation; as well as coupling the gas turbine with a wind energy installation and a solar photovoltaic installation. Differences in the diurnal cycles of wind and solar energy [3] suggest that coupling these two variable sources may reduce the utilization of the controllable (and polluting) energy resource, with concomitant benefits in terms of air emissions. The remainder of the paper discusses our data sources, modeling strategy and results. Section 2 outlines the data we have obtained for a high-quality wind and solar site in western Oklahoma, and describes how we estimate wind and solar production based on meteorological data. Technology and emissions costs are also discussed in Section 2. Section 3 contains the results of our modeling exercise, and Section 4 offers some discussion and conclusions. 2. Data and case study is based on simulation of a coupled system of wind, solar and natural gas installed in Weatherford, in western Oklahoma. Weatherford is considered an advantageous location for such a coupled system since it is located in a high-quality wind zone (Class IV wind site [6]) and has relatively high-quality photovoltaic potential (based on analysis in [7]). We collect five-minute meteorological data for the Weatherford location from the Oklahoma Mesonet, a collection of over one hundred measurement stations across Oklahoma. Data available through the Mesonet includes averages of five-minute wind speed (m/s), wind direction, average solar radiation (W/m2), and other weather variables. Data are recorded at a height of 10 m.

Output: corroborate


Input: Claim: Ocean acidification will completely destroy all marine ecosystems by 2050. [SEP] Text: Thus, a ‘multi-stressor’ approach is required to understand the net effect of climate change on marine organisms. The net effect of all three stressors (warming, hypoxia and OA) may be synergistic and has been generally described as a narrowing of the thermal ranges in which organisms can perform well, and a decrease in maximal performance [343]. Lastly, changes in human behaviour (e. g. fishing) as climate change and OA progress may also play an important, and possibly additive, role in shaping future marine ecosystems (e. g. [344]). ConclusionsThere remain significant knowledge gaps with respect to the biological impacts of OA on marine ecosystems globally, and locally. The most critical impacts will likely be indirect as a result of food web changes, and so are highly complex and difficult to predict even with extensive study. Furthermore, OA related changes will occur in concert with other climate change impacts that may be even more severe (see above). In particular, increasing temperature and decreasing dissolved oxygen are likely to produce synergistic effects. The northeast Pacific region naturally has waters low in pH (undersaturated with respect to aragonite) near the surface. Thus, it is potentially more vulnerable to OA than other regions. We summarise the most relevant risks and identify key knowledge gaps, given present-day knowledge, to fisheries and marine ecosystems in the order of immediacy and certainty. Shellfish aquaculture is highly susceptible to OA due to the direct impact of OA on shell formation and the dependence of the industry on hatchery production. These impacts are already experienced in BC (and WA). Wild shellfish experience similar difficulties but have the opportunity to adapt (e. g. [197]) and so will likely not be affected as rapidly and severely. There are no studies on Geoduck Clams, which are responsible for a lucrative wild fishery and a growing aquaculture industry in BC (although the latter is still in its infancy). The commercial BC fishery is dominated monetarily by salmon aquaculture. While uncertainty remains low, it is anticipated that the fish-killing alga Heterosigma akashiwo will gain a competitive advantage under OA, making blooms more frequent. Such blooms are already a significant issue for this industry in BC. Neurotoxins produced by other harmful algae are expected to become more potent under OA. Such blooms already cause shellfish closures in BC.

Output: contrast


Input: Claim: Sea turtles navigate using the Earth’s magnetic field. [SEP] Text: Transactions—Union, 35, 63-72. [12] Runcorn, S. K. (1954) The Earth’s Core. Transactions—Union, 35, 49-63. [13] Dmitriev, A. N. (1980) About a of Existence of of Conductors. Exploratory Geophysics, 88, 125-129. [14] Dmitriev, A. N. (2007) Geological and for Research of Objects—Oil and 226 Tyumen: TGU. [15] Dmitriev, A. N. (2016) A on the Nature of the Earth’s Magnetic Field. IOP Conference Series: Earth and Environmental Science, 44, 2001. [16] Zharkov, V. N. (1983) of the Earth and 416 M. Nauka. [17] Magnitsky, A. (2006) and Physics of the Earth 389 M. Nauka. [18] Kuznetsov, V. (2011) Physics of Earth 842 Novosibirsk. [19] Uffen, R. J. (1952) A Method of Estimating the Gradient in the Earth’s Mantle. Transactions—Union, 33, 893-896. [20] Tozer, D. C. (1959) Properties of the Earth’s Interior. Physics and Chemistry of the Earth, 3, 414-436. [21] Anzellini, S. , Dewaele, A. , Mezouar, M. , Loubeyre, P. and Morard, G. (2013) Melting of Iron at Earth’s on Fast X-Ray Diffraction. Science, 340, 464-466. [22] Kuznetsov, V. (2008) Introduction to the Hot Earth’s Physics 366 IKIR. [23] Kalashnikov, S. G. (1977) Electricity 592 M. Nauka. [24] Saveliev, I. (1970) Course. Vol. II 336 M. Nauka. [25] Martinson, L. K. and Smirnov, E. (2004) Quantum Physics. 496 M. MGTU im. N. E. Baumana. [26] Pavlov, P. V. and Chochlov, A.

Output: pass


Input: Claim: Renewable energy sources, like wind and solar power, are being promoted as a way to reduce greenhouse gas emissions. [SEP] Text: The three systems we consider in our analysis are a standalone gas combustion turbine; a coupled system of wind and natural gas; and a coupled system of wind, solar photovoltaic and natural gas. In the latter two scenarios, the gas turbine is utilized for providing fill-in power as described in Section 1. The cost and emissions implications are compared on a per-unit-energy basis, so we do not need to specify an explicit size for the system (although our capital cost figures in Section 2. 4 implicitly assume utility-scale installations). Given the capital and operating costs of the gas and wind turbines, and the high capacity factor of the modeled wind installation in Weatherford, the LCOE for the coupled wind/gas system is lower than for the gas system alone ($86. 59/MWh for the coupled system versus $95. 60/MWh for the natural gas turbine alone). The LCOE of the coupled system is naturally sensitive to fluctuations in the fuel price for the gas turbine and the availability of the wind turbine; if the price of natural gas were to drop below $6/mmBTU then the gas turbine alone would be more economical. Because of the high capital costs of solar photovoltaic, and the low capacity factor, we find that coupling photovoltaics with the wind/gas system increases the LCOE to $223. 24/MWh. Defining the integration cost for solar photovoltaics as the increase in (levelized) energy costs for each fiveminute interval for the wind/solar/gas system versus the wind/gas system, we see that average integration costs for including photovoltaics in a portfolio of wind and fossil energy vary seasonally and range from between $57/MWh to nearly $120/MWh (Figure 5). Moreover, the emissions of NOx following the integration of photovoltaics into the wind/gas system increase for the scenario that we simulated, although CO2 emissions from the coupled system decline. Figure 6(a) shows that integrating wind and solar with the natural gas turbine reduces CO2 emissions by 500 to 1000 tonnes per month, assuming a system with 10 MW of renewables and 10 MW of natural gas turbine capacity. The incremental avoided emissions from coupling photovoltaics with the wind/gas system are relatively small, at 25 tonnes per month.

Output: corroborate


Input: Claim: Ocean acidification will completely destroy all marine ecosystems by 2050. [SEP] Text: If this increase in toxicity occurs, the shellfish industry will be affected. In addition, these toxins may cause decreased reproductive success, and even mass mortality, at higher trophic levels including fish, seabirds and marine mammals. Food web changes due to OA (e. g. in BC changes in the species composition of phytoplankton and decline of pteropods) are anticipated but remain unknown, as are the impacts of these lower level changes on higher trophic levels. Finfish are likely to experience OA impacts through foodweb changes. In BC examples include: the decline of pteropods, that are directly preyed upon by some fish (particularly Pink Salmon), and the anticipated decline of some echinoderms, that are eaten by various species of rockfish and flatfish. Habitat changes may also have a critical negative impact, in particular for juvenile fish. While these impacts remain highly uncertain, there may be a shift from upright macroalgae to algal turf. Also, local coral species (in BC primarily octocorals) that provide vertical structure may decline. Direct impacts of OA on finfish may also occur, but only at relatively high levels of CO2. There are few direct OA studies on local finfish species and none on and salmon, which drive the sport fishing industry. Similarly there are no studies on the adaptation of these local species to OA and multiple stressors, like temperature and O2, that will be changing at the same time. Because sport fishing dominates fishery related income in BC, this knowledge gap is significant. Behavioural changes at various trophic levels have been observed (e. g. increased downward swimming in phytoflagellates, decreased detection and avoidance of predators in larval fish) and postulated (e. g. increased movement to OA refugia such as eelgrass meadows). Such behavioural changes might alter the structure of marine communities in BC, and present another knowledge gap. Crabs may experience negative impacts under OA while other crustaceans significant to the harvest fishery in BC, like prawns, have not been well studied but appear to be more strongly sensitive to temperature than OA. In general, the juvenile stages of crustaceans are most vulnerable to OA, growing more slowly because they need to expend more energy under OA. Supporting InformationS1 Table.

Output: contrast


Input: Claim: Sea turtles navigate using the Earth’s magnetic field. [SEP] Text: F. (2000) Physics of Solid Bodies. Textbook 494 M. Vysshaya shkola. [27] Tyushev, A. N. (2011) Physics Lections: Part 5. 167 Novosibirsk, SGGA. [28] Pasynkov, V. V. and Sorokin, V. S. (2001) Materials of Electronic Technics. Series: Textbooks for Universities 368 Lan. [29] Lifshits, I. M. , Azbel, M. Y. and Kaganov, M. I. (1971) of Metals 416 M. Nauka. [30] Matveev, A. N. (1983) Electricity and Magnetism. 464 M. Vysshaya Shkola. [31] Juravlev, V. A. (2002) of Lections 240 M. Institute. [32] Plotkin, V. V. , Dyadkov, P. G. and Ovchinnikov, S. G. (2014) Identification of of in Lower Mantle: Inversion of Geomagnetic Data. Geology and Geophysics, 55, 1436-1445. [33] and Sokolova, E. U. (2008) Practical Physics: Quantum Physics. Physics of Elements 210 M. VVIA im. Prof. N. E. Jukovskogo. [34] Loper, D. E. (1984) Structure of the Core and Lower Mantle. Advances in Geophysics, 26, 1-34. [35] Hoffman, D. L. and Simmons, A. (2008) Earth 404 BookSurge Publishing. [36] Hansen, J. , Sato, M. , Russell, G. and Kharecha, P. (2013) Climate Sensitivity, Dioxide. [37] Kotlyakov, V. M. (2012) Causes and Results of Changes. Solar and Earth’s Physics, 21, 110-114. [38] Zachos, J. , Pagani, M. , Sloan, L. , Thomas, E. and Billups, K. (2001) Trends, Rhythms, and Aberrations in 65 Ma to Present. Science, 292, 686- 693. [39] Yanovsky, B. M.

Output: pass


Input: Claim: The majority of ice in the Arctic has already recovered, and there are no long-term effects from previous melting. [SEP] Text: Holland, 2011b: Influence of initial conditions and climate forcing on predicting Arctic sea ice. Geophys. Res. Lett. , 38, L18503, falseSearch 1505. 05424. Bonan, D. B. , M. Bushuk, and M. Winton, 2019: A spring barrier for regional predictions of summer Arctic sea ice. Geophys. Res. Lett. , 46, 5937–5947, D. B. , M. Bushuk, and M. Winton, 2019: A spring barrier for regional predictions of summer Arctic sea ice. Geophys. Res. Lett. , 46, 5937–5947, falseSearch 10. 1175/1520-0442(1992)005<0541:>2. 0. CO;2. CrossrefBretherton, C. S. , C. Smith, and J. M. Wallace, 1992: An intercomparison of methods for finding coupled patterns in climate data. J. Climate, 5, 541–560, falseSearch 10. 1002/2017GL073155. CrossrefBushuk, M. , R. Msadek, M. Winton, G. A. Vecchi, R. Gudgel, A. Rosati, and X. Yang, 2017: Skillful regional prediction of Arctic sea ice on seasonal timescales. Geophys. Res. Lett. , 44, 4953–4964, falseSearch 10. 5194/npg-27-373-202. CrossrefChattopadhyay, A. , P. Hassanzadeh, and D. Subramanian, 2020: Data-driven predictions of a multiscale Lorenz 96 chaotic system using machine-learning methods: Reservoir computing, artificial neural network, and long short-term memory network. Geophys. , 27, 373–389, falseSearch 10. 1007/s00382-018-4592-6. CrossrefCruz-García, R. , V. Guemas, M. Chevallier, and F. Massonnet, 2019: An assessment of regional sea ice predictability in the Arctic Ocean. Climate Dyn. , 53, 427–440, falseSearch 10. 1002/qj. 828. CrossrefDee, D.

Output: pass


Input: Claim: Ocean acidification will completely destroy all marine ecosystems by 2050. [SEP] Text: (2001) Changes in the zooplankton community of the continental margin, 1985–1999, and their covariation with oceanographic conditions. Sci 58: 685–702. View 156. (2011) Impacts of CO2-driven seawater acidification on survival, egg production rate and hatching success of four marine copepods. Sin 30: 86–94. View 157. (2004) Effects of raised CO2 concentration on the egg production rate and early development of two marine copepods (Acartia steueri and Acartia erythraea). Bull 49: 721–727. pmid:15530515 View 158. (2007) CO2-induced acidification affects hatching success in Calanus finmarchicus. 350: 91–97. View 159. Kurihara H, (2008) Effects of high CO2 seawater on the copepod (Acartia tsuensis) through all life stages and subsequent generations. Bull 56: 1086–1090. pmid:18455195 View 160. Weydmann A, Søreide (2012) Influence of CO2-induced acidification on the reproduction of a key Arctic copepod Calanus glacialis. J 428: 39–42. View 161. Vehmaa A, Brutemark A, Engström-Öst J (2012) Maternal effects may act as an adaptation mechanism for copepods facing pH and temperature changes. 7: e48538. pmid:23119052 View 162. (2012) End of century ocean warming and acidification effects on reproductive success in a temperate marine copepod. J 34: 258–262. View 163. (2013) Medium-term exposure of the copepod Calanus finmarchicus (Gunnerus, 1770) to CO2-acidified seawater: effects on survival and development. Biogeosciences 10: 7481–7491. View 164. (2012) Pteropod time-series from the NE Pacific. 69: 448–459. View 165. (2005) Zooplankton distribution and dynamics in a eddy of coastal origin. 2. Mechanisms of eddy colonization by and retention of offshore species. Res II 52: 1011–1035. View 166.

Output: contrast


Input: Claim: Sea turtles navigate using the Earth’s magnetic field. [SEP] Text: (1978) Terrestrial Magnetism. Parts 1, 2. 591 L. GITTL. [40] Kolesnikov, L. V. and Yudin, A. L. (2003) Materials Science. Part 2. for Laboratory Practice. 82 Kemerovo. [41] Boriev, I. A. (2012) of Impulse’s Electrons in Substance under Effect of Electricity and Time of Free Path. News of Science Academy, Engineering, 3, 105-112. [42] Monin, A. S. (1977) History of Earth 228 L. Science. [43] and David, J. (2004) CO2 as a of Phanerozoic Climate. GSA Today, 14, 4-10. [44] Serebrennikov, V. B. (2008) Temperature and in Anthropogen and Its Consequences. Peter’s Academy News. 9. [45] Korzun, V. A. (2009) Global Warming—Reality or Politicized Mith? (Perspectives of Development a “Green Economics” in Russia) 191 M. . [46] Petrovich, A. (2011) Canon of Ice Age. of 132 St. Petersburg. Nestor-Istoriya. [47] Prigogine, I. and Nicolis, G. (1977) Self-Organization in Non-Equilibrium Systems: Structures to Order through Fluctuations, J. Wiley& Sons, New York. [48] Butler, S. L. , Peltier, W. R. and Costin, S. O. (2005) of the Earth’s Thermal History: Effects of Inner-. Physics of the Earth and Planetary Interiors, 152, 22-42. [49] Korotkih, A. G. and Shamanin, I. (2007) Hydrodynamics and Basics in Nuclear Reactors. Textbook 117 University. [50] Micheev, M. A. and Micheeva, I. M. (1977) Basics of Heat Exchange. 2nd Edition, stereotipe 344 M. Energiya. [51] Isachenko, V. P. , Osipova, V. A. and Sukomel, A. S. (1981) 416 M. Energoizdat.

Output: pass


Input: Claim: The majority of ice in the Arctic has already recovered, and there are no long-term effects from previous melting. [SEP] Text: However, there are some major issues that will need to be addressed before the manuscript can be published. Major comments/concerns The quality of English language used throughout the manuscript leaves a lot to be desired. As well as reducing the overall readability of the paper, there are also several cases in which it is hard to understand what is being said (or why). One of the main motivations listed for this study, and the BRMT dataset, is that summer satellite SIT data is not available. This issue is mentioned several times and the authors go so far as to state that it is “impossible”. However, the authors do not take into account the fact that summer satellite SIT has been being developed now for many years. The first dataset of summer Arctic radar freeboard (10-years) was published at the beginning of this year (Dawson et al. , 2022). (NB. conversion from radar freeboard to SIT has also been done but that paper is still in press. ) I’m not necessarily saying that the existence of these new datasets invalidates the motivation for this study, but it should definitely be referenced and included in the discussion. How does/would the BRMT compare with the Dawson et al. (2022) freeboard? The paper manages to be both too long and detailed, and too short and vague at the same time. By this I mean that, despite the paper being rather long, sufficient details are not provided of the methods used to create BRMT. Given the length of the paper, I recommend that the authors consider dropping Section 5 and focussing properly on the BRMT reconstructed dataset – both creation and evaluation. The “retrospective forecast experiments” in Section 5 are really only cursory, with less than one month of forecasts performed for only one particular year. To properly assess the impact of assimilating the a much more comprehensive assessment would be needed – including the whole summer period on at least 2 different years. Many would also question the fact that BRMT uses information from the future (i. e. , 2012-2018) in the reconstruction. This makes it unusable for real-world forecasting situations. How much skill would be lost if you were to only use past data? I struggle with the concept and motivation for the reconstructed SIT dataset. BRMT essentially uses the relationship between SIC and SIT in the TOPAZ reanalysis.

Output: pass


Input: Claim: Ocean acidification will completely destroy all marine ecosystems by 2050. [SEP] Text: (2012) oyster, Crassostrea gigas, shows negative correlation to naturally elevated carbon dioxide levels: Implications for near-term ocean acidification effects. 57: 698–710. View 196. (2010) Meta-analysis reveals negative yet variable effects of ocean acidification on marine organisms. 13: 1419–1434. pmid:20958904 View 197. ’Connor WA, Pörtner HO, Scanes E, et al. (2013) Predicting the response of molluscs to the impact of ocean acidification. Biology 2: 651–692. pmid:24832802 View 198. Havenhand JN, (2009) Near-future levels of ocean acidification do not affect sperm motility and fertilization kinetics in the oyster Crassostrea gigas. Biogeosciences 6: 3009–3015. View 199. ’Connor WA (2010) Comparing the effect of elevated pCO2 and temperature on the fertilization and early development of two species of oysters. 157: 2435–2452. View 200. ícharo L, (2013) Effects of sea-water acidification on fertilization and larval development of the oyster Crassostrea gigas. J 440: 200–206. View 201. (2007) Effects of increased seawater pCO2 on early development of the oyster Crassostrea gigas. 1: 91–98. View 202. Timmins-Schiffman E, O’(2013) Elevated pCO2 causes developmental delay in early larval Pacific oysters, Crassostrea gigas. 160: 1973–1982. View 203. (2013) Larval and post-larval stages of (Crassostrea gigas) are resistant to elevated CO2. 8: e64147. pmid:23724027 View 204. (2011) Elevated seawater CO2 concentrations impair larval development and reduce larval survival in endangered northern abalone (Haliotis kamtschatkana). J 400: 272–277. View 205. (2014) Hypoxia and acidification have additive and synergistic negative effects on the growth, survival, and metamorphosis of early life stage bivalves. 9: e83648. pmid:24416169 View 206.

Output: contrast


Input: Claim: Sea turtles navigate using the Earth’s magnetic field. [SEP] Text: [52] Buchmirov, V. V. , Rakutina, D. V. and Solnyshkova, J. S. (2013) Conductivity. for 36 Ivanovo. [53] Lykov, A. (1967) Theory of Thermal Conductivity. 599 M. Vysshaya shkola. [54] Stepanov, A. A. and Starchenko, S. (2005) in Mantle. “Researched in Russia”, 8, 1760-1770.

Output: pass


Input: Claim: Solar panels convert sunlight into electricity through a process called the photovoltaic effect. [SEP] Text: As well, the advent of “green legislation” together with increased green building construction is forcing architects, planners, and builders to consider the environmental impact of buildings they design and construct [4]. Aside from the moderate amount of sunlight required for the health and comfort of occupants, solar radiation is particularly useful as an energy resource [5]. Apart from this, sunlight provides light more efficiently than electric light sources, while producing less heat for the same amount of light. With the development of sustainable design, researchers are attaching much more importance to energy savings related to sun exposure on buildings, an important component of sustainable development. One of the performance analyses done by architects is to predict how buildings are performing in terms of their luminous environment as a result of daylighting [6]. If energy savings from harvesting sunshine on buildings are considered in the building design stage, an optimal energy design can be selected. Demand for solar power has expanded in recent years for domestic and industrial needs. Solar power is produced by collecting sunlight and converting it into electricity, which is normally done by use of large, flat solar panels composed of many individual solar cells. Solar arrays are most often located remotely, although urban sitting is becoming more popular as well. As the cost of solar energy falls, more and more buildings are being outfitted with photovoltaic systems and some even generate more electricity than they use, which structures are called “energy positive,” an impressive feat. In some areas, solar-enabled buildings actually turn a profit from surplus energy, which is sold to local utility companies and fed it onto the grid. In practice, photovoltaic materials (like solar panels) are normally used to replace conventional building materials in parts of the building envelope such as roofs, skylights, and facades. As a principle or ancillary source of electrical power, solar panels are increasingly incorporated into the construction of new buildings, although existing buildings may be retrofitted with similar technology. However, current analysis of solar energy extraction in comparison with the complexity of sunlight models needed for energy calculations clearly reflects the limited use of building information modeling, as well as the lack of effective visualization techniques. Sunlight analysis is performed by hand calculations or by computer simulation tools. In the process of hand calculation, the preparation of initial data can be a very lengthy and laborious, consisting as it does mostly of manual or semimanual translation from architectural model data to simulation data, which often results in numerous coding errors [7].

Output: corroborate


Input: Claim: Ocean acidification will completely destroy all marine ecosystems by 2050. [SEP] Text: Zygote 18: 103–107. pmid:20370935 View 265. (2009) Elevated water temperature and carbon dioxide concentration increase the growth of a keystone echinoderm. 106: 9316–9321. pmid:19470464 View 266. (2008) Near-future level of CO2-driven ocean acidification radically affects larval survival and development in the brittlestar Ophiothrix fragilis. 373: 285–294. View 267. Love MS (2011) Want to of Coast: A Postmodern Experience. . 268. (1983) Oxygen consumption of pelagic juveniles and demersal adults of the deep-sea fish Sebastolobus altivelis, measured at depth. 76: 325–332. View 269. Gardner GA, (1982) pelagic marine copepoda: an identification manual and annotated 270. (2009) Checklist of the barnacles of (updated October 2009). In: Klinkenberg, B, editor, E-Fauna BC: of the Fauna of [www. efauna. bc. ca]. Lab for Analysis, Department of Geography, University of British Columbia, Vancouver. [Date Accessed: 2014-02-05], plambert@pacificcoast. net: Columbia Museum. URL 271. (2011) Checklist of the shrimps, crabs, lobsters and crayfish of 2011 (order Decapoda). In: Klinkenberg B, editor, E-Fauna BC: of the Fauna of [www. efauna. bc. ca]. Lab for Analysis, Department of Geography, University of British Columbia, Vancouver. [Date Accessed: 2014-02-03], plambert@pacificcoast. net: Columbia Museum. URL 272. (2001) Diet of Euphausia pacifica hansen in Sanriku waters off northeastern Japan. Ecol 48: 68–77. View 273. Fisheries and (2014) —Crab by Trap—January 1, 2014 to December 31, 2014. 227 275. (2009) Marine calcifiers exhibit mixed responses to CO2-induced ocean acidification. Geology 37: 1131–1134. View 276. Ries JB (2011) Skeletal mineralogy in a high-CO2 world. J 403: 54–64. View 277.

Output: contrast


Input: Claim: Sea turtles navigate using the Earth’s magnetic field. [SEP] Text: Skip to content Menu AGU. org to by AGU for dropdown menu Space & & & & dropdown menu ’ Highlights Editors’ Eos en Español Eos 简体中文版 to for: inStrength of Earth’s magnetic record stored in rocks documents the liquid core’s behavior and possibly when the inner core formed. Whether it formed half a billion or more than a billion years ago, however, is up for debate. by Alka Tripathy-Lang 22 August 202230 September 2022 Share this:Click to print (Opens in new window)Click to email a link to a friend (Opens in new window)Click to share on Twitter (Opens in new window)Click to share on Facebook (Opens in new window)Click to share on LinkedIn (Opens in new window) Researchers (including coauthor Nick Swanson-Hysell) found surprisingly high paleointensity values in rocks collected from the (failed) Midcontinent Rift. Credit: Life as we know it requires an atmosphere. It is the air we breathe, our shield from harmful ultraviolet rays, and our defense against extreme temperature swings, like those on Mars. But Earth’s atmosphere owes its persistence to the geomagnetic field, which thwarts the Sun’s rays from dispelling this gaseous veneer. And this protective geomagnetic field owes its existence to Earth’s core. As the liquid part of the core (the outer core) swirls, the combination of molten iron alloys and Earth’s rotation results in a self-sustaining magnetic field called the geodynamo. As they archive evidence of the geodynamo’s billions-of-years-long existence, rocks can transcribe where north was (direction) and how strong the field was (intensity) at the time of formation. That transcription is possible as long as the rocks remain relatively untouched by high temperatures, fluids, or other traumas of tectonics. Because the strength of Earth’s magnetic field relies on the vigor with which the liquid core churns, understanding how paleomagnetic intensity has changed at the surface can help scientists address when the core transitioned from a single ball of sloshing melt to a solid inner core wrapped in a liquid outer core.

Output: pass


Input: Claim: Solar panels convert sunlight into electricity through a process called the photovoltaic effect. [SEP] Text: In previous study on the integration BIM and building performance, it has been indicated that BIM can aid in the sunlight analysis [12]. BIM technologies offer new insights into the dynamic relationship and specificities of sunlight conditions and the individual building’s use and properties, helping us identify the balancing points of solar gains and daylight conditions resulting from urban geometry [13]. Welle et al. [14] designed an automated product model decomposition and re-composition methodology for BIM-centric climate-based daylighting simulation called the BIM-Profiler for Simulation (BDP4SIM). Joo et al. [15] developed a tool capable of analyzing various design schemes during the early stages of design by building a reasonable BIM data system for sustainability analysis and using the architectural BIM model to carry out sunshine and energy analysis in a Web environment. Generally, two main methods are used for sunlight analysis in building design. One method is the graphing method, which includes normal shadow-graph, pole shadow-graph, instantaneous shadow-graph, and hours shadow overlay. The other method is the modeling test, which performs analysis based on a scale-model of buildings and a sundial. Though the sun spacing coefficient table was widely used in China during the late 1990s, table’s usefulness is restricted by some limitations that require compliance during early building layout design, where the sun spacing factor is applied in parallel with layer settings for the building. Shadow graphs created for software applications offer a new detailed representation of shadow constraints. Overall, the solar analysis model using BIM has advantage of being importable to related software, generating shadow animations for target periods and simulation results that can be saved on BIM database for property management and quality control. 2. 2. Solar energy and buildingsSolar energy is the portion of the sun’s energy available at the earth’s surface for useful applications, such as exciting electrons in a photovoltaic cell and indoor illumination. Solar energy system is currently the most widely installed renewable energy system in the building sector in an effort to reduce the energy consumption of buildings [16]. Developing the calculation model for solar energy in buildings is helpful to describe the mathematical relations between the solar energy and building attributes such as orientation, location, height, area, etc. An important aspect in calculating solar energy is the accuracy of the developed model, which is evaluated using initial data input [17].

Output: corroborate


Input: Claim: Ocean acidification will completely destroy all marine ecosystems by 2050. [SEP] Text: (2013) Effects of ocean acidification on hatch size and larval growth of walleye pollock (Theragra chalcogramma). 70: 812–822. View 304. (2010) Effect of ocean acidification on marine fish sperm (Baltic cod: Gadus morhua). Biogeosciences 7: 3915–3919. View 305. Franke A, (2011) Effect of ocean acidification on early life stages of Atlantic herring (Clupea harengus L. ). Biogeosciences 8: 3697–3707. View 306. (2012) Reduced early life growth and survival in a fish in direct response to increased carbon dioxide. Change 2: 38–41. View 307. (2009) Elevated CO2 enhances otolith growth in young fish. Science 324: 1683–1683. pmid:19556502 View 308. (2013) Effects of ocean acidification on the calcification of otoliths of larval Atlantic cod Gadus morhua. 477: 251–258. View 309. (2011) Effect of ocean acidification on otolith development in larvae of a tropical marine fish. Biogeosciences 8: 1631–1641. View 310. (2013) Ocean acidification alters the otoliths of a pantropical fish species with implications for sensory function. 110: 7366–7370. pmid:23589887 View 311. (2010) Ocean acidification disrupts the innate ability of fish to detect predator olfactory cues. 13: 68–75. pmid:19917053 View 312. (2012) Effects of ocean acidification on visual risk assessment in coral reef fishes. 26: 553–558. View 313. (2010) Replenishment of fish populations is threatened by ocean acidification. 107: 12930–12934. pmid:20615968 View 314. (2009) Ocean acidification impairs olfactory discrimination and homing ability of a marine fish. 106: 1848–1852. pmid:19188596 View 315. (2011) Ocean acidification erodes crucial auditory behaviour in a marine fish. 7: 917–920. pmid:21632617 View 316. (2012) Effects of ocean acidification on learning in coral reef fishes. 7: e31478. pmid:22328936 View 317.

Output: contrast


Input: Claim: Sea turtles navigate using the Earth’s magnetic field. [SEP] Text: In other words, paleomagnetic intensity might tell scientists when the inner core began to form, with some suggesting that the answer is a little more than half a billion years ago (i. e. , only in the last ~10% of Earth’s history). This newsletter rocks. Get the most fascinating science news stories of the week in your inbox every Friday. Sign up now In a new study published in the Proceedings of the of Sciences of the of America, paleomagnetist and University of California, Berkeley doctoral student and his coauthors collected and studied rocks from the (failed) Midcontinent Rift—a region where 1. 1 billion years ago there was voluminous volcanism. The rocks that Zhang targeted are unique aggregations of crystals known as anorthosite xenoliths that formed deep in Earth’s crust but were brought close to the surface with magma that fed lava eruptions into the rift. The team found surprisingly high paleointensity values that signal a turbulent core—more spirited than might be expected for a liquid core lacking a solid center and stronger than Earth’s magnetic field today. Plot of age versus paleointensity, with a dashed line showing a previously interpreted decreasing trend until about 500–600 million years ago, after which paleointensity values begin to climb, showing distinct lows but also higher highs than most data from the Precambrian, barring the data presented in the new study. A light blue band from 1,110 to 1,085 million years ago shows the age of the rocks in this study as well as their curiously high paleointensity values. Credit: Zhang et al. , 2022, of Earth’s energy that causes the liquid core to move, or convect, comes from two different mechanisms. Thermally convecting liquid is driven by heat that’s wanting to rise and escape, said Courtney Sprain, a paleomagnetist at the University of Florida who was not involved in this study. In the other mechanism, compositional convection stirs the cauldron because of light elements. As the mostly iron inner core solidifies, it excludes lighter, more buoyant elements that proceed to rise through the liquid outer core. “We believe [that] today, that’s one of our main sources of energy driving the geodynamo,” Sprain explained.

Output: pass


Input: Claim: Solar panels convert sunlight into electricity through a process called the photovoltaic effect. [SEP] Text: The large volume of residential building construction in recent years and the deficit of conventional energy sources justify any initiatives conducive to the construction of self-sustainable residential buildings that are capable of producing their own energy for illumination, HVAC, electrical appliances, etc. [18]. The design of alternative energy devices is a predictable way to develop a wide range of new technologies for a more sustainable future. To achieve energy sustainability, the installation of building-integrated solar panels is a viable option. Solar panels are a type of semiconductor device that converts the energy from sunlight into electric energy. Solar panels do not use chemical reactions to produce electric power, and they have no moving parts. Rooftop and vertical surfaces on buildings are convenient installation position to supply solar energy to meet growing energy demands. Depending on material, solar panels can be classified into different kinds: silicon solar cell, compound solar cells, polymer solar cell, nanocrystal solar cell, organic solar cell, and plastic solar cell. Many of factors play part in determining the practicality of a given solar installation and the selection of solar panels. One major factor is the available sunlight. Considering the sun is what combines with the photovoltaic panels to produce the energy, an area rich in sunlight is highly desirable [19]. Glasnovic and Margeta [19] performed an analysis of photovoltaic pumps versus diesel pumps and concluded that photovoltaic pumps were more efficient than diesel pump. Photovoltaic solar cells are thin silicon disks that convert sunlight into electricity. These disks act as energy sources for a wide variety of uses, such as rooftop panels on buildings. The past decade has seen a remarkable evolution in mainstream silicon solar cell technology, documented by greatly increased production volumes and greatly reduced costs. By using solar panels, electricity costs from outside sources are negated by the electricity produced by the building’s surface installations. Additionally, emissions that are the environmental cost of burning coal to produce electricity are significantly reduced. Although solar energy is renewable, more efficient than fossil fuel and environmentally friendly, it is costly. According to Borenstein [20], the high cost of power from solar panels has been a major deterrent to the technology’s market penetration, while the current direct cost of photovoltaic solar panels is widely acknowledged to be much greater than fossil fuel generation or many other renewable energy sources.

Output: corroborate


Input: Claim: Ocean acidification will completely destroy all marine ecosystems by 2050. [SEP] Text: 10. 5194/os-19-101-2023 © Author(s) 2023. This work is distributed under the Attribution 4. 0 License. © Author(s) 2023. This work is distributed under the Attribution 4. 0 License. 10. 5194/os-19-101-2023, 2023. Received: 10 Sep 2022 – Discussion started: 26 Sep 2022 – Revised: 15 Dec 2022 – Accepted: 26 Dec 2022 – Published: 25 Jan 2023 1 perturbations to the Earth system directly impact the health of the world's ocean, its biochemical dynamics, its ecological properties and natural resources, and consequently the provision of ecosystem services. Ocean change includes so-called “slow onset events”, such as ocean warming, acidification, deoxygenation, sea level rise, and glacial retreat, as well as an increase in extreme weather and biogeochemical anomalous conditions, such as marine heat waves (Hobday et al. , 2016), storms, and extreme acidification and deoxygenation events (Gruber et al. , 2021). Today, the ocean absorbs about one-quarter of the CO2 emitted to the atmosphere annually by human activities, resulting in a reduction of seawater pH (Friedlingstein et al. , 2019, 2020). This multi-decadal process, termed “anthropogenic ocean acidification”, causes additional chemical changes, including altering the speciation of dissolved inorganic carbon. Other regional and local changes also affect carbonate chemistry, such as enhanced upwelling, sea ice melt, riverine inputs, or increased temperature. Marine species and ecosystems respond to changes in carbonate chemistry regardless of the driving mechanism, so we use the term ocean acidification (OA) here more broadly to refer to all acidification whether anthropogenically derived global, regional, or local processes. Although there is an accepted recognition of OA as a threat to ocean health and its detrimental and nonlinear impacts on marine species and ecosystems, the initial focus of international networks, projects, and organizations was to adequately describe, quantify, and understand the chemical changes associated with OA (Newton et al. , 2015). Substantial progress in this direction has been made (Tilbrook et al. , 2019), notwithstanding the fact that many geographical regions still lack sufficient capability, information, and data to determine local OA conditions.

Output: contrast


Input: Claim: Sea turtles navigate using the Earth’s magnetic field. [SEP] Text: was much warmer billions of years ago and the inner core was not initially present, thermal convection may have been the primary driver generating the early magnetic field, said Richard Bono, a paleomagnetist at University who also was not involved in Zhang’s work. cooled, thermal convection—and the intensity of the magnetic field—should have tapered. But continued cooling eventually led to the beginnings of Earth’s solid metal heart, which should have boosted the waning magnetic field as compositional convection overtook its thermal counterpart. “You need some really strong forces in the interior of the Earth to generate such strong [paleointensity] values. ” This transition might have begun less than 700 million years ago (much younger than canonical estimates), according to experiments designed to determine how fast iron conducts heat at extremely high pressures and temperatures, said Zhang. However, such experiments have led to different results through different approaches, enough so that various scenarios of the age of the inner core are possible. A 2019 paper led by Bono, in which scientists collated high-quality paleointensity data, supported this young inner core formation timeline, with the paleomagnetic field interpreted to decrease in intensity until a 565-million-year-old low, followed by a rise toward much higher values, signifying more mixing. This timeline led to the intriguing hypothesis that the inner core began to form sometime after 565 million years ago—remarkably young. However, because older (1. 14-billion-year-old) rocks have low paleointensity values, Zhang’s curiously high paleointensity data in 1. 09-billion-year-old rocks could be interpreted as inner core nucleation similar to some previous estimates. “You need some really strong forces in the interior of the Earth to generate such strong [paleointensity] values,” said Zhang. If true, new explanations for later ebbs and flows of paleointensity are needed for around 565 million years ago, as well as at younger times of low to high field strength transitions. Nevertheless, these data don’t negate inner core nucleation 565 million years ago either, he said. “If anything, this is telling us we need to start trying to understand some of the other added complexities” like plate tectonics, said Sprain.

Output: pass


Input: Claim: Solar panels convert sunlight into electricity through a process called the photovoltaic effect. [SEP] Text: Shadow range of the Civil BuildingFigure 9 shows shadow range of and its continuous shadow envelope on the ground on day. Figure 9. Shadow range of civil building. 3. 5. 8. Screenshot of sunshine simulationThis research section examines sunshine of the 8:00–16:00 h (in Figure 10). The shadow area is relatively large around 8:00, while most windows on the North side can receive sunshine. The shadow area at 12:00 is much less than any other time of the day, which means that windows receiving sunshine increase and sunshine duration is much longer. 16:00 is the latest time point used for analyzing sunshine duration on the on day, and the shadow is accordingly stretches. According to the three images above, no windows on the nightside can receive sunshine at any time of the day, which is in accordance with the sunshine analysis of windows as shown above. Figure 10. Sunshine simulation at (a) 8:00 A. M. , (b) 12:00 P. M. , and (c) 16:00 P. M. Advertisement 4. Results and discussion4. 1. The assumption of energy calculationIn this study, the analyzed building is treated as one system, where the amount of solar energy gained by any facade of building is the main research target. Related data used to calculate solar energy are generated in the sunlight simulation by BIM modeling, which shows the sunshine duration on facades of a selected building. For solar energy calculation in this study, it is assumed that meets the following conditions:Solar panels can be installed on the rooftop and vertical walls with a sunshine duration more than 5 h. In order to satisfy required cost savings, the solar panels will not be installed on the north-facing vertical wall of the building because of its insufficient sunshine all year around. Every solar panel is made up of the same material, and the absorbed sunlight can be converted into electricity to attain efficiency in stable networks. The energy cost analysis mainly considers the cost of solar panels. The analysis period for energy cost is classified into and Winter Solstice. The duration time is assumed to be the average of each solar term. According to the weather statistics over the last 3 years, the average number of sunny days each year accounted for 55%. The duration of the sunshine period on the facade of the building is considered to be the average length of the period as estimated by sunlight simulation on. The rate paid for electricity is 0.

Output: corroborate


Input: Claim: Ocean acidification will completely destroy all marine ecosystems by 2050. [SEP] Text: Best practices and standard operating mechanisms are now available to the global scientific community to assess spatial and temporal patterns in pH and carbonate chemistry, to quantify trends and rates of change, and to identify areas with strong signals of OA chemical impacts (IOC-2019, and 14. 3. In principle, using a similar approach to evaluate biological sensitivity to OA would allow direct comparability between the growing availability of carbonate chemistry data and biological observations. However, while the measurement of carbonate chemistry is largely limited to a small number of parameters (pH, dissolved inorganic carbon – DIC, partial pressure of carbon dioxide – pCO2, total alkalinity – TA), all of which can be calculated with different degrees of uncertainty from direct measurements of any two of these parameters, measurement of biological impacts encompasses a much wider range of parameters, each with different scales and units. Thus, while standardizing the observation of carbonate chemistry changes is relatively straightforward, standardizing the measurement of biological impacts in a way that would allow broad-scale comparisons among regions and ecosystems is considerably more challenging. The first challenge for delivering a truly global assessment of OA impacts is to identify a set of fundamental biological parameters that (a) are not linked to any model organism, (b) are relevant across different biological systems, (c) have a strongly demonstrated link to OA, (d) have implications for the overall function of ecosystems and the provision of ecosystem services, and (e) should be easily measurable. OA alters multiple properties of the seawater carbonate system, including pH, speciation of DIC, and carbonate saturation state, that individually or in combination affect marine organisms. Consideration of only one of these parameters may then obscure the mechanistic origin of any observed OA-driven change in biological attributes. While other drivers, such as temperature, nutrients, and oxygen, may exert proximate control over changes in many marine ecosystems, it is important to recognize that OA may have a major role in modulating these consequences in most marine waters, while being the dominant driver for ecosystem change in others (e. g. , Kroeker et al. , 2013; Vargas et al. , 2017, 2022). In addition to the influence of other climate drivers, it should be noted that biological impacts can be heavily moderated by other environmental and ecological factors such as energy supply as well as other drivers and stressors such as nutrient and food content.

Output: contrast


Input: Claim: Sea turtles navigate using the Earth’s magnetic field. [SEP] Text: Subducting plates move through the mantle, sometimes settling into cold piles at the core-mantle boundary. Elsewhere along this boundary, buoyant plumes of hot material rise upward. These sunken slabs and upwelling plumes affect how heat escapes from the core, a process that itself affects how quickly the outer core can convect. The core’s pattern of exhaling heat changes as this geometry shifts, which could affect how the magnetic field is generated, she explained. Snapshot or Long-Term Average? “Our magnetic field is really crazy. ” “Our magnetic field is really crazy,” said Sprain. “It can change on timescales of seconds to millions of years. ” “When we’re trying to understand what the strength of the field is, we have to ask—how much time are we looking at, [and] how much time do we average? ” said Bono. A rock that cools quickly, on the order of hundreds or thousands of years, will record a snapshot of the magnetic field. A rock that takes many tens or hundreds of thousands of years to cool smooths out the magnetic field’s short-term variation. “You really need to be looking at the time-averaged field strength” to understand what was happening in the core, he said. In the new study, said Sprain, Zhang has data from seven sites but only one date for these rocks. Because these are very old rocks, each date’s margin of error would be on the order of 100,000 years to greater than 1 million; collecting more dates wouldn’t necessarily help resolve the relative timing between sites. “Even if there was more than 10,000 years between [multiple samples’] cooling times, we wouldn’t be able to resolve it [because] the ages would overlap,” Sprain said. Nevertheless, the data are of high quality, and even averaging all the information together results in a higher-than-expected magnetic field for 1. 1 billion years ago, confirming the findings of prior work, said Bono. In this prior work, Sprain found that slightly older volcanic rocks from the also record a strong magnetic field similar to that on Earth today. “What we need,” said Sprain, “is more high-quality data.

Output: pass


Input: Claim: Solar panels convert sunlight into electricity through a process called the photovoltaic effect. [SEP] Text: FloorSurfaceThe spring equinoxThe summer solsticeThe autumnal equinoxThe winter solsticeEffective sunshine duration in a year (h)Roof1214121023761South5. 44. 85. 43920. 7East6764. 51163. 25West3. 34. 53. 32. 42South64. 864594East67651188West3. 64. 53. 62. 63South74. 774. 51148. 4East65651188West43434-5South8. 66. 58. 66. 51470. 15East67651188West4. 7564. 753. 56-10South12612101980East67651188West6764. 81178. 111-14South12412101881East67651188West6765118815South121. 512101757. 25East66. 5651163. 25West66. 5651163. 2516South6. 80. 56. 891143. 45East3. 43. 63. 43. 5West4. 34. 54. 34Table 6. Sunshine duration of different surfaces (unit: h). In this part of the study, sunshine striking a given surface between sunrise and sunset is of concern. First, the total amount of annual solar energy striking surface for more than 5 h was calculated for each solar term over a whole year, which calculation was performed for every surface of the building. The related and required parameters for cost calculation were then assigned. According to the sustainable design plan of the Civil Building, polycrystalline silicon solar panel at 240 W and 18% conversion efficiency (1. 65 m long, 0. 991 m wide, and 0. 04 m light) are suitable components for a larger photovoltaic energy generation and supply system. The installed photovoltaic system will receive 3 RMB per watt capacity in construction subsidies, thus each solar panel 240 W will yield 720 RMB in subsidy. The total number of solar panels n that can be installed on the surface is given in Eq. (1), where Ai is the combined effective area of the facade and rooftop of the Civil Building, while S is the cross-sectional area of the solar panel.

Output: corroborate


Input: Claim: Ocean acidification will completely destroy all marine ecosystems by 2050. [SEP] Text: In regions experiencing multiple elevated environmental stressors (e. g. , increased sedimentation, organic or inorganic contaminants) it will be more difficult to disentangle the longer-term OA effects from those potential confounding effects. However, while complicating factors do not negate the importance of collecting OA impact data from these areas, it does emphasize the importance of collecting additional relevant environmental data to aid interpretation of the observed biological responses. In addition, for indicators measured at the species level, different life stages may also show different responses (e. g. , Kroeker et al. , 2013; Bednarsek et al. , 2019, 2021a, b). These measures for adults can give regional insights into how ecosystems have responded to OA pressures, while measuring these aspects on juvenile stages may help to presage the future changes in these ecosystems. So again, the importance of collecting environmental, ecological, and physiological contextual data cannot be overemphasized. Figure 1Five fundamental ecosystem traits identified as potentially sensitive to ocean acidification and their observable indicators. Download 3 Five traits that are influenced by OA Based on previously published meta-analysis and reviews (e. g. , Doney et al. , 2020; Figuerola et al. , 2021; Hancock et al. , 2020; Kroeker et al. , 2013; Turley and Gattuso, 2012), we delineate five fundamental ecosystem traits and their suite of observable indicators (Fig. 1): (1) calcified organisms and calcification, (2) autotrophs and primary production, (3) heterotrophs and secondary production, (4) biodiversity and community structure, and (5) genetic adaptation. The specific choice of indicator at different sites will depend on the questions or concerns of the investigator but should relate to fitness of species and the health of marine populations and communities; if relevant, it should also be associated with key ecosystem services. The feasibility of obtaining these observations over the long term must also be considered. Detection of OA-induced change in these indicators hinges upon the variability of the data, so a first step is to apply recognized best practices for biological measurements (Katsanevakis et al. , 2012; Bean et al. , 2017).

Output: contrast


Input: Claim: Sea turtles navigate using the Earth’s magnetic field. [SEP] Text: AbstractBacterial motility is typically studied in bulk solution, while their natural habitats often are complex environments. Here, we produced microfluidic channels that contained sediment-mimicking obstacles to study swimming of magnetotactic bacteria in a near-realistic environment. Magnetotactic bacteria are microorganisms that form chains of nanomagnets and that orient in Earth’s magnetic field. The obstacles were produced based on micro-computer tomography reconstructions of bacteria-rich sediment samples. We characterized the swimming of the cells through these channels and found that swimming throughput was highest for physiological magnetic fields. This observation was confirmed by extensive computer simulations using an active Brownian p10. 7554/eLife. 98001. 1. sa2Significance of findingsvaluable: Findings that have theoretical or practical implications for a subfieldlandmarkfundamentalimportantvaluableusefulStrength of evidencesolid: Methods, data and analyses broadly support the claims with only minor weaknessesexceptionalcompellingconvincingsolidincompleteinadequateDuring the peer-review process the editor and reviewers write an eLife assessment that summarises the significance of the findings reported in the 2. 1 Characterization of sediment and construction of sediment-mimicking microfluidic channelsTo study swimming of magnetotactic bacteria in a near-realistic sediment environment that resembles their natural habitat, we produced microfluidic channels that contained sediment-mimicking obstacles (Fig. 1 and S1). To that end, we first characterized a sediment sample in water from the magnetotactic bacteria-rich lake (Potsdam, Germany). We determined a 3D reconstruction of the sample using micro-computer tomography (muCT) with a resolution of 1. 56 µm (Fig. 2a-d) and analyzed the sizes of sediment p1. Construction of sediment-mimicking obstacle channels:Micro-computer tomography slices of sediment samples (a) are cropped out to ignore border effect due to the reconstruction and binarized (b). The binarized images are then fitted with circles (c) for statistical analysis (grain size distribution in d) and for construction of arrays of pillar-shaped obstacles (e). The images of irregular grains (b) and fitted circles (e) are used as masks to design microfluidic channels with obstacle arrays (f), in which the bacteria are injected in the middle channel (3.

Output: pass


Input: Claim: Solar panels convert sunlight into electricity through a process called the photovoltaic effect. [SEP] Text: E1The total electrical energy Q generated by solar panels installed on the can be calculated by Eq. (2), where η is the conversion efficiency of the solar panel, w is the power output of solar panels, and Ti is the effective sunshine duration per year of each surface. E2The amount of the electricity converted by solar panels can be calculated in Eq. (3). E3As is shown in Eq. (3), the solar panels yield more than 60 billion joules of savings in electricity, which shows that the solar panels installed on “Civil Building” reduce traditional energy consumption and in turn contribute to the overall energy efficiency. To assess economic benefit of solar panels, the payback period for solar panel cost can be calculated using Eq. (4). E4In this case, p is the price of each solar panel and C is the operating cost of solar panels. Considering an average electricity price 0. 88 RMB per kilowatt-hour in Nanjing, the daily saving on electricity rates P and the recovery period T can be calculated as follows. P=0. 88×651860789. 2/3600=159343. 7485RMBT=C/P=1831680/159343. 7485=11. 5yearsThrough the cost analysis, after year 11, the investment status solar panels become positive, which means that after 11. 5 years, the solar panel system will operate as a positive cash flow source. Based on the 30-year estimated lifespan of the solar panels, there will be more years benefitting from the solar panel installation than years paying for it. After fully analyzing all the results, the investment is definitely cost-beneficial. Advertisement 5. ConclusionsThe switch to alternative energy sources of electricity is increasing, especially solar energy. The installation of solar panels is advertised throughout the world including China by use of information technologies. Based on the application of building energy modeling and sunlight simulation by BIM technology, and taking advantage of information modeling with 3D visualizations, the sunshine duration and energy consumption of buildings can be calculated with a fair level of accuracy. As a widely used tool in construction sector, BIM has great prospects. With a three-dimensional digital technology, the concept of BIM integrates various kinds of relevant information from construction projects, aiding in complex building performance analyses to ensure an optimized sustainable building design.

Output: corroborate


Input: Claim: Ocean acidification will completely destroy all marine ecosystems by 2050. [SEP] Text: OA may also influence the chemical availability of essential micronutrients (e. g. , trace metals, Gledhill et al. , 2015), thereby potentially affecting the nutritional support of primary production in some coastal and offshore waters (Hutchins and Boyd, 2016). Another mode of potential impact is that transmembrane proton gradients regulate flagellar motion and thus cell motility (Manson et al. , 1977), so OA may reduce the access of vertically migrating flagellated phylogenetic groups to nutrients while simultaneously increasing their susceptibility to predation (Hallegraeff et al. , 2012). Despite the likely complexity of potential OA effects on autotrophs and primary production, the responses will be underlain by three chief indicators. 3. 2. 2 Indicator categories and observations Biomass and abundance The total biomass of primary producers in pelagic and benthic environments is often used to signal the energy available for transfer to higher trophic levels (Pauly and Christensen, 1995; Brown et al. , 2010). Although methods for quantifying biomass or standing stock vary depending on the environment or organism of interest, they can include measures of total chlorophyll a (chl a) concentrations, phytoplankton cell abundance, microphytobenthos biomass (e. g. , chl a per area of surficial sediments), and the biomass of macroalgae and seagrasses. A central benefit of this metric is that it is less susceptible to interannual variability and thus gives more time-integrated insight into the status of communities and regions. levels of biomass at times can mask high carbon turnover rates, so measuring carbon fixation rates or planktonic, macroalgal, or seagrass growth rates can provide more sensitive and comprehensive insight into energy flows in the system (Eddy et al. , 2021). In some cases, whole community production rates can be estimated by measuring net carbon and oxygen dynamics (e. g. , Juranek and Quay, 2005). However, such estimates are prone to variability at hourly, weekly, and seasonal intervals. Establishing trends associated with OA will require longer time series. change in the rates of primary production will alter nutrient dynamics, so it will be important to measure the timing of blooms or other rapid growth periods.

Output: contrast