Input: Claim: Genetic markers can be used to trace inheritance patterns in populations. [SEP] Text: Based on morphological characters, the genus Bruguiera is separated into two major groups (Hou, 1958; Sheue, Yong & Yang, 2005; Duke & Ge, 2011). One group (B. gymnorhiza, B. exaristata and B. sexangula) has large leaves and large solitary-flowered inflorescences, while the other group (B. cylindrica, B. hainesii and B. parviflora) has small leaves, small multiple-flowered inflorescences. In mangrove forests, the distributions of Bruguiera species overlap each other and it can be difficult to identify species based on morphological characters (Abeysinghe et al. , 1999; Duke & Ge, 2011). Consequently, molecular markers such as random amplified polymorphic DNA (RAPD) and simple sequence repeats (SSRs) based on nuclear and chloroplast sequences have been developed for species identification in Bruguiera (Abeysinghe et al. , 1999; Islam et al. , 2008). Chloroplasts are semi-autonomous organelles in algae, cyanobacteria and plants that are responsible for photosynthesis. Chloroplast genomes have been used to study plant species identification, population genetics, genome evolution and phylogenetics (Shi et al. , 2005; Dong et al. , 2012; Saddhe, Jamdade & Kumar, 2016; Bi et al. , 2018; Wu et al. , 2019). For example, DNA barcoding based on chloroplast markers such as matK, rbcL and some intergenic spacer regions (i. e. , trnL-trnF and trnH-psbA) is an effective tool to identify mangrove species and their evolutionary relationships (Shi et al. , 2005; Saddhe, Jamdade & Kumar, 2016; Wu et al. , 2019). In most land plants, chloroplast genomes are inherited maternally. The chloroplast structure is usually a small circular quadripartite DNA consisting of one large single copy (LSC) region, one small single copy (SSC) region and two inverted repeats (IRs), which separate the LSC and SSC (Mower & Vickrey, 2018).

Output: corroborate


Input: Claim: Most of human decision-making is influenced by unconscious biases formed through experience. [SEP] Text: We found no convincing evidence that variability in decision making was systematically biased by anchoring and halo effects, in a clinical profession that is exposed to a regular check on decisions made (i. e. case management supervision). Variability in clinical decisions observed in routine care and in analogue tasks may be better explained by ‘noise’: individual differences and natural fluctuations in judgement quality. Supplementary material The supplementary material for this 10. 1017/S1352465823000115 Data availability statement In line with the requirements of the ethics review board for this study, requests for access to data are to be made in writing to the corresponding author. you to all the PWPs who participated. Author contributions Benjamin Michael: Conceptualization (equal), Data curation (lead), Formal analysis (equal), Investigation (lead), Methodology (equal), Project administration (lead), Resources (lead), Writing – original draft (lead), Writing – review & editing (lead); Stephen Kellett: Conceptualization (equal), Formal analysis (supporting), Investigation (supporting), Methodology (supporting), Supervision (lead), Writing – original draft (supporting), Writing – review & editing (supporting); Jaime Delgadillo: Conceptualization (equal), Data curation (equal), Formal analysis (equal), Investigation (equal), Methodology (equal), Supervision (supporting), Writing – original draft (supporting), Writing – review & editing (supporting). Financial support This research received no specific grant from any funding agency, commercial or not-for-profit sectors. Competing interests The authors declare none. Ethical standards Informed consent to participate and for the results to be published has been obtained. Authors have abided by the of Psychologists and Code of Conduct as set out by the BABCP and BPS. Footnotes 1 In both stages of the clinical decision-making task (treatment fidelity and hold/step up) for both vignettes (1 and 2) the reference category (0) was the control group, and the signal category (1) was the experimental group. The dependent variable was coded ‘1’ for a normative answer and ‘0’ for a counter-normative answer.

Output: contrast


Input: Claim: Mars has polar ice caps composed of water and carbon dioxide. [SEP] Text: White box shows location of (c). (g) dunefield (HiRISE image PSP_003800_1325). White box shows location of (d). HiRISE image credit: NASA/JPL/University of Arizona. Full size image Terminal pitsUnlike terrestrial gullies, which are nearly always formed by liquid water, linear gullies do not have associated debris aprons. Instead, their channel termini are invariably punctuated by one (or more) terminal pit(s) (Fig. 2a–d). Located at the end of the linear gully channel, the terminal pit is usually slightly wider than the channel10. Terminal pits are defined by a roughly circular depression encircled by levées. Most linear gully channels end in a single pit, herein referred to as the primary terminal pit. However, some terminal pits occur as part of a dyadic to triadic sequence known as “pit strings”. Secondary and tertiary terminal pits are defined as terminal pits that are in a linear sequence with the primary terminal pit, and are always similar in size to the primary terminal pit. Many linear gullies, particularly the largest in scale, have lower albedo circular depressions within the distal region of their channels and/or their primary terminal pits. We refer to these as inset pits. Detached pitsSome terminal pits or terminal pit strings are surrounded by multiple detached pits (Fig. 2a–d). These pits are not connected to (or in line with) channels and are usually considerably smaller than their associated terminal pit(s). Detached pits are always exclusive to the distal region of the channel and are not found upslope. HypothesesLinear gully pits have no terrestrial analogues, and so it is likely that a geomorphic agent that does not occur naturally on Earth may be instrumental in their formation. Originally, terminal pits were proposed to be older flow fronts formed by successive debris flows20, however this is unlikely as linear gullies are forming today, in a climate which does not currently support liquid water10. There are two main schools of thought on the type of CO2 sublimation activity which might form linear gullies: the CO2 basal sublimation triggered debris flow hypothesis23 and the sliding CO2 block hypothesis21.

Output: pass


Input: Claim: Genetic markers can be used to trace inheritance patterns in populations. [SEP] Text: There was an overlap between ycf1Ψ and ndhF in the SSC/IRB boundary region of B. parviflora, similar in several plant chloroplast genomes (Munyao et al. , 2020; Su et al. , 2020). These are common evolutionary events that result in size variation of chloroplast genomes in land plants (Wicke et al. , 2011). Moreover, the genes adjacent to LSC/IR and SSC/IR boundaries are rps19, rps19 pseudogene, ycf1 and ycf1 pseudogene with variation in pseudogene length, similar in many land plants (Gichira et al. , 2019). In contrast, the boundary of LSC/IRA junction of K. obovata, which is a true mangrove species in the family Rhizophoraceae, was near the rpl22 gene resulting in a shorter LSC and larger IR to give an overall larger chloroplast genome (Yang et al. , 2019), revealing the variation of the IR junction among mangrove species during evolution. A large number of repeats and SSRs were identified in the chloroplast genomes, that were mostly distributed in the LSC region as this contains a large amount of intergenic sequence. No differences were found between B. cylindrica and B. hainesii for the four SSR primer pairs (Fig. S2). B. hainesii was reported to be a hybrid between B. gymnorhiza and B. cylindrica identified using nuclear DNA markers (CesA and UKN) (Ono et al. , 2016). The high similarity in chloroplast sequence and lack of genetic variation between B. cylindrica and B. hainesii are consistent with the chloroplast of B. hainesii originating from B. cylindrica. Comparison of SSRs, based on the same criteria of the SSR identification, in B. sexangula grown in two different locations (Thailand and China) revealed intraspecific sequence variation. For example, the Thai sample contained 186 SSRs, while only 175 SSRs were previously reported in the Chinese sample using the same criteria for SSR identification (Shi et al. , 2020).

Output: corroborate


Input: Claim: The placebo effect, where a patient experiences real improvements due to believing they're receiving treatment, is observed in many clinical trials. [SEP] Text: muscle wastage), visual disturbances, and managing constipation (Table 4). Some participants felt that focussing on potential side effects in detail could prompt hypervigilance about bodily symptoms: If something happens you immediately think, ‘Oh my God, is that a side effect? What’s happening? ’ So, there’s a very fine line I think between being well-informed and too informed (F, 50–59, C2). In contrast, one metastatic participant shared that potential side effects were a non-issue to him as his prognosis was too poor to decline even potentially risky experimental treatment. Some of the sheets that I’ve been given, you know, [saying] ‘this [drug] may cause harm, and it may do this…’ I really don’t care. Without it I’m going to die anyway. If you’re going to say to me, ‘If you take this medicine, it might hurt you but it will hurt me hell of a lot more if I don’t take it…’. Look, you’d be completely stupid if you sat down and read it and thought, ‘Oh, if I take this medicine my big toe might drop off’, now hang on, without it you’ll die of cancer. You’ve got to be sensible about it. (M, 70–79, C2). Participants in phase 1 trials reported receiving limited information about side effects at enrolment but understood that this was because data were not yet available, and they nonetheless felt closely monitored. Trial team support in managing side effects Contacting the trial team about side effects was generally reported positively. Being encouraged to take advantage of the available and effective medications to manage side effects gave patients confidence about speaking to the trial team and having their needs met. Some reported getting tips from the trial team about managing side effects, and others were encouraged also to use their GP where possible to manage side effects locally. A minority (9%, n = 13), however, found it difficult or were unsure how to get answers from the trial team about side effects. Although rare, some reported trial staff being dismissive to their questions, especially about minor side effects: I have several side effects some mild and some severe and I got the impression that they thought I was making some up.

Output: pass


Input: Claim: Mars has polar ice caps composed of water and carbon dioxide. [SEP] Text: The CO2 basal sublimation triggered debris flow hypothesis23 suggests a solar-insolation-driven dry debris flow beneath seasonal CO2 ice on dunes. Successive events have been suggested to carve gully channels in Russell Crater23. However, while basal sublimation — driven debris flows are a plausible mechanism for channel formation, such a process would also deposit material at channel termini. Additionally, the model does not account for the presence of terminal pits or detached pits. The sliding CO2 block hypothesis21 is currently the only process that can account for the formation of channels and terminal pits which distinguish linear gullies from other gully morphologies, making this class of gullies exclusive to Mars. The hypothesis proposes that in spring, ice blocks detach from dune brinks. The blocks then descend dune slopes supported by a lubricating layer of CO2 gas. This gas layer is engendered by a mechanism similar to the Leidenfrost Effect24, which occurs when a liquid or solid is in thermal contact with a surface that is at a temperature far beyond its boiling or sublimation point. Upon surface contact, the substance (in this case, CO2 ice), will levitate on a cushion of gas, because the total force exerted by the gas pressure under the block exceeds its weight. This lubricating gas layer eliminates, or reduces, frictional forces so that blocks may move down even very gentle slopes of a few degrees. As the block moves it will carve out channels and deposit lateral levées, until it eventually stops to sublimate at the terminus. This ultimate sublimation explains the formation of a terminal pit. The block is proposed to rest at the base of the channel while sublimating, eroding a depression beneath it and transporting material to the side to form levées. This protracted stationary sublimation may explain why pits are commonly slightly wider than their corresponding channels, which are proposed to form by the rapid movement of blocks downslope21. Thus far, alcove, channel, levée and shallow pit morphologies have been observed to form when CO2 ice blocks were slid onto sand dunes in Utah and Arizona25,26. Further evidence consistent with this hypothesis was the detection of high albedo blocks within linear gully channels on Mars. These are most likely CO2 ice blocks “caught in the act”, of sliding through pre-existing linear gully channels10,21.

Output: pass


Input: Claim: Genetic markers can be used to trace inheritance patterns in populations. [SEP] Text: The overall pattern of chloroplast SSR loci in the Bruguiera species were mostly unique compared with Kandelia and Rhizophora species. Thus, these SSRs would provide a useful genetic resource for future molecular marker analyses among Bruguiera species. The ML phylogenetic tree was constructed based on 59 conserved chloroplast coding-genes in 40 species. The genus Bruguiera and other mangrove species, K. obovata, R. stylosa and R. x lamarckii, constituted a monophyletic branch of the clade Rhizophoraceae. Our phylogenetic result is consistent with morphological characters and previous phylogenetic results based on nuclear DNA markers and some chloroplast genes (e. g. , matK and rbcL) (Schwarzbach & Ricklefs, 2000; Lakshmi, Parani & Parida, 2002; Sheue, Yong & Yang, 2005; Sahoo et al. , 2007; Duke & Ge, 2011). For example, a phylogenetic tree was previously constructed using 34 land plant species including Bruguiera species (B. cylindrica, B. exaristata, B. gymnorhiza, B. parviflora, and B. sexangula) based on the rbcL gene and trnL-trnF spacer (Schwarzbach & Ricklefs, 2000). The phylogenetic result of these two sequences presented B. gymnorhiza and B. sexangula in the same clade. Another phylogenetic tree was reported based on chromosome and RAPD markers in four Bruguiera species that clustered into two groups with B. gymnorhiza and B. sexangula in one group, and B. cylindrica with B. parviflora in the other group (Sahoo et al. , 2007). These results confirm the close relationships of B. gymnorhiza and B. sexangula. The Ka/Ks values for all shared protein-coding genes of the Bruguiera species were calculated and compared with the four assumed ancestors to assess gene selection pressure.

Output: corroborate


Input: Claim: Psychopaths can never feel any emotions and are incapable of forming bonds with others. [SEP] Text: is the ability to feel or understand the experience of another person. What happens in our brains when we feel empathy for someone who is in pain? We showed teenagers pictures of different people in pain (for example, a person who accidentally hit his knee on a hard object) and used a machine that can measure the teenagers’ brains in action. The machine focused on an area in the brain that is responsible for empathy. The results showed that teenagers felt empathy toward people in pain, if those people were from the same background as the teenagers. But the teenagers felt less empathy toward people in pain who were from different backgrounds. These results are similar to the results of research on adults, which means that the empathy function in the brain is also working in teenagers. This study shows that science can be used to peek into the brains of teenagers to look at the brain activity that causes feelings of empathy in different situations. Why is Important? Can you recall a time when a close friend of yours hurt himself? Seeing your friend in pain may have made you feel as if you yourself were in pain. When this happens, we say that you felt empathy for your friend. The feeling of empathy happens when you “put yourself in other people’s shoes,” and you can then understand what it feels like when someone else is happy, sad, in pain or in any other experience. So when you see your friend in pain, you may feel his pain, perhaps almost as much as your friend does. The feeling of empathy is very important for several reasons. First, it is very important for your ability to understand others—to understand what they feel, what they want and why they act the way they do. Second, much research shows that feeling empathy motivates people to care about others and even to help each other [1]. So, empathy can really improve your interactions with your family, friends, and even with strangers. Empathy can lead people to be more caring toward each other, and more helpful. And who would not like to be around people who are caring for and helping each other? Let us try to imagine it: for example, you see your friend hitting his knee (or any other body part) on a hard object. Now let us imagine that you do not feel empathy for him: you would just talk to him as if nothing happened; you might ask him to join you for lunch or to play a game.

Output: contrast


Input: Claim: Mars has polar ice caps composed of water and carbon dioxide. [SEP] Text: It is possible that secondary and tertiary terminal pits may form by blocks that bounce at the channel terminus in the manner observed during field tests on sand dunes in Utah26. It has also been proposed that the multiple detached pits which surround many linear gully termini may be formed by smaller parts of blocks which have broken up at the terminus, scattering ice fragments into their surroundings21. However, the formation mechanism responsible for pronounced terminal pits and detached pits remains uncertain. It is not known if a stationary CO2 block can erode and deposit material to form the full range of pits identified here. Why detached pits are exclusive to a small fraction of linear gullies and why they are restricted to the lower part of the channel is also not yet clear. If detached pits were formed by broken blocks, it is conceivable that blocks would also break at locations such as sharp bends in the channel, areas of dune surface undulation and locations where channels merge. These are all regions where a block would be subjected to stress and yet detached pits are only found at channel termini. We hypothesise that if stationary sublimating CO2 blocks have the geomorphic agency to excavate and deposit material to form pits and circular levées, they must undergo a rapid sublimation process to do so. We reason therefore that blocks which reach the terminus may emit CO2 jets as they sublimate. If these jets entrain sufficient granular material27 they may then be capable of eroding detached pits when they return to the surface. Prior to this study, measurements of linear gullies has concentrated on geographical trends22 and the linear gully system as a whole21,26. Comprehending pit formation is crucial to understanding the formation mechanism responsible for this extra–terrestrial gully type. Therefore, it is important that we test whether sublimating CO2 ice blocks can form pit morphologies. MethodsObjectivesTo test the CO2 block hypothesis, in the context of pit formation, we first conducted a short survey of Martian linear gully terminal pits and detached pits on dunes in Russell, Proctor and Matara Craters. The objectives of this study were to (i) characterise the different terminal pit morphometries, (ii) investigate if there was any evidence of a link between these terminal pit morphometries and detached pits and (iii) investigate the range of block sizes which may be reactivating and widening linear gully channels seasonally.

Output: pass


Input: Claim: Genetic markers can be used to trace inheritance patterns in populations. [SEP] Text: Among the protein-coding genes, nonsynonymous substitutions (Ka) were more frequent than synonymous substitutions (Ks) in rps7 (11 non-synonymous sites of 13 variation sites) and rpl36 (six non-synonymous sites of eight variation sites). The Ka/Ks values of the rps7 and rpl36 genes were above 1. 0 in all species indicating that these genes were under positive selection. The result of the rps7 gene is consistent with previous findings for many mangrove species and some land plants such as K. obovata, R. stylosa, R. mangle and Ananas comosus (pineapple) (Redwan, Saidin & Kumar, 2015; Han et al. , 2020). The rps7 gene encoding small ribosomal protein seven is involved in the regulation of chloroplast translation (Fargo, Boynton & Gillham, 2001). The rpl36 gene was reported to be under positive selection in many mangrove species such as Pemphis acidula, and Sonneratia ovata (Shi et al. , 2020). Knockout of the rpl36 gene in tobacco results in severe morphological aberrations, poor photoautotrophic growth and low translational efficiency (Fleischmann et al. , 2011). Therefore, the rps7 and rpl36 genes might be candidates for improving stress tolerance in mangrove species in dynamic and rapidly changing coastal environments. study reports the whole chloroplast genome sequences of the five Bruguiera mangrove species. The comparative analyses among them provide insights into the chloroplast genome evolution in the genus Bruguiera. Evidence from the Bruguiera chloroplast genomes confirms that B. hainesii, a hybrid species between B. cylindrica and B. gymnorhiza, has inherited the chloroplast from B. cylindrica. Translocation of rpl32 from the chloroplast to the nuclear genome was demonstrated to occur in only B. gymnorhiza; but not in other Bruguiera species. The comparison of the Bruguiera species in the family Rhizophoraceae based on phylogenetic relationships showed that B. gymnorhiza was closely related with B. sexangula, B. hainesii was confirmed to have inherited its chloroplast from B.

Output: corroborate


Input: Claim: Psychopaths can never feel any emotions and are incapable of forming bonds with others. [SEP] Text: But in that moment, your friend is in pain and may need time and help to relieve the pain. Your friend may be upset with you because you do not understand what he is going through, and because you do not really help him in that moment when he really needs it. But what would happen if you do feel empathy for your friend? Then, seeing your friend in pain, you would imagine feeling the same pain, almost as if you yourself hurt your knee. This would help you to understand how your friend feels in that moment. You would then come to him, ask how he feels, stay with him, and see how you can help. Of course, your friend will still feel the pain in his knee, but your caring and helping will probably make him feel better overall. This is why empathy is a very important feeling. But how does empathy happen? Where do we feel empathy and how does it work? Well, everything we feel or do is controlled by the brain. So when you feel empathy, your brain is generating this feeling by activating certain areas of the brain that are important for empathy. Research on empathy shows that one of the major areas of the brain that is activated when you see a friend in pain is an area that scientists call S1 [2]. S1 can be seen in the red spot in the cartoon of the brain in Figure 1A. This area of the brain is not only responsible for empathy, but it is also active when you are in pain yourself. For instance, if you hit your knee, the S1 area also activates. This is very interesting, because it means that the pain you actually feel in your body may be similar to the empathy you feel for a friend’s pain. In other words, this may mean that when you see your friend in pain, your brain activates as if you yourself were in pain. This is why sometimes it feels painful to see someone else in pain (Figure 1A). Figure 1 - Empathy inside the brain. A. The cartoon shows one person (on the left) who is in pain after hitting his knee. This in turn triggers empathy in another person (on the right) who is watching him, and this empathy arises together with the activation of a specific brain area (see the red spot). B. Using machines such as MEG can show us this red spot in that area (called S1) on real images of the brain. When are Likely to Feel Empathy?

Output: contrast


Input: Claim: Mars has polar ice caps composed of water and carbon dioxide. [SEP] Text: To further test the CO2 hypothesis, in the context of pit formation, we performed experiments to examine whether sliding and hence partially buried CO2 ice blocks would form morphologies comparable to Martian linear gully primary terminal pits and detached pits. To test the cryoventing hypothesis, in the context of furrow formation, we performed a second set of experiments with two aims: (i) to study the erosion patterns resulting from the interaction between a gently placed CO2 block and granular substrate and compare these features to a pre-existing Martian furrow network classification12; (ii) to study the factors which constrain furrow pattern type and furrow density. Survey of Pits in Proctor, Russell and (HiRISE) Models (DTMs) DTEEC_003080_1325_004077 and DTEEC_007018_1255_007229 and corresponding orthophotos were employed to survey linear gully pits in respectively. The polygon tool in ArcMap 10. 4 was used to measure the area of individual terminal pits (along the levée apex), taking the diameter of this circle as the pit width. Terminal pit area was calculated by squaring the pit radius and multiplying by π. Pit depths were measured using the tool, by drawing a line across the pit centre and extending this to the surrounding dune surface. Depth was estimated as the difference in elevation between a pit floor and the surrounding dune surface on each side and averaging these values. (DTEEC_007018_1255_007229) has an estimated vertical precision of 1. 2 m28. The relatively low estimated vertical precision is attributed to a low convergence angle (or sum of emission angles) between the stereo pair used to develop the DTM, which reduces vertical precision. Horizontal accuracy of this DTM was given by post spacing, which was 1 m/pixel. (DTEEC_003080_1325_004077) has an estimated vertical precision of <0. 5 m28 and a horizontal accuracy of 1 m/pixel. Pit widths in both locations were generally much wider than 1 m and so horizontal accuracy should not significantly affect our measurements. Both sites were dark dunes and so noise in the DTMs may have affected our measurements to a small degree.

Output: pass


Input: Claim: Genetic markers can be used to trace inheritance patterns in populations. [SEP] Text: cylindrica, and B. parviflora is a sister species of the other four Bruguiera species. Molecular markers were developed from SSRs and demonstrated to be useful in differentiating genotypes at both interspecific and intraspecific levels. The rps7 and rpl36 genes were found to be under positive selection in the Bruguiera species, and these genes might be important for stress tolerance. Therefore, these chloroplast genomes will provide useful genetic information for further analysis in Bruguiera and other mangrove species. Sample location of five Brugueira species. DOI: 10. 7717/peerj. 12268/supp-1 of a primer pair for testing rpl32 loss in five Bruguiera species. DOI: 10. 7717/peerj. 12268/supp-2 of SSR primer pairs in five Bruguiera species. DOI: 10. 7717/peerj. 12268/supp-3 of chloroplast accession numbers and genes for phylogenetic analysis. DOI: 10. 7717/peerj. 12268/supp-4 of chloroplast accession numbers and genes for gene selective pressure analysis. DOI: 10. 7717/peerj. 12268/supp-5 read coverage of the rpl32 gene in five Bruguiera species. DOI: 10. 7717/peerj. 12268/supp-6 chloroplast genes with exons and introns in five Brugueira species. DOI: 10. 7717/peerj. 12268/supp-7 of five Bruguiera species. DOI: 10. 7717/peerj. 12268/supp-8 Download SSRs of five Bruguiera species and three related mangrove species. DOI: 10. 7717/peerj. 12268/supp-9 compound and interrupted SSR loci with ≤100 bp among five Bruguiera species. DOI: 10. 7717/peerj. 12268/supp-10 Download Ka/Ks values between Bruguiera species and assumed ancestors. DOI: 10. 7717/peerj. 12268/supp-11 of PCR products by 1% agarose gel electrophoresis.

Output: corroborate


Input: Claim: Psychopaths can never feel any emotions and are incapable of forming bonds with others. [SEP] Text: We have been talking about feeling empathy for a friend, but you can actually feel empathy for other people, even for strangers. We feel more empathy for some people and less empathy for others. Some explanation for the different amounts of empathy we feel comes from research in psychology, which is the science of behavior and mind. Some of this research shows that we relate differently to people who are from our own cultural background, compared with those who are not from the same background as we are [3]. In that way, we may not feel the same empathy toward everyone. This is true not only in adults, but also in children—and especially in teenagers. It is very important for teenagers to feel that they “belong” to the society or to a group of people that share the same background. Research shows that this feeling of belonging to a group makes us feel differently about those in our group compared with those outside our group. Examples of different cultures or social groups in Israel (where this research was conducted) are the Jewish and the Arab cultures. So, we thought it would be interesting to study feelings of empathy in members of these cultural groups, and in particular, to study empathy in teenagers from these two cultural groups. But how can we know what people really feel toward each other? After all, it is difficult to tell how someone feels from the outside. But remember S1? If we can find a way to see when S1 activates in the brain, we can also see if someone feels empathy or not. And, in fact, there is already a cool machine called MEG that is able to peek into the brain! How does MEG work? The brain is made up of billions of cells that are talking to each other. For example, when you see a picture of a dog, millions of cells in your brain talk to each other so that you can make sense of that picture. If they did not talk to each other, then you would not know that the picture shows a dog. And how do the cells talk to each other? They send an electric signal to each other. When you turn on the light switch in your room, the switch sends an electric signal to the bulb, and this turns the light on. The brain cells do something similar—they send electric signals to each other, to enable us to think, feel, and make sense of the world around us. And do you know what happens when an electric signal is sent?

Output: contrast


Input: Claim: Mars has polar ice caps composed of water and carbon dioxide. [SEP] Text: We have estimated an upper limit of this effect by taking 10 linear cross sections close to pit locations in both DTMs. We detrended these cross sections, averaged them and calculated the standard deviation as an estimate of noise29. Crater this value was 1. 7 m and in Proctor Crater, the value was 1. 08 m and so depths <1. 7 m were not reported in and depths less than 1. 08 m were not reported in Proctor Crater. Horizontal measurements from orthophotos at both locations may have been affected by atmospheric dust and detector noise which was at the pixel level and would affect our horizontal measurements by one pixel at most. A time-series of HiRISE images was used to determine whether there may be a link between detached pit and terminal pit formation. We propose that larger pit sizes (that indicate larger ice blocks) have a higher probability of generating detached pits. Terminal pit areas were measured as outlined above and the number of detached pits surrounding them were counted. Detached pits were identified as low albedo depressions. Negative topography was confirmed using the tool to generate topographic profile data across the feature in the corresponding DTM where possible. Smaller features that may have been artefacts of dune surroundings (e. g. shadows in ripples), were not included. HiRISE images taken at the same location (−54. 3°, 12. 9–13°) on the Russell megadune and dunes (−49. 5°, 34. 7° and −49. 5°, 34. 6°) allowed us to identify new or widened terminal pits and new detached pits. Suitable data were not available for Proctor Crater. Crater observations ranged over 4 Mars years (MY) between MY 29 and 32. The images used were ESP_012213_1255, ESP_020784_1255, ESP_029764_1255 and ESP_039153_1255 for MY 29, 30, 31 and 32 respectively. These images have emission angles of 8. 2°, 5. 1°, 3. 8° and 3. 8° respectively. Emission angle is the angle between the HiRISE camera and a normal drawn perpendicular to the surface, where 0° is known as nadir).

Output: pass


Input: Claim: Genetic markers can be used to trace inheritance patterns in populations. [SEP] Text: A gel purified PCR products of a primer pair, ndhF-F and rpl32-R (Table S2) in five Bruguiera chloroplasts. Lane M1 and M2: DNA size marker, Lane 1: PCR product in Bruguiera cylindrica (1,202 bp), Lane 2: PCR product in B. gymnorhiza (no product), Lane 3: PCR product in B. hainesii (1,202 bp), Lane 4: PCR product in B. parviflora (1,199 bp) and Lane 5: PCR product in B. sexangula (1,169 bp). DOI: 10. 7717/peerj. 12268/supp-12 of SSR markers. A set of 20 of SSR markers were used to estimate the genetic variation among five Bruguiera species. Y-axis is nucleotide size. A1–A5: SSR product of cpSSR1-F and cpSSR1-R primers (Table S3) in Bruguiera cylindrica, B. gymnorhiza, B. hainesii, B. parviflora and B. sexangula, respectively. A6–A10: SSR product of cpSSR2-F and cpSSR2-R primers in B. cylindrica, B. gymnorhiza, B. hainesii, B. parviflora and B. sexangula, respectively. A11–A15: SSR product of cpSSR3-F and cpSSR3-R primers in B. cylindrica, B. gymnorhiza, B. hainesii, B. parviflora and B. sexangula, respectively. A16–A20: SSR product of cpSSR4-F and cpSSR4-R primers in B. cylindrica, B. gymnorhiza, B. hainesii, B. parviflora and B. sexangula, respectively. DOI: 10. 7717/peerj. 12268/supp-13 Information and authors declare that they have no competing interests.

Output: corroborate


Input: Claim: Psychopaths can never feel any emotions and are incapable of forming bonds with others. [SEP] Text: 28It is noteworthy that two types of constructions are to be found: X has a(n) feel and X has a(n) feel to it – the difference between the two structures are analyzed in section 4. 2 The figures in brackets correspond to the number of occurrences found in the COCA. 29The adjectives occurring at least 4 times with it feels are the following:2good (554), great (117), different (33), real (33), strange (28), wonderful (28), wrong (24), weird (22), nice (19), natural (18), funny (12), comfortable (11), better (10), bad (10), safe (10), true (10), cold (9), unnatural (9), fine (8), awkward (7), new (7), smooth (7), warm (7), amazing (6), empty (5), dry (5), alive (5), important (5), impossible (5), incredible (5), normal (5), odd (5), silly (5), uncomfortable (5), awesome (5), cool (5), fantastic (4), full (4), lighter (4), okay (4), soft (4), solid (4), special (4). 30The adjectives occurring at least twice in the structure has a(n) feel and has a(n) feel to it are the following:similar (6), solid (5), good (5), retro (4), modern (3), certain (3), special (2), different (2), cozy (2), familiar (2), foreign (2), western Western (2), claustrophobic (2), open (2), new (2), relaxed (2), roomy (2), nice (2). 3. 2. Semantic sets 31The adjectives listed above seem to cluster around a few semantic profiles, and the two constructions do not appear to be compatible with the same kind of adjectival meanings. 3. 2. 1. It feels… 32For each semantic group, a list of adjectives and a few examples are provided. 33Several adjectives occurring with the verb feel convey an appreciative meaning: Group 1 – appreciative adjectives: awesome, better, fine, good, great, incredible, nice, wonderful; wrong, bad. 3 In all the examples, drawn from the COCA, the emphasis is mine. (01) this is amazing your album drops today.

Output: pass


Input: Claim: Mars has polar ice caps composed of water and carbon dioxide. [SEP] Text: Orthorectification corrects for distortions that may occur in off-nadir images where the spacecraft roll angle causes pixel foreshortening in the cross-track direction30. The images we used were not orthorectified, and so disparities may occur when comparing images with different observation geometry. To minimise this effect, images close to nadir were chosen and care was taken to select images with less than a 5° difference in emission angle. Because such differences are small, we can neglect parallax distortions31. A correction was made for any minor deviations however by dividing x-direction measurements by the cosine of the emission angle30. In each case the distortions are within tens of centimetres and thus fall within errorbars for our measurements. Experimental SetupIn order to investigate the CO2 block hypothesis for pit formation21 and the cryoventing hypothesis for furrow formation11 we performed laboratory experiments. Initial pilot work, under ambient terrestrial conditions, revealed that water in the atmosphere had a significant effect as it formed frost on the surface of the block and on the bed. This affects the heat budget, the permeability of the bed and the mobility of the grains and must be avoided. Additionally, this frost would later melt and erase the surface microtopography. Therefore, we performed our experiments in a low humidity chamber. The chamber was erected on a level surface in a constant temperature (ΔT ≈ 3 K) laboratory. A plastic container (460 × 675 × 400 mm) was filled with dehumidifying silica gel beads. A smaller plastic container (300 × 520 × 370 mm) was placed inside, forming a silica gel bead moat which surrounded the interior container. A perspex lid was fitted on top of the chamber and vacuum bagging gum sealant tape was added at the interface between the container and lid to ensure the chamber was air-tight. A sealed trap door was constructed within the perspex lid in order to minimise exposure to atmospheric water vapour when placing blocks inside. Prior to each experimental run, three CO2 ice blocks were placed upon the silica bead moat and were given time to sublimate. These generated dense CO2 gas which flushed out the original gaseous content, thus removing any water vapour. This reduced the relative humidity sufficiently so that there was no noticeable frost formation during the experiments on the ~−80 °C CO2 ice blocks.

Output: pass


Input: Claim: Genetic markers can be used to trace inheritance patterns in populations. [SEP] Text: 3) recovered a well-supported split (100 (BS) and (PP)) between the Ligia specimens from the Indo-Pacific and the two outgroup taxa. Within the Indo-Pacific Ligia, we observed a split between two highly divergent lineages: an ‘East African’ clade (Clade ABC; BS: 71–96; PP: 91–99) and an ‘Asian’ clade (Clade DEF; BS: 100; PP: 100). COI K2P divergences between these two clades ranged from 21. 8 to 27. 8% with a mean divergence of 25. 2%. Figure 3: Majority rule consensus tree produced by (GTR +Γ, unparitioned, Phycas) of the concatenated mitochondrial dataset of Ligia samples and outgroups included in this study. Numbers by nodes indicate the corresponding range of percent (BS; top) for Maximum likelihood; and (PP; bottom) for Bayesian inference methods. Nodes receiving 100% for all methods are denoted with an * while an NS indicates less than 50% node support. Colors represent major lineages as discussed in text. Download full-size image DOI: 10. 7717/peerj. 3894/fig-3 The ‘East African’ clade (Clade ABC) contained all specimens identified as L. vitiensis and included the localities of in the Seychelles, in Madagascar, three localities in Tanzania (i. e. , Dar-Es-Salaam, Kilwa Masoko, and Stone Town), and two localities from the (Komodo, Indonesia and Dili, Timor-Leste). These localities formed three distinct lineages: (a) Ligia from Madagascar, mainland Tanzania, and Aldabra (Seychelles) were placed in the well-supported (light orange in all figures; BS: 100; PP: 100); (b) Indonesian archipelago Ligia were placed in (cyan in all figures; BS: 100; PP: 100); and (c) was composed of Ligia from Stone Town, Zanzibar, Tanzania (light grey in all figures).

Output: corroborate


Input: Claim: Psychopaths can never feel any emotions and are incapable of forming bonds with others. [SEP] Text: Lacassain-Lagoin Christelle, 2012, « It’s not what it looks to be! : Déconnexion entre forme et sens dans les énoncés avec verbe de perception à emploi dit “copule” », E-rea, 9. 2, disponible à Langacker Ronald, 1991, Concept, Image, and Symbol, Basis of Grammar, Berlin/New York: Mouton de Gruyter. Marchand Hans, 1960, and Types of Present-Word-Formation, Wiesbaden: Otto Harrassowitz. Dictionary, available at Dictionary, available at Paulin Catherine, 2003, « Polysémie et complémentation verbale : le verbe feel dans tous ses états », in Delmas Claude, (eds. ), Correct, Incorrect en linguistique anglaise C. I. E. R. E. C, Travaux 113, Publications de l’Université de Saint-étienne Jean Monnet, 129-155. Plag Ingo, 2003, Word-formation in English, Cambridge: Press. Souesme Jean-Claude, 2015, « Les suites lexicales composées de have a + nom éventuellement précédé d’un adjectif », Lexis, 9, 79-93. Wierzbicka Anna, 1982, “Why can you have a drink when you can’t *have an eat? ”, Language, Vol. 58, No. 4, Dec. , 753-799. Top of page Notes 1 Only one verbal form has been selected in order to avoid several mentions of the same adjective, and the present form has been chosen because it is the most frequent in the HAVE a(n) feel construction. 2 The figures in brackets correspond to the number of occurrences found in the COCA. 3 In all the examples, drawn from the COCA, the emphasis is mine. 4 Significantly, has a(n) feel is more frequent in the COCA’s magazine and newspaper subcorpora (0. 56 occurrences per million words) than in the spoken (0. 10 occurrences per million words), fiction (0.

Output: pass


Input: Claim: Mars has polar ice caps composed of water and carbon dioxide. [SEP] Text: Though grain sizes at linear gully and furrow locations on Mars have not been constrained, we used the preliminary data collected by the in the Bagnold dune setting on Mars to optimise the range of grain sizes employed in our experiments. We estimated a scale factor of 0. 61 (see Supplementary Material, Experimental Scaling) by which to reduce grain size to compensate for the disparity in gravity between Mars and Earth. Grain sizes detected in the Bagnold dunes ranged from fine to coarse sand32, with many passing through a <150 μm sieve. The average grain size detected in the Bagnold dunes was between 200 and 300 μm 32. When scaled, these ranges fall between <90 μm and 122–183 μm, respectively. Therefore, of four grain diameter ranges (4–45 μm, 45–90 μm, 75–150 μm and 160–212 μm) were used for sixteen separate experimental runs. Experimental ProtocolIn the low humidity environment, pure CO2 ice blocks were slid onto beds of glass spheres of each grain size range. We define “sliding” as a gentle motion nudging the block onto the bed surface — sliding is a motion which has enough force to slightly disrupt the granular surface. Sublimation then transports the grains underneath and near the edge of the block. We used Structure from Motion33 (SfM) to build Models (DEMs) of the resultant morphologies from each experiment. We then compared these morphologies and morphometries with Martian terminal and detached pits measured using HiRISE images and DTMs. A second set of experiments was designed to study the formation of furrows. The blocks were placed as gently as possible on a flat granular bed in order to generate CO2 gas flow beneath the block. The aim was to investigate whether such a layer of gas at the interface between CO2 ice and a granular substrate could form furrow networks on an initially smooth and level bed. SfM was again employed to build high resolution DEMs of the features produced and the resulting furrow morphologies were compared with the well-characterised furrow networks on Martian dunes11,12. Each granular sample was dried and sieved to disaggregate material prior to each experiment. The sample was then poured into the inner container and levelled using a spirit level.

Output: pass


Input: Claim: Genetic markers can be used to trace inheritance patterns in populations. [SEP] Text: Η παρούσα μελέτη αντιπροσωπεύει την πρώτη ολοκληρωμένη ανάλυση σε επίπεδο γονιδιώματος 11 πληθυσμών αυτόχθονων βοοειδών από την ηπειρωτική Ελλάδα, τα ελληνικά νησιά και την Κύπρο, οι οποίοι συγκρίνονται με 104 φυλές, διεθνείς ή αυτόχθονες άλλων φυλών,σε περισσότερους από 46. 000 μονονουκλεοτιδικούς πολυμορφισμούς (SNPs).

Output: corroborate


Input: Claim: Psychopaths can never feel any emotions and are incapable of forming bonds with others. [SEP] Text: and Psychology Published: July 18, 2017 the Emotions of Others? Authors and reviewers of at the University of Parma and responsible of the CNR-URT Neuroscience of Parma. The main focus of his research concerns the motor system and its role in cognitive functions. He is the discoverer of the mirror neurons. He is a Member of Academia Europaea, of Accademia dei Lincei, of the Institute de France (Académie des Sciences), Member of the of Arts and Sciences and of of Science (USA). He is an honorary member of the for Neuroscience and Society. He has received many awards among which the most recent are: “for Medicine” of Accademia dei Lincei, prix the for and the from Lundbeck Foundation. He received from the Bernard of Lyon, the University of St. Petersburg, the University of Sassari, KU Leuven, and University of St. Martin, Buenos Aires. Trained as a philosopher and specialized in neuroscience at the University of Parma. The main focus of his research concerns the mirror system and the neural basis of social cognition, by means of a multidisciplinary approach including intracranial recording, in collaboration with the Hospital, in Milan. His major research interests lie in the relationships between the motor system and cognitive and affective functions, and in the theoretical aspects of embodied cognition. *fausto. caruana@unipr. it Champions of Science, Champions of Science, Age: 12–15 Champions of Science exclusively serves underserved middle school students from the School District. Champions of Science develops students’ knowledge and excitement about STEM and gives participants exposure to various careers. you see your friend disgusted to the point of vomiting, or laughing until it hurts, you immediately experience what your friend feels. Why do we feel the emotions of others around us? Neuroscience research (the study of the brain) has shown that the brain is equipped with special cells called mirror neurons that directly project information about others’ behavior into the regions of our own brain that process emotions. This mechanism shows that others’ emotions are not detected only by the visual part of the brain but they also activate our own emotional responses, allowing us to understand and automatically transmit the same information to others. This is an incredibly fast and efficient way to communicate!

Output: contrast


Input: Claim: Mars has polar ice caps composed of water and carbon dioxide. [SEP] Text: A time-lapse camera was positioned inside the chamber to record sublimation rate. A digital hygrometer placed on top of the bed indicated depression of relative humidity in real-time. Once relative humidity decreased sufficiently, the trap door was opened and a CO2 ice block of mass <1 kg (Table 1) was either placed or slid onto the bed. The chamber was immediately sealed and the block in each case was allowed to sublimate and interact with the granular substrate. This sublimation process lasted ~7–11 hours for each block depending on its mass and whether it burrowed. Videos of the initial sublimation dynamics in each case were recorded with an iPhone 6S 12 megapixel camera from outside the chamber, in order to avoid accumulation of grains on the lens which would hamper video quality. Table 1 Laboratory experiment controlled and measured parameters:Full size table Model DevelopmentAll features resulting from CO2 sublimation were modelled in three dimensions by SfM33 using Agisoft Photoscan. SfM is a technique for reconstructing three dimensional structures from two dimensional image sequences. is commercially available software which can photogrammetrically process digital images to create 3D spatial data. Each feature produced was imaged at many overlapping positions. In order to establish scale in the DEMs, coded markers were placed within the scene. finds the exact centre of coded markers enabling the production of highly accurate DEMs and the accurate measurement of features in the scene. Agisoft recommend that three or more scale bars are optimal. Therefore, a local coordinate system composed of three coded markers at known distances apart from one another, was used for scale definition34 to develop our 3D models. This local coordinate system was composed of three black and white circular 12-bit coded markers which were printed on three 6. 8 × 8 cm sheets of paper. The centres of these markers were positioned on a flat wooden triangle (of 75 cm2 area) and the markers themselves were laminated with a thin layer of plastic34. The (x, y, z) coordinates of the marker centres were carefully measured with an Engineer’s Scale prior to placement in the scene34 and these were later entered in to develop scale bars for reference within the models. These coordinates (in metres) were: (0, 0, 0), (0. 064, 0. 115, 0) and (0.

Output: pass


Input: Claim: Genetic markers can be used to trace inheritance patterns in populations. [SEP] Text: In the middle of the 20th century, eight indigenous breeds of cattle were reported in Greece. Today, four of them are considered officially extinct (Tinos, Andros, Chios, Corfu), three as threatened (Brachykeros, Katerini, and Sykia), and one (Kea) as a rare breed. During the introduction of domesticated cattle to Europe, the east Mediterranean coast and the southern Balkans played a decisive role. Greek cattle breeds originate from a geographical area near the center of domestication with a Mediterranean climate. The breeding of these breeds is characterized by the absence of performance records and thus low use of artificial selection, also by poor feeding and housing conditions as well as by the rare veterinary service. Most of these populations come from the last remains of formerly large populations and a. . . The autochthonous cattle population of Greece is like that bred throughout the and they consist of the Brachyceros (“Shorthorn”) and the Podolian or Steppe type. In the middle of the 20th century, eight indigenous breeds of cattle were reported in Greece. Today, four of them are considered officially extinct (Tinos, Andros, Chios, Corfu), three as threatened (Brachykeros, Katerini, and Sykia), and one (Kea) as a rare breed. During the introduction of domesticated cattle to Europe, the east Mediterranean coast and the southern Balkans played a decisive role. Greek cattle breeds originate from a geographical area near the center of domestication with a Mediterranean climate. The breeding of these breeds is characterized by the absence of performance records and thus low use of artificial selection, also by poor feeding and housing conditions as well as by the rare veterinary service. Most of these populations come from the last remains of formerly large populations and are bred mainly in mountainous areas and/or islands with poor infrastructure. Finally, these populations are reproductively isolated due to geographic distances and physical barriers without the use of artificial insemination. local cattle breeds have decreased to small numbers and are currently at risk of extinction due to socio-economic reasons, geographic isolation and crossbreeding with commercial breeds. This study represents the first comprehensive genome-wide analysis of 11 indigenous cattle populations from continental Greece, Greek islands and Cyprus and compares them with 104 international breeds using more than 46,000 single nucleotide polymorphisms (SNPs).

Output: corroborate


Input: Claim: Psychopaths can never feel any emotions and are incapable of forming bonds with others. [SEP] Text: and animals share the ability to communicate their emotions with others through face and body expressions. The scientific study of emotional expressions started with the work of Charles Darwin, in the late 1800s. In his bestseller “of the Emotions in Man and Animals,” Darwin stated that, regardless of our culture, all humans have the same emotional expressions. More interestingly, similar expressions are also common to different animal species. The similarity between human and animal emotions is still a matter of debate. When we try to interpret animal emotional behavior, we need to look at the behaviors that are shared by humans and animals, while also keeping in mind that many emotional behaviors are unique to humans. Researchers who study animal behavior recognize that some animals show a number of human-like emotional behaviors, including disgust and happiness. For this reason, it has been suggested that while some emotions are largely shaped by our culture and society, many other emotional behaviors are shared by humans and animals. Notably, just like Darwin wrote, such similarity between human and animal emotions makes a lot of sense, because Darwin believed that emotions trigger actions that help both humans and animals react to challenges in their environments. Expressions of disgust, for example, cause reactions that result in reduced contact between the mouth and a disgusting substance, and these expressions remind the brain of the act of vomiting (Figure 1). According to Darwin, our ancestors’ emotions were so often followed by the same movements that each time we feel an emotion we automatically produce a corresponding facial expression or bodily movement. Figure 1 - Upper panel: The left side of the human brain. The colored part of the brain shows the location of the insula. The anterior (front) part of the insula, active during both the experience of disgust experience and when disgust is observed in others, is colored in red. The posterior (back) insula, in yellow, is involved in other sensory functions. Lower panel: The insula became active when study participants observed the expressions of expressions in these short movies. In these short movies, the actors leaned forward to sniff at the content of a glass, and then they showed either a disgust, pleasure, or neutral expression (modified from [1]). One of the reasons why we inherited emotional expressions is because they play a role in communication. The expression of disgust is efficient way to indicate to our friends, without using language, that they’d better not eat the same food we ate.

Output: contrast


Input: Claim: Mars has polar ice caps composed of water and carbon dioxide. [SEP] Text: 131, 0, 0) and these have accuracy <1 mm. The scale was in a constant location relative to the experimental chamber in each case, the centre of the nearest target on the scale was 15 cm from the chamber. This was close enough so that it could be seen in multiple overlapping images. This served as a reference for scale definition and also helped the processing tool to align images accurately. Constancy was assured by the remote nature of the laboratory — external vibrations were minimised. Care was taken when moving around the region of interest not to cause vibrational disturbances. In order to ensure a vertical orientation of the z-plane, the local coordinate system was placed flat on the laboratory bench during each experiment. The planar arrangement of the coded markers was confirmed using a spirit level to ensure the bench was level and the laminate nature of the markers ensured they did not bend. The images were captured at a maximum distance of ~1 m from the bed surface and minimum distance of ~0. 05 m at a variety of angles with respect to the image subject in each case. Camera positions were not recorded, as can compute accurate estimates. The focal length on the camera and aperture were fixed at 4. 15 mm and f2. 2 respectively and otherwise, the camera was not calibrated. Between 41 and 100 images were captured for each experiment, depending on whether fine detail such as furrow patterns were to be captured, or whether primary pit dimensions alone would be measured. The images were then aligned and referenced in Agisoft Photoscan, to build a point cloud, mesh and generate a DEM and corresponding orthophoto of each feature (resolutions in Table 1). The dimensions of each pit were then measured in ArcMap 10. 4, using the DEM and orthophoto. Differencing before and after DEMs in order to estimate pit depth was not possible due to the high albedo of the initial flat bed. We approximated the initial level surface by taking an average of 5 linear cross sections of the flat bed surrounding (but farthest from) the pit in ArcMap 10. 4. In each case brighter regions where distortions were expected were avoided when taking these transects. A line was interpolated across the primary pit to these locations and the difference in height between the original bed surface and the depression formed by the CO2 ice block was determined.

Output: pass


Input: Claim: Genetic markers can be used to trace inheritance patterns in populations. [SEP] Text: The following local breeds from Greece and Cyprus were sampled in our analysis: (i) from mainland Greece: breed (n = 97), Katerini breed (n = 20), Prespa cattle (n = 10), Rodope cattle (n = 12), Sykia breed (n = 16), (ii) from the islands: Kea breed (n = 97), Agathonisi cattle (n = 6), Crete cattle (n = 11), Kastelorizo cattle (n = 4), Nisyros cattle (n = 7) and (iii) Cyprus cattle (n = 5). Several parameters of genetic diversity (e. g. , heterozygosity and allelic diversity) were estimated and indicated a severe loss of genetic diversity for the island populations compared to the mainland populations, which is mainly due to the declining size of their population in recent years and subsequent inbreeding. breed present high level in almost all parameters similar with Buša and Anatolian Breeds. This high inbreeding status also resulted in higher genetic differentiation between island and mainland Greek breeds compared to the breeds from the remaining geographic groups. Supervised and unsupervised cluster analyses revealed that the phylogenetic patterns in the indigenous Greek breeds were consistent with their geographical origin and historical information regarding shared ancestry with breeds of Anatolian or Balkan origin. Greek island populations are placed close to the root of the tree as defined by Gir and the outgroup Yak, whereas the mainland breeds share a common historical origin with Buša. Unsupervised clustering and D-statistics analyses provided strong support for Bos indicus introgression in almost all the investigated local cattle breeds along the route from Anatolia up to the southern foothills of the Alps, as well as in most cattle breeds along the Apennine peninsula to the southern foothills of the Alps. Cyprus, Kastelorizo, and Agathonisi cattle populations showed a higher indicine ancestry compared to other populations from Greece and the Balkans. All investigated Cyprus and Greek breeds present complex mosaic genomes, as a result of historical and recent admixture events between neighbor and well-separated breeds. While the contribution of some mainland breeds to the genetic diversity pool seems important, some island and fragmented mainland breeds suffer from a severe decline of population size and loss of alleles due to genetic drift.

Output: corroborate


Input: Claim: Psychopaths can never feel any emotions and are incapable of forming bonds with others. [SEP] Text: Laughing, in contrast, is a joyful emotion that comes from the sound of friendly play among friends, and it indicates positive interactions between people. Understanding these expressions and communicating them to other members of the social group is very important for social life. In the case of disgust, for example, facial expressions help us to avoid the risk of eating rotten food, and to transmit the same information to our friends. How does our brain accomplish this task? of Surprisingly, one of the most important mechanisms that we use to understand and react to others’ emotions is not really all that complicated: it depends on the activity of parts of the brain usually involved in the control of our own actions and emotions. In the 1990s, researchers discovered that when we observe another person performing an action, this event is detected by both the visual part of the brain and also the motor part, i. e. , the part of the brain that typically controls our movements [2]. The motor system is equipped with specific neurons (brain cells) that have a double function. Like other neurons in the motor part of the brain, motor neurons help us perform our own actions, such as grasping a glass of water. However, different from other neurons in the motor part of the brain, these neurons are also activated when we observe the same actions performed by others! Since these neurons mirror the observed action of another person in our own motor system, they are called “mirror neurons” (Figure 2). All we have to do is observe an action in another person in order to trigger a representation of the same action in our own brains; and what is especially interesting is that the same mechanism also applies to emotions. Figure 2 - Mirror neurons are a specific set of neurons that are active when we perform specific actions or feel certain emotions and are also active during when we observe of the same actions/emotions in others. These neurons transform visual information about others’ actions and emotions into experiences in our own brains. This was originally discovered in the motor system. However, recent research shows that this mechanism is a general principle of functioning of the social brain. The figure depicts a typical test for studying mirror neurons. Both of in My Insula! Emotions are not controlled by the motor system: disgust, for example, depends on a deep and mysterious part of the brain called the insula (Figure 1, red and yellow areas).

Output: contrast


Input: Claim: Mars has polar ice caps composed of water and carbon dioxide. [SEP] Text: An average and standard deviation of these values were taken in each case and standard deviations fall within the uncertainty margins outlined in. Levées were measured in a similar manner by taking average values of the difference between the average flat surface and levée height. Maximum and minimum levée height were recorded in each case. The area of furrows produced on each bed surface was recorded using polygonal mapping in ArcMap 10. 4. The area of the flat pit floor in each case was determined by zooming in to optimal pixel resolution on the orthophoto overlain above the DEM and using the free-hand tool to mark the line where the inner slope of levées ended and the flat pit floor began. The pit floor is defined as the reasonably flat area directly below where the incident block was for which the perimeter is identified as the line between where the inner levée slope ended at 1 pixel resolution. The area of the space between furrow networks was determined by zooming in to optimal pixel resolution and mapping the outer edge of each furrow. This total area was differenced from the total pit floor area to get the area covered by furrow networks. The area covered by furrows was then expressed as a percentage of the total pit floor area. A complete discussion of the DEM uncertainties presented in this paper is available in Supplementary Material. Data AvailabilityThe datasets generated and analysed during the current study are available from the corresponding author on request. Results and Discussionand Levée Formation via CO2 SublimationPits, which are visually comparable to Martian linear gully primary terminal pits, were observed to form via both the (i) stationary and (ii) sliding interaction between sublimating CO2 ice and substrate of all grain sizes. The primary terminal pits which punctuate linear gully channels on Mars are characterised by depressions in the substrate encircled by positive relief levées. The pits observed in our laboratory experiments were negative relief features surrounded by positive relief levées which formed primarily by excavation of material via sublimation. Pits were deepest for finer grain sizes (Table 1). In the cases where material was not transported on top of the block, the resulting pits adopted the shape of the block that formed them (Fig. 3a,d). In our experiments, blocks were rectangular. In other cases, the block burrowed into the bed and superposed material sunk as the block moved downward.

Output: pass


Input: Claim: Ecosystem services provide benefits to humanity, such as clean water and pollination. [SEP] Text: and edited by Çagan H. Sekercioglu, Daniel G. Wenny and Christopher J. of Chicago Press, 2016Cloth: 978-0-226-38246-3 | Paper: 978-0-226-38263-0 | Electronic: 978-0-226-38277-7DOI: 10. 7208/chicago/9780226382777. 001. 0001 of (paper, ebook) DeGruyter Multi-eBooks (formerly NetLibrary) over one hundred years, ornithologists and amateur birders have jointly campaigned for the conservation of bird species, documenting not only birds’ beauty and extraordinary diversity, but also their importance to ecosystems worldwide. But while these avian enthusiasts have noted that birds eat fruit, carrion, and pests; spread seed and fertilizer; and pollinate plants, among other services, they have rarely asked what birds are worth in economic terms. Birds Matter, an international collection of ornithologists, botanists, ecologists, conservation biologists, and environmental economists seeks to quantify avian ecosystem services—the myriad benefits that birds provide to humans. The first book to approach ecosystem services from an ornithological perspective, Matter asks what economic value we can ascribe to those services, if any, and how this value should inform conservation. 10. 7208/chicago/9780226382777. 003. 0001[avian ecosystem function;economic ornithology;ecosystem services;cultural services;provisioning services;regulating services;supporting services]Ecosystem services are those aspects of the earth that benefit humans. of the identified four classes of ecosystem services: provisioning services such as food, water, timber, and fiber; regulating services that affect climate, floods, disease, wastes, and water quality; cultural services that provide recreational, aesthetic, and spiritual benefits; and supporting services such as soil formation, photosynthesis, and nutrient cycling. Interest in both the positive and negative roles of birds spurred development of Economic Ornithology, which investigated the food, habits, and migrations of birds in relation to both insects and plants. Although the discipline was initially greeted enthusiastically, criticism of methods and skepticism regarding conclusions grew in the early 20th century.

Output: corroborate


Input: Claim: Psychopaths can never feel any emotions and are incapable of forming bonds with others. [SEP] Text: For many years, the insula remained a mysterious island, buried deep in the folds of the brain. Thanks to recent advances in technology, scientists have started to investigate its role in our emotional life. Electrical stimulation of this area in the brains of monkeys showed that part of the insula regulates behaviors related to eating food: when this part of the brain is stimulated, the animal performs mouth movements like chewing and swallowing. If the stimulation is applied to another area of the insula nearby, however, the animal’s face will express a variety of disgust expressions: grimaces characterized by the curling of the upper lip and the wrinkling of the nose, vomiting, nausea, and even more complex disgust behaviors such as throwing its favorite food away, or spitting it out [3]. Similar results have also been reported in humans whose brains are stimulated during brain surgery. Further studies [1] in healthy humans showed that the same part of the insula involved in the experience of disgust is also active when we observe another person smelling a disgusting odor, or tasting a disgusting flavor (Figure 1, lower panel). In a classic brain scanning study, participants were exposed to disgusting smells, which resulted in an increase of activity in the insula. The same participants were presented with movies showing actors expressing disgust or pleasant expressions. When watching actors express disgust, the same part of the insula was active. Your disgust is directly mapped in my insula! Additional evidence comes from studies on brain-damaged patients: when the insula is removed, people have trouble both with experiencing disgust and with recognizing disgust expressions in other individuals. Especially interesting is the case of a patient who, after removal of the insula, was no longer able to recognize disgust in others’ faces or from emotional sounds. The difficulty recognizing others’ disgust was mirrored by a similar change in the patient’s own experience: he was unable to experience disgust. Even more interesting is another case of a patient who had serious damage to the insula. When the patient saw a set of pictures of emotional expressions, he was able to name all of them, except he could not name the picture of disgust. When the same patient saw some disgusting food, he did not feel disgust either, and even pointed to the food saying: “delicious”!

Output: contrast


Input: Claim: Mars has polar ice caps composed of water and carbon dioxide. [SEP] Text: In all cases, the primary pit which formed was wider than the block forming it. Figure 3Primary pits and detached impact pits formed during our experiments by the interaction between sublimating CO2 ice and granular substrate. (a) Primary pit formed by block placement on a bed of 45–90 μm grains. Levées are denoted by blue arrows. Yellow arrow points to a preserved vent aperture. Purple arrow indicates a zone of slumping. (b,c) Detached impact pits (black arrows) formed by return of granular clusters to a 4–45 μm bed surface as a sliding block burrowed beneath the bed and exhibited jet activity from the subsurface. Red arrow indicates a linear string of impact pits. These impact pits were ubiquitous over the primary pit surface (seen in e). (d) Primary pit formed in another instance of block placement on a bed of 45-90 µm grains. Blue arrows point to levées. (e) Wider view of the system formed when a block was slid onto a bed of 4–45 μm grains. Orange arrows identify collapsed pit morphologies which signify locations where jets emanated from the subsurface. White boxes show locations of (b) and (c). Full size image Upon initial contact with the substrate which was roughly at room temperature, the block in each case underwent rapid sublimation, thus levitating it and mobilising material within its surroundings. This interaction was interpreted by observation to be brought about by the Leidenfrost Effect, as considered in the CO2 block hypothesis. The force of the escaping gas on the grains, transported grains within the sublimating gas from beneath the block to the side, forming levées. During this initial stage of sublimation, vent apertures developed at gaps between the block and the inner slope of levées, from which jets of gas were observed to expel granular material to the main granular sheet (Supplementary movie 1). Some of these vent apertures were preserved after the sublimation process, while others were destroyed by gravitational collapse. After the initial rapid sublimation stage, sediment transport ceased and the block sublimated slowly for ~7–11 hours. It is thought that at this stage, the temperature difference between the block and the granular substrate decreased below the Leidenfrost point, thus ending the levitation and sediment transport phase.

Output: pass


Input: Claim: Ecosystem services provide benefits to humanity, such as clean water and pollination. [SEP] Text: Keeping in mind the eventual demise of in the early 20th century, efforts to revitalize the field today must be rigorous, repeatable, with a focus on tangible measures of plant yield in managed systems and plant fitness in natural systems. Cost-benefit analysis may permit evaluation of bird contributions to ecosystem service and disservice with respect to alternative mechanisms that are available (e. g. , bird predation versus pesticides for pest control). Efforts that permit scaling up from experimental plots to entire ecosystems are critical. (pages 1 - 26)This 10. 7208/chicago/9780226382777. 003. 0002[ecosystem services;commodification;ethics;values;monetization;valuation]Birds are valuable intrinsically and instrumentally. Their instrumental values include use values, such as for hunting purposes, and non-use-values, such as for recreation, aesthetic value, and for delivering ecosystem services that help sustain and fulfill human life. If ornithologists, conservations, and economists can help individuals and institutions recognize the value of birds, this will increase investments in bird conservation while fostering human well-being. A surge in interest in environmental and ecological economics has thrust ecosystem services to the forefront of conservation science and policy, and ornithologists must engage in this work to advance bird conservation effectively. Documenting the values and services of birds is necessary for deliberative decision-making processes that collectively weigh economic, cultural, and intrinsic values. Here, we describe methods to quantify the economic value of biodiversity drawn from the field of environmental economics, and we briefly review several examples involving birds. Policies for markets and/or payments for bird services are still in their infancy, but we review how policies of other public ecosystem services have progressed and we discuss their relevance to bird conservation. Lastly, we identify directions for future ecological and economic research that may lead to advances in bird conservation policy. (pages 27 - 48)This 10. 7208/chicago/9780226382777. 003. 0003[agroecosystems;bottom-up interactions;foundation species;pest control;top-down interaction;trophic cascade;trophic interaction networks]Birds function within their ecosystems in ways that include many direct and indirect chains of trophic interaction. In some interaction chains, birds exert top-down effects in “trophic cascades.

Output: corroborate


Input: Claim: Psychopaths can never feel any emotions and are incapable of forming bonds with others. [SEP] Text: This is particularly interesting because this brain region is commonly active during our experience of positive events, such as humor, positive emotional expressions, or pleasant touch. Interestingly, seeing someone else laugh or display happiness also activates the ACC, the same area where the electrical stimulation causes laughter. It is important to note that the ACC is not part of the visual system in the brain, which means that, when we begin to laugh after experiencing others laughing, our laughter is not only caused by seeing the other person laughing, an experience of another person laughing also directly activates our brain region for laughter. This is the mirror neurons at work! Figure 3 - Upper panel: The figure shows the right side of the human brain from what is called a medial perspective—imagine the left side of the brain was removed, allowing us to see the inside of the right side of the brain. Electrical stimulation of the anterior cingulate cortex (ACC) caused a burst of laughter, often accompanied by happiness. The yellow dots indicate the areas of the brain from which laughter was caused when the electrical stimulation was applied (modified from Ref. [5]). The stimulation of brain areas represented by the black dots caused different reactions that are not related to emotions. Lower panel: Four different time points of the effect caused by the electrical stimulation of the ACC, from the starting point of the stimulation (1) to the induced laughter (4). There are many consequences of this mirroring process. Laughing in the company of others increases chemicals in our brains that make us feel happy. These chemicals are known to create a positive mood. When we lack these chemicals, it can increase stress, loneliness and, in the worst cases, depression. Therefore, contagious laughter through the mirroring process is a natural cure for a bad mood, and this is the reason why it is a good thing not to let people suffer alone, but rather to give a laugh in their company. Glossary Neurons: ↑ Nerve cells in the brain that encode information and transmit electrical signals to other neurons. Insula: ↑ A region buried deep in the folds of the brain that is involved in a variety of functions, including emotions such as disgust. Electrical Stimulation: ↑ Applying very small quantities of electricity in the brain to trigger the main function of the stimulated brain region. For example, stimulating the motor system makes the subject move, whereas stimulating emotional regions triggers specific feelings and emotions.

Output: contrast


Input: Claim: Mars has polar ice caps composed of water and carbon dioxide. [SEP] Text: When a block was slid onto the bed surface, a greater range of dynamic responses was observed (Supplementary movie 3). In these cases, particularly in the 4–45 μm and 45–90 μm grain cases, sublimation dynamics mobilised grains on top of the block. This increased thermal contact between the substrate and the surface area of the block and subjected more grains to the and the force of rapid sublimation. Pits were generally deeper in these instances, compared to when a block was placed on a bed of the same grain size range (Table 1). Levées that formed during each experiment increased in maximum height with decreasing grain size (Table 1). This is expected, since decreasing grain size increases grain mobility as the Shields parameter (a non-dimensional number used to calculate the initiation of motion of sediment in a fluid flow35), increases. Levée morphologies were comparable to those encircling the terminal pits of linear gullies on Mars. These were raised, positive relief features which surrounded the pit in each case. The relationship between levées and terrestrial debris flows combined with sinuosity has previously been invoked to support a debris flow genesis for gullies (including linear gullies) on Mars36. Our experiments highlight the equifinality of the granular response to the movement of dry and wet fluids. Levées formed without the need for downslope block movement and granular material was transported to the side under the influence of pressurised gas alone. This is consistent with the sliding CO2 hypothesis which suggests that stationary blocks at linear gully termini are capable of excavating and transporting sediment to form pits and surrounding levées. via CO2 SublimationOur laboratory experiments are the first to show that features similar to the sand furrows on Mars can form by sublimating CO2. Furrows formed under the CO2 blocks and closely resembled Martian furrows — they were negative relief features similar in pattern and planform though on a smaller scale. The furrows observed displayed a range of patterns (linear, sinuous, dendritic and curvilinear). Martian furrows have been spatially correlated with dark fans, where vents in the ice are posited to form. These fans are thought to be composed of sand transported from beneath the ice by the cryoventing mechanism12.

Output: pass


Input: Claim: Ecosystem services provide benefits to humanity, such as clean water and pollination. [SEP] Text: ” These occur when a predatory species directly reduces its prey abundance and consequently indirectly releases suppression of species at lower trophic levels. Many bird species initiate trophic cascades in terrestrial and aquatic ecosystems, and in natural and agro-ecosystems. Services provided by birds through trophic cascades benefit humans primarily through pest control in natural forests, forestry plantations, fruit orchards, and a variety of crop-based agro-ecosystems. Cascade strength may be affected by predator prey specificity, redundancy, species diversity, and productivity. Some birds influence ecosystem function both through either bottom up interactions or through intermediate trophic positions within interaction networks. These effects can also reverberate through trophic webs. Global change, including anthropogenic perturbation, may lead to a loss of ecosystem services, including seed dispersal and pollination services by birds. These losses may cause declines keystone or foundation plant species, resulting in losses in biodiversity and ecosystem integrity. We conclude with suggestions for future research needs on bird ecosystem services, particularly in light of global change. (pages 49 - 72)This 10. 7208/chicago/9780226382777. 003. 0004[avian pollination;gene flow;inbreeding depression;pollen limitation;pollination;seed limitation]Avian pollination is thought to be less prevalent and less at risk than avian seed-dispersal. The extent of recently revealed bird pollination that does not conform to the classic ornithophily-nectarivore template suggests this mutualism may be cryptic and more prevalent than considered to date. Widespread anthropogenic disturbance has disproportionately impacted the connections between birds and flowers, so that bird pollination may be systematically under-reported. Evidence suggests that where plants are visited by more than one pollinator guild, the relative effectiveness of birds is high compared to invertebrates. In the absence of replacement, the loss of bird pollinators has resulted in pollination failure, increased inbreeding depression, and decreased plant density. Confirmation of seed limitation in pollen-limited plants serviced by birds provides a precautionary sign of the possible long term effects of bird pollinator loss. The quality of pollination service provided by birds has important consequences for gene flow and offspring survival.

Output: corroborate


Input: Claim: It’s possible to erase painful memories through advanced neurological therapies. [SEP] Text: 0 bibliothekartag Bibliothekartag 2011 Bibliotheken Bibliotheks- und bibliothekspop bibliothekswesen bibliothekswissenschaft Call for Papers CfP Debatte digitale bibliothek ät Frankreich frei frei-tag 2011 frei-tag 2012 frei13 geisteswissenschaften Gesellschaft google iwp Kritik libreas libreas audio for methodologie open access Open Access-Zeitschriften podcast potsdam soziale software Unkonferenz urheberrecht usa visualisierung web 2. 0 wissenschaft wissenschaftliches publizieren wissenschaftskommunikation Wissenschaftssoziologie zitation Zukunft Öffentliche Bibliothekender Einträge Kommentare-Feed WordPress.

Output: pass


Input: Claim: Mars has polar ice caps composed of water and carbon dioxide. [SEP] Text: Furrow networks observed in the laboratory terminated at vents that developed at the boundary between the ice block and the pit walls (Fig. 4a). When a block was placed on the bed surface and carefully lifted as observed in 2, it was discovered that furrow mouths were located at regions where vents formed. Jets at vent locations were observed to transport grains from beneath the block. From these observations, we deduce that it is possible for furrows to be formed by pressurised gas that escapes through vents. Figure 4Furrow patterns and networks observed in the laboratory. (a) Before (left panel) and after (right panel) sublimation for an experiment on a bed of 45–90 μm grains. Left panel: sublimating block. Arrows point to vents where gas escapes from beneath the block. Right panel: primary pit formed on the same bed by the block shown in the left panel, containing linear and sinuous furrows. The direction of gas flow is marked by the convergence of furrows towards vent locations (blue). (b) Dendritic network of furrows (white arrows), formed in <1 minute when a block was placed on a bed of 75–150 μm grains. This block was lifted and then removed to demonstrate that dendritic patterns can rapidly form. (c) Primary pit containing linear and sinuous furrows extending across a pit floor on a bed of 4–45 μm grains. Vent apertures were not preserved, however by observation it was noted that vents operated on each side of the block. (d) Close-up of dendritic furrow network (white arrows) on a bed of 45–90 μm grains. Full size image Furrow abundance increased with decreasing grain size (Fig. 5c). Considering also the general increase in pit depth (Fig. 5b) and maximum levée height with decreasing grain size (Table 1), we report a feedback between grain size and feature formation via CO2 sublimation. When grain size distributions on Martian dunes are better constrained, this observation might shed light on why furrows are restricted to certain locations in the southern hemisphere13. However, we report that furrow pattern and network type are independent from grain size. Using the furrow pattern and furrow network classification derived from a survey of Martian dunes12, we classified the different network types formed by CO2 sublimation according to planform.

Output: pass


Input: Claim: Ecosystem services provide benefits to humanity, such as clean water and pollination. [SEP] Text: Pollen limitation experiments suggest that bird-pollinated plants in New Zealand, the Americas, Southeast Asia, and Africa suffer similar levels of pollen limitation, and are typically more strongly pollen-limited than insect-pollinated plants. Thus, bird-pollination appears to be under-reported, hard to replace and at greater risk of failure than currently assumed. (pages 73 - 106)This 10. 7208/chicago/9780226382777. 003. 0005[frugivores;seed dispersal;ecosystem services]Seed dispersal by frugivorous birds is a globally important ecosystem service. Nearly 4000 bird species have been observed eating fruit and collectively these species likely disperse seeds of at least 68,000 plants. The types of fruits eaten by birds are structurally diverse but fall into three functional groups, multi-seeded berries, few-seeded drupes, and single-seeded arils in dehiscent structures. Birds disperse primarily tree and shrub seeds, but also disperse the seeds of lianas, herbaceous plants, epiphytes, and hemiparasites. Through seed dispersal, birds are important drivers of plant community dynamics and therefore are essential in supporting many of the ecosystem services that those habitats and their constituent species provide. While much research on seed dispersal by birds has focused on the more frugivorous species, most of the bird species that eat fruit do so seasonally or only occasionally and the seed dispersal roles of most of these species are not well understood. Through their sheer numbers, opportunistic, generalist and/or occasional frugivores may be ecologically important in some ecosystems, but their influence has been little studied. Current trends in habitat loss and other human impacts, especially in the tropics, are threatening larger species of frugivores and the large-seeded plants only these birds disperse. (pages 107 - 146)This 10. 7208/chicago/9780226382777. 003.

Output: corroborate


Input: Claim: Dreams can predict future events with high accuracy, particularly if they are vivid.Wetlands are among the most productive ecosystems on Earth, providing habitats for a wide variety of species and helping regulate water flow. [SEP] Text: The cross section for each stream cell (subscript “sc”) that produces the shortest top width TWsc (m) is expected to be the most representative cross section for that stream cell. The TWsc and the flow depth Dsc (m) of the representative cross section are recorded for each stream cell. AutoRoute originally created flood inundation and flood depth rasters by mapping all of the cross-section depths and extents onto a raster (Follum, 2012). Later, an iterative combination of the functions within ArcGIS (ESRI, 2011) was then used to fill-in holes, omit outlier flood cells, and smooth boundaries along the flood polygon (Follum et al. , 2017). None of the previous postprocessing considered topography in the creation of the flood polygon. In this paper the use of functions within ArcGIS (ESRI, 2011) is considered the baseline method for postprocessing AutoRoute results and is referred to as GIS postprocessing (GISPP). 2. 2 Development of the AutoRoute postprocessing script (ARPP) The AutoRoute postprocessing script (ARPP) has been developed to better account for topography when creating the flood inundation map. The water surface elevation of each stream cell (WSEsc, m) is calculated as (5) WSE sc = E c + D sc where Ec (m) is the elevation of the cell. The water surface elevation for each cell in the model domain (WSEc, m) is interpolated from the WSEsc values using inverse-distance weighting: (6) WSE c = ∑ WSE sc w ∑ w where w is the weight, calculated as (7) w = d c → sc - 2 if d c → sc ≤ α TW sc w = 0 if d c → sc > α TW sc where dc→sc (m) is the distance between the model domain cell and the stream cell, and α is a user-defined parameter. Higher values of α increase the influence that each stream cell has on flooding the surrounding cells. The flood depth for each cell in the domain Dc (m) is then calculated as (8) D c = WSE c - E c where Dc values less than zero are set to zero and cells with Dc values greater than zero are considered flooded.

Output: pass


Input: Claim: Mars has polar ice caps composed of water and carbon dioxide. [SEP] Text: The following classes were delineated: linear (straight negative relief lines in the substrate), curvilinear (curved negative relief lines in the substrate showing one inflection point), sinuous (highly curved negative relief lines in the substrate displaying more than one inflection point) and dendritic (branching negative relief features in the substrate)12. Figure 5(a) pit abundance versus area of terminal pits in Russell and Matara Crater. Plot indicates an increase in the number of new detached pits each spring with increasing linear gully terminal pit area in Russell and Matara Crater. Error bars were calculated by taking 2 × the pixel width for each site and propagating the error on πr 2 for each main (terminal) pit area). 2 value for the linear fit is 0. 72 and the p value is <0. 01. (b) Laboratory primary pit depth eroded per block thickness. Plot indicating that pits observed in the laboratory were generally deeper on beds of the finest grain sizes. The CO2 block placed on a bed of 45-90 grains in experiment 2 partially burrowed and therefore is not included here. Error bars denote vertical error (z error) on each DEM. This was calculated by taking 10 vertical sections of a ruler where available, or known measurement in the scene of the DEM, averaging them and differencing this value from the actual measurement. (c) Furrow abundance observed in the laboratory versus grain size plot. Plot shows furrow abundance observed in the laboratory decreased with increasing grain size. Error bars were calculated by defining horizontal uncertainty as better than 1 mm, defining furrows as negative relief erosional lines in the substrate, defining the pit floor as the section at 1 pixel resolution where the inner slope of the surrounding levée ended and relatively flat surface beneath where the block was began, and allowing for error in digitisation decisions when marking the pit floor and furrow outlines in ArcGIS. Considering these factors, uncertainty on measurements was estimated to be 10 orthophoto pixels in each case and their volumes were propagated within the furrow percentage expression to obtain an estimate of uncertainty on furrow abundance. Full size image On Mars, the specific location and patterns of furrows on dunes changed between Mars years following emplacement and sublimation of the seasonal CO2 ice deposit. We can report a similar outcome for our experiments where furrow location and pattern changes for similar grain sizes between experiments.

Output: pass


Input: Claim: Ecosystem services provide benefits to humanity, such as clean water and pollination. [SEP] Text: 0006[diaspore;endozoochory;epizoochory;external transport;gut passage;internal transport;passive seed dispersal;seed traits;shorebirds;waterfowl]Ducks, shorebirds, rails, gulls and other waterbirds act as vectors of seeds, spores and other plant diaspores carried internally in their guts, externally on their feathers, feet or bills, or used as nesting material. Darwin was the first to understand the significance of dispersal by migratory waterbirds in plant evolution, biogeography and ecology. Countless aquatic and terrestrial plants are dependent on dispersal by waterbirds for long-distance dispersal, and this has probably been the case since the Cretaceous. However, plant ecologists and waterfowl biologists alike have been slow to recognize the importance of this dispersal mode as an ecosystem service. Seed dispersal by waterbirds plays a vital role in plant population dynamics, population genetics and changes in species distributions in response to habitat change and climate warming. On the other hand, waterbirds also spread alien species, and their role as vectors should be taken into account when considering how to prevent and manage biological invasions. (pages 147 - 195)This 10. 7208/chicago/9780226382777. 003. 0007[corvidae;coevolution;human commensal;regeneration;scatter hoarding;seed storage]Birds of the family Corvidae, which comprise the familiar jays, magpies, crows, ravens, and their allies, occur nearly worldwide. They include species that are common human commensals in urban and rural landscapes, as well as species that occupy more remote wildlands. Many corvids store excess food for later use, preventing access by conspecifics or other competitors and concealing it in hiding places such as crevices and under objects, but also by burying food under soil, litter, or other substrate. For seed-eaters, which are predominantly granivorous corvids, seeds are moved away from parent trees, and prolonged storage may frequently lead to seed germination and plant regeneration. These granivorous corvids are often scatter-hoarders, placing one or more seeds in many different locations.

Output: corroborate


Input: Claim: Biodiversity tends to increase ecosystem resilience, with diverse ecosystems being better able to recover from disturbances. [SEP] Text: Figure 1A map of the 15 study estuaries across New Zealand, with the number of sites within brackets if more than one per estuary: WGR (2), Whangarei Harbour; WTA, Whangateau Harbour; MAH (3), Mahurangi Harbour; WHI (2), Whitianga Harbour; MNK (2), Manukau Harbour; RAG, Raglan Harbour; TAU (2), Tauranga Harbour; DEL, Delaware Inlet; WMA, Waimea Inlet; AVO, Avon-Heathcote Estuary; AKA, Akaroa Harbour; BLU, Blueskin Bay; WKW (2), Waikawa Estuary; JAC (2), Estuary. The coloured circles indicate the turbidity group sites belongs to; clear (white), moderately turbid (grey), turbid (black). Estuaries with multiple sites belonging to different light groups are indicated with different colours within the circle. Full size imageAt each site, porewater nitrogen concentration was manipulated in nine 9-m2 plots. Three plots were allocated to each treatment: medium nutrient addition 150 g N/m2, high nutrient addition 600 g N/m2, and procedural controls (no nutrient addition). In the nutrient addition plots, nitrogen (urea) was added uniformly into the sediment through injection of a slow-release fertiliser (40–0-0 N:P:K, Nutricote Chisso-Co. , Ltd, Tokyo, Japan). The injection of the fertiliser at the depth of 15 cm elevates the porewater ammonium concentrations for extended periods, thus simulating the effects of porewater enrichment due to long-term eutrophication but not necessarily the processes of increased organic matter decomposition (Douglas and others 2016; Douglas and others 2018). The nutrient enrichment treatments modified benthic macrofauna communities without driving them to extinction (see Results and Douglas and others 2018). All sites and experimental plots were established in March–April 2017 and left undisturbed for seven months before sampling sediment properties, macrofaunal diversity metrics and ecosystem functions in October–November 2017, which is springtime in New Zealand. The experimental plots were left for seven months to provide time for recovery from the initial set up, for the added nitrogen to diffuse through the sediment and for the ecosystem to respond.

Output: pass