Input: Claim: The stock market always reflects the real state of a country’s economy and is the best predictor of its future success. [SEP] Text: The "dividends 6+ years in the future" portfolio is equivalent to a contract that pays the holder S&P 500 dividends from the sixth year onward. Each portfolio is scaled so to have a price of 100 on Feb 19, just before the market crash. However, the portfolios represent very different proportions of the S&P 500 index value: The first five years of dividends typically account for about 10 percent of the S&P 500 index, and the "dividends 6+ years in the future" portfolio accounts for the remaining 90 percent. Figure 1 shows that the prices of all three portfolios plummeted in March as the COVID pandemic spread around the world. Afterwards, the prices of these portfolios rebounded, with the "dividends 1 to 2 years in the future" portfolio recovering from extreme lows, consistent with an improvement of economic conditions in April from a very dire near-term outlook. Even so, as of September 1, the price of a claim on the first five years of dividends remains 15 percent below its pre-pandemic level, consistent with depressed current economic fundamentals. On the other hand, the price of the claim on dividends after the first five years has recovered all of its losses and by September 1 was six and a half percentage points above its level at the heights of February. We note that, without accounting for term premiums, our results from dividend futures prices suggest a more pessimistic near and medium term outlook (up to 5 years) compared with the relatively quick recovery in earnings implied by analysts' earnings forecasts (see Landier and Thesmar 2020). Evidence from the of U. S. of the sharper recovery of the price of far-dated dividend claims is also seen in the cross section of stocks. Figures 2 and 3 show two methods for forming portfolios of stocks that reflect up to medium-term versus far-term dividends. Figure 2. High and Low Price-Note: Prices are normalized so that Feb. 19, 2020 = 100. Price and dividend uses averages over the past ﬁve years. Source: Center for Research inDatabase; S&P Indices. Accessible version Figure 3. Tech and : Prices are normalized so that Feb. 19, 2020 = 100. FANG is Facebook, Amazon, Netﬂix, and Google. Source: S&P Indices.

Output: contrast


Input: Claim: Asteroids can be redirected to mine resources without risk. [SEP] Text: The variety and isotopic diversity of the organic compounds seen in carbonaceous meteorites indicates an initial interstellar and circumstellar formation with subsequent secondary modification on their parent body in the presence of water (Botta and Bada, and Bada2002; Pizzarello et al. , Reference Pizzarello, Cooper and Flynn2006). Water, in the form of ice, was accreted into primitive asteroidal bodies along with organic compounds and anhydrous minerals such as olivines and pyroxenes (Rubin et al. , Reference Rubin, Trigo-Rodriguez, Huber and Wasson2007; and Brearly, Gillou and Brearly2014). Later heating, caused by the radioactive decay of Al26 and/or energetic impacts with other asteroidal bodies, melted the ice and provided the energy to drive the modification of the organic pre-cursors (Grimm and McSween, and McSween1989; Nakamura, Reference Nakamura2005; Lee et al. , and Sparkes2016). Keil (Reference Keil2000) provides an overview of heating on meteorite parent-bodies. The circulating water also altered the primary anhydrous silicate minerals, yielding a variety of secondary hydrous phyllosilicates (saponites, smectites, serpentines) as well as carbonates, oxides and sulphides. The phyllosilicates form the bulk of the matrix: 84. 3% by volume in the Murchison meteorite and 71. 2% by volume in (Bland et al. , Reference Bland, Cressey and Menzies2004). The CI, CM and C-ungrouped meteorites also commonly contain carbonates (e. g. , calcite, dolomite), oxides (e. g. , magnetite) and sulphides (e. g. , troilite, pyrrhotite, pentlandite) (Bland et al. , Reference Bland, Cressey and Menzies2004). A historical review of the study of organic compounds in meteorites is provided by Botta and Bada (and Bada2002). The organic material in meteorites can be divided into two types: solvent-soluble organic material (SOM) and solvent-insoluble organic material (IOM).

Output: pass


Input: Claim: Functional MRI can measure brain activity by detecting changes in blood flow. [SEP] Text: Neurology 2004; 62: 516–517. CrossrefPubMedWeb of Science54. Hypothalamic activation in cluster headache attacks. Lancet 1998; 352: 275–278. CrossrefPubMedWeb of Science55. . Functional MRI in SUNCT shows differencial hypothalamic activation with increasing pain. Cephalalgia 2004; 24: 1098–1099. Web of Science56. Buijs FN, Leon-Mercado L, Guzman-Ruiz M, et al. The circadian system: a regulatory feedback network of periphery and brain. Physiology 2016; 31: 170–181. CrossrefPubMed57. Aggressive behavior induced by intraoperative stimulation in the triangle of Sano. Neurology 2002; 59: 1425–1427. CrossrefPubMedWeb of Science58. Leone M, A. Deep brain stimulation in headache. Cephalalgia 2015; 36: 1143–1148. Crossref59. Bout-associated intrinsic functional network changes in cluster headache: a longitudinal resting-state functional MRI study. Cephalalgia 2016. 60. Abnormal coactivation of the hypothalamus and salience network in patients with cluster headache. Neurology 2015; 84: 1402–1408. CrossrefPubMedWeb of Science61. Abnormal brain functional connectivity of the hypothalamus in cluster headaches. PloS One 2013; 8: e57896. CrossrefPubMedWeb of Science62. Altered regional homogeneity in spontaneous cluster headache attacks: a resting-state functional magnetic resonance imaging study. J 2012; 125: 705–709. PubMedWeb of Science63. Central nervous system dysregulation extends beyond the pain-matrix network in cluster headache. Cephalalgia 2010; 30: 1383–1391. CrossrefPubMedWeb of Science64. Altered hypothalamic functional connectivity in cluster headache: a longitudinal resting-state functional MRI study. J Psychiatr 2015; 86: 437–445. CrossrefPubMedWeb of Science65. Brain activations in the premonitory phase of nitroglycerin-triggered migraine attacks. Brain 2014; 137: 232–241. CrossrefPubMedWeb of Science66. Schulte LH, May A. The migraine generator revisited: continuous scanning of the migraine cycle over 30 days and three spontaneous attacks.

Output: corroborate


Input: Claim: The stock market always reflects the real state of a country’s economy and is the best predictor of its future success. [SEP] Text: Accessible version Figure 2 divides the S&P 500 into stocks with high price–dividend ratios and stocks with low price–dividend ratios based on data over the past five years. Intuitively, stocks that have high price–dividend ratios—including those that do not currently pay dividends—derive more of their value from cash flows far into the future, as they are expected to pay little in dividends in the near and medium term. Consistent with Figure 1, high price–dividend stocks have recovered all of their COVID-related losses and more between March and September. 4 In contrast, low price–dividend ratio stocks remain about 10 percent below their pre-pandemic levels. One can show that the price-dividend ratio is approximately the duration of equity in years (see Gonçalves 2019). Thus, Figure 2 suggests that the rally since April is driven by the value of dividends more than four decades in the future. Figure 3 divides the S&P 500 stocks into information technology plus FAANG (Facebook, Amazon, Apple, Netflix, and Google) stocks versus ex-info tech and ex-FAANG stocks. The figure mirrors the previous results: Info tech and FAANG firms, which are expected to pay the lion's share of their dividends at distant dates, have recovered all of their losses and more between March and April. The portfolio of remaining stocks, which is more closely tied to the near and medium term, is still below its pre-pandemic level on September 1. Figure 4 presents more evidence from the cross section of U. S. stock returns. We sort all common stock listed on the and exchanges into three equally sized portfolios based on duration. We follow Weber (2018) and compute the Dechow et al. (2004) measure of cash flow duration at the firm level using balance sheet data. 5 We find that the high duration portfolio has fared much better since the onset of the coronavirus outbreak in the U. S. , which is consistent with the evidence presented above. 6 Figure 4. Returns on US by Duration Note: This figure plots prices of value-weighted portfolios of stocks sorted on duration We sort all common stocks listed on and into terciles based on duration following Weber (2018). Prices are normalized so that Feb. 19, 2020 = 100. ) Source: Center for Research inDatabase, and Davis et al.

Output: contrast


Input: Claim: Asteroids can be redirected to mine resources without risk. [SEP] Text: The SOM is composed of a wide variety of compounds such as ketones, alkanes, carboxylic and amino acids, methane, as well as polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (Grady and Wright, and Wright2003; Pizzarello et al. , Reference Pizzarello, Cooper and Flynn2006). Solvents often used for the extraction of SOM include water, for the extraction of amino acids, and benzene or benzene/methanol mixtures (Pizzarello et al. , and Williams2001; Sephton, Reference Sephton2002). Sephton and Gilmour (and Gilmour2000) provide a summary of organic moieties which have been identified in the CM-type meteorite, Murchison. The IOM comprises most of the organic compounds in carbonaceous chondrites; approximately 70% in the Murchison CM-type and as much as 99% in the C-ungrouped meteorite (Pizzarello et al. , Reference Pizzarello, Cooper and Flynn2006; Alexander et al. , and Stroud2017). Elemental compositions of the IOM in the Murchison and meteorites are given as C100H70N3O12S2 and C100H46N10O15S4. 5 respectively (Pizzarello et al. , Reference Pizzarello, Cooper and Flynn2006). The IOM is typically in the form of complex, cross-linked macromolecules resembling types of terrestrial kerogens (Botta and Bada, and Bada2002; Pizzarello et al. , Reference Pizzarello, Cooper and Flynn2006; Alexander et al. , and Stroud2017). See ‘Kerogens as analogs for IOM’, below, for more discussion of terrestrial kerogens. Sephton and Gilmour (and Gilmour2000) provide a summary of organic moieties which have been identified in the CM-type meteorite, Murchison, that include aromatic hydrocarbons, phenols, carboxylic acids among many others as well as O, S and N bearing moieties. These compounds are bound together into a larger structure by aliphatic linkages.

Output: pass


Input: Claim: Functional MRI can measure brain activity by detecting changes in blood flow. [SEP] Text: Academy of Enter your Email address: Subscribe to eTOC Home >. . . 2002 ExplainedWill the police of the future hook suspects to a functional magnetic resonance image (fMRI) scanner instead of a polygraph during interrogation? Maybe or maybe not, but according to several research reports presented at the of the Society for Neuroscience held in in November, the gendarmes might be able to solve crimes more quickly and efficiently, albeit more expensively, if they did. “I wouldn't be surprised if fMRI becomes a mainstay of forensic science, as well as a major part of the health insurance industry to detect malingering,” said of Psychiatry at the Center at the University of Pennsylvania in Philadelphia. Dr. Langleben believes this is so, he said, because it appears that there is an objective and measurable difference in the way blood flows through certain areas of the brain when people are lying compared with when they are telling the truth. In an interview with Neurology Today, Dr. Langleben explained that the correlation between the P-300 component of evoked brain potentials – an electroencephalographic wave that appears after an individual receives a certain stimulus – and deception suggests that the cognitive distinction between telling the truth and lying could be associated with differences in activity in certain parts of the brain. The guilty knowledge test (GKT) is used to simulate deception under laboratory and field conditions and was a major component of his research. GKT is a method of interrogation that can determine if something known is denied. “It was developed to ferret out prior knowledge of crime, has been used for many years to enhance polygraph response, and has nothing to do with guilt or feelings – the name of the test was poorly chosen,” he explained. The fMRI allows for high-resolution study of changes in regional blood flow during cognition and can identify brain regions differently activated by deceptive and truthful responses on the GKT. . Langleben and his colleagues asked healthy subjects to lie about having an object hidden in their pockets as they were shown a picture of that object among many pictures of similar objects. The pictures were presented one by one while the subjects were attached to an fMRI scanner. The amplitude and location of the fMRI signal were recorded and analyzed during and after deceptive responses. The researchers saw increased regional cerebral blood flow in the anterior cingulate and the adjacent right superior frontal gyrus after the deceptive responses.

Output: corroborate


Input: Claim: The stock market always reflects the real state of a country’s economy and is the best predictor of its future success. [SEP] Text: (2000) book data. Accessible version Additional evidence on the nature of the disconnect comes from a cross section of international equity indexes. Figure 5 plots the decompositions of the EuroStoxx 50, the FTSE 100, and the Nikkei 225 into the values of near-dated, medium-dated, and far-dated dividend claims using dividend futures. In general, the disconnect has been less pronounced internationally in the first place: As of September 1, the FTSE 100 and the EuroStoxx 50 were down 21% and 15%, respectively, since the beginning of the pandemic. 225 recovered more than the EuroStoxx 50 and the FTSE 100 and was down only 1%, but still trailed the S&P 500 by 5%. The international evidence mirrors the evidence on the cross section of U. S. equities showing that equities with high price-dividend ratios have performed better throughout the pandemic. The cumulative returns of the FTSE 100, the EuroStoxx 50, the Nikkei 225, and the S&P 500 correlate positively with their price-dividend ratios at the onset of the pandemic. The price-dividend ratios were 22 (FTSE 100), 31 (EuroStoxx 50), 51 (Nikkei 225), and 56 (S&P 500), respectively. Figure 5. The EuroStoxx 50, FTSE 100, and Nikkei 225 Note: Prices are normalized so that Feb. 19, 2020 = 100. Source: Bloomberg. Accessible version The decompositions of the international equity indexes into dividend claims across maturities show a similar pattern as the decomposition of the S&P 500 index. The prices of far-dated dividend claims recovered significantly more than the prices of near- and medium-dated dividend claims between March and September. The lack of disconnect between financial markets and the real economy is particularly apparent in the prices of the near-dated dividend claims of the EuroStoxx 50 and the FTSE 100, which as of September 1 have declined 40% and 48%, respectively, since the onset of the pandemic. Consistent with a dire economic outlook being reflected in financial markets, parts of these declines in the prices of near-dated dividend claims reflect European regulators urging European banks to suspend dividends in the near future. 1997. " Journal of Finance, vol. 55, 406.

Output: contrast


Input: Claim: Asteroids can be redirected to mine resources without risk. [SEP] Text: Derenne and Robert (and Robert2010) proposed a model of the macromolecular structure of IOM in the Murchison CM-type carbonaceous chondrite. In most studies, the IOM is separated from the mineral matrix of a meteorite by demineralization with acids (). Cody et al. (Reference Cody, Alexander and Tera2002) modified the traditional method with the addition of fluorine-salts to overcome issues arising from the use of hydrofluoric acid. Smith and Kaplan, however, noticed that only ~45–80% of the C in bulk carbonaceous chondrites can be accounted for by the reported and carbonate abundances, the rest of which is lost during isolation of the IOM (Smith and Kaplan, and Kaplan1970). Alexander et al. , provide a thorough review of studies done in determining the morphologies and distribution of IOM in meteorite matrices and also discuss those studies done in situ (Alexander et al. , and Stroud2017). The IOM occurs, generally, in two forms: as sub-micrometric grains or flakes, often referred to as ‘fluffy’ (Garvie and Buseck, and Buseck2006), and as solid or hollow spherical, semi-spherical or tubular aggregates often referred to as nanoglobules. Nakamura et al. (éon--and Tsuda2023) reported on the in situ occurrence of nanoglobules in the meteorite. The fluffy material is typically amorphous and often found intimately associated with the abundant phyllosilicate minerals in the meteorite matrix. Short, vein-like structures have also been reported and may be the result of migration and subsequent modification of the pre-cursor organic material during the secondary, post-accretion phase in the asteroidal parent-body. Kerogens as analogues for found in carbonaceous meteorites is often broadly compared with some terrestrial kerogens in terms of its insolubility in common solvents, its elemental composition and structure (Alexander et al. , and Stroud2017).

Output: pass


Input: Claim: Functional MRI can measure brain activity by detecting changes in blood flow. [SEP] Text: They concluded then that there is a localized brain correlate of deception. Anterior cingulate activation is associated with response inhibition and error monitoring, suggesting that they are among the basic elements of the cognitive mechanism of deception. Dr. Langleben warned against jumping to conclusions about the applications of this research. “Our study shows only an average difference in brain activity between lying and telling the truth in a group of young, healthy people. In order to determine whether fMRI can be used to detect deception in any individual, much larger groups of different ages, cultures, and socioeconomic status should be studied. ”related to understanding out-and-out deception is the study of intention. of the University of California- School of Medicine, used fMRI to measure cerebral blood flow changes in normal subjects to detect the intention behind an observed action. Subjects were asked to observe a hand reaching out and grasping a cup in four different situations. In the control condition, the action was displayed against a black background. In the drink condition, the background was a breakfast on a table, and in the clean condition, empty dishes were piled up on the table. In a fourth condition, called content, the background randomly alternated from the drink to the clean context. All the conditions commonly activated visual areas in the brain plus the frontoparietal neural circuitry for grasping execution, with the exception of M1. The anterior cingulate (BA32), the right middle temporal (BA21) cortex, and the left posterior parietal cortex (BA7) were more active when subjects observed the grasping action in a specific content compared with an absence of context (control, or black background). These three areas of the brain were not differentially activated while subjects observed the drink, clean, or content conditions, explained Dr. Iacoboni. intentions appears to be one property of a network that codes the visual aspects of the context in which an action is performed. It also may contain proprioceptive and kinesthetic representations of actions, as well as some aspects of motor plans induced by actions typically associated with an observed context. Moreover, said Dr. Iacoboni, “This network does not appear to be influenced by the explicit instruction of detecting intentions. ”According to Dr. Iacoboni, these data support the view that intentionality is nonlinguistic.

Output: corroborate


Input: Claim: The stock market always reflects the real state of a country’s economy and is the best predictor of its future success. [SEP] Text: Dechow, P. M. , Sloan, R. G. & Soliman, M. T. (2004). "Duration: A of Equity Risk. " Review of vol. 9, 228. Gonçalves, Andrei, (2019). "Equity Markets? A Decomposition for Stock Returns" of Research Paper. Gormsen,. J. Koijen (2020), "Coronavirus: Impact on. " Review of Studies, forthcoming. Landier, Augustin, and (July 2020), "in the COVID crisis. " Macaulay, F. R. (1938). "by the Movements of Interest Rates, Bond Yields, and in the since 1856. " New York: of Economic Research. Ozdagli, Ali, 2018. "Financial frictions and the stock price reaction to monetary policy," Review of Financial Studies, vol. 31 (10) 3936. Weber, Michael (2018). "Cash flow duration and the term structure of equity returns," Journal of Financial Economics, vol. 128 (3), 503. 1. At the time of writing, the authors worked at the Board. We thank and for excellent research assistance. All errors and omissions are our own responsibility. The views expressed in this note are solely the responsibility of the authors and should not be interpreted as reflecting the views of the Board of Governors of the System or of anyone else associated with the System. Return to text 2. In independent work, Avalos and Xia (2020) document similar evidence. Return to text 3. We follow Gormsen and Koijen (2020) and construct constant maturity dividend strip prices from dividend futures. Return to text 4. This result is preserved when building portfolios of stocks based on high and low percentile thresholds of the price divided ratio distribution of the S&P 500. Return to text 5. This measure of duration is based on Macaulay's (1938) measure of bond duration and hence reflects the weighted average time to maturity of expected cash flows. The ratio of discounted cash flows to price determines the weights. Return to text 6. While high duration stocks have been documented to be more sensitive to monetary policy (Ozdagli 2018), the increase in high duration stocks does not necessarily imply that monetary policy is driving most of the stock market rally.

Output: contrast


Input: Claim: Asteroids can be redirected to mine resources without risk. [SEP] Text: Terrestrial kerogens are defined as insoluble organic matter formed from the remains of algae, zoo- and phytoplankton, and/or vascular plants, usually found in sedimentary rocks in petroliferous basins (Curiale, Reference Curiale1986; Vandenbroucke and Largeau, and Largeau2007). The organic material in sedimentary rocks undergoes progressive alteration with increasing depth of burial. Initially, bacterial activity and low-temperature chemical reactions occur during diagenesis. Increasing temperature during catagenesis and later metagenesis produces a continuum of thermal maturation (Sanei, Reference Sanei2020). Thermal maturation leads to the production of a variety of substances including coal, bitumens (asphalt), oil and methane. Bitumens have also been proposed as analogues of cometary and asteroidal organic compounds (Moroz et al. , Reference Moroz, Arnold, Korochantsev and Wäsch1998). Origins of Petroleum, Walters (Reference Walters2007) provides a review of the history and classification of kerogens. Tarafdar and Sinha (Tarafdar and Sinh, and Sinh2019) also review the formation of coal as well as hydrocarbons derived from kerogens. Along the continuum of thermal maturation, characteristic changes occur. Behar and Vandenbroucke (and Vandenbrouke1987) produced structural models showing the progressive alteration of kerogens during their maturation. Kerogens become increasingly aromatic while bitumens become more aliphatic in character (Craddock et al. , Reference Craddock, van Le Doan, Bake, Polyakov, Charsky and Pomerantz2015). There are also characteristic variations in the ratios of hydrogen to carbon (H/C) and oxygen to carbon (O/C). (Reference van Krevelen1961) used these elemental ratios to classify coal, but this method is now widely used in classifying kerogens and their products. Such plots are typically referred to as van Krevelen diagrams. Four kerogen types are recognized: Type I, generated from algal and bacterial remains (algal kerogens); Type II, generated from zoo- and phytoplankton (planktonic kerogens); Type III, from vascular plants (humic kerogens) and Type IV (residual kerogens).

Output: pass


Input: Claim: Functional MRI can measure brain activity by detecting changes in blood flow. [SEP] Text: According to Ms. Saxe, the brain activation observed when subjects look at intentional versus random movement tends to be similar to the brain activation observed when subjects read stories with false belief content. This overlap suggests that the two types of brain activity use a single cognitive system. added that this research, which is the first evidence of selective, cross-modal processing – reflecting how normal research subjects perceive or interpret people as compared with objects – can serve as a foundation on which more complex processing, such as deception detection, can be based. Asked what the ultimate purpose of this knowledge is, Ms. Saxe replied, “This is only a small part of a program that will teach us how the brain works; fMRI lets you get at the most complex processes, that is, how people think about and understand other people. ”WHAT'? Commenting on the research in a phone interview, Daniel Tranel, PhD, Professor of Neurology and Psychology at the University of Iowa in Iowa City, said: “All this research on deception and intention is aimed at understanding how the brain works, at least the parts that we understand as cognition and behavior. We're trying to learn which brain regions control which cognitive functions. ”The major purpose, Dr. Tranel continued, is to understand disease processes, that is, how and why the brain malfunctions. In studies about deception, for example, the purpose is not so much to see who is lying about what, but rather to determine which brain regions might be affected in certain mental diseases such as sociopathy and developmental disorders such as oppositional defiant disorder. “People have been doing this kind of research for a long time, but now, with the new technology, it has been flipped onto its head – so to speak,” Dr. Tranel said. “Up until now, we have looked at brain lesions and damaged brains. Now we are studying normal people to get a better handle on normal function, so that eventually we can compare normalcy to pathology in order to determine what went wrong and how to repair the damage. ” Email to Colleague Colleague's E-mail is Name: Colleague's Email: Separate multiple e-mails with a (;). Message: Thought you might appreciate this item(s) I saw in Neurology Today. Your message has been successfully sent to your colleague. Some error has occurred while processing your request. Please try after some time. .

Output: corroborate


Input: Claim: Cultural diversity enriches societies by bringing in new perspectives, traditions, and practices. [SEP] Text: 22: ἔσσεται ἦμαρ ὅταν ποτ᾽ ὀλώλῃ Ἴλιος ἱρὴ καὶ Πρίαμος καὶ λαὸς ἐυμμελίω Πριάμοιο. 30 φασὶν οὐ φυλαξάμενον ὀνομάσαι τὴν πατρίδα σαφῶς, ὑπὲρ ἧς ἄρα ἐς τἀνθρώπεια ἀφορῶν ἐδεδίει. 31 Reference OlbrichOlbrich 2006: 483–509; Reference Melville-JonesMelville-Jones 2014: 247–62. 32 Zos. 2. 30.

Output: pass


Input: Claim: Asteroids can be redirected to mine resources without risk. [SEP] Text: and II often occur in shales. Type III kerogens commonly occur as varieties of coal which can, on occasion, be interlayered with and II bearing shales. Type 4 kerogens are often found as degraded surface deposits associated with coal (Vandenbrouke, Reference Vandenbrouke2003; Walters, Reference Walters2007; Ławniczak et al. , Reference Ławniczak, Woźniak-Karczewska, Loibner, Heipieper and Chrzanowski2020) (Fig. 1). Figure 1. van Krevelen type diagram showing the categorization of kerogen types based on their H/C and O/C atomic ratios (modified from Walters, Reference Walters2007). The major elements in the composition of both IOM and terrestrial kerogens are C, H, O, N and S. The elemental compositions of the IOM in the Murchison and meteorites are C100H70N3O12S2 and C100H46N10O15S4. 5, respectively (Pizzarello et al. , Reference Pizzarello, Cooper and Flynn2006). From these general formulae the H/C are 0. 7 (Murchison) and 0. 46 (Tagish Lake). The O/C ratios are 0. 12 and 0. 15, respectively. Naraoka et al. (and Shimoyama2004) report H/C values of IOM extracted from 9 CM-type meteorites ranging from 0. 11–0. 72 (Table 1). The H/C and O/C of most terrestrial kerogens are notably higher, but some types are similar to those of Murchison and Tagish Lake, falling within the range of type 3 and type 4 kerogens (Behar and Vandenbrouke, and Vandenbrouke1987; Pathak et al. , Reference Pathak, Kweon, Deo and Huang2017) (Fig. 2). Table 1. The organic components in the least metamorphosed carbonaceous chondrites: CI (Ivuna-like), CM (Mighei-like), CR (Renazzo-like), and Empty fields indicate unavailable data. Concentrations are based on chromatographic peak intensities and include compounds identified by reference standards and mass spectra.

Output: pass


Input: Claim: Functional MRI can measure brain activity by detecting changes in blood flow. [SEP] Text: AbstractBrain imaging techniques such as functional magnetic resonance imaging (fMRI) have provided a wealth of information about brain organization, but their ability to investigate fine-scale functional architecture is limited by the spatial specificity of the hemodynamic responses upon which they are based. We investigated the spatiotemporal evolution of hemodynamic responses in rat somatosensory cortex to electrical hindpaw stimulation. We combined the advantages of optical intrinsic signal imaging and spectroscopy to produce high-resolution two-dimensional maps of functional changes in tissue oxygenation and blood volume. Cerebral blood flow changes were measured with laser-Doppler flowmetry, and simultaneously recorded field potentials allowed comparison between hemodynamic changes and underlying neuronal activity. For the first 2 to 3 secs of activation, hemodynamic responses overlapped in a central parenchymal focus. Over the next several seconds, cerebral blood volume changes propagated retrograde into feeding arterioles, and oxygenation changes anterograde into draining veins. By 5 to 6 secs, responses localized primarily in vascular structures distant from the central focus. The peak spatial extent of the hemodynamic response increased linearly with synaptic activity. This spatial spread might be because of lateral subthreshold activation or passive vascular overspill. These results imply early microvascular changes in volume and oxygenation localize to activated neural columns, and that spatial specificity will be optimal within a 2- to 3-sec window after neuronal activation. IntroductionThe coupling between neuronal activity and cerebral blood flow was suggested over a century ago in the clinical reports of Mosso and animal experiments of Roy and Sherrington (Mosso, 1881; Roy and Sherrington, 1890). Significant progress has been made in elucidating the mechanisms and characteristics of the hemodynamic response to neural activity, but several questions still remain. Brain imaging techniques based on perfusion-related signals, including functional magnetic resonance imaging (fMRI) and positron emission tomography (PET), are gathering increasing importance for mapping brain function. A sound appreciation of the spatiotemporal characteristics of hemodynamic responses and their relation to underlying neuronal activity is therefore essential. The hemodynamic response is comprised of a cascade of physiological events including changes in cerebral blood flow (CBF), volume (CBV), and oxygenation (Villringer and Dirnagl, 1995). The fidelity with which these perfusion-related signals match areas of active neurons determines the ultimate spatial specificity of brain mapping techniques.

Output: corroborate


Input: Claim: In most societies, gender roles have remained exactly the same throughout history. [SEP] Text: IntroductionThe tendency to favor one’s own gender over the other gender is pervasive during middle childhood. This tendency has been documented across a variety of cultures, and some researchers have speculated that same-gender favoritism may be a universal feature of children’s development (Maccoby 1998; Munroe and Romney 2006). During the past two decades, an increasing number of developmental psychologists have argued that same-gender favoritism and other intergroup processes play a key role in children’s adherence to gender roles (Bigler and Liben 2007; Leaper 2000; Maccoby 1998; Powlishta 2004). According to this perspective, understanding children’s same-gender favoritism and its corollaries is important because it provides insight into children’s gender development. Children’s same-gender favoritism is often gauged by examining the number of positive and negative personality traits children allocate to their own gender versus the other gender (e. g. , Powlishta et al. 1994; Powlishta 1995; Silvern 1977; Susskind and Hodges 2007; Zalk and Katz 1978). The results of these studies consistently demonstrate that children show same-gender favoritism by allocating more positive traits to their own gender than to the other gender. The present study built on past trait assignment research in two ways. First, we examined whether children from two geographic regions within the United States value the positive traits that they assign to their own gender more than the positive traits they assign to the other gender. This contrasts with past trait assignment research (e. g. , Powlishta 1995; Susskind and Hodges 2007), which tends to focus on the relative number of traits that boys and girls assign to one another. We also examined whether our participants’ proportion of same-gender friends was related to the strength of their same-gender favoritism. In making our predictions, we drew from social identity theory (Tajfel and Turner 1986; Turner et al. 1979; Turner and Reynolds 2004) with a particular emphasis on theoretical perspectives that emphasize the role intergroup processes play in children’s attitudes toward out-group members (e. g. , Abrams et al. 2003; Bigler and Liben 2007; Harris 1995; Leaper 2000; Maccoby 1998; Powlishta 2004). Social psychology is replete with studies demonstrating that people tend to be biased in favor of the groups to which they belong.

Output: contrast


Input: Claim: Asteroids can be redirected to mine resources without risk. [SEP] Text: The CM data are from Murchison CM2 meteorite (updated from Botta and Bada (and Bada2002)), unless otherwise noted. The abundances are in μg/g (ppm), except where indicated. Table is adapted and modified from Alexander et al. (and Stroud2017). a Averages from Alexander et al. (and Nittler2012). b Averages for recovered IOM from Alexander et al. (Reference Alexander, Fogel, Yabuta and Cody2007; and Herd2014). c Range of the abundances in Orgueil and Ivuna (Ehrenfreund et al. , Reference Ehrenfreund, Glavin, Botta, Cooper and Bada2001; Burton et al. , Reference Burton, Grunsfeld, Elsila, Glavin and Dworkin2014a). d Range of abundances in Y-791198 (Naraoka et al. , Reference Naraoka, Shimoyama, Komiya, Yamamoto and Harada1988; Shimoyama and Ogasawara, and Ogasawara2002; Glavin et al. , Reference Glavin, Callahan, Dworkin and Elsila2010; Burton et al. , and Yin2014b). e Range of abundances in EET 92042, GRA 95229, and GRO 95577 (Martins et al. , Reference Martins, Alexander, Orzechowska, Fogel and Ehrenfreund2007; Glavin et al. , Reference Glavin, Callahan, Dworkin and Elsila2010). f Range for different lithologies of (Glavin et al. , and Herd2012; Hilts et al. , Reference Hilts, Herd, Simkus and Slater2014). g Abundances in GRA 95229 (Pizzarello et al. , Reference Pizzarello, Huang and Alexandre2008; Reference Pizzarello, Schrader, Monroe and Lauretta2012). h SOM from Pizzarello et al. (and Williams2001). i Range of abundances (Yuen and Kvenvolden, and Kvenvolden1973; Huang et al. , Reference Huang, Wang, de'Rosa, Fuller and Pizzarello2004). j et al.

Output: pass


Input: Claim: Functional MRI can measure brain activity by detecting changes in blood flow. [SEP] Text: The ability to resolve individual columnar units with these techniques is necessary to realize the fine-scale functional organization of the brain. Because the hemodynamic response profile is dictated by vascular architecture, however, it may extend beyond neuroanatomic boundaries. Previous studies have suggested that the CBF response has coarse spatial regulation (Malonek and Grinvald, 1996) and propagates several millimeters from the site of neural activity (Iadecola et al, 1997). In contrast, others have shown that this response is capable of resolving the functional architecture of ocular dominance columns in primary visual cortex, demonstrating submillimeter specificity (Duong et al, 2001). Similarly, whereas earlier reports suggested a large CBV point spread function (Frostig et al, 1990), we recently demonstrated CBV columnar specificity (Sheth et al, 2004a). Oxygenation changes such as those measured by blood oxygenation level-dependent (BOLD) fMRI were described as predominating in veins distant from activated neurons (Frahm et al, 1994; Kim et al, 2000), but a few reports have shown that under the right circumstances they can also resolve ocular dominance columns (Cheng et al, 2001; Goodyear and Menon, 2001; Menon and Goodyear, 1999). These previous studies have focused on determining which etiologic aspect of the hemodynamic response (or oxygenation) provides the highest spatial specificity. We recently found that signal timing may actually have a larger impact than signal etiology in this regard-that functional maps generated using the first few seconds of the response localize well to active columns, regardless of the etiology chosen (Sheth et al, 2004a). To investigate this concept further, we examined the spatiotemporal evolution of hemodynamic signals with high resolution in this study. Optical intrinsic signal (OIS) imaging (Grinvald et al, 1986) offers high spatial and temporal resolution, and OIS spectroscopy (Malonek et al, 1997; Mayhew et al, 1999) provides physiologic measures of hemoglobin oxygenation and concentration. We combined these advantages to generate high-resolution functional maps of CBV and oxygenation changes. This approach allowed us to investigate the evolution of hemodynamic responses within parenchymal, arteriolar, and venous compartments with improved detail and specificity.

Output: corroborate


Input: Claim: In most societies, gender roles have remained exactly the same throughout history. [SEP] Text: In the experimental classrooms, the teachers enhanced the perceptual salience of the tee-shirt groups by regularly using them as a basis of categorization, whereas teachers in the control classrooms did not reference the tee-shirt groups. Results demonstrated that children in the experimental classrooms showed stronger in-group favoritism than did children in the control classrooms, which suggests that the salience of group membership can enhance the strength of in-group favoritism (Bigler et al. 1997). Research on naturally occurring (as opposed to experimentally manipulated) groups demonstrates that children show in-group bias based on a variety of salient characteristics (e. g. , Powlishta et al. 1994; Verkuyten and Thijs 2001). Children’s same-gender favoritism is particularly well documented (see Powlishta 2004, for a review). Developmental intergroup theory (Bigler and Liben 2007) provides insight into why social categories such as gender elicit such strong in-group bias in children. According to Bigler and Liben’s (2007) model, children’s likelihood of categorizing people based on a particular attribute is heightened when that attribute becomes salient. This categorization process can then lead to the development of stereotypes and prejudices about those who possess the salient attribute. Developmental intergroup theory proposes that several factors can heighten the salience of an attribute. Two of these factors are especially relevant to gender’s salience: perceptual discriminability and explicit labeling and use. Perceptual discriminability pertains to gender’s high visual salience: In most cases, children can immediately discern another person’s gender simply by looking at her or him. Gender’s perceptual discriminability is further enhanced by its status as a mutually exclusive dichotomy, which facilitates children’s ability to make the “us” versus “them” distinction that is so critical to the display of in-group bias (Powlishta 2004). Explicit labeling and use pertains to people’s tendency to make functional use of gender as a social category (Bigler 1995; Bigler et al. 1997); gender is frequently used as a basis for grouping people (e. g. , “Boys and girls, please line up for lunch. ”) and it is commonplace to refer to others’ gender (e. g.

Output: contrast


Input: Claim: Asteroids can be redirected to mine resources without risk. [SEP] Text: (Reference Aponte, Dworkin and Elsila2014; Reference Aponte, Dworkin and Elsila2015). k Lower limit for glyceric acid in Murchison (Cooper et al. , and Garrel2001). Figure 2. van Krevelen coalification diagram comparing H/C and O/C ratios differences among coals and biomass (Jenkins et al. , Reference Jenkins, Baxter, Miles and Miles1998) compared to the elemental compositions of the IOM in the Murchison and meteorites (Pizzarello et al. , Reference Pizzarello, Cooper and Flynn2006). Despite the abundance of C-complex asteroids, carbonaceous meteorites are rather rare in collections on Earth. Of the approximately 27 000 known meteorites on Earth, only about 5% are carbonaceous chondrites, or approximately 1350 specimens. Of this number, approximately 733 specimens are of the CI, CM and C-ungrouped types of greatest interest. Of these, 633 are CM-type. Most are significantly under 1 km in weight (Simkus et al. , and Dworkin2019). The sample sizes used by Naraoka et al. (and Shimoyama2004) ranged from 0. 5–1 g. Obtaining significant amounts of appropriate meteorite samples is possible but entails considerable cost. Therefore, future studies on the conversion of asteroidal matter into food should initially involve experimentation with selected kerogens instead, which will provide a more cost-effective alternative. Asteroids containing organic compounds Reflectance spectra studies have proposed a strong link between the CI, CM and certain C-ungrouped meteorites and the C-complex of asteroids (Vilas and Gaffey, and Gaffey1989). Although not distributed uniformly within the asteroid belt, the C-complex asteroids are the most numerous (DeMeo et al. , and Binzel2015). A connection has also been proposed between the Ch-class asteroids – a subset of the C-complex defined by Bus and Binzel (and Binzel2002) – and CM-type (Rivkin et al. , Reference Rivkin, Thomas, Howell and Emery2015). Estimates of the number of Ch-type asteroids in the population of near-Earth objects (NEOs), with diameters greater than 1-km, are 53 ± 27.

Output: pass


Input: Claim: Functional MRI can measure brain activity by detecting changes in blood flow. [SEP] Text: This analysis allowed us to assess the spatiotemporal evolution of hemoglobin concentration and oxygenation changes in response to functional activation with high spatial and temporal resolution. Response time courses were calculated in a 0. 5-mm diameter region of interest (ROI) centered on the focus of activation, as determined by an automated program (Sheth et al, 2003). In each subject, ROIs for arteriolar and venous compartments were also generated based on the surface vasculature pattern in raw cortical images (Figure 1). A caveat should be noted regarding the measurement of responses in vascular compartments. Because reflectance-based imaging in this wavelength range samples approximately the superficial 0. 1 mm of tissue (Kohl et al, 2000), functional signals over small vessels might actually have contained contributions from underlying parenchyma. Figure 1 Spatiotemporal evolution of functional hemodynamic changes. Functional HbO2, Hbr, and Hbt responses are shown in two representative subjects (A and B). Functional responses are overlaid on raw images at 605 nm (A) and 569 nm (B). Because HbO2 and Hbr absorb equally at isosbestic wavelengths such as 569 nm, raw images at this wavelength depict both arterioles (red arrowheads) and veins (blue arrowheads). Veins are emphasized under 605 nm illumination, as Hbr absorbs more strongly at this wavelength. The recording electrode position is visible in these raw images. Color bars show fractional change for each row of images. A, anterior; L, lateral; scale bar, 1 mm. Spatial extent was calculated by generating statistical significance maps. Images were filtered with a 3-pixel FWHM Gaussian kernel to reduce high-frequency spatial noise. We then performed an ANOVA test at every pixel on a 12 × 3 matrix of values: the pixel value in each of 12 trials at three time points (t = −3. 50 secs [prestimulus], t = [peak image-1], t = [peak image]). This analysis provided a P-value map, in which pixels attained high significance if their variance within a trial was large compared with their variance between trials. This process attributed high significance to pixels that responded strongly to the stimulation, and low significance to those that showed large variability from trial to trial (Sheth et al, 2004a).

Output: corroborate


Input: Claim: In most societies, gender roles have remained exactly the same throughout history. [SEP] Text: , “Son, go open the door for that woman. ”). Together these factors contribute to gender’s primacy as a social category during childhood. In fact, Banaji and Prentice (1994) argued that gender is the most fundamental of all social identities. Throughout the past three decades, the trait assignment method has been used a number of times to examine children’s same-gender favoritism (Powlishta et al. 1994; Powlishta 1995; Silvern 1977; Susskind and Hodges 2007; Zalk and Katz 1978). In these studies, researchers gauge in-group bias by asking children to allocate positive and negative personality traits either to their own gender or to the other gender. The typical pattern of findings in these studies is that children assign more positive traits and fewer negative traits to their own gender than to the other gender. For example, Powlishta (1995) conducted a study in which 8- to 10-year-old children rated 48 personality traits along a positivity-negativity spectrum and a masculinity-femininity spectrum. Results demonstrated that the more positive a trait was, the more children rated it as descriptive of their own gender. Results also indicated that children’s same-gender favoritism was more evident in their positive trait allocations than in their negative trait allocations, which is a relatively common finding in trait assignment research (e. g. , Powlishta 1995; Susskind and Hodges 2007). Such a pattern of results is consistent with Brewer’s (1999) concept of primacy of the in-group, which proposes that positive feelings about the in-group are an inherent feature of people’s social identities and typically outweigh negative feelings about the out-group. For this reason, the present study focused on children’s ratings of positive traits. Most trait assignment research emphasizes the relative number of traits that boys and girls allocate to one another (e. g. , Powlishta 1995; Silvern 1977; Susskind and Hodges 2007). The present study builds on these findings by assessing children’s same-gender favoritism in a somewhat different manner. Specifically, we examined whether children value the traits they perceive as most descriptive of their own gender more than the traits they perceive as most descriptive of the other gender. Such an approach will allow for insight into the relationship between children’s same-gender favoritism and their gender stereotypes.

Output: contrast


Input: Claim: Asteroids can be redirected to mine resources without risk. [SEP] Text: If no minimum size constraints are applied, these numbers rise to 700 ± 350 (Rivkin and DeMeo, and DeMeo2019). The recent success of two sample return missions – -REx (NASA) and Hyabusa2 (JAXA) – to the NEO asteroids 101955 Bennu and 162173 Ryugu demonstrate that, although technically demanding, it is possible to access such asteroids (Lauretta et al. , Reference Lauretta, Balram-Knutson, Beshore, Boynton, Drouet d'and Bennett2017; Nakamura et al. , éon--and Tsuda2023; Potiszil et al. , and Nakamura2023). To illustrate the potential of the approach outlined in this 77. 6 million metric tons), and (4) studies are underway to determine the asteroid's composition. Thus, the potential of Bennu will be analysed as a human food source. To estimate the amount of usable organic material which may be within asteroid Bennu, values from the extensively studied Murchison CM-type meteorite will be used as a proxy. Dozens of studies have explored the organic compound composition of these samples (Studier et al. , Reference Studier, Hayatsu and Anders1972; Cronin and Pizzarello, and Pizzarello1990; Callahan et al. , and Dworkin2011; Botta and Bada, and Bada2002; Oba et al. , and Naraoka2022). Microbial assimilation of kerogens and related organic compounds Since the majority of organic compounds in carbonaceous meteorites, and presumably their asteroidal parent-bodies, are insoluble, work in the field of microbially mediated coal-bed methane (CBM) production is of particular interest for this proposal. Wang et al. (Reference Wang, Wang, Cui, Zhang and Yu2019) studied the effects of microbial activity in the generation of CBM from a Chinese coal deposit, showing that significant quantities of biomethane were produced. A detailed study by Vick et al. (and Paulsen2019) on the microbial assimilation of coal identifies several of the principal phyla involved and also explores the optimization conditions for enhanced production. Reviews of work in the biogeneration of CBM are also provided by Ritter et al. (and McIntosh2015) and Colosimo et al.

Output: pass


Input: Claim: Functional MRI can measure brain activity by detecting changes in blood flow. [SEP] Text: Optical data were acquired at four wavelengths and fit to a spectroscopic model incorporating absorption because of changes in hemoglobin concentration and oxygenation. The resulting maps displayed the spatiotemporal evolution of functional CBV and oxygenation changes. Cerebral blood flow was measured at a single point near the response focus. By measuring field potentials concurrently, we investigated the correspondence between synaptic activity and hemodynamic spread. EvolutionTwo-dimensional optical intrinsic signal spectroscopic imaging provided high-resolution functional images of stimulation-evoked changes in oxy- (HbO2), deoxy- (Hbr), and total (Hbt) hemoglobin. Changes in Hbt are proportional to CBV changes under the assumption of a constant hematocrit (Jones et al, 2001). These images are therefore directly analogous to BOLD and CBV-weighted fMRI data. Increases in neuronal activity trigger a local increase in blood flow and volume (Parri and Crunelli, 2003; Villringer and Dirnagl, 1995), and the resulting influx of oxygen-rich blood increases HbO2 and decreases Hbr content, producing the conventional positive BOLD fMRI signal (Ogawa et al, 1992). Some have observed a brief, transient increase in Hbr immediately after stimulation onset and preceding the large hyperoxygenation phase (Kim et al, 2000; Malonek et al, 1997). This initial dip (decrease in BOLD signal) is putatively caused by neuronal oxygen consumption from oxidative metabolism preceding the flow increase (Grinvald et al, 2000). The profiles of the hemodynamic response at several time points are shown in Figure 1 in two representative subjects. The distinct spatial and temporal characteristics of the oxygenation and volume response elements are readily appreciated. At early times (~2 to 3 secs for HbO2 and Hbr, and ~2 secs for Hbt), the responses are focused in the central parenchymal region and avoid the vasculature. The feeding arterioles and draining veins show little activity even though they course through the active region, while the greatest signal change is in the surrounding capillary bed. The spatial profile during this epoch is smooth and concentric, showing little evidence of curvilinear contributions from vessels. Over the next few seconds, the hemodynamic responses segregate into vascular compartments.

Output: corroborate


Input: Claim: In most societies, gender roles have remained exactly the same throughout history. [SEP] Text: 1994; Powlishta 1995; Silvern 1977; Susskind and Hodges 2007; Zalk and Katz 1978) has demonstrated that children tend to show same-gender favoritism through their allocation of personality traits to the two genders. Results consistently show that children tend to allocate more positive traits to their own gender than to the other gender (e. g. , Powlishta 1995; Susskind and Hodges 2007). Rather than examining the relative number of positive traits that boys and girls allocate to one another, the present study took a somewhat different approach to examining children’s same-gender favoritism. Specifically, we examined whether children value the positive traits they perceive to be descriptive of their own gender more than the traits they perceive to be descriptive of the other gender. In line with our first hypothesis, both boys and girls valued the traits perceived to be descriptive of their own gender significantly more than the traits perceived to be descriptive of the other gender. This finding is interesting for several reasons. First, it suggests that when children make their trait allocations, they are not solely focusing on the traits’ degree of positivity. Rather, it appears that they also consider how important each trait is for members of their gender to possess. This is a finding that cannot be ascertained by the traditional trait assignment methodology. These findings also suggest that there is a distinction between asking children “How positive or negative is this trait? ” versus “How good or bad is it to have this trait if members of your gender want to feel good about themselves? ” To elaborate, Powlishta (1995) asked third and fourth grade children to rate personality traits along a positivity-negativity spectrum and found virtually no significant gender differences in her sample’s positivity-negativity ratings. In contrast, the children in the present study rated how important each trait is for their gender to possess, which did elicit a significant overall gender difference. The finding that children valued same-gender traits more than other-gender traits is consistent with research on children’s gender schemas (e. g. , Martin et al. 1995; see also Martin et al. 2002), which typically demonstrates that children are motivated to adhere to characteristics that define their gender. This argument complements social identity theory (Aberson et al.

Output: contrast


Input: Claim: Asteroids can be redirected to mine resources without risk. [SEP] Text: (and Kalin2016). Gao et al. (Reference Gao, Jiang, Yang, Li and Yua2011) studied the effects of bacterial consortia to act on leonardite, a type 4 kerogen, in the production of humic acid for biofertilizers. There are also intriguing recent studies of direct bacterial assimilation of carbonaceous chondrite material. In 2022, Waajen et al. , found that naturally occurring bacterial consortia could metabolize carbon from the CM-type carbonaceous chondrite. In 2024, Waajen et al. , used a sample of the CM-type carbonaceous chondrite and found that bacterial consortia could use the meteoritic material exclusively as a source of carbon as well as energy and nutrients. In both studies, bacteria were able to directly transfer meteoritic carbon into biomass. The 2022 study explored the possibilities of carbonaceous meteoritic material supporting early life on Earth. The 2024 study also explores this as well as suggesting the possible use of bacteria in processing asteroids for future human activities. et al. (and Techtmann2022) demonstrated the ability of pyrolysis to produce microbially biodegradable intermediate compounds from high-density polyethylene (HDPE). Pyrolysis uses high temperatures to break down plastics into lower-molecular-weight hydrocarbons (Gracida-Alvarez et al. , Reference Gracida-Alvarez, Mitchell, Sacramento-Rivero and Shonnard2018). These lower-carbon length hydrocarbons are more easily degraded by microorganisms, particularly for carbon lengths on the order of C10 – C40 (Ji et al. , Reference Ji, Mao, Wang and Bartlam2013). The hydrocarbons produced by pyrolysis by Byrne et al. (and Techtmann2022) were analysed with gas chromatography/mass spectrometry (GC/MS) to quantify the residual compound concentrations of alkenes. In an ideal scenario, the pyrolysis results would be compared to the organic compounds available in high carbon carbonaceous meteorites to determine if the asteroid compounds contain the same potentially human edible biomass identified by Byrne et al. (and Techtmann2022). In the Murchison meteorite ~70% of the organic compounds comprise IOM.

Output: pass


Input: Claim: Functional MRI can measure brain activity by detecting changes in blood flow. [SEP] Text: Blood vessels start becoming more prominent by 5 secs, and by 6 secs the largest magnitude changes are over draining veins. The parenchymal contribution steadily declines until it is difficult to distinguish which cortical region was originally activated. Whereas CBV and oxygenation responses colocalize over the central capillary bed over the first few seconds, their only overlap in the later epoch is in the vasculature. The temporal characteristics of each hemodynamic response can be seen more clearly in Figure 2, which depicts the time course of changes in the central parenchyma. The results are consistent with previous optical (Jones et al, 2001) and fMRI studies (Duong et al, 2000) employing similar stimulation parameters. Oxyhemoglobin and Hbt increase monophasically, and Hbr decreases monophasically. Response magnitude increases with decreasing stimulation frequency, reaching their largest values during 2 Hz stimulation. For that stimulation parameter, HbO2 reaches its peak of 6. 8 × 10−2 at 2. 9 secs. Peak magnitudes and time-to-peak (TTP) for Hbr and Hbt are −5. 2 × 10−2 at 2. 4 secs and 3. 3 × 10−2 at 2. 9 secs, respectively. Figure 2 Hemodynamic time courses. The time course of functional changes in HbO2 (A), Hbr (B), and Hbt (C) within the central 0. 5 mm ROI is shown averaged over all nine subjects. Response size increased with decreasing stimulation frequency. A transient increase in Hbr (‘initial dip’) was not observed in the group average data. (D), Cerebral blood flow was measured concurrently in six subjects. The flow response also increased with decreasing stimulation frequency, with a mean onset time of 0. 4 sec. The gray region denotes stimulus duration. To better understand the response evolution between the parenchymal and vascular compartments, we also measured signals within arteriolar and venous ROIs in each subject. Because the temporal profiles are qualitatively similar to those in Figure 2, these data are summarized in Table 1, which depicts the peak response magnitude (‘Peak’), as well as two temporal measures.

Output: corroborate


Input: Claim: In most societies, gender roles have remained exactly the same throughout history. [SEP] Text: 2000; Tajfel and Turner 1986), which proposes that people should want to assimilate the characteristics that make their in-group distinct from other groups. In support of these points, Martin and colleagues (1995) labeled unfamiliar toys as either “for boys” or “for girls” and found that preschool children preferred to play with the toys that they thought were for their own gender. This study shows that children’s gender schemas shape not only their attitudes, but also their behaviors and choices (see also Martin and Fabes 2001; Fabes et al. 2003). Therefore, children who derogate cross-gender traits in trait assignment studies, such as the hi-SGF boys in the present study, may also avoid enacting cross-gender traits in their daily lives. Our second and third hypotheses tested the prediction that children’s exposure to same-gender peers would be related to their display of same-gender favoritism. According to social identity theory (Tajfel and Turner 1986; Turner and Reynolds 2004), people are motivated to adhere to the norms that characterize the groups to which they belong. Because the norms of children’s same-gender peer groups are typically consistent with traditional gender norms, some researchers argue that children’s same-gender peer groups play a critical role in gender socialization (Leaper 2000; Leaper and Friedman 2007; Maccoby 1998; Powlishta 2004). To test this prediction, we compared the trait ratings of participants with a high proportion of same-gender friends (hi-SGF) to those of participants with a low proportion of same-gender friends (lo-SGF). When we compared hi- and lo-SGF participants’ ratings of the positive in-group traits, we did not find significant differences for either gender. However, when we compared hi- and lo-SGF participants’ ratings of the positive out-group traits, we found that hi-SGF boys rated the positive feminine-stereotyped traits significantly lower than did the lo-SGF boys. In other words, hi-SGF boys perceived the positive feminine-stereotyped traits as significantly less important to have than did the lo-SGF boys.

Output: contrast


Input: Claim: Asteroids can be redirected to mine resources without risk. [SEP] Text: , and Moore2021; Guerrero-Gonzalez and Zabel, Reference Guerrero-Gonzalez and Zabel2023) so there are not good estimates for what the efficiency of an ISRU technology for extracting organic material from an asteroid would be. One potential analogue for these calculations is the method of bioleaching to extract rare earth elements (REE) from rock. Rasoulnia et al. (Reference Rasoulnia, Barthen and Lakaniemi2021) conducted a critical review of the process and found that the total REE leaching efficiency varied significantly depending on the process parameters, from as low as 0. 08% in bastnäsite-bearing rock (the mineral bastnäsite is the most abundant primary source of REEs (Wang et al. , and Long2017)) to 80% for extraction from the mineral zircon. Given these extreme uncertainties, the resultant value from equation (3) is multiplied again by 0. 008 to simulate a low extraction efficiency similar to results from Zhang et al. (and Huang2018) in the extraction from bastnäsite-bearing rock. Caloric intake requirements differ among astronauts due to size and other factors such as age, metabolism, and gender ( For these calculations, an average of 2500 calories (C) per day or 912 500 calories per year will be assumed. These calorie totals will be used for converting biomass yield to astronaut life-years. Plastics converted to biomass in the lab were analysed by to determine the calory-content of the biomass (c), as well as specific breakdowns of fat content, carbohydrates, fibre and proteinFootnote 1. The results of this analysis show that 100 g of biomass contains a total of 442 calories (c), 137 of which were from fat. The breakdown is as follows: • 15. 2% fat by acid hydrolysis • 44. 4% total carbohydrates • 35. 9% total dietary fiber • 31. 9% protein (N × 6. 25) Dumas method • 7. 07% ash • 1.

Output: pass


Input: Claim: Functional MRI can measure brain activity by detecting changes in blood flow. [SEP] Text: Volume changes in arterioles follow central changes by approximately 170 ms, and are significantly smaller (2. 4 × 10−2 versus 3. 3 × 10−2). A different temporal pattern occurs in draining veins-oxygenation changes are delayed compared with the parenchyma, but volume changes are not. HbO2 changes peak 140 ms later in veins, and Hbr changes peak 1. 1 secs later. Again, these oxygenation changes are smaller in magnitude in veins than in the central capillary bed. Cerebral blood volume does increase slightly in draining veins, but less so than the central or arteriolar increase, and without a significant delay. Comparing the hemodynamic parameters across the two vascular compartments, HbO2 and Hbr changes are relatively larger in draining veins than in feeding arterioles, and Hbt changes are relatively larger in arterioles than in veins. To determine whether the vascular responses are due to passive ‘overspill’ without a change in oxygen metabolism, we calculated the ratio of relative peak changes in HbO2 and Hbr in the central parenchyma and downstream veins, normalized by Hbt. The magnitude of this ratio should be lower in a metabolically active area, since oxygen consumption will tend to decrease HbO2 and increase Hbr. The relative changes between the central parenchyma and draining veins for HbO2 are 2. 08 ± 0. 01 and 3. 03 ± 0. 01, and for Hbr are −1. 60 ± 0. 01 and −2. 77 ± 0. 02, respectively. To further investigate hemodynamic spatiotemporal characteristics, we calculated the average response size of each parameter within concentric annuli increasing in distance from the focus at 0. 5 mm diameter increments (Figure 3). All three parameters decrease in magnitude at increasing distance, but maintain the same overall temporal profile. Relative ratios of HbO2 and Hbr do not vary systematically across annular ROIs, possibly as a result of the inclusion of both parenchymal and vascular compartments in the annular ROIs, resulting in an ‘averaging’ of the relative ratios. Figure 3 Concentric annulus analysis. (A) Time courses of hemodynamic parameters were calculated within a central 0. 5 mm diameter region (R1) and concentric annuli increasing in diameter by 0.

Output: corroborate


Input: Claim: In most societies, gender roles have remained exactly the same throughout history. [SEP] Text: Because boys’ proportion of same-gender friend was not related to their ratings of positive masculine-stereotyped traits, it may be that their bias manifests itself as out-group derogation rather than in-group favoritism per se. To explain why this pattern of findings occurred for boys, we turn to literature on the rigidity of the male gender role. By the time children are 3 years old, they are already knowledgeable about basic stereotypes pertaining males and females (Kuhn et al. 1978; Weinraub et al. 1984; Zenmore et al. 2000). Research shows that both boys and girls who contradict traditional gender roles are evaluated somewhat negatively (Blakemore 2003; Martin 1989; Meece 1987). However, boys who act like girls typically receive more criticism than girls who act like boys (Fagot et al. 2000), and are perceived more negatively by other boys (Langlois and Downs 1980; Zucker et al. 1995) and by their parents (Langlois and Downs 1980). Because of this treatment, boys might be highly motivated to avoid positive feminine-stereotyped traits in order to appear more masculine (Powlishta 2004; Leaper and Friedman 2007). Indeed, the hi- and lo-SGF boys differed most in their ratings of the traits gentle and helpful, which are two traits that children and adults rate as highly feminine-stereotyped (e. g. , Martin 1995; Powlishta 1995). Because the male gender role is often strictly enforced within male peer groups (Leaper 1994; Maccoby 1998), it may be that boys with many same-gender friends adhere especially strongly to gender norms. Boys in particular tend to become more gender-typed in their behavior as their exposure to same-gender peers increases (Maccoby 1998; Munroe and Romney 2006). This tendency is probably related to the finding that the male gender role is more rigid than the female gender role (Archer 1984; Bussey and Bandura 1999). Some researchers have argued that this rigidity is due to a general tendency for males to be higher in social status than females (Leaper 2000; Wood and Eagly 2002), which means that males risk losing status within their peer group if they behave in a cross-gender-typed manner.

Output: contrast


Input: Claim: Asteroids can be redirected to mine resources without risk. [SEP] Text: • Compare the theoretical efficiency of this process to recycling and upcycling space settlement's waste. • Assess what other materials would be formed from the complete breakdown of an asteroid, and how these materials may be used. Potential experimental stages are: • Initial selection of kerogen samples and characterization • Sample preparation (Vick et al. , and Paulsen2019) • Bioreactor design and construction (Hafting et al. , Reference Hafting, Yeung, Al-Aribe, Michels and Pearce2023) • Innocula selection (Byrne et al. , and Techtmann2022; Schaerer et al. , and Techtmann2022) • Periodic assessment of innocula activity via headspace gas production • Determination of optimal or peak reaction periods • Separation of innocula from reactants • Testing of resultant biomass for potential toxins (Breuer et al. , Reference Breuer, Toppen, Schum and Pearce2021) • Assessment of resultant biomass and protein yields • Testing nutritional value of resultant biomass and development of feasible balanced diets (Pham et al. , Reference Pham, García Martínez, Brynych, Stormbjorne, Pearce and Denkenberger2022) Concurrent potential experimental stages will be: • Distillation and purification of water from phyllosilicate minerals • Testing any pyrolytic effects of distillation temperatures on the kerogen samples (i. e. , would distillation significantly alter the kerogen composition affecting bacterial assimilation) • Sample preparation of actual carbonaceous meteorite samples (5–10 g maximum) to test dry mineral separation techniques (e. g. , magnetic separation to remove magnetic oxides and possibly some sulphides) to produce a phyllosilicate/IOM concentrate. The ability of bacteria to assimilate a wide range of naturally occurring terrestrial organic compounds provides a reasonable basis to investigate if the same is true for extraterrestrial organics. If possible, then the ultimate aim of producing food from existing resources found throughout the solar system is achievable, using the approach of Byrne et al. (and Techtmann2022) and going beyond synthesis from carbon dioxide (Alvarado et al. , Reference Alvarado, Martinez, Matassa, Egbejimba and Denkenberger2021; Martínez et al.

Output: pass


Input: Claim: Functional MRI can measure brain activity by detecting changes in blood flow. [SEP] Text: 5 mm (R2-R7). Oxyhemoglobin (B), Hbr (C), and Hbt (D) responses averaged across all nine subjects show decreasing magnitude but similar temporal profiles across the annular regions. Scale bar, 1 mm. Taken together, these data show that functional changes in oxygenation and volume initially colocalize in the central capillary bed, avoiding vascular structures. Over time, the responses propagate into vascular compartments, with volume changes predominating in upstream arterioles and oxygenation changes in downstream veins. These responses attain peak values slightly later in their respective vascular compartments than in the central parenchyma. The spatial profiles of the late epoch, therefore, are heavily biased towards vasculature distant from the site of neuronal activity. Simultaneously measured CBF responses in six of the nine subjects are shown in Figure 2D. Flow responses increase in magnitude and TTP with decreasing stimulation frequency. Under our experimental conditions, flow increases rapidly after stimulation presentation, with an onset time (>2 s. d. above before stimulation fluctuations) of 0. 4 ± 0. 14 secs (mean ± s. d. ). Figure 4 shows a more detailed temporal comparison between the 2 Hz CBF and CBV responses. In both panels, CBF changes precede CBV changes at stimulation onset, and CBV returns to baseline more slowly than CBF. Figure 4 Cerebral blood flow versus volume temporal comparison. (A) 2 Hz CBV and CBF responses from the central parenchyma averaged across all subjects were normalized to facilitate comparison. Cerebral blood flow begins to rise more rapidly, and CBV returns to baseline more slowly. (B) A plot of CBV versus CBF again shows the ~1-sec delay in onset for CBV compared with the rapid onset of CBF. The stimulation period is denoted by the gray region in (A) and by red circles in (B). Errors are shown as thin lines in (A) and as bars in (B). Acquisition of simultaneous flow and volume data allowed us to calculate the power law coefficient for Grubb's relationship: CBV = CBFφ (Grubb et al, 1974). We determined φ over the entire time course of the response by taking the slope of the log-log plot of the data in Figure 4B.

Output: corroborate


Input: Claim: In most societies, gender roles have remained exactly the same throughout history. [SEP] Text: Therefore, it is plausible that socialization practices in male-dominated peer groups may lead some boys to develop negative attitudes about females and femininity. Although this particular claim has yet to be examined in elementary school children, Martin and Fabes (2001) did note that children in preschool became more gender-typed in their behavior with increased exposure to same-gender peers. The relationship between membership in male-dominated peer groups and the rejection of femininity has also been examined by researchers who study all-male athletic teams in high schools and colleges (e. g. , Anderson 2008; Schacht 1996). These studies tend to demonstrate that team members who display feminine-stereotyped behaviors (e. g. , crying) are frequently ostracized. Furthermore, words associated with femininity are often used between teammates as insults (e. g. , “You throw like a girl! ”). Feminine-stereotyped traits are also undervalued in the workforce. Both the percentage of women in a field (Cohen and Huffman 2003; England et al. 1994) and fields that necessitate the feminine-stereotyped quality of nurturance (England et al. 1994) are related to lower pay for workers. Echoing our own findings, the devaluing of women’s work is greatest in male-dominated labor markets in which men interact primarily with other men (Cohen and Huffman 2003). Limitations and Future DirectionsOne limitation of the current research is that testing the participants in mixed-gender groups may have influenced the findings by heightening the salience of gender for participants. Enhanced gender salience has been linked to the perception of greater between-gender differences and a greater likelihood of adherence to gender norms (Hannover 2000). Therefore, participants’ trait allocations and their ratings of trait importance could have been influenced by being in a mixed-gender group. It is important to note, however, that although increased gender salience could have enhanced the robustness of the findings, it is unlikely the overall pattern of results would have been altered by testing participants individually. This is because the content of the questionnaires themselves probably served to make gender salient for the participants. A second limitation is the lack of diversity in our sample. Our participants were relatively homogeneous in terms of ethnicity and socioeconomic status, which may reduce the extent to which our results generalize to other groups.

Output: contrast


Input: Claim: Asteroids can be redirected to mine resources without risk. [SEP] Text: 391 × 109 g to 6. 556 × 109 g. This would provide between 5. 762 × 108 and 1. 581 × 1010 calories that is enough to support between 600 and 17 000 astronaut life years. The asteroid mass needed to support one astronaut for one year is between 160 000 metric tons and 5000 metric tons. Based on these results, this approach of using carbon in asteroids to provide a distributed food source for humans exploring the solar system appears promising, but there are substantial areas of future work required. Financial support This work was supported by the and the Institute for Earth and at Western University. Competing interest None. Footnotes 1 451. CrossRef3057. CrossRef4403. CrossRef723. CrossRef525. CrossRef256. CrossRef265. CrossRef345. CrossRef1749. CrossRef313. CrossRef24. CrossRef4842. CrossRef16. CrossRef467. CrossRef1551. CrossRef263. CrossRef2086. CrossRef177. CrossRef0324. CrossRef2033. CrossRef1808. 05099. 3998. CrossRef10. 30. 22). 1865. CrossRef120. CrossRef883. CrossRef2210. CrossRef2868. CrossRef580. CrossRef37. CrossRef13. 68. CrossRef215. CrossRef290. CrossRef1475. CrossRef93. CrossRef9424. CrossRef483. CrossRef2141. CrossRef379. CrossRef1748. CrossRef4579. CrossRef6683. CrossRef2590. CrossRef642. CrossRef118. CrossRef3. University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign: Scientific and Program, 120. 1972. CrossRef1364. CrossRef271. CrossRef1923. CrossRef248. CrossRef735. CrossRef280. CrossRef258. CrossRef201. CrossRef86. CrossRef549. CrossRef92. CrossRef46. CrossRef58. CrossRef1. CrossRef903. CrossRef1735. CrossRef269. CrossRef984. CrossRef856. CrossRef259. CrossRef3. 0 chondrite MET 00426. Geochimica et 131, 344–367. CrossRef278. CrossRef1043. CrossRef70. CrossRef1832. CrossRef2136. CrossRef1726. CrossRef247.

Output: pass


Input: Claim: Functional MRI can measure brain activity by detecting changes in blood flow. [SEP] Text: For the data in Figure 4, we obtained a value of φ = 0. 26. Including the data from all five stimulation frequencies produced a value of φ = 0. 38. To compare the spatial extent of functional HbO2, Hbr, and Hbt responses over all subjects, we calculated a linear measure of the area covered by each response. Figure 5 shows the spatial extent of each hemodynamic response at three time points, t = 1. 5, 2. 0 secs, and t = peak. As expected, the spatial extent of all responses increases over time, but response size is not uniform across etiology. Functional activation evokes a peak response size of 1. 01 ± 0. 66 mm for HbO2, 0. 55 ± 0. 16 mm for Hbr, and 0. 68 ± 0. 41 mm for Hbt. At the peak time point, the difference between HbO2 and Hbr spatial extent is significantly different (P<0. 05, two-tailed t-test). Other comparisons within each time point fail to meet criteria for statistically significant difference. This trend suggests a larger vascular point spread for HbO2 relative to Hbr and Hbt across the temporal evolution of the responses. Figure 5 Hemodynamic spatial extent. The spatial extent of hemodynamic responses increased over time, but not uniformly across etiology. The HbO2 response was significantly larger than that of Hbr at the peak time point (*P<0. 05), with a similar trend at other times, implying a larger vascular point spread for HbO2 than other hemodynamic parameters. Error bars denote inter-subject standard deviation. We investigated how the spatial extent of hemodynamic responses scales with graded neuronal activation during varied frequency of stimulation. Decreasing stimulation frequency leads to increased spatial extent of peak responses, which reached a plateau at 2 to 5 Hz (Figure 6A). To determine whether these variations in spatial spread are related to underlying neuronal activity, we recorded field potentials concurrently. Summed field potential (ΣFP) magnitude increases with decreasing stimulation frequency, similar to hemodynamic responses. A correlation analysis of hemodynamic response spatial extent and ΣFP (Figures 6B-6D) suggests a linear relationship between the two for all three responses. These paired data are well fit by a linear model constrained to pass through the origin (HbO2: r2 = 0.

Output: corroborate


Input: Claim: In most societies, gender roles have remained exactly the same throughout history. [SEP] Text: IntroductionGender equality in political power and resources in industrialized democracies has grown tremendously in the past fifty years. More women are running for and being elected to national parliaments than ever before, and a record number of women hold executive positions within their nations’ government (Lovenduski 2005; Paxton et al. 2007), with a number of important consequences for political outcomes and priorities (Bolzendahl and Brooks 2007; Carroll 2001; Schwindt-Bayer 2006; Waring et al. 2000). Despite this success in influence and representation at the highest levels, research on a number of Western industrialized democracies also finds a persistent gender gap in citizens’ political participation, with women less politically engaged than men (Burns 2007; Burns et al. 1997; Dalton 2008; Gallego 2007; Norris 2002; Paxton et al. 2007; Schlozman et al. 1999). Though some researchers, particularly when looking the U. S. or Great Britain, note the difference is often small in comparison to other cleavages such as education or age (Burns 2007; Norris 2002; Parry et al. 1992), gender is also a cleavage that cuts across these other areas of stratification making it salient for all citizens (Martin 2004; Risman 1998). Because political participation is a central component of democracy as well as a means for achieving greater equality, gender inequalities in political participation may both reflect and further reify gender stratification throughout society (Lister 2007; Verba et al. 1997; Young 2004). We aim to re-evaluate findings regarding the gender gap participation with a new, more expansive approach. First, prior research has primarily focused on electoral, or what we refer to as “institutional” forms of participation such as voting, working on a campaign, and joining a party organization, because these are forms of participation inherent to the workings of the democratic government itself (Janoski 1998). Despite their systematic importance, prior work suggests these forms of political participation are declining or holding steady at lower levels. In comparison, among Western democracies participation is increasing in citizen-initiated and policy-oriented (here referred to as “activist”) forms of political activity, emphasizing the increasing salience of broader approaches to participation (Dalton 2006, 2008; Norris 2002; Wattenberg 2002).

Output: contrast


Input: Claim: Asteroids can be redirected to mine resources without risk. [SEP] Text: CrossRef0139. CrossRef41. CrossRef712. CrossRef29. Washington, DC: Academic Press, 227. 167. CrossRef6987. CrossRef1. Reflectance spectroscopy of pure bitumens. Icarus 134, 253–268. CrossRef272. CrossRef8671. CrossRef834. CrossRef406. CrossRef2008. CrossRef3. CrossRef134. CrossRef913. CrossRef1127. CrossRef2530. CrossRef148. CrossRef1131. CrossRef492. CrossRef2239. CrossRef651. CrossRef3704. CrossRef1954. CrossRef1448. 427. CrossRef41. CrossRef142. CrossRef253. CrossRef2382. CrossRef5595. CrossRef196. CrossRef361. CrossRef610. CrossRef4753. CrossRef311. CrossRef588. CrossRef524. CrossRef179. CrossRef47. 3522. CrossRef1370. CrossRef42. CrossRef215. CrossRef2863. CrossRef968. 833. CrossRef269. CrossRef407. CrossRef093. CrossRef792. CrossRef508. CrossRef3691. CrossRef101. 242. CrossRef236. CrossRef52. CrossRef3048. CrossRef1687. CrossRef303. CrossRef557. CrossRef1. van Krevelen type diagram showing the categorization of kerogen types based on their H/C and O/C atomic ratios (modified from Walters, 2007). View in content Table 1. The organic components in the least metamorphosed carbonaceous chondrites: CI (Ivuna-like), CM (Mighei-like), CR (Renazzo-like), and View in content Figure 2. van Krevelen coalification diagram comparing H/C and O/C ratios differences among coals and biomass (Jenkins et al. , 1998) compared to the elemental compositions of the IOM in the Murchison and meteorites (Pizzarello et al. , 2006). View in content Table 2. Calculations of the proportion of mass that is extractable for food production (x, equation (2)) and the minimum maximum expected biomass that is extractable from asteroid Bennu (b, equation (3)) View in content Table 3.

Output: pass


Input: Claim: Functional MRI can measure brain activity by detecting changes in blood flow. [SEP] Text: 93, P<0. 01; Hbr: r2 = 0. 96, P<0. 005; Hbt: r2 = 0. 96, P<0. 005). Figure 6 Spatial extent scaling with graded neuronal activity. Spatial extent was measured as the square root of the area covered by significantly activated pixels, and neuronal activity quantified with summed field potentials (SFP). (A) Both spatial extent of hemodynamic responses and SFP increased with decreasing stimulation frequency, reaching a plateau at 2 to 5 Hz. Changes in HbO2 were largest, followed by Hbt and Hbr. Note the different y-axis scaling between hemodynamic and neural measures. (B-D), Hemodynamic response spatial extent correlates strongly with SFP. Error bars denote standard deviation. Axis labels in (C) also apply to (B) and (D). ConclusionThe application of spectroscopic analysis to two-dimensional optical imaging data has been used before by us (Sheth et al, 2002) and others (Devor et al, 2003). This report, however, extends previous findings by combining several perfusion-based and electrophysiologic measurements to critically assess spatiotemporal characteristics of hemodynamic responses and their relationship to underlying neuronal activity. Our results suggest that functional hemodynamic changes colocalize during the first few seconds after the onset of neuronal activity. They subsequently evolve with distinct spatial and temporal characteristics, with CBV changes propagating retrograde into feeding arterioles, and oxygenation changes anterograde into draining veins. Changes in the spatial extent correlate with integrated field potentials, suggesting that the mechanisms responsible for hemodynamic spatial spread scale with synaptic activity. Two-Spectroscopic ImagingOptical intrinsic signal imaging offers the best combination of simultaneous high spatial and temporal resolution for observing functional hemodynamic changes (Pouratian et al, 2003). Single wavelength reflectance changes are mixed signals, however, incorporating a complex contribution of hemodynamic responses. Although isosbestic wavelengths (equal absorption of HbO2 and Hbr; 549, 569, 586 nm) emphasize CBV changes and 600 nm range signals emphasize oxygenation changes (Frostig et al, 1990; Malonek and Grinvald, 1996), these assignments are approximations.

Output: corroborate


Input: Claim: In most societies, gender roles have remained exactly the same throughout history. [SEP] Text: The importance of such distinctions is heightened by the fact that all types of participation are not equal in the resources they require of participants or the meaning assigned to each type of engagement (Dalton 2008; Pattie et al. 2003). In particular, women’s vibrant participation in informal political efforts and organizations (Bourque and Grossholtz 1998; Sarvasy and Siim 1994; Siim 2000) suggests non-formal engagement may be easier for women, as well as corresponding more strongly to their own definitions of (good) citizenship engagement (Harrison and Munn 2007), but a more nuanced approach to participation is missing from empirical research. Second, our focus allows us to build upon prior literature examining gendered pathways to participation. We do so by considering how and whether some characteristics matter more or differently for women or men when it comes to both institutionalized and activist types of participation, and across respondents from a broad range of industrialized democracies. While studies of political participation in the U. S. have made great strides in explaining how and why women and men participate differently, it is unclear the extent to which these can be generalized to other advanced Western democracies. In sum, the purpose of our paper is to answer two related questions: First, is there a consistent gender gap in participation across all types of behavior? Second, do characteristics determining participation matter differently among men and among women? In formalizing these into hypotheses (in the following section), we build from prior work in (Bernstein 2005; Fridkin and Kenney 2007; Schreiber 2002; Schwarz et al. 1987; Stake 2007), that considers political participation as gendered behavior that may result from socialization, attitudes, and opportunities. We extend these approaches to note that gender differences may also result in different types of political engagement among men and women (for differing reasons), rather than simply a matter of more or less engagement, and to consider a broad international sample of 18 Western industrialized democracies: the and the USA. As a partial control for cultural, historical and institutional influences, we limit our sample to affluent, culturally “Western” nations with a predominant history of Christianity, and relatively comparable historical experiences with democratic institutions and women’s rights.

Output: contrast


Input: Claim: Asteroids can be redirected to mine resources without risk. [SEP] Text: History Free-of-Abstracting and and to fo (Turkish) 66. 5±14. 4 years and 59% of the patients were male. CHAID analysis revealed that the most important factor for predicting modified (mRS) score >3 is pneumonia. In patients with mRS score >3 and without pneumonia; hypertension and hyperlipidemia were found to be risk factors for poor functional outcome. Conclusion: Preventative measures in stroke patients should not be limited to secondary prophylaxis of stroke. Avoiding infections in the acute phase plays an essential role in achieving favorable clinical outcomes. stroke (IS) is still one of the leading causes of mortality and morbidity worldwide (1). The aging world population and increased cardiovascular risk factors contribute to the stroke burden. Recent acute treatment options such as thrombolysis and thrombectomy have started to change the course of the disease (2). Nevertheless, the number of patients who are not suitable candidates for acute treatments and those who cannot receive acute treatment due to logistic issues cannot be underestimated even in the 21st century. The optimal secondary prophylaxis and diligent hospital care were shown to reduce mortality and morbidity, especially in stroke units (3). Not only appropriate antithrombotic treatment but optimal treatment approaches for vascular risk factors and preventative measures for infections and other systemic complications improve quality of life after stroke. It is important to determine risk factors associated with stroke patients with poor functional outcomes to identify manageable risk factors. To address this question, we aimed to analyze predictors of increased morbidity of IS patients in a single stroke unit. Material and included IS patients admitted to the between July 2014 and September 2020. Diagnosis of stroke was made with computer tomography or magnetic resonance imaging modalities in patients with acute onset neurological symptoms by a stroke neurologist. Patients with cerebral venous thrombosis, intracerebral hemorrhage (subdural, subarachnoid, or intra-parenchymal hemorrhage) and transient ischemic attacks were not included in the study. In addition, patients younger than 18 years old were excluded. The data of all included patients had been recorded in the Registry (4). Patients were grouped according to modified (mRS) score at discharge. Patients with mRS >3 were determined as poor functional outcome group.

Output: pass


Input: Claim: Functional MRI can measure brain activity by detecting changes in blood flow. [SEP] Text: In reality, changes in both blood volume and oxygenation affect light reflectance, as does attenuation due to scattering, making isolation of individual hemodynamic processes difficult with single wavelength imaging. Optical intrinsic signal spectroscopy effectively distinguishes between contributions of HbO2, Hbr, and Hbt by fitting reflectance spectra to an appropriate model, but provides at most one dimension of spatial information (Malonek et al, 1997). Thus, spectroscopy alone does not permit investigation of spatial changes and evolution within different vascular compartments. We combined the advantages of both techniques by analyzing multiwavelength images with a spectroscopic approach. Optical spectroscopic imaging provides changes in physiological parameters over two spatial dimensions. By calculating changes in HbO2, Hbr, and Hbt, we examined the spatiotemporal evolution of functional CBV and oxygenation changes with high resolution across various parenchymal and vascular compartments. The time course of changes in hemodynamic parameters we observed is similar to what others have measured using traditional spectroscopy (Jones et al, 2001; Lindauer et al, 2001; Malonek et al, 1997). of ResponsesFunctional hemodynamic responses originate from a common focus and subsequently propagate over time both anterograde and retrograde through vascular structures. For the first 2 to 3 secs, CBV and oxygenation changes colocalize within the center of activation. This finding provides direct evidence that early functional hemodynamic responses match neuronal activity with high spatial precision. This specificity is consistent with our previous observation of colocalization between hemodynamic signals and individual whisker barrels (Sheth et al, 2004a). Spatial specificity and colocalization diminish over time as the response evolves. After 5 to 6 secs, perfusion changes propagate from the microvasculature near the active region to larger surrounding vascular structures. We observed CBV increases in pial arterioles lagging slightly behind central changes, consistent with observations of delayed upstream vasodilation (Iadecola et al, 1997). An increase in diameter of upstream vessels would decrease resistance and provide increased downstream flow (Duling et al, 1987; Iadecola et al, 1997). Whether the flow increase is necessary to meet metabolic demand or simply a consequence of neurotransmitter release remains to be determined (Attwell and Iadecola, 2002; Bonvento et al, 2002).

Output: corroborate


Input: Claim: In most societies, gender roles have remained exactly the same throughout history. [SEP] Text: Using data from the 2004 (ISSP) module on citizenship, we measure voting and political party membership as “institutional” participation, and a variety of less institutionalized but nevertheless politically important behaviors, as “political activism,” such as taking part in a demonstration, signing a petition, boycotting products for political, ethical or environmental reasons or contacting a politician. Our analysis supports theoretically differentiating between types of activism, by focusing separately on actions that are more private or collective in nature, and political actions that involve direct political contact (Pattie et al. 2003). Using linear and logistic regression models we examine the gender gap these forms of participation, as well as differences in the influence of socio-economic and politically relevant attitudinal characteristics among women and among men, finding that both types of participation and influences on levels of participation differ by gender. A in ParticipationA participatory public is crucial for democratic responsiveness and is seen as an intrinsic democratic good (Verba 1996), and thus systematic and persistent patterns of unequal participation along existing lines of stratification, such as gender, are threats to both political equality and democratic performance. While women have made substantial gains in wielding political influence, (Githens et al. 1994; Paxton et al. 2007; Waring et al. 2000), women are still found to participate less in formal politics across a variety of Western nations (Norris 2002; Parry et al. 1992; Schlozman et al. 1995, 1999; Verba et al. 1997). Differences in men’s and women’s political engagement, at least in the are not as large as some other notable social group cleavages (e. g. , racial or economic), but they are persistent (Burns 2007; Verba et al. 1997), and there is some evidence that these gaps exist similarly in democracies world-wide (Inglehart and Norris 2003; Norris 2002). A number of factors have been suggested as explanations, namely that women are less likely to engage in politics because of their lower access to socio-economic resources. For example, men are far more likely to be employed full-time than women, and employment is positively related to political participation, information and efficacy among U. S. respondents (Schlozman et al. 1994, 1999). Thus controlling for employment status may mediate a substantial portion of a gender gap in participation. However, U. S.

Output: contrast