Input: Claim: Genetic mutations can be beneficial, neutral, or harmful depending on the context. [SEP] Text: We were able to reject our null models, which demonstrates that statistical power is not an issue, but whether the inclusion of additional mutations would significantly alter the overall results is uncertain. We selected the two largest-effect mutations of the original set of nine because these mutations were the most likely to show strong epistatic effects. These mutations were therefore also most likely to have the strongest influence on the fit of the model. Despite these mutations affecting different genes, their epistatic patterns were similar enough that mutation identity was not found to be a significant factor in our which suggests that the patterns for additional mutations would be similar. All major types of epistasis can emerge naturally from the additive phenotypic model because the relationship between phenotype and fitness is nonlinear (Figure 5). Antagonistic epistasis, under which the effects of mutations are less than additive, can arise when a mutational vector is moved from its original genotype to a new genotype in a region with a more concave phenotype-fitness relationship. Likewise, synergistic epistasis, in which the effects of mutations are more than additive, can arise when a mutation is moved to a region with a more convex phenotype-fitness relationship. Sign epistasis [18], e. g. , the case in which a beneficial mutation becomes deleterious in a new background, can arise when a mutation overshoots the optimum in one genotype but not another (Figure 5). Understanding epistasis is critical for understanding, for example, the rate of adaptation [13], the evolution of sexual reproduction [25], [26], and reproductive isolation between incipient species [27], [28]. Under this model, epistasis is not a mysterious intrinsic property of particular genotypes but a reflection of the curvature of the phenotype-fitness map [29]. Download: PPTPowerPoint slidePNGlarger imageTIFForiginal imageFigure 5. Nonlinearity in the phenotype-fitness relationship can produce commonly observed epistatic patterns. Three hypothetical genotypes (A, B, and C) with different phenotypes are all given the same mutation with the same phenotypic effect (). If the mutation were moved from background A to background B, we would see antagonistic epistasis. Moving it from B to A would give synergistic epistasis, and moving it from A to C would give sign epistasis. most obvious limitation of our analysis is the restriction to a single phenotypic dimension.

Output: corroborate


Input: Claim: The dark web is known to be a hub for illegal drug sales, human trafficking, and cybercrime. [SEP] Text: Такую цепочку преступных действий можно проследить на том же сбыте наркотиков. Для того, чтобы конкретному лицу сбывать эти средства, нужно, чтобы они оказались в его владении. Иными словами, каким-то способом сбытчик должен ввести их в незаконный оборот, а именно: путем изготовления, производства, переработки, контрабанды, хищения, а если эти наркотики растительного происхождения – незаконного культивирования наркотикосодержащих растений.

Output: contrast


Input: Claim: Certain neural circuits in the brain are dedicated to processing social cues. [SEP] Text: 01933. x | Text |. , and Ohmori, H. (2009). Roles of axonal sodium channels in precise auditory time coding at nucleus magnocellularis of the chick. J. Physiol. 587, 87–100. doi: 10. 1113/jphysiol. 2008. 162651 | Text |. , Yamada, R. , Fukui, I. , and Ohmori, H. (2005). Tonotopic specialization of auditory coincidence detection in nucleus laminaris of the chick. J. Neurosci. 25, 1924–1934. doi: 10. 1523/. 4428-04. 2005 | Text |. , Yamada, R. , and Ohmori, H. (2003). Evaluation of the limiting acuity of coincidence detection in nucleus laminaris of the chicken. J. Physiol. 552, 611–620. doi: 10. 1113/jphysiol. 2003. 041574 | Text |. , and Zook, J. M. (1992). Projections to the medial superior olive from the medial and lateral nuclei of the trapezoid body in rodents and bats. J. Comp. Neurol. 324, 522–538. doi: 10. 1002/cne. 903240406 | Text |. A. , Buebsamem, R. , and Rubel, E. W. (1994). GABAergic terminals in nucleus magnocellularis and laminaris originate from the superior olivary nucleus. J. Comp. Neurol. 348, 403–418. doi: 10. 1002/cne. 903480307 | Text |. (2009). Regulation of glutamatergic and GABAergic neurotransmission in the chick nucleus laminaris: role of N-type calcium channels. Neuroscience 164, 1009–1019. doi: 10. 1016/j. neuroscience. 2009. 09. 013 | Text |. A. , Koppl, C. , and Konishi, M. (1988). A neural map of interaural intensity differences in the brain stem of the barn owl. J. Neurosci. 8, 2665–2676. | Text Mogdans, J. , and Knudsen, E. I. (1994).

Output: pass


Input: Claim: Genetic mutations can be beneficial, neutral, or harmful depending on the context. [SEP] Text: Had we rejected the model, this restriction might have been significant, because assuming more phenotypes would have improved the fit of the model. Though the two mutations affect different genes, they can reasonably be assumed to affect the same single phenotype. Despite being in different genes, the mutations lie in the same region of the capsid structure; the -carbons for the positions of the B and F mutations are separated by only 19. 2 Å in the structure of the related phage X174 [30], [31]. Perhaps more troublesome is the assumption that the ancestral genotypes differ primarily in this one phenotype. Rokyta et al. [4] adapted eight different microvirid genotypes, including two of those from the present study, to the same culture conditions used for the study reported here. They found that adaptation took on average three substitutions and that parallel evolution was common even across different genotypes. These two observations suggest that the phages are not maladapted in many ways and that the same traits are responding to selection in the different genotypes. In effect, our approach can be viewed as being similar to a principal-components analysis in which we try to identify a single axis in phenotypic space that best explains our data. The model described above is effectively a one-dimensional version of Fisher’s geometric model [32]. Fisher’s model has defined how evolutionary biologists think about the genetics of adaptation since its introduction more than 80 years ago [32]. It led directly, for example, to the generally accepted expectation that adaptation should occur primarily through small-effect mutations, an expectation that has not always been met empirically [15], [19], [33] and that has since been shown to be an overly simplistic view of the implications of the model [34]–[36]. The assumption is that, to be fit, an organism must match its environment in some number of phenotypes. Each of these phenotypes is treated as an orthogonal axis in a continuous metric space. The evolving genotype then moves toward the optimum by means of selection acting on mutational vectors that can point in any direction in the space, affecting one or more phenotypes. This framework has been used to study, for example, the probability that a mutation is beneficial [32], the evolution of sex [37], development [38], dominance [39], the cost of complexity [40], and epistasis [29].

Output: corroborate


Input: Claim: The dark web is known to be a hub for illegal drug sales, human trafficking, and cybercrime. [SEP] Text: 37 По этому поводу справедливо замечание Р. С.

Output: pass


Input: Claim: Certain neural circuits in the brain are dedicated to processing social cues. [SEP] Text: Representation of interaural level difference in the VLVp, the first site of binaural comparison in the barn owl's auditory system. Hear. Res. 74, 148–164. doi: 10. 1016/0378-5955(94)90183-X | Text |. (1989). Binaural disparity cues available to the barn owl for sound localization. J. Comp. Physiol. A 164, 629–636. doi: 10. 1007/BF00614505 | Text |. , and Konishi, M. (1981). Neuronal and behavioral sensitivity to binaural time differences in the owl. J. Neurosci. 1, 40–48. | Text Monsivais, P. , Yang, L. , and Rubel, E. W. (2000). GABAergic inhibition in nucleus magnocellularis: implications for phase locking in the avian auditory brainstem. J. Neurosci. 20, 2954–2963. | Text Nishino, E. , Yamada, R. , Kuba, H. , Hioki, H. , Furuta, T. , Kaneko, T. , et al. (2008). Sound-intensity-dependent compensation for the small interaural time difference cue for sound source localization. J. Neurosci. 28, 7153–7164. doi: 10. 1523/. 4398-07. 2008 | Text |. (1999). The role of timing in the brainstem auditory nuclei of vertebrates. Ann. Rev. Physiol. 61, 497–519. doi: 10. 1146/annurev. physiol. 61. 1. 497. , Yamada, R. , Kuba, H. , and Ohmori, H. (2013). Activation of metabotropic glutamate receptors improves the accuracy of coincidence detection by presynaptic mechanisms in the nucleus laminaris of the chick. J. Physiol. 591, 365–378. doi: 10. 1113/jphysiol. 2012. 244350 | Text |. N. , and Burger, R. M. (2014). Short-term synaptic depression is topographically distributed in the cochlear nucleus of the chicken. J. Neurosci. 34, 1314–1324. doi: 10. 1523/. 3073-13.

Output: pass


Input: Claim: Genetic mutations can be beneficial, neutral, or harmful depending on the context. [SEP] Text: For epistasis, our results show that the complex patterns for epistatic interactions are likely to be unpredictable from a knowledge of genotype alone and will probably change dramatically across environments as the phenotype-fitness map shifts. Rather than focusing on the identification of the most abundant class of epistatic interaction (e. g. , antagonistic or synergistic), a more informative focus might be the common forms of phenotype-fitness maps. Materials and the Mutants and The ancestral bacteriophage genotypes used in this study were unadapted, natural isolates from wastewater facilities or barnyards [16]. Our NC2 ancestor had a silent nucleotide change of C to T at position 961 relative to the published sequence. The nucleotide change was in codon 301 for the A gene and 88 for the A* gene. NC13 had a nonsynonymous change at position 3122 of T to C, resulting in an amino-acid change of S to P in position 174 of gene F, the major coat protein gene. WA2 had two nucleotide changes: a silent G to T transversion at nucleotide position 433 (amino-acid position 125 in gene A) and a nonsynonymous C to A transversion at position 1465. This transversion resulted in an amino-acid change for genes A and A* (amino-acid positions 469 and 256, respectively) from N to K and was also silent in gene B at amino-acid position 64. The differences from the published sequences either represent sequencing errors in the originals or mutations acquired by chance in the choice of isolates for the present study. Because the differences are present in both the ancestors and the constructed mutants, they should have no effect on our results. The isolation and characterization of the two beneficial mutations from the microvirid bacteriophage ID11 have been previously described [3], [15]. mutation is a G to T transversion at nucleotide position 2534, resulting in an amino-acid change of V to L at position 20 of the J protein. mutation is a C to T transition at nucleotide position 3665, resulting in an amino-acid change from P to S at position 355 of the F protein. The sites of these mutations in the eight other genotypes were determined on the basis of homology; the actual nucleotide position varied with genome length.

Output: corroborate


Input: Claim: The dark web is known to be a hub for illegal drug sales, human trafficking, and cybercrime. [SEP] Text: В рекомендациях следует отражать весь путь по установлению преступной цепочки незаконных действий по незаконному обороту наркотических средств. Этот путь индивидуален как для лиц, занимающихся таким оборотом индивидуально, так и для членов преступного формирования. Причем, выявлять эту цепь возможно как с введения наркотических средств в оборот, например, с контрабанды, так и с конечного ее звена – сбыта.

Output: contrast


Input: Claim: Certain neural circuits in the brain are dedicated to processing social cues. [SEP] Text: 2014 | Text |. C. (1996). Queer current and pacemaker: the hyperpolarization-activated cation current in neurons. Annu. Rev. Physiol. 58, 299–327. doi: 10. 1146/annurev. ph. 58. 030196. 001503 | Text |. L. , and Konishi, M. (2001). Auditory spatial receptive fields created by multiplication. Science 292, 249–252. doi: 10. 1126/science. 1059201 | Text |. L. , Viete, S. , Albeck, Y. , and Konishi, M. (1996). Tolerance to sound intensity of binaural coincidence detection in the nucleus laminaris of the owl. J. Neurosci. 16, 7046–7054. | Text Rayleigh, L. (1907). On our perception of sound direction. Philos. Mag. 13, 214–232. doi: 10. 1080/14786440709463595. T. , Wang, Y. , Rubel, E. W. , and Barria, A. (2010). Development of glutamatergic synaptic transmission in binaural auditory neurons. J. Neurophysiol. 104, 1771–1789. doi: 10. 1152/jn. 00468. 2010 | Text |. , and Tibbs, G. R. (1999). The HCN gene family: molecular basis of the hyperpolarization-activated pacemaker channels. Ann. N. Y. Acad. Sci. 868, 741–764. doi: 10. 1111/j. 1749-6632. 1999. tb11353. x | Text |. , Fukui, I. , and Ohmori, H. (2010). Interaural phase difference modulates the neural activity in the nucleus angularis and improves the processing of level difference cue in the lateral lemniscal nucleus in the chicken. Neurosci. Res. 66, 198–212. doi: 10. 1016/j. neures. 2009. 11. 001 | Text |. S. , Higgs, M. H. , Fairhall, A. L. , and Spain, W. J. (2010). Tonotopic tuning in a sound localization circuit. J. Neurophysiol.

Output: pass


Input: Claim: Genetic mutations can be beneficial, neutral, or harmful depending on the context. [SEP] Text: This procedure is equivalent to assuming that the fitness of the mutants is independent of the ancestral background. For this model, we estimated a mean and a variance and estimated the ancestors’ fitnesses directly, leaving 16 degrees of freedom. We also conducted an test against a model where mutations confer fitness effects that are normally distributed with mean zero and some variance, which are added to the appropriate ancestral fitnesses. This procedure is equivalent to assuming that phenotypic effects have no underlying structure () and that mutations are equally likely to be beneficial or deleterious. For this model, we only estimated a variance, leaving 17 degrees of freedom. We then compared both models to the gamma model with Akaike information criterion (AIC) values. Finally, to determine whether the explanatory power of the gamma model was merely the result of fitting the clusters of fitness values (i. e. , the fitness of each background and its two correlated mutant fitnesses) or was the result of also explaining the patterns of epistasis within clusters, we randomly assigned the 18 observed fitness effects among the nine backgrounds (without replacement), thereby maintaining the fitness clusters but eliminating any epistatic patterns within them, and conducted a likelihood-ratio test. For each of 500 randomized data sets, we calculated the log-likelihood under the gamma model and under a null model corresponding to the randomization process (fitness effects were normally distributed with mean and variance see for details), took the difference, and determined how often this difference in log-likelhoods for the real data was as large or larger than the difference for the randomized data. Note that in all of the model comparisons described above, parameter estimation under the null models required simple estimation of means and variances of fitnesses or fitness effects, but estimation under the alternative model required complex optimization that was not guaranteed to find the global optimum. The comparisons were therefore biased against the alternative model, making them conservative. Supporting InformationS1. Details of the optimization procedure and a discussion of its limitations. 1. (1999) Di_erent trajectories of parallel evolution during viral adaptation. Science 285: 422–424. View 2. (2000) Experimental evolution recapitulates natural evolution. 355: 1677–1684. View 3. (2005) An empirical test of the mutational landscape model of adaptation using a single-stranded DNA virus. 37: 441–444. View 4.

Output: corroborate


Input: Claim: Using the dark web guarantees anonymity, making it impossible for users to be identified by authorities. [SEP] Text: Anonymity on the Internet » Feb 18, 2004 - 03:45 UTC » Categories: Privacy - Seth says he wants to banish anonymous communications. Seth GodinVirus writers are always anonymous. Vicious political lies (with faked photoshop photos of political leaders, or false innuendo about personal lives) are always anonymous as well. Spam is anonymous. eBay fraudsters are anonymous too. It seems as though virtually all of the problems of the Net stem from this one flaw, and its one I’ve riffed on before. If we can eliminate anonymity online, we create a far more civil place. I disagree. Although most vicious attacks I have received have been anonymous, I still believe there is a role for anonymity and that the value outweighs the cost. Association for the Advancement of Science has a project on anonymous communication on the Internet. They list a few of cases where we might need anonymous communication on the Internet. AAASCase 1 - 2 - Case 3 - The Case(s) of the 4 - Computer Hotline: Is it Worth the Costs? Case 5 - Terror in Elb! Case 6 - Case 7 - Against Whose? Remember that the Internet is one of the few tools for a variety of people who are at risk including whistle-blowers and human rights workers. It is very difficult or impossible to "fix" the Internet without breaking it for others. Cite ✖ Cite DOI APA Ito, J. (2004, February 18). Anonymity on the Internet. Joi Ito's Web [Blog post]. MLA Ito, Joichi. “Anonymity on the Internet. ” Joi Ito's Web, 18 February 2004 Accessed 24 Oct 2024 Chicago (CMS) Ito, Joichi. “Anonymity on the Internet. ” Joi Ito's Web (Blog), February 18, 2004, Harvard Ito, J. (2004). Anonymity on the Internet. Joi Ito's Web. J. Anonymity on the Internet. Joi Ito's Web [Internet].

Output: contrast


Input: Claim: Certain neural circuits in the brain are dedicated to processing social cues. [SEP] Text: 103, 2857–2875. doi: 10. 1152/jn. 00678. 2009 | Text |. , and Rubel, E. W. (1979). Organization and development of brain stem auditory nuclei of the chicken: dendritic gradients in nucleus laminaris. J. Comp. Neurol. 186, 213–240. doi: 10. 1002/cne. 901860207 | Text |. J. , Fischer, B. J. , and Pena, J. L. (2013). Binaural gain modulation of spectrotemporal tuning in the interaural level difference-coding pathway. J. Neurosci. 33, 11089–11099. doi: 10. 1523/. 4941-12. 2013 | Text | CrossText Christensen-Dalsgaard, J. , Tang, Y. , and Carr, C. E. (2011). Binaural processing by the gecko auditory periphery. J. Neurophysiol. 105, 1992–2004. doi: 10. 1152/jn. 00004. 2011 | Text |. Q. , Dinh, E. H. , Shi, W. , and Lu, Y. (2011). Ambient GABA-activated tonic inhibition sharpens auditory coincidence detection via a depolarizing shunting mechanism. J. Neurosci. 31, 6121–6131. doi: 10. 1523/. 4733-10. 2011 | Text |. Q. , Gao, H. , and Lu, Y. (2009). Control of a depolarizing GABAergic input in an auditory coincidence detection circuit. J. Neurophysiol. 102, 1672–1683. doi: 10. 1152/jn. 00419. 2009 | Text |. Q. , and Lu, Y. (2012). responses with distinct kinetics in a sound localization circuit. J. Physiol. 590, 3787–3805. doi: 10. 1113/jphysiol. 2012. 230136. , Moiseff, A. , and Konishi, M. (1984). Time and intensity cues are processed independently in the auditory system of the owl. J. Neurosci. 4, 1781–1786. | Text Tollin, D. J. , and Yin, T. C. T.

Output: pass


Input: Claim: Genetic mutations can be beneficial, neutral, or harmful depending on the context. [SEP] Text: R Foundation for Statistical Computing, Vienna (Austria). URL 21. (2000) Big-benefit mutations in a bacteriophage inhibited with heat. Evol 17: 942–950. View 22. (2010) Diminishing returns from beneficial mutations and pervasive epistasis shape the fitness landscape for rifampicin resistance in Pseudomonas aeruginosa. Genetics 186: 1345–1354. View 23. Sousa A, Magalhães S, (2012) Cost of antibiotic resistance and the geometry of adaptation. Evol 29: 1417–1428. View 24. (2005) Missense meanderings in sequence space: a biophysical view of protein evolution. Genetics 6: 678–687. View 25. (1997) Deleterious mutations, variable epistatic interactions, and the evolution of recombination. Biol 51: 134–147. View 26. Otto SP (2009) The evolutionary enigma of sex. 174: S1–S14. View 27. (1936) Studies on hybrid sterility. II. Localization of sterility factors in Drosophila pseudoobscura hybrids. Genetics 21: 113–135. View 28. Muller HJ (1939) Reversibility in evolution considered from the standpoint of genetics. Soc 14: 261–280. View 29. (2007) Distributions of epistasis in microbes fit predictions from a fitness landscape model. 39: 555–560. View 30. (1992) Atomic structure of single-stranded DNA bacteriophage øX174 and its functional implications. Nature 355: 137–143. View 31. (1994) Analysis of the single-stranded DNA bacteriophage øX174, refined at a resolution of 3. 0 Å. J Mol Biol. 237: 517–543. View 32. Fisher RA (1930) The genetical theory of natural selection. Oxford (UK): Press. 33. (1992) The genetics of adaptation: a reassessment. 140: 725–742. View 34. Orr HA (1998) The population genetics of adaptation: the distribution of factors fixed during adaptive evolution. Evolution 52: 935–949. View 35. (1998) Towards a theory of evolutionary adaptation. Genetica 102/103: 525–533. View 36.

Output: corroborate


Input: Claim: Using the dark web guarantees anonymity, making it impossible for users to be identified by authorities. [SEP] Text: Dav - Feb 18, 2004 - 04:45 The solution to a lot of these problems that I've been rolling around in my head, which is pretty similar to what outlined in his session at etcon, calls for an end to throw-away anonymity. It is a system where all communication (IM, email, weblog postings/comments, etc) is mediated through a web of social networks and trust metrics anchored to an online identity (think of the WASTE darknet expanded to include multiple social networks and facilities for email and web browsing added in). The identity doesn't have to consist of your real name, but it does have to be consistently used in order to be useful. A brand new identity with little ties into the social network won't be able to do much. Therefore the identity has a vested interest to not misbehave. In other words, it would take time to build up the social trust in an identity that would allow it to have the potential to abuse the trust. If the trust is abused, then the identity can be censured. Private communications will of course be encrypted, like in WASTE, but I also had a nutty brainstorming idea for discouraging activites that seriously violate cultural norms, such as child pornography or terrorist activites. Perhaps all private communications could have a small probability to be 'overheard' in a random neighboring social network. In the case that an overheard message prompts outrage, then a certain percentage of the overhearing social network (not the government though) can vote to ferret out the identities of the transgressors. What I'm trying to come up with is a way to map the social mechanisms that have evolved in the real world onto the online world. 04. you - Feb 18, 2004 - 04:52 maybe i'm missing the point, but anonymity on the net for me sometimes is taking a break from being tied to my background, name, expectations, etc. whether what i do on internet is trivial or not, i think variability of commitment is somewhat necessary. like this comment for example. 05. Jake of 8bitjoystick. com - Feb 18, 2004 - 05:59 have to wonder how is going to change anonymity on the net. Who can tell if it will actually protect privacy or if it will be a unique tracking platform to be abused by MS. 06. seth godin - Feb 18, 2004 - 07:04 Joi's always right, but not this time.

Output: contrast


Input: Claim: Certain neural circuits in the brain are dedicated to processing social cues. [SEP] Text: (2005). Interaural phase and level difference sensitivity in low frequency neurons in the lateral superior olive. J. Neurosci. 25, 10648–10657. doi: 10. 1523/. 1609-05. 2005 | Text |. , Pena, J. L. , and Konishi, M. (1997). Effects of iteraural intensity difference on the processing of interaural time difference in the owl's nucleus laminaris. J. Neurosci. 17, 1815–1824. | Text von Bartheld, C. S. , Code, R. A. , and Rubel, E. W. (1989). GABAergic neurons in brainstem auditory nuclei of the chick distribution, morphology, and connectivity. J. Comp. Neurol. 287, 470–483. doi: 10. 1002/cne. 902870406 | Text |. E. , and Konishi, M. (1984). Segregation of stimulus phase and intensity coding in the cochlear nucleus of the barn owl. J. Neurosci. 4, 1787–1799. | Text Yamada, R. , Kuba, H. , Ishii, T. M. , and Ohmori, H. (2005). Hyperpolarization-activated cyclic nucleotide-gated cation channels regulate auditory coincidence detection in nucleus laminaris of the chick. J. Neurosci. 25, 8867–8877. doi: 10. 1523/. 2541-05. 2005 | Text |. , Okuda, H. , Kuba, H. , Nishino, E. , Ishii, T. M. , and Ohmori, H. (2013). The cooperation of sustained and phasic inhibitions increases the contrast of ITD-tuning in low-frequency neurons of the chick nucleus laminaris. J. Neurosci. 33, 3927–3938. doi: 10. 1523/. 2377-12. 2013 | Text |. , Monsivais, P. , and Rubel, E. W. (1999). The superior olivary nucleus and its influence on nucleus laminaris: a source of inhibitory feedback for coincidence detection in the avian auditory brainstem. J. Neurosci. 19, 2313–2325. | Text Yin, T. C.

Output: pass


Input: Claim: Genetic mutations can be beneficial, neutral, or harmful depending on the context. [SEP] Text: Figures AbstractNongenetic phenotypic variation can either speed up or slow down adaptive evolution. We show that it can speed up evolution in environments where available carbon and energy sources change over time. To this end, we use an experimentally validated model of Escherichia coli growth on two alternative carbon sources, glucose and acetate. On the superior carbon source (glucose), all cells achieve high growth rates, while on the inferior carbon source (acetate) only a small fraction of the population manages to initiate growth. Consequently, populations experience a bottleneck when the environment changes from the superior to the inferior carbon source. Growth on the inferior carbon source depends on a circuit under the control of a transcription factor that is repressed in the presence of the superior carbon source. We show that noise in the expression of this transcription factor can increase the probability that cells start growing on the inferior carbon source. In doing so, it can decrease the severity of the bottleneck and increase mean population fitness whenever this fitness is low. A modest amount of noise can also enhance the fitness effects of a beneficial allele that increases the fraction of a population initiating growth on acetate. Additionally, noise can protect this allele from extinction, accelerate its spread, and increase its likelihood of going to fixation. Central to the adaptation-enhancing principle we identify is the ability of noise to mitigate population bottlenecks, particularly in environments that fluctuate periodically. Because such bottlenecks are frequent in fluctuating environments, and because periodically fluctuating environments themselves are common, this principle may apply to a broad range of environments and organisms. Author summary Genetically identical individuals that live in the same environment may differ in their behaviour and their traits. These differences arise from uncertainty inherent in all biological processes. Although this random individual variability occurs on short time scales, it can also affect evolutionary adaptation on longer time scales. For example, if a population encounters a harsh environment, random (nongenetic) differences between individuals can cause some individuals to cope better with the new environment than others. If the ability to produce nongenetic differences is genetically determined, organisms that have this ability may have a long-term evolutionary advantage in such environments. Furthermore, if such organisms carry a beneficial gene variant, the beneficial effect of this gene variant may become amplified, and consequently spread faster in a population with more random nongenetic variation.

Output: corroborate


Input: Claim: Using the dark web guarantees anonymity, making it impossible for users to be identified by authorities. [SEP] Text: To corrupt the entire net on behalf of whistleblowers is silly. That's what phones are for. 07. toph - Feb 18, 2004 - 07:23 Through Joi, I've read about anonymous 18th-century newspaper posts in pre-professional days when editors scrambled for copy among the letters received. Early pamphleteers were also anonymous. There is an element of free speech to this kind of communication that all manner of identity schemes defeats at the expense of important political ideas. 08. Lucas - Feb 18, 2004 - 07:28 You mention an obviously undesirable and unworkable solution ("banning" anonymity? ) and then in response weakly suggest an important but secondary list of reasons why anonymity can be useful. The problems of anonymity that you mention are more fruitfully viewed as matters of trust. If an author chooses to be anonymous (for whatever reason) he is relying heavily upon the powers of discernment of the reader. We live in a gullible, undiscerning society precisely because of the mechanisms of protection available. "Experts" with long lists of impressive credentials tell us what to think, and as often as not they are knowingly or unknowingly serving the interests of the institutions they represent, rather than the truth. If people are forced to correlate a proposition with their own first-hand experience and understanding they will begin to exercise their own powers of judgement. Then when someone says that is actually a talking hand puppet they will know for themselves whether or not it is true, rather than sue for slander. 09. - Feb 18, 2004 - 07:48 I'm not against banning anonymity on specific services on the Internet. If PayPal or eBay want to authenticate the identity of their users in some way, that's fine. What I'm against is trying to change the architecture of the Internet to somehow cause identity to be verified. Also remember that the US and the "ecommercified" Internet is now just a small part of the world wide Internet. I huge percentage of the world lives in countries where people do not have the freedom to speak and are regularly punished for speaking up. bloggers generally write pseudonymously. China, which will soon have as many users as the US still punishes certain types of public discourse. Think about how important the Internet is in providing a new channel of communications. Telephone is not a very good alternative. In the past, tracing telephone calls was difficult, now it is trivial.

Output: contrast


Input: Claim: The study of animal communication can reveal insights into their cognition. [SEP] Text: Ask a In/and proofreading services for a publication-ready manuscript service packs to match all publication needs Expert help for all academic translation needs Comprehensive statistical support to getting published a Submission & to & and networking a for researchers in for by &A Researchers & Webinar 29 June 2021 Edit: How to improve Biomed manuscripts workshop Webinars & & a break Motivation for today the Facebook group A private safe space for researchers around the world to be themselves, learn from and motivate each other, and have some fun! Join now See related 1. 1k How blockchain can resolve issues underlying research and scholarly communication Research is characterized by collaboration and communication. From conducting research to publishing it, researchers have to work collaboratively. However, communicating with co-authors who could run into the counts of hundreds or even thousands, and could be based in different parts of world, can be challenging. Other problems such as establishing priority on findings, irreproducibility, and registering research protocols also creep in. When it comes to publishing and disseminating research findings, a host of other problems arise, such as the challenges related to peer review and predatory publishers. Can blockchain possibly resolve these problems? Science report throws light on how the adoption of blockchain could help put a new spin research and scholarly communication and lead it in a positive direction. Below are some of the critical problems that blockchain could help with: Reproducibility: The crisis of reproducibility is often cited as one of the reasons for science being considered broken. The reasons behind research being irreproducible are many. As the report mentions, it is “a multifaceted, multi stakeholder problem, with no simple solution being available and no single party being solely responsible. ” Often, lapses in data reporting, incomplete or inaccurate description of methods, and complicated techniques underlie irreproducible results. Related VideoCommon misconception - Only those with problems in their research face mental health issuesDr. urges us to show ourselves some…1. 7k Blockchain can help streamline the research process leading up to the findings. Using the blockchain technology, researchers can register their research protocols and study designs. Since blocks once created cannot be altered, there would be little room for retrospective modification of these records or the hypothesis of studies. Data could be uploaded and easily maintained with time stamps. Researchers working on a project would be able to work on the data from any corner of the world.

Output: pass


Input: Claim: Genetic mutations can be beneficial, neutral, or harmful depending on the context. [SEP] Text: Using a realistic model of cell growth, we show that this mechanism not only works in unfavourable environments that are stable, but also in environments that switch back and forth between a favourable and an unfavourable state. Because many natural environments undergo such periodic changes, and because random differences between individuals are ubiquitous, the mechanism we have identified may be widespread in nature. Citation: Schmutzer M, (2020) Gene expression noise can promote the fixation of beneficial mutations in fluctuating environments. PLoS 16(10): e1007727. Mark Goulian, University of : February 9, 2020; Accepted: September 15, 2020; Published: October 26, 2020Copyright: © 2020 Schmutzer, Wagner. This is an open access 9874. We would also like to acknowledge support by the ( grant 31003A_172887 and by the in ( The funders had no role in study design, data collection and analysis, decision to publish, or preparation of the manuscript. Competing interests: The authors have declared that no competing interests exist. IntroductionBoth genetic and non-genetic factors influence the rate of evolutionary adaptation. Genetic factors are well-studied, and include the intensity of natural selection [1], population size [2], standing genetic variation [3], the supply of adaptive mutations [4] and clonal interference [5]. A prominent non-genetic factor that can affect adaptation rates is variation in phenotype, variation that arises between individuals even when they share the same genome and environment [6–9]. Nongenetic phenotypic variation has the potential to either slow down or accelerate the rate of adaptation. On the one hand, nongenetic variation can lower the fitness of a population [10]. It can also cause transient random fitness differences between individuals that obscure genetic fitness differences, which weakens the effect of natural selection and increases that of genetic drift [10, 11]. Consequently, populations with a higher level of nongenetic variation may adapt more slowly, and are more prone to accumulate deleterious mutation [12]. On the other hand, nongenetic variation can increase the rate of adaptation by smoothing the fitness landscape [13]. One consequence of this smoothing is that nongenetic variation can eliminate fitness valleys in rugged landscapes, thus allowing populations to climb to higher peaks [13, 14].

Output: corroborate


Input: Claim: Using the dark web guarantees anonymity, making it impossible for users to be identified by authorities. [SEP] Text: I'm sure you can imagine that every telephone call to an omnibusman or the is traced by any regime trying to stop people from calling out. People at B92, which was an essential voice of resistance in Yugoslavia, have made it clear that if it they handn't had the ability to use anonymous communications, they would have been squashed by Milosevic. We need to find end-to-end solutions to the trust and reputation problem which do not involve some sort of absolute tracking that links to some sort of national ID. Most of such general ID schemes don't work for preventing crime anyway since the criminals will break the law. I localized systems of creating trust and reputation are necessary and are useful, but lets not generalize it to Internet architecture. For instance, over 10% of national ID numbers in Canada are fake. I wonder why? 10. James - Feb 18, 2004 - 09:48 Seth Godin's comment is worthy of someone who writes saccharine, stupid books that re-hash discredited dot-com enthusiasms, solely to fuel an equally vapid and empty consulting business. ? How can he look at his bald-headed visage in the mirror with anything approaching self-respect, after peddling such a stupid idea in book form? Now, I genuinely believe that, but I would not have been willing to use my full name to say it. Why? Because someone who likes or respects Seth Godin, for personal reasons having nothing to do with his (nonexistent) merits as a thinker, might someday "get me back" for saying these things. That's why anonymity is necessary, and good. 11. Camilo - Feb 18, 2004 - 10:39 problem with eliminating anonymity in the internet is that it already happened. At no other point in history was it so easy for the powers that be to track the origin and author of messages, communiqués, manifestos and harangues. Anonymity is necessary for a society: The perfect attribution simple limits and reduces the possibility of communication, making everybody accountable for their ideas, yes, but at the same time allowing all those with the resources and interest to track and challenge those same ideas that might go against the perceived moral truth. Anonymity is both precious and endangered: A transparent internet would be as bland as any corporate site, full of platitudes and "approved content". We need anonymity! We need dissension! 12.

Output: contrast


Input: Claim: The study of animal communication can reveal insights into their cognition. [SEP] Text: Analysis of data could be recorded, which means adding new non-alterable blocks, that others in the project can access with ease. Overall, this has the potential to reduce the problem of reproducibility while speeding up the research process and prevent tampering of data. Peer review: Peer review is regarded as the backbone of scholarly publishing. Research that has been reviewed and verified by peers in the same field is looked upon with trust. However, the peer review system is ridden with problems such as the editors’ inability of appointing suitable reviewers, reviewers’ biases, and the ease with which the process can be manipulated. The peer review process, therefore, lacks transparency and is expensive. Moreover, it makes the publication process sluggish. Finding a solution to overcome these issues has led the scholarly community to find new ways of conducting peer review, for instance open peer review and post-publication peer review. However, these solutions come with their own set of problems. The adoption of blockchain would allow peer reviewers to conduct peer review both pre-publication and post-publication securely and anonymously. The technology requires validation of data for it to be a part of the chain, so the review process will be difficult to rig, making the process more secure. Journals: Journals continue to be the most prominent medium of publishing research papers. Despite the age of digitization, it remains difficult to modify published literature. Journals are also static and inflexible in their current format as they cannot support the publication of datasets and protocols. Probably one of the most worrying issues is the increasing number of predatory journals. deckWhat types of 26. 7k Informing the readers of changes in published literature would be much easier and structured with the use of blockchain since it is easy to update information and all users are simultaneously able to access updated information. Uploading datasets and protocols would likewise be made a part of publications with ease. Monetary transactions between authors and journals would be transparent and remain in the records of blockchain permanently, which could make it difficult for predatory publishers to operate. Could blockchain be embraced by the scholarly community? “Blockchain in science bears the unique chance to realign science’s incentive structures with honesty, effectiveness, collaboration and true inventiveness,” says Dr. is a German radiologist and founder of Blockchain for Science, a project dedicated to gathering ideas on how blockhain could make science more open.

Output: pass


Input: Claim: Genetic mutations can be beneficial, neutral, or harmful depending on the context. [SEP] Text: Another consequence is that smoothing by nongenetic variation can make fitness gradients steeper in the vicinity of a fitness plateau [13, 15, 16]. In this case, a change in phenotype can lead to a larger increase in fitness in populations with more nongenetic variation, and the mutation underlying the novel phenotype can spread faster. Most theoretical studies, including this one, describe this second mechanism in populations that are far from their fitness optimum [13, 16, 17]. In one pertinent experiment, Bódi et al. [18] transformed yeast cells with variants of a synthetic gene circuit that induced greater or lesser variation in the expression of a gene that confers resistance to the antifungal drug fluconazole. When yeast populations harbouring these circuits were exposed to the drug, the populations with higher variation in the gene’s expression not only survived higher concentrations of the drug, they also evolved drug resistance more rapidly. The reason was that high variation populations derived a greater fitness increase from beneficial mutations than low variation populations. A recent theoretical study has shown that such a mechanism can also operate close to the fitness optimum [15], but that it is more difficult to observe because nongenetic variation is generally deleterious close to the optimum. Most work on the role of nongenetic variation in adaptation focuses on unchanging environments. With few exceptions, we know much less about this role in changing environments. The most prominent exception is the well-studied phenomenon of bet-hedging, which increases the long-term fitness of a population by minimising the population’s fitness variation in two or more environments [6, 9, 19, 20]. Through bet-hedging, organisms either display a single phenotype that performs well in multiple environments, or they display multiple phenotypes, each best suited for one environment, and switch between them [6]. Bet-hedging strategies are widespread in nature, especially among bacteria [9], but are not the focus of this study. Another exception is a theoretical study [21] predicting that in periodically fluctuating environments, genotypes underlying increased nongenetic variation can also be more sensitive to mutation, a property that may increase evolvability [22]. Another study [23] found that phenotypic plasticity, which can bring forth nongenetic variation, can protect a population against extinction when the environment suddenly changes or when it fluctuates randomly.

Output: corroborate


Input: Claim: Using the dark web guarantees anonymity, making it impossible for users to be identified by authorities. [SEP] Text: Karl-- Feb 18, 2004 - 10:47 Anyone is free to build servers where you need electronic signatures, real-time television surveillance, biometric ID checks (fingerprint and eyeball) and a personal recommendation letter from to sign in. And everybody else is free to ignore such servers, as I would certainly do. And if the control freaks try to use any legal instruments to enforce their vision of total surveillance against those not interested in their way of running things, they will face a strong backlash. Watching and identifying anyone on the Internet is not a trivial task. 13. Tracey - Feb 18, 2004 - 17:54 Sure there are a heap of snake oil salesmen and scam artists and spammers and unwelcome intrusions in one's life etc etc on the internet. How is this any different to what is outside your front door? So rather than blindly trusting, we all need to be as well informed as possible. - "Let the buyer beware". (can't think of a suitable latin phrase) Unfortunately, the same freedoms that allow you to live your life the way you choose, allows less reputable people to exploit it for their own distasteful purposes (Spam, porn, satire). I can tune out as I am not prepared to give up my own freedoms for the sake of ratbags. I just wish I had the countermeasures technology to deal with spammers who drive me mad. ggrrrr 14. florian - Feb 18, 2004 - 21:17 I have to agree partly with Camino, we are living in a time where anonymity is very rare. Consider this in the middle ages you would have lived in a village without any kind of anonymity everybody would have known you, but you just had to walk to another village just 20 kilometres away and abolutely nobody would have known you. Go to another country and the chance that anybody will ever disover you is 0. Now today you have no chance of hiding away forever anywhere on this planet, you need like bin Laden a complete society surrounding and hiding you, so the chances of the common guy to get any kind of real anonimity are very small.

Output: contrast


Input: Claim: The study of animal communication can reveal insights into their cognition. [SEP] Text: The blockchain technology is an alluring option to resolve many of the pressing problems that the scientific community is facing. It can bring high level of transparency and simplify knowledge dissemination. Science report, however, acknowledges the difficulties in switching from the current model to the blockchain model. The landscape of science and research that we see today has evolved over hundreds of years. Adopting blockchain would be a huge shift that would require its wide adoption by all stakeholders of science. Apart from this, building the infrastructure to support blockchain and finding funding sources are separate challenges, the report mentions. Related PodcastNavigating the seas of scholarly communications: A conversation with In this episode of the Podcast, we…769 “I could see current players adopting and creating bits of blockchain infrastructure where they can really make a difference,” and Technology, says. She feels the first step is to understand how blockchain operates and admits that the technology might become a game changer in academia. Adding to this thread of thought, Prof. Dr. (Head of the at the of Finance & Management) says, “In general, I think there is certainly a potential to employ the blockchain technology for scholarly communication and science. ” He foresees blockchain being used for crowdfunding and as a means for funding agencies to distribute funding and also keep a tab on how these funds are being spent. Overall, the application of this technology in scholarly publishing and communication looks promising but needs to be considered from various angles. The report rightly states that “the current state of the blockchain is seen as analogous to the early days of the internet. ” Thus, publishers, researchers, funders, and journals should explore the need, efficacy, and urgency to introduce blockchain to academia. Related reading:What are the most worrying problems facing modern research? Is academic publishing falling prey to unethical practices? "Digital transition in scholarly communication – We expected more change"The future of academic publishing and advice for young researchers To know more about blockchain, check these links: What is Blockchain Technology? A Step-by-For BeginnersWhat is Blockchain Technology? - CoinDeskKey characteristics of the blockchain - the first to clap for this 10. 34193/EI-A-5329 Published on: Feb 23, 2018 ’s interest in the communication of research led her to her current role of developing and designing content for researchers and authors.

Output: pass


Input: Claim: Genetic mutations can be beneficial, neutral, or harmful depending on the context. [SEP] Text: Our model predicts that greater gene expression noise can increase the fitness of a population in fluctuating environments, augment the fitness increase derived from beneficial mutations, and accelerate the rate of evolutionary adaptation to the new environment. stochastic model of carbon source switching shows a bimodal distribution of growth rates on acetate To model a population undergoing regular fluctuations in carbon substrate, with both a growing and a nongrowing subpopulation on one substrate, we drew on a circuit in E. coli that controls the response to a switch in carbon source from glucose to acetate (Fig 1A). This circuit was proposed by Kotte et al. [28], has since been experimentally validated [24, 29] and plays a central role in the control of carbon metabolism [30]. Download: PPTPowerPoint slidePNGlarger imageTIFForiginal imageFig 1. Stochastic model of an E. coli circuit that generates a growing and a nongrowing subpopulation on acetate as well as a single growing population on glucose. (A) Structure of the circuit. Dotted arrows show regulatory interactions and solid arrows show the flow of carbon through metabolism. Circles show the number of carbon atoms in each metabolite. The circuit has two states, a ‘glycolytic’ state with high fructose-1,6-bisphosphate (fbp) and low phosphoenolpyruvate (pep) concentrations (yellow) and a ‘gluconeogenetic’ state with low fbp and high pep concentrations (grey). Both glycolysis and gluconeogenesis eventually lead to the accumulation of biomass (striped). Carbon metabolism and growth is condensed into four reactions, each of which is catalysed by a single enzyme whose expression is noisy. Specifically, glucose and acetate incorporation and their conversion into fbp and pep are represented by enzymatic steps abbreviated as Gi and Ai respectively. Pep is converted to fbp through lower glycolysis (Lg). Growth proceeds through the conversion of fbp into biomass through anabolism (An). The transcription factor Cra, whose expression is also stochastic, is repressed by fbp and activates acetate incorporation (Ai) [24]. Pep allosterically activates An, increasing the consumption of fbp and consequently lowering its concentration.

Output: corroborate


Input: Claim: Using the dark web guarantees anonymity, making it impossible for users to be identified by authorities. [SEP] Text: Another example maybe easier to understand is this, I'm considering a political career, this was always one of the things I dreamt of, but there is one thing that could haunt me, I'm an active member of the blogosphere that means, in ten years when I start my career it's quite possible that my opponents might have a complete database of my political remarks of the last 10 years. The danger of the Internet is not anonymity it is storage capability, digital data doesn't work the same way human memory and opinion works, There will be places like the Well and other who require you to give up anonymity but the Internet as technical system needs ways to stay anonymous. 15. V. - Feb 19, 2004 - 00:32 Banning anonymity or strong crypto because the bad and the annoying use it strikes me as overkill. Spam, while a human problem, has a technical solution. As a business eBay is responsible to stamp out fraud and misbehavior on its site. As an individual, I'll use a nym on the net whenever and where ever I please. Being anonymous does not equate to being rude. I sometimes feel the need to say something an employer may not like. may be a wage slave, I sure as hell am not a stupid wage slave. annoy someone while using a nym, what is to ensure that I will be any less annoying should I use my name? Anonymity doesn't create assholes. It cloaks them. Pull the cloak off and they are still assholes. And nothing has been solved save for the errosion of rights. 16. Camilo - Feb 19, 2004 - 01:44 I agree with V, and just to illustrate V's point, that previous spam-comment, which will be dealt with technology. 17. george dafermos - Feb 19, 2004 - 04:34 no offence meant to seth godin, but it seems he's not done offering excuses to marketing for more spam, he's now taken to turning cyberspace to a government+business haven. anonymity online may seem like an uneccessary burden, an obstacle that ought to be overcome, for secure e-commerce transactions to take off.

Output: contrast


Input: Claim: The study of animal communication can reveal insights into their cognition. [SEP] Text: See more from Sneha’s interest in the communication of research led her to her current role of developing and designing content for researchers and authors. See more from Comments You're looking to give wings to your academic career and publication journey. We like that! Why don't we give you complete access! Create a free account and get unlimited access to all resources & a vibrant researcher community. One click sign-in with your social accounts Continue with in with in with in with with ORCID iD Sign up via email 1536 visitors saw this today and 1210 signed up. Show comments More from How outcome switching is rendering clinical trials meaningless Data in Science - Data for Storage & does big data mean for science? Read 1 Can blockchain change the face of scholarly communication? 8 min read 2 The future of peer review: Exploring blockchain’s potential in academic workflows 7 min read 3 Academic publishing and scholarly communications: Good reads, November 2017 9 min read 4 AI and the future of peer review: An interview with 6 min read 5 Can ChatGPT support scholarly communications? Interview with 6 min read offers a wealth of free academic research and publishing resources and is a one-stop guide for authors and others involved in scholarly publishing. Our original resources for authors and journals will help you become an expert in academic publishing. Register for comprehensive research tips and expert advice on English writing, journal publishing, good publication practices, trends in publishing, and a lot more. a as a in your favorite RSS Reader. Follow us on social platforms Japanese – エディテージ・インサイト – 意得辑专家视点 Korean - 에디티지 인사이트 for and -and disclosure: is a product of Editage, a brand that offers expert services and AI tools for all academia on one platform. - Editage. com | 英文校正 – Editage. jp | 원어민영문교정 – Editage. co. kr | SCI英文论文发表 – Editage. cn | publicação de artigos – Editage. com. br | 編輯英文 – Editage. com.

Output: pass


Input: Claim: Genetic mutations can be beneficial, neutral, or harmful depending on the context. [SEP] Text: As a measure of fitness, we quantified the number of descendants after a total of four days of growth and a single shift from glucose to acetate half-way during this time (see Materials and methods). expression noise improves fitness (Fig 3A). Compared to the reference population, the least noisy population is on average slightly less fit than the reference population (relative fitness of -0. 018 ± 0. 085, zero indicates no fitness difference), while the noisiest population is substantially fitter (0. 177 ± 0. 056). These fitness differences between populations with different levels of noise are significant (one-way = 59. 8, degrees of freedom 3 and 196, p < 0. 001). Only the fitness values between populations with the lowest levels of Cra expresssion noise 0. 01 and 0. 1 are not significantly different from each other (Tukey’s HSD, p = 0. 312). Download: PPTPowerPoint slidePNGlarger imageTIFForiginal imageFig 3. Cra expression noise increases fitness in a fluctuating environment when a population has low mean fitness. (A) Mean population fitness increases with Cra expression noise. We estimated fitness values by competing a population against a reference population with an intermediate level of Cra expression noise (η2 = 0. 2) and the same Cra-fbp dissociation constant as the reference (0. 1 mmol g−1), with 50 replicate simulations for each competition. In each replicate, both populations started with initially 1000 cells and grew together for four days in an environment with a constant flow of medium where the carbon source changed from glucose to acetate after two days. We estimated fitness from the change in the relative frequency of the non-reference population. Yellow diamonds and lines show the sample mean and one standard deviation. Circles represent the fitness values observed in each replicate, and grey violin plots are Gaussian kernel density estimates of the distribution of fitness values. (B) The fitness benefit derived from looser Cra-fbp binding is greater in populations with noisier Cra expression when the mean population fitness is low. We note that lower Cra-fbp dissociation constants correspond to greater binding strength. In this panel, fitness was determined through competition with a reference population that had both intermediate Cra expression noise (η2 = 0. 2) and an intermediate Cra-fbp dissociation constant (0.

Output: corroborate


Input: Claim: Using the dark web guarantees anonymity, making it impossible for users to be identified by authorities. [SEP] Text: as everyone who's ever read larry lessig's code, which remains the best book, inho, on this matter, an architecture that enables anonymity may have certain downsides (especially from the point of view of governments wishing to keep an eye on citizems, and wishing to continue getting their taxes from commodities sold and bought online, etc)but it also undermines malicious control. we accept that anonymity may hinder the growth in e-commerce, and it may prove a pain in the ass for governments wishing to track dissidents, and so forth, however, we, as activists, also value the contribution of anonymity in our communications. a good example that comes to mind is remailers. say i work for a powerful and unscrupulous corporation and i want to alert a senior state officer to some wrongdoing, but i fear that my employer might retaliate. what do i do? do i use my *legitimate, corporate* email account? no i use a remailer instead. the list of examples is dramatically long, from reporting abuses of human rights, to organising revolutions. to godin's credit, many of his ideas are brilliand, and this is why i have a problem with some of his ideas = exactly because his ideas are so influential. so, when godin says we need to put an end to anonymity online, people listen. and his arguments are so well articulated, that many people fall prey to his extraordinary litary wit and opinionated arguments. well, let it be heard, not everyone immersed in cyberspace is obsessed with buying stuff securily and upholding the illegitimate governemt claims to playing big brother. 18. Gerry - Feb 19, 2004 - 13:10 It seems a spiecious argument to say that "anonymity is already gone, so why not make continuous serveilence even easier". It's simply not true that anonymity is gone, the volume of data alone makes tracking very difficult, and it's not like the FBI can just grab Joi's (or anyone's) server logs, and sift through them and the public content to find the malcontents (and send them off for treatment? ). The questions around persistant digital identity are some of the most important current issues of the Internet. For anyone who hasn't already seen it, the Networks paper is an essential read for anyone thinking seriously about these issues.

Output: contrast


Input: Claim: The study of animal communication can reveal insights into their cognition. [SEP] Text: Peer review processEditorsReviewer #1Author ResponsePeer review processRevised: Preprint has been revised by the authors in response to the previous round of peer review; the eLife assessment and the public reviews have been updated where necessary by the editors and peer reviewers. Read more about eLife’s peer review process. of of AmericaReviewer #1 (Public review): This is a clever and well-done paper. The authors sought to craft a method, applicable to biobank-scale data but without necessarily using genotyping or sequencing, to detect the presence of de novo mutations and rare variants that stand out from the polygenic background of a given trait. Their method depends essentially on sibling pairs where one sibling is in an extreme tail of the phenotypic distribution and whether the other sibling's regression to the mean shows a systematic deviation from what is expected under a simple polygenic architecture. Their method is successful in that it builds on a compelling intuition, rests on a rigorous derivation, and seems to show reasonable statistical power in the UK Biobank. (More biobanks of this size will probably become available in the near future. ) It is somewhat unsuccessful in that rejection of the null hypothesis does not necessarily point to the favored hypothesis of de novo or rare variants. The authors discuss the alternative possibility of rare environmental events of large effect. Comments on current version: The authors have addressed the concerns of the reviewers. I have no further comments. response: The following is the authors’ response to the original reviews. eLife assessment The authors present valuable findings on how to determine the genetic architecture of extreme phenotype values by using data on sibling pairs. While the authors' derivations of the method are correct, the scenarios considered are incomplete, making it difficult to have confidence in the interpretation of the results as demonstrating the influence of de-novo or Mendelian (rare, penetrant-variant) architectures. The method nevertheless shows promise and will be of interest to researchers studying complex trait genetics. A. 1: We have now expanded our consideration of the scenarios and we have ensured that we do not over-interpret our results as being due to de novo or Mendelian architectures. Instead, we make clear that our statistical tests are powered to identify these architectures but that there are other potential causes of significant results (e. g.

Output: pass


Input: Claim: Genetic mutations can be beneficial, neutral, or harmful depending on the context. [SEP] Text: 125 mmol g−1), with 50 replicates for each competition. Circles denote mean fitness and are slightly offset on the horizontal axis for clarity. Error bars show one standard deviation. (C) Relaxing Cra-fbp binding increases the expression of the acetate incorporation enzyme Ai. We simulated cell growth on acetate in an environment with continuous medium through-flow for 21 days to equilibrate the population and then recorded the number of proteins per cell. Yellow diamonds and lines show the sample mean and one standard deviation. The violin plots are a Gaussian kernel density estimate of the distribution of proteins. The number of cells sampled for each combination of noise and Cra-fbp dissociation constant are 1637, 1619, 1835, 1719, 2005, 1991, 1981, and 2020. also quantified how Cra expression noise changes the fitness landscape. To create this fitness landscape, we repeated the in silico competitions with populations that not only varied in the level of noise in Cra expression, but also in the duration of the lag time, which we modified by changing the strength of binding between Cra and its inhibitor fbp. Looser binding increases Cra activity and consequently the probability that cells will grow on acetate, thus shortening lag times and increasing fitness. We modulated the Cra-fbp binding strength by changing the Cra-fbp dissociation constant (the higher the dissociation constant, the weaker binding is). We competed each of these populations against a single reference population that has intermediate values for both Cra expression noise and Cra-fbp binding strength (Fig 3B). While noisier populations have a clear fitness advantage when Cra-fbp binding was strong, this advantage disappears as Cra-fbp binding loosens. Cra expression noise does not become detrimental at high fitness, however. Instead, weak Cra-fbp binding causes Cra to have high activity in all cells exposed to acetate, which leads to a reliably high expression of the acetate uptake enzyme throughout the population (Fig 3C). Gene expression noise accelerates the spread of a beneficial allele by modulating the ratio of bottleneck sizes In the previous two sections we have shown that Cra expression noise decreases the lag time, mitigates the severity of the population bottleneck in acetate (Fig 2A and 2B), and therefore increases fitness. In this section we will investigate whether Cra expression noise can accelerate the spread of a beneficial allele that also decreases lag times.

Output: corroborate


Input: Claim: Using the dark web guarantees anonymity, making it impossible for users to be identified by authorities. [SEP] Text: The main theme of the paper is contrasting the our needs for digital identity as Citizens as apposed to the models being developed to help commercial entities track us as consumers. The authors of this paper are having a difficult time getting financial support to do the necessary work to fully develop this concept and influence the design of commercial identity protocols to insure that they do not endanger our rights as citizens either. One other point, I don't have a link for this, but I read recently about the effects of different reputation systems on "transaction quality" over time. With a closed system as was common in the recent past, everyone knows everyone and nobody can get away with low quality. On the other hand, with open systems, the point was made that there is a distinct difference between positive vs. negative reputation. With negative reputation, they said that overall transaction quality drifted downward, but with positive systems the results were more like the closed system (higher quality in the long run). This is sort of like commercial branding where a large investment is made in building up a positive identity, so you would not damage of abandon it lightly, but you can still maintain several for different domains and purposes. I don't have an analysis of this, but I suspect that most of the problem sited with strict anonymity could be addressed with a technically sound identity system with the properties suggested here and in the ASN paper linked above. 19. - Feb 20, 2004 - 18:48 I agree with Joi and many of the other posts that there are advantages and disadvantages of anonymity on the Internet and we should not 'fix' some problems at the expense of the benefits. More serious than anonymous (an unknown identity) is the false identity where the anonymous becomes believable because they are trusted or known: -- The virus infected attachment gets opened because you think a friend sent it. -- A known politician has his words rearranged and credited to him or her. -- You are redirected to a fake PayPal site. -- Money is stolen from your account by someone using your card number. If you know that a source is anonymous you just have to use common sense and ask the question do I believe this or not. If the source is using a stolen identity you need to be smarter than the fraudster if you are not to get your fingers burnt. How can we 'fix' the Internet for those of us who are not so smart?

Output: contrast


Input: Claim: The study of animal communication can reveal insights into their cognition. [SEP] Text: measurement error or uncontrolled environmental factors from heavy-tailed distributions), making follow-up validation studies necessary before underlying architectures can be confirmed. We consider this to be typical of observational research, in which significant results may indicate causal effects unless uncontrolled confounding factors explain the observed associations, requiring experimental/trial follow-up for validation. We believe that our tests are useful for providing initial inference, and that in some settings – e. g. prioritising samples for sequencing to identify rare variants – could be useful as an initial screening step to increase the efficacy of a planned analysis or study. Additionally, we have now developed “SibArc”, an openly available software tool that takes input sibling trait data and estimates conditional sibling heritability across the trait distribution. Then - based on our theoretical framework developed and described in the paper - for each tail of the trait distribution, estimates effect sizes and generates P-values corresponding to our de novo and Mendelian tests, and performs a Kolmogorov-Smirnov test to identify general departures from our null model. Furthermore, SibArc also provides additional functionality for users under preliminary beta form, for example, running an iterative optimisation routine to infer approximate relative degrees of polygenic, de novo, and Mendelian architectures prevailing in each trait tail. We have made this software tool, tutorial, and sample data available online at Github and are hosting these on a dedicated website: www. sibarc. net. Reviewer #1 (Public Review): This is a clever and well-done paper that should be published. The authors sought to craft a method, applicable to biobank-scale data but without necessarily using genotyping or sequencing, to detect the presence of de novo mutations and rare variants that stand out from the polygenic background of a given trait. Their method depends essentially on sibling pairs where one sibling is in an extreme tail of the phenotypic distribution and whether the other sibling's regression to the mean shows a systematic deviation from what is expected under a simple polygenic architecture. Their method is successful in that it builds on a compelling intuition, rests on a rigorous derivation, and seems to show reasonable statistical power in the UK Biobank. (More biobanks of this size will probably become available in the near future. ) It is somewhat unsuccessful in that rejection of the null hypothesis does not necessarily point to the favored hypothesis of de novo or rare variants.

Output: pass


Input: Claim: Genetic mutations can be beneficial, neutral, or harmful depending on the context. [SEP] Text: This beneficial variant loosens Cra-fbp binding by increasing the Cra-fbp dissociation constant, thus increasing Cra activity. Previous theoretical work has established that selective bottlenecks, i. e. bottlenecks in which two competing genotypes differ in their ability to survive a bottleneck, can accelerate adaptation [42]. The greater the relative advantage of a genotype in bottleneck survival, the faster the genotypes reaches fixation, especially when the bottleneck is severe. We therefore investigated whether Cra expression noise influences how effective the beneficial allele is at mitigating the population bottleneck in acetate. We then examined the effect of these population dynamics on the fitness of the beneficial allele before considering the rate at which the beneficial allele spreads through a population. We simulated populations in which all cells have the same Cra expression noise, but initially 50% of the cells in a population of 2000 cells carry the beneficial allele, and the remainder carry a wild-type allele. We chose both alleles from the region of the fitness landscape with the lowest fitness (Fig 3B). In these simulations, the environment changed in carbon source between glucose and acetate every two days, and the simulations continued until one of the two alleles had gone to fixation (Fig 4A). We quantified the fitness of the beneficial allele relative to the wild-type allele from the change in allele frequency after four days and for 50 replicate simulations. We also recorded how much time it took for the beneficial allele to become fixed. Indeed, the shortened lag times (Fig 4B) of the beneficial allele give cells a competitive advantage (Fig 4C). Download: PPTPowerPoint slidePNGlarger imageTIFForiginal imageFig 4. The ratio of the smallest number of cells carrying different Cra alleles in acetate is a strong predictor of the fitness of cells carrying the beneficial allele. (A) Stackplot of the number of cells carrying either the wild-type or beneficial allele (dissociation constant 0. 05 and 0. 07 mmol g−1, in green and blue respectively) growing in an environment that switches between glucose and acetate every two days. We show an example simulation in which both subpopulations have a Cra expression noise of η2 = 10. All simulations start with 2000 cells, where 1000 cells carry either allele. The two connected red dots show the smallest number of cells carrying either allele during the first exposure to acetate.

Output: corroborate


Input: Claim: Using the dark web guarantees anonymity, making it impossible for users to be identified by authorities. [SEP] Text: How can we leave the Internet free so that we can see the world at large but have total security for any one-on-one transaction? I am now off to read Networks to see what solution it offers. 20. Rom - Jun 18, 2007 - 08:50 I think most visitors post anonymously not because they want to stay anonymous but because they don’t have time to register for every site just to (for example) leave comments and forget the username & password right after that. Those who want to stay anonymous may register with fake identity anyway. (tools for it) I mean it's often a matter of convenience to remain anonymous. 1 Trackbelow are links to blogs that reference this entry: Anonymity on the Internet. TrackBack URL for this entry: Anonymity from 18, 2004 10:37 AM Joi: The problem with eliminating anonymity in the internet is that it already happened. At no other point in history. . . Search this blog: Between the mud, no lotus (HDR) iin 2. 3. 2 web3 in Complex. Has to Is philanthropy a bad excuse for limiting strong government? Metrics and and the Age of the Anthropocosmos It's OK Will (Likely) Get the. amazon Algorithms to category —————————————————————————————— LIFE — Eating and Cooking. 41 — People. 22 —————————————————————————————— — Manufacturing. 2 — Business and the Economy. 24 — Economics. 43 —. 24 —. 18 — Marketing. 37 — Leadership and Entrepreneurship. 22 —————————————————————————————— — CIT — Mozilla. 13 — Neoteny. 20 — Technorati. 26 — ICANN. 50 —. 1 — MIT. 11 —. 153 —. 11 —————————————————————————————— — Art. 56 — Design. 4 — Creativity. 4 — Music. 106 —————————————————————————————— — Introspective. 80 — Mindfulness. 4 — Religion. 30 — Buddhism. 6 —————————————————————————————— — Japan. 1 ——. 2 —— Democracy. 29 ——. 125 —— ID. 29 ——. 98 ——. 50 —. 123 —. 21 —. 116 —. 42 — China. 3 — Gender. 11 —. 1 ——————————————————————————————. 1 — web3. 1 — Group. 1 —. 3 —. 23 — IM. 2 — Hardware. 16 — Gadgets.

Output: contrast


Input: Claim: The study of animal communication can reveal insights into their cognition. [SEP] Text: The authors discuss the alternative possibility of rare environmental events of large effect. Maybe attention should be drawn to this in the abstract or the introduction of the paper. Nevertheless, since either of these possibilities is interesting, the method remains valuable. A. 2: We agree with the reviewer that we should have made it clearer that - while our statistical tests are powered to identify de novo and Mendelian architectures – significant findings from our tests could also be explained by rare environmental events of large effect (specifically by uncontrolled environmental factors with heavy-tailed distributions). We have now made this clear throughout the manuscript (see A. 1). Moreover, we agree with the reviewer that whether the cause of deviations from expectations are due to de novo or rare variants, or environmental factors, either possibility is interesting. For example, in either scenario, our results can highlight inaccuracy in PRS prediction of extreme trait values for certain traits, and also provides a relative measure across different traits of large effects impacting on the trait tails, irrespective of whether genetic or environmental. We now place more emphasis on this point throughout the manuscript. Reviewer #2 (Public Review): Souaiaia et al. attempt to use sibling phenotype data to infer aspects of genetic architecture affecting the extremes of the trait distribution. They do this by considering deviations from the expected joint distribution of siblings' phenotypes under the standard additive genetic model, which forms their null model. They ascribe excess similarity compared to the null as due to rare variants shared between siblings (which they term 'Mendelian') and excess dissimilarity as due to de-novo variants. While this is a nice idea, there can be many explanations for rejection of their null model, which clouds interpretation of Souaiaia et al. 's empirical results. A. 3: We agree with the reviewer that we should have made clearer that there are other explanations for significant results from our tests and we have now fully addressed this point – (see A. 1, A. 2, A. 4, A. 5 for more detail). In addition, we now elaborate on exactly what our null hypothesis is: which is not only that the expected joint distribution of siblings’ phenotypes is governed by the standard additive genetic model, but that environmental effects are either controlled for or else their combined effect is approximately Gaussian.

Output: pass


Input: Claim: Genetic mutations can be beneficial, neutral, or harmful depending on the context. [SEP] Text: (B) Smallest number of cells for both competing alleles during the first exposure to acetate. (C) Fitness of the beneficial allele relative to the wild-type allele as estimated from the change in relative frequency in the four days since the beginning of the simulation. (D) The fitness benefit of the subpopulation carrying a beneficial Cra allele correlates strongly with the logarithm of the ratio between its smallest population size in acetate and that of the subpopulation carrying the wild-type allele (Pearson’s r = 0. 95, p < 0. 001, the line of best fit is shown in black with the 95% confidence interval in grey). Circles show the values observed in 50 replicates. The black square (arrow) shows the one replicate for a Cra expression noise of η2 = 0. 01 where the beneficial allele was lost from the population. For (B) and (C), yellow diamonds and lines show the sample mean and one standard deviation, and every circle is an observation from a replicate observation. All plots show the result of 50 replicates for each level of Cra expression noise. we studied how the fate of the beneficial allele depends on gene expression noise, we first found that it reduces the severity of population bottlenecks more in populations with higher Cra expression noise. We quantified the smallest population size during the first exposure to acetate for both subpopulations (Fig 4A, red circles). expression noise increases, both competing subpopulations experience less severe bottlenecks after the switch to acetate (Fig 4B). The smallest population size increases more for the subpopulations with the beneficial allele. For example, in the populations with the lowest Cra expression noise, the smallest population sizes differ on average by 12 cells (± 33 cells), while in the populations with the highest Cra expression noise, the average difference in population size is 177 cells (± 202 cells). Gene expression noise thus magnifies the advantage derived from the beneficial allele. Second, we did observe an increasing fitness advantage of the beneficial allele with greater Cra expression noise, but only up to a point. The average fitness benefit (Fig 4C) increases with noise from 1. 13 (± 1. 80) up to 3. 53 (± 1. 7) for a Cra expression noise of η2 = 1 (= 18. 9, degrees of freedom 3 and 196, p < 0. 001).

Output: corroborate


Input: Claim: Using the dark web guarantees anonymity, making it impossible for users to be identified by authorities. [SEP] Text: Journal of Computer and Communications > Vol. 7 No. 3, March 2019 in and Privacy: A and Review () Arbër S. Beshiri*, Arsim Susuri* Faculty of Computer Sciences, University of Prizren “Ukshin Hoti”, Prizren, Kosovo. DOI: 10. 4236/jcc. 2019. 73004 4,730 Downloads 15,563 Views 43. doi: 10. 4236/jcc. 2019. 73004. 1. people think that the Internet and web are synonyms. In fact, they are two different terms with common elements. includes multiple networks and their massive infrastructure. It enables the connection of a million computers by creating a network in which any computer can communicate with other computers as long as they are connected to the Internet [1]. The web (a medium) provides access to information. In terms of conceptualization, the web is a content made up of accessible web sites through search engines such as Google, Firefox, etc. This content is known as “Surface Web” (Figure 1) [2] [3] [4] [5]. Another part of the Internet is the (Figure 1), which is referred a class of its content where for different technical reasons, it is not indexed by search engines and we cannot access via traditional search engines. It includes information on the private networks and intranets (agencies, universities, companies, commercial databases, etc. ), sites with queries content or searching forms. is segmented further as the (Figure 1). Its content is intentionally hidden and cannot be accessed by standard web browsers [2] [4]. The sites’ publishers on the are anonymous and hidden. Users are accessed on the to share data with little risk and to be undetected (anonymous). The access of users anonymously is essential for the Dark Web, which recently it is supported by the encryption tunneling for monitoring protection. Web content is supported by the (TOR). It is anonymous network and access by the TOR browser. The TOR project was launched in 2002 by the US laboratory to enable online anonymous Figure 1. layers [2]. communication. Project (I2P) is another network on the Internet with the traffic in its borders and it is used for anonymous communication, users’ traffic encryption, etc. It provides more robust and reliability of the networked networks [1] [5].

Output: contrast


Input: Claim: The study of animal communication can reveal insights into their cognition. [SEP] Text: Furthermore, by selecting only those traits whose raw trait distribution most closely corresponds to a Gaussian distribution from the UK Biobank, we increase the probability that significant results from our tests are due to rare variants (shared or unshared among siblings). The authors present their method as detecting aspects of genetic architecture affecting the extremes of the trait distribution. However, I think it would be better to characterize the method as detecting whether siblings are more or less likely to be aggregated in the extremes of the phenotype distribution than would be predicted under a common variant, additive genetic model. A. 4: As discussed above we should have stated more clearly that significant results could be due to non-genetic factors, we have now addressed this. However, we do not think that it would be appropriate to characterise our tests as merely corresponding to over and under aggregation of siblings in the tails. Firstly, environmental factors should be controlled for as part of our testing, increasing the probability that significant results are due to genetic, and not environmental factors. Secondly, tests for identifying broad over and under aggregation of siblings in the tails should be designed differently and, accordingly, the tests that we have developed here would not be optimal to detect over/under aggregation of siblings in trait tails. Our test for inference of de novo variants, for example, exploits the fact that de novo alleles of large effect result in one sibling being extreme and all others being drawn from the background distribution, so that the mean of other siblings is relatively low – not merely that other siblings are less likely to be found in the tail. For more discussion on this issue in relation to one of reviewer 1’s points, see A. 9. Exactly how the rareness and penetrance of a genetic variant influence the conditional sibling phenotype distribution at the extremes is not made clear. The contrast between de-novo and 'Mendelian' architectures is somewhat odd since these are highly related phenomena: a 'Mendelian' architecture could be due to a de-novo variant of the previous generation. The fact that these two phenomena are surmised to give opposing signatures in the authors' statistical tests seems suboptimal to me: would it not be better to specify a parameter that characterizes the degree or sharing between siblings of rare factors of large effect? This could be related to the mixture components in the bimodal distribution displayed in Fig 1.

Output: pass


Input: Claim: Genetic mutations can be beneficial, neutral, or harmful depending on the context. [SEP] Text: For populations with the largest Cra expression noise (η2 = 10), we found a lower fitness gain (2. 65 ± 0. 99) from the beneficial allele than for populations with the second largest level of noise (Tukey’s HSD test, p = 0. 035 for the pairwise comparison of populations with Cra expression noise 10 and 1). This reduction in the relative fitness benefit occurs because the highest level of Cra expression noise also substantially increases the smallest cell count of the subpopulation carrying the wild-type allele (Fig 4B). In contrast, the lower levels of Cra expression noise have only a small impact on the smallest cell count of subpopulations carrying the wild-type allele, but affect subpopulations carrying the beneficial allele much more (Fig 4B). Consequently, the factor determining the outcome of competition is not the difference but the ratio between the smallest populations sizes of the two subpopulations. This ratio correlates strongly with the fitness benefit derived from the beneficial allele (Pearson’s r = 0. 95 with p < 0. 001, Fig 4D). In sum, the relative fitness benefit of the beneficial allele increases with Cra expression noise, but only as long as the benefit of noise for the wild-type allele is slight in comparison. Third, we examined whether Cra expression noise, given that it can increase the fitness benefit of a beneficial allele, can also accelerate the spread of the beneficial allele through a population and shorten the time to fixation of the beneficial allele. For this analysis we quantified the change in the frequency of the beneficial allele during the simulation, and recorded the fixation time. The greatest change in allele frequency occurs during periods of acetate exposure (Fig 5A and 5B), and changes in allele frequency become less predictable with lower Cra noise. In one population with the least noise, the beneficial allele is even lost from the population (Fig 5B). The beneficial allele tends to go to fixation the fastest in populations with the second highest level of Cra expression noise, with the fixation time falling from an average of 12 days (± 5 days) at the lowest noise to 9 days (± 2 days) for the second highest level of noise η2 = 1 (pairwise Wilcoxon rank sum test with Holm’s correction, p = 0. 002 for the pairwise comparison of fixation times in populations with Cra expression noise η2 = 1 and 0.

Output: corroborate


Input: Claim: Using the dark web guarantees anonymity, making it impossible for users to be identified by authorities. [SEP] Text: In the Dark Web, the possibility of user detection is low and this has favored the development of legal and illegal activities among the traffic of this segment of the Internet [2]. Dark web can be achieved through anonymous and decentralized nodes of certain network groups (TOR or I2P). TOR has the software name that we install on the computer and the computer network that care and manage its connections. It enables users to access websites through virtual tunnels where people and organizations can distribute data through public networks without compromising their privacy. TOR enables users to route their traffic through “users’ computers” so in order that traffic is not traced back to the originating users and conceal their identity. To pass the data from one layer to another layer, TOR has created “relays” on computers that carry information through its tunnels all over the world. The encrypted information is placed between the relays. TOR traffic as a whole goes through three relays and then it is forwarded to the final destination [2]. “Exit relay” is called the final relay. The IP address of this relay resembles with the TOR traffic source. With the use of TOR, software is possible to hide the addresses of the users. Browsing websites through TOR enables the display of the link for the given web page (in the background of it exists the IP address of the exit relay of TOR). To have more security, anonymity and privacy during the communication, individuals should use e-mails, web chats or similar communications’ platforms hosted in TOR [2]. 2. There are an increasing number of research papers and projects related to the Dark Web. In terms of the related works, the importance and the essentiality of the project have been the focus of improving the surveillance regarding the state [6]. The exchange of the weapons and the occurrence of the child pornography are easily conducted with the help of the Dark Web. The distribution of the network analysis with the help of the TOR network, and the users can easily afford the anonymous anonymity of the process. Therefore, for the conduct of the in-depth analysis, the various works of literature provide for the enhancement of the research, and thereby the TOR routing with the other principles is providing with the help of the various US intelligence systems. It not only enables the process for the licit purpose, but the illicit purpose also.

Output: contrast


Input: Claim: The study of animal communication can reveal insights into their cognition. [SEP] Text: In fact, won't the extremes of all phenotypes be influenced by all three types of variants (common, rare, de-novo) to greater or lesser degree? By framing the problem as a hypothesis testing problem, I think the authors are obscuring the fact that the extremes of real phenotypes likely reflect a mixture of causes: common, de-novo, and rare variants (and shared and non-shared environmental factors). A. 5: We absolutely recognise that there will typically be a complex and continuous mix of genetic architectures underlying complex traits in their tails, dictated by the 2-dimensional relationship between allele frequency and effect size. We did consider developing a fully Bayesian statistical framework to model this, but soon realised that doing this properly would require a substantial amount of model development, accounting for multiple factors in ways that would require a great deal of further investigation; for example, performing a range of complex simulations to investigate the effects of different selective pressures over time, different patterns of assortative mating, and effect size generating distributions. We are in the process of applying for funding for a multi-year project that will perform exactly these investigations as a step towards developing more sophisticated models of inference. In the meantime, we do believe that the simpler hypothesis-testing framework that we have developed here does have important value. Assuming that environmental factors are accounted for, or that any that are not accounted for have combined Gaussian effects, then our tests will indeed infer enrichments of de novo and ‘Mendelian’ rare alleles of large effect in the tails of complex traits. Results from these tests can also be compared within and across traits to compare the relative degree of such enrichments among traits. For some traits we observe significant results from both tests, and for other traits we observe highly significant results from one of our tests but not the other. Thus, while our tests do not provide a complete picture about the genetic architecture in the tails of complex traits, they do offer some intriguing initial insights into tail architecture, important given the enrichment of disease in trait tails. To better enable interpretation of the results of this method, a more comprehensive set of simulations is needed. Factors that may influence the conditional distribution of siblings' phenotypes beyond those considered include: non-normal distribution, assortative mating, shared environment, interactions between genetic and shared environmental factors, and genetic interactions. A. 6: As described above (see A.

Output: pass


Input: Claim: Genetic mutations can be beneficial, neutral, or harmful depending on the context. [SEP] Text: 1, or else p < 0. 001 between η2 = 1 and all other populations). The beneficial allele spreads considerably slower in populations with the highest Cra expression noise (11 days ± 2 days), and the fixation times are not significantly different from those of populations with the lowest two Cra expression noises (p = 0. 357 for the pairwise comparison of η2 = 10 and 0. 1, and p = 0. 082 for η2 = 10 and 0. 01). The fixation time is well explained by the relative fitness of these populations as quantified during the first four days of growth. The greater the difference in fitness between the two alleles, the less time it takes for the fitter allele to go to fixation (Spearman’s ρ = −0. 77 with p < 0. 001, Fig 5D). Download: PPTPowerPoint slidePNGlarger imageTIFForiginal imageFig 5. A beneficial allele goes to fixation faster in populations with high Cra expression noise. (A-B) Frequency of a beneficial allele competing with another allele in an environment that switches between glucose (yellow) and acetate (grey) every two days. dissociation constants have values of 0. 07 and 0. 05 mmol g−1 for the beneficial and the wild-type Cra allele respectively. Both alleles occur in cells that have the same Cra expression noise, which is given by η2 = 10 in (A), and η2 = 0. 01 in (B). Each plot show trajectories for 50 replicate population simulations. (C) Time until fixation of the beneficial allele (N = 50 replicates except for η2 = 0. 01, N = 49). Yellow diamonds and lines show the sample mean and one standard deviation. (D) The time the beneficial allele requires to go to fixation decreases with increasing fitness relative to its competitor (Spearman’s ρ = −0. 77, p < 0. 001). Circles are coloured according to Cra expression noise. The square (arrow) marks the one replicate where the fitter allele was lost from the population. together, these observations show that moderate levels of Cra expression noise can increase the fitness advantage of a beneficial allele during a selective bottleneck. Consequently, the beneficial allele reaches fixation faster in populations with intermediate Cra expression noise.

Output: corroborate


Input: Claim: Using the dark web guarantees anonymity, making it impossible for users to be identified by authorities. [SEP] Text: The privacy of the system with depicting the appropriate analysis of the trackers of the network is being easily depicted for the purpose of analyzing the fact and also the research is being continued by the help of the ISI research frameworks [7]. The conduct of the literature review is based on the detailed research on the various parts of the which is being explained in an appropriate way. The research also helps in depicting the appropriate facts regarding the research which was conducted by the researcher. In another work of Barnett et al. , [8] the role of the spiders (defined as the software programs that are used to transverse the Web information) and the easy accessibility that can be achieved by the process of handling the registration and thereby the exact and the desired information about the various types can be easily collected, is studied. The social network analysis (SNA) is a topic of interest in [9] and is being conducted for the purpose of obtaining the graph-based methods, and thereby the analysis of the network group becomes easier with depicting the group or the population strength. The impact of the social interactions is widely depicted by the usage of the social networks, and thereby the real world networks can be easily identified. Different SNA techniques have developed for examining forum posting and website relationships. The main focus is on understanding the “dark networks” and their unique properties [10]. Detailed coding schemes have been developed to evaluate the extremist websites and terrorist contents. The sentiment and affect analysis allow determining violent and radical sites that impose significant threats [11]. Terrorism informatics is referred to as the application of advanced information fusion, analysis techniques and methodologies to acquire process, integrate, manage and analyze the diversity of the information related to terrorism for international/national security applications. The technique is derived from the disciplines such as informatics, mathematics, science, statistics, social sciences, public policy, and linguistics. The research shows terrorism involves a huge amount of information from different sources, languages, data types, information fusion and analysis, such as text mining, data mining, language translation, data integration, video and image processing helps to detect and prevent terrorism [12]. The identification of fraud and theft are relevant at both the national and international level, since criminals may escape by using false identities, and the smugglers can also enter the country by holding fake visas or passports [13].

Output: contrast