ww.auburn.edu/academic/liberal_arts/foreign/russian/icons/ Russian Icons from 12th to 18th century]
*[http://www.goarch.org/access/resources/clipart/ Greek Orthodox Archdiocese of America: Icons]
*[http://www.icon-art.info/gallery.php?lng=en Gallery of icons, murals and mosaics (mostly Russian) from 11th to 20th century]
*[http://www.instaplanet.com/icon.html Two 19th century Russian icons depicting Saint Nicholas]
{{Eastern Christianity}}
[[Category:Religious objects]]
[[Category:Art genres]]
[[Category:Eastern Orthodoxy]]
[[de:Ikone]]
[[es:Ícono]]
[[eo:Ikono (religio)]]
[[fr:Icône (religion)]]
[[he:איקונין]]
[[mk:Икони]]
[[nl:Icoon (schilderkunst)]]
[[ja:イコン]]
[[pl:Ikona]]
[[ru:Икона]]
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[[fi:Ikoni]]
[[sv:Ikon]]
[[uk:Ікона]]
Icon programming language
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Rich Farmbrough
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External links per MoS.
'''Icon''' is a very high-level [[programming language]] featuring ''goal directed execution'' and excellent facilities for managing [[string (computer science)|strings]] and textual patterns. It is related to [[SNOBOL]], a string processing language. '''Icon''' is not object-oriented, but an object-oriented extension called Idol was developed in [[1996]] which eventually became [[Unicon programming language|Unicon]].
==Basic syntax==
The icon language is derived from the [[Algol]]-class of [[structured programming]] languages, and thus has syntax similar to [[C programming language|C]] or [[Pascal programming language|Pascal]]. Icon is most similar to Pascal, using <code>:=</code> syntax for assignments, the <code>procedure</code> keyword and similar syntax. On the other hand, Icon uses C-style brackets for structuring execution groups, and programs start by running a procedure called "main".
In many ways Icon also shares features with most [[scripting programming language]]s; variables do not have to be declared, types are cast automatically, and numbers can be converted to strings and back automatically. Another feature common to many scripting languages, but not all, is the lack of a line-ending character; in Icon lines not ended by a semicolon
get ended by an implied semicolon if it makes sense.
Procedures are the basic building blocks of Icon programs, and although they use Pascal naming they work more like C functions and can return values; there is no <code>function</code> keyword in Icon.
<code>
procedure doSomething(aString)
write(aString)
end
</code>
==Goal-directed execution==
One of Icon's key concepts is to change control structures from ones based on boolean logic, to ones based on "success" or "failure". Under this model simple comparisons like <code>if a < b</code> do not mean "if the operations to the right evaluate to true" as the would under most languages, instead it means something more like "if the operations to the right ''succeed"''. In this case the < operator succeeds if the comparison is true, so the end result is identical between Icon and other languages. Things become slighly more interesting when you consider <code>if a < b < c</code>, a common type of comparison that cannot be directly stated in most languages.
The utility of this concept becomes much clearer when you consider real-world examples. Since Icon uses success or failure for all flow control, this simple code:
<code>
if a := read() then write(a)
</code>
Will copy one line of the standard input to standard output. What's interesting about this example is that the code will work even if the read() causes an error, for instance, if the file does not exist. In that case the statement <code>a := read()</code> will fail, and write will simply not be called.
Success and failure are passed "up" through functions, meaning that a failure inside a nested function will cause the functions calling it to fail as well. For instance, we can write a program to copy an entire input file to output in a single line:
<code>
while write(read())
</code>
When the read() command fails, at the end of file for instance, the failure will be passed up the chain and write() will fail as well. The while, being a control structure, stops on failure, meaning it stops when the file is empty. For comparison, consider a similar example written in [[Java programming language|Java]]-based [[pseudocode]]:
<code>
try {
while ((a = read()) != EOF) {
write(a);
}
} catch (Exception e) {
// do nothing, exit the loop
}
</code>
In this case there are two comparisons needed, one for end of file (EOF) and another for all other errors. Since Java does not allow errors to be compared as logic elements, as under Icon, the lengthy <code>try/catch</code> syntax must be used instead. Try blocks also impose a performance penalty for simply using them, even if no error occurs, a [[distributed cost]] that Icon avoids.
Icon refers to this concept as ''goal-directed execution'', referring to the way that execution continues until some goal is reached. In the example above the goal is to read the entire file; the read command continues to succeed while there is more information to be read, and fails when there isn't. The goal is thus coded directly in the language, instead of using statements checking return codes or similar constructs.
==Generators==
Expressions in Icon often return a single value, for instance, <code>x < 5</code> will evaluate and return success or failure. However several of the examples below rely on the fact that many expressions do not ''immediately'' return success or failure, returning values in the meantime. This drives the examples with <code>every</code> and <code>to</code>; <code>every</code> causes <code>to</code> to continue to return values until it fails.
This is a key concept in Icon, known as ''generators''. Generators drive much of the loop functionality in the language, but do so more directly; the programmer does not write a loop and then pull out and compare values, Icon will do all of this for you.
Icon includes several generator-builders. The ''alternator'' syntax allows a series of items to be generated in sequence until one fails: <code>1 | "hello" | x < 5</code> can generate "1", "hello", and "5" if x is less than than 5. Alternators can be read as "or" in many cases, for instance:
<code>if y < (x | 5) then write("y=", y)</code>
will write out the value of y if it is smaller than x ''or'' 5. Internally Icon checks every value from left to right until one succeeds or the list empties and it returns a failure. Remember that functions will not be called unless the calls within do not fail, so this example can be shortened to:
<code>write("y=", (x | 5) > y)</code>
Another simple generator is the <code>to</code>, which generates lists of integers; <code>every write(1 to 10)</code> will do exactly what it seems to. The ''bang syntax'' generates every item of a list; <code>every write(!aString)</code> will output each character of aString on a new line.
To demonstrate the power of this concept, consider string operations. Most languages include a function known as <code>find</code> or <code>indexOf</code> that returns the location of a string within another. Consider:
<code>
s = "All the world's a stage. And all the men and women merely players";
i = indexOf("the", s)
</code>
This code will return 4, the position of the first occurrence of the word "the". To get the next instance of "the" an alternate form must be used, <code>i = indexOf("the", s, 5)</code>, the 5 at the end saying it should look from position 5 on. In order to extract all the occurrences of "the", a loop must be used...
<code>
s = "All the world's a stage. And all the men and women merely players";
i = indexOf("the", s)
while i != -1 {
write(i);
i = indexOf("the", s, i+1);
}
</code>
Under Icon the <code>find</code> function is a generator, and will return the next instance of the string each time it is resumed before finally failing after it passes the end of the string. The same code under Icon can be written:
<code>
s := "All the world's a stage. And all the men and women merely players"
every write(find("the",s))
</code>
Find will return the index of the next instance of "the" each time it is resumed by <code>every</code>, eventually passing the end of the string and failing. As in the prior example, this will cause write to fail, and the (one-line) <code>every</code> loop to exit.
Of course there are times where you deliberately want to find a string after some point in input, for instance, you might be scanning a text file containing data in multiple columns. Goal-directed execution works here as well, and can be used this way:
<code>
write(5 < find("the", s))
</code>
The position will only be returned if "the" appears after position 5, the comparison will fail otherwise, passing that failure to write() as before. There is one small "trick" to this code that needs to be considered: comparisons return the right hand result, so it is important to put the find on the right hand side of the comparison. If it was placed on the left, 5 would be written.
Icon adds several control structures for looping through generators. The <code>every</code> operator is similar to <code>while</code>, looping through every item returned by a generator and exiting on failure:
<code>
every k := i to j do
doSomething(k)
</code>
Why use <code>every</code> instead of a while loop in this case?
Because <code>while</code> re-evaluates the first result,
but <code>every</code> produces all results.
The <code>every</code> syntax actually injects values into the function in a fashion similar to blocks under [[Smalltalk]]. For instance, the above loop can be re-written this way:
<code>every write(someFunction(i to j))</code>
Users can build new generators easily using the <code>suspend</code> keyword:
<code>
procedure findOnlyOdd(pattern, theString)
every i := find(pattern, theString) do
if i % 2 = 1 then suspend i
end
</code>
This example loops over ''theString'' using find to look for ''pattern''. When one is found, and the position is even, the location is returned from the function with <code>suspend</code>. Unlike <code>return</code>, <code>suspend</code> writes down where it is in the internal generators as well, allowing it to pick up where it left off on the next iteration.
==Strings==
In keeping with its script-like functionality, Icon adds a number of features to make working with strings easier. Most notable among these is the ''scanning'' system, which repeatedly calls functions on a string:
<code>s ? write(find("the"))</code>
is a short form of the examples shown earlier. In this case the ''subject'' of the <code>find</code> function is placed outside the parameters in front of the question-mark. Icon functions are deliberately (as opposed to automatically) written to identify the subject in parameter lists and allow them to be pulled out in this fashion.
==Other structures==
Icon strings are simply lists of characters, similar to their partners in C. Icon also allows the user to easily construct their own lists (or ''arrays''):
<code>aCat := ["muffins", "tabby", 2002, 8]</code>
The items within a list can be of any sort, including other structures. To quickly build larger lists, Icon includes the <code>list</code> generator; <code>i := list(10, "word")</code> generates a list containing 10 copies of "word".
Like arrays in other languages, Icon allows items to be looked up by position; <code>weight := aCat[4]</code>. Also remember the bang-syntax, <code>every write(!aCat)</code> will print out four lines, each with one element. Icon includes stack-like functions, <code>push</code> and <code>pop</code> to allow them to form the basis of stacks and queues.
Icon also includes functionality for sets and tables (known as ''hashes'', ''associative arrays'', ''dictionaries'', etc.), but the syntax for creating them is not as nice as a list:
<code>
symbols := table(0)
symbols["there"] := 1
symbols["here"] := 2
</code>
This code creates a table that will use zero as the default value of any unknown key. It then adds two items into it, with the keys "there" and "here", and values 1 and 2. Note that most modern scripting languages combine lists and tables into a single feature, allowing the user to look up items by position or name, if it has one. This change would seem to clean up the Icon syntax as well.
== References ==
The definitive work is ''The Icon Programming Language'' (third edition) by Griswold and Griswold, ISBN 1-57398-001-3.
It is out of print but can be [http://www.cs.arizona.edu/icon/books.htm downloaded] in PDF form.
== See also ==
*[[Unicon programming language]] (a descendant)
==External links==
{{Wikibooks|Programming:Icon}}
* [http://www.cs.arizona.edu/icon/index.htm Icon homepage]
[[Category:Programming languages]]
[[Category:SNOBOL programming language family]]
[[Category:Text-oriented programming languages]]
[[Category:Public domain software]]
[[ko:아이콘 프로그래밍 언어]]
[[ja:Icon言語]]
[[pl:Icon]]
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[[sv:Programspråket Icon]]
Iconology
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#redirect [[iconography]]
Indian massacres
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/* List of massacres */
In the long history of the [[British colonization of the Americas|English colonization of North America]], the term "'''Indian massacre'''" was often used to describe mass killings of [[European-American]]s ("whites") by [[Native Americans in the United States|Native Americans]] ("Indians"), and, less frequently, mass killings of American Indians by whites. In theory, ''massacre'' applied to the killing of [[civilian]] [[noncombatant]]s or to the summary execution of [[prisoners-of-war]]. In practice, the label was often haphazardly applied, rarely without [[bias]], and was sometimes used to describe an overwhelming (though [[laws of war|lawful]]) military defeat. Similarly, massacres were sometimes mislabeled "[[battle]]s" in an attempt to give legitimacy to what would today be considered a [[war crime]].
Determining how many people died in these massacres overall is difficult. In the book ''The Wild Frontier: Atrocities during the American-Indian War from Jamestown Colony to Wounded Knee'', amateur historian William M. Osborn sought to tally every recorded [[atrocity]] in the area that would eventually become the continental [[United States]], from first contact ([[1511]]) to the closing of the frontier ([[1890]]), and determined that 9,156 people died from atrocities perpetrated by Native Americans, and 7,193 people died from atrocities perpetrated by whites. Osborn defines an atrocity as the murder, torture, or mutilation of civilians, the wounded and prisoners. Different definitions would obviously produce different totals. For example, Osborn does not count Indian deaths on the [[Trail of Tears]] (because these were allegedly unintentional), but he does count several episodes of post-mortem mutilation, even of combatants killed in open battle. Osborn's exact total of 16,349 killed on both sides can therefore be disputed.
Neither side stands out as being more merciful or humane than the other. Both sides collected [[scalping|scalps]] and scrota as trophies. Both sides raped. Both sides would promise safe conduct to defeated enemies or non-combatants, and then massacre them as soon as they let their guard down. Both sides attacked easy targets (such as peaceful-- even friendly--villages and settlements) as retaliation for hostile acts by totally unrelated war bands and militia units.
==List of massacres==
Here is a list of the larger or more widely known events, named as massacres, in North America:
*[[March 22]], [[1622]] - [[Jamestown Massacre]] - Powhatans kill 347 English settlers throughout the Virginia colony.
*[[May 26]], [[1637]] - In the [[Pequot War]], English colonists, with [[Mohegan]] and [[Narragansett (tribe)|Narragansett]] allies, attack a large [[Pequot]] village on the Mystic River in what is now [[Connecticut]] and kill perhaps 500 villagers.
*[[February 8]], [[1690]] - French and [[Iroquois]] destroy [[Schenectady]], NY, killing 60, including 10 women and 12-17 children.
*[[February 29]], [[1704]] - [[Deerfield Massacre]] - Deerfield, [[Massachusetts]] - As an action during [[Queen Anne's War]], a force comprised of [[Abenaki]], [[Kanienkehaka]], [[Wyandot]], and [[Pocumtuck]] Indians, led by a small contingent of French-Canadian miltia, sacked the town of Deerfield, Massachutsetts, killing fifty-six civilians and taking dozens more as captives.
*August [[1757]] - 70-180 British and colonial prisoners killed by Indian allies of the French after the fall of [[Fort William Henry]].
*[[July 3]], [[1778]] - [[Wyoming Valley Massacre]] - Occurred during the [[American Revolutionary War]] - although the great majority of those killed were in legitimate battle, a number of those that had surrendered were killed by natives allied to the [[Loyalist (American Revolution)|Loyalist]] forces. For [[propoganda]] purposes, the entire battle was claimed as a massacre by [[Patriot (American Revolution)|rebels]].
*[[August 31]], [[1778]] - [http://www.americanrevolution.org/ind3.html Stockbridge Indian Massacre] - a battle of the [[American Revolutionary War]] that was claimed as a massacre by rebels for propoganda purposes.
*[[November 11]], [[1778]] - [[Cherry Valley Massacre]], New York - over 30 settlers killed.
*[[March 8th]], [[1782]] - [[Gnadenhutten massacre]] - in the final stages of the [[American Revolutionary War]], nearly 100 noncombatant Christian [[Lenape|Delaware (Lenape)]] Indians (mostly women and children) are killed one at a time (with a hammer blow to the head) by Pennsylvania militiamen.
*[[January 22nd]], [[1813]] - [[River Raisin Massacre]] - 30-60 Kentucky militia killed after surrendering.
* [[August 30]], [[1813]] - [[Fort Mims Massacre]] - A band of [[Red Sticks]], one of several warring factions of the [[Creek people|Creek]] Nation (see [[Creek Civil War]]), retaliates for his defeat at the [[Battle of Burnt Corn]] by sacking a militia post at [[Fort Mims]], [[Alabama]]. Over four hundred civilians were killed by the Indians, taking some 250 scalps. This action precipitated the [[Creek War]].
* [[Spring (season)|Spring]] [[1817]] - [[Battle of Claremore Mound]] - [[Cherokee]] Indians wiped out Chief Clermont's band of [[Osage]] Indians at [[Claremore Mound]], [[Indian Territory]].
*[[April 22]], [[1818]] - [[Chehaw]] Affair - United States troops attack a non-hostile village during [[Seminole Wars|First Seminole War]], killing an estimated ten to fifty men, women, and children.
*[[May 20]], [[1832]] - [[Indian Creek Massacre]] - American Indians, mainly [[Potawatomi]], killed fifteen men, women and children and kidnapped two girls.
*August 1-2 [[1832]] - [[Black Hawk War]] - about 300 men, women, and children are slaughtered at the [[Battle of Bad Axe]], in [[Wisconsin]] by white soldiers.
*[[Spring (season)|Spring]] [[1833]] - [[Cutthroat Gap Massacre]] - [[Osage]] Indians wiped out the [[Kiowa]] village of Chief Islandman in [[Indian Territory]].
*[[May 19th]], [[1836]] - [[Fort Parker Massacre]] - 6 men killed by a mixed group of Native Americans in [[Limestone County, Texas]]
*[[October 5]], [[1838]] - [[Killough Massacre]] - 18 members of the Killough extended family, one of the last massacres in Texas
*[[November 29th]] [[1847]] - [[Whitman massacre]] in [[Walla Walla, Washington]]
*[[August 17th]] [[1854]] - Kaibai Creek, California - 42 [[Winnemem Wintu]] men, women, and children are killed by white settlers
*[[August 17th]] [[1855]] - [[Grattan Massacre]], [[Brule]] [[Sioux]] in [[Nebraska Territory]].
*[[February 26]], [[1860]] - [[Humboldt County, California]] - upwards of 100 Wiyot men, women, and children are slaughtered by settlers.
*[[August]]-[[September]], [[1862]] - As many as 800 settlers killed in [[Sioux Uprising|uprising of Santee Sioux]].
*[[October 24]], [[1862]] - [[Tonkawa Massacre]] - A detachment of American Indian [[Guerrilla warfare#Guerrillas in the American Civil War|irregular]] [[Union (American Civil War)|Union forces]] (mainly [[Kickapoo]], [[Lenape|Delaware]] and [[Shawnee]]), with their [[Caddo]] allies, attempted to destroy the [[Tonkawa]] tribe in [[Indian Territory]]. Of the 390 Tonkawas, only 150 survived.
*[[January 29]], [[1863]] - [[Bear River Massacre]] - upwards of 200 men, women, and children are slaughtered by whites near [[Preston, Idaho]].
*[[April 19]], [[1863]] - Keyesville Massacre - in [[Kern County, California]] - 35 Tehachapi men are killed by whites [http://fp3.antelecom.net/vredenb/history/mclaughlin.htm]
*[[November 29]], [[1864]] - [[Sand Creek Massacre]] - Sand Creek, [[Colorado]] - upwards of 160 [[Cheyenne]] men, women, and children are slaughtered by militiamen
*[[December 21]], [[1866]] - The Fetterman Massacre- near [[Fort Phil Kearny]], [[Wyoming]] - Lt. Col. [[William J. Fetterman]] and a compliment of 79 US soldiers of [http://www.18inf.org/line.htm#top U.S. 18th Infantry Regiment] and 2 civilians-were sent to relieve a train under attack by [[Oglala]] Sioux led by [[Crazy Horse]] and they were wiped out by an ambush. (Evidence suggests that, like Custer's Last Stand [see below], this should be more fairly considered a battle than a massacre.) See [[Red Cloud's War]].
*[[July 2]], [[1867]]- Kidder Massacre-near [[Beaver Creek]] [[Sherman County]], [[Kansas]]. 2nd Lt Kidder; a Sgt; a Corporal; 8 privates of "M" Company 2nd US Cavalry {[[2nd Armored Cavalry Regiment]]} and a Indian Guide were killed by [[Cheyenne]] & [[Sioux]] Indians. Called a "massacre", it was a battle such as the ''Fetterman'' ambush was labeled a "Massacre". [http://www.goodlandnet.com/history/kidder.htm].
*[[January 23]], [[1870]] - [[Marias Massacre]] - 173 Piegans, mainly elderly, women, and children, slaughtered by whites
*[[June 25]], [[1876]] - [[Battle of the Little Big Horn]] - About two hundred fifty men of the [[US 7th Cavalry Regiment]], under Lt. Col. [[George A. Custer]], are wiped out in a battle against [[Sioux]] and [[Northern Cheyenne]] Indians. (Though widely considered a "massacre", Custer's men died fighting and in any case initiated the battle by attacking a nearby Sioux village.)
*[[January 8th]], [[1879]]-[[Fort Robinson]] Montana - [[Northern Cheyenne]] under [[Dull Knife]] escape from confinment-about 50 survive.
*[[December 29]], [[1890]] - [[Wounded Knee Massacre]] - [[Wounded Knee, South Dakota]] - up to 300 Sioux men, women, and children are killed by US soldiers.
==See also==
*[[Indian Wars]]
*[[Population history of American indigenous peoples]]
[[Category:Crimes]]
[[Category:Military history of the United States]]
[[Category:Murder]]
[[Category:Native American history]]
[[Category:Riots and civil unrest in the United States]]
[[Category:Violent incidents in the United States]]
[[Category:War crimes]]
Inherence relation
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No objections to merge request. Information from here was already at [[Substance theory]], so this redirects now.
#REDIRECT [[Substance theory]]
Interferometer
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#redirect:[[Interferometry]]
Isotope
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'''Isotopes''' are forms of an [[chemical element|element]] whose [[atomic nucleus|nuclei]] have the same [[atomic number]] - the number of [[proton]]s in the nucleus - but different [[mass number]]s because they contain different numbers of [[neutron]]s.
The word ''isotope'', meaning ''at the same place'', comes from the fact that all isotopes of an element are located at the same place on the [[periodic table]].
Collectively, the isotopes of the elements form the set of ''nuclides''. A nuclide is a particular type of atomic nucleus, or more generally an agglomeration of protons and neutrons. Strictly speaking, it is more correct to say that an element such as [[fluorine]] consists of one stable nuclide rather than that it has one stable isotope.
In scientific [[nomenclature]], isotopes (nuclides) are specified by the name of the particular element by a hyphen and the number of nucleons (protons and neutrons) in the atomic nucleus (e.g., [[helium-3]], [[carbon-12]], [[carbon-14]], [[iodine-131]], [[uranium-238]]). In symbolic form, the number of nucleons is denoted as a superscripted prefix to the [[chemical symbol]] (e.g., <sup>3</sup>He, <sup>12</sup>C, <sup>14</sup>C, <sup>131</sup>I, <sup>238</sup>U).
{{TOCright}}
== Variation in properties between isotopes ==
In a neutral atom, the number of [[electron]]s equals the number of protons. Thus, different isotopes of a given element also have the same number of electrons and the same electronic structure. Because the chemical behavior of an atom is largely determined by its electronic structure, isotopes exhibit nearly identical chemical behavior. The primary exception is that, due to their larger masses, heavier isotopes tend to react somewhat more slowly than lighter isotopes of the same element. (This phenomenon is termed the [[kinetic isotope effect]]).
This "mass effect" is most pronounced for [[protium]] (<sup>1</sup>H) vis-à-vis [[deuterium]] (<sup>2</sup>H), because deuterium has twice the mass of protium. For heavier elements the relative mass difference between isotopes is much less, and the mass effect is usually negligible.
Similarly, two [[molecules]] which differ only in the isotopic nature of their atoms (''[[isotopologue]]s'') will have nearly identical electronic structure, and therefore have similar physical and chemical properties. The [[molecular vibration|vibrational mode]]s of a molecule are determined by its shape and by the masses of its constituent atoms. Consequently, isotopologues will have different sets of vibrational modes. Since vibrational modes allow a molecule to absorb [[photon]]s of corresponding energies, isotopologues have different optical properties in the [[infrared]] range.
Although isotopes exhibit nearly identical electronic and chemical behavior, their nuclear behavior varies dramatically. Atomic nuclei consist of protons and neutrons bound together by the [[strong nuclear force]]. Because protons are positively charged, they repel each other. Neutrons, which are electrically neutral, allow some separation between the positively charged protons, reducing the electrostatic repulsion and stabilizing the nucleus. For this reason neutrons are necessary for two or more protons to be bound into a nucleus. As the number of protons increases, additional neutrons are needed to form a stable nucleus; for example, although the neutron/proton ratio of <sup>3</sup>He is 1/2, the neutron/proton ratio of <sup>238</sup>U is greater than 3/2. If too many neutrons or too few neutrons are present, the nucleus becomes unstable and subject to [[nuclear decay]].
== Occurrence in nature ==
Several isotopes of each element can be found in nature. The [[relative abundance]] of an isotope is strongly correlated with its tendency toward [[nuclear decay]]; short-lived nuclides quickly decay away, while their long-lived counterparts endure. However, this does not mean that short-lived species disappear entirely; many are continually produced through the decay of longer-lived nuclides. The tabulated [[atomic mass]]es of elements are averages that account for the presence of multiple isotopes with different masses.
According to generally accepted [[cosmology]], virtually all nuclides other than isotopes of [[hydrogen]] and [[helium]] were built in [[star]]s and [[supernova]]e. Their respective abundances here result from the quantities formed by these processes, their spread through the [[galaxy]], and their rates of decay. After the initial coalescence of the [[solar system]], isotopes were redistributed according to mass (see also [[Solar system#Origin and evolution of the Solar System|Origin of the solar system]]). The isotopic composition of elements is different on different planets, making it possible to determine the origin of [[meteorite]]s.
<!--Someone with some knowledge on the subject could also add more about creative processes in the universe'''-->
== Applications of isotopes ==
Several applications exist that capitalize on properties of the various isotopes of a given element.
=== Use of chemical properties ===
* One of the most common applications is [[isotopic labeling]], the use of unusual isotopes as tracers or markers in chemical reactions. Normally, atoms of a given element are indistinguishable from each other. However, by using isotopes of different masses, they can be distinguished by [[mass spectrometry]] or [[infrared spectroscopy]] (see "Properties"). If radioactive isotopes are used, they can be detected by the radiation they emit (this is [[radioisotopic labelling]]).
* A technique similar to radioisotopic labelling is [[radiometric dating]] (most famously [[radiocarbon dating]]). It can be used to study chemical processes that the experimenter does not witness, by using naturally-occurring isotopic tracers.
* Isotopic substitution can be used to determine the mechanism of a reaction via the [[kinetic isotope effect]].
=== Use of nuclear properties ===
* Several forms of spectroscopy rely on the unique nuclear properties of specific isotopes. For example, [[nuclear magnetic resonance]] (NMR) spectroscopy can be used only for isotopes with a nonzero nuclear spin. The most common isotopes used with NMR spectroscopy are <sup>1</sup>H, <sup>2</sup>D,<sup>15</sup>N, <sup>13</sup>C, and <sup>31</sup>P.
* [[Mossbauer spectroscopy|Mössbauer spectroscopy]] also relies on the nuclear transitions of specific isotopes, such as <sup>57</sup>Fe.
* [[Radionuclide]]s also have important uses. [[Nuclear power]] and [[nuclear weapon]]s development require relatively large quantities of specific isotopes. The process of [[isotope separation]] represents a significant technological challenge.
==See also==
*[[Isotope table (divided)]] - table of all known isotopes
*[[Isotope table (complete)]]
*[[Table of nuclides]]
*[[List of particles]]
* Isotopes are nuclides having the same number of protons; compare:
** [[Isotone]]s are nuclides having the same number of neutrons.
** [[Isobar]]s are nuclides having the same mass number, i.e. sum of protons plus neutrons.
** [[Nuclear_isomer|Nuclear isomer]]s are different excited states of the same type of nucleus. A transition from one isomer to another is accompanied by emission or absorption of a [[gamma ray]], or the process of [[internal conversion]]. (Not to be confused with chemical [[isomer]]s.)
==External links==
*[http://physics.nist.gov/cgi-bin/Compositions/stand_alone.pl?ele=&ascii=html&isotype=some Atomic weights of all isotopes]
*[http://atom.kaeri.re.kr/ Atomgewichte, Zerfallsenergieen und Halbwärtszeiten aller Isotope]
*[http://ie.lbl.gov/education/isotopes.htm Exploring the Table of the Isotopes] at the [[LBNL]]
<!--Categories-->
<!--Interwiki-->
[[Category:Isotopes|*]]
[[Category:Nuclear chemistry]]
[[Category:Nuclear physics]]
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Islamic calendar
14810
40272178
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Margana
58148
Reverted edits by [[Special:Contributions/Kerbii|Kerbii]] to last version by PFHLai
{{islam}}
The '''Islamic calendar''' or '''Muslim calendar''' (also called "'''Hijri calendar'''", [[Arabic language|Arabic]] التقويم الهجري) is the [[calendar]] used to date events in many predominantly [[Muslim]] countries, and used by Muslims everywhere to determine the proper day on which to celebrate Islamic holy days. It is a [[lunar calendar]] having 12 lunar months in a year of about 354 days. Because this lunar year is about 11 days shorter than the solar year, Islamic holy days, although celebrated on fixed dates in their own calendar, usually shift 11 days earlier each successive solar year, such as a year of the [[Gregorian calendar]]. Islamic years are also called ''Hijra years'' because the first year was the year during which the [[Hijra (Islam)|Hijra]] occurred— [[Muhammad]]'s emigration from [[Mecca]] to [[Medina]]. Thus each numbered year is designated either H or AH, the latter being the initials of the [[Latin]] ''anno Hegirae'' (in the year of the Hijra).
==Pre-Islamic calendar==
The predecessor to the Islamic calendar was a [[lunisolar calendar]] which used lunar months, but was also synchronized with the seasons by the insertion of an additional, [[Intercalation|intercalary month]], when required. Whether the intercalary month (Nasi) was added in the spring like that of the [[Hebrew calendar]] or in autumn is debatable. It is assumed that the intercalary month was added between the twelfth month (the month of the pre-Islamic [[Hajj]]) and the first month ([[Muharram]]) of this pre-Islamic year. The two Rabi' months denote grazing and the ''modern'' Meccan rainy season (only slightly less arid than normal), which would promote the growth of grasses for grazing, occurs during autumn. These imply a pre-Islamic year beginning near the [[autumnal equinox]]. However, the rainy season after which these months are named may have been different when the names originated (before Muhammad's time) or the calendar may have been imported from another region which did have such a rainy season. On the other hand, Muhammad forbade the intercalary month (released the calendar from the seasons) near the end of his life, which implies a pre-Islamic year beginning near the [[vernal equinox]] because that is when the modern lunar year began during his last year.
==Numbering the years==
Abraha, a governor of [[Yemen]], then a province of the [[Christianity|Christian]] [[Kingdom of Aksum]] (modern [[Ethiopia]]), attempted to destroy the [[Kaaba]] with an army which included an [[elephant]] (possibly several). Although the raid was unsuccessful, the elephant so impressed the Meccans that that year became known as the ''[[Year of the Elephant]]'', which is also the year that Muhammad was born. (See [[sura]]t [[al-Fil]].) Although most Muslims equate it with the [[Western world|Western]] year 570, a minority equate it with 571. Later years were numbered from the ''Year of the Elephant'', whether for the years of the pre-Islamic lunisolar calendar, the lunisolar calendar used by Muhammad before he forbade the intercalary month, or the first few years of the lunar calendar thus created. In 638 (AH 17), the second Caliph [[Umar]] began numbering the years of the Islamic calendar from the year of the Hijra, which was postdated AH 1. The first day of the first month (1 Muharram) of that proleptic Islamic year, that is, after the removal of all intercalary months between the Hijra and Muhammad's prohibition of them nine years later, corresponded to [[July 16]], [[622]] (the actual emigration took place in September). The first surviving attested use of the Hijri calendar is on a [[papyrus]] from [[Egypt]] in 22 AH, [[PERF 558]].
==Months==
Each [[month]] has either 29 or 30 days, but usually in no discernible order. Traditionally, the first day of each month was the day (beginning at sunset) of the first sighting of the lunar crescent (the ''hilal'') shortly after sunset. If the hilal was not observed immediately after the 29th day of a month, either because clouds blocked its view or because the western sky was still too bright when the moon set, then the day that began at that sunset was the 30th. Such a sighting had to be made by one or more trustworthy men testifying before a committee of Muslim leaders. Determining the most likely day that the hilal could be observed was a motivation for Muslim interest in [[astronomy]], which put Islam in the forefront of that science for many centuries. This traditional practice is still followed in a few parts of the world, like [[Pakistan]] and [[Jordan]]. However, in most Muslim countries astronomical rules are followed which allow the calendar to be determined in advance, which is not the case using the traditional method. [[Malaysia]], [[Indonesia]], and a few others begin each month at sunset on the first day that the moon sets after the sun (moonset after sunset). In [[Egypt]], the month begins at sunset on the first day that the moon sets at least five minutes after the sun.
The official [[Umm al-Qura]] calendar of [[Saudi Arabia]] used a substantially different astronomical method until recent years [http://www.jas.org.jo/sau.html]. Before AH 1420 (before [[April 18]], [[1999]]), if the moon's age at sunset in [[Riyad]] was at least 12 hours, then the day ''ending'' at that sunset was the first day of the month. This often caused the [[Saudi]]s to celebrate holy days one or even two days before other predominantly Muslim populated countries, including the dates for the [[Hajj]], which can only be dated using Saudi dates because it is performed in Mecca. During one memorable year during the AH 1380s (the 1970s), different Muslim countries ended the fast of Ramadan on each of four successive days. The celebrations became more uniform beginning in AH 1420. For AH 1420-22, if moonset occurred after sunset at Mecca, then the day beginning at that sunset was the first day of a Saudi month, essentially the same rule used by Malaysia, Indonesia, and others (except for the location from which the hilal was observed). Since the beginning of AH 1423 ([[March 16]], [[2002]]), the rule has been clarified a little by requiring the geocentric conjunction of the sun and moon to occur before sunset, in addition to requiring moonset to occur after sunset at Mecca. This ensures that the moon has moved past the sun by sunset, even though the sky may still be too bright immediately before moonset to actually see the crescent. Strictly speaking, the [[Umm al-Qura]] calendar is intended for civil purposes only. Their makers are well aware of the fact that the first visual sighting of the lunar crescent (hilāl) can occur up to two days after the date calculated in the [[Umm al-Qura]] calendar. Since AH 1419 (1998/99) several official hilāl sighting committees have been set up by the government of [[Saudi Arabia]] to determine the first visual sighting of the lunar crescent at the begin of each lunar month. Nevertheless, the religious authorities of [[Saudi Arabia]] also allow the testimony of less experienced observers and thus often announces the sighting of the lunar crescent on a date when none of the official committees could see the lunar crescent. In nearly all of these cases, a retrospective analysis indicates that these extremely early reports of the lunar crescent are impossible and are based on false sightings.
The moon sets progressively later than the sun for locations further west, thus western Muslim countries are more likely to celebrate some holy day one day earlier than an eastern Muslim country.
[[Microsoft]] uses the "[[Kuwaiti algorithm]]" to convert Gregorian dates to the Islamic ones. It is based on statistical analysis of historical data from Kuwait.
There exists a variation of the Islamic calendar known as the [[tabular Islamic calendar]] in which months are worked out by arithmetic rules rather than by observation or astronomical calculation. It has a 30-year cycle in with 11 years are leap years with 355 days instead of 354 days. In the long term, it is accurate to one day in about 2500 years. It also deviates up to about 1 or 2 days in the short term.
==Forbidding intercalary months==
In the ninth year after the Hijra, Muslims believe God forbade the [[intercalation|intercalary]] month. This is expressed in the [[Qur'an]] (9:36-37):
<blockquote>
The number of months with Allah has been twelve months by Allah's ordinance since the day He created the heavens and the earth. Of these four are known as sacred; That is the straight usage, so do not wrong yourselves therein, and fight the Pagans.
</blockquote>
<blockquote>
Verily the transposing (of a prohibited month) is an addition to Unbelief: The Unbelievers are led to wrong thereby: for they make it lawful one year, and forbidden another year, of months forbidden by Allah and make such forbidden ones lawful. The evil of their course seems pleasing to them. But Allah guideth not those who reject Faith.
</blockquote>
This prohibition was repeated by Muhammad during his last sermon on [[Mount Arafah|Mount Arafat]] which was delivered during his farewell pilgrimage to Mecca on 9 Dhu al-Hijja AH 10 (this paragraph is often deleted from the sermon by its modern editors as now unimportant):
<blockquote>
O People, the unbelievers indulge in tampering with the calendar in order to make permissible that which Allah forbade, and to forbid that which Allah has made permissible. With Allah the months are twelve in number. Four of them are holy, three of these are successive and one occurs singly between the months of Jumada and Shaban.
</blockquote>
The three successive holy months are Dhu al-Qada, Dhu al-Hijja, and Muharram, thus excluding an intercalary month before Muharram. The single holy month is Rajab.
==Names of the Islamic months==
{{Muslimmonths}}
The Islamic months are named as follows:
# [[Muharram|Muharram ul Haram]] (or shortened to Muharram) محرّم
# [[Safar]] صفر
# [[Rabi`-ul-Awwal]] (Rabi' I) ربيع الأول
# [[Rabi`-ul-Akhir]] (or Rabi` al-THaany) (Rabi' II) ربيع الآخر أو ربيع الثاني
# [[Jumaada-ul-Awwal]] (Jumaada I) جمادى الأول
# [[Jumaada-ul-Akhir]] (or Jumaada al-THaany) (Jumaada II) جمادى الآخر أو جمادى الثاني
# [[Rajab]] رجب
# [[Sha'aban]] شعبان
# [[Ramadan (calendar month)|Ramadan]] رمضان
# [[Shawwal]] شوّال
# [[Zil Khad]] ذو القعدة (or Thw al-Qi`dah)
# [[Zil Hijjah]] ذو الحجة (or Thw al-Hijjah)
Of all the months in the Islamic calendar, [[Ramadan (calendar month)|Ramadan]] is the most sacred. Between dawn and sunset, [[Muslim]]s abstain from eating, drinking, and sexual intercourse in accordance with the [[Ramadan (religious observances)|Ramadan holiday]] that lasts throughout the entire month of the same name.
==Names of the days of the week==
The Islamic week is derived from the Jewish week, as was the medieval Christian week, all of which have numbered weekdays in common. All three coincide with the Sunday through Saturday planetary week. The Islamic and Jewish weekdays begin at sunset, whereas the medieval Christian and planetary weekdays begin at the following midnight. Muslims gather for worship at a [[Masjid]] or [[mosque]] at noon on "gathering day", which corresponds to the sixth day of the Jewish and medieval Christian weeks, and to Friday of the planetary week.
# yaum as-sabt يوم السَّبْت (sabbath day)
# yaum al-ahad يوم الأحد (first day)
# yaum al-ithnayn يوم الإثنين (second day)
# yaum ath-thalatha' يوم الثُّلَاثاء (third day)
# yaum al-arba`a' يوم الأَرْبعاء (fourth day)
# yaum al-khamis يوم الخَمِيس (fifth day)
# yaum al-jum`a يوم الجُمْعَة (gathering day)
==Important dates==
Important dates in the Islamic (Hijri) year are:
* 1 Muharram ([[Islamic New Year]])
* 10 Muharram ([[Day of Ashurah]], a day of mourning for [[Shia]] Muslims and the flight of Moses and the Israelites from Egypt and Pharo's oppression to the Blessed Land for Sunni Muslims)
* 27 Rajab ([[Isra and Miraj]])
* 15 Shabaan ([[Shab-e-Br'aat]])
* 1 Ramadan (first day of fasting)
* 17 Ramadan (Nuzul Al-Qur'an) ([[Malaysia]] only; often 27 Ramadan elsewhere)
* 19-22 Ramadan ([[Shia]] Muslims mourn the death of [[Imam]] [[Ali]]).
* Last 10 days of Ramadhan which include [[Laylat al-Qadr]]
* 1 Shawwal ([[Eid ul-Fitr]])
* 8-10 Thw al-Hijjah (the [[Hajj]] to [[Makkah]])
* 10 Thw al-Hijjah ([[Eid ul-Adha]]).
==Current correlations==
For a very rough conversion, multiply the Islamic year number by 0.97, and then add 622 to get the Gregorian year number.
The Islamic calendar year of 1429 will occur entirely within the Gregorian calendar year of 2008. Such years occur once every 33 or 34 Islamic years (32 or 33 Gregorian years).
More are listed here:
{| border="1" style="text-align: center" cellpadding="2"
|colspan="3"|'''Islamic year within Gregorian year'''
|-
|''Islamic'' || ''Gregorian'' || ''Difference''
|-
|1228 || 1813 || 585
|-
|1261 || 1845 || 584
|-
|1295 || 1878 || 583
|-
|1329 || 1911 || 582
|-
|1362 || 1943 || 581
|-
|1396 || 1976 || 580
|-
|1429 || 2008 || 579
|-
|1463 || 2041 || 578
|-
|1496 || 2073 || 577
|-
|1530 || 2106 || 576
|-
|1564 || 2139 || 575
|}
==External links==
*[http://www.phys.uu.nl/~vgent/islam/islamyear_en.htm Islamic-Western Calendar Converter (Based on the Arithmetical or Tabular Calendar)]
*[http://www.phys.uu.nl/~vgent/islam/mecca/ummalqura.htm The Umm al-Qura Calendar of Saudi Arabia]
*[http://www.eretzyisroel.org/~jkatz/The%20Islamic%20Jewish%20Calendar.pdf Correspondence between Hebrew and Islamic calendars, months and holidays (pdf)]
[[Category:Islam]]
[[Category:Specific calendars]]
[[ar:تقويم هجري]]
[[ca:Calendari musulmà]]
[[da:Islamisk kalender]]
[[de:Islamische Zeitrechnung]]
[[eo:Islama kalendaro]]
[[es:Calendario musulmán]]
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[[he:הלוח המוסלמי]]
[[id:Kalender Hijriyah]]
[[io:Islama kalendario]]
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[[ms:Takwim Hijrah]]
[[nl:Islamitische kalender]]
[[nn:Det muslimske året]]
[[pl:Kalendarz muzułmański]]
[[pt:Calendário islâmico]]
[[ru:Исламский календарь]]
[[sl:Muslimanski koledar]]
[[sv:Muslimska kalendern]]
[[th:ปฏิทินฮิจญ์เราะหฺ]]
[[tr:Hicri takvim]]
[[tt:Íslam täqwime]]
[[zh:伊斯兰历]]
Isaac Disraeli
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2002-08-09T18:00:22Z
Andre Engels
300
redirect
#REDIRECT [[Isaac D'Israeli]]
Interquartile range
14812
35609429
2006-01-18T00:04:59Z
213.105.7.51
/* Example */
In [[descriptive statistics]], the '''interquartile range (IQR)''' is the difference between the third and first [[quartile]]s and is a measure of [[statistical dispersion]]. The interquartile range is a more stable statistic than the [[range (statistics)|range]], and is often preferred to that statistic.
Since 25% of the data are less than or equal to the first quartile and 25% are greater than or equal to the third quartile, the difference is the length of an interval that includes about half of the data. This difference should be measured in the same units as the data.
==Example==
<pre>
i x[i]
1 102
2 104
3 105 ---- the first quartile, Q1 = 105
4 106
5 108
6 109 ---- the second quartile, Q2 or median = 109
7 110
8 112
9 115 ---- the third quartile, Q3 = 115
10 115
11 118
</pre>
From this table, the '''interquartile range''' is 115 - 105 = 10.
[[Category:Statistics]]
[[Category:Socioeconomics]]
[[nl:Interkwartielafstand]]
Iliad
14813
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Josiah Rowe
210455
/* The relationship of Achilles and Patroclus */ remove self-reflexive link
:''For the [[webcomic]] author '''Illiad''', see [[J.D. Frazer]].
The '''''Iliad''''' ([[Ancient Greek]]: Ιλιάς, ''Iliás'') tells part of the story of the siege of the city of ''[[Troy|Ilium]]'', i.e. the [[Trojan War]], and is, along with the ''[[Odyssey]]'', one of the two major [[Ancient Greece|Greek]] [[epic poetry|epic]] poems traditionally attributed to [[Homer]], a blind [[Ionia|Ionian]] poet. Scholars dispute whether Homer existed, and whether he was one person, but it is clear that the poems spring from a long tradition of oral poetry. The ''Iliad'' and the ''Odyssey'' are traditionally dated to the [[8th century BC|8th]] century BC, but many scholars now prefer a date of the [[7th century BC|7th]] century BC (e.g. [[Martin West]]) or even the [[6th century BC|6th]] century BC (e.g. [[Richard Seaford]]). The epics are considered to be the oldest literary documents in the Greek language, though the classical Greeks thought that the works of the poet [[Hesiod]] were composed earlier. The word ''Iliad'' means "pertaining to ''Ilion''" ([[Latin language|Latin]] Ilium), the name of the city proper, as opposed to ''Troy'' ([[Greek language|Greek]]: Τροία, ''Troía''; [[Latin language|Latin]]: ''Troja'') the state centered around [[Ilium]], over which [[Priam]] reigned. However, even classics scholars are unsure of why the text is called Iliad rather than Ilium. The names are often used interchangeably. The Iliad documents just 50 days of the tenth year of the Trojan War. Books 11–18 document events that took place over only a single day.
[[Image:TBanksThetis.jpg|thumb|right|380px|''Thetis rising from the sea to comfort Achilles'' (Book 18), by [[Thomas Banks]], English, [[1778]] [[Victoria and Albert Museum]]]]
==Major characters==
{{spoiler}}
As an epic, the ''Iliad'' contains a sometimes confusingly great number of characters. The latter half of the ''Iliad'''s second book (often called the [[Catalogue of Ships]]) is devoted entirely to listing the various commanders. Many of the battle scenes in the ''Iliad'' feature bit characters who are quickly slain. See [[Trojan War]] for a detailed list of participating armies and warriors.
*The [[Achaean]]s (Αχαιοί) - the word "Hellenes", which would today be translated as "Greeks", is not used by Homer
**[[Achilles]] (Αχιλλεύς) the leader of the [[Myrmidons]] (Μυρμιδόνες) and the principal Greek champion whose [[anger]] is the over-arching theme of the story
**[[Agamemnon]], (Αγαμέμνων), King of [[Mycenae]], supreme commander of the [[Achaean]] armies whose actions provoke the feud with Achilles
**[[Patroclus]],(Πάτροκλος) friend or lover to Achilles
**[[Nestor (mythology)|Nestor]], (Νέστωρ), [[Menelaus]], (Μενέλαος), [[Diomedes]], (Διομήδης), [[Idomeneus]], (Ιδομενεύς), and [[Telamonian Aias]], (Αίας ο Τελαμώνιος), kings of the principal city-states of [[Greece]] who are leaders of their own armies, under the overall command of Agamemnon
**[[Odysseus]],(Οδυσσεύς) another warrior-king, famed for his cunning, who is the subject of his own epic
**[[Calchas]], (Κάλχας) a powerful Greek [[prophet]] and [[omen]] reader, who guided the Greeks through the war with his predictions.
*The Trojans and their allies
**[[Hector]], (Έκτωρ) firstborn son of King Priam, leader of the Trojan and allied armies and [[heir apparent]] to the throne of [[Troy]]
**[[Priam]], (Πρίαμος) king of the Trojans, too old to take part in the fighting
**[[Paris (mythology)|Paris]], (Πάρης) Trojan prince and Hector's brother, also called Alexander; his abduction of [[Helen]] is the [[casus belli]]. He was supposed to be killed as a baby because his sister [[Cassandra]] saw the destruction of Troy because of him. Raised by a shepherd.
**[[Aeneas]], (Αινείας) cousin of Hector, and his principal lieutenant
**[[Helenus]] and [[Deiphobus]], brothers of Hector who fight at his side
**[[Poludamas]], another Trojan warrior, apparently a commoner, or in any event not a member of the royal family
**[[Glaucus]] and [[Sarpedon]], leaders of the [[Lycia]]n forces allied to the Trojan cause
*Female characters
**[[Helen]], (Ελένη) former Queen of Sparta and wife of [[Menelaus]], now espoused to [[Paris (mythology)|Paris]]
**[[Cassandra]], (Κασσάνδρα) daughter of Priam, a prophetess cursed by [[Apollo]] to prophesy correctly but never be believed
**[[Andromache]], (Ανδρομάχη) [[Hector]]'s wife and mother of their infant son, [[Astyanax]] (Αστυάναξ)
**[[Hecuba]], (Εκάβη) Queen of Troy, wife of [[Priam]], mother of [[Hector]], [[Cassandra]], [[Paris (mythology)|Paris]] etc
**[[Briseis]], a woman captured in the sack of Lyrnessos, a small town in the territory of Troy, and awarded to Achilles as a prize; Agamemnon takes her from Achilles in Book 1 and Achilles withdraws from battle as a result
The Olympian deities, principally [[Zeus]], [[Hera]], [[Apollo]], [[Aphrodite]], [[Ares]], [[Eris]], [[Athena]], and [[Poseidon]], appear predominantly in the ''Iliad'' as advisers to and manipulators of the human characters. All except Zeus become personally involved in the fighting at one point or another. (See [[Theomachy]])
==The story of the ''Iliad''==
The ''Iliad'' narrates several weeks of action during the tenth and final year of the [[Trojan War]], concentrating on the wrath of [[Achilles]]. It begins with the dispute between Achilles and [[Agamemnon]], and ends with the funeral rites of [[Hector]]. Neither the background and early years of the war ([[Paris (mythology)|Paris]]' abduction of [[Helen]] from [[monarch|King]] [[Menelaus]]), nor its end (the death of [[Achilles]]), are directly narrated in the ''Iliad''. The ''Iliad'' and the ''Odyssey'' are part of a [[Trojan War cycle|larger cycle of epic poems]] of varying lengths and authors; only fragments survive of the other poems, however.
Of the many themes in the ''Iliad'', perhaps the most important is the idea of what a hero is. Achilles is forced to make a choice between living a long life or dying young on the battlefield. For the Greeks of Homer's day, the latter would have been a better choice because death in battle leads to honor and glory which were the most important values of the day — more important than even right and wrong. One of the remarkable things about the ''Iliad'' is the way that Achilles, especially in Book 9, both embraces the concepts of honor and glory and also rejects them. It should be noted that, despite the fact that he is the antagonist in the story, Hector probably best displays the qualities of an ancient Mediterranean hero.
Many Greek myths exist in multiple versions, so Homer had some freedom to choose among them to suit his story. What follows are the most common background details to the Trojan War, including (parenthetically) whether or not Homer specifically mentions them. See [[Greek mythology]] for more detail.
=== Background to the ''Iliad'': The Trojan War===
Both the gods [[Zeus]] and [[Poseidon]] desired the sea-nymph [[Thetis]], but a prophecy made by [[Prometheus]] revealed that Thetis's son would be greater than his father. For this reason, both gods resisted [[Thetis]] and betrothed her to a mortal king, [[Peleus]], so that her offspring would be no more than human. To Peleus and Thetis a son was born, named Achilles. Hoping to protect him, when he was an infant his mother dipped him in the river [[Styx (mythology)|Styx]], making him invincible everywhere except the heel (the legendary [[Achilles' heel]]) by which she held him. Achilles would grow up to be the greatest of all mortal warriors.
All of the gods were invited to Peleus' and Thetis' wedding, except [[Eris]], or Discord. Insulted, she attended invisibly and cast down upon the table a golden apple on which were inscribed the words ''To the fairest'' (''kallisti''). The apple was disputed over by [[Hera]], [[Athena]], and [[Aphrodite]]. None of the gods would venture an opinion favouring any one contender for fear of earning the enmity of the other two. Eventually, Zeus ordered the matter to be settled by [[Paris (mythology)|Paris]], the youngest prince of [[Troy]], who was being raised as a shepherd in the plains nearby. Athena tempted Paris with power in battle and wisdom, Hera offered him political power, and Aphrodite offered him the most beautiful woman in the world. Paris eventually awarded the apple to Aphrodite.
The most beautiful woman in the world was [[Helen]], daughter of [[Leda (mythology)|Leda]] by Zeus. Scores of men sought her hand. Her father was unwilling to choose any for fear the others would attack him; finally, at [[Odysseus]]' suggestion, he solved the problem by making all the suitors swear an oath to protect Helen and her future husband. These suitors included [[Agamemnon]], [[Ajax the Greater]], [[Ajax the Lesser]], [[Diomedes]], [[Odysseus]], [[Nestor]], [[Idomeneus]], and [[Philoctetes]]. Helen married [[Menelaus]] of [[Sparta]]; her sister [[Clytemnestra]] married his brother [[Agamemnon]] of [[Mycenae (Greece)|Mycenae]]. (See [[House of Atreus]])
On a diplomatic mission to Sparta, Paris became enamoured of Helen, and she either eloped with or was abducted by Paris and went with him to Troy. In anger, Menelaus called upon Helen's past suitors to make good their oaths to attack Troy. Eventually a force of a thousand ships marshalled by Menelaus' brother Agamemnon was gathered at [[Aulis]], including all the above-named men and their own forces. A [[seer]] told them that the winds would not take them to Troy unless Agamemnon sacrificed his daughter [[Iphigenia]]. He did so, and the fleet set off. They landed at Troy, eventually, where there ensued a siege of nine years, broken only intermittently by fighting until the tenth year.
Shortly prior to the ''Iliad'', Greek forces had raided a nearby town allied to Troy. Agamemnon had taken prisoner a girl, [[Chryseis]], daughter of a local priest of [[Apollo]]. The priest begged the god to punish the Greeks, and a plague ravaged their army.
===The ''Iliad'''s story===
====Overview====
The ''Iliad'' focuses mainly on [[Achilles]] and his rage against king [[Agamemnon]], the [[Greece|Greek]] commander-in-chief.
[[Apollo]] has sent a plague against the Greeks, who captured the daughter of the priest Chryses and gave her as a prize to [[Agamemnon]]. He is compelled to restore her to her father. Out of pride, he takes [[Briseis]], whom the Athenians had given [[Achilles]] as a prize. Achilles, the greatest warrior of the age, follows the advice of his mother, [[Thetis]], and withdraws from battle in revenge and the allied [[Achaean]] (Greek) armies nearly lose the war.
In counterpoint to Achilles' pride and arrogance stands the Trojan prince [[Hector]], son of King [[Priam]], with a wife and child, who fights to defend his city and his family. The death of [[Patroclus]], Achilles' dearest friend or lover, at the hands of Hector, brings Achilles back to the war for [[revenge]], and he slays Hector. Later Hector's father, King Priam, comes to Achilles disguised as a beggar to ransom his son's body back, and Achilles is moved to pity; the funeral of Hector ends the poem.
The poem is a poignant depiction of the tragedy and agony of friendship and family destroyed by battle. The first word of the Greek poem is "Μηνιν" ("mēnin", meaning "wrath"); the main subject of the poem is the wrath of Achilles; the second word is "aeide", meaning "sing"; the poet is asking someone to sing; the third word is "thea", meaning "goddess"; the goddess here being the "Mousa" or "muse"; a literal translation of the first line would read "Wrath, sing goddess, of Peleus' son Achilles" or more intelligibly "Sing, goddess, the wrath of Peleus' son Achilles". ({{perseus|Hom.|Il.|1.1}})
====Book summaries====
* Book 1: Ten years into the war, [[Achilles]] and [[Agamemnon]] quarrel over a slave girl, [[Achilles]] withdraws from the war in anger
* Book 2: [[Odysseus]] motivates the [[Greeks]] to keep fighting; [[Catalogue of Ships]], Catalogue of Trojans and Allies
* Book 3: [[Paris]] challenges [[Menelaus]] to single combat
* Book 4: The truce is broken and battle begins
* Book 5: [[Diomedes]] has an aristea and wounds [[Aphrodite]] and [[Ares]]
* Book 6: [[Glaucus]] and [[Diomedes]] greet during a truce
* Book 7: [[Hector]] battles [[Telamonian Aias | Ajax]]
* Book 8: The gods withdraw from the battle
* Book 9: [[Agamemnon]] retreats: his overtures to [[Achilles]] are spurned
* Book 10: [[Diomedes]] and [[Odysseus]] go on a spy mission
* Book 11: [[Paris]] wounds [[Diomedes]], and [[Achilles]] sends [[Patroclus]] on a mission
* Book 12: The [[Greeks]] retreat to their camp and are besieged by the [[Trojans]]
* Book 13: [[Poseidon]] motivates the [[Greeks]]
* Book 14: [[Hera]] helps [[Poseidon]] assist the [[Greeks]]
* Book 15: [[Zeus]] stops [[Poseidon]] from interfering
* Book 16: [[Patroclus]] borrows [[Achilles]]' armour, enters battle, kills [[Sarpedon]] and then is killed by [[Hector]]
* Book 17: The armies fight over the body and armour of [[Patroclus]]
* Book 18: [[Achilles]] learns of the death of [[Patroclus]] and receives a new suit of armour
* Book 19: [[Achilles]] reconciles with [[Agamemnon]] and enters battle
* Book 20: The gods join the battle; [[Achilles]] tries to kill [[Aeneas]]
* Book 21: [[Achilles]] fights with the river [[Scamander]] and encounters [[Hector]] in front of the [[Trojan]] gates
* Book 22: [[Achilles]] kills [[Hector]] and drags his body back to the [[Greeks|Greek]] camp
* Book 23: Funeral games for [[Patroclus]]
* Book 24: [[Achilles]] lets [[Priam]] have [[Hector]]'s body back, and he is burned on a pyre
===After the ''Iliad'': Conclusion of the war, and after===
Although certain events subsequent to the funeral of Hector are foreshadowed in the ''Iliad'', and there is a general sense that the Trojans are doomed, a detailed account of the fall of Troy is not set out by Homer. The following account comes from later Greek and Roman poetry and drama.
[[Achilles]] fights and kills the [[Amazons|Amazon]] queen [[Penthesilea]] and the Aethiopean king [[Memnon]]. Very soon he is killed on the battlefield by [[Paris (mythology)|Paris]] with a poisoned arrow to his vulnerable heel. (See [[Achilles' tendon|Achilles' Heel]]). After his death, [[Ajax the Greater]] and [[Odysseus]] feud over who should keep his armour. They submit their disagreement to an impromptu court and Odysseus is awarded the armour. Ajax subsequently goes mad and slaughters his livestock, believing they are the Greek commanders. He then kills himself in grief.
The [[Amazons]] come to join the battle. [[Philoctetes]], a crippled Greek who had been abandoned by the others along the journey, was recruited because it was prophesied the war could not be won without his bow.
Odysseus devises a plan to take the city. He has his men build a large, hollow [[Trojan horse|wooden horse]], and then he and twenty others hide inside. The Greek ships withdraw out of sight of Troy, apparently admitting defeat, and leave behind the horse, purportedly as an offering to Poseidon for good winds on the return trip. The Trojans take this inside the great walls of Troy, and then feast and celebrate their victory and the war's end. At night, Odysseus and the soldiers creep out of the horse and open the gates to the other Greeks who have sailed back under cover of night. The city is sacked, and in some accounts burned for seven years.
Priam is killed. According to one tradition, [[Hector]]'s wife [[Andromache]] throws their son [[Astyanax]] and herself from the ramparts to save them from [[slavery]]. According to another, Astyanax was killed by [[Neoptolemus]], son of Achilles, to ensure that Hector's son could not seek vengeance for his father's death against Achilles' son. Andromache became Neoptolemus' concubine, later to marry [[Helenus]], Hector's brother. A Roman tradition held that [[Aeneas]] escaped with his family and several hundred people, who after years of migration eventually founded [[Rome]]. (This was used by [[Virgil]] in his [[Aeneid]]).
Odysseus' long journey home is narrated in Homer's ''Odyssey''. [[Menelaus]] and [[Helen]] returned to [[Sparta]] to rule. Agamemnon took home as a slave the priestess [[Cassandra]], who was gifted with prophecy but cursed never to be believed. When he returned home he was murdered by his wife [[Clytemnestra]] and her lover, [[Aegisthus]]. They in turn were killed by [[Agamemnon]]'s son, [[Orestes]], and his daughter, [[Electra|Elektra]].
==Technical features and translations==
The poem is written in [[dactylic hexameter]]. The ''Iliad'' comprises roughly 16,000 lines of verse. Later Greeks divided it into twenty-four books, and this convention has lasted to the present day with little change.
The ''Iliad'' has been translated into [[English language|English]] for centuries. [[George Chapman]] did a translation in the [[16th century]] which [[John Keats]] praised in his sonnet, ''[[On First Looking into Chapman's Homer]]'' and [[Alexander Pope]] did another one in rhymed [[pentameter]].
There are five widely read modern English translations. [[Richmond Lattimore]] provides a translation that attempts to reproduce, line for line, the rhythm of the original poem. [[Robert Fagles]] emphasizes contemporary English phrasing while maintaining faithfulness to the Greek. The translations of [[Stanley Lombardo]] and [[Robert Fitzgerald]] are known for their attention to Homer's imagery. Lombardo's translation is generally the one most often recommended by classics scholars because of its faithfulness to the Greek and its modern vernacular style. However, unless one can read Homeric Greek -- different than other Ancient Greek writers because of its amalgamation of Greek dialects -- one needs to choose a translation. The quality of the translation is probably the single biggest factor in determining whether or not one finishes the text.
==The ''Iliad'' as oral tradition==
The ''Iliad'' and the ''Odyssey'' were considered by Greeks of the classical age and after as the most important works in [[Ancient Greek literature]], and were the basis of Greek [[pedagogy]] in antiquity. As the center of the [[rhapsode]]'s repertoire, their recitation was a central part of Greek religious festivals. The book would be spoken or sung all night (modern readings last around 20 hours), with audiences coming and going for parts they particularly enjoyed.
Throughout much of their reception, the Iliad and Odyssey were assumed considered to be literary poems. However in the late 19th century and the early 20th century, scholars began to question this assumption. [[Milman Parry]], a classical scholar, was intrigued by peculiar features of Homeric style: in particular the stock epithets and the often extensive repetition of words, phrase and even whole chunks of text. He argued that these features were artifacts of oral composition. The poet employs stock phrases because of the ease with which they could be applied to a hexameter line. Taking this theory, Parry travelled in Yugoslavia, studying the local oral poetry. In his reasearch he observed oral poets employing stock phrases and repetition to assist with the challenge of composing a poem orally and improvisationally.
The written ''Iliad'' and the ''Odyssey'' are based on older, orally transmitted works and, consequently, are full of [[metaphor]]s and [[simile]]s which were used to communicate the stories to a mostly illiterate population in a manner they would understand. Specifically, the similes used in The ''Iliad'' can be divided into several categories: the descriptions of battles, people, and gods. Each type of simile aided understanding in Greek oral tradition and allowed the first listeners of the story to adequately picture what was being sung to them.
==The relationship of Achilles and Patroclus==
{{main|Achilles and Patroclus}}
[[Image:Patrocluspederastyscene.jpg|thumb|right|200px|Achilles and Patroclus.]]
The precise nature of the relationship between Achilles and Patroclus has been the subject of some dispute in both the classical period and modern times. In the ''Iliad'', it is clear that the two heroes have a deep and extremely meaningful friendship, but the evidence of a romantic or sexual element is equivocal. Commentators from the classical period to today have tended to interpret the relationship through the lens of their own cultures. Thus, in fifth-century Athens the relationship was commonly interpreted as [[pederasty|pederastic]], since pederasty was an accepted part of Athenian society. Contemporary readers are more likely to interpret the two heroes either as non-sexual "war buddies" or as an egalitarian [[homosexual]] couple.
The Ancient Mediterranean world had vastly different attitudes toward gender and sexuality than those found in twenty-first century America or Europe. There was no term or concept of homosexuality. In addition, much of what is known about ancient Greek sexual practices and beliefs is based on writers and artists who lived at least 200 years after Homer's epics were created; it is unknown how much these practices and attitudes changed from the time Homer's epics were originally sung and the time that these later writers and artists recorded their work.
It is impossible to designate the roles found in the ''Iliad'' between Achilles and Patroclus along pederastic lines. Achilles is the most dominant. Among the warriors in the [[Trojan War]] he has the most fame. Patroclus performs duties such as cooking, feeding and grooming the horses, and nursing yet is older than Achilles. Both also sleep with women. Nonetheless the emotion between the two is obviously intense love. Achilles is tender to Patroclus, callous and arrogant towards others. Although most warriors fought for personal fame or their [[city-state]] (including Achilles), at certain junctures in the ''Iliad'', Achilles emphasizes his relationship with Patroclus above all else. He dreams that all Greeks would die so that he and Patroclus might gain the fame of conquering [[Troy]] alone. After Patroclus dies he agonizes touching his dead body, smearing himself with ash, and fasting. It was not until his desire for revenge to kill Hector who had killed Patroclus that he would fight again; fully aware that the gods warned him it would cost him his life.
==The ''Iliad'' in subsequent arts and literature==
Subjects from the Trojan War were a favourite among ancient Greek dramatists. [[Aeschylus]]' trilogy ''Agamemnon'', ''The Libation Bearers'', and ''The Eumenides'' follow the story of Agamemnon following his return from the war.
A loose film adaptation of the ''Iliad'', ''[[Troy (movie)|Troy]]'', was released in [[2004]], starring [[Brad Pitt]] as Achilles, [[Orlando Bloom]] as Paris, [[Eric Bana]] as Hector, [[Sean Bean]] as [[Odysseus]] and [[Brian Cox]] as [[Agamemnon]]. It was directed by German-born [[Wolfgang Petersen]]. Despite its popularity — largely a result of a huge marketing campaign by the studio — the film was a critical flop in the U.S., though not internationally. Several critics voted it the worst film of 2004. In addition, it only loosely resembles the Homeric version as it was presented as if it were history instead of mythology. The supernatural elements of the story were deliberately expunged, except for one scene that included Achilles' sea nymph mother, [[Thetis]].
An epic science fiction adaptation/tribute by acclaimed author [[Dan Simmons]] titled ''Ilium'' was released in 2003. The novel received a [[Locus Award]] for best science fiction novel of [[2003]].
== English translations ==
*[[George Chapman]], 1598 - verse
*[[John Ogilby]], 1660
*[[Thomas Hobbes]], 1676 - verse: [http://oll.libertyfund.org/ToC/0256.php full text]
*[[John Ozell]], [[William Broome]], and [[William Oldisworth]], 1712
*[[Alexander Pope]], 1713 - verse: [http://www.gutenberg.net/etext/6130 full text]
*[[James Macpherson]], 1773
*[[William Cowper]], 1791
*[[Edward Geoffrey Smith Stanley, 14th Earl of Derby|Edward Earl of Derby]], 1864 - verse: [http://www.gutenberg.net/etext/6150 full text]
*[[William Cullen Bryant]], 1870
*[[Walter Leaf]], [[Andrew Lang]], and [[Ernest Myers]], 1873 - prose: [http://www.gutenberg.net/etext/3059 full text]
*[[Samuel Butler (1835-1902)|Samuel Butler]], 1898 - prose: [http://www.gutenberg.net/etext/2199 full text]
*[[Alexander Falconer]], 1933
*[[Sir William Marris]], 1934 - verse
*[[E V Rieu]], 1950 - prose
*[[Alston Hurd Chase]] and [[William G. Perry]], 1950 - prose
*[[Richmond Lattimore]], 1951 - verse
*[[Ennis Rees]], 1963 - verse
*[[W. H. D. Rouse]], 1966
*[[Martin Hammond]], 1987
*[[Robert Fagles]], 1990
*[[Stanley Lombardo]], 1997
*[[Ian Johnston]], 2002 - verse: [http://www.mala.bc.ca/~johnstoi/homer/iliad_title.htm full text]
== References ==
* {{cite book | authorlink = Milan Budimir | first = Milan | last = Budimir | year = 1940 | title = On the Iliad and Its Poet }}
* {{cite book | last = Mueller | first = Martin | title = The Iliad | location = London | publisher = Allen & Unwin | year = 1984 | id = ISBN 0048000272 }}
* {{cite book | last = Nagy | first = Gregory | title = The Best of the Achaeans | location = Baltimore | publisher = The Johns Hopkins University Press | year = 1979 | id = ISBN 0801823889 }}
* {{cite book | author = Seaford, Richard | title = Reciprocity and Ritual | location = Oxford | publisher = Oxford University Press | year = 1994 | id = ISBN 0198150369 }}
* {{cite book | author = West, Martin | title = The East Face of Helicon | location = Oxford | publisher = Oxford University Press | year = 1997 | id = ISBN 0198152213 }}
== External links ==
{{wikisourcepar|The Iliad}}
* [http://www.uark.edu/campus-resources/achilles/iliad/iliad.html Classical images illustrating the ''Iliad''.] Repertory of outstanding painted vases, wall paintings and other ancient iconography of the War of Troy.
* [http://rss.duchs.com/homer/iliad/ Iliad via RSS]
* [http://www.sparknotes.com/lit/iliad/ SparkNotes]
* [http://www.textedge.com/ HTML Text of Iliad]
* [http://www.perseus.tufts.edu/cgi-bin/ptext?doc=Perseus%3Atext%3A1999.01.0133 Iliad in Ancient Greek from the Perseus Project]
* {{gutenberg|no=2199|name=The Iliad ''translated by Samuel Butler'}}
* {{gutenberg|no=3059|name=The Iliad ''translated by Andrew Lang'}}
* {{gutenberg|no=6130|name=The Iliad ''translated by Alexander Pope'}}
* {{gutenberg|no=6150|name=The Iliad ''translated by Edward, Earl of Derby'}}
* {{gutenberg|no=16452|name=The Iliad ''translated by William Cowper'}}
{{Trojan War Cycle}}
[[Category:Homer]]
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[[Category:Ancient Greek poems]]
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Indiana Jones
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[[Image:Indiana.jpeg|thumb|250px|[[Harrison Ford]] as Indiana Jones]]
'''Professor Henry "Indiana" Jones, Jr.''' is a [[fictional character|fictional]] [[bullwhip]]-toting, [[Fedora (hat)|fedora]]-wearing [[archaeology|archaeologist]] with an [[ophidiophobia]] (fear of [[snake]]s). He first appeared in a series of [[film]]s produced by [[George Lucas]] and directed by [[Steven Spielberg]] in the 1980s.
Jones was originally portrayed by [[Harrison Ford]] in ''[[Raiders of the Lost Ark]]''. Younger versions of the character were also played by [[River Phoenix]] (in ''[[Indiana Jones and the Last Crusade]]''), and by [[Corey Carrier]] and [[Sean Patrick Flanery]] (in ''[[The Young Indiana Jones Chronicles]]''). An older version (93) of Jones, played by [[George Hall (actor)|George Hall]], also appeared in ''The Young Indiana Jones Chronicles''.
Indiana Jones is also the general name given to the series as a whole, which is comprised of three films, a TV series, various novels, comics, video games, and other media. A fourth film has also been announced for a likely [[2007]] release.
{{Spoiler}}
== Biography ==
[[Image:Indiana Jones 2.jpg|200px|thumb|When not adventuring, Jones is a respectable professor]]
Indiana Jones was born '''Henry Jones Jr.''' to [[Scotland|Scottish]]-born [[Professor]] of [[Medieval literature]], Dr. Henry Jones Sr. (played by [[Lloyd Owen]] in the TV series and by [[Sean Connery]] in the films), and his wife Anna on [[July 1]], [[1899]], in [[Princeton, New Jersey|Princeton]], [[New Jersey]]. "Junior" accompanied his father on his travels throughout [[Europe]], where he learned to speak, read, and write 27 languages, including [[French language|French]], [[German language|German]], [[Italian language|Italian]], [[Spanish language|Spanish]], [[Russian language|Russian]], [[Swedish language|Swedish]], [[Greek language|Greek]], [[Arabic language|Arabic]], [[Turkish language|Turkish]], [[Vietnamese language|Vietnamese]], [[Swahili language|Swahili]], [[Latin]] and [[Chinese language|Chinese]], as well as some [[Hindi language|Hindi]], apart from [[English language|English]]. Although his father called him "Junior," Henry Jr. adopted the name of his beloved [[dog]] Indiana for himself, insisting he be referred to as Indiana Jones. It is not known for sure when he first did this, except that he was referred to as Indiana during childhood by his peers.
In [[1912]], Indy was living in [[Utah]] and was a member of the [[Boy Scouts of America|Boy Scouts]] with the rank of [[Life Scout rank (Boy Scouts of America)|Life Scout]]. It was here, while attempting to secure the [[Cross of Coronado]] from thieves, Indy first learned to use the bullwhip and received his trademark [[Fedora (hat)|fedora]], as well as the scar on his chin. This was also the time when he first developed his aversion to snakes.
His father wanted Indiana to go to [[Princeton University]]. To escape this, he ran away from home by [[train]]. He ended up in [[Mexico]] and was kidnapped by Mexican revolutionaries. He joined this army of revolutionaries, playing a part in the [[Mexican Revolution]] in [[1916]], under [[Pancho Villa]]. It is here that he also met his friend Remy, a [[Belgium|Belgian]]. With Remy, he left Mexico and traveled to [[Ireland]] just in time for the [[Easter Rising]]. He then traveled to England, getting involved with the suffrage movement, and then he and Remy joined the [[Belgian Army]]. He participated in the [[Western Front (WWI)|Western Front]]. He was taken prisoner by the Germans, escaped, encountered (and lost his virginity to) [[Mata Hari]] eventually making his way to [[Africa]] at the beginning of [[World War I]].
[[image:IndianaJ.jpg|thumb|250px|Indiana Jones with his father Dr. Henry Jones, Sr.]]
When they arrived in Africa, Jones and Remy were [[Commissioned officer|commissioned]] as [[lieutenants]]. Jones' inability to read [[map]]s properly caused him to lose his intended unit, and he instead fought along side a team of old men under the [[British Army]]. Among missions (depicted in the television series), the team destroyed a giant cannon mounted on a train, and they kidnapped the (real-life) German military genius [[Paul Erich von Lettow-Vorbeck]] in a [[balloon]], but they were forced to release him. Also while in Africa, Jones took ill, and was treated by [[Albert Schweitzer]].
Jones and Remy then transferred to the French Army, and Jones worked as an intelligence officer, vied with [[Ernest Hemingway]] for the affections of a young nurse, and worked as a translator for the [[Treaty of Versailles]], seeing the war come to its conclusion but laying down the groundwork for a second conflict.
Sometime after the war, Jones returned to the [[United States]], where he studied [[archaeology]] at the [[University of Chicago]] under Professor Abner Ravenwood. At the same time, he became romantically involved with the Professor's daughter Marion.
Dr. Jones abruptly left the Ravenwoods in [[1926]] and did not contact them for 10 years. He divided his time between teaching and archaeological expeditions, including a journey to [[China]] and [[India]] in [[1935]] where he raced [[Nazis]] to a mystical gem called "The Heart of the Dragon" from the ancient tomb of a Chinese emperor. Immediately afterword, he faced the gangster [[Lao Che]] and the followers of the [[cult]] of [[Kali]] (''[[Indiana Jones and the Temple of Doom|Temple of Doom]]''). In [[1936]], he was contacted by the United States government to retrieve the [[Ark of the Covenant]] before the [[Nazi]]s (''[[Raiders of the Lost Ark]]''). He continued to take on infrequent missions for the government over the ensuing years. In [[1938]], Indy rescued his father from the Nazis and became embroiled in the search for the [[Holy Grail]] (''[[Indiana Jones and the Last Crusade|Last Crusade]]''). His life during [[World War II]] is unknown, but in [[1947]] he was deceived by the recently born [[CIA]] to search the mechanism of the [[Babylon]]ian ''Infernal Machine'', in confrontation with a [[Soviet]] expedition.
When last seen in [[1993]], Jones was living in [[New York City]] with his daughter and her family. Sporting an eyepatch and cane, he was stopping anyone within earshot to regale them with tales of his exploits. He seems remarkably spry for a man in his 90s—whether that is because of his drinking from the Grail is unknown. It is yet to be chronicled as to what adventure led Indy to wear an eyepatch.
== Appearances ==
Since his introduction in 1981's ''Raiders of the Lost Ark'', the character of Indiana Jones has become a [[cultural icon]] for adventure. His popularity has allowed him to make appearances in three more feature films, a three-season TV series, dozens of novels, comic books, and video games, and even had his own amusement park ride.
The [[television]] series, ''[[The Young Indiana Jones Chronicles]]'', aired from [[1992]] to [[1996]], with the 17-year-old Indy played by [[Sean Patrick Flanery]], 93-year-old Indy by [[George Hall (actor)|George Hall]], and 10-year-old Indy by [[Corey Carrier]]. This inspired a number of made-for-TV and made-for-video movies featuring Flanery as young Indy. One of the last Young Indiana Jones TV movies featured a cameo appearance by Harrison Ford, reprising the role of Indy as a man in his 50s. The show ran for 44 episodes, with each pairing of episodes forming a feature-length TV film. The stories spanned from Indy’s childhood travels with his father (who was on, what seemed, one continuous Medieval studies lecture tour) to the solo journeys of his youth and even into World War I. Every episode began with a 93-year-old Indy, a grey-haired professor, talking about one of his old childhood adventures.
The popular trilogy of theatrical films: ''Raiders of the Lost Ark'', ''Indiana Jones and the Temple of Doom'', and ''Indiana Jones and the Last Crusade'', were made from 1981–1989, created by George Lucas and directed by Steven Spielberg. The series starred Harrison Ford as Jones. The upcoming fourth Indiana Jones movie, once again to star Harrison Ford, has been in the planning stages for several years; it is in pre-production and is not expected to be released until February 2007 at the earliest. [[Jim Ward]], Vice President of [[Lucasfilm]], has said in a recent press conference that a new ''Indiana Jones'' video game is expected that same year, around the time of the movie.
=== TV films ===
[[Image:Mo_37.jpeg|thumb|right|200px|Harrison Ford makes a cameo appearance as 50 year old Indy in Chapter 20: Mystery of the Blues.]]
*Chapter 1: My First Adventure
*Chapter 2: Passion for Life
*Chapter 3: The Perils of Cupid
*Chapter 4: Travels with Father
*Chapter 5: Journey of Radiance
*Chapter 6: Spring Break Adventure
*Chapter 7: Love's Sweet Song
*Chapter 8: Trenches of Hell
*Chapter 9: Demons of Deception
*Chapter 10: Phantom Train of Doom
*Chapter 11: Oganga, the Giver and Taker of Life
*Chapter 12: Attack of the Hawkmen
*Chapter 13: Adventures in the Secret Service
*Chapter 14: Espionage Escapades
*Chapter 15: Daredevils of the Desert
*Chapter 16: Tales of Innocence
*Chapter 17: Masks of Evil
*Chapter 18: Treasure of the Peacock's Eye
*Chapter 19: Winds of Change
*Chapter 20: Mystery of the Blues
*Chapter 21: Scandal of 1920
*Chapter 22: Hollywood Follies
=== Theatrical films ===
*Chapter 23: ''[[Indiana Jones and the Temple of Doom|The Temple of Doom]]'' ([[1984]])
*Chapter 24: ''[[Raiders of the Lost Ark]]'' ([[1981]])
*Chapter 25: ''[[Indiana Jones and the Last Crusade|The Last Crusade]]'' ([[1989]])
*Chapter 26: ''[[Indiana Jones 4]]'' ([[2007]]) (categorized as "in production")
*Chapter 27: (unproduced) Originally, George Lucas had signed a deal with Paramount Pictures for four theatrical sequels to ''Raiders of the Lost Ark''. After the first three, ''Raiders of the Lost Ark'', ''Indiana Jones and the Temple of Doom'', and ''Indiana Jones and the Last Crusade'', Lucas announced he was finished with the theatrical films, leaving two of his promised sequels unmade. He now has announced his work on the third sequel, ''Indiana Jones IV''. He now denies plans for a fourth sequel, claiming he never intended to do beyond three, but that the fourth film was "a brilliant idea he had." In saying he had a deal for four sequels, one could also speculate that he might not have counted ''The Temple of Doom'' as a sequel, and instead a prequel, which it was. This would leave room open for yet another sequel that is yet to be produced.
*Chapter 28: (unproduced) Based on the fact that ''The Temple of Doom'' could be counted as a prequel, rather than a sequel.
=== Novels ===
Apart from novel adaptations of the movies, and several Young Indiana Jones episodes, there is also a series of original paperback novels about the adventures of Indiana Jones, and another series of novels about Young Indiana Jones for younger readers. In Germany, there was a series of adult novels by author [[Wolfgang Hohlbein]], and in France a Young Indiana Jones series by Joseph Jacobs and Richard Beugne. These are available only in German and French respectively.
'''Young Indiana Jones Novels by Random House'''
*''Young Indiana Jones' Titanic Adventure'' - by [[Les Martin]]
*''Young Indiana Jones and the Pirates Loot'' - by J. N. Fox
*''Young Indiana Jones and the Lost Gold of Durango'' - by Megan Stine and H. William Stine
*''Young Indiana Jones and the Plantation Treasure'' - by William McCay
*''Young Indiana Jones and the Tomb of Terror'' - by Les Martin
*''Young Indiana Jones and the Princess of Peril'' - by Les Martin
*''Young Indiana Jones and the Ghostly Riders'' - by William McCay
*''Young Indiana Jones and the Circle of Death'' - by William McCay
*''Young Indiana Jones and the Journey to the Underworld'' - by Megan Stine and H. William Stine
*''Young Indiana Jones and the Curse of the Ruby Cross'' - by William McCay
*''Young Indiana Jones and the Gypsy Revenge'' - by Les Martin
*''Young Indiana Jones and the Secret City'' - by Les Martin
*''Young Indiana Jones and the Mountain of Fire'' - by William McCay
*''Young Indiana Jones and the Face of the Dragon'' - by William McCay
*''Young Indiana Jones and the Eye of the Tiger'' - by William McCay
'''Young Indiana Jones Novels by Ballantine Books'''
*''The Mata Hari Affair'' - by [[James Luceno]]
'''Indiana Jones Adult Novels by Bantam Books'''
*''Indiana Jones and the Peril at Delphi'' - by Rob MacGregor
*''Indiana Jones and the Unicorn's Legacy'' - by Rob MacGregor
*''Indiana Jones and the Dance of the Giants'' - by Rob MacGregor
*''Indiana Jones and the Seven Veils'' - by Rob MacGregor
*''Indiana Jones and the Genesis Deluge'' - by Rob MacGregor
*''Indiana Jones and the Interior World'' - by Rob MacGregor
*''Indiana Jones and the Sky Pirates'' - by [[Martin Caidin]]
*''Indiana Jones and the White Witch'' - by Martin Caidin
*''[[Indiana Jones and the Philosopher's Stone]]'' - by Max McCoy
*''Indiana Jones and the Dinosaur Eggs'' - by Max McCoy
*''Indiana Jones and the Hollow Earth'' - by Max McCoy
*''Indiana Jones and the Secret of the Sphinx'' - by Max McCoy
'''German novels by Goldmann Verlag'''
*''Indiana Jones und das Schiff der Götter'' (''Indiana Jones And The Ship Of The Gods'') - by [[Wolfgang Hohlbein]]
*''Indiana Jones und die Gefiederte Schlange'' (''Indiana Jones And The Feathered Snake'') - by Wolfgang Hohlbein
*''Indiana Jones und das Gold von El Dorado'' (''Indiana Jones And The Gold Of El Dorado'') - by Wolfgang Hohlbein
*''Indiana Jones und das verschwundene Volk'' (''Indiana Jones And The Vanished People'') - by Wolfgang Hohlbein
*''Indiana Jones und das Schwert des Dschingis Khan'' (''Indiana Jones And The Sword of Genghis Khan'') - by Wolfgang Hohlbein
*''Indiana Jones und das Geheimnis der Osterinseln'' (''Indiana Jones And The Secret Of Easter Island'') - by Wolfgang Hohlbein
*''Indiana Jones und das Labyrinth des Horus'' (''Indiana Jones And The Labyrinth Of Horus'') - by Wolfgang Hohlbein
*''Indiana Jones und das Erbe von Avalon'' (''Indiana Jones And The Legacy Of Avalon'') - by Wolfgang Hohlbein
'''Find Your Fate Adventure Books by Ballantine Books'''
*''Indiana Jones and the Curse of Horror Island'' - by [[R. L. Stine]]
*''Indiana Jones and the Giants of the Silver Tower'' - by R. L. Stine
*''Indiana Jones and the Cult of the Mummy's Crypt'' - by R. L. Stine
*''Indiana Jones and the Cup of the Vampire'' - by Andrew Helfer
*''Indiana Jones and the Legion of Death'' - by Richard Wenk
*''Indiana Jones and the Eye of the Fates'' - by Richard Wenk
*''Indiana Jones and the Dragon of Vengeance'' - by Megan Stine
*''Indiana Jones and the Lost Treasure of Sheba'' - by [[Rose Estes]]
*''Indiana Jones and the Gold of Genghis Khan'' - by Ellen Weiss
*''Indiana Jones and the Ape Slaves of Howling Island'' - by R. L. Stine
=== Comics ===
There was a [[comic book]] published by [[Marvel Comics]] in the early [[1980s]] featuring the talents of [[John Byrne]] among others. Later [[Dark Horse Comics]] produced a number of Indiana Jones Comics. Indy also had a cameo in a [[Star Wars]] story in an issue of the Star Wars Tales comic books.
'''Dark Horse Comics Stories'''
*Indiana Jones and the Shrine of the Sea Devil
*Indiana Jones and the Arms of Gold
*Indiana Jones: Thunder in the Orient
*Indiana Jones and the Fate of Atlantis
*Indiana Jones and the Sargasso Pirates
*Indiana Jones and the Dance of Death
*Indiana Jones and the Golden Fleece
*Indiana Jones and the Spear of Destiny
*Indiana Jones and the Iron Phoenix
'''Marvel Comics The Further Adventures of Indiana Jones Stories'''
*Ikons of Ikammanen
*The Devil's Cradle
*Gateway to Infinity
*Club Nightmare
*Africa Screams
*The Gold Goddess
*The Fourth Nail
*Deadly Rock
*Demons
*The Sea Butchers
*The Search for Abner Ravenwood
*The Cuban Connection
*Beyond the Lucifer Chamber
*End Run
*Dragon by the Tail
*The Secret of the Deep
*Revenge of the Ancients
*Good as Gold
*Trail of the Golden Guns
*Tower of Tears
*Shot by Both Sides
*Fireworks
*Big Game
*Double Play
*Magic, Murder & The Weather
*Something’s Gone Wrong Again
'''''Star Wars'' Tales'''
*''Star Wars'' Tales #19: Into the Great Unknown
=== Video games ===
Various video and computer [[games]] have also been produced. The games include:
*''[[Raiders of the Lost Ark (Atari 2600)|Raiders of the Lost Ark]]'' ([[Atari 2600]])
*''Indiana Jones and the Temple of Doom'' (arcade)
*''Indiana Jones and the Temple of Doom'' (Nintendo Entertainment System)
*''Indiana Jones and the Temple of Doom'' (C64)
*''Indiana Jones and the Last Crusade: The Action Game'' (C64, Amiga, Macintosh, PC)
*''[[Indiana Jones and the Last Crusade: The Graphic Adventure]]'' (C64, Amiga, Macintosh, PC)
*''Indiana Jones and the Last Crusade'' (Nintendo Entertainment System - Taito)
*''Indiana Jones and the Last Crusade'' (Nintendo Entertainment System - Ubi Soft)
*''The Young Indiana Jones Chronicles'' (Nintendo Entertainment System)
*''Indiana Jones and the Last Crusade'' (Nintendo Game Boy)
*''Indiana Jones and the Last Crusade'' (Sega Master System - European release)
*''Indiana Jones and the Last Crusade'' (Sega Genesis)
*''Instruments of Chaos starring Young Indiana Jones'' (Sega Genesis)
*''Indiana Jones and the Last Crusade'' (Sega Game Gear)
*''Indiana Jones' Greatest Adventures'' (Super Nintendo Entertainment System)
*''Indiana Jones in Revenge of The Ancients'' (PC)
*''[[Indiana Jones and the Fate of Atlantis]]'' (PC, Amiga, Macintosh, C64) (also a comic book of the same name)
*''Indiana Jones and the Lost Kingdom'' (C64)
*''Indy's Desktop Adventures'' (PC)
*''[[Indiana Jones and the Infernal Machine]]'' (PC, Nintendo 64, Nintendo Game Boy Color)
*''[[Indiana Jones and the Emperor's Tomb]]'' (PC, PlayStation 2, Microsoft Xbox)
*Untitled 2007 game; likely of the same title as the 2007 film
=== Attractions ===
[[Image:Indiana_Jones_Stunt_Spectacular.jpg|thumb|right|200px|Action on the set of the ''Indiana Jones'' Epic Stunt Spectacular]]
George Lucas has collaborated with [[Walt Disney Imagineering]] on four occasions to create attractions for [[Walt Disney Parks and Resorts|Disney theme parks]] worldwide:
*The "Indiana Jones et le Temple du Péril" rollercoaster opened at [[Disneyland Paris]] in [[Marne-la-Vallee]], [[France]], in [[1993]].
*The "[[Indiana Jones Adventure|Indiana Jones and the Temple of the Forbidden Eye]]" opened in [[Disneyland]] in [[Anaheim, California]], in [[1995]].
*The "Indiana Jones Epic Stunt Spectacular" show opened at the [[Disney-MGM Studios]] in [[Lake Buena Vista, Florida]] in [[1998]].
*The "[[Indiana Jones Adventure|Indiana Jones and the Temple of the Crystal Skull]]" opened at [[Tokyo DisneySea]] in [[Chiba]], [[Japan]], with the park in [[2001]].
=== Pinball ===
''Indiana Jones: The Pinball Adventure'' (1993, [[Williams (gaming company)|Williams]]), designed by Mark Ritchie, is a widebody [[pinball]] game that features sound clips from all three theatrical films, and features 12 different stages (four stages each based on different scenes from the movies, including three video modes). If you complete all 12 stages, you will enter the game's "Wizard Mode", called ''Eternal Life''.
This was the first game to use Williams/Midway's DCS Sound System, with the music composed by [[Chris Granner]].
== Origins ==
[[Image:Indiana Jones 1.jpg|thumb|right|250px|Indiana Jones with his famous bull-whip.]]
Indiana Jones, "Obtainer of Rare [[Antiquities]]," is modeled after the strong-jawed heroes of the matinee [[serial]]s and [[pulp magazine]]s that Lucas and Spielberg enjoyed in their childhoods, such as the [[Republic Pictures]] [[serial]]s, and [[Doc Savage]]. The two friends first discussed the project while in [[Hawaii]] during the time of release of the first ''[[Star Wars]]'' film. Spielberg told Lucas how he wanted to direct a [[James Bond]] film. Lucas responded that he had something better than that.
Spielberg wanted Indiana to be a James Bond-like figure that got into difficult situations and worked his way out. Upon requests by Spielberg and Lucas the costume designer was given the task to make the character have a distinctive recognizable silhouette through the style of the hat (much like [[Dick Tracy]]). After examining many hats, the designers chose an urban version of the classic [[Australia]]n [[fedora (hat)|fedora]], the [[Akubra]]. The original fedora for the movie trilogy was constructed by Mr. Swales of Herbert Johnson Hatters in [[London]], [[England]]. Although multiple hats were used throughout the movies, the distinctive profile of the fedoras remained the same. Today, the collection of props and clothing from the films, especially the fedora, has become a subculture/hobby for aficianados of the Indiana Jones franchise. Other elements of the outfit include the jacket, the bag, which was a modified [[World War II]] gas mask bag; and the whip.
Indy's revolver is a .38/200 calibre Webley Mk IV, but he is also seen with the .45ACP Colt M1911A1, the 9mm [[Browning Hi-Power]], the Webley Mk VI, and the Smith & Wesson New Century (both in .455 Webley calibre) in the movies, as well as a .45 ACP Smith & Wesson Hand Ejector 2nd model. [http://www.indygear.com/gear/guns.shtml]
[[Tom Selleck]] was the first choice for the role, but couldn't get out of a television series commitment ([[Magnum, P.I.]]), so Lucas went with Harrison Ford, who he had worked with previously on ''[[American Graffiti]]'' and his ''[[Star Wars]]'' films.
Many people have been called the real-life inspiration of the Indiana Jones character. Probably the most cited person is famous [[paleontologist]] [[Roy Chapman Andrews]]. Another person cited as a possible inspiration is the Italian [[archaeologist]] and circus [[strongman (strenth athlete)|strongman]] [[Giovanni Battista Belzoni]] (1778–1823). Religious archaeologist [[Vendyl Jones|Vendyl "Texas" Jones]] claims that he was the inspiration, citing his names (he notes that his first name trimmed becomes Endy — very similar to Indy), but this claim has reportedly been denied by Spielberg. Other candidates include explorer [[Gene Savoy]] [http://umanitoba.fitdv.com/new/articles/article.html?artid=383], [[Yale University]] historian and explorer [[Hiram Bingham III]] and [[University of Chicago]] archeologist Robert Braidwood [http://maroon.uchicago.edu/news/articles/2003/01/21/obituary_robert_and_.php]. Another very strong candidate is the famed adventurer and anthropologist Schuyler Jones. [http://www.harrisliterary.com/jones.html] However, the most likely inspiration was the fictional character [[Allan Quatermain]].
The character was originally named Indiana Smith, but Spielberg disliked the name and Lucas casually suggested "Indiana Jones". The name was thus changed early in the production of ''Raiders of the Lost Ark''. The origin of the name "Indiana" is the same in the real world as in the fiction: It was the name of an [[Alaskan malamute]] Lucas had in the 1970s (the same dog was also the inspiration for [[Chewbacca]]). His name is also said to be derived from the character "Nevada Smith," played by [[Steve McQueen]] in the [[1966]] film of the [[Nevada Smith|same name]].
Spielberg also admitted that an important inspiration for the style and atmosphere of the adventures of Indiana Jones were the adventures of the Belgian comic character [[Tintin]] by [[Hergé]].
== Portrayers ==
*[[Corey Carrier]] (Chapters 1-5) (ages 9-11)
*[[River Phoenix]] (Chapter 25) (age 13)
*[[Sean Patrick Flanery]] (Chapters 6-22) (ages 17-21)
*[[Harrison Ford]] (Chapter 20, Chapters 23-26) (ages 36-39, 50)
*[[George Hall (actor)|George Hall]] (Chapters 1-22) (age 93)
== DVD release ==
=== TV films ===
The DVDs for Chapters 1-22 are expected to be released sometime in 2007, according to a statement by series producer, [[Rick McCallum]] of [[Lucasfilm]]. The company has already put in two years of work on creating these DVDs, so as to have bonus features for each movie.
McCallum expects there to be 22 ''Young Indiana Jones Chronicles'' DVDs in all, 3 of which have been completed. The discs will include some 66 historical featurettes, now in production. Work has been ongoing for about 18 months on the ''Young Indy'' DVDs, with about another 18 months worth of work yet to be done. If all goes well, the plan is to tie the DVD release to the theatrical debut of Indy IV.
=== Theatrical films ===
[[Image:IndyDVD's.jpg|thumb|right|200px|The 2003 DVD release of Chapters 23-25.]]
Chapters 23-25 of the Indiana Jones series (''The Temple of Doom'', ''Raiders of the Lost Ark'', and ''The Last Crusade'', respectively) were released on DVD as a boxed set of all three films plus a fourth disc of bonus materials in 2003.
'''Features'''
*Available Subtitles (US edition): English, Spanish, French
*Available Audio Tracks (US edition): English (Dolby Digital 5.1), Spanish (Dolby Digital 2.0 Surround), French (Dolby Digital 2.0 Surround)
*Contains all three films in their original format (2.35:1 anamorphic widescreen aspect ratio or in Pan and Scan format), restored and digitally remastered
'''Bonus disc features'''
*A new, feature-length documentary of the making of the trilogy
*From the Lucasfilm Archives:
**''The Stunts of Indiana Jones''
**''The Sound of Indiana Jones''
**''The Music of Indiana Jones''
**''The Light and Magic of Indiana Jones''
*Original trailers
*Weblink to exclusive content including dozens of behind-the-scenes photos, an animatic sequence from Raiders and a PC game preview
== References ==
*"[http://www.indianajones.com/raiders/bts/news/news20030923.html Making ''Raiders of the Lost Ark'']." September 23, 2003. [http://www.indianajones.com/ IndianaJones.com].
== See also ==
*[[Tomb Raider]]/[[Lara Croft]]
*[[Relic Hunter]]
== External links ==
{{Wikiquote}}
*[http://www.indianajones.com/ IndianaJones.com; the official Indiana Jones site]
*[http://www.theraider.net TheRaider.net; the primary fan site of the series]
*[http://indianajones.wikicities.com The Indiana Jones Wiki]
*[http://www.theindyexperience.com The Indy Experience]
*[http://www.indyfan.com/ IndyFan.com a popular Indy fan site]
*[http://www.mobygames.com/game_group/sheet/gameGroupId,80/ Moby Games' list of Indiana Jones video games]
*[http://www.indygear.com/ IndyGear.com, a site that details where to procure the Fedora, Jacket, and Bullwhip synonymous with Indiana Jones]
*[news:alt.movies.indiana-jones alt.movies.indiana-jones] ([[Usenet]] newsgroup)
*[http://www.indy-net.co.uk/ Indy-Net.co.uk] - UK-based fan site
*[http://www.seedwiki.com/wiki/chronology_central/indiana_jones.cfm?wpid=183410 Chronology Central's Indiana Jones page] - Site contains a chronological reading/viewing order listing for all of the Indiana Jones films, episodes, novels, comic books and video games in the Indiana Jones continuity.
*[http://www.indyville.net IndyVille] Finnish Indiana Jones fansite
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/* History */ ''
In [[mathematics]], an '''irrational number''' is any [[real number]] that is not a [[rational number]], i.e., one that cannot be written as a ratio of two [[integer]]s, i.e., it is not of the form
:<math>\frac{a}{b}</math>
where ''a'' and ''b'' are integers and ''b'' is not zero. It can readily be shown that the irrational numbers are precisely those numbers whose expansion in any given base (decimal, binary, etc) never ends and never enters a periodic pattern, but no [[mathematician]] takes that to be a ''definition''. [[Almost all]] real numbers are irrational, in a sense which is defined more precisely below.
Some irrational numbers are [[algebraic number]]s, such as √<font style="text-decoration: overline">2</font>, the [[square root]] of [[two]], and <sup>3</sup>√<font style="text-decoration: overline">5</font>, the [[cube root]] of 5, and the [[golden ratio]], symbolized by the [[Greek alphabet|Greek letter]] '''<math>\varphi</math>''' ([[phi]]) or less commonly by '''<math>\tau</math>''' ([[tau]]); others are [[transcendental number]]s such as [[pi|π]] and ''[[e (mathematical constant)|e]]''.
When the [[ratio]] of lengths of two line segments is irrational, the line segments are also described as being ''[[commensurability (mathematics)|incommensurable]]'', meaning they share no measure in common. A ''measure'' of a line segment ''I'' in this sense is a line segment ''J'' that "measures" ''I'' in the sense that some whole number of copies of ''J'' laid end-to-end occupy the same length as ''I''.
== History ==
The earliest known use of irrational numbers was in the [[Indian mathematics|Indian]] [[Sulba Sutras]] composed between [[800 BC|800]]-[[500 BC]]. The first proof of irrational numbers is usually attributed to [[Pythagoras]], more specifically to the [[Pythagorean]] [[Hippasus|Hippasus of Metapontum]], who produced a (most likely geometrical) proof of the irrationality of the [[square root of two|square root of 2]]. The story goes that Hippasus discovered irrational numbers when trying to represent the square root of 2 as a fraction (proof below). However [[Pythagoras]] believed in the absoluteness of numbers, and could not accept the existence of irrational numbers. He could not disprove their existence through logic, but his beliefs would not accept the existence of irrational numbers and so he sentenced Hippasus to death by drowning. Later Greek mathematicians, such as [[Theaetetus (mathematician)|Theaetetus]] and [[Eudoxus of Cnidus|Eudoxus]] worked with other quadratic irrationalities. ''[[Euclid's Elements]]'' Book 10 is dedicated to classification of irrational magnitudes.
The sixteenth century saw the final acceptance of [[negative and non-negative numbers|negative]], integral and [[fraction (mathematics)|fractional]] numbers. The seventeenth century saw decimal fractions with the modern notation quite generally used by mathematicians. The next hundred years saw the imaginary become a powerful tool in the hands of [[Abraham de Moivre]], and especially of [[Leonhard Euler]]. For the nineteenth century it remained to complete the theory of [[complex number]]s, to separate irrationals into algebraic and transcendental, to prove the existence of [[transcendental number]]s, and to make a scientific study of a subject which had remained almost dormant since [[Euclid]], the theory of irrationals. The year 1872 saw the publication of the theories of [[Karl Weierstrass]] (by his pupil [[Kossak]]), [[Heine]] (''[[Crelle]]'', 74), [[Georg Cantor]] (Annalen, 5), and [[Richard Dedekind]]. [[Méray]] had taken in 1869 the same point of departure as [[Heine]], but the theory is generally referred to the year 1872. Weierstrass's method has been completely set forth by [[Pincherle]] (1880), and Dedekind's has received additional prominence through the author's later work (1888) and the recent endorsement by [[Paul Tannery]] (1894). Weierstrass, Cantor, and Heine base their theories on infinite series, while Dedekind founds his on the idea of a [[Dedekind cut|cut (Schnitt)]] in the system of [[real number]]s, separating all [[rational number]]s into two groups having certain characteristic properties. The subject has received later contributions at the hands of Weierstrass, [[Kronecker]] (Crelle, 101), and Méray.
[[Continued fraction]]s, closely related to irrational numbers (and due to Cataldi, 1613), received attention at the hands of [[Euler]], and at the opening of the nineteenth century were brought into prominence through the writings of [[Joseph Louis Lagrange]]. Other noteworthy contributions have been made by [[Druckenmüller]] (1837), [[Kunze]] (1857), [[Lemke]] (1870), and [[Günther]] (1872). [[Ramus]] (1855) first connected the subject with [[determinant]]s, resulting, with the subsequent contributions of Heine, [[August Ferdinand Möbius|Möbius]], and [[Günther]], in the theory of Kettenbruchdeterminanten. Dirichlet also added to the general theory, as have numerous contributors to the applications of the subject.
[[Johann Heinrich Lambert|Lambert]] proved (1761) that π cannot be rational, and that ''e''<sup>''n''</sup> is irrational if ''n'' is rational (unless ''n'' = 0), a proof, however, which left much to be desired. [[Legendre]] (1794) completed Lambert's proof, and showed that π is not the square root of a rational number. [[Paolo Ruffini]] (1799) first proof, (largly ignored) of [[Abel–Ruffini theorem]] that the general [[Quintic equation|quintic]] or higher equations cannot be solved by a general formula involving only arithmetical operations and roots. [[Évariste Galois]] (1831) sends a memoir to the French Academy of Science: ''On the condition of solvability of equations by radicals'', later developed into [[Galois theory]] which has been central to the proof that π and ''e'' are transcendental. [[Joseph Liouville]] (1840) showed that neither ''e'' nor ''e''<sup>2</sup> can be a root of an integral [[quadratic equation]]. [[Niels Henrik Abel]] (1842) partially proves the Abel–Ruffini theorem. The existence of transcendental numbers was first established by Liouville (1844, 1851), the proof being subsequently displaced by Georg Cantor (1873). [[Charles Hermite]] (1873) first proved <math>e</math> transcendental, and [[Ferdinand von Lindemann]] (1882), starting from Hermite's conclusions, showed the same for π. Lindemann's proof was much simplified by Weierstrass (1885), still further by [[David Hilbert]] (1893), and has finally been made elementary by [[Adolf Hurwitz]] and [[Paul Albert Gordan]].
== The square root of 2 ==
One proof of the irrationality of the square root of 2 is the following [[reductio ad absurdum]]. The proposition is proved by assuming the negation and showing that that leads to a contradiction, which means that the proposition must be true.
# Assume that √<font style="text-decoration: overline">2</font> is a rational number. This would mean that there exist integers ''a'' and ''b'' such that ''a'' / ''b'' = √<font style="text-decoration: overline">2</font>.
# Then √<font style="text-decoration: overline">2</font> can be written as an [[irreducible fraction]] (the fraction is shortened as much as possible) ''a'' / ''b'' such that ''a'' and ''b'' are [[coprime]] integers and (''a'' / ''b'')<sup>2</sup> = 2.
# It follows that ''a''<sup>2</sup> / ''b''<sup>2</sup> = 2 and ''a''<sup>2</sup> = 2 ''b''<sup>2</sup>.
# Therefore ''a''<sup>2</sup> is even because it is equal to 2 ''b''<sup>2</sup> which is obviously even.
# It follows that ''a'' must be even. (Odd numbers have odd squares and even numbers have even squares.)
# Because ''a'' is even, there exists a ''k'' that fulfills: ''a'' = 2''k''.
# We insert the last equation of (3) in (6): 2''b''<sup>2</sup> = (2''k'')<sup>2</sup> is equivalent to 2''b''<sup>2</sup> = 4''k''<sup>2</sup> is equivalent to ''b''<sup>2</sup> = 2''k''<sup>2</sup>.
# Because 2''k''<sup>2</sup> is even it follows that ''b''<sup>2</sup> is also even which means that ''b'' is even because only even numbers have even squares.
# By (5) and (8) ''a'' and ''b'' are both even, which contradicts that ''a'' / ''b'' is irreducible as stated in (2).
Since we have found a contradiction the assumption (1) that √<font style="text-decoration: overline">2</font> is a rational number must be false. The opposite is proven. √<font style="text-decoration: overline">2</font> is irrational.
This proof can be generalized to show that any root of any [[natural number]] is either a natural number or irrational.
=== Another proof ===
Another reductio ad absurdum showing that √<font style="text-decoration: overline">2</font> is irrational is less well-known and has sufficient charm that it is worth including here. It proceeds by observing that if √<font style="text-decoration: overline">2</font> = ''m''/''n'' then √<font style="text-decoration: overline">2</font> = (2''n'' − ''m'')/(''m'' − ''n''), so that a fraction [[in lowest terms]] is reduced to yet lower terms. That is a contradiction if ''n'' and ''m'' are positive integers, so the assumption that √<font style="text-decoration: overline">2</font> is rational must be false. It is possible to construct from an isosceles right triangle whose leg and hypotenuse have respective lengths ''n'' and ''m'', by a classic [[ruler-and-compass construction]], a smaller isosceles right triangle whose leg and hypotenuse have respective lengths ''m'' − ''n'' and 2''n'' − ''m''. That construction proves the irrationality of √<font style="text-decoration: overline">2</font> by the kind of method that was employed by ancient Greek geometers.
=== The golden ratio ===
When a line segment is divided into two disjoint subsegments in such a way that the ratio of the whole to the longer part equals the ratio of the longer part to the shorter part, then that ratio is the [[golden ratio]], equal to
:<math>\varphi={1+\sqrt{5} \over 2}.</math>
Assume this is a rational number ''n''/''m'' in lowest terms. Take ''n'' to be the length of the whole and ''m'' the length of the longer part. Then the length of the shorter part is ''n'' − ''m''. Then we have
:<math>{n \over m}={\mathrm{whole} \over \mathrm{longer}\ \mathrm{part}}
={\mathrm{longer}\ \mathrm{part} \over \mathrm{shorter}\ \mathrm{part}}
={m \over n-m}.</math>
But this puts a fraction already in lowest terms into ''lower terms''—a contradiction. Therefore the initial assumption that φ is rational is false.
== Transcendental and algebraic irrationals ==
[[Almost all]] irrational numbers are transcendental and all [[transcendental number]]s are irrational: the article on transcendental numbers lists several examples. ''e''<sup>''r''</sup> and π<sup>''r''</sup> are irrational if ''r'' ≠ 0 is rational; ''e''<sup>π</sup> is also irrational.
Another way to construct irrational numbers is as irrational [[algebraic number]]s, i.e. as zeros of [[polynomial]]s with integer coefficients: start with a polynomial equation
:''p''(''x'') = ''a<sub>n</sub> x<sup>n</sup>'' + ''a''<sub>''n''-1</sub> ''x''<sup>''n''−1</sup> + ... + ''a''<sub>1</sub> ''x'' + ''a''<sub>0</sub> = 0
where the coefficients ''a''<sub>''i''</sub> are integers. Suppose you know that there exists some real number ''x'' with ''p''(''x'') = 0 (for instance if ''n'' is odd and ''a''<sub>''n''</sub> is non-zero, then because of the [[intermediate value theorem]]). The only possible rational roots of this polynomial equation are of the form ''r''/''s'' where ''r'' is a [[divisor]] of ''a''<sub>0</sub> and ''s'' is a divisor of ''a''<sub>''n''</sub>; there are only finitely many such candidates which you can all check by hand. If neither of them is a root of ''p'', then ''x'' must be irrational. For example, this technique can be used to show that ''x'' = (2<sup>1/2</sup> + 1)<sup>1/3</sup> is irrational: we have (''x''<sup>3</sup> − 1)<sup>2</sup> = 2 and hence ''x''<sup>6</sup> − 2''x''<sup>3</sup> − 1 = 0, and this latter polynomial does not have any rational roots (the only candidates to check are ±1).
Because the algebraic numbers form a [[field (mathematics)|field]], many irrational numbers can be constructed by combining transcendental and algebraic numbers. For example 3π+2, π + √<font style="text-decoration: overline">2</font> and ''e''√<font style="text-decoration: overline">3</font> are irrational (and even transcendental).
== Logarithms ==
Perhaps the numbers most easily proved to be irrational are certain logarithms. Here is a proof by [[reductio ad absurdum]] that log<sub>2</sub>3 is irrational:
* Assume log<sub>2</sub>3 is rational. For some positive integers ''m'' and ''n'', we have log<sub>2</sub>3 = ''m''/''n''.
* It follows that 2<sup>''m''/''n''</sup> = 3.
* Raise each side to the ''n'' power, find 2<sup>''m''</sup> = 3<sup>''n''</sup>.
* But 2 to any integer power greater than 0 is even (because at least one of its prime factors is 2) and 3 to any integer power greater than 0 is odd (because none of its prime factors is 2), so the original assumption is false.
Similar cases such as log<sub>10</sub>2 can be treated similarly.
==Decimal expansions==
It is often erroneously assumed that mathematicians define "irrational number" in terms of decimal expansions, calling a number irrational if its [[decimal]] expansion neither repeats nor terminates. No mathematician takes that to be the definition, since the choice of base 10 would be arbitrary and since the standard definition is simpler and more well-motivated. Nonetheless it is true that a number is of the form ''n''/''m'' where ''n'' and ''m'' are integers, if and only if its decimal expansion repeats or terminates. When the [[long division]] algorithm that everyone learns in grammar school is applied to the division of ''n'' by ''m'', only ''m'' remainders are possible. If 0 appears as a remainder, the decimal expansion terminates. If 0 never occurs, then the algorithm can run at most ''m'' − 1 steps without using any remainder more than once. After that, a remainder must recur, and then the decimal expansion repeats! Conversely, suppose we are faced with a [[recurring decimal]], for example:
:<math>A=0.7\,162\,162\,162\,\dots</math>
Since the length of the repitend is 3, multiply by 10<sup>3</sup>:
:<math>1000A=7\,16.2\,162\,162\,\dots</math>
and then subtract A from both sides:
:<math>999A=715.5\,.</math>
Then
:<math>A=\frac{715.5}{999}=\frac{7155}{9990}=\frac{135\times 53}{135\times 74}=\frac{53}{74}.</math>
(The "135" above can be found quickly via [[Euclidean algorithm|Euclid's algorithm]].)
== Open questions ==
It is not known whether π + ''e'' and π − ''e'' are irrational or not. In fact, there is no pair of non-zero integers ''m'' and ''n'' for which it is known whether ''m''π + ''ne'' is irrational or not.
It is not known whether 2<sup>''e''</sup>, π<sup>''e''</sup>, <math>\pi^\sqrt{2}</math> or the [[Euler-Mascheroni gamma constant]] γ are irrational.
== The set of all irrationals ==
The set of all irrational numbers is [[Uncountable set|uncountable]] (since the rationals are [[Countable set|countable]] and the reals are uncountable). The set of algebraic irrationals, that is, the non-transcendental irrationals, is countable. Using the [[absolute value]] to measure distances, the irrational numbers become a [[metric space]] which is not [[complete (topology)|complete]]. However, this metric space is [[homeomorphic]] to the complete metric space of all [[sequence]]s of positive integers; the homeomorphism is given by the infinite [[continued fraction]] expansion. This shows that the [[Baire category theorem]] applies to the space of irrational numbers.
== External links ==
* [http://mathworld.wolfram.com/IrrationalNumber.html Irrational Number.] From MathWorld--A Wolfram Web Resource.
[[Category:Irrational numbers]]
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Irreducible fraction
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An '''irreducible fraction''' is a [[vulgar fraction]] in which the [[numerator]] and [[denominator]] are smaller than those in any other equivalent fraction. To say a fraction is irreducible is the same as saying the fraction's value is '''in lowest terms'''.
Stating it more formally, a fraction <sup>a</sup>⁄<sub>b</sub> is irreducible if there is no other equivalent fraction <sup>c</sup>⁄<sub>d</sub> with c having an [[absolute value]] less than the absolute value of a (where a, b, c, and d are all integers).
For example, <sup>1</sup>⁄<sub>4</sub>, <sup>5</sup>⁄<sub>6</sub>, and <sup>-101</sup>⁄<sub>100</sub> are all irreducible fractions. On the other hand, <sup>2</sup>⁄<sub>4</sub> is not irreducible since it is equal in value to <sup>1</sup>⁄<sub>2</sub>, and the numerator of the latter (1) is less than the numerator of <sup>2</sup>⁄<sub>4</sub>.
It can be shown that a fraction <sup>a</sup>⁄<sub>b</sub> is irreducible if, and only if, a and b are [[coprime]] (relatively prime), or equivalently, if a and b have a [[greatest common divisor]] of 1.
A fraction that is not irreducible can be reduced by using the [[Euclidean algorithm]] to find the greatest common divisor of the numerator and the denominator, and then dividing both the numerator and the denominator by it.
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#REDIRECT [[Information theory]]
Isomorphism class
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An '''isomorphism class''' is a collection of mathematical objects [[isomorphic]] with a certain mathematical object. A mathematical object usually consists of a [[set]] and some [[Relation (mathematics)|mathematical relation]]s and operations defined over this set.
Isomorphism classes are often defined if the exact identity of the elements of the set is considered irrelevant, and the properties of the structure of the mathematical object are studied. Examples of this are [[ordinal]]s and [[graph theory|graphs]]. However, there are circumstances in which the isomorphism class of an object conceals vital internal information about it; for example, in [[homotopy theory]], the [[fundamental group]] of a space <math>X</math> at a point <math>p</math>, though technically denoted <math>\pi_1(X,p)</math> to emphasize the dependence on the base point, is often written lazily as simply <math>\pi_1(X)</math> if <math>X</math> is [[connected space#Path_connectedness|path connected]]. The reason for this is that the existence of a path between two points allows one to identify loops at one with loops at the other; however, unless <math>\pi_1(X,p)</math> is [[abelian group|abelian]] this isomorphism is non-unique. Furthermore, the classification of [[covering space]]s makes strict reference to particular subgroups of <math>\pi_1(X,p)</math>, specifically distinguishing between isomorphic but [[conjugacy class|conjugate]] subgroups, and therefore amalgamating the elements of an isomorphism class into a single featureless object seriously decreases the level of detail provided by the theory.
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:''For the term in sociology, see [[isomorphism (sociology)]].''
In [[mathematics]], an '''isomorphism''' ([[Greek language|Greek]]:''isos'' "equal", and ''morphe'' "shape") is a [[bijective]] map ''f'' such that both ''f'' and its [[inverse function|inverse]] ''f''<sup> −1</sup> are [[homomorphism]]s, i.e. ''structure-preserving'' mappings.
Informally, an isomorphism is a kind of [[Map (mathematics)|mapping]] between objects, which shows a relationship between two properties or operations. If there exists an isomorphism between two structures, we call the two structures '''isomorphic'''. In a certain sense, Isomorphic sets are '''structurally identical''', if you choose to ignore finer-grained differences that may arise from how they are defined.
According to [[Douglas Hofstadter]]:
:"''The word "isomorphism" applies when two complex structures can be mapped onto each other, in such a way that to each part of one structure there is a corresponding part in the other structure, where "corresponding" means that the two parts play similar roles in their respective structures.''" ([[Gödel, Escher, Bach]], p. 49)
==Purpose==
Isomorphisms are frequently used by mathematicians to save themselves work. If a good isomorphism can be found from a relatively unknown part of mathematics into some well studied division of mathematics, where many theorems are already proved, and many methods are already available to find answers, then the function can be used to map whole problems out of unfamiliar territory over to "solid ground," where the problem is easier to understand and work with.
==Physical analogies==
Here are some everyday examples of isomorphic structures:
* A solid cube made of wood and a solid cube made of lead are both solid cubes; although their matter differs, their geometric structures are isomorphic.
* A standard deck of 52 playing cards with green backs and a standard deck of 52 playing cards with brown backs; although the colours on the backs of each deck differ, the decks are structurally isomorphic — if we wish to play cards, it doesn't matter which deck we choose to use.
* The Clock Tower in London (that contains [[Big Ben]]) and a wristwatch; although the clocks vary greatly in size, their mechanisms of reckoning time are isomorphic.
* A six-sided die and a bag from which a number 1 through 6 is chosen; although the method of obtaining a number is different, their random number generating abilities are isomorphic. This is an example of functional isomorphism, without the presumption of geometric isomorphism.
==Practical example==
The following are examples of isomorphisms from ordinary [[algebra]].
<ul><li>
Consider the [[logarithm]] function: For any fixed base ''b'', the [[logarithm]] function log<sub>''b''</sub> maps from the positive [[real number]]s <math>\mathbb{R}^+</math> onto the real numbers <math>\mathbb{R}</math>; formally:
:<math>\log_b : \mathbb{R}^+ \to \mathbb{R} \!</math>
This mapping is [[injective function|one-to-one]] and [[surjective function|onto]], that is, it is a [[bijection]] from the [[domain (mathematics)|domain]] to the [[codomain]] of the logarithm function.
In addition to being an isomorphism of sets, the logarithm function also preserves certain operations. Specifically, consider the [[group (mathematics)|group]] <math>(\mathbb{R}^+,\times)</math> of positive real numbers under ordinary multiplication. The logarithm function obeys the following identity:
:<math>\log_b(x \times y) = \log_b(x) + \log_b(y) \!</math>
But the real numbers under addition also form a group. So the logarithm function is in fact a group isomorphism from the group <math>(\mathbb{R}^+,\times)</math> to the group <math>(\mathbb{R},+)</math>.
</li>
<li> Consider the group '''Z'''<sub>6</sub>, the numbers from 0 to 5 with addition [[modular arithmetic|modulo]] 6. Also consider the group '''Z'''<sub>2</sub> × '''Z'''<sub>3</sub>, the ordered pairs where the ''x'' coordinates can be 0 or 1, and the y coordinates can be 0, 1, or 2, where addition in the ''x''-coordinate is modulo 2 and addition in the ''y''-coordinate is modulo 3.
These structures are isomorphic under addition, if you identify them using the following scheme:
::(0,0) -> 0
::(1,1) -> 1
::(0,2) -> 2
::(1,0) -> 3
::(0,1) -> 4
::(1,2) -> 5
or in general (''a'',''b'') -> ( 3''a'' + 4 ''b'' ) mod 6.
For example note that (1,1) + (1,0) = (0,1) which translates in the other system as 1 + 3 = 4.
Even though these two sets "look" different, they are indeed '''isomorphic'''. More generally, the [[direct product]] of two [[cyclic group]]s '''Z'''<sub>''n''</sub> and '''Z'''<sub>''m''</sub> is cyclic if and only if ''n'' and ''m'' are [[coprime]].
</li>
</ul>
==Abstract examples==
===A relation-preserving isomorphism===
For example, if one object consists of a set ''X'' with an ordering ≤ and the other object consists of a set ''Y'' with an ordering <math>\sqsubseteq</math> then an isomorphism from ''X'' to ''Y'' is a bijective function ''f'' : ''X'' → ''Y'' such that
: <math>f(u) \sqsubseteq f(v)</math> [[iff]] ''u'' ≤ ''v''.
Such an isomorphism is called an ''[[order isomorphism]]''.
===An operation-preserving isomorphism===
Suppose that on these sets ''X'' and ''Y'', there are two [[binary operation]]s <math>\star</math> and <math>\Diamond</math> which happen to constitute the [[group (mathematics)|groups]] (''X'',<math>\star</math>) and (''Y'',<math>\Diamond</math>). Note that the operators operate on elements from the [[Domain (mathematics)|domain]] and [[Range (mathematics)|range]], respectively, of the "one-to-one" and "onto" function ''f''. There is an isomorphism from ''X'' to ''Y'' if the [[bijective]] function ''f'' : ''X'' → ''Y'' happens to produce results, that sets up a correspondence between the operator <math>\star</math> and the operator <math>\Diamond</math>.
: <math>f(u) \Diamond f(v) = f(u \star v)</math>
for all ''u'', ''v'' in ''X''.
==Applications==
In [[abstract algebra]], two basic isomorphisms are defined:
* [[Group isomorphism]], an isomorphism between [[group (mathematics)|groups]]
* [[Ring isomorphism]], an isomorphism between [[ring (mathematics)|rings]]. (Note that isomorphisms between [[field (mathematics)|fields]] are actually ring isomorphisms)
In [[Analysis (mathematics)|Analysis]], the [[Legendre transform]] maps hard [[differential equations]] into easier [[algebra]]ic equations.
In [[universal algebra]], one can provide a general definition of isomorphism that covers these and many other cases. For a more general definition, see [[category theory]].
In [[graph theory]], an isomorphism between two graphs ''G'' and ''H'' is a [[bijective]] map ''f'' from the vertices of ''G'' to the vertices of ''H'' that preserves the "edge structure" in the sense that there is an edge from [[vertex]] ''u'' to vertex ''v'' in ''G'' [[iff]] there is an edge from ''f''(''u'') to ''f''(''v'') in ''H''.
In [[linear algebra]], an isomorphism can also be defined as a [[linear transformation|linear map]] between two [[vector spaces]] that is [[bijection, injection and surjection|one-to-one]] and [[bijection, injection and surjection|onto]].
==See also==
*[[automorphism]]
*[[homomorphism]]
*[[epimorphism]]
*[[isomorphism class]]
*[[monomorphism]]
*[[morphism]]
*[[isometry]]
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Given a [[set]] ''S'' with a [[partial order]] ≤, an '''infinite descending chain''' is a [[Chain (order theory)|chain]] ''V'', that is, a subset of ''S'' upon which ≤ defines a [[total order]], such that ''V'' has no [[least element]], that is, an element ''m'' such that for all elements ''n'' in ''V'' it holds that ''m'' ≤ ''n''.
As an example, in the set of [[integer]]s, the chain −1, −2, −3, ... is an infinite descending chain, but there exists no infinite chain on the [[natural number]]s, every chain of natural numbers has a minimal element.
If a partially ordered set does not contain any infinite descending chains, it is called [[well-founded set|well-founded]]. A total ordered set without infinite descending chains is called [[well-order]]ed.
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International law
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'''International law''', is the body of law that "regulates the activities of entities possessing international personality". Traditionally, that meant the conduct and [[relationship]]s of [[state]]s. However, it is now well established that international law also concerns the structure and conduct of [[international organization]]s, and, to a degree, that of [[multinational corporation]]s and individuals.
As [[Rosalyn Higgins]] stated, international law is a normative system "harnessed to the achievement of common values - values that speak to us all, whether we are rich or poor, black or white, of any religion or none, or come from countries that are industrialised or developing".{{ref|1}} The necessity for international law arises from the need to ensure a process that regulates competing demands and establishes the framework for predictable and agreed community behaviour.
The term "public international law" is occasionally used as a synonym to distinguish international law from [[private international law|"private international law"]]. The latter regulates the relations between persons or entities in different states and is in fact not international law at all (a better term which has been suggested for [[private international law]] is "conflict of laws").
== The scope of international law ==
International law establishes the framework and the criteria for identifying [[states]] as the principal actors in the international legal system. As the existence of a state presupposes control and [[jurisdiction]] over territory, international law deals with the acquisition of territory, [[state immunity]] and the legal responsibility of states in their conduct with each other. The law is similarly concerned with the treatment of individuals within state boundaries. There is thus a comprehensive regime dealing with group rights, the treatment of [[alien (law)|aliens]], the rights of [[refugee]]s, [[international crime]]s, [[nationality]] problems and [[human rights]] generally. It further includes the important functions of the maintenance of international peace and security, arms control, the pacific settlement of disputes and the regulation of the [[use of force]] in international relations. Even when the law is not able to stop the outbreak of war, it has developed principles to govern the conduct of hostilities and the treatment of [[prisoners of war|prisoners]]. International law is also used to govern issues relating to the global environment, the global commons such as [[international waters]] and [[outer space]], global communications, and [[world trade]].
Whilst [[municipal law]] is hierarchical or vertical, with the [[legislature]] enacting binding [[legislation]], international law is horizontal, with all states being [[sovereign]] and theoretically equal. Because of this, the value and authority of international law is dependent upon the voluntary participation of states in its formulation, observance, and enforcement. Although there may be exceptions, most states enter into legal commitments to other states out of enlightened self-interest rather than adherence to a body of law that is higher than their own. As D. W. Greig notes, "international law cannot exist in isolation from the political factors operating in the sphere of [[international relations]]".{{ref|2}}
Where there are breaches of the law, international law has no established compulsory [[judicial system]] for the settlement of disputes or coercive [[penal system]]. That is not to say that there are no judicial or quasi-judicial tribunals in international law. The formation of the [[United Nations]], for example, created a means for the world community to enforce international law upon members that violate its charter.
Traditionally, [[state]]s were the sole [[subject]]s of international law. With the proliferation of [[international organizations]] over the last century, they have in some cases been recognized as relevant parties as well. Recent interpretations of [[international human rights law]], [[international humanitarian law]], and [[international trade law]] (e.g. [[NAFTA]] Chapter 11 actions) have been inclusive of corporations, and even individuals.
==Fundamental conflicts over international law==
The 17th, 18th and 19th centuries saw the growth of the concept of a "[[nation-state]]", which comprised nations controlled by a centralized system of government. The concept of nationalism became increasingly important as people began to see themselves as citizens of a particular nation with a distinct national identity. Until the beginning of the 20th century, relations between nation-states were dictated by Treaty, unenforceable agreements to behave in a certain way towards another state.
Many people now view the nation-state as the primary unit of international affairs. States may choose to voluntarily enter into commitments under international law, but they will often follow their own counsel when it comes to interpretation of their commitments.
As the 20th century progressed, a number of violent armed conflicts, including WWI and WWII, exposed the weaknesses of a voluntary system of international treaties. In an attempt to create a stronger system of laws to prevent future conflicts, a vehicle for the application of international law was found in the creation of the United Nations, an international law making body, and new international criminal laws were applied at the [[Nuremberg trials]]. Over the past fifty years, more international laws and law making bodies have been created.
Many people feel that these modern developments endanger nation states by taking power away from state governments and ceding it to international bodies such as the U.N. and the World Bank. Some scholars and political leaders have recently argued that international law has evolved to a point where it exists separately from the mere consent of states. There is a growing trend toward judging a state's domestic actions in the light of international law and standards (see [[world government]] for trends and movements leading in this direction). A number of states, notably the [[United States]] vehemently oppose this interpretation, maintaining that sovereignty is the only true international "law" and that states have free reign over their own affairs. Similarly, a number of scholars now discern a legislative and judicial process to international law that parallels such processes within domestic law. Opponents to this point of view maintain that states only commit to international law with express consent and have the right to make their own interpretations of its meaning; and that international courts only function with the consent of states. Because international law is a new area of law its development is uncertain and its relevance and propriety is hotly disputed.
==Sources of international law==
''See main article: [[sources of international law]].''
International law has three primary sources: international treaties, custom, and general principles of law (cf. Art. 38 of the Statute of the International Court of Justice). International treaty law is comprised of obligations states expressly and voluntarily accept between themselves in [[treaty|treaties]]. Customary international law is derived from the consistent practice of States accompanied by ''opinio juris'', i.e. the conviction of States that the consistent practice is required by a legal obligation. Judgments of international tribunals as well as scholarly works have traditionally been looked to as persuasive sources for custom in addition to direct evidence of state behavior. Attempts to codify customary international law picked up momentum after the [[Second World War]] with the formation of the [[International Law Commission]] (ILC). Codified customary law is made the binding interpretation of the underlying custom by agreement through treaty. For states not party to such treaties, the work of the ILC may still be accepted as custom applying to those states. General principles of law are those commonly recognized by the major legal systems of the world.
Certain norms of international law achieve the binding force of [[peremptory norm]]s (''jus cogens'') as to include all states with no permissible derogations. Legal principles common to major legal systems may also be invoked to supplement international law when necessary.
==Interpretation of International Law==
Where there are disputes about the exact meaning and application of national laws, it is the responsibility of the courts to decide what the law means. In international law as a whole, there are no courts which have the authority to do this. It is generally the responsibility of states to interpret the law for themselves. Unsurprisingly, this means that there is rarely agreement in cases of dispute.
The [[Vienna Convention on the Law of Treaties]] writes on the topic of interpretation that:
: "A treaty shall be interpreted in [[good faith]] in accordance with the ordinary meaning to be given to the terms of the treaty in their context and in the light of its object and purpose." (article 31(1))
This is actually a compromise between three different theories of interpretation:
* The textual approach is a restrictive interpretation which bases itself on the "ordinary meaning" of the text, the actual text has considerable weight.
* A subjective approach considers the idea behind the treaty, treaties "in their context", what the writers intended when they wrote the text.
* A third approach bases itself on interpretation "in the light of its object and purpose", i.e. the interpretation that best suits the goal of the treaty, also called "effective interpretation".
These are general rules of interpretation; specific rules might exist in specific areas of international law.
==Enforcement by states==
Apart from a state's natural inclination to uphold certain norms, the force of international law has always come from the pressure that states put upon one another to behave consistently and to honor their obligations. As with any system of law, many violations of international law obligations are overlooked. If addressed, it is almost always purely through [[diplomacy]] and the consequences upon an offending state's reputation. Though violations may be common in fact, states try to avoid the appearance of having disregarded international obligations. States may also unilaterally adopt sanctions against one another such as the severance of economic or diplomatic ties, or through reciprocal action. In some cases, domestic courts may render judgment against a foreign state (the realm of private international law) for an injury, though this is a complicated area of law where international law intersects with domestic law.
States have the right to employ force in self-defense against an offending state that has used force to attack its territory or political independence. States may also use force in collective self-defense, where force is used against another state. The state that force is used against must authorize the participation of third-states in its self-defense. This right is recognized in the [[United Nations Charter]].
==Enforcement by international bodies==
''See main article: [[international legal system]].''
Violations of the UN Charter by members of the United Nations may be raised by the aggrieved state in the [[UN General Assembly|General Assembly]] for debate. The General Assembly cannot make binding resolutions, but under the "[[UN General Assembly Resolution 377|Uniting for Peace]]" resolution (GA/RES/0377) it declared it could authorize the use of force if there had been Breaches of the Peace or Acts of Aggression, provided that the Security Council due to a negative vote of a permanent member failed to act. It could call for other collective measures (such as economic sanctions) given a situation constituted the milder "threat to the Peace". The legal significance of such a resolution is unclear, as the General Assembly cannot issue binding resolutions.
They can also be raised in the [[Security Council]]. The Security Council can pass resolutions under Chapter VI of the UN Charter to recommend "Pacific Resolution of Disputes." Such resolutions are not binding under international law, though they usually are expressive of the council's convictions. In rare cases, the Security Council can pass resolutions under Chapter VII of the UN Charter related to "threats to Peace, Breaches of the Peace and Acts of Aggression," and these are legally binding under international law, and can be followed up with economic sanctions, military action, and similar uses of force through the auspices of the United Nations.
It has been argued that resolutions passed outside of Chapter VII can also be binding; the legal basis for that is the Council's broad powers under Article 24(2), which states that "in discharging these duties (exercise of primary responsibility in international peace and security), it shall act in accordance with the Purposes and Principles of the United Nations". The mandatory nature of such resolutions was upheld by the [[International Court of Justice]] in its advisory opinion on [[Namibia]]. The binding nature of such resolutions can be deduced from an interpretation of their language and intent.
States can also, upon mutual consent, submit disputes for arbitration by the [[International Court of Justice]] (ICJ), located in [[The Hague]], [[Netherlands]]. The judgments given by the Court in these cases are binding, although it possesses no means to enforce its rulings.
The Court may give an advisory opinion on any legal question at the request of whatever body may be authorized by or in accordance with the Charter of the United Nations to make such a request. Some of the advisory cases brought before the court have been controversial with respect to the courts competence and jurisdiction.
Often enormously complicated matters, ICJ cases (of which there have been less than 150 since the court was created from the [[Permanent Court of International Justice]] in 1945) can stretch on for years and generally involve thousands of pages of pleadings, evidence, and the world's leading specialist public international lawyers. As of [[2005]], there are twelve cases pending at the ICJ. Decisions made through other means of arbitration may be binding or non-binding depending on the nature of the arbitration agreement, whereas decisions resulting from contentious cases argued before the ICJ are always binding on the involved states.
Though states (or increasingly, [[international organizations]]) are usually the only ones with standing to address a violation of international law, some treaties, such as the [[International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights]] have an optional [[Protocol (treaty)|protocol]] that allows individuals who have had their rights violated by member states to petition the international [[Human Rights Committee]].
==History==
''See main article: [[history of international law]].''
Through the ages a code developed for the relations and conduct between nations. Even when nations were at [[war]], [[envoy]]s were often considered immune to violence.
The first formal attempts in this direction, which over time have developed into the current international law, stem from the era of the [[Renaissance]] in [[Europe]].
In the [[Middle Ages]] it had been considered the obligation of the [[Church]] to mediate in international disputes. During the [[Council of Constance]] (1414) [[Pawel Wlodkowic]], rector of [[Jagiellonian University]] ([[Kraków]], [[Poland]]), theologian, lawyer and diplomat, presented the theory that all, including [[Paganism|pagan]], nations have right to self-govern and to live in peace and possess their land.
At the beginning of the 17th century, several generalizations could be made about the political situation:
# Self-governing, autonomous states existed.
# Almost all of them were governed by monarchs.
##The Peace of Westphalia is often cited as being the birth of the modern nation-states, establishing states as sovereigns answering to no-one within its own borders.
# Land, wealth, and trading rights were often the topics of wars between states.
Some people assert that international law developed to deal with the new states arising, others claim that the lack of influence of the [[Pope]] and the [[Catholic church]] gave rise to the need for new generally-accepted codes in Europe.
The [[France|French]] [[monk]] [[Emeric Cruce]] ([[1590]]–[[1648]]) came up with the idea of having representatives of all countries meeting in one place to discuss their conflicts so as to avoid war and create more peace. He suggested this in his ''The New Cyneas'' ([[1623]]), choosing [[Venice]] to be the selected city for all of the representatives to meet, and suggested that the Pope should preside over the meeting. Of course, during the [[Thirty Years' War]] ([[1618]]–[[1648]]), this was not acceptable to the Protestant nations. He also said that armies should be abolished and called for a world court. Though his call to abolish [[army | armies]] was not taken seriously, Emeric Cruce does deserve his place in history through his foresight that international organizations are crucial to solve international disputes.
The statesmen of the time believed no nation could escape war, so they prepared for it.
[[Henry IV of France|King Henry IV's]] Chief Minister, the [[Maximilien de Bethune, duc de Sully |Duke of Sully]], proposed the founding of an alliance of the European nations that was to meet to arbitrate issues and wage war not between themselves but collectively on the Ottoman Turks, and he called it the Grand Design, but was never established.
After [[World War I]], the nations of the world decided to form an international body. [[United States|U.S.]] President [[Woodrow Wilson]] came up with the idea of a "[[League of Nations]]". However, due to political wrangling in the [[United States|U.S.]] [[Congress]], the [[United States]] did not join the [[League of Nations]], which was one of the causes of its demise.
When [[World War II]] broke out, the [[League of Nations]] was finished. Yet at the same time, the [[United Nations]] was being formed. On [[January 1]], 1942, [[United States|US]] President [[Franklin D. Roosevelt]] issued the "[[Declaration by United Nations]]" on behalf of 26 nations who had pledged to fight against the [[Axis powers]]. Even before the end of the war, representatives of 50 nations met in [[San Francisco]] to draw up the charter for an international body to replace the [[League of Nations]]. On [[October 24]], 1945, the [[United Nations]] officially came into existence, setting a basis for much international law to follow.
Modern international law is often affirmed as the product of modern European civilization.
The seafaring principalities of [[India]] established legal rules for ocean navigation and regional commerce.
The Greek system of independent [[city-state]]s bore a close resemblance to contemporary nation-state system. The [[Aetolian League|Aetolian]] and [[Achaean League|Achaean]] leagues of the [[3rd century BC]] represented early organisational efforts at international cooperation and facilitated the development of arbitration as a dispute settlement technique.
== International legal theory ==
=== Natural law ===
The intellectual seeds of modern international law germinated in the [[16th century|16th]] and [[17th century|17th]] centuries, when the influence of the [[Catholic Church]] in international affairs gradually weakened. Many early international legal theorists were concerned with [[axiomatic]] truths thought to be reposed in [[natural law]]. Among the early natural law writers, [[Francisco de Vitoria]], [[Dominican Order|Dominican]] professor of [[theology]] at the University of [[Salamanca]], examined the question of [[just war]] and Spanish authority in the [[Americas]]. He did so while [[Spain]] was at the height of its power, after the violent Spanish conquest of [[Peru]] in [[1536]].
=== Eclectic school ===
Central in the development of modern international law was [[Hugo Grotius]] a [[Netherlands|Dutch]] [[theologian]], [[humanism|humanist]] and [[jurist]]. In his principal work ''De jure Belli ac Pacis Libri Tres'' ("Three Books on the Law of War and Peace"; [[1625]]), Grotius claimed that nations as well as persons ought to be governed by universal principle based on [[morality]] and [[Divine retribution|divine justice]]. Much of Grotius's content drew from the [[Bible]] and from classical history ([[just war]] theory of [[Augustine of Hippo]]. Drawing also from domestic [[contract law]], he also noted that relations between polities were governed by ''[[jus gentium]]'', the law of peoples, which had been established by the consent of the community of nations. (See ''[[pacta sunt servanda]]'').
The fundamental facets of the Grotian or [[eclectic]] school, especially the doctrines of legal equality, territorial sovereignty, and independence of states, became definitive to international law in Europe. These principals were recognised in the [[Peace of Westphalia]] and became the foundation for the treaties of [[Treaty of Osnabrück|Osnabrück]] and [[Treaty of Münster|Münster]].
Another eclectic thinker, [[Germany|German]] philosopher [[Christian von Wolff]], contended that the foundation for international community should come as a world superstate (''civitas maxima''), having authority over the component member states. This view was rejected by the [[Swiss]] diplomat [[Emmerich de Vattel]], who favoured a rationale of equality of states as articulated by [[18th century]] natural law. Vattel suggested in his major work ''Le droit des gens'' that the law of nations was comprised of custom and law on the one hand, and natural law on the other.
=== Legal positivism ===
The early positive school emphasized the importance of custom and treaties as sources of international law. Among the early positivists was [[Alberico Gentilis]], a professor of [[civil law (legal system)|civil law]] at [[Oxford]] who used historical examples to posit that positive law (''jus voluntarium'') was determined by general consent. Another professor at Oxford, [[Richard Zouche]], published the first manual of international law in [[1650]].
In the [[18th century]] [[legal positivism]] became popular and found its way into international legal philosophy. The principal figure among 18th century positivists was [[Cornelius van Bynkershoek]], a celebrated Dutch jurist who asserted that the bases of international law were customs and treaties commonly consented to by various states. A second positivist, [[John Jacob Moser]] was a prolific German scholar who emphasized the importance of state practice in international law. A contemporary German scholar, [[Georg Friedrich von Martens]], published the first systematic manual on positive international law, ''Precis du droit des gens moderne de l'Europe''.
The growth of [[nationalism]] and [[Hegelian]] philosophy in the [[19th century]] pushed natural law farther from the legal realm. [[Commercial law]] became nationalised into [[private international law]], distinct from public international law. Positivism narrowed the range of international practice that might qualify as law, favouring [[rationality]] to [[morality]] and [[ethic]]s. The [[Congress of Vienna]] in [[1815]] marked formal recognition of the political and international legal system based on the conditions of Europe.
==Branches of international law==
* [[International criminal law]]
* The law pertaining to [[use of force]]
* [[International humanitarian law]]
* [[Law of the sea]]
* [[Diplomatic law]]
* [[Consular law]]
* [[Law of state responsibility]]
* [[International environmental law]]
== Notes and references ==
<div style="font-size: 90%">
#{{note|1}}Higgins R, ''Problems and process : international law and how we use it'' (Oxford : Clarendon Press, 1994) at 16.
#{{note|2}}Greig, D. W., ''International Law'', 2nd edn (Butterworths: London, 1976)
</div>
==See also==
*[[International Court of Justice]]
*[[International Criminal Court]]
*[[International Criminal Tribunal for the Former Yugoslavia]]
*[[International Criminal Tribunal for Rwanda]]
*[[International Labour Organization]]
*[[Hans Kelsen]]
*[[Saskia Sassen]]
*[[Sources of international law]]
*[[UNIDROIT]]
*[[United Nations]]
*[[List of treaties]]
*[[List of international public law topics]]
''Related topics'': [[international community]], [[world government]], [[nationality]], [[terrorism]], [[environmental agreements]], [[international auxiliary language]], [[state]], [[territorial integrity]], [[Non-Intervention]].
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International organization
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:''For the political science journal, see: [[International Organization]]''
An '''international organization''' is an [[organization]] of international scope or character. There are two main types of international organizations:
*international [[intergovernmental]] organizations (IGOs), whose members are [[sovereign states]] or other intergovernmental organizations (like the [[European Union]] and the [[WTO]]).
* and [[non-governmental organization]]s (NGOs), which are private organizations.
Generally and correctly used, the term international organization is used to mean international governmental organizations only. It is in this sense that the term is used in the remainder of this article.
==Legal nature==
Legally speaking, an international organization must be established by a [[treaty]] providing it with [[legal entity|legal recognition]]. International organizations so established are [[subject of international law|subjects of international law]], capable of entering into agreements among themselves or with states. Thus international organizations in a legal sense are distinguished from mere groupings of states, such as the [[G-8]] and the [[G-77]], neither of which have been founded by treaty, though in non-legal contexts these are sometimes referred to as international organizations as well.
International organizations must also be distinguished from treaties; while all international organizations are founded on a treaty, many treaties (e.g., the [[North American Free Trade Agreement]] (NAFTA)) do not establish an international organization and rely purely on the parties for their administration.
==Membership and function==
International organizations differ in function, membership and membership criteria. Membership of some organizations ([[global organization]]s) is open to all the nations of [[Earth|the world]]. This category includes the [[United Nations]] and its specialized agencies and the [[World Trade Organization]]. Other organizations are only open to members from a particular [[subregion|region]] or [[continent]] of the world, like [[European Union]], [[African Union]], [[ASEAN]] and so on.
Finally, some organizations base their membership on other criteria: '''cultural or historical links''' (the [[Commonwealth of Nations]], [[La Francophonie]], the [[Community of Portuguese Language Countries]]), level of '''economic''' development or type of economy ([[Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development]] (OECD), [[OPEC|Organization of Petroleum-Exporting Countries]] (OPEC)), or '''religion''' ([[Organization of the Islamic Conference]]).
Were it to come about, the ultimate international organization would be a [[Federal World Government]].
In the [[nineteenth century]], [[France]] was the ''fons et origo'' of many international organizations: This means that much of the driving force to form such bodies (such as those which maintain the [[SI]] (metric system)) came from the French, and that their headquarters is in France, often in [[Paris]]. Under the [[French Third Republic|Third Republic]], the [[Exposition Universelle (1878)|International Exposition of 1878]] in that city held a great number of meetings of such international organizations - as opposed to the preceding regimes. The motivation was that to keep France a republic and not slip back into either a monarchist or [[Bonapartism|Bonapartist]] regime, the republicans would underscore their inheritance of the crusading nature of the [[French Revolution]] against feudal cultural remnants within France, which had been generalized to the rest of feudal Europe, eventually to the world. Some conclude from this example that internationalism often has national origins, at the difference of [[globalism]].
The [[Union of International Associations]] provides information on international organizations.
==Examples of organizations==
===Global organizations===
*[[United Nations]], its specialized agencies, and associated organizations
*[[INTERPOL]]
*[[International Hydrographic Organization]]
*[[World Trade Organization]]
*[[Universal Postal Union]]
===Regional organizations===
[[Image:Continental Orgs Map.png|450px|right|thumb|Organizations bringing together almost all the countries in their respective continents. [[Russia]] is member of both the [[Council of Europe]] and the [[Asian Cooperation Dialogue]].]]
[[Image:Regional Organizations Map.png|450px|right|thumb|Map of several smaller regional organizations with non-overlapping memberships.]]
'''Europe''':
*[[European Union]] (EU)
*[[Council of Europe]]
*[[European Free Trade Association]] (EFTA)
*[[European Space Agency]] (ESA)
*[[European Patent Organisation]]
'''Asia''':
*[[Asian Cooperation Dialogue]] (ACD)
*[[Association of Southeast Asian Nations]] (ASEAN)
*[[South Asian Association for Regional Cooperation]] (SAARC)
*[[Gulf Cooperation Council]]
'''Eurasia''':
*[[Commonwealth of Independent States]] (CIS)
*[[Shanghai Cooperation Organization]] (SCO)
*[[Eurasian Economic Community]]
*[[Central Asian Cooperation Organization]]
*[[GUAM]]
'''Africa''':
*[[African Union]]
*[[Conseil de l'Entente]]
*[[Economic Community of West African States]] (ECOWAS)
*[[Southern African Development Community]] (SADC)
*[[Intergovernmental Authority on Development]] (IGAD)
*[[Arab Maghreb Union]]
'''Western Hemisphere''':
*[[Organization of American States]] (OAS)
*[[South American Community of Nations]]
*[[Mercosur]]
*[[Andean Community]]
*[[Caribbean Community]] (CARICOM)
*[[Organisation of Eastern Caribbean States]] (OECS)
*[[Central American Parliament]]
*[[Rio Group]]
*[[NAFTA]]
'''Trans-atlantic''':
*[[North Atlantic Treaty Organisation]] (NATO)
*[[Organization for Security and Co-operation in Europe]] (OSCE)
'''Pacific''':
*[[Asia-Pacific Economic Cooperation]] (APEC)
*[[Pacific Islands Forum]]
*[[Secretariat of the Pacific Community]]
===Organizations with various membership criteria===
[[Image:Postempire Orgs Map.png|450px|right|thumb|International organizations that largely represent the independent states formed after the breakup of an empire. [[La Francophonie]] has overlapping membership with all three of the other organizations shown in the map.]]
*[[Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development]] (OECD)
*[[OPEC|Organization of Petroleum-Exporting Countries]] (OPEC)
*[[Commonwealth of Nations]]
*[[La Francophonie]]
*[[Comunidade dos países de língua portuguesa]] (CPLP)
*[[Organization of Ibero-American States]] (OEI)
*[[Unión Latina]]
*[[Non-Aligned Movement]]
*[[Arab League]]
*[[Organization of the Islamic Conference]]
===Financial international organizations===
* [[Bank for International Settlements]]
* [[International Monetary Fund]] (IMF)
* [[World Bank Group]]
==See also==
* [[List of organizations]]
* [[List of international organizations]]
* [[Supranational union]], [[Supranationalism]]
* [[World government]]
* [[Intergovernmentalism]]
* [[International decoration]]
* [[Environmental organizations]]
* [[Trade bloc]]
* [[Organizations with .INT domain names]]
* [[List of international trade topics]]
[[Category:International organizations|*]]
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International Telecomunications Union
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{{redirect|ITU}}
[[Image:Flag of ITU.svg|right|300px|Flag of the ITU]]
[[Image:ITU monument, Bern.jpg|thumb|300px|Monument in [[Bern]], [[Switzerland]]. The text reads: "Union Télégraphique Internationale fondée à Paris en 1865 sur l'initiative du gouvernement français. Érigé par décision de l'Union Télégraphique prise à la conférence internationale de Lisbonne en 1908." (In English: "International Telegraph Union founded at Paris in 1865 on the initiative of the French government. [This monument] erected by a decision of the Telegraph Union made at the international conference at Lisbon in 1908.")]]
The '''International Telecommunication Union''' (ITU) is an [[international organization]] established to standardize and regulate international radio and [[telecommunication]]s. It was founded as the ''International Telegraph Union'' in [[Paris]] in [[May 17]], [[1865]], and is today the world's oldest international organization. Its main tasks include [[standardization]], allocation of the [[radio]] spectrum, and organizing interconnection arrangements between different countries to allow international phone calls. (In which regard it performs for telecommunications a similar function to what the [[UPU]] performs for postal services.) It is one of the [[specialized agencies]] of the [[United Nations]], and has its headquarters in Geneva, Switzerland, next to the main United Nations campus.
The [[international standard]]s that are produced by the ITU are referred to as "''Recommendations''" (with the word ordinarily capitalized to distinguish its meaning from the ordinary sense of the word "recommendation"). Due to its longevity as an international organization and its status as a specialized agency of the United Nations, standards promulgated by the ITU carry a higher degree of formal international recognition than those of most other organizations that publish technical specifications of a similar form.
The work of the ITU is conducted by its ''members''. As part of the United Nations structure, a country can be a member, in which case it is referred to as a ''Member State''. Companies and other such organizations can hold other classes of membership referred to as ''Sector Member'' or ''Associate'' status. Sector and Associate memberships enable direct participation by a company in the development of standards (something not allowed in some other standards bodies such as [[International Organization for Standardization|ISO]], where formal ballots are processed by a single entity per country and companies participate only indirectly through national delegations). Various parts of the ITU also maintaion ''liaison relationships'' with other organizations.
See also [[ITU-T]] Telecommunications Sector, [[ITU-R]] Radiocommunications Sector, and [[ITU-D]] Development Sector.
==Meetings==
The ITU decides matters between states and private organizations through an extensive series of working parties, study groups, regional meetings, and world meetings.
===Examples===
*[[World Radiocommunications Conference]] (WRC)
*[[World Administrative Radio Conference]]s (WARC)
*[[Regional Radiocommunications Conference]]s (RRC)
==World Summit on the Information Society==
The ITU is serving as the secretariat of the [[World Summit on the Information Society]] (WSIS).
==See also==
*[[Working Group on Internet Governance]] (WGIG)
*[[:Category:ITU-T recommendations|ITU-T Recommendations]]
==External links==
*[http://www.itu.int/ ITU official site]
*[http://www.itu.int/aboutitu/overview/history.html ITU history from the official site]
*[http://www.freewebs.com/telecomm Telecom Resources]
*[http://www.egeneva.ch/ Geneva Telecom 2009 Host City Support Committee Site]
*[http://www.washingtonpost.com/ac2/wp-dyn/A36852-2003Dec4?language=printer ''U.N. Summit to Focus on Internet''] - [[Washington Post]] article about [[ICANN]] and the United Nations' ITU relationship
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Internet Message Access Protocol
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{{IPstack}}
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The '''Internet Message Access Protocol''' (commonly known as '''IMAP''', and previously called '''Interactive Mail Access Protocol''') is an [[application layer]] [[Internet]] protocol used for accessing [[e-mail]] on a remote [[mail server|server]] from a local [[e-mail client|client]]. IMAP and POP3 ([[Post Office Protocol]] version 3) are the two most prevalent [[Internet standard]] protocols for e-mail retrieval. Both are supported by virtually all modern e-mail clients and servers, although in some cases in addition to vendor-specific, typically proprietary, interfaces. For example, while proprietary protocols are typically used between [[Microsoft]]'s [[Microsoft Outlook|Outlook]] client and an [[Microsoft Exchange Server|Exchange]] server and between [[IBM]]'s [[Lotus Notes|Notes]] client and a [[Lotus Notes|Domino]] server, all of these products also support IMAP and POP3 allowing interoperability with other servers and clients. The current version of IMAP, IMAP version 4 revision 1 (IMAP4rev1), is defined by '''RFC 3501'''.
IMAP was designed by [[Mark Crispin]] in [[1986]] [http://www.imap.org/about/history.status.html] as a modern alternative to the widely used POP e-mail retrieval protocol.
Fundamentally, both of these protocols allow an e-mail client to access messages stored on an e-mail server.
Whether using POP3 or IMAP4 to retrieve messages, clients use the [[SMTP]] protocol to send messages. E-mail clients are sometimes referred to as either ''POP'' or ''IMAP'' clients, but in both cases SMTP is also used.
Most e-mail programs also use [[Lightweight Directory Access Protocol|LDAP]] for directory services.
IMAP is often used in large networks; for example, a college campus mail system. IMAP allows users to access new messages instantly on their computers, since the mail is stored on the network. With POP3, users have to either '''download''' the e-mail to their computer or access it via the web. Both ways take longer than IMAP, and you have to either download any new mail or "''refresh''" the page to see the new messages.
Unlike many older Internet protocols, IMAP4 natively supports encrypted login mechanisms. Plain text transmission of passwords in IMAP4 is also possible. Because the encryption mechanism to be used must be agreed between the server and client, plain text passwords are used in some combinations of clients and servers (typically [[Microsoft Windows]] clients and non-Windows servers). It is also possible to encrypt IMAP4 traffic using [[Transport Layer Security|SSL]], either by tunneling IMAP4 communications over SSL on port 993, or by issuing "STARTTLS" within an established IMAP4 session.
IMAP4 works over a [[Internet protocol suite|TCP/IP]] connection using network [[port (computing)|port]] 143.
==Advantages over POP3==
* Support for both ''connected'' and ''disconnected'' modes of operation
:When using POP3, clients typically connect to the e-mail server very briefly, only as long as it takes to download any new messages. When using IMAP4, clients often stay connected as long as the user interface is active and download message content on demand. For users with many or large messages, this IMAP4 usage pattern can result in much faster response times.
* Support for multiple clients simultaneously connected to the same mailbox
:The POP3 protocol assumes the currently connected client is the only client connected to the mailbox. In contrast, the IMAP4 protocol specifically allows simultaneous access by multiple clients and provides mechanisms for clients to detect changes made to the mailbox by other, concurrently connected, clients.
* Support for access to [[MIME]] parts of messages and partial fetch
:Nearly all internet e-mail is transmitted in MIME format. MIME allows messages to have a [[tree structure]] where the leaf nodes are any of a variety of ''single part'' content types and the non-leaf nodes are any of a variety of ''multipart'' types. The IMAP4 protocol allows clients to separately retrieve any of the individual MIME parts and also to retrieve portions of either individual parts or the entire message. These mechanisms allow clients to retrieve the text portion of a message without retrieving attached files or to [[streaming media|stream]] content as it is being fetched.
* Support for message state information to be kept on the server
:Through the use of ''flags'' defined in the IMAP4 protocol clients can keep track of message state, for example whether or not the message has been read, replied to, or deleted. These ''flags'' are stored on the server, so multiple clients accessing the same mailbox at different times can detect state changes made by other clients.
* Support for access to multiple mailboxes on the server
:IMAP4 clients can create, rename, and/or delete mailboxes (usually presented to the user as folders) on the server, and move messages between mailboxes. Multiple mailbox support also allows servers to provide access to shared and public folders.
* Support for server-side searches
:IMAP4 provides a mechanism for a client to ask the server to search for messages meeting a variety of criteria. This mechanism avoids requiring clients to download every message in the mailbox in order to perform these searches.
* Support for a well defined extension mechanism
:Reflecting the experience of earlier Internet protocols, IMAP defines an explicit mechanism by which it may be extended. Many [[IMAP4 extension|extension]]s to the base protocol have been proposed and are in common use.
==Disadvantages of IMAP==
* IMAP is a very heavy and complicated protocol. Writing your own custom implementation of an IMAP server is of at least 20 orders of magnitude more complicated than a POP3 implementation. Client implementations are also much more complicated.
* Due to its complexity and exhaustive feature set, it is more subject to security flaws and generation of high server load.
* Most IMAP implementations result in the modification and/or addition of header fields within the message bodies resulting in the rewriting of the mailbox file. A POP3 server accessing a mailbox so modified by IMAP could deem those modified messages as new (due to a differing UIDL calculation which is often performed on the entire message body, headers included) and result in clients re-retrieving previously downloaded messages.
==Common implementations==
The following IMAP-[[server]]s are common:
*[[Binc IMAP]] - uses [[Maildir]] format, designed to be familiar for users of [[qmail]] and qmail-pop3d [http://www.bincimap.org/]
*[[Citadel/UX|Citadel]]
*[[Courier IMAP]] - uses [[Maildir]] format.
*[[Cyrus IMAP server]] - uses a format similar to [[Maildir]] or [[MH Message Handling System|MH]].
*[[Dovecot (software)|Dovecot]] - Secure IMAP server
*[[FirstClass | FirstClass Server]] - FirstClass Server [http://www.firstclass.com/]
*[[IBM Lotus Domino]] Server
*[[Mac OS X Server]]
*[[Merak Mail Server]]
*[[Mercury/32]] - Mercury/32 [http://www.pmail.com/overviews/ovw_mercury.htm]
*[[Microsoft Exchange Server]]
*[[Mirapoint]] [http://www.mirapoint.com/]
*[[Stalker Communigate Pro]] [http://www.stalker.com/CommuniGatePro/]
*[[UW IMAP]] - supports multiple formats including [[mbox]], mbx, [[MMDF]], tenex, mtx, [[MH Message Handling System|MH]], mx, and [[Usenet]] news spools.
*[[Zimbra]] [http://www.zimbra.com/]
The following IMAP-[[client]]s are common (see also [[List_of_e-mail_clients|List of mail clients]]):
[[Command line interface|text-based]] clients:
*[[Pine (e-mail client)|UW PINE]] - One of the first IMAP clients
*[[Mutt (e-mail client)|Mutt]] - e-mail client found in many [[Linux]] distributions
[[Graphical user interface|GUI]] clients:
*[[Novell Evolution]]
*[[KMail]]
*[[Microsoft Outlook Express]]
*[[Microsoft Outlook]]
*[[Mozilla Thunderbird]] - A cross-platform and increasingly popular mail client.
*[[Mail.app|Mac OS X Mail]]
The following Web-based email services support IMAP access
*[[AIM]] [http://www.aim.com/aim_mail.adp]
== See also ==
*[[E-mail client]]
*[[Internet Mail 2000]], an alternative proposal for mail
*[[Post Office Protocol]]
*[[Simple Mail Transfer Protocol]]
*[[webmail]]
*[[List of mail servers]]
*[[Comparison of mail servers]]
*Johnson, Kevin. 2000. Internet E-mail Protocols: A Developer's Guide. Addison-Wesley. ISBN 0-201-43288-9.
== External links ==
* RFC 3501 ([http://www.faqs.org/rfcs/rfc3501.html HTML version]) - specification of IMAP version 4 revision 1
* [http://www.imap.org/ The IMAP connection] - resources for developers of programs using the IMAP protocol.
* [http://www.imap.org/products/ IMAP connection's listing of products and service providers supporting IMAP]
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An '''inertial frame''' is a [[coordinate system]] defined by the non-accelerated motion of objects with a common direction and speed (as opposed to a [[non-inertial reference frame]]).
==Introduction==
In [[physics]], an object has '''inertial motion''' if no external forces are being applied to it, famously stated as [[Newton's first law of motion]]. When such an object’s state of motion is extrapolated over a region of space to take in all other possible objects in the region with the same state of motion, and these are used to define a common [[coordinate system]], this system is referred to as a '''frame'''.
==Use of inertial frames==
Inertial frames of reference are relevant to [[Newtonian relativity]] and [[Albert Einstein|Einstein]]'s [[special relativity|special theory of relativity]].
* Under '''[[Newtonian physics|Newtonian mechanics]]''', all inertial states of motion are considered to be equivalent: if two inertial observers, '''"A"''' and '''"B"''' have a relative velocity, then the laws of physics should be the same regardless of whether we take '''"A"''' as our “stationary” reference and say that '''"B"''' is moving, or if we take '''"B"''' as our fixed reference and say that '''"A"''' is moving. Included in these rules of physics is the explicit assumption that time progresses at the same rate for all observers, meaning that clocks calibrated in one inertial coordinate system will not become uncalibrated due to one of them being moved into another inertial frame of reference.
* '''Under special relativity''', this equivalence of different inertial states of motion still applies. However, the assumption of constant progression of [[proper time]] in all frames of reference is replaced by the assumption that the [[speed of light]] is constant, and that this is equally true for every inertial observer. This required the use of a set of protocols, originally discussed by [[Henri Poincaré]] (1900) in relation to [[Hendrik Lorentz]]'s local time and used, apparently independently, by Einstein ([[Einstein synchronisation]], [[relativity of simultaneity]]). This protocol allows observers to define apparent distances and times according to the assumption of fixed light speed in their own frame, and then build an extended coordinate system for labeling the times and distances of distant events. Observers using different reference frames will derive different nominal distance and time separations between the same two events. The formulas for converting, or "[[Lorentz transformation|transforming]]" values between different frames of reference allow each observer to calculate how the physics taking place appears for another observer. As seen from different points of view the nominal distance and time separation between two events differs, but the combined [[spacetime interval]] is unchanged: it is "frame-independent", or "[[invariant (physics)|invariant]]".
==Transformations==
The way that nominal distances and times are converted from one coordinate system to another is referred to as a [[Transformation (mathematics)|transformation]].
In classical mechanics the [[kinetic energy]] of a system depends on the inertial frame of reference. It is lowest with respect to the [[center of mass]], i.e., in a frame of reference in which the center of mass is stationary. In another frame of reference the additional kinetic energy is that corresponding to the total mass and the speed of the center of mass.
Einstein argued that if we only assume that light propagates at ''c'' in a single [[preferred frame]] (i.e., if we assume an absolute fixed aether, [[classical theory and special relativity|classical theory]]), transformation of space and time coordinates is performed using [[Galilean transformation]]s, whereas with special relativity we obtain [[Lorentz transformation]]s, which only coincide with the earlier results for relative velocities that are reasonably small in comparison with the speed of light.
==Einstein’s general theory of relativity==
Einstein’s [[general relativity|general theory]] modifies the distinction between nominally "inertial" and "noninertial" effects, by replacing special relativity's "flat", [[Euclidean]] geometry with a curved [[non-Euclidean geometry|non-Euclidean]] metric. In general relativity, the principle of inertia is replaced with the principle of [[geodesic (general relativity)|geodesic motion]], whereby objects move in a way dictated by the curvature of spacetime. As a consequence of this curvature, it is not a given in general relativity that inertial objects moving at a given rate with respect to each other will continue to do so. This phenomenon of [[geodesic deviation]] means that inertial frames of reference do not exist globally as they do in Newtonian mechanics and special relativity.
However, the general theory reduces to the special theory over sufficiently small regions of spacetime, where curvature effects become less important and the earlier inertial frame arguments can come back into play. Consequently, modern SR is now sometimes described as only a “local theory”. (However, this refers to the theory’s application rather than to its derivation.)
==External links==
* [http://plato.stanford.edu/entries/spacetime-iframes/ Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy entry]
==References==
* Edwin F. Taylor and John Archibald Wheeler, '''Spacetime Physics 2nd ed.''' (Freeman, NY, 1992)
* Albert Einstein, '''Relativity, the special and the general theories, 15th ed.''' (1954)
* Poincaré, H. (1900) "La theorie de Lorentz et la Principe de Reaction", ''Archives Neerlandaises'', '''V''', 253-78.
[[Category:Astrodynamics]]
[[Category:Classical mechanics]]
[[Category:Relativity]]
[[Category:Frames of reference]]
{{relativity-stub}}
[[ar:إطار مرجعي عطالي]]
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[[fr:Référentiel galiléen]]
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[[ko:관성계]]
[[nl:Inertiaalstelsel]]
[[pl:Układ inercjalny]]
[[pt:Referencial inercial]]
[[ru:Инерциальная система отсчёта]]
[[sl:Inercialni opazovalni sistem]]
Irix
14839
15912371
2003-08-20T11:43:19Z
Magnus.de
14063
#REDIRECT[[IRIX]]
#REDIRECT[[IRIX]]
Illuminati: New World Order
14840
41805586
2006-03-01T21:43:54Z
Alan McBeth
478773
direct link
{{wikify}}
'''Illuminati: New World Order''' (INWO) is a [[collectible card game]] (CCG) that was released in 1995 by [[Steve Jackson Games]], based on their original boxed game [[Illuminati (game)|Illuminati]], which in turn was inspired by ''[[The Illuminatus! Trilogy]]''. INWO won the [[Origins Award]] for ''Best Card Game'' in the 1997.
Cards come in several types, including Illuminati, Plots, Groups, Places, Personalities, Resources, and [[New World Order]] cards. The various cards are printed with two different colored backs and are collectively referred to as simply "Groups" and "Plots". The premise is that you play one of the Illuminati groups (the [[Bavarian Illuminati]], the [[Unidentified flying object|UFO]]s, the [[Gnomes of Zürich]], etc.) bent on world domination. You seek to control a predetermined number of Groups (such as the [[Scouting|Boy Scouts]], the [[Men in Black]], the [[CIA]], etc.) and/or complete a Plot to achieve your goal before your opponent(s).
INWO is more difficult to learn than most CCGs, but it is infused with much more humor, in common with other Steve Jackson games. As with most CCGs, deck building, aggressive play, and sheer luck are key to winning, but intrigue, negotiation, deal-making, and deviousness are often more important elements. This gives INWO the flavor more of a "friendly" game of [[Monopoly game|Monopoly]] than of a [[role-playing game]].
INWO was released as a 412-card main set in double [[starter deck]]s (suitable for two players) and sealed packs, in both black-bordered limited and white-bordered unlimited editions. There was also a boxed set called variously "The Factory Set" and "One With Everything" which contained one of each card from the main set of the black-bordered limited edition, multiples of the Illuminati cards, and a few cards previously only available in magazines. One 125-card expansion of sealed packs has been released, called "Assassins", as well as a complete-in-one-box 100-card expansion called "INWO [[Church of the SubGenius|SubGenius]]". SubGenius can also be played as a stand-alone game.
There are common, uncommon, and rare cards in the main set and in Assassins; Assassins also included 10 "ultra-rare" cards. All cards in SubGenius have the same rarity. Packs of blank cards are also sold for those who wish to make up their own cards, an activity that has proven so popular that online collections of homebrew INWO cards now list thousands of cards. ''The INWO Book'', by Steve Jackson, is the official guidebook to the game.
== External links ==
* Official INWO site (includes rules): http://www.sjgames.com/inwo/
* INWO Concordance (explains WHY the cards are in the game): http://www.speakeasy.org/~sbrinich/inwoconc.html
[[Category:Collectible card games]]
[[Category:Origins award winners]]
Integration
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41753897
2006-03-01T14:29:35Z
Gflores
153556
cleanup
{{Wiktionarypar|integration}}
'''Integration''' is a process of combining or accumulating.
'''Integration''' may be any of the following:
*Integration, in the most general sense, may be any bringing together of things: the integration of two or more economies, cultures, religions (usually called [[syncretism]]), etc.
*[[integral|Integration]], in mathematics, a concept of calculus, is the process of finding integrals
*[[Antiderivative|Indefinite integration]], in mathematics, referes to antidifferentiation
*[[Racial integration]], refers to social and cultural behavior; in a legal sense, see [[desegregation]]
*[[Digital integration]], in computer science, allows data from one device or software to be read or manipulated by another, resulting in ease of use; see also [[XML]]
*[[Horizontal integration]] and [[vertical integration]], in microeconomics and strategic management, refer to a style of ownership and control
*[[Enterprise application integration]], as the use of software and computer systems to bring together a set of enterprise computer applications
*[[Integration clause]], in a contract, a term used to declare the contract the final and complete understanding of the parties
==See also==
*'''[[Integral (disambiguation)]]'''
{{disambig}}
[[de:Integration]]
[[fr:Intégration]]
[[he:אינטגרציה]]
[[lt:Integravimas]]
[[nl:Integratie]]
[[ja:インテグレーション]]
[[pl:Integracja]]
[[ru:Интеграция]]
Industrial and manufacturing engineering
14842
18763544
2005-07-13T19:36:07Z
66.49.123.51
#REDIRECT [[Industrial_engineering]]
Interstellar travel
14843
41600324
2006-02-28T12:13:49Z
T. Wong
997130
/* Sub-light-speed travel */
'''Interstellar space travel''' is unmanned or manned [[travel]] between [[star]]s, though the term usually denotes the latter. The concept of interstellar travel in [[starship]]s is a staple in [[science fiction]]. There is a tremendous difference between interstellar travel and [[interplanetary travel]], mainly due to the much larger distances involved.
As a practical goal interstellar travel has been debated fiercely by various scientists, science fiction authors, hobbyists and enthusiasts.
Many scientific papers have been published about related concepts. Given sufficient travel time and engineering work, unmanned interstellar travel seems possible. [[NASA]] has been engaging in research into these topics for several years, and has accumulated a number of theoretical approaches.
==The difficulty of interstellar travel==
Interstellar travel poses a number of difficulties. There are all the
difficulties of [[interplanetary travel]], including hard [[vacuum]], [[Ionizing radiation|radiation]], [[micrometeoroid]]s, and [[free-fall]]. These difficulties seem tractable; robot missions have been sent to almost every [[planet]] in the [[Solar system]], humans have been sent to the [[Moon]], and manned missions to [[Mars (planet)|Mars]] have been planned for years. Interstellar travel is made enormously more difficult by the million-fold greater distances to nearby stars. [[Intergalactic travel]] would involve distances a million-fold greater than interstellar distances.
===Interstellar distances===
Astronomical distances are sometimes measured in the amount of time it would take a beam of [[light]] to travel between two points. Light in a vacuum travels in approximately 3×10<sup>8</sup> metres per second, which is denoted with the letter '''c''', so a light second is approximately 3×10<sup>8</sup> metres.
The distance between Earth and its Moon is about one and a quarter light seconds. With current propulsion technologies, such a trip will typically take about three days for a spacecraft.
The distance from Earth to other planets in the solar system ranges from three light minutes to about five and a half light hours. Depending on the planet and its alignment to Earth, for a typical unmanned spacecraft these trips will take from a few months to a little over a decade.
The nearest star to the Sun is the triple system [[Alpha Centauri]]. Light radiating from that star takes a bit more than four years to reach Earth. Currently, the fastest spacecraft built can achieve a velocity of about 30 km per second (relative to Earth). At that rate, the journey would take about 40,000 years. Additionally, at the current stage of space technology, the longest space missions that have been initiated are expected to have an operational lifetime of about 40 years before failure of key components is likely to happen. Significant engineering advances such as automated self-repair may be required to ensure survival.
In short, current [[spacecraft propulsion]] technology cannot send objects fast enough to reach the stars in a reasonable time. As a point of comparison, [[Voyager 1]], launched in [[1977]], is the most far-traveled of space probes. As of 2005, it has reached a distance from Earth of approximately 12 light hours.
Even theoretical interstellar travel is expected to be slow. Current theories of physics indicate that it is impossible to travel [[faster than light]], and that if it were possible, it would also be possible to build a [[time machine]]. Most proposed mechanisms for [[faster than light]] travel require the existence of [[negative mass]].
However, [[special relativity]] and [[general relativity]] offer the possibility of shortening the ''apparent'' travel time: with sufficiently advanced engines, a [[starship]] could make interstellar voyages at nearly the speed of light, and relativistic [[time dilation]] would make the voyage seem much shorter for the traveller. However, it would be slow for the people on Earth interested in the results of the mission, and upon return to Earth, the travellers would find that far more time had elapsed (on Earth) than their subjective travel time would indicate.
==Speculative interstellar travel==
Interstellar travel designs fall into two categories. The first, which we will call ''slow interstellar travel'', takes a great deal of time, longer than a human lifespan. The second, which we will call ''fast interstellar travel'' assumes that the difficulties above can be conquered.
===Slow interstellar travel===
Slow interstellar travel designs generally use near future [[spacecraft propulsion]] technologies. As a result, voyages are extremely long, lasting hundreds or thousands of years. Voyages might be one-way trips to set up [[colony|colonies]]. The propulsion system required for such slow travel are less speculative than those for fast interstellar travel, but the duration of such journeys would present a huge obstacle in itself. The following are the major proposed solutions to that obstacle:
====Generation ships====
A [[generation ship]] would be large enough to hold a colony of people. These people would live out their lives on board the ship, and their descendants would arrive at a new solar system. These descendants might establish a colony, or perhaps stop only to explore and perhaps to build other ships. Generation ships have long been a popular plot device in science fiction; such stories often have negative outcomes involving a deterioration of the ship-borne culture.
Generation ships are not currently feasible, both because building such an enormous ship would have to be done in space, and because such a sealed, self-sustaining habitat would be difficult to construct. Artificial closed [[ecosystem]]s, including [[Biosphere 2]], have been built in an attempt to work out the engineering difficulties in such a system, with mixed results.
====Suspended animation====
Scientists and writers have postulated various techniques for [[suspended animation]]. These include human [[hibernation]] and [[cryonics|cryonic preservation]]. While neither is currently practical, they offer the possibility of [[sleeper ship]]s in which the passengers lie inert for the long years of the voyage.
====Extended human lifespan====
A variant on this possibility is based on the development of substantial human life extension, such as the [[Engineered negligible senescence|"Engineered Neglible Senescence"]] strategy of [[Aubrey de Grey|Dr. Aubrey de Grey]]. If a ship crew had lifespans of some thousands of years, they could traverse interstellar distances without the need to replace the crew in generations. The psychological effects of such an extended period of travel would potentially still pose a problem.
====Frozen embryos====
A [[robotic]] space mission carrying some number of frozen early stage human [[embryos]] is another theoretical possibility. This method of [[space colonization]] requires, among other things, the development of a method to replicate conditions in a [[womb]], the prior detection of a habitable [[terrestrial planet]], and advances in the field of fully autonomous [[robotics|mobile robots]]. (See [[embryo space colonization]].)
===Fast interstellar travel===
The possibility of starships that can reach the stars quickly (or at least, within a human lifespan) is naturally more attractive. This would require some sort of exotic propulsion methods or exotic physics.
====Sub-light-speed travel====
In 1957 it was deemed possible to build 8 million ton spaceships with [[nuclear pulse propulsion]] engines, perhaps capable of reaching speeds of about 10 percent of light speed. One problem with such a propulsion method is that it uses nuclear explosions as a driving force, and may be highly controversial due to the risk of radiation or other hazards in using such a method.
Another early proposal for an interstellar propulsion system was the [[Bussard ramjet]], in which a huge scoop would collect the diffuse hydrogen in interstellar space, "burn" it using a [[proton-proton fusion]] reaction, and expel it out the back. As the fuel would be collected ''en route'', the craft could have theoretically accelerated to near the speed of light. Proposed in 1960, later calculations with more accurate estimates suggest that the thrust generated would be less than the drag caused by any conceivable scoop design.
Fusion-powered starships should be able to reach speeds of approximately 10 percent of that of light. [[solar sail|Light sail]]s powered by massive lasers could potentially reach similar or greater speeds. Finally, if energy resources and efficient production methods are found to make [[antimatter]] in the quantities required, theoretically it would be possible to reach speeds near that of light, where [[time dilation]] would shorten perceived trip times for the travelers considerably. Even given the assumption of 10 percent of light speed, this would be enough to reach Alpha Centauri in forty years, only half a present human lifetime.
With any ship traveling at a significant fraction of light speed, shielding the spacecraft from the sparse dust and gas of the [[interstellar medium]] would become a serious issue.
====Faster than light travel====
''Main article: [[faster-than-light|Faster than Light Travel]]''
Scientists and authors have postulated a number of ways by which it might be possible to surpass the speed of light. Unfortunately, even the most serious-minded of these are extremely speculative at this point.
=====Wormholes=====
[[Wormholes]] are probably the least conjectural of faster-than-light options under current science. Wormholes are distortions in space-time that theorists postulate could connect two arbitrary points in the universe, across an [[Einstein-Rosen Bridge]]. It is not known whether or not wormholes are possible in practice. Although there are solutions to the [[Einstein equation]] of [[general relativity]] which allow for wormholes, all of the currently known solutions involve some assumption, for example the existence of [[negative mass]], which may be unphysical.
There are two types of wormholes that may enable interstellar travel. The first kind originates with the same process as a [[black hole]]: the death of a star. Wormholes of this kind safe enough for a human being to navigate would probably have to be supermassive and rotating, on a scale similar to [[Sagittarius A*]] at the centre of the [[Milky Way Galaxy]]; smaller black holes produce intense [[tidal]] forces that would completely destroy any macroscopic object falling into them.
Another kind of wormhole is based on [[quantum gravity]]. Some have speculated that [[Euclidean]] wormholes that spontaneously come into being and disappear again, and exist at scales of [[Planck length]]. It may be that this wormhole could be "propped open" using [[negative energy]] (also known as vacuum energy), though the quantity of the energy would be immense. It is not clear that any of this is even theoretically possible, largely because there is no widely accepted theory of quantum gravity.
===Interstellar travel via transmission===
If physical entities could be transmitted as information and reconstructed at a destination, travel at the speed of light would be possible.
Encoding, sending and then reconstructing an atom by atom description of (say) a human body is a daunting prospect, but it may be sufficient to send [[software]] that in all practical purposes duplicates the neural function of a person. Presumably, the receiver/reconstructor for such transmissions would have to be sent to the destination by more conventional means.
==NASA research==
As part of the NASA Breakthrough Propulsion Physics Project, it identified three things which must happen, or breakthroughs which are needed, in order for interstellar travel to be possible [http://www.nasa.gov/centers/glenn/research/warp/brakthru.html]:
# A new propulsion method which has less need for propellant
# A method of propulsion which is able to reach the maximum speed which is possible to attain
# A new method of on board energy production method which would power those devices.
Analogies for 'breakthroughs' in technology are steam engines supplanting sailing ships, and jet aircraft replacing propeller aircraft. The breakthrough event means that they are not looking for a better way of designing a rocket engine, but instead a substantially new technology. It comes where the benefits of a past technology advancing gradually diminish, where there becomes a need for a new technology.
==References==
* {{cite book | last = Mallove | first = Eugene | title=The Starflight Handbook | publisher = John Wiley & Sons, Inc | year = 1989 | id = ISBN 0471619124 }}
==See also==
* [[interstellar communication]]
* [[relativistic rocket]]
* [[Starwisp]]
* [[Project Daedalus]]
* [[Project Orion]]
* [[spacewarp]]
==External links==
* [http://www.grc.nasa.gov/WWW/bpp/ NASA Breakthrough Propulsion Physics Program]
* [http://www.centauri-dreams.org/ Centauri Dreams]
[[Category:Science fiction themes]]
[[Category:Transportation]]
[[Category:Interstellar travel]]
[[da:Interstellar rejse]]
[[de:Interstellare Raumfahrt]]
[[ja:恒星間航行]]
Interior Gateway Routing Protocol
14844
40565283
2006-02-21T13:45:05Z
Eskimbot
477460
robot Adding: fr
'''Interior Gateway Routing Protocol''' ('''IGRP''') is a kind of [[Interior Gateway Protocol|IGP]] which is a proprietary [[distance-vector routing protocol]] invented by [[Cisco Systems, Inc.|Cisco]], used by [[router]]s to exchange [[routing]] data within an [[autonomous system (Internet)|autonomous system]].
IGRP was created in part to overcome the limitations of [[Routing Information Protocol|RIP]] (maximum hop count, and a single routing metric) when used within large networks. IGRP supports multiple metrics for each route, including bandwidth, load, delay, mtu, and reliability; to compare two routes these metrics are combined together into a single metric, using a formula which can be adjusted through the use of pre-set constants. The maximum hop count of IGRP-routed packets is 255.
Its successor is [[EIGRP]], that adds [[Diffusing Update Algorithm]] (DUAL) ideas to the basic distance-vector mechanism of IGRP.
[[Category:Network protocols]]
[[Category:Routing protocols]]
[[de:Interior Gateway Routing Protocol]]
[[fr:Interior Gateway Routing Protocol]]
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[[pt:Interior Gateway Routing Protocol]]
[[sv:Interior Gateway Routing Protocol]]
IRS (disambiguation)
14845
28470071
2005-11-16T03:24:42Z
Brim
102642
Intergroup Rhabdomyosarcoma Study Group
'''IRS''' is an abbreviaton for:
* [[U.S. Internal Revenue Service]]
* [[Independent rear suspension]], used in automobiles.
* [[I.R.S. Records]]
* [[Mike Rotundo|Irwin R. Schyster]], professional wrestler
* [[Interest rate swap]]
* [[Indian Remote Sensing satellite]]
* Inertial Reference System; see [[Inertial guidance system]]
* [[Indian Revenue Service]]
* [[International Register of Shipping]]
* [[Intergroup Rhabdomyosarcoma Study Group]], about the [[cancer]], [[rhabdomyosarcoma]]
{{TLAdisambig}}
I.R.S.
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31052927
2005-12-12T14:55:54Z
RussBot
279219
Robot: Fixing [[Special:DoubleRedirects|double-redirect]] -"U.S. Internal Revenue Service" +"Internal Revenue Service"
#REDIRECT [[Internal Revenue Service]]
Indo-European languages
14848
edit=autoconfirmed:move=autoconfirmed
41884746
2006-03-02T10:11:28Z
Aleksei
538842
{{sprotected}}
{{Indo-European}}
The '''Indo-European languages''' are a [[language family|family]] of several hundred [[language]]s and dialects (443 according to the [[SIL International|SIL]] estimate), including most of the major languages of [[Europe]], as well as many in West, Central and [[Southern Asia]]. Contemporary languages in this family include [[Hindi language|Hindi]], [[Bengali language|Bengali]], [[German language|German]], [[English language|English]], [[Portuguese language|Portuguese]], [[Russian language|Russian]], [[Spanish language|Spanish]] (each with more than [[1 E8|100 million]] native speakers), as well as numerous smaller national or minority languages. Indo-European is the largest family of languages in the world today, with its languages spoken by approximately 3 billion native speakers; the second largest family of tongues is [[Sino-Tibetan languages|Sino-Tibetan]]. There are other, controversial supergroupings.
==Classification==
{{Infobox Language family
|name=Indo-European
|altname=Indo-Germanic (obsolete)
|region=Before the 15th century, [[Europe]], and [[South Asia|South]] and [[Southwest Asia]]; today worldwide.
|familycolor=Indo-European
|family=One of the world's major [[language family|language families]]; although links with other families have been proposed, none of these has received mainstream acceptance.
|child1=[[Albanian language|Albanian]]
|child2=[[Anatolian languages|Anatolian]]
|child3=[[Armenian language|Armenian]]
|child4=[[Balto-Slavic languages|Balto-Slavic]]
|child5=[[Celtic languages|Celtic]]
|child6=[[Germanic languages|Germanic]]
|child7=[[Greek language|Greek]]
|child8=[[Indo-Iranian languages|Indo-Iranian]]
|child9=[[Italic languages|Italic]] (including [[Romance languages|Romance]])
|child10=[[Tocharian languages|Tocharian]]
|map=[[Image:IE_countries.png|center|thumb|280px|Red: countries with a majority of speakers of IE languages<br />Orange: countries with an IE minority language with official status]]
}}
The various subgroups of the [[Indo-European]] family include (in historical order of their first attestation):
* [[Anatolian languages]] — earliest attested branch, from the [[18th century BC]]; extinct, most notable was the language of the [[Hittites]].
* [[Indo-Iranian languages]], descending from a common ancestor, [[Proto-Indo-Iranian language|Proto-Indo-Iranian]]
**[[Indo-Aryan languages]], including [[Sanskrit]], attested from the [[2nd millennium BC]]
**[[Iranian languages]], attested from roughly [[1000 BC]], including [[Avestan]] , [[Kurdish language|Kurdish]] and [[Persian language|Persian]]
**[[Dardic languages]]
**[[Nuristani languages]]
* [[Greek language]] — fragmentary records in [[Mycenaean]] from the [[14th century BC]]; [[Homer]] dates to the [[8th century BC]]. See [[Proto-Greek language]], [[History of the Greek language]].
* [[Italic languages]] — including [[Latin]] and its descendants, the [[Romance languages]], attested from the [[1st millennium BC]].
* [[Celtic languages]] — [[Gaulish]] inscriptions date as early as the [[6th century BC]]; [[Old Irish language|Old Irish]] texts from the [[6th century AD]], see [[Proto-Celtic language]].
* [[Germanic languages]] (including [[Old English language|English]]) — earliest testimonies in [[runic]] inscriptions from around the [[2nd century]], earliest coherent texts in [[Gothic language|Gothic]], [[4th century]], see [[Proto-Germanic language]].
* [[Armenian language]] — attested from the [[5th century]].
* [[Tocharian languages]] — extinct tongues of the [[Tocharians]], extant in two dialects, attested from roughly the [[6th century]].
* [[Balto-Slavic languages]], believed by many Indo-Europeanists to derive from a common proto-language later than Proto-Indo-European, while others are skeptical and think that Baltic and Slavic are no more closely related than any other two branches of Indo-European.
** [[Slavic languages]] — attested from the [[9th century]], earliest texts in [[Old Church Slavonic]].
** [[Baltic languages]] — attested from the [[14th century]], and, for languages attested that late, they retain unusually many archaic features attributed to [[Proto-Indo-European language|Proto-Indo-European]].
* [[Albanian language]] — attested from the [[15th century]] (1462); relations with Illyrian, Dacian, or Thracian proposed.
In addition to the classical ten branches listed above, there are several extinct languages, about which very little is known:
* [[Illyrian languages]] — possibly related to Messapian or Venetic; relation to Albanian also proposed.
* [[Venetic language]] — close to Italic.
* [[Liburnian language]] — apparently grouped with Venetic.
* [[Messapian language]] — not conclusively deciphered.
* [[Phrygian language]] — language of ancient [[Phrygia]], possibly close to Greek, Thracian, or Armenian.
*[[Paionian language]] — extinct language once spoken north of Macedon.
* [[Thracian language]] — possibly close to Dacian.
* [[Dacian language]] — possibly close to Thracian and Albanian.
* [[Ancient Macedonian language]] — probably related to Greek, others propose relation to Illyrian, Thracian or Phrygian.
* [[Ligurian language]] — possibly not Indo-European; possibly close to or part of Celtic
There were no doubt other Indo-European languages which are now lost without a trace. The fragmentary [[Raetian language]] cannot be classified with any certainty.
Further subfamilies have been suggested, among them [[Italo-Celtic]] and [[Graeco-Aryan]]. Neither of these is widely accepted. [[Indo-Hittite]] refers to the hypothesis that there is a significant separation between Anatolian and all the remaining groups.
===Satem and Centum languages===
[[Image:Centum Satem map.png|thumb|260px|Diachronic map showing the Centum (blue) and Satem (red) areals. The supposed area of origin of Satemization is shown in darker red ([[Sintashta-Petrovka|Sintashta]]/[[Abashevo culture|Abashevo]]/[[Srubna culture|Srubna]] cultures).]]
The Indo-European sub-branches are often classified in a [[Satem]] and a [[Centum]] group. This is based on the varying treatments of the three original [[velar]] rows. Satem languages lost the distinction between labiovelar and pure velar sounds, and at the same time [[sibilant|assibilated]] the palatal velars. The centum languages, on the other hand, lost the distinction between palatal velars and pure velars. Thus, geographically, the "eastern" languages are Satem (Indo-Iranian, Balto-Slavic, but not including Tocharian and Anatolian), and the "western" languages are Centum (Germanic, Italic, Celtic). The [[Centum-Satem isogloss|Satem-Centum isogloss]] runs right between the Greek (Centum) and Armenian (Satem) languages (thought to be related by a number of scholars), with Greek exhibiting some marginal Satem features. Some scholars think that there may be some languages that classify neither as Satem nor as Centum (Anatolian, Tocharian, and possibly Albanian). It should be noted that the grouping does not imply a claim of [[monophyly]]: there never was a "proto-Centum" or a "proto-Satem", but the sound changes spread by areal contact among already distinct post-PIE languages (say, during the 3rd millennium BC).
{| align="center"
|[[Image:IndoEuropeanTreeA.PNG|thumb|800px| Indo-European Language Tree]]
|}
===Suggested superfamilies===
Some linguists propose that Indo-European languages are part of a hypothetical [[Nostratic language]] superfamily, and attempt to relate Indo-European to other language families, such as [[South Caucasian languages]], [[Altaic languages]], [[Uralic languages]], [[Dravidian languages]], [[Afro-Asiatic languages]]. This theory is controversial, as is the similar [[Eurasiatic languages|Eurasiatic]] theory of [[Joseph Greenberg]], and the [[Proto-Pontic]] of John Colarusso.
==History==
{| align=right
|[[Image:IE5500BP.png|thumb|232px|right|late [[Proto-Indo-European language]] in the [[Kurgan]] framework]]
|-
|[[Image:IE4500BP.png|thumb|232px|right|mid-[[3rd millennium BC]] distribution]]
|-
|[[Image:IE3500BP.png|thumb|232px|right|mid [[2nd millennium BC]] distribution]]
|-
|[[Image:IE2500BP.png|thumb|232px|right|distribution around [[250 BC]]]]
|-
|[[Image:IE1500BP.png|thumb|232px|right|post- [[Roman Empire]] and [[Migrations period]] distribution]]
|-
|[[Image:IE0500BP.png|thumb|232px|right|late medieval distribution (after [[Islam]]ic, [[Hungary|Hungarian]] and [[Turkic peoples|Turkic]] expansions)]]
|}
''See also: [[Proto-Indo-European language|Proto-Indo-European]], [[Historical linguistics]], [[Glottochronology]].''
The possibility of common origin for some of these languages was first proposed by [[Marcus Zuerius van Boxhorn]] in [[1647]], proposing their derivation from "[[Scythian]]". However, the suggestions of van Boxhorn did not become widely known and were not pursued. The hypothesis was again proposed by [[William Jones (philologist)|Sir William Jones]], who noticed similarities between four of the oldest languages known in his time, [[Latin]], [[Greek language|Greek]], [[Sanskrit]], and [[Persian language|Persian]]. Systematic comparison of these and other old languages conducted by [[Franz Bopp]] supported this theory, and Bopp's ''Comparative Grammar'', appearing between [[1833]] and [[1852]] is considered the starting point of [[Indo-European studies]] as an academic discipline.
The common ancestral (reconstructed) language is called [[Proto-Indo-European language|Proto-Indo-European]] (PIE). There is disagreement as to the original [[geography|geographic]] location (the so-called "[[Urheimat]]" or "original homeland") from where it originated. There are two main candidates today:
# the steppes north of the [[Black Sea]] and the [[Caspian Sea]] (see [[Kurgan]])
# [[Anatolia]] (see [[Colin Renfrew]]).
Proponents of the Kurgan hypothesis tend to date the proto-language to ca. [[4000 BC]], while proponents of Anatolian origin usually date it several millennia earlier, associating the spread of Indo-European languages with the Neolithic spread of farming (see [[Indo-Hittite]]).
===Kurgan hypothesis===
{{main|Kurgan hypothesis}}
The Kurgan hypothesis was originally suggested by [[Marija Gimbutas]] in the [[1950s]]. According to the Kurgan hypothesis, early PIE was spoken in the [[chalcolithic]] steppe cultures of the [[5th millennium BC]] between the [[Black Sea]] and the [[Volga]].
Currently, her theories do not hold credence with most reputable scholars. Ms. Gimbutas's so-called Kurgan peoples theory relies heavily on Kurgan burial mounds. Unfortunately, it is unproven that these so-called Kurgan peoples were ever members of the Indo-European culture-linguistic group. Precisely because '''known''' ancient Indo-European cultures, (i.e. the Indo-Aryans [people of India], the Greeks, Estruscan/Romans, and the ancient norse peoples), universally practiced '''cremation''' and '''not''' burial. This contradiction with known and recorded cultural practices of [[cremation]] amongst proven ancient, yet geographically diverse Indo-Europeans groups, casts doubt on the probability that the so-called Kurgan culture were Indo-European. With these caveats in mind, below is outlined Gimbutas' Kurgan hypothesis.
Timeline
*[[4500 BC|4500]]–4000: '''Early PIE'''. [[Sredny Stog culture|Sredny Stog]], [[Dnieper-Donets culture|Dnieper-Donets]] and [[Samara culture|Sarama]] cultures, [[domestication of the horse]].
*[[4000 BC|4000]]–3500: The [[Yamna culture]], the prototypical [[kurgan]] builders, emerges in the steppe, and the [[Maykop culture]] in the northern [[Caucasus (geographic region)|Caucasus]]. [[Indo-Hittite]] models postulate the separation of [[Anatolian languages|Proto-Anatolian]] before this time.
*[[3500 BC|3500]]–3000: '''Middle PIE'''. The Yamna culture is at its peak, representing the classical reconstructed [[Proto-Indo-European society]], with [[Ukrainian stone stela|stone idols]], early two-wheeled proto-chariots, predominantly practicing [[animal husbandry]], but also with permanent settlements and [[hillfort]]s, subsisting on agriculture and fishing, along rivers. Contact of the Yamna culture with late [[Neolithic Europe]] cultures results in the "kurganized" [[Globular Amphora culture|Globular Amphora]] and [[Baden culture|Baden]] cultures. The [[Maykop culture]] shows the earliest evidence of the beginning [[Bronze Age]], and bronze weapons and artefacts are introduced to Yamna territory. Probable early [[Satemization]].
*[[3000 BC|3000]]–2500: '''Late PIE'''. The Yamna culture extends over the entire Pontic steppe. The [[Corded Ware culture]] extends from the [[Rhine]] to the [[Volga]], corresponding to the latest phase of Indo-European unity, the vast "kurganized" area disintegrating into various independent languages and cultures, still in loose contact enabling the spread of technology and early loans between the groups, except for the Anatolian and Tocharian branches, which are already isolated from these processes. The Centum-Satem break is probably complete, but the phonetic trends of Satemization remain active.
*[[2500 BC|2500]]–2000: The breakup into the proto-languages of the attested dialects is complete. [[Proto-Greek]] is spoken in the [[Balkans]], [[Indo-Iranian languages|Proto-Indo-Iranian]] north of the Caspian in the [[Sintashta-Petrovka]] culture. The Bronze Age reaches [[Central Europe]] with the [[Beaker culture]], likely composed of various Centum dialects. [[Proto-Balto-Slavic]] (or alternatively, [[Proto-Slavic]] and [[Proto-Baltic]] communities in close contact) develops in north-eastern Europe. The [[Tarim mummies]] possibly correspond to proto-[[Tocharians]].
*[[2000 BC|2000]]–1500: The [[chariot]] is invented, leading to the split and rapid spread of [[Iranian languages|Iranian]] and [[Indo-Aryan languages|Indo-Aryan]] from the [[Andronovo culture]] and the [[Bactria-Margiana Archaeological Complex]] over much of [[Central Asia]], Northern [[India]], [[Iran]] and Eastern [[Anatolia]]. Proto-Anatolian is split into [[Hittite language|Hittite]] and [[Luwian]]. The pre-Proto-Celtic [[Unetice culture]] has an active metal industry ([[Nebra skydisk]]).
*[[1500 BC|1500]]–1000: The [[Nordic Bronze Age]] develops (pre-)[[Proto-Germanic]], and the (pre-)[[Proto-Celtic]] [[Urnfield]] and [[Hallstatt culture|Hallstatt]] cultures emerge in Central Europe, introducing the [[Iron Age]]. [[Proto-Italic]] migration into the [[Italian peninsula]]. Redaction of the [[Rigveda]] and rise of the [[Vedic civilization]] in the [[Punjab region|Punjab]]. Flourishing and decline of the [[Hittite Empire]]. The [[Mycenaean civilization]] gives way to the [[Greek Dark Ages]].
*[[1000 BC]]–[[500 BC]]: The [[Celtic languages]] spread over Central and Western Europe. Northern Europe enters the [[Pre-Roman Iron Age]], the formative phase of [[Proto Germanic]]. [[Homer]] initiates Greek literature and early [[Classical Antiquity]]. The Vedic Civilization gives way to the [[Mahajanapadas]]. [[Zoroaster]] composes the [[Gatha]]s, rise of the [[Achaemenid Empire]], replacing the [[Elamites]] and [[Babylonia]]. The [[Cimmerians]] ([[Srubna culture]]) are replaced by [[Scythians]] in the Pontic steppe. [[Armenians]] succeed the [[Urartu]] culture. Separation of Proto-Italic into [[Osco-Umbrian languages|Osco-Umbrian]] and [[Latin-Faliscan languages|Latin-Faliscan]], and foundation of [[Rome]]. Genesis of the [[Greek alphabet|Greek]] and [[Old Italic alphabet|Old Italic]] alphabets. A variety of [[Paleo-Balkan languages]] are spoken in Southern Europe. The Anatolian languages are [[language death|extinct]].
===Competing hypotheses===
[[Colin Renfrew]] in [[1987]] suggested that the spread of Indo-European was associated with the [[Neolithic revolution]], spreading peacefully into Europe from [[Asia Minor]] from around [[7000 BC]] with the advance of farming (''wave of advance''). Accordingly, all of [[Neolithic Europe]] would have been Indo-European speaking, and the Kurgan migrations would at best have replaced Indo-European dialects with other Indo-European dialects.
[[Thomas Gamkrelidze]] and [[Vyacheslav V. Ivanov]] in [[1984]] placed the Indo-European homeland on [[Lake Urmia]]. They suggested that [[Armenian language|Armenian]] was the language which stayed in the Indo-European cradle while other Indo-European languages left the homeland. They are also the originators of the [[Glottalic theory]].
Some people have pointed to the [[Black Sea deluge theory]], dating the genesis of the [[Sea of Azov]] to ca. [[5600 BC]], as a direct cause of the Indo-European expansion. This event occurred in still clearly Neolithic times and is rather too early to fit with Kurgan archaeology. It may still be imagined as an event in the remote past of the [[Sredny Stog culture]], and the people living on the land now beneath the Sea of Azov as possible pre-Proto-Indo-Europeans.
Other theories exist, often with a [[nationalism|nationalistic]] flavour, sometimes bordering on [[national mysticism]], typically positing the development ''in situ'' of the proponents' respective homes. One prominent example of such are the Indian theories that derive [[Vedic Sanskrit]] from the [[Indus valley civilization]], postulating that Vedic Sanskrit is essentially identical to Proto-Indo-European, and that all other dialects must ultimately trace back to the early Indus valley civilization of ca. 3000 BC. This theory is not widely accepted by scholars. See [[Indo-Aryan migration]] for a discussion. Another example may be the [[Paleolithic Continuity Theory]] proposed by Italian theorists that derives Indo-European from the European [[Paleolithic]] cultures.
==Sound changes==
{{main|Indo-European sound laws}}
As the Proto-Indo-European language broke up, its sound system diverged as well, according to various [[sound law]]s in the daughter languages. Notable among these are [[Grimm's law]] in [[Proto-Germanic]], loss of prevocalic ''*p-'' in [[Proto-Celtic]], loss of prevocalic ''*s-'' in [[Proto-Greek]], [[Brugmann's law]] in [[Proto-Indo-Iranian]], as well as [[Satemization]] treated above. [[Grassmann's law]] and [[Bartholomae's law]] may or may not have been still common Indo-European.
==References==
* {{cite book | last = Watkins | first = Calvert | title = The American Heritage Dictionary of Indo-European Roots | publisher = Houghton Mifflin | year = 2000 | id = ISBN 0618082506 }}
* [[August Schleicher]], ''A Compendium of the Comparative Grammar of the Indo-European Languages'' (1861/62).
* Leszek Bednarczuk (red.), ''Języki indoeuropejskie''. PWN. Warszawa. 1986 (in Polish). <!-- is this a book? -->.
==See also==
* [[Language family]]
* [[Indo-European studies]]
* [[Proto-Indo-European language]]
* [[List of Indo-European roots]]
* [[List of Indo-European languages]]
* [[List of languages]]
== External links ==
;Databases
* [http://www.indoeuropean.nl The Indo-European Database]
* [http://www.ethnologue.com/show_family.asp?subid=90017 IE language family overview (SIL)]
* [http://languageserver.uni-graz.at/ls/group?id=4 Indo-European] at the LLOW-database
* [http://www.utexas.edu/cola/depts/lrc/iedocctr/ie.html Indo-European Documentation Center] at the [[University of Texas at Austin]]
;Evolution
* [http://www.ship.edu/%7Ecgboeree/indoeuropean.html The Evolution of the Indo-European Languages, by Dr. C. George Boeree].
* [http://www.HJHolm.de A possible Homeland of the Indo-European Languages] by Hans J. Holm
* [http://www.psych.auckland.ac.nz/psych/research/Evolution/Gray&Atkinson2003.pdf Gray & Atkinson, article on PIE Phylogeny]
;Lexicon
* [http://www.bartleby.com/61/IEroots.html Indo-European Roots, from the American Heritage Dictionary].
* [http://www.geocities.com/protoillyrian Indo-European Root/lemmas] (by Andi Zeneli)
[[Category:Indo-European languages|*]]
[[Category:language families]]
[[af:Indo-Europese tale]]
[[ang:Indo-Europisc geþéodu]]
[[ar:هندوأوروبية]]
[[bg:Индоевропейски езици]]
[[be:Індаэўрапейскія мовы]]
[[bs:Indoevropski jezici]]
[[br:Yezhoù Europa]]
[[ca:Llengües indoeuropees]]
[[cs:Indoevropská jazyková rodina]]
[[cy:Ieithoedd Indo-Ewropeaidd]]
[[da:Indoeuropæiske sprog]]
[[de:Indogermanische Sprachfamilie]]
[[et:Indoeuroopa keeled]]
[[el:Ινδοευρωπαϊκές γλώσσες]]
[[es:Lenguas indoeuropeas]]
[[eo:Hindeŭropa lingvaro]]
[[fa:زبانهای هندواروپایی]]
[[fo:Indo-evropeisk mál]]
[[fr:Langues indo-européennes]]
[[fy:Yndo-Jeropeeske talen]]
[[ga:Cine teangeolaíoch Ind-Eorpach]]
[[gl:Linguas indoeuropeas]]
[[ko:인도유럽어족]]
[[hr:Indoeuropska jezična porodica]]
[[io:Indo-Europana linguaro]]
[[id:Indo-Eropa]]
[[it:Lingue indoeuropee]]
[[he:שפות הודו-אירופיות]]
[[kw:Yethow Eyndo-Europek]]
[[ku:Zimanmalbata hind û ewropî]]
[[la:Linguae Indoeuropaeae]]
[[lv:Indoeiropieši]]
[[jbo:xinjoiro'o bangu]]
[[hu:Indoeurópai nyelvcsalád]]
[[nl:Indo-Europese talen]]
[[nds:Indoeuropääsche Spraken]]
[[ja:インド・ヨーロッパ語族]]
[[no:Indo-europeiske språk]]
[[oc:Categoria:Lengas indo-europèas]]
[[pl:Języki indoeuropejskie]]
[[pt:Línguas indo-européias]]
[[ro:Limbile indo-europene]]
[[ru:Индоевропейские языки]]
[[se:Indoeurohpálaš gielat]]
[[sl:Indoevropski jeziki]]
[[fi:Indoeurooppalaiset kielet]]
[[sv:Indoeuropeiska språk]]
[[th:ภาษากลุ่มอินโด-ยูโรเปียน]]
[[vi:Hệ ngôn ngữ Ấn-Âu]]
[[tr:Hint-Avrupa dil ailesi]]
[[uk:Індоєвропейські мови]]
[[zh:印欧语系]]
Illinois
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Reverted edits by [[Special:Contributions/68.252.244.45|68.252.244.45]] ([[User talk:68.252.244.45|talk]]) to last version by Artemisboy
{{Otheruses1|the U.S. State}}
{{US state |
Name = Illinois |
Fullname = State of Illinois |
Flag = Illinois state flag.png |
Flaglink = [[Flag of Illinois]] |
Seal = Illinois state seal.png |
Map = Map of USA highlighting Illinois.png |
Nickname = Land of Lincoln, The [[Prairie]] State |
Motto = State sovereignty, national union |
Capital = [[Springfield, Illinois|Springfield]] |
LargestCity = [[Chicago, Illinois|Chicago]] |
Governor = [[Rod Blagojevich]] (D)|
Senators = [[Richard Durbin]] (D)
[[Barack Obama]] (D) |
PostalAbbreviation = IL |
OfficialLang = [[English language|English]]|
AreaRank = 25<sup>th</sup> |
TotalArea = 149,998 |
LandArea = 143,968 |
WaterArea = 6,030 |
PCWater = 4.0 |
PopRank = 5<sup>th</sup> |
2000Pop = 12,419,293 |
DensityRank = 11<sup>th</sup> |
2000Density = 86.27 |
AdmittanceOrder = 21<sup>st</sup> |
AdmittanceDate = [[December 3]], [[1818]] |
TimeZone = [[Central Standard Time Zone|Central]]: [[Coordinated Universal Time|UTC]]-6/[[Daylight saving time|-5]] |
Latitude = 36°58'N to 42°30'N |
Longitude = 87°30'W to 91°30'W |
Width = 340 |
Length = 629 |
HighestElev = 376 |
MeanElev = 182 |
LowestElev = 85 |
ISOCode = US-IL |
Website = www.illinois.gov
}}
'''Illinois''' ([[IPA chart for English|pronounced]] {{IPA|[ˌɪ.lɨˈnɔɪ̯]}} or "ill-i-NOY") was the [[U.S. state|21st state]] to join the [[United States]], located in the former [[Northwest Territory]]. Its name was given by the state's [[France|French explorers]] after the indigenous [[Illiniwek]] people, a [[consortium]] of [[Algonquian]] tribes that thrived in the area. The word ''Illiniwek'' means simply the "men," i.e. "people."
The [[capital]] of Illinois is [[Springfield, Illinois|Springfield]], while its largest city is [[Chicago, Illinois|Chicago]]. The U.S. postal abbreviation for the state is '''IL'''.
The [[USS Illinois|USS ''Illinois'']] was named in honor of this state.
== History ==
{{main|History of Illinois}}
===Pre-[[Christopher Colombus|Columbian]]===
[[Cahokia]], the urban center of the pre-Columbian [[Mississippian culture]], was located near present-day [[Collinsville, Illinois]]. That civilization vanished circa 1400–1500 for unknown reasons. The next major power in the region was the [[Illiniwek]] Confederation or Illini, a political alliance among several tribes. The Illiniwek gave Illinois its name. The Illini suffered in the seventeenth century as [[Iroquois]] expansion forced them to compete with several tribes for land. The Illini were replaced in Illinois by the [[Potawatomi]], [[Miami_tribe|Miami]], [[Sauk]], and other tribes.
===European exploration===
[[France|French]] explorers [[Jacques Marquette]], [[Society of Jesus|S.J.]], and [[Louis Joliet]] explored the [[Illinois River]] in 1673. As a result of their exploration, Illinois was part of the French empire until 1763, when it passed to the [[United Kingdom|British]] as a result of the [[French and Indian War]]. [[George Rogers Clark]] claimed the [[Illinois Country]] for the [[Virginia|Commonwealth of Virginia]] during his military campaigns there in 1778. The area was ceded to the new United States in 1783 and became part of the [[Northwest Territory]].
===The 1800s===
The [[Illinois-Wabash Company]] was an early claimant to much of Illinois. The [[Illinois Territory]] was created on [[February 3]], [[1809]]. In 1818, Illinois became the 21st U.S. state. Early U.S. settlement began in the south part of the state and quickly spread northward, driving out the native residents. With the 1832 [[Black Hawk War]], the last native tribes were driven out of northern Illinois.
The winter of 1830-1831 is called the "[[Winter of the Deep Snow]]". A sudden, deep snowfall blanketed the state, making travel impossible for the rest of the winter. Travelers lucky enough to find shelter had to stay where they were. Many others perished. Several severe winters followed, including the "[[Winter of the Sudden Freeze]]". On [[December 20]], [[1836]], a fast-moving cold front passed through, freezing puddles in minutes, killing many travelers who could not reach shelter. The adverse weather resulted in crop failures in the northern part of the state. The southern part of the state shipped food north and this may have contributed to its name: "[[Little Egypt|Egypt]]", after the [[Biblical]] story of Joseph in Egypt supplying grain to his brothers.
As early as [[1840]], Illinois was called the "[[Sucker State]]".
Illinois is known as the "Land of [[Abraham Lincoln|Lincoln]]" because it is here that the 16th [[President of the United States|President]] spent most of his life, practicing law and living in [[Springfield, Illinois|Springfield]].
Even so, Illinois was not a strong anti-slavery state. In 1853 Illinois passed a Black Code which, among other things required any black entering the state and staying more than ten days to pay a fine of $50. If he could not pay, the black could be sold into slavery for a period commensurate with the fine. {{further|[[Black Codes in Northern USA]]}}
[[Chicago, Illinois|Chicago]] gained prominence as a [[Great Lakes]] port and then as a [[canal]] port after 1848, and as a rail hub soon afterward. By 1857, Chicago was Illinois' largest city. {{further|[[History of Chicago]]}}
===The Civil War===
{{main|Illinois in the Civil War}}
During the [[United States Civil War|Civil War]], over 250,000 Illinois men served in the [[Union Army]], more than any other northern state except [[New York]], [[Pennsylvania]] and [[Ohio]]. Beginning with President Lincoln's first call for troops and continuing throughout the war, Illinois mustered 150 infantry regiments, which were numbered from the 7th IL to the 156th IL. Seventeen cavalry regiments were also gathered, as well as two light artillery regiments.
==Government==
[[Image:Ilolluds.jpg|thumb|right|The sample version of the current [[Illinois]] [[license plate]] introduced in 2001.]]
{{main|Government of Illinois}}
The state government of Illinois is modeled after the federal government with adaptations originating from traditions cultivated during the state's frontier era. As codified in the state constitution, there are three branches of government: executive, legislative and judicial. The executive branch is led by the [[Governor of Illinois]]. Legislative functions are given to the [[Illinois General Assembly]], composed of the 118-member [[Illinois State House of Representatives]] and the 59-member [[Illinois State Senate]]. The judiciary is comprised of the [[state supreme court]], which oversees the lower [[court of appeals|appellate court]]s and [[circuit court]]s.
*The '''[[Governor of Illinois]]''' is [[Rod Blagojevich]] ([[Democratic Party (United States)|Democrat]])
*The '''[[Lieutenant Governor of Illinois]]''' is [[Pat Quinn (politician)|Pat Quinn]] ([[Democratic Party (United States)|Democrat]])
*The '''[[Illinois Attorney General|Attorney General of Illinois]]''' is [[Lisa Madigan]] ([[Democratic Party (United States)|Democrat]])
*The '''[[Secretary of State of Illinois]]''' is [[Jesse White (politician)|Jesse White]] ([[Democratic Party (United States)|Democrat]])
*The '''[[Comptroller of Illinois]]''' is [[Daniel Hynes]] ([[Democratic Party (United States)|Democrat]])
*The '''[[Treasurer of Illinois]]''' is [[Judy Baar Topinka]] ([[Republican Party (United States)|Republican]])
*The '''Senior [[United States Senate|United States Senator]]''' is [[Richard J. Durbin]] ([[Democratic Party (United States)|Democrat]])
*The '''Junior [[United States Senate|United States Senator]]''' is [[Barack Obama]] ([[Democratic Party (United States)|Democrat]])
Illinois was always a major battleground between the [[Republican Party (United States)|Republican Party]] and the [[Democratic Party (United States)|Democratic Party ]]. Since 1992 it has moved steadily more Democratic at the national and state level. Illinois voted for Democratic presidential candidates in the last four elections. John Kerry easily won the state's 21 electoral votes in 2004 by a margin of 11 percentage points with 54.8% of the vote. Traditionally the central cities were Democratic, especially [[Chicago, Illinois|Chicago]] and [[East Saint Louis, Illinois|East Saint Louis]]. The suburbs of Chicago were historically Republican, but GOP margins have been plunging there, causing the overall shift to the Democrats. Small cities and towns are Republican strongholds (except for the old coal mining towns). Rural districts in the northern third of the state have historically been Republican; those in the middle third mixed, and those in [[Little Egypt (region)|Little Egypt]] (the southern third of the state), Democratic.
== Geography ==
[[Image:National-atlas-illinois.png|thumb|300px|right|Illinois, showing major cities and roads]]
{{main|Geography of Illinois}}
Illinois is in the north-central U.S. and borders on [[Lake Michigan]]. Surrounding states are [[Wisconsin]] to the north, [[Iowa]] and [[Missouri]] to the west, [[Kentucky]] to the south, and [[Indiana]] to the east. Illinois also borders Michigan, but only via a water boundary in Lake Michigan.
Illinois has three major geographical divisions. The first is [[Chicagoland]], including the city of [[Chicago, Illinois|Chicago]], its suburbs, and the adjoining exurban area into which the metropolis is expanding. This region includes a few counties in Indiana and Wisconsin and stretches across much of northern Illinois toward the Iowa border, generally along Interstates [[Interstate 80|80]] and [[Interstate 90|90]]. This region is cosmopolitan, densely populated, industrialized, and settled by a variety of ethnic groups.
Southward and westward, the second major division is central Illinois, an area of mostly flat [[prairie]]. Known as the Land of [[Abraham Lincoln|Lincoln]] or the Heart of Illinois, it is characterized by small towns and mid-sized cities. Agriculture, particularly [[maize|corn]] and [[soybeans]], figures prominently. Major cities include famously average [[Peoria, Illinois|Peoria]], [[Springfield, Illinois|Springfield]] (the state capital), [[Decatur, Illinois|Decatur]], [[Bloomington-Normal]] and [[Champaign, Illinois|Champaign]]-[[Urbana, Illinois|Urbana]] (home of the [[University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign|University of Illinois]]).
The third division is southern Illinois, comprising the area south of [[U.S. Route 50]], and including [[Little Egypt (region)|Little Egypt]]), near the juncture of the [[Mississippi River]] and [[Ohio River]]. This region can be distinguished from the other two by its warmer climate, different mix of crops (including some [[cotton]] farming in the past), more rugged topography (unglaciated and older, Illinoian Age, glaciated), as well as small-scale oil deposits and [[coal]] mining. The area is a little more populated than the central part of the state with the population centered in two areas: the Greater St. Louis Metropolitan Area (the Illinois suburbs of St. Louis are known as "[[Metro-East]]") and the Carbondale, Marion, West Frankfort, Herrin, Murphysboro, Carterville, Johnston City area which is home to a little over 180,000 residents.
Collectively, all of Illinois outside the Chicago Metropolitan area is called "downstate Illinois" (even though a portion is north or west of Chicago)
[[McLean County, Illinois|McLean County]] is the largest county in terms of land area, at 1,184 sq mi. it is larger than [[Rhode Island]], while [[Cook County, Illinois|Cook County]] is the largest county in terms of population, at 5,327,777 (both figures are as of 2004).
In extreme northwestern Illinois the [[Driftless Zone]], a region of unglaciated and therefore higher and more rugged topography, occupies a small part of the state. [[Charles Mound]], located in this region, is the state's highest natural elevation above [[sea level]]. The highest true elevation in Illinois is the [[Sears Tower]] with an elevation at the top of its roof of approximately 2,030 feet (the elevation of Chicago is approximately 580 feet and the height of the roof is approximately 1450 feet). On a clear day, you can see four states - Illinois, Indiana, Wisconsin and Michigan. Visibility from the Sears Tower Skydeck is approximately 40-50 miles (65 - 80 km).
The floodplain on the Mississippi River from [[Alton, Illinois|Alton]] to the [[Kaskaskia River]] is the [[American Bottom]], and is the site of the ancient city of [[Cahokia]], and was a region of early French settlement, as well as the site of the first state capital, at [[Kaskaskia, Illinois|Kaskaskia]].
The southern tip of Illinois is in the [[Gulf Coastal Plain]].
== Economy ==
[[Image:Illinoisquarter2003 geraldfarinas.PNG|left|Illinois Quarter]]
{{main|Economy of Illinois}}
The 2004 total [[gross state product]] for Illinois was $528 billion, placing it 5<sup>th</sup> in the nation. The 2003 per capita income was $32,965.
Illinois' agricultural outputs are [[maize|corn]], [[soybean]]s, [[hog]]s, [[cattle]], dairy products, and [[wheat]]. Its industrial outputs are machinery, food processing, electrical equipment, chemical products, publishing, fabricated metal products, transportation equipment, [[petroleum]] and [[coal]].
== Demographics ==
{| class="toccolours" align="right" cellpadding="4" cellspacing="0" style="margin:0 0 1em 1em; font-size: 95%; clear:right;"
|-
! colspan=2 bgcolor="#ccccff" align="center"| Historical populations
|-
! align="center"| Census<br>year !! align="right"| Population
|-
| colspan=2|<hr>
|-
| align="center"| 1800 || align="right"| 2,458
|-
| align="center"| 1810 || align="right"| 12,282
|-
| align="center"| 1820 || align="right"| 55,211
|-
| align="center"| 1830 || align="right"| 157,445
|-
| align="center"| 1840 || align="right"| 476,183
|-
| align="center"| 1850 || align="right"| 851,470
|-
| align="center"| 1860 || align="right"| 1,711,951
|-
| align="center"| 1870 || align="right"| 2,539,891
|-
| align="center"| 1880 || align="right"| 3,077,871
|-
| align="center"| 1890 || align="right"| 3,826,352
|-
| align="center"| 1900 || align="right"| 4,821,550
|-
| align="center"| 1910 || align="right"| 5,638,591
|-
| align="center"| 1920 || align="right"| 6,485,280
|-
| align="center"| 1930 || align="right"| 7,630,654
|-
| align="center"| 1940 || align="right"| 7,897,241
|-
| align="center"| 1950 || align="right"| 8,712,176
|-
| align="center"| 1960 || align="right"| 10,081,158
|-
| align="center"| 1970 || align="right"| 11,113,976
|-
| align="center"| 1980 || align="right"| 11,426,518
|-
| align="center"| 1990 || align="right"| 11,430,602
|-
| align="center"| [[United States 2000 Census|2000]] || align="right"| 12,419,293
|}
As of 2005, Illinois has an estimated population of 12,763,371, which is an increase of 51,355, or 0.4%, from the prior year and an increase of 343,724, or 2.8%, since the year 2000. This includes a natural increase since the last census of 406,425 people (that is 959,470 births minus 553,045 deaths) and a decrease due to net migration of 63,011 people out of the state. Immigration from outside the United States resulted in a net increase of 328,020 people, and migration within the country produced a net loss of 391,031 people.
As of 2004 there were 1,682,900 foreign-born (13.3%).
At the northern edge of the state on Lake Michigan lies Chicago, the nation's third largest city. In 2000, 23.3% of the population lived in the city of Chicago, 43.3% in Cook County and 65.6% in Illinois's part of [[Chicagoland]], the leading industrial and transportation center in the region, which includes Will, DuPage, Kane, and Lake Counties as well as Cook County. The rest of the population lives in the smaller cities and in the rural areas that dot the state's plains.
The racial makeup of the state is as follows:
*67.8% [[Whites|White]]
*15.9% [[Blacks|Black]]
*12.3% [[Hispanics|Hispanic]]
*3.4% [[Asian American|Asian]]
*0.2% [[Native American (U.S. Census)|Native American]]
*1.9% [[Mixed Race]]
The top five ancestry groups in Illinois are: [[German-American|German]] (19.6%), [[African American]] (15.1%), [[Ireland|Irish]] (12.2%), [[Mexico|Mexican]] (9.2%), and [[Polish-American|Polish]] (7.5%)
Nearly three in ten whites in Illinois claimed at least partial German ancestry on the Census, making the Germans the largest ancestry group in the state. Blacks are present in large numbers in the city of Chicago, East St. Louis, and the southern tip of the state. Residents of American and British ancestry are especially concentrated in the southeastern part of the state. Metropolitan Chicago has the greatest numbers of people of Irish, Mexican, and Polish ancestry.
7.1% of Illinois' population were reported as under 5, 26.1% under 18, and 12.1% were 65 or older. Females made up approximately 51% of the population.
===Religion===
Protestants are the largest religious group in Illinois, however unlike the other Midwestern states, Illinois is not overwhelmingly Protestant (less than half of the people identify themselves as such). Roman Catholics, who are heavily concentrated in and around Chicago, account for 30% of the population.
The religious affiliations of the people of Illinois are:
*[[Christianity|Christian]] – 80%
**[[Protestantism|Protestant]] – 49%
***[[Baptist]] – 12%
***[[Lutheranism|Lutheran]] – 7%
***[[Methodism|Methodist]] – 7%
***[[Presbyterianism|Presbyterian]] – 3%
***Other Protestant or general Protestant – 20%
**[[Roman Catholicism in the United States|Roman Catholic]] – 30%
**Other Christian – 1%
*Other religions – 4%
*Non-religious – 16%
== Important cities and towns ==
[[Image:Chitown jc01.jpg|300px|thumb|right|Chicago]]
{{main|List of towns and villages in Illinois}}
{| border="0" style="font-size: small;"
|valign="top"|
Population over 1,000,000:
*[[Chicago, Illinois|Chicago]]
Population 100,000 to 1,000,000:
*[[Aurora, Illinois|Aurora]]
*[[Joliet, Illinois|Joliet]]
*[[Naperville, Illinois|Naperville]]
*[[Peoria, Illinois|Peoria]]
*[[Rockford, Illinois|Rockford]]
*[[Springfield, Illinois|Springfield]] (state capital)
|valign="top" rowspan=2|
Important suburbs of Chicago:
*[[Addison, Illinois|Addison]]
*[[Arlington Heights, Illinois|Arlington Heights]]
*[[Aurora, Illinois|Aurora]]
*[[Berkeley, Illinois|Berkeley]]
*[[Berwyn, Illinois|Berwyn]]
*[[Bolingbrook, Illinois|Bolingbrook]]
*[[Buffalo Grove, Illinois|Buffalo Grove]]
*[[Calumet City, Illinois|Calumet City]]
*[[Carol Stream, Illinois|Carol Stream]]
*[[Carpentersville, Illinois|Carpentersville]]
*[[Cicero, Illinois|Cicero]]
*[[Crystal Lake, Illinois|Crystal Lake]]
*[[Des Plaines, Illinois|Des Plaines]]
*[[Downers Grove, Illinois|Downers Grove]]
*[[Elgin, Illinois|Elgin]]
*[[Elk Grove Village, Illinois|Elk Grove Village]]
*[[Elmhurst, Illinois|Elmhurst]]
*[[Evanston, Illinois|Evanston]]
*[[Geneva, Illinois|Geneva]]
*[[Glendale Heights, Illinois|Glendale Heights]]
*[[Glen Ellyn, Illinois|Glen Ellyn]]
*[[Glenview, Illinois|Glenview]]
*[[Highland Park, Illinois|Highland Park]]
*[[Hoffman Estates, Illinois|Hoffman Estates]]
*[[Joliet, Illinois|Joliet]]
*[[La Grange, Illinois|La Grange]]
*[[Lemont, Illinois|Lemont]]
*[[Mount Prospect, Illinois|Mount Prospect]]
*[[Naperville, Illinois|Naperville]]
*[[Northbrook, Illinois|Northbrook]]
*[[Oak Lawn, Illinois|Oak Lawn]]
*[[Oak Park, Illinois|Oak Park]]
*[[Orland Park, Illinois|Orland Park]]
*[[Oswego, Illinois|Oswego]]
*[[Palatine, Illinois|Palatine]]
*[[Park Ridge, Illinois|Park Ridge]]
*[[Schaumburg, Illinois|Schaumburg]]
*[[Skokie, Illinois|Skokie]]
*[[St. Charles, Illinois|St. Charles]]
*[[Tinley Park, Illinois|Tinley Park]]
*[[Waukegan, Illinois|Waukegan]]
*[[Western Springs, Illinois|Western Springs]]
*[[Wheaton, Illinois|Wheaton]]
*[[Wheeling, Illinois|Wheeling]]
of [[St. Louis, Missouri|St. Louis]]:
*[[Belleville, Illinois|Belleville]]
*[[Collinsville, Illinois|Collinsville]]
*[[East St. Louis, Illinois|East Saint Louis]]
*[[Edwardsville, Illinois|Edwardsville]]
*[[Granite City, Illinois|Granite City]]
*[[O'Fallon, Illinois|O'Fallon]]
of [[Rockford, Illinois|Rockford]]:
*[[Loves Park, Illinois|Loves Park]]
*[[Machesney Park, Illinois|Machesney Park]]
of [[Peoria, Illinois|Peoria]]:
*[[East Peoria, Illinois|East Peoria]]
*[[Morton, Illinois|Morton]]
*[[Pekin, Illinois|Pekin]]
*[[Washington, Illinois|Washington]]
|-
|valign="top"|
Population 10,000 to 100,000:
*[[Champaign, Illinois|Champaign]]
*[[Urbana, Illinois|Urbana]]
*[[Bloomington, Illinois|Bloomington]]
*[[Normal, Illinois|Normal]]
*[[East Moline, Illinois|East Moline]]
*[[Moline, Illinois|Moline]]
*[[Rock Island, Illinois|Rock Island]]
*[[Decatur, Illinois|Decatur]]
*[[Alton, Illinois|Alton]]
*[[Bellwood, Illinois|Bellwood]]
*[[Kankakee, Illinois|Kankakee]]
*[[DeKalb, Illinois|DeKalb]]
*[[Danville, Illinois|Danville]]
*[[Quincy, Illinois|Quincy]]
*[[Galesburg, Illinois|Galesburg]]
*[[Sterling, Illinois|Sterling]]
*[[Peru, Illinois|Peru]]
*[[Freeport, Illinois|Freeport]]
*[[Carbondale, Illinois|Carbondale]]
*[[Jacksonville, Illinois|Jacksonville]]
*[[Charleston, Illinois|Charleston]]
*[[Centralia, Illinois|Centralia]]
*[[Plainfield, Illinois|Plainfield]]
*[[Ottawa, Illinois|Ottawa]]
*[[Woodstock, Illinois|Woodstock]]
*[[Woodridge, Illinois|Woodridge]]
*[[Herrin, Illinois|Herrin]]
*[[Mattoon, Illinois|Mattoon]]
*[[Macomb, Illinois|Macomb]]
*[[Streator, Illinois|Streator]]
*[[Lincoln, Illinois|Lincoln]]
*[[Dixon, Illinois|Dixon]]
*[[Mount Vernon, Illinois|Mount Vernon]]
*[[Marion, Illinois|Marion]]
*[[West Frankfort, Illinois|West Frankfort]]
*[[Canton, Illinois|Canton]]
*[[Rantoul, Illinois|Rantoul]]
*[[Effingham, Illinois|Effingham]]
*[[Taylorville, Illinois|Taylorville]]
*[[Morris, Illinois|Morris]]
*[[Murphysboro, Illinois|Murphysboro]]
*[[Kewanee, Illinois|Kewanee]]
*[[Sandwich, Illinois|Sandwich]]
*[[Pontiac, Illinois|Pontiac]]
*[[Harrisburg, Illinois|Harrisburg]]
*[[Braidwood, Illinois|Braidwood]]
*[[Monmouth, Illinois|Monmouth]]
|}
== Counties of Illinois ==
{{see also|List of Illinois counties}}
{| border="0" style="font-size: small;"
|valign="top"|
* [[Adams County, Illinois|Adams]]
*[[Alexander County, Illinois|Alexander]]
*[[Bond County, Illinois|Bond]]
*[[Boone County, Illinois|Boone]]
*[[Brown County, Illinois|Brown]]
*[[Bureau County, Illinois|Bureau]]
*[[Calhoun County, Illinois|Calhoun]]
*[[Carroll County, Illinois|Carroll]]
*[[Cass County, Illinois|Cass]]
*[[Champaign County, Illinois|Champaign]]
*[[Christian County, Illinois|Christian]]
*[[Clark County, Illinois|Clark]]
* [[Clay County, Illinois|Clay]]
* [[Clinton County, Illinois|Clinton]]
* [[Coles County, Illinois|Coles]]
* [[Cook County, Illinois|Cook]]
* [[Crawford County, Illinois|Crawford]]
* [[Cumberland County, Illinois|Cumberland]]
* [[DeKalb County, Illinois|DeKalb]]
* [[De Witt County, Illinois|De Witt]]
* [[Douglas County, Illinois|Douglas]]
|valign="top"|
* [[Du Page County, Illinois|Du Page]]
* [[Edgar County, Illinois|Edgar]]
* [[Edwards County, Illinois|Edwards]]
* [[Effingham County, Illinois|Effingham]]
* [[Fayette County, Illinois|Fayette]]
* [[Ford County, Illinois|Ford]]
* [[Franklin County, Illinois|Franklin]]
* [[Fulton County, Illinois|Fulton]]
* [[Gallatin County, Illinois|Gallatin]]
* [[Greene County, Illinois|Greene]]
* [[Grundy County, Illinois|Grundy]]
* [[Hamilton County, Illinois|Hamilton]]
* [[Hancock County, Illinois|Hancock]]
* [[Hardin County, Illinois|Hardin]]
* [[Henderson County, Illinois|Henderson]]
* [[Henry County, Illinois|Henry]]
* [[Iroquois County, Illinois|Iroquois]]
* [[Jackson County, Illinois|Jackson]]
* [[Jasper County, Illinois|Jasper]]
* [[Jefferson County, Illinois|Jefferson]]
* [[Jersey County, Illinois|Jersey]]
|valign="top"|
* [[Jo Daviess County, Illinois|Jo Daviess]]
* [[Johnson County, Illinois|Johnson]]
* [[Kane County, Illinois|Kane]]
* [[Kankakee County, Illinois|Kankakee]]
* [[Kendall County, Illinois|Kendall]]
* [[Knox County, Illinois|Knox]]
* [[Lake County, Illinois|Lake]]
* [[La Salle County, Illinois|La Salle]]
* [[Lawrence County, Illinois|Lawrence]]
* [[Lee County, Illinois|Lee]]
* [[Livingston County, Illinois|Livingston]]
* [[Logan County, Illinois|Logan]]
* [[McDonough County, Illinois|McDonough]]
* [[McHenry County, Illinois|McHenry]]
* [[McLean County, Illinois|McLean]]
* [[Macon County, Illinois|Macon]]
* [[Macoupin County, Illinois|Macoupin]]
* [[Madison County, Illinois|Madison]]
* [[Marion County, Illinois|Marion]]
* [[Marshall County, Illinois|Marshall]]
|valign="top"|
* [[Mason County, Illinois|Mason]]
* [[Massac County, Illinois|Massac]]
* [[Menard County, Illinois|Menard]]
* [[Mercer County, Illinois|Mercer]]
* [[Monroe County, Illinois|Monroe]]
* [[Montgomery County, Illinois|Montgomery]]
* [[Morgan County, Illinois|Morgan]]
* [[Moultrie County, Illinois|Moultrie]]
* [[Ogle County, Illinois|Ogle]]
* [[Peoria County, Illinois|Peoria]]
* [[Perry County, Illinois|Perry]]
* [[Piatt County, Illinois|Piatt]]
* [[Pike County, Illinois|Pike]]
* [[Pope County, Illinois|Pope]]
* [[Pulaski County, Illinois|Pulaski]]
* [[Putnam County, Illinois|Putnam]]
* [[Randolph County, Illinois|Randolph]]
* [[Richland County, Illinois|Richland]]
* [[Rock Island County, Illinois|Rock Island]]
* [[St. Clair County, Illinois|St. Clair]]
|valign="top"|
* [[Saline County, Illinois|Saline]]
* [[Sangamon County, Illinois|Sangamon]]
* [[Schuyler County, Illinois|Schuyler]]
* [[Scott County, Illinois|Scott]]
* [[Shelby County, Illinois|Shelby]]
* [[Stark County, Illinois|Stark]]
* [[Stephenson County, Illinois|Stephenson]]
* [[Tazewell County, Illinois|Tazewell]]
* [[Union County, Illinois|Union]]
* [[Vermilion County, Illinois|Vermilion]]
* [[Wabash County, Illinois|Wabash]]
* [[Warren County, Illinois|Warren]]
* [[Washington County, Illinois|Washington]]
* [[Wayne County, Illinois|Wayne]]
* [[White County, Illinois|White]]
* [[Whiteside County, Illinois|Whiteside]]
* [[Will County, Illinois|Will]]
* [[Williamson County, Illinois|Williamson]]
* [[Winnebago County, Illinois|Winnebago]]
* [[Woodford County, Illinois|Woodford]]
|}
Name origins can be found at [[List of Illinois county name etymologies]].
== Education ==
===Illinois State Board of Education===
The Illinois State Board of Education or ISBE, autonomous of the governor and the state legislature, administers [[public education]] in the state. Local municipalities and their respective [[school district]]s operate individual public schools but the ISBE audits performance of public schools with an [[Illinois School Report Card|annual school report card]]. The ISBE also makes recommendations to state leaders concerning education spending and policies.
There is current debate as to the role of the ISBE and whether or not its autonomous relationship with the governor and the state legislature is appropriate. In 2002, the Office of the Governor proposed the creation of a monolithic statewide department of education to replace the ISBE. However, direct control of the new department would fall under the state governor's jurisdiction. The structure would mimic the system employed by the [[Hawaii State Department of Education]], which has no local school districts. Opponents to the proposal argue that local communities would lose control over what their children would learn in public schools and the means by which those public schools operate.
===Primary and secondary schools===
{{see also|List of school districts in Illinois|List of high schools in Illinois}}
Education is compulsory from [[kindergarten]] through the twelfth grade in Illinois, commonly but not exclusively divided into three tiers of [[primary education|primary]] and [[secondary education]]: [[elementary school]], [[middle school]] or [[junior high school]] and [[high school]]. District territories are often complex in structure. In some cases, elementary, middle and junior high schools of a single district feed into high schools in another district.
===Colleges and universities===
While many students enter the military or join the workforce directly from high school, students have the option of applying to [[college]]s and [[university|universities]] in Illinois. Notable Illinois institutions of [[higher education]] include [[Northwestern University]], [[University of Chicago]] and the several branches of the [[University of Illinois]]. Illinois is also home to 49 colleges in the [[Illinois community college system]].
====List of colleges and universities====
{| border="0"
|valign="top"|
*[[Augustana College]]
*[[Aurora University]]
*[[Barat College]]
*[[Benedictine University]]
*[[Blackburn College]]
*[[Bradley University]]
*[[The Chicago School of Professional Psychology]]
*[[Chicago State University]]
*[[City Colleges of Chicago]]
**[[Richard J. Daley College]]
**[[Harold Washington College]]
**[[Kennedy-King College]]
**[[Malcolm X College]]
**[[Olive-Harvey College]]
**[[Harry S Truman College]]
**[[Wilbur Wright College]]
*[[College of DuPage]]
*[[Columbia College Chicago]]
*[[Concordia University, River Forest]]
*[[DePaul University]]
*[[DeVry University, DuPage]]
*[[Dominican University]]
*[[East-West University]]
*[[Eastern Illinois University]]
*[[Elgin Community College]]
*[[Elmhurst College]]
*[[Erikson Institute]]
*[[Eureka College]]
*[[Governors State University]]
*[[Greenville College]]
*[[Illinois College]]
*[[Illinois Institute of Technology]]
*[[Illinois State University]]
*[[Illinois Wesleyan University]]
*[[John Wood Community College]]
*[[Joliet Junior College]]
*[[Judson College]]
*[[Kendall College]]
*[[Knox College]]
*[[Lake Forest College]]
*[[Lakeview College of Nursing]]
*[[Lake Land College]]
*[[Lewis University]]
*[[Lincoln Christian College and Seminary]]
*[[Lincoln College, Illinois|Lincoln College]]
*[[Loyola University Chicago]]
*[[Lutheran School of Theology at Chicago]]
|valign="top"|
*[[McKendree College]]
*[[MacMurray College]]
*[[Midwestern University]]
*[[Millikin University]]
*[[Monmouth College]]
*[[Moody Bible Institute]]
*[[National University of Health Sciences]]
*[[National-Louis University]]
*[[North Central College]]
*[[North Park College and Theological Seminary]]
*[[Northeastern Illinois University]]
*[[Northern Illinois University]]
*[[Northwestern University]]
*[[Olivet Nazarene University]]
*[[Principia College]]
*[[Quincy University]]
*[[Rend Lake College]]
*[[Robert Morris College]]
*[[Rockford College]]
*[[Roosevelt University]]
*[[Rush University]]
*[[Saint Anthony College of Nursing]]
*[[St. Xavier University]]
*[[School of the Art Institute of Chicago]]
*[[Shimer College]]
*[[Southern Illinois University System]]
**[[Southern Illinois University Carbondale]]
**[[Southern Illinois University Edwardsville]]
*[[South Suburban College of Cook County]]
*[[Spertus Institute of Jewish Studies]]
*[[Trinity Christian College]]
*[[Trinity International University]]
*[[Triton College]]
*[[University of Chicago]]
*[[University of Illinois System]]
**[[University of Illinois at Chicago]]
**[[University of Illinois at Springfield]]
**[[University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign]]
*[[University of Saint Francis (Illinois)|University of Saint Francis]]
*[[Waubonsee Community College]]
*[[Western Illinois University]]
*[[Wheaton College, Illinois|Wheaton College]]
*[[William Rainey Harper College]]
|}
== Professional sports teams ==
{| border="0"
|valign="top"|
*[[Major League Baseball]]:
**[[Chicago Cubs]]
**[[Chicago White Sox]]
*[[minor league baseball|Minor League baseball]]:
**[[Peoria Chiefs]]
**[[Kane County Cougars]]
**[[Gateway Grizzlies]]
**[[Rockford RiverHawks]]
**[[Schaumburg Flyers]]
**[[Windy City ThunderBolts]]
|valign="top"|
*[[Arena Football League]]
**[[Chicago Rush]]
*[[Major League Soccer]]
**[[Chicago Fire (soccer)|Chicago Fire]]
*[[National Basketball Association]]
**[[Chicago Bulls]]
*[[National Football League]]
**[[Chicago Bears]]
*[[National Hockey League]]
**[[Chicago Blackhawks]]
*[[Women's National Basketball Association]]
**[[Chicago Sky]]
|}
==Famous Residents==
[[Image:wiki_illinois.jpg|thumb|350px|Greetings from Illinois]]
*[[John Belushi]], early member of [[The Second City]]; raised in [[Wheaton, Illinois]]
*[[Ray Bradbury]], science-fiction and fantasy author; born in [[Waukegan, Illinois]]
*[[Miles Davis]], pioneering jazz artist; born in [[Alton, Illinois]] and raised in [[East Saint Louis, Illinois]]
*[[Harrison Ford]], famous actor; born in Chicago and raised in [[Park Ridge, Illinois]]
*[[Hillary Rodham Clinton]], former First Lady and current US senator from NY; born and raised in [[Park Ridge, Illinois]]
*[[Donald Rumsfeld]], current U.S. Secretary of Defense; born and raised in [[Evanston, Illinois]]
*[[Mike Krzyzewski]], coach of the [[Duke University]] men's [[basketball]] team; born in [[Chicago]]
*[[Charlton Heston]], famous actor and [[NRA]] spokesman; born, raised, and attended college in the suburbs of Chicago
*[[Abraham Lincoln]], the 16th President, is buried in [[Springfield, Illinois]]
*[[Makataimeshekiakiak]], or "Black Hawk", the [[Sac]] chief who defended Illinois natives against European incursion in the [[Black Hawk War]]
*[[John Malkovich]], actor, producer, and director; born in [[Christopher, Illinois]], attended [[Illinois State University]]
*[[Bill Murray]], influential member of [[The Second City]]; born and raised in Chicago
*[[Dick Durbin]], the state's senior senator and [[United States Senate Minority Whip]]
*[[Barack Obama]], the state's junior member in the [[United States Senate]]
*[[Richard Pryor]], pioneering comedian; born and raised in a [[brothel]] in [[Peoria, Illinois]]
*[[Ronald Reagan]], the 40th President; born in [[Tampico, Illinois]]
*[[Jennifer Rhodes]], theatre, television and movie actress; most notibly for her role as [[Penelope Halliwell]] on the series ''[[Charmed]]''
*[[Shel Silverstein]], famous children's author; born and raised in Chicago
*[[Adlai Stevenson II]], governor, 1952 and 1956 Presidential candidate; buried in [[Bloomington, Illinois]]
*[[Oprah Winfrey]], talk show host, richest African American woman, director of Harpo; maintains a residence on Lake Michigan in the [[Streeterville]] section of [[Chicago, Illinois]]
==Rogues gallery==
*[[William Stratton]], Governor, charged with tax evasion, acquitted
*[[Orville Hodge]], State Auditor, imprisoned for embezzlement
*[[Otto Kerner, Jr.]], Governor, federal judge, imprisoned for bribery.
*[[Paul Powell]], Secretary of State, died with shoeboxes full of money (but never indicted)
*[[Daniel Walker]], Governor, imprisoned for financial fraud
*[[Dan Rostenkowski]], U.S. Congressman, imprisoned for mail fraud
*[[George Ryan]], Secretary of State, Governor, on trial (2005) for corruption
== State symbols ==
[[Image:Cardinal.jpg|thumb|300px|The Cardinal is the state bird of Illinois]]
*[[State animal]]: [[White-tailed deer]] (''Odocoileus virginianus'')
*[[State amphibian]]: [[Tiger Salamander|Eastern Tiger Salamander]] (''Ambystoma tigrinum tigrinum'')
*[[List of U.S. state birds|State bird]]: [[Northern Cardinal|Cardinal]] (''Cardinalis cardinalis'')
*[[List of U.S. state capitals|State capital]]: [[Springfield, Illinois|Springfield]]
*[[State dance]]: [[Square dance]]
*[[State fish]]: [[Bluegill]] (''Lepomis macrochirus'')
*[[State flower]]: Purple [[violet (plant)|violet]] (''Viola sororia'')
*[[State fossil]]: [[Tully Monster]] (''Tullimonstrum gregarium'')
*[[State insect]]: [[Monarch butterfly]]
*[[State mineral]]: [[Fluorite]]
*[[List of U.S. state mottos|State motto]]: "State sovereignty, national union"
*[[State grass|State prairie grass]]: Big Bluestem (''Andropogon gerardii'')
*[[State reptile]]: [[Painted Turtle]] (''Chrysemys picta'')
*[[State slogan]]: "Land of Lincoln"
*[[State snack]]: [[Popcorn]]
*[[State soil]]: [[Drummer Silty Clay Loam]]
*[[State song]]: "[[Illinois (state song)|Illinois]]"
*[[State tree]]: [[White oak]] (''Quercus alba'')
== See also ==
*[[Little Egypt (region)|Little Egypt]]
*[[Fort Sheridan, Illinois]]
*[[List of ZIP Codes in Illinois]]
*[[U.S. presidential election, 2004, in Illinois]]
*[[Illinois State Parks]]
*[[Popcorn]]
*[[Chicago]]
== References ==
* Biles, Roger. ''Illinois: A History Of The Land And Its People'' (2005).
* Cole, Arthur Charles. ''The Era of the Civil War, 1848-1870'' (1919)
* Davis, James E. ''Frontier Illinois'' (1998).
*Gove, Samuel K. and James D. Nowlan. ''Illinois Politics & Government: The Expanding Metropolitan Frontier'' (1996). Government text with guide to further sources.
* Hallwas, John E. ed., ''Illinois Literature: The Nineteenth Century'' (1986)
* Horsley, A. Doyne. ''Illinois: A Geography'' (1986)
* Howard, Robert P. ''Illinois: A History of the Prairie State'' (1972).
* Jensen, Richard. ''Illinois: A History'' (2001). Uses a traditional-modern-postmodern model.
* Keiser, John H. ''Building for the Centuries: Illinois 1865-1898'' (1977)
* Meyer, Douglas K. ''Making the Heartland Quilt: A Geographical History of Settlement and Migration in Early-Nineteenth-Century Illinois'' (2000)
*Kleppner, Paul. Political Atlas of Illinois (1988). Maps for 1980s.
* Pease, Theodore Calvin. ''The Frontier State, 1818-1848'' (1918). Volume II of a series published by the Illinois Centennial Commission
* [http://history.alliancelibrarysystem.com/IllinoisAlive/files/bp/htm7/bp000182.cfm Peck, J. M. A Gazetteer of Illinois (1837)].
* Sutton, Robert P. ed. ''The Prairie State: A Documentary History of Illinois'' (1977).
* WPA. ''Illinois: A Descriptive and Historical Guide'' (1939). One of the most famous surveys--covers every town and city and much more.
== External links ==
{{sisterlinks|Illinois}}
* [http://www.encyclopedia.chicagohistory.org/ ''Encyclopedia of Chicago'' (2005)]
*[http://www.illinois.gov State of Illinois Web Site]
:*[http://www.illinois.gov/facts/symbols.cfm Illinois State Symbols]
*[http://www.ecanned.com/indsum/level1/IL/index.html Illinois Employment] - State and County Data
*[http://quickfacts.census.gov/qfd/states/17000.html U.S. Census Bureau]
{{Illinois}}
{{United_States}}
[[Category:Illinois|*]]
[[Category:States of the United States]]
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[[ko:일리노이 주]]
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Imaginary numbers
14850
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2002-02-25T15:51:15Z
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#REDIRECT [[Imaginary number]]
Ian Murdock
14851
41918076
2006-03-02T16:40:24Z
195.144.77.46
Add succession box
'''Ian Murdock''' is the founder of the [[Debian]] project and the commercial [[Progeny Debian]] distribution.
He wrote the [[Debian Manifesto]] in [[1993]] while a student at [[Purdue University]], where he earned his [[bachelor's degree]].
He named Debian after himself and his (then) girlfriend (now wife) ''Deb''ra. He also founded the company [[Progeny Linux Systems]].
{{compu-bio-stub}}
{{start box}}
{{succession box|title=[[Debian Project Leader]]|years=August 1993 – March 1996|before=Founder of the Debian project|after=[[Bruce Perens]]}}
{{end box}}
== External links ==
*[http://ianmurdock.com/ ianmurdock.com]
*[http://www.linuxjournal.com/article/2841 LinuxJournal article on Debian from 1994]
*[http://www.progeny.com/ Progeny]
[[Category:Debian]]
[[de:Ian Murdock]]
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Idol worship
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#REDIRECT [[Idolatry]]
Indiana
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/* Miscellaneous information */
{{US state |
Name = Indiana |
Fullname = State of Indiana |
Flag = Indiana state flag.png |
Flaglink = [[Flag of Indiana]] |
Seal = Indiana state seal.png |
Map = Map of USA highlighting Indiana.png |
Nickname = The [[Hoosier]] State |
Motto = State sovereignty, national union |
Capital = [[Indianapolis, Indiana|Indianapolis]] |
LargestCity = [[Indianapolis, Indiana|Indianapolis]] |
Governor = [[Mitch Daniels]] (R)|
Senators = [[Richard Lugar]] (R)
[[Evan Bayh]] (D) |
PostalAbbreviation = IN |
OfficialLang = [[English language|English]] |
AreaRank = 38<sup>th</sup> |
TotalArea = 94,321 |
LandArea = 92,897 |
WaterArea = 1,424 |
PCWater = 1.5 |
PopRank = 14<sup>th</sup> |
2000Pop = 6,080,485 |
DensityRank = 16<sup>th</sup> |
2000Density = 65.46 |
AdmittanceOrder = 19<sup>th</sup> |
AdmittanceDate = [[December 11]], [[1816]] |
TimeZone = [[Eastern Standard Time Zone|Eastern]]: [[Coordinated Universal Time|UTC]]-5/[[Daylight Saving Time|-4]]</small><br/>[[Central Standard Time Zone|Central]]: UTC-6/[[Daylight saving time|-5]] <small>(extreme northwest and southwest)</small> |
Latitude = 37°47'N to 41°46'N |
Longitude = 84°49'W to 88°4'W |
Width = 225 |
Length = 435 |
HighestElev = 383 |
MeanElev = 210 |
LowestElev = 98 |
ISOCode = US-IN |
Website = www.in.gov |
}}
:''This article is about the U.S. state. See also [[Indiana, Pennsylvania]] (U.S.) and [[Indiana, São Paulo]] ([[Brazil]].)''
'''Indiana''', meaning the '''"Land of the [[Native Americans in the United States|Indians]],"''' is a [[U.S. state|state]] of the [[United States of America]]. Its [[capital]] is [[Indianapolis, Indiana|Indianapolis]]. The U.S. postal abbreviation for the state is '''IN'''.
A [[Residency|resident]] of Indiana is called a [[Hoosier]] (which is also the name used for a student of [[Indiana University Bloomington|Indiana University]], [[Bloomington, Indiana|Bloomington]]).
The [[USS Indiana|USS ''Indiana'']] was named in honor of this state.
== History ==
The area of Indiana has been settled since before the development of the [[Hopewell culture]] (ca. [[100]]–[[400]] CE). It was part of the [[Mississippian culture]] from roughly [[1000]]CE up to the conventional end of Mississippian dating ("contact with [[European]]s"). The specific [[Native Americans in the United States|Native American]] [[tribe]]s that inhabited this territory at that time were primarily the [[Miami tribe|Miami]] and the [[Shawnee (tribe)|Shawnee]]. The area was claimed for [[New France]] in the [[17th century]], handed over to the [[Kingdom of Great Britain]] as part of the settlement at the end of the [[French and Indian War]], given to the [[United States]] after the [[American Revolution]], soon after which it became part of the [[Northwest Territory]], then the [[Indiana Territory]], and joined the Union in [[1816]] as the 19th state.
== Law and government ==
[[Image:wiki_indiana.jpg|thumb|left|350px|Greetings from Indiana]]
{{further|[[List of Indiana Governors]], [[Indiana General Assembly]], and [[Indiana Supreme Court]]}}
The current [[governor]] of Indiana is [[Mitch Daniels]], whose campaign slogan was "My Man Mitch," an appellation given by [[President George W. Bush]] for whom Mitch Daniels was the director of the office of Management and Budget. He was elected to office on [[November 2]], [[2004]].
However, Governor Daniels' plans to [[privatize]] the [[Indiana Toll Road]] to an Australian/Spanish consortium have met with resistance, especially in northern Indiana, the route of the Toll Road. His trips to that part of Indiana to explain his plan have met with thinly-disguised hostility from local residents.
His first official act upon taking up the governorship was to end [[collective bargaining]] for Indiana state employees, which is largely in line with [[Republican]] [[union busting]], pro-employer/management doctrine.
These acts have not been universally embraced by Hoosiers, even in this overwhelmingly Republican-controlled state. "Ditch Mitch" bumper stickers have started appearing throughout the state.
The state's U.S. senators are [[Evan Bayh|B. Evans "Evan" Bayh III]] ([[Democratic Party (United States)|Democrat]]) and [[Dick Lugar|Richard G. Lugar]] ([[Republican Party (United States)|Republican]]).
Indiana is considered by many to be one of the most conservative states outside the Deep South. Since it supported [[Lyndon B. Johnson]] over [[Barry Goldwater]] in [[1964]], Indiana has not backed a single Democratic presidential candidate. Indiana's polls are the first to close on Election Day, and almost invariably is the first state in the Republican column.
During Presidential campaigns, little attention is paid to Indiana by either Republican or Democrat candidates, though for different reasons. Republicans have generally reliable assurance that Indiana is "theirs" anyway, while Democrats do not appear to want to make the effort to win votes here because of all-but-assured Republican dominance.
During a 2005 speaking engagement, former President [[Bill Clinton]] half-jokingly thanked supporters for "allowing" him into such a "[[red state]]".
However, half of Indiana's governors in the 20th century were Democrats, though their policies were considerably more right-of-center than Democrats in other parts of the country.
Former Governor and current U.S. Senator [[Evan Bayh]] is an all-but-announced candidate for the Democratic presidential nomination in 2008. His middle-of-the-road record and attention to constituencies have been well-received by Indiana voters. His father was a three-term Senator with a liberal record who was turned out of office in the 1980 "[[Reagan Revolution]]" by conservative Republican (and future [[Vice-President]]) [[Dan Quayle]], a native of the small town of [[Huntington, Indiana|Huntington]] in the northeastern part of the state. Until the election of former Governor Evan Bayh to the U.S. Senate, Indiana had an all-Republican Senatorial delegation, composed of the strongly conservative [[Dan Coats]] (later appointed Ambassador to Germany) and the relatively moderate [[Richard Lugar]], who is widely respected in both parties for his experience in world affairs. Indiana is nonetheless well-known for its conservatism and loyalty to the Republican Party, especially outside metropolitan areas.
Hoosier conservatism is generally not radical or reactionary, but is traditionalist--rooted in a strong resistance to change, either towards "left" or "right", though more Hoosiers identify themselves as "conservative", and [[right-wing]] [[talk radio]] programming such as [[Rush Limbaugh]] is widely listened to (the first "Rush Room" in the United States was formed in Mishawaka). [[Gun control]], [[unions]], [[gay marriage]] (as of 2006, Indiana is attempting to amend the State Constitution to outlaw gay marriage), [[taxes]] or workers' rights issues (Indiana is a staunchly pro-management, [[at-will]] employment state) are not popular issues among many Hoosiers, which can explain their attachment to the GOP. However, attempts by political pressure groups or even individual state legislators at making the state "more conservative" have met with little success.
== Geography ==
[[Image:National-atlas-indiana.PNG|thumb|left|250px|Map of Indiana]]
{{see also|List of Indiana counties|List of Indiana rivers|Watersheds of Indiana}}
Indiana is bounded on the north by [[Lake Michigan]] and the state of [[Michigan]], on the east by [[Ohio]], on the south by [[Kentucky]] with which it shares the [[Ohio River]] as a border, and on the west by [[Illinois]]. Indiana is one of the Great Lakes states.
The 475 mile long [[Wabash River]] bisects the state from northeast to southwest and has given Indiana two theme songs, the state song ''On the Banks of the Wabash'' as well as ''The Wabash Cannonball''. The White River (a tributary of the Wabash, which is a tributary of the Ohio) zigzags through central Indiana. Indianapolis and Muncie are large cities on this river. [[Evansville]], the third largest city in Indiana, is located on the Ohio River, which forms all of the Indiana-Kentucky border.
Northern Indiana is mostly farmland; however, the northwest corner of the state is part of the greater metropolitan area of [[Chicago, Illinois|Chicago]] and is therefore more densely populated. [[Gary, Indiana|Gary]], a city on Lake Michigan, is effectively a suburb of Chicago, even though it is in Indiana.
[[South Bend]], [[Mishawaka]], [[Elkhart]] and [[Goshen]] have effectively become a single metropolitan area over the past 20 years (spanning two counties).
It is sometimes said that culturally Indiana is demarcated by [[US Highway 30]], which runs on a southeast-northwest axis from [[Fort Wayne]] through [[Merrillville]] into Illinois. Those living north of US 30 are often closer in attitude to [[Chicago]] and [[Detroit]], and some feel a disconnection from the rest of the state. South of US 30 tends to have the more stereotypical Hoosier rural, conservative attitudes, though this of course is in question in the larger cities like [[Indianapolis]], [[Lafayette]] and [[Evansville]]. [[Bloomington]] tends to be much more culturally liberal than the rest of the state.
The [[Kankakee River]], which winds through northern Indiana, serves somewhat as a demarcating line between rural and suburban northwest Indiana.
Southern Indiana is a mixture of farmland and forest. The [[Hoosier_National_Forest|Hoosier National Forest]] is a 200,000 acre nature preserve near Bedford. Southern Indiana generally contains more hills and geographic variation than the northern portion.
== Economy ==
[[Image:North-manchester-indiana.jpg|thumb|right|250px|Most of northern Indiana is very flat farmland dotted with small towns, such as [[North Manchester, Indiana|North Manchester]].]]
The total gross state product in 2003 was $214 billion. Indiana's per capita income, as of 2003, was $28,783.
Indiana is located well within the [[Corn Belt]], and the state's agricultural methods and principal farm outputs reflect this: a feedlot-style system raising corn, to fatten hogs and cattle. [[Soybeans]] are also a major cash crop. The state's nearness to large urban centers, such as [[Chicago, Illinois]], also assures that much dairying, egg production, and specialty horticulture occur. Specialty crops include melons (southern Wabash Valley), tomatoes (concentrated in central Indiana), grapes, and mint (Source: USDA crop profiles). In addition, Indiana is a significant producer of [[tobacco]]. It should be remembered that most of the original land was not prairie and had to be cleared of deciduous trees. Many isolated parcels of woodland remain, and much of the southern, hilly portion is heavily forested (a condition which supports a local furniture-making sector in that part of the state).
A high percentage of Indiana's GDP comes from manufacturing. The Calumet region of northwest Indiana is the largest [[steel]] producing area in the USA, and this activity also requires that very large amounts of electric power be generated. Indiana's other manufactures include automobiles, electrical equipment, transportation equipment, chemical products, rubber, [[petroleum]] and [[coal]] products, and factory machinery. In addition, Indiana has the international headquarters of pharmaceutical company [[Eli Lilly and Company|Eli Lilly]] as well as the headquarters of Mead Johnson Nutritionals, a division of [[Bristol-Myers Squibb]]. [[Elkhart, Indiana|Elkhart]], in the north, has also had a strong economic base of pharmaceuticals, though this has changed over the past decade with the closure of Whitehall Laboratories in the 1990s and the planned drawdown of the large [[Bayer]] complex, announced in late 2005.
[[Image:Canalbridge300.jpg|thumb|left|Indianapolis from the Central Canal]]
Despite its reliance on manufacturing, Indiana has been much less affected by declines in traditional [[Rust Belt]] manufactures than many of its neighbors. The explanation appears to be certain factors in the labor market. First, much of the heavy manufacturing, such as industrial machinery and steel, requires highly skilled labor, and firms are often willing to locate where hard-to-train skills already exist. Second, Indiana's labor force is located primarily in medium-sized and smaller cities rather than in very large and expensive metropolises. This makes it possible for firms to offer, and labor accept, somewhat lower wages for these skills than would normally be paid. In other words, firms often see in Indiana a chance to obtain higher than average skills at lower than average wages for those skills, which often makes location in the state desirable. (Source for basic manufacturing facts in the above two paragraphs is generally McCoy and McNamara, "Manufacturers in Indiana," Purdue University Center for Rural Development, Research Paper 19, July 1998.)
In mining Indiana is probably best known for its decorative [[limestone]] from the southern, hilly portion of the state, especially from around Bedford (the home area of Apollo I astronaut Gus Grissom). One of the many public buildings faced with this stone is [[The Pentagon]], and after the attack of [[September 11]], [[2001]], a special effort was made by the mining industry of Indiana to replace those damaged walls with as nearly identical type and cut of material as the original facing. There are also large [[coal]] mines in the southern portion of the state. Like most Great Lakes states, Indiana has small to medium operating [[petroleum]] fields; the principal location of these today is in the extreme southwest, though operational oil derricks can be seen on the outskirts of Terre Haute.
Indiana's economy is considered to be one of the most business-friendly in the U.S. This is due in part to its conservative business climate, low business taxes, and many labor laws that have remained unchanged since the 1800s, emphasizing the supremacy of employer/management. The doctrine of [[at-will]] employment, whereby an employer can terminate an employee for any or no reason, is firmly ensconced in Indiana. Unions in Indiana are among the weakest in the U.S. and it is difficult for unions to organize. It has been said that Indiana is a post-industrial state with a pre-[[Industrial Revolution]] mindset regarding the rights of workers. With isolated exceptions in university areas such as [[Bloomington, Indiana|Bloomington]] and [[Lafayette]], technology has been slow to catch on in Indiana, in part due to Hoosiers' traditional resistance to change. Most political leaders at the state level continue to emphasize the state's past economic base of manufacturing and farming.
== Military installations ==
Indiana was formerly home to two major military installations, [[Grissom Air Force Base]] near Peru (reduced to reservist operations in 1994) and [[Fort Benjamin Harrison]] near Indianapolis, now largely reduced to reservist operations, though the [[Department of Defense]] continues to operate a large financial operation there.
Current active installations include [[Air National Guard]] fighter units at [[Fort Wayne, Indiana|Fort Wayne]] and [[Terre Haute]] airports (to be consolidated at Fort Wayne under the 2005 BRAC proposal, with the Terre Haute facility remaining open as a non-flying installation), the [[Crane Naval Weapons Center]] in the southwest of the state and the Army's [[Newport Chemical Depot]], which is currently heavily involved in neutralizing dangerous chemical weapons stored there.
== Demographics ==
{| class="toccolours" align="right" cellpadding="4" cellspacing="0" style="margin:0 0 1em 1em; font-size: 95%;"
|-
! colspan=2 bgcolor="#ccccff" align="center"| Historical populations
|-
! align="center"| Census<br>year !! align="right"| Population
|-
| colspan=2|<hr>
|-
| align="center"| 1800 || align="right"| 2,632
|-
| align="center"| 1810 || align="right"| 24,520
|-
| align="center"| 1820 || align="right"| 147,178
|-
| align="center"| 1830 || align="right"| 343,031
|-
| align="center"| 1840 || align="right"| 685,866
|-
| align="center"| 1850 || align="right"| 988,416
|-
| align="center"| 1860 || align="right"| 1,350,428
|-
| align="center"| 1870 || align="right"| 1,680,637
|-
| align="center"| 1880 || align="right"| 1,978,301
|-
| align="center"| 1890 || align="right"| 2,192,404
|-
| align="center"| 1900 || align="right"| 2,516,462
|-
| align="center"| 1910 || align="right"| 2,700,876
|-
| align="center"| 1920 || align="right"| 2,930,390
|-
| align="center"| 1930 || align="right"| 3,238,503
|-
| align="center"| 1940 || align="right"| 3,427,796
|-
| align="center"| 1950 || align="right"| 3,934,224
|-
| align="center"| 1960 || align="right"| 4,662,498
|-
| align="center"| 1970 || align="right"| 5,193,669
|-
| align="center"| 1980 || align="right"| 5,490,224
|-
| align="center"| 1990 || align="right"| 5,544,159
|-
| align="center"| [[United States 2000 Census|2000]] || align="right"| 6,080,485
|}
As of 2005, Indiana has an estimated population of 6,271,973, which is an increase of 45,436, or 0.7%, from the prior year and an increase of 191,456, or 3.1%, since the year 2000. This includes a natural increase since the last census of 159,488 people (that is 451,681 births minus 292,193 deaths) and an increase due to net migration of 38,656 people into the state. Immigration from outside the United States resulted in a net increase of 55,656 people, and migration within the country produced a net loss of 17,000 people.
As of 2004, the population included about 229,000 foreign-born (3.7%).
Racially, the state is:
*85.8% [[Whites|White]]
*8.4% [[Blacks|Black]]
*3.5% [[Hispanics|Hispanic]]
*1% [[Asian American|Asian]]
*0.3% [[Indigenous peoples of the Americas|Native American]]
*1.2% [[Mixed race]]
The five largest ancestries in the state are: [[German-American|German]] (22.7%), American (12%), [[Ireland|Irish]] (10.8%), [[British-American|English]] (8.9%), [[African American]] (8.4%).
German is the largest ancestry reported in Indiana, with almost one-in-four whites reporting German ancestry in the Census. Persons of American and British ancestry are also present throughout the state, especially in the southern and central parts of the state. [[Gary, Indiana|Gary]] and the surrounding Chicago suburbs, along with the city of Indianapolis, have large black populations.
[[South Bend, Indiana|South Bend]] has a large [[Poland|Polish]] population and there are a sizeable number of people with [[Belgian]] ancestry in Mishawaka. [[Dyngus Day]], the Polish celebration of the end of Lent, takes place on the Monday after Easter and is widely celebrated in South Bend.
A large Hispanic/Latino population has swelled in Elkhart County, particularly the north side of the city of [[Goshen]]. This formerly German- and Dutch-dominated area now has a high concentration of Hispanic (particularly Mexican)-oriented businesses and many official signs in the area are bilingual.
Population growth since 1990 has been concentrated in the counties surrounding Indianapolis, with four of the top five fastest-growing counties in that area: [[Hamilton County, Indiana|Hamilton]], [[Hendricks County, Indiana|Hendricks]], [[Johnson County, Indiana|Johnson]], and [[Hancock County, Indiana|Hancock]]. The other county is [[Dearborn County, Indiana|Dearborn County]], which is near [[Cincinnati]]. Meanwhile, population decline has primarily been in a series of counties that geographically form a line between [[Logansport, Indiana|Logansport]] and [[Richmond, Indiana|Richmond]]. Most of these counties were at the heart of the [[Gas Belt]]. There were also three counties along the [[Wabash River]] and the [[Ohio River]] that experienced decline, these were [[Vigo County, Indiana|Vigo]], [[Knox County, Indiana|Knox]], and [[Perry County, Indiana|Perry]].
===Religion===
Religiously, Indiana is predominantly [[Protestant]], although there is also a significant [[Roman Catholic]] population. The Catholic presence is perhaps better known than its size would imply due to the existence of the [[University of Notre Dame]]. Indiana is home to a sizeable and influential proportion of [[Mennonite]] and [[Amish]] Christians, particularly in Elkhart and LaGrange Counties in the north, and a smaller number in Parke County in the west. The state has the nation's largest population of members of the Protestant "Churches of Christ" denomination.
[[Roman Catholic]] and [[mainline Protestant]] churches are strong in the cities, but in rural areas [[evangelical]] and [[fundamentalist]] churches, such as independent Baptist and Pentecostal churches, tend to dominate. Two conservative denominations, the [[Free Methodist Church]] and the [[Wesleyan Church]], have their headquarters in Indianapolis.
The [[Islamic Society of North America]] is headquartered just off [[Interstate 70]] in [[Plainfield]], west of Indianapolis.
There are significant numbers of [[Jews]] in urban areas, particularly Indianapolis, South Bend, Fort Wayne and Terre Haute.
The current religious affiliations of the people of Indiana are shown below:
*[[Christianity|Christian]] – 82%
**[[Baptist]] – 15%
**[[Protestantism|Protestant]] – 62%
***[[Methodism|Methodist]] – 10%
***[[Lutheranism|Lutheran]] – 6%
***[[Church of Christ]] – 5%
***[[Pentecostalism|Pentecostal]] – 3%
***[[Mennonite]]/Pietist – 1%
***Other Protestant – 23%
**[[Roman Catholicism in the United States|Roman Catholic]] – 19%
**Other Christian – 1%
*Other Religions – 1%
*Non-Religious – 17%
==Counties and townships==
*[[List of Indiana counties]] and their [[List of Indiana county name etymologies|etymologies]]
*[[List of townships in Indiana]]
== Important cities and towns ==
{|
|-
|valign=top|
===Population > 1,000,000 (urbanized area)===
*[[Indianapolis, Indiana|Indianapolis]], capital city, near center of state
===Population > 100,000 (urbanized area)===
*[[Fort Wayne, Indiana|Fort Wayne]], in the northeast
*[[Evansville, Indiana|Evansville]], in the southwest, on the Ohio River, home of [[University of Evansville]] and [[University of Southern Indiana]]
*[[South Bend, Indiana|South Bend]], near [[Michigan]] border, home of [[University of Notre Dame]]
*[[Gary, Indiana|Gary]], in the northwest, home of the [[Indiana Dunes National Lakeshore]]
===Population > 10,000 (urbanized area)===
*[[Anderson, Indiana|Anderson]]
*[[Bloomington, Indiana|Bloomington]], home of [[Indiana University Bloomington|Indiana University]] (main campus)
*[[Muncie, Indiana|Muncie]], home of [[Ball State University]]
*[[Terre Haute, Indiana|Terre Haute]], home of [[Indiana State University]] and [[Rose-Hulman Institute of Technology]]
*[[Elkhart, Indiana|Elkhart]]
*[[Lafayette, Indiana|Lafayette]]
*[[West Lafayette, Indiana|West Lafayette]], home of the main campus of [[Purdue University]]
*[[Michigan City, Indiana|Michigan City]]
*[[Kokomo, Indiana|Kokomo]]
*[[Columbus, Indiana|Columbus]]
*[[Marion, Indiana|Marion]], birthplace of actor [[James Dean]] and cartoonist [[Jim Davis (cartoonist)|Jim Davis]].
*[[Richmond, Indiana|Richmond]]
*[[Perrysville, Indiana|Perrysville]]
*[[Warsaw, Indiana|Warsaw]]
*[[Logansport, Indiana|Logansport]]
*[[New Castle, Indiana|New Castle]]
*[[Vincennes, Indiana|Vincennes]]
*[[Auburn, Indiana|Auburn]], home of Auburn-Cord-Duesenberg Museum.
*[[Seymour, Indiana|Seymour]]
*[[Shelbyville, Indiana|Shelbyville]]
*[[Huntington, Indiana|Huntington]], home of [[Huntington University]]
*[[Frankfort, Indiana|Frankfort]]
*[[Connersville, Indiana|Connersville]]
*[[Crawfordsville, Indiana|Crawfordsville]]
*[[Greenfield, Indiana|Greenfield]]
*[[Peru, Indiana|Peru]]
*[[Bedford, Indiana|Bedford]]
*[[Lebanon, Indiana|Lebanon]]
*[[Madison, Indiana|Madison]]
*[[Jasper, Indiana|Jasper]]
*[[Lawrenceburg, Indiana|Lawrenceburg]]
*[[Martinsville, Indiana|Martinsville]]
*[[Washington, Indiana|Washington]]
*[[Plymouth, Indiana|Plymouth]]
*[[Wabash, Indiana|Wabash]]
*[[North Vernon, Indiana|North Vernon]]
*[[Scottsburg, Indiana|Scottsburg]]
*[[Angola, Indiana|Angola]]
*[[Elwood, Indiana|Elwood]]
*[[Kendallville, Indiana|Kendallville]]
*[[Greensburg, Indiana|Greensburg]]
*[[Decatur, Indiana|Decatur]]
*[[Valparaiso, Indiana|Valparaiso]], home of Valparaiso University
*[[Brazil, Indiana|Brazil]]
*[[Jeffersonville, Indiana|Jeffersonville]]
|valign=top|
|valign=top|
|valign=top|
===Important suburbs of [[Indianapolis]]===
*[[Avon, Indiana|Avon]]
*[[Beech Grove, Indiana|Beech Grove]]
*[[Brownsburg, Indiana|Brownsburg]]
*[[Carmel, Indiana|Carmel]]
*[[Fishers, Indiana|Fishers]]
*[[Franklin, Indiana|Franklin]]
*[[Greenwood, Indiana|Greenwood]]
*[[Lawrence, Indiana|Lawrence]]
*[[Noblesville, Indiana|Noblesville]]
*[[Plainfield, Indiana|Plainfield]]
*[[Southport, Indiana|Southport]]
*[[Speedway, Indiana|Speedway]], home of the [[Indianapolis Motor Speedway]]
*[[Zionsville, Indiana|Zionsville]]
===Important suburbs of [[Chicago]]===
*[[Crown Point, Indiana|Crown Point]]
*[[East Chicago, Indiana|East Chicago]]
*[[Gary, Indiana|Gary]]
*[[Griffith, Indiana|Griffith]]
*[[Hammond, Indiana|Hammond]]
*[[Highland, Lake County, Indiana|Highland, Lake County]]
*[[Hobart, Indiana|Hobart]]
*[[Merrillville, Indiana|Merrillville]]
*[[Munster, Indiana|Munster]]
*[[Portage, Indiana|Portage]]
===Important suburbs of [[Louisville]]===
*[[Clarksville, Indiana|Clarksville]]
*[[Jeffersonville, Indiana|Jeffersonville]]
*[[New Albany, Indiana|New Albany]], home of Supreme Court Justice Sherman Minton
===Important suburbs of [[Fort Wayne, Indiana|Fort Wayne]]===
*[[Huntertown, Indiana|Huntertown]]
*[[Leo-Cedarville, Indiana|Leo-Cedarville]]
*[[New Haven, Indiana|New Haven]]
===Important suburbs of [[Evansville, Indiana|Evansville]]===
*[[Henderson, Kentucky|Henderson]]
*[[Princeton, Indiana|Princeton]]
*[[Newburgh, Indiana|Newburgh]]
*[[Mt. Vernon, Indiana|Mt. Vernon]]
===Important suburbs of [[South Bend, Indiana|South Bend]]===
*[[Granger, Indiana|Granger]]
*[[Mishawaka, Indiana|Mishawaka]]
|}
== Education ==
=== Colleges and universities ===
{|
|-
|valign=top|<small>
====State-supported====
*[[Ball State University]]
*[[Indiana State University]]
*[[Indiana University System]]
**[[Indiana University at Bloomington]]
**[[Indiana University East]] (Richmond)
**[[Indiana University at Kokomo]]
**[[Indiana University Northwest]]
**[[Indiana University South Bend]]
**[[Indiana University Southeast]]
**[[Indiana University Purdue University at Columbus]]
**[[IPFW|Indiana University Purdue University at Fort Wayne]]
**[[IUPUI|Indiana University Purdue University at Indianapolis]]
*[[Ivy Tech State College]]
*[[Purdue University System]]
**[[Purdue University]]
**[[Purdue University Calumet]]
**[[Purdue University North Central]]
**[[Indiana University Purdue University at Columbus]]
**[[IPFW|Indiana University Purdue University at Fort Wayne]]
**[[IUPUI|Indiana University Purdue University at Indianapolis]]
**[[Purdue University School of Technology]]
***[[Purdue University School of Technology at Anderson|Anderson]]
***[[Purdue University School of Technology at Columbus|Columbus]]
***[[Purdue University School of Technology at Indianapolis|Indianapolis]]
***[[Purdue University School of Technology at Kokomo|Kokomo]]
***[[Purdue University School of Technology at Muncie|Muncie]]
***[[Purdue University School of Technology at New Albany|New Albany]]
***[[Purdue University School of Technology at Richmond|Richmond]]
***[[Indiana University South Bend|Indiana University South Bend]]
***[[Purdue University School of Technology at Versailles|Versailles]]
*[[University of Southern Indiana]]
*[[Vincennes University]]
|valign=top|
|valign=top|
|valign=top|
====Private====
*[[Ancilla College]]
*[[Anderson University]]
*[[Bethel College (Indiana)|Bethel College]]
*[[Butler University]]
*[[Calumet College of St. Joseph]]
*[[Christian Theological Seminary]]
*[[Concordia Theological Seminary]] ([[Fort Wayne, Indiana|Fort Wayne]] campus)
*[[DePauw University]]
*[[DeVry University]]
*[[Earlham College]]
*[[Franklin College]]
*[[Goshen College]]
*[[Grace College]]
*[[Hanover College]]
*[[Holy Cross College (Indiana)|Holy Cross College]]
*[[Huntington University]]
*[[Hyles-Anderson College]]
*[[Indiana Institute of Technology]]
*[[Indiana Wesleyan University]]
*[[Manchester College]]
*[[Marian College]]
*[[Martin University]]
*[[Oakland City University]]
*[[Rose-Hulman Institute of Technology]]
*[[Saint Joseph's College, Indiana|Saint Joseph's College]]
*[[Saint Mary-of-the-Woods College]]
*[[Saint Mary's College (Indiana)|Saint Mary's College]]
*[[Taylor University]]
*[[Tri-State University]]
*[[University of Evansville]]
*[[University of Indianapolis]]
*[[University of Notre Dame]]
*[[University of Saint Francis (Indiana)|University of Saint Francis]]
*[[Valparaiso University]]
*[[Wabash College]]
</small>
|}
== Professional sports teams ==
{|
|-
|valign=top|
*[[Indianapolis Colts]], [[National Football League]]
*[[Indiana Pacers]], [[National Basketball Association]]
*[[Indiana Fever]], [[Women's National Basketball Association]]
*[[FC Indiana]], [[Women's Premier Soccer League]]
*[[Fort Wayne Komets]], [[United Hockey League]]
*[[Indiana Ice]], [[United States Hockey League]]
|valign=top|
|valign=top|
|valign=top|
*[[minor league baseball|Minor League baseball teams]]
**[[Gary SouthShore Railcats]]
**[[Indianapolis Indians]]
**[[South Bend Silver Hawks]]
**[[Fort Wayne Wizards]]
**[[Evansville Otters]]
|}
==Time zones==
[[Image:National-atlas-us-time-zones.png|thumb|right|250px|Map of U.S. time zones, with Indiana shaded out.]] Most of Indiana has historically exempted itself from the observation of [[daylight saving time]] (DST). Some counties within this area, particularly [[Floyd County, Indiana|Floyd]], [[Clark County, Indiana|Clark]], and [[Harrison County, Indiana|Harrison]] counties near [[Louisville, Kentucky]], and [[Ohio County, Indiana|Ohio]] and [[Dearborn County, Indiana|Dearborn]] counties near [[Cincinnati, Ohio]], observe daylight saving time unofficially and illegally by local custom.
In addition, [[Lake County, Indiana|Lake]], [[Porter County, Indiana|Porter]], [[LaPorte County, Indiana|LaPorte]], [[Newton County, Indiana|Newton]], and [[Jasper County, Indiana|Jasper]] counties in the northwest and [[Gibson County, Indiana|Gibson]], [[Posey County, Indiana|Posey]], [[Vanderburgh County, Indiana|Vanderburgh]], [[Warrick County, Indiana|Warrick]], and [[Spencer County, Indiana|Spencer]] counties in the southwest are in the [[Central time zone]] and remain subject to daylight saving time.
The history of this unique arrangement is fairly convoluted. From 1918 until 1961, at which time authority under the various Standard Time Acts was in the Interstate Commerce Commission, the dividing line between Eastern and Central Standard Time was approximately the eastern boundary line of the State of Indiana. In 1961 after hearings, the Interstate Commerce Commission adjusted the boundary line between Eastern and [[Time zone#UTC-6 (CST - Central Standard Time)|Central]] so that the line essentially split Indiana down the middle. In 1967, the Governor of Indiana petitioned the United States Department of Transportation to have the entire state of Indiana placed on Central Time. Instead, the time line was fixed in a position where all but 10 counties in western Indiana were placed in the Eastern Time Zone, but dispensation was given to allow a state to exempt an entire time zone bloc within the state from observance of Daylight Saving Time. Technically, during the summer months, this meant most of Indiana was on Eastern Standard Time, but functionally most of the state was on Central Daylight Time. Eastern Standard Time and Central Daylight Time are the same - one could say New York is on Central Daylight Time.
Due to the confusion of anyone not from Indiana, the state passed a bill in 2005 whereby the entire state is to begin observing daylight saving time starting in April 2006. Counties would remain under their current time zones, but the bill also asks the federal [[United States Department of Transportation|Department of Transportation]], which has jurisdiction over time zones, to reconsider whether more counties should switch to the Central zone. The DOT has since announced that the counties of [[Starke County, Indiana|Starke]] and [[Pulaski County, Indiana|Pulaski]] in the northern part of the state; and [[Knox County, Indiana|Knox]], [[Daviess County, Indiana|Daviess]], [[Martin County, Indiana|Martin]], [[Pike County, Indiana|Pike]], [[Dubois County, Indiana|Dubois]], and [[Perry County, Indiana|Perry]] counties in the southern part of the state will join the Central time zone beginning [[April 2]], [[2006]]. (Source: U.S. Department of Transportation, docket OST-2005-22114)
== Miscellaneous information ==
*[[List of U.S. state birds|State bird]]: [[Northern Cardinal|Cardinal]]
*[[State flower]]: [[Peony]]
*[[List of U.S. state mottos|State motto]]: "Crossroads of America."
*State poem: [http://www.in.gov/sic/about/emblems/state_poem.html ''Indiana''], by [[Arthur Franklin Mapes]]
*[[List of U.S. state songs|State song]]: ''[[On the Banks of the Wabash, Far Away]]''
*State river: [[Wabash River|Wabash]]
*[[State stone]]: Salem [[limestone]]
*[[State tree]]: [[Liriodendron|Tulip tree]]
Indiana is the home state of a large number of [[astronaut]]s, including such notables as [[Virgil Grissom|"Gus" Grissom]] and [[Frank Borman]]. Many other astronauts, including [[Neil Armstrong]] and [[Eugene Cernan|Gene Cernan]], were graduates of [[Purdue University]] in [[West Lafayette, Indiana|West Lafayette]] ([http://www2.indystar.com/library/factfiles/history/space_program/hoosier_astronauts.html]). Neil Armstrong's Purdue [[class ring]] may be the only such object that has ever traveled to the moon and back.
Indiana has made several significant contributions to the fields of entertainment and sport:
*Singer/[[Farm Aid]] activist [[John Mellencamp]], born in [[Seymour, Indiana|Seymour]] and residing near [[Bloomington, Indiana|Bloomington]].
*[[Mötley Crüe]] guitarist [[Mick Mars]] (real name Bob Deal), native of [[Terre Haute]].
*Former [[Van Halen]] vocalist and current radio personality [[David Lee Roth]], born in [[Bloomington, Indiana|Bloomington]].
*[[Soap opera]] actor [[Peter Reckell]] (Days Of Our Lives), native of [[Elkhart, Indiana|Elkhart]].
*Actor [[Claude Akins]] ([["Movin' On"]]), native of [[Bedford, Indiana|Bedford]].
*[[Brady Bunch]] "mom" [[Florence Henderson]], also of [[Bedford, Indiana|Bedford]].
*Actor [[Ken Kercheval]] ([["Dallas"]]), of [[Wolcottville, Indiana|Wolcottville]].
*Former (?) [[Guns N' Roses]] members [[Axl Rose]] and [[Izzy Stradlin]], both of Lafayette.
*Country singer [[Janie Fricke]], of [[Fort Wayne, Indiana|Fort Wayne]].
*The [[Jackson 5]]/[[Michael Jackson]] entertainment family, of [[Gary, Indiana|Gary]].
*Chicago Bears quarterback Kyle Orton played for Purdue University.
*Chicago Bears quarterback Rex Grossman born in [[Bloomington, Indiana|Bloomington]].
*St. Louis Cardinals third baseman Scott Rolen born in [[Evansville]].
*Former NY Yankees first baseman Don Mattingly born in [[Evansville]].
*Former [[Notre Dame]] and current [[NFL]] quarterback [[Rick Mirer]] is a native of [[Goshen, Indiana|Goshen]].
*[[R&B]] singer [[Vivica A. Fox]] is a native of [[South Bend, Indiana|South Bend]].
*[[Calbert Cheaney]], NBA basketball player and native of [[Evansville]].
*[[Larry Bird]] Former NBA player for the Boston Celtics and current President of the Indiana Pacers, Born in [[French Lick]].
*[[Tony Stewart]] [[NASCAR]] driver and 2005 Nextel Cup Champion born in [[Columbus, Indiana|Columbus]].
*[[Jeff Gordon]] [[NASCAR]] driver and 4 time Nextel Cup Champion native of [[Pittsboro, Indiana|Pittsboro]].
*[[Abe Lincoln]] The 16th President of the United States grew up in Spencer County.
*[[Benjamin Harrison]] (1833 - 1901) 23rd President of the United States; lived in Indianapolis.
*[[James Dean]] Actor; born in Marion.
*[[David Letterman]] Host of The Late Show; born in Indianapolis.
*William F. Rasmussen Founder of ESPN graduated from [[DePauw University]].
*General [[Lew Wallace]] Civil War Hero and author of the novel [[Ben-Hur]] born in Brookville, IN.
*[[Orville Redenbacher]] Orville Redenbacher's Popcorn born on a small corn plantation in Indiana.
*[[Shannon Hoon]], late singer for [[Blind Melon]], born in Lafayette.
*[[Kurt Vonnegut]], author of Cat's Cradle, Slaughterhouse 5 and many others, born in Indianapolis.
==Natural resources==
There are 24 [[List of Indiana state parks|Indiana state parks]], nine man-made reservoirs, and hundreds of lakes in the state.
== External links ==
{{sisterlinks|Indiana}}
*[http://www.in.gov Indiana government home page]
:*[http://www.statelib.lib.in.us/www/ihb/emblems/index.html Indiana state emblems]
*[http://www.ecanned.com/indsum/level1/IN/index.html Indiana Employment Data]
*[http://quickfacts.census.gov/qfd/states/18000.html U.S. Census Bureau]
*[http://www.usnewspapers.org/state/indiana Indiana Newspapers]
*[http://www.farleyart.com/tech_news.html Indiana Computer Technology News]
{{Indiana}}
{{United_States}}
[[Category:Indiana|*]]
[[Category:States of the United States]]
[[Category:1816 establishments]]
[[ang:Indiana]]
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[[el:Ιντιάνα]]
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[[ko:인디애나 주]]
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[[uk:Індіана]]
[[zh:印第安纳州]]
Io
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robot Adding: eo
'''Io''' or '''io''' may stand for:
*In [[Greek mythology]], '''[[Io (mythology)|Io]]''' ([[International Phonetic Alphabet for English|IPA]] {{IPA|[ˈaɪoʊ]}} or {{IPA|[ˈiːoʊ]}}) was the daughter of [[Inachus]], a river god.
**'''[[Io (moon)|Io]]''', a [[natural satellite|moon]] of [[Jupiter (planet)|Jupiter]].
**The [[asteroid]] '''[[85 Io]]'''.
**'''[[Io programming language]]''', a prototype-oriented programming language made by [[Steve Dekorte]].
* An [[indie rock]] band from [[San Francisco]], CA
*The creator god '''Io''' in [[Polynesian mythology]] (including [[Māori]]), see '''[[Kiho (god)|Kiho]]'''.
*[[Iwo Jima|Io island]] (a.k.a. Iwo Jima), a volcanic island in Japan.
*[[Io (voievodal title particle)]] abbreviation of [[John]] (romanian: Ioan, latin:Ioannes), meaning "by the grace of God". "Io" is the particle preceding the name of [[Romanian]] ([[Wallachia|Wallachian]] and [[Moldavia|Moldavian]]) [[voievod|voievods]] (rulers) during the middle ages.
*[[Io (Dungeons & Dragons)|The Father God of Dragonkind]] in [[dungeons and dragons]]; he has within himself all alignments.
*[[Discworld_gods#Blind_Io |Blind Io]] is King of all Gods in [[Terry Pratchett]]'s [[Discworld]] series.
*A pummeling hardcore band from [[Pittsburgh]], PA
*A [[Loredana Bertè]] album
*An album by [[Germany|German]] industrial music artists, [[Project Pitchfork]].
*Abbreviations
**the [[ISO 3166-1|ISO]] 2-letter [[country code]] and DAFIF 0413 / DIA 65-18 / [[List of FIPS country codes|FIPS PUB 10-4 territory code]] for the '''[[British Indian Ocean Territory]]'''.
**the [[ISO 639]] alpha-2 code for the '''[[Ido language]]'''.
**the '''[[Improv Olympic]]''' comedy theater, also known as the ''IO Theater'' ([http://www.iochicago.net/ Chicago] and [http://www.iowest.com/ Los Angeles]).
**the field of '''[[industrial organization|Industrial Organization]]''' within economics and management.
**German abbreviation for in Ordnung = allright
The related '''I/O''' is a common abbreviation of [[Input/output]], and is also facetiously taken to mean "Ignorant Operator".
'''''See also: [[.io]]''' (the [[ccTLD]] for the British Indian Ocean Territory).''
{{disambig}}
[[als:Io]]
[[da:Io]]
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Inner product space
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How about (also called '''scalar product''') dot product mentioned just below?
:''For the scalar product or dot product of spatial vectors see [[dot product]].''
In [[mathematics]], an '''inner product space''' is a [[vector space]] with additional structure, an '''inner product''' (also called '''scalar product'''), which allows us to introduce geometrical notions such as [[angle]]s and [[length]]s of vectors. Inner product spaces generalize [[Euclidean space]]s (with the [[dot product]] as the inner product) and are studied in [[functional analysis]].
An inner product space is sometimes also called a '''''pre-Hilbert space''''', since its [[Complete space#Completion|completion]] with respect to the [[Metric space#Formal definition|metric]] [[Normed vector space#Distances in normed vector spaces|induced]] by its inner product is a [[Hilbert space]].
Inner product spaces were referred to as '''unitary spaces''' in earlier work, although this terminology is now rarely used.
== Definitions ==
In the following article, the [[field (mathematics)|field]] of [[scalar]]s denoted '''F''' is either
the field of [[real number]]s '''R''' or the field of [[complex number]]s '''C'''. See below.
Formally, an inner product space is a vector space ''V'' over the field '''F''' together with a map, called an ''inner product''
:<math> \langle \cdot, \cdot \rangle : V \times V \rightarrow \mathbf{F} </math>
satisfying the following [[axiom]]s:
* [[complex conjugate|Conjugate]] symmetry:
::<math>\forall x,y\in V,\ \langle x,y\rangle =\overline{\langle y,x\rangle}.</math>
:This condition implies that <math> \langle x,x\rangle \in \mathbf{R} </math> for all <math> x \in V </math>, because <math>\langle x,x\rangle = \overline{\langle x,x\rangle} </math>.
:''(Conjugation is also often written with an asterisk, as in <math> \langle y,x\rangle^{*} </math>, as is the [[conjugate transpose]].)''
* [[Sesquilinear]]ity:
::<math>\forall b\in F,\ \forall x,y\in V,\ \langle x,by\rangle= b \langle x,y\rangle.</math>
::<math>\forall x,y,z\in V,\ \langle x,y+z\rangle= \langle x,y\rangle+ \langle x,z\rangle.</math>
:By combining these with conjugate symmetry, we get:
::<math>\forall a\in F,\ \forall x,y\in V,\ \langle ax,y\rangle= \overline{a} \langle x,y\rangle.</math>
::<math>\forall x,y,z\in V,\ \langle x+y,z\rangle= \langle x,z\rangle+ \langle y,z\rangle.</math>
* Nonnegativity:
::<math>\forall x \in V,\ \langle x,x\rangle \ge 0.</math>
:''(This makes sense because <math> \langle x,x\rangle \in \mathbf{R} </math> for all <math> x\in V </math>.)''
* Nondegeneracy:
::<math>\forall x \in V,\ \langle x,x\rangle = 0 \mbox{ iff } x = 0. </math>
:Hence, the inner product is a [[Hermitian form]].
The property of an inner product space <math> V </math> that
::<math> \langle x+y,z\rangle= \langle x,z\rangle+ \langle y,z\rangle </math> and <math> \langle x,y+z\rangle = \langle x,y\rangle + \langle x,z\rangle </math>
for all <math>x, y, z \in V </math> is known as ''additivity''.
Note that if '''F'''='''R''', then the conjugate symmetry property is simply ''symmetry'' of the inner product, i.e.
:: <math> \langle x,y\rangle=\langle y,x\rangle.</math>
In this case, sesquilinearity becomes standard [[linear]]ity.
'''Remark'''. Many mathematical authors require an inner product to be linear in the first argument and conjugate-linear in the second argument, contrary to the convention adopted above. This change is immaterial, but the definition above ensures a smoother connection to the [[bra-ket notation]] used by physicists in [[quantum mechanics]] and is now often used by mathematicians as well. Some authors adopt the convention that < , > is linear in the first component while < | > is linear in the second component, although this is by no means universal. For instance the G. Emch reference does not follow this convention.
There are various technical reasons why it is necessary to restrict the basefield to '''R''' and '''C''' in the definition. Briefly, the [[basefield]] has to contain an [[ordered field|ordered subfield]] (in order for non-negativity to make sense) and therefore has to have [[characteristic (algebra)|characteristic]] equal to 0. This immediately excludes finite fields. The basefield has to have additional structure, such as a distinguished automorphism.
In some cases we need to consider non-negative ''semi-definite'' sesquilinear forms. This means that <''x'', ''x''> is only required to be non-negative. We show how to treat these below.
== Examples ==
A trivial example are the [[real numbers]] with the standard multiplication as the inner product
:<math>\langle x,y\rangle := xy</math>
More generally any Euclidean space '''R'''<sup>''n''</sup> with the [[dot product]] is an inner product space
:<math>\langle (x_1,\ldots, x_n),(y_1,\ldots, y_n)\rangle := \sum_{i=1}^{n} x_i y_i = x_1 y_1 + \cdots + x_n y_n</math>
The general form of an inner product on '''C'''<sup>''n''</sup> is given by:
:<math>\langle \mathbf{x},\mathbf{y}\rangle := \mathbf{x}^*\mathbf{M}\mathbf{y}</math>
with '' M'' any [[positive-definite matrix]], and '''x'''<sup>*</sup> the [[conjugate transpose]] of '''x'''. For the real case this corresponds to the dot product of the results of directionally differential [[Scaling (geometry)|scaling]] of the two vectors, with positive [[scale factor]]s and orthogonal directions of scaling. Apart from an orthogonal transformation it is a [[Weight function|weighted-sum]] version of the dot product, with positive weights.
The article on [[Hilbert space]] has several examples of inner product spaces wherein the metric induced by the inner product yields a [[complete]] metric space. An example of an inner product which induces an incomplete metric occurs with the space ''C''[''a'', ''b''] of continuous complex valued functions on the interval [''a'',''b'']. The inner product is
:<math> \langle f , g \rangle := \int_a^b \overline{f(t)} g(t) \, dt </math>
This space is not complete; consider for example, for the interval [0,1] the sequence of functions { ''f''<sub>''k''</sub> }<sub>''k''</sub> where
* ''f''<sub>''k''</sub>(''t'') is 1 for ''t'' in the subinterval [0, 1/2]
* ''f''<sub>''k''</sub>(''t'') is 0 for t in the subinterval [1/2 + 1/''k'', 1]
* ''f''<sub>''k''</sub> is affine in [1/2, 1/2 + 1/''k'']
This sequence is a Cauchy sequence which does not converge to a ''continuous'' function.
== Norms on inner product spaces ==
Inner product spaces have a naturally defined [[Normed vector space|norm]]
:<math> \|x\| =\sqrt{\langle x, x\rangle}.</math>
This is well defined by the nonnegativity axiom of the definition of inner product space. The norm is thought of as the length of the vector ''x''.
Directly from the axioms, we can prove the following:
*[[Cauchy-Schwarz inequality]]: for ''x'', ''y'' elements of ''V''
:: <math> |\langle x,y\rangle| \leq \|x\| \cdot \|y\| </math>
:with equality if and only if ''x'' and ''y'' are [[linearly independent|linearly dependent]]. This is one of the most important inequalities in mathematics. It is also known in the Russian mathematical literature as the ''Cauchy-Bunyakowski-Schwarz inequality''.
:Because of its importance, its short proof should be noted. To prove this inequality note it is trivial in the case ''y'' = 0. Thus we may assume <''y'', ''y''> is nonzero. Thus we may let
::<math> \lambda = \langle y , y \rangle^{-1} \langle y, x\rangle</math>
:and it follows that
::<math> 0 \leq \langle x -\lambda y, x -\lambda y \rangle = \langle x, x\rangle - \langle y , y \rangle^{-1} | \langle x,y\rangle|^2. </math>
:multiplying out, the result follows.
[[Image:Inner-product-angle.png|thumb|Geometric interpretation of inner product]]
:The geometric interpretation of the inner product in terms of angle and length, motivates much of the geometric terminology we use in regard to these spaces. Indeed, an immediate consequence of the Cauchy-Schwarz inequality is that it justifies defining the [[angle]] between two non-zero vectors ''x'' and ''y'' (at least in the case ''F'' = '''R''') by the identity
:<math>\operatorname{angle}(x,y) = \arccos \frac{\langle x, y \rangle}{\|x\| \cdot \|y\|}.</math>
:We assume the value of the angle is chosen to be in the interval <nowiki>(−π, +π]</nowiki>. This is in analogy to the familiar situation in two-dimensional [[Euclidean space]]. Correspondingly, we will say that non-zero vectors ''x'', ''y'' of ''V'' are orthogonal iff their inner product is zero.
*[[Homogeneity]]: for ''x'' an element of ''V'' and ''r'' a scalar
::<math> \|r \cdot x\| = |r| \cdot \| x\|.</math>
:The homogeneity property is completely trivial to prove.
*[[Triangle inequality]]: for ''x'', ''y'' elements of ''V''
::<math> \|x + y\| \leq \|x \| + \|y\|. </math>
:The last two properties show the function defined is indeed a norm.
:Because of the triangle inequality and because of axiom 2, we see that ||·|| is a norm which turns ''V'' into a [[normed vector space]] and hence also into a [[metric space]]. The most important inner product spaces are the ones which are [[completeness (topology)|complete]] with respect to this metric; they are called [[Hilbert space]]s. Every inner product ''V'' space is a [[dense]] subspace of some Hilbert space. This Hilbert space is essentially uniquely determined by ''V'' and is constructed by completing ''V''.
*[[Parallelogram law]]:
::<math> \|x + y\|^2 + \|x - y\|^2 = 2\|x\|^2 + 2\|y\|^2. </math>
*[[Pythagorean theorem]]: Whenever ''x'', ''y'' are in ''V'' and <''x'', ''y''> = 0, then
::<math> \|x\|^2 + \|y\|^2 = \|x+y\|^2. </math>
:The proofs of both of these identities require only expressing the definition of norm in terms of the inner product and multiplying out, using the property of additivity of each component. The name ''Pythagorean theorem'' arises from the geometric interpretation of this result as an analogue of the theorem in [[synthetic geometry]]. Note that the proof of the Pythagorean theorem in synthetic geometry is considerably more elaborate because of the paucity of underlying structure. In this sense, the synthetic Pythagorean theorem, if correctly demonstrated is deeper than the version given above.
:An easy [[mathematical induction|induction]] on the Pythagorean theorem yields:
*If ''x''<sub>1</sub>, ..., ''x''<sub>''n''</sub> are [[orthogonal]] vectors, that is, <''x''<sub>''j''</sub>, ''x''<sub>''k''</sub>> = 0 for distinct indices ''j'', ''k'', then
::<math> \sum_{i=1}^n \|x_i\|^2 = \left\|\sum_{i=1}^n x_i \right\|^2. </math>
:In view of the Cauchy-Schwarz inequality, we also note that <·,·> is [[continuous function|continuous]] from ''V'' × ''V'' to ''F''. This allows us to extend Pythagoras' theorem to infinitely many summands:
*Parseval's identity: Suppose ''V'' is a ''complete'' inner product space. If {''x''<sub>''k''</sub>} are mutually orthogonal vectors in ''V'' then
::<math> \sum_{i=1}^\infty\|x_i\|^2 = \left\|\sum_{i=1}^\infty x_i\right\|^2, </math>
:''provided the infinite series on the left is [[convergent]].'' Completeness of the space is needed to ensure that the sequence of partial sums
::<math> S_k = \sum_{i=1}^k x_i </math>
:which is easily shown to be a [[Cauchy sequence]] is convergent.
== Orthonormal sequences ==
A sequence {''e''<sub>''k''</sub>}<sub>''k''</sub> is ''orthonormal'' [[iff]] it is orthogonal and each ''e<sub>k</sub>'' has norm 1. An ''orthonormal basis'' for an inner product space ''V'' is an orthonormal sequence whose algebraic span is ''V''.
The [[Gram-Schmidt]] process is a canonical procedure that takes a linearly independent sequence {''v''<sub>''k''</sub>}<sub>''k''</sub> on an inner product space and produces an orthonormal sequence {''e''<sub>''k''</sub>}<sub>''k''</sub> such that for each ''n''
:<math>\operatorname{span}\{v_1, \ldots, v_n\} = \operatorname{span}\{e_1, \ldots, e_n\} </math>
By the Gram-Schmidt orthonormalization process, one shows:
'''Theorem'''. Any [[separable]] inner product space ''V'' has an orthonormal basis.
Parseval's identity leads immediately to the following theorem:
'''Theorem'''. Let ''V'' be a [[separable]] inner product space and {''e''<sub>''k''</sub>}<sub>''k''</sub> an orthonormal basis of ''V''.
Then the map
:<math> x \mapsto \{\langle e_k, x\rangle\}_{k \in \mathbb{N}} </math>
is an isometric linear map ''V'' → ''l''<sup>2</sup> with a dense image.
This theorem can be regarded as an abstract form of [[Fourier series]], in which an arbitrary orthonormal basis plays the role of the sequence of [[trigonometric polynomial]]s. Note that the underlying index set can be taken to be any countable set (and in fact any set whatsoever, provided ''l<sup>2</sup>'' is defined appropriately, as is explained in the article [[Hilbert space]]).
In particular, we obtain the following result in the theory of Fourier series:
'''Theorem'''. Let ''V'' be the inner product space <math>C[-\pi,\pi]</math>. Then the sequence (indexed on set of all integers) of continuous functions
:<math>e_k(t) = (2 \pi)^{-1/2}e^{i k t}</math>
is an orthonormal basis of the space <math>C[-\pi,\pi]</math> with the ''L''<sup>2</sup> inner product. The mapping
:<math> f \mapsto \frac{1}{\sqrt{2 \pi}} \left\{\int_{-\pi}^\pi f(t) e^{-i k t} \, dt \right\}_{k \in \mathbb{Z}} </math>
is an isometric linear map with dense image.
Orthogonality of the sequence {e<sub>k</sub>}<sub>k</sub> follows immediately from the fact that if k ≠ j, then
:<math> \int_{-\pi}^\pi e^{-i (j-k) t} \, dt = 0 </math>
Normality of the sequence is by design, that is, the coefficients are so chosen so that the norm comes out to 1. Finally the fact that the sequence has a dense algebraic span, in the ''inner product norm'', follows from the fact that the sequence has a dense algebraic span, this time in the space of continuous periodic functions on <math>[-\pi,\pi]</math> with the uniform norm. This is the content of the Weierstrass theorem on the uniform density of trigonometric polynomials.
==Operators on inner product spaces==
Several types of [[linear]] maps ''A'' from an inner product space ''V'' to an inner product space ''W'' are of relevance:
* [[Continuous linear operator|Continuous linear maps]], i.e. ''A'' is linear and continuous with respect to the metric defined above, or equivalently, ''A'' is linear and the set of non-negative reals {||''Ax''||}, where ''x'' ranges over the closed unit ball of ''V'', is bounded.
* Symmetric linear operators, i.e. ''A'' is linear and <''Ax'', ''y''> = <''x'', ''A y''> for all ''x'', ''y'' in ''V''.
* Isometries, i.e. ''A'' is linear and <''Ax'', ''Ay''> = <''x'', ''y''> for all ''x'', ''y'' in ''V'', or equivalently, ''A'' is linear and ||''Ax''|| = ||''x''|| for all ''x'' in ''V''. All isometries are [[injective]]. Isometries are [[morphism]]s between inner product spaces, and morphisms of real inner product spaces are orthogonal transformations (compare with [[orthogonal matrix]]).
* Isometrical isomorphisms, i.e. ''A'' is an isometry which is [[surjective]] (and hence [[bijective]]). Isometrical isomorphisms are also known as unitary operators (compare with [[unitary matrix]]).
From the point of view of inner product space theory, there is no need to distinguish between two spaces which are isometrically isomorphic. The [[spectral theorem]] provides a canonical form for symmetric, unitary and more generally [[normal]] operators on finite dimensional inner product spaces. A generalization of the spectral theorem holds for continuous normal operators in Hilbert spaces.
== Degenerate inner products ==
If ''V'' is a vector space and < , > a semi-definite sesquilinear form,
then the function ||''x''|| = <''x'', ''x''><sup>1/2</sup> makes sense and satisfies all the properties of norm except that ||''x''|| = 0 does not imply ''x'' = 0. (Such a functional is then called a [[semi-norm]].) We can produce an inner product space by considering the
quotient ''W'' = ''V''/{ ''x'' : ||''x''|| = 0}. The sesquilinear form < , > factors through ''W''.
This construction is used in numerous contexts. The [[Gelfand-Naimark-Segal construction]] is a particularly important example of the use of this technique. Another example is the representation of [[semi-definite kernel]]s on arbitrary sets.
==See also==
* [[Outer product]]
* [[Exterior algebra]]
* [[bilinear form]]
* [[dual space]]
* [[dual pair]]
* [[biorthogonal system]]
== References ==
* S. Axler, ''Linear Algebra Done Right'', Springer, 2004
* G. Emch, ''Algebraic Methods in Statistical Mechanics and Quantum Field Theory'', Wiley Interscience, 1972.
* N. Young, ''An Introduction to Hilbert Spaces'', Cambridge University Press, 1988
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Iain M. Banks
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Iain Banks
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/* Novels as Iain Banks */
[[Image:Ian M. Banks 2005.JPG|thumb|200px|Iain M. Banks at [[63rd World Science Fiction Convention]] in [[Glasgow]], [[August 2005]]]]
'''Iain Menzies Banks''' (born on [[February 16]], [[1954]] in [[Dunfermline]], [[Fife]]) is a [[Scotland|Scottish]] [[writer]]. As '''Iain M. Banks''' he writes [[science fiction]]; as '''Iain Banks''' he writes [[literary fiction]].
His father was an officer in the [[Admiralty]] and his mother was once a professional [[ice skating|ice skater]]. Banks studied [[English_studies|English]] and [[Philosophy]] at the [[University of Stirling]].
Married in [[1992]], he lives currently in [[North Queensferry]], a town on the north side of the [[Firth of Forth]] near the [[Forth Bridge (railway)|Forth Bridge]] and the [[Forth Road Bridge]]. His next book will be a mainstream one and is due for publication in September 2006.
==Politics==
As with his friend [[Ken MacLeod]] (another Scottish writer of technical and social science fiction) a strong awareness of [[Left-wing politics|left-wing]] history shows in his writings. The argument that an [[economy of abundance]] renders [[anarchism|anarchy]] and [[adhocracy]] viable (or even inevitable) attracts many as an interesting potential experiment, were it ever to become testable. He is known as a supporter of [[Scottish independence]], and has campaigned with the [[Scottish Socialist Party]].
In late 2004 Banks was a prominent member of a group of British politicians and media figures who campaigned to have Prime Minister [[Tony Blair]] impeached following the [[2003 invasion of Iraq|2003 Invasion of Iraq]]. In protest he cut up his [[passport]] and posted it to [[10 Downing Street]].
Banks is an Honorary Associate of the [[National Secular Society]].
==Miscellany==
*Banks tends to produce a [[novel]] in around three months, working solidly, then take nine months off. In his leisure time, he has had flying lessons and records his own [[Rock and roll|rock music]].
*Banks tends to alternate writing between [[science fiction]] and [[literary fiction]] novels.
*Many of his [[science fiction]] books are based in the universe of '[[the Culture]]' (a powerful, multi-species civilization living in our galaxy). The [[novella]] ''[[The State of the Art]]'' records the Culture coming into contact with planet Earth (see Bibliography below).
*Following the release of his most recent book, ''[[The Algebraist]]'' in [[2004]] (a non-Culture novel), Banks has stated that he intends to write more Culture novels. However, as he intends to slow the release of such books from one every 12 months to one every 18 months, the next Culture novel cannot be expected until sometime after [[2006]].
*Although Banks generally confines his writing to his own novels, he has written occasional reviews for ''[[The Guardian]]'' newspaper and is a semi-regular music reviewer for [[Marc Riley|Marc Riley's]] Rocket Science radio show on [[BBC 6 Music]]. He has been the subject of ''[[The South Bank Show|South Bank Show]]'' television programme broadcast on [[16 November]] [[1997]], subtitled ''The Strange Worlds of Iain Banks'' which concentrated on his mainstream work. ''The Curse Of Iain Banks'', a play written by Maxton Walker, was performed at the [[Edinburgh Fringe]] in 1999, with Banks contributing as a voice on tape. He has appeared on the [[BBC]]'s political discussion television programme ''[[Question Time (television)|Question Time]]''.
*Iain Banks occasionally writes letters to the editor of the [[New Scientist]], most recently mocking [[creationism]] in November 2005.[http://www.newscientist.com/article.ns?id=mg18825260.500]
*While a student at Stirling University, Banks appeared as an extra in the final battle scene of the film ''[[Monty Python and the Holy Grail]]'', which was filmed at the nearby [[Doune Castle]].
*Banks captained a team of writers to victory in a special series of ''[[University Challenge|University Challenge: The Professionals]]'', beating the 'news' team 190-45 in the final. He also won an edition of ''[[Mastermind|Celebrity Mastermind]]'', taking "Malt whiskies and the distilleries of Scotland" as his specialist subject. The shows were broadcast, on BBC2 and BBC1 respectively, on two consecutive days ([[January 1]] and [[2 January]] [[2006]]).
==Bibliography==
===Novels as Iain Banks===
* ''[[The Wasp Factory]]'' ([[1984]])
* ''[[Walking on Glass]]'' ([[1985]])
* ''[[The Bridge (novel)|The Bridge]]'' ([[1986]])
* ''[[Espedair Street]]'' ([[1987]]) – adapted for [[BBC]] radio in [[1998]] (directed by [[David Batchelor]])
* ''[[Canal Dreams]]'' ([[1989]])
* ''[[The Crow Road]]'' ([[1992]]) – [[The Crow Road (mini-series)|adapted]] for BBC TV in [[1996]] (directed by [[Gavin Millar]])
* ''[[Complicity]]'' ([[1993]]) – [[Complicity (film)|filmed]] in [[2000]] (directed by [[Gavin Millar]]), retitled ''Retribution'' for its US DVD/video release
* ''[[Whit]]'' ([[1994]])
* ''[[A Song of Stone]]'' ([[1997]])
* ''[[The Business (novel)|The Business]]'' ([[1999]])
* ''[[Dead Air]]'' ([[2002]])
===Novels as Iain M. Banks===
Much of Banks' science fiction deals with a pan-galactic civilisation, [[the Culture]], which he has developed in some detail over the course of six novels and a collection of [[short story|short stories]].
* ''[[Consider Phlebas]]'' ([[1987]])
* ''[[The Player of Games]]'' ([[1988]])
* ''[[Use of Weapons]]'' ([[1991]])
* ''[[Excession]]'' ([[1996]])
* ''[[Inversions]]'' ([[1998]]) (makes covert references to the protagonists being Culture citizens)
* ''[[Look to Windward]]'' ([[2000]])
His other, non-Culture, science fiction novels are:
* ''[[Against a Dark Background]]'' ([[1993]])
* ''[[Feersum Endjinn]]'' ([[1994]])
* ''[[The Algebraist]]'' ([[2004]])
===Short fiction===
Banks writes less short fiction but has published one collection under his Iain M. Banks name:
* ''[[The State of the Art]]'' ([[1989]])
It contains both science fiction and less categorizable works of fiction. The [[eponym|eponymous]] [[novella]] deals with the Culture, as do two other of the stories contained in this collection.
===Non-fiction===
* ''[[Raw Spirit]]'' ([[2003]]) (a travelogue of Scotland and its [[Scotch whisky|whisky distilleries]])
==Quotes==
"I write because I love it, I enjoy it, I've spent most of my life trying to do it better, and I can make a living from it: beats a [[day job]]." [http://www.contemporarywriters.com/authors/?p=auth12]
== External links ==
* [http://www.iainbanks.net/ Official site]
* [http://www.futurehi.net/phlebas/ Culture Shock]
* [http://banksoniain.netfirms.com The Banksoniain] - Fanzine
* [http://www.iainbanksfaq.f9.co.uk Iain Banks FAQ]
* [http://www.culturelist.org/cdr/ The Culture Data Repository]
* http://c2.com/cgi/wiki?IainBanks
* {{isfdb name|id=Iain_M._Banks|name=Iain M. Banks}}
* {{contemporary writers|id=12}}
* {{iblist name|id=43|name=Iain Banks}}
* [http://us.imdb.com/name/nm0052169/ Internet Movie Database entry]
* [http://books.guardian.co.uk/authors/author/0,5917,-16,00.html Guardian Books "Author Page"], with profile and links to further articles.
* [http://www.spikemagazine.com/0996bank.php Spike Magazine Interview]
* [http://homepages.compuserve.de/Mostral/interviews/starlog94.htm Interview]
* [http://www.futurehi.net/phlebas/text/cultnote.html ''A Few Notes on the Culture''] - essay by Banks
[[Category:1954 births|Banks, Iain]]
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Iain Banks/The Crow Road
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Iain Banks/Espedair Street
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#REDIRECT [[Espedair Street]]
Incunabulum
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:''"Incunabula" redirects here. For the Autechre album, see [[Incunabula (album)]]''
----
[[Image:Incunabulum.JPG|thumb|right|300px|A page from a rare [[Blackletter]] [[Bible]] ([[1497]]) printed in [[Strasbourg]] by [[J.R. Grueninger]]. The coloured chapter [[initial]]s were hand written after the page was printed.]]
An '''incunabulum''' is a [[book]], single sheet, or image that was [[printing|printed]] — not [[manuscript|handwritten]] — before the year [[1501]] in [[Europe]]. These are usually very rare and fragile items whose nature can only be verified by experts. The origin of the word is the [[Latin]] ''incunabula'' for "swaddling clothes", used by extension for the infancy or early stages of something. The first recorded use of ''incunabula'' as a printing term is in a pamphlet by [[Bernard von Mallinckrodt]], ''De ortu et progressu artis typographicae'' ("Of the rise and progress of the typographic art"), published in [[Cologne]] in [[1639]], which includes the phrase ''prima typographicae incunabula'', "the first infancy of printing". The term came to denote the printed books themselves from the late [[17th century]]. The plural is '''incunabula''' and the word is sometimes Anglicized to '''incunable'''. A former term is ''fifteener'', referring to the [[15th century]].
There are two types of ''incunabula'': the ''xylographic'' (made from a single carved or sculpted block for each page) and the ''typographic'' (made with movable type on a [[printing press]] in the style of [[Johann Gutenberg]]). Many authors reserve the term ''incunabulum'' for the typographic ones only.
The ''end date'' for identifying a book as an ''incunabulum'' is convenient, but was chosen arbitrarily. It does not reflect any notable developments in the printing process around the year 1500. ''Incunabula'' usually refers to the earliest printed books, completed at a time when some books were still being hand-copied.
The gradual spread of [[printing]] ensured that there was great variety in the texts chosen for printing and the styles in which they appeared. Many early [[typeface]]s were modelled on local forms of writing or derived from the various European forms of [[Gothic alphabet|Gothic]] script, but there were also some derived from documentary scripts (such as most of [[William Caxton|Caxton]]'s types), and, particularly in [[Italy]], types modelled on humanistic hands. These humanistic typefaces are often used today, barely modified, in digital form.
Printers tended to congregate in urban centres where there were [[scholar]]s, [[ecclesiastic]]s, [[lawyers]], [[nobles]] and [[profession]]als who formed their major customer-base. Standard works in [[Latin]] inherited from the medieval tradition formed the bulk of the earliest printing, but as books became cheaper, works in the various [[vernacular]]s (or translations of standard works) began to appear.
Famous ''incunabula'' include the [[Gutenberg Bible]] of [[1455]] and the ''[[Liber Chronicarum]]'' of [[Hartmann Schedel]], printed by [[Anton Koberger]] in [[1493]]. Other well-known ''incunabula'' printers were [[Albrecht Pfister]] of [[Bamberg]], [[Günther Zainer]] of [[Augsburg]], [[Johann Mentelin]] of [[Strasbourg]] and [[William Caxton]] of [[Bruges]] and [[London]].
The tally of editions and titles issued before 1500 runs into thousands, and the most authoritative listing is in the German catalogue, the ''[[Gesamtkatalog der Wiegendrucke]]'' which is still being compiled at the [[Staatsbibliothek zu Berlin]]. The [[British Library]] has compiled the [[Incunabula Short-Title Catalogue]] which includes the holdings of most libraries world-wide. Other smaller catalogs were started in the [[19th century]] and are still used as reference points (Hain, Copinger, etc.)
The largest collections, with the approximate numbers of incunabula held, include:
* [[Bayerische Staatsbibliothek]], Munich (18,550)
* [[British Library]] (12,500)
* [[Bibliothèque nationale de France]] (12,000)
* [[Vatican Library]] (8,000)
* [[Oesterreichische Nationalbibliothek]], Vienna (8,000)
* [[Russian National Library]], St Petersburg (7,000)
* [[Stuttgart Landesbibliothek]] (7,000)
* [[Huntington Library]] (5,600)
* [[Library of Congress]] (5,600)
* [[Bodleian Library]] (5,500)
* [[Russian State Library]], Moscow (5,300)
* [[Cambridge University Library]] (4,600)
* [[John Rylands Library]] (4,500)
* [[Staatsbibliothek zu Berlin]] (4,400)
* [[Harvard University]] (3,600)
* [[Yale University]] (Beinecke 3,100, others 425)
* [[Koninklijke Bibliotheek]] (2,000)
* [[University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign]] (1,130)
== See also ==
* [[History]]
* [[Library]]
* [[Book collecting]]
* [[Blockbooks]]
==External links==
* [http://www.library.uiuc.edu/rbx/ UIUC Rare Book & Manuscript Library]
Places to buy incunables include:
* [http://www.abebooks.com Advanced Book Exchange]
* [http://www.ilab-lila.com ILAB]
* [http://www.sokol.co.uk Sokol Books-Antiquarian Book Dealers]
[[Category:Books by type]]
[[Category:Incunabulum| ]]
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Isotropy
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'''Isotropy''' (the opposite of [[anisotropy]]) is the property of being independent of direction. [[Wiktionary:Isotropic|Isotropic]] [[radiation]] has the same intensity regardless of the direction of [[measurement]], and an isotropic field exerts the same action regardless of how the test [[particle]] is oriented.
* ''Mathematics'': Isotropy is also a concept in [[mathematics]]. Some [[manifold]]s are isotropic, meaning that the [[geometry]] on the manifold is the same regardless of direction. A similar concept is [[homogeneity]]. A manifold can be homogeneous without being isotropic.
A function <math> f: \R^{n \times n} \rightarrow \R</math> is also called isotropic if
<math>f( R_1 {\bold x} R_2 )= f({\bold x})</math> for all <math>{\bold x} \in \R^{n \times n}</math>
and all <math>R_1, R_2 \in SO(n)</math>, the [[special orthogonal group]] of dimension ''n''.
* ''Radio broadcasting'': In [[radio]], an [[isotropic antenna]] is an idealized "[[radiator|radiating element]]" used as a [[reference]]; an [[antenna (electronics)|antenna]] that broadcasts power equally (calculated by the [[poynting vector]]) in all directions. In practice, an isotropic antenna cannot exist, as equal radiation in all directions would be a violation of the [[Helmholtz Wave Equation]]. The gain of an arbitrary antenna is usually reported in [[Decibel]]s relative to an isotropic antenna, and is expressed as dBi or dB(i).
* ''Physiology'': In skeletal muscle cells (a.k.a. [[muscle fibers]]), the term "isotropic" refers to the light bands ([[I bands]]) that contribute to the striated pattern of the cells.
* ''Materials'': In the study of [[mechanical]] properties of materials, "isotropic" means having identical values of a property in all [[crystallographic]] directions.
* ''Optics'': [[Optical isotropy]] is usually seen as equivalent to the fact that the dielectric tensor is a scalar or is reduced to a scalar in case of polydomain materials. The latter is not correct, however, if the domains can not be considered as small compared to the wavelength.
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Helmholtz Equation:
Instruments
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International Mathematical Union
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The '''International Mathematical Union''' is an international [[non-governmental organization]] devoted to international cooperation in the field of [[mathematics]]. It is a member of the [[International Council for Science]] (ICSU) and supports the [[International Congress of Mathematicians]]. Its members are national mathematics organizations in 65 countries.
==External links==
*[http://www.mathunion.org/ International Mathematical Union]
[[Category:Mathematical societies]]
[[de:Internationale Mathematische Union]]
[[es:Unión Matemática Internacional]]
[[fr:Union mathématique internationale]]
[[it:International Mathematical Union]]
[[ja:国際数学連合]]
[[ko:국제 수학자 연맹]]
[[pl:Międzynarodowa Unia Matematyczna]]
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International Council for Science
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The '''International Council for Science''' (ICSU), formerly called the '''International Council of Scientific Unions''', was founded in [[1931]] as an international non-governmental organization devoted to international co-operation in the advancement of science. Its members are national scientific bodies, and international scientific unions, including the [[International Mathematical Union]], the [[International Astronomical Union]] and the [[International Union of Pure and Applied Chemistry]].
Its mission is:
: ''To identify and address major issues of importance to science and society, by mobilising the resources and knowledge of the international scientific community; to promote the participation of all scientists, irrespective of race, citizenship, language, political stance or gender in the international scientific endeavour; to facilitate interactions between different scientific disciplines and between scientists from ‘Developing’ and ‘Developed’ countries; to stimulate constructive debate by acting as an authoritative independent voice for international science and scientists.''
ICSU was founded to bring together natural scientists in international scientific endeavour. As of October 2006, it comprises 104 multi-disciplinary National Scientific Members, Associates and Observers (scientific research councils or science academies) and 29 international, single-discipline Scientific Unions. ICSU also has 23 Scientific Associates.
One of the fundamental principles of ICSU is that of the universality of science, which affirms the right and freedom of scientists to associate in international scientific activity without regard to such factors as citizenship, religion, creed, political stance, ethnic origin, race, colour, language, age or sex.
The Council acts as a focus for the exchange of ideas and information and the development of standards. Hundreds of congresses, symposia and other scientific meetings are organized each year around the world, and a wide range of newsletters, handbooks and journals is published.
The principal source of ICSU's finances is the contributions it receives from its Members. Other sources of income are the framework contracts from [[UNESCO]] and grants and contracts from [[United Nations]] bodies, foundations and agencies, which are used to support the scientific activities of the ICSU Unions and interdisciplinary bodies.
==External links==
[[Image:Logo_icsu2.gif]]
* [http://www.icsu.org/ ICSU website]
[[Category:International nongovernmental organizations]]
[[Category:Scientific organizations]]
[[Category:Learned societies]]
[[de:International Council for Science]]
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International Union of Pure and Applied Chemistry
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[[Image:320px-IUPAC.png|thumb|150px|IUPAC logo]]
The '''International Union of Pure and Applied Chemistry''' ('''IUPAC''') is an international [[non-governmental organization]] devoted to the advancement of [[chemistry]]. It has as its members national chemistry societies. It is most well known as the recognized authority in developing standards for the naming of the chemical elements and their compounds, through its Interdivisional Committee on Nomenclature and Symbols ([[IUPAC nomenclature]]). It is a member of the [[International Council for Science]] (ICSU).
In addition to nomenclature guidelines, the IUPAC sets standards for international spelling in the event of a dispute; for example, it ruled that [[aluminium]] is preferable to the [[American English|American]] ''aluminum'' and [[sulfur]] rather than the [[British English|British]] ''sulphur''.
Many IUPAC publications are available over the [[Internet]]. For example, the Green Book ("Quantities, Units and Symbols in Physical Chemistry, 2nd edition, 1993") can be downloaded in its entirety from http://www.iupac.org/publications/books/gbook/green_book_2ed.pdf. The 2005 version (a work-in-progress) can also be downloaded.
An important IUPAC supplement ("Recommendations for nomenclature and tables in biochemical thermodynamics, 1994") is available at http://www.chem.qmul.ac.uk/iubmb/thermod/.
As the introduction to the proposed 3rd edition points out, the failure to use standardized units can result in disastrous consequences. The loss of NASA's Mars Climate Orbiter was due to the use of [[lbf]]-s rather than [[Newton|N]]-s in the coding of the software files. IUPAC urges the users of its Green Book "always to define explicitly the terms, the units, and the symbols that they use."
== See also ==
* [[IUPAC nomenclature]]
* [[Chemical element]]
* [[Element naming controversy]]
* [[Periodic table group]]
* [[International Chemical Identifier]] (InChI)
== External links ==
*[http://www.iupac.org/ Official website]
*[http://www.acdlabs.com/download/name.html ACD/ChemSKetch] Freeware allowing generation of IUPAC Names (free version is limited to small structures)
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[[ja:国際純正・応用化学連合]]
[[pl:Międzynarodowa Unia Chemii Czystej i Stosowanej]]
[[pt:IUPAC]]
[[ru:ИЮПАК]]
[[sk:Medzinárodná únia čistej a aplikovanej chémie]]
[[sl:Mednarodna zveza za čisto in uporabno kemijo]]
[[fi:IUPAC]]
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[[zh:國際純粹與應用化學聯合會]]
International Hydrographic Organization
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Johantheghost
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Added pub ref
[[ja:国際水路機関]]
[[pl:Międzynarodowa Organizacja Hydrograficzna]]
The '''International Hydrographic Organization''' (IHO) is an intergovernmental [[international organization]] established in [[1921]]. The IHO was the outgrowth of international conferences and congresses held as early as [[1889]].
The IHO is composed of its member states (represented by their respective [[hydrographic office]]s) with administration through the International Hydrographic Bureau with headquarters in [[Monaco]]. Direction of the Bureau is through directors elected by member states. The organization's function is to coordinate [[Hydrography]] and hydrographic activities of the member states. The IHO does not itself control significant hydrographic assets.
The organization's goals are stated as "support the safety in navigation and the protection of the marine environment" with support of coordinated and uniform hydrographic products and surveys and by improving techniques of member states for producing those products.
The IHO publishes ''Limits of Oceans and Seas'', which specifies the boundaries between the [[ocean]]s.<ref>[http://ioc.unesco.org/oceanteacher/OceanTeacher2/01_GlobOcToday/03_GeopolOc/s23_1953.pdf ''Limits of Oceans and Seas'']. International Hydrographic Organization Special Publication No. 23, 1953.</ref> In [[2000]] they officially defined the boundaries of the [[Southern Ocean]].
==See also==
*[[International Association of Lighthouse Authorities]]
== References ==
<div style="font-size:85%;">
<references/>
</div>
==External links==
*[http://www.iho.shom.fr/ International Hydrographic Organization] website
[[Category:Hydrography]]
IBM mainframe
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ArnoldReinhold
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/* History */ more on transition
An '''IBM mainframe''' is a large, high performance computer made by [[IBM|International Business Machines (IBM)]]. [[Mainframe computers]] traditionally are "expensive,"{{ref|cost}} individually physically large{{ref|size}}, and have high [[transaction processing]] and [[input/output|I/O]] performance, but are not as expensive and high performance{{ref|speed}} as [[supercomputers]].
==History==
From [[1952]] into the late [[1960s]], IBM manufactured and marketed several large computer models, known as the [[IBM 700/7000 series]]. The 700s were based on [[vacuum tube]]s, while the later 7000s used [[transistor]]s. These machines established IBM's dominance in electronic data processing. IBM had two model categories: one (701, 704, 709, 7090, 7040) for engineering and scientific use, and one (702, 705, 7080, 7070, 7010) for commercial or data processing use. IBM initially sold its computers without any software, expecting customers to write their own; and programs were manually initiated, one at a time. This followed the model IBM had earlier established with their [[unit record equipment]]. Later IBM provided compilers for the newly developed higher-level [[programming language]]s [[Fortran]] and [[Cobol]]. The need to make the most efficient use of these multi-million dollar machines led the the introduction of simple [[operating system]]s, or job monitors. The two categories, scientific and commercial, generally used common peripherals but had completely different [[instruction set]]s, and there were incompatibilities even within each category. As software became more complex and important, the cost of supporting it on so many different designs became burdensome.
All that changed with the announcement of the [[System/360]] (S/360) in April, 1964. The System/360 was a single series of compatible models for both commercial and scientific use. The number "[[360 (number)|360]]" suggested a "360 [[degree (angle)|degree]]," or "all-around" computer system. [[System/360]] incorporated features which had previously been present on only either the commercial line (such as decimal arithmetic and byte addressing) or the technical line (such as [[floating point]] arithmetic).{{ref|alu}} The System/360 was also the first computer in wide use to include dedicated hardware provisions for the use of [[operating system]]s. Among these were supervisor and application mode programs and instructions, as well as built-in memory protection facilities.{{ref|mem-protect}} The new machine also had a larger [[address space]] than the older mainframes, 24 bits vs. a typical 18 bits. The System/360 later evolved into the [[System/370]], the [[System/390]], the [[zSeries]], and the [[System z9]].
Prior to System/360, IBM also sold computers smaller in scale, though still large and expensive by modern standards. These included:
*[[IBM 650]] (vacuum tube era, decimal architecture, business and scientific)
*[[IBM RAMAC 305]] (vacuum tube era, first computer with disk storage; ''see:'' [[Early IBM disk storage]])
*[[IBM 1400 series]] (business data processing; very successful and many 1400 peripherals were used with the 360s)
*[[IBM 1620]] (decimal architecture, engineering, scientific, and education)
IBM had difficulty getting customers to upgrade from the smaller machines to the mainframes because so much software had to be rewritten. The 7010 was introduced in 1962 as a mainframe-sized 1410.
The smaller models in the System/360 line (e.g. the 360/30) were intended to replace the 1400 series while providing an easier upgrade path to the larger 360s. A desk size machine with a different instruction set, the [[IBM 1130]], was released to address the 1620's niche. It was mostly programmed in Fortran, which was relatively easy to adapt to larger machines when necessary.
The second generation products were a mainstay of IBM's business and IBM continued to make them for several years after the introduction of the System/360. (Some [[IBM 7094]]s remained in service into the 1980s.) To smooth the transition from second generation to the new line, IBM used the 360's [[microprogramming]] capability to emulate the more popular older models. Thus 360/30s with this added cost feature could run 1401 programs and the larger 360/65s could run 7094 programs. To run old programs, the 360 had to be halted and restarted in emulation mode. Many customers kept using their old software and one of the features of the later System/370 was the ability to switch to emulation mode and back under operating system control.
==Software==
===Operating systems===
The primary [[operating system]]s in use on IBM mainframes include [[z/OS]] (which followed [[MVS]] and [[OS/390]]), [[z/VM]] (previously [[VM/CMS]]), [[z/VSE]], [[z/TPF]], and [[Linux on zSeries]]. A few systems still run [[MUSIC/SP]], another operating system. Previous operating systems for the [[System/360]] family and its successors included [[OS/360]] (with PCP, MFT, and MVT), BOS, TOS, [[DOS/360|DOS]], and SVS. There are software-based emulators for the [[System/370]], [[System/390]], [[zSeries]], and [[ZSeries|System z9]] hardware, including [[FLEX-ES]] and the freely available [[Hercules emulator]] which runs under Linux and [[Microsoft Windows]]. The original [[OS/360]] and early [[MVS]] and [[VM/CMS]] versions have been released for free use.
===Middleware===
IBM mainframes run all the major enterprise [[transaction processing]] environments and [[database]]s, including [[CICS]], [[Information Management System|IMS]], [[WebSphere]] Application Server, [[DB2]], and [[Oracle Database|Oracle]]. In many cases these [[software]] subsystems can run on more than one mainframe operating system.
==See also==
*[[List of IBM products]]
*[[Amdahl Corporation]]
*[[IBM minicomputer]]
==References==
*Prasad, Nallur (1994). ''IBM Mainframes: Architecture and Design'', 2nd ed. McGraw-Hill Osborne Media. ISBN 0070506914.{{ref|old-book}}
==External links==
*[http://ibm.com/zseries Official IBM mainframe page (zSeries/z9)]
==Notes==
<!-- Instructions for adding a footnote:
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#{{Note|cost}} The acquisition price of one mainframe is higher than, say, one PC. However, that's a bit like saying the acquisition price of a train freight car is higher than the price of a bicycle basket. Both can move goods, but there the similarity ends, and the costs depend almost entirely on the tasks required of them. Mainframes reduce labor costs, software costs, and costs of outage, among other costs, because they are systems designed to achieve significant [[economies of scale]].
#{{Note|size}} Nowadays, because mainframes consolidate scores or even hundreds of otherwise individual servers, they consume less electricity and occupy less space than equivalent workloads executing on individual servers. Most 21st century data centers require much more space for distributed servers than for mainframes.
#{{Note|speed}} In single computational task terms. Weather modeling, protein folding analysis, nuclear explosion simulation, digital cinematography, and structural engineering analysis are examples of computational problems better suited to supercomputers. Mainframes are optimized for business transaction processing and large online database management, among other tasks.
#{{Note|alu}} Some of the arithmetic units and addressing features were optional on some models of the System/360. However, models were upward compatible and most were also downward compatible.
#{{Note|mem-protect}} Hardware memory protection was provided to protect the operating system from the user programs (tasks) and the user tasks from each other.
#{{Note|old-book}} Now dated. For details on the significant [[64-bit]] architectural changes, refer to IBM technical publications (see [[z/Architecture]]).
[[Category:IBM hardware|Mainframe]]
[[Category:Mainframe computers|*]]
IBM minicomputer
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216.115.228.126
#REDIRECT [[IBM midrange computer]]
Iowa State University
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63.163.175.14
/* Alumni or faculty members */
{{University information |
Width = 300 |
TableColor = #FAFAD2 |
TitleColor = #B22222 |
Name = Iowa State University |
Seal = IowaStateUniversitySeal.gif |
SealWidth = 210 |
Motto = Science with practice |
Established = 1858 |
SchoolType = [[Public university|Public]] |
CurrentPresident = [[ISU notables#Geoffroy|Gregory L. Geoffroy]] |
Location = [[Ames, Iowa| Ames]], [[Iowa|IA]], [[United States|USA]] |
Undergraduate = 22,000 |
Graduate = 4,700 |
Faculty = 1,750 |
Endowment = $489 million |
Campus = [[urban area|Urban]], 1,984 acres (8 km²) |
SportsTeam = [[Iowa State Cyclones|Cyclones]]
[[Image:Iowa-State-University-sports-logo.png|50px|]]|
Website = [http://www.iastate.edu/ www.iastate.edu]
}}
'''Iowa State University''' ('''ISU''') is a public [[land-grant university]] and [[Space grant colleges|space-grant university]] located in [[Ames, Iowa]]. The full official name is '''Iowa State University of Science and Technology'''. It was previously '''Iowa State College of Agriculture and Mechanic Arts''', a school created through the [[Morrill Land-Grant Colleges Act]].
The [[Iowa General Assembly]] in 1858, prior to the passage of the [[Morrill Act of 1862]], enacted legislation to establish an agriculture college and model farm. This college was named the State Agricultural College & Model Farm. The location of [[Story County, Iowa|Story County]] was chosen on [[June 21]], [[1859]] after the state selection board received proposals from [[Johnson County, Iowa|Johnson]], [[Kossuth County, Iowa|Kossuth]], [[Marshall County, Iowa|Marshall]], [[Polk County, Iowa|Polk]], and [[Story County, Iowa|Story]] counties. The University is one of 60 elected members of the prestigious [[Association of American Universities]].
==Landmarks==
Nearing its [[sesquicentennial]] in 2008, ISU now has a number of landmarks on campus.
Please visit the [[ISU notables]] page for many of the beautiful landmarks.
==Academics==
[[Image:Fountain of Four Seasons.jpg|thumb|250px|left|[[ISU notables#Fountain of Four Seasons|Fountain of Four Seasons]] by [[ISU notables#Petersen|Christian Petersen]] with the [[ISU notables#Campanile|Campanile]] in the background]]
ISU is best known for its degree programs in [[science]], [[engineering]] and [[agriculture]]. ISU is also home of the world's first electronic digital computer, the [[Atanasoff Berry Computer]].
It consists of the following colleges:
* [http://www.ag.iastate.edu/ Agriculture]
* [http://www.bus.iastate.edu/ Business]
* [http://www.design.iastate.edu/ Design]
* [http://www.eng.iastate.edu/ Engineering]
* [http://www.hs.iastate.edu/ Human Sciences]
* [http://www.las.iastate.edu/ Liberal Arts and Sciences]
* [http://www.vetmed.iastate.edu/ Veterinary Medicine]
In addition to these seven colleges, the [http://www.grad-college.iastate.edu/ Graduate College] oversees graduate study in all fields. <!--
===College of Agriculture===
===College of Business===
===College of Art & Design===
===College of Education===
===College of Engineering===
===College of Family & Consumer Sciences===
===College of Liberal Arts & Sciences===
===College of Veterinary Medicine===
===Graduate College===
-->
==Athletics==
{{main|Iowa State Cyclones}}
[[Image:ISU.PNG|right|200px]]
The sports teams are nicknamed the Cyclones, a name which dates back to 1895. That year, there were many occurrences of cyclones, or tornados. Also that year was when the Iowa State football team went to [[Northwestern University]] and defeated its team 36-0. The [[Chicago Tribune]] proclaimed "Iowa cyclone devastates Evanstontown."
The school colors are cardinal and gold. The mascot is Cy the Cardinal, who was introduced in 1954. This is likely a reference to the original nickname, the Cardinals. The Iowa State Cyclones play in the [[NCAA]]'s Division I-A as part of the [[Big 12 Conference]].
==VEISHEA celebration==
[[Image:CyRide buses.jpg|thumb|250px|Two [[ISU notables#CyRide|CyRide]] buses]]
Iowa State is also noted for [[VEISHEA]], an education and entertainment festival held on campus every spring. The name is an acronym of the original colleges of the institution when VEISHEA was established in 1922: Veterinary Medicine, Engineering, Industrial Science, Home Economics, and Agriculture. Its organizers claim it to be among the largest student-organized cultural festivals in the world.
In recent years the festival has been marred by problems. Unruly students created a disturbance ("rioted") on Welch Avenue in 1988 and 1992, prompting school officials to take away the traditional Thursday afternoon and Friday holidays before the celebration. Problems continued. In 1997, an underage non-student was fatally stabbed by another non-student outside a fraternity party. In response, alcohol was banned during VEISHEA.
In 2004, a riot took place during VEISHEA when police confronted people during an off-campus party. Because of the riot, officials announced that there would be no VEISHEA festival during 2005 and a task force would consider the future of the celebration. In March 2005, [[ISU notables#Geoffroy|President Geoffroy]] announced that the festival will return in 2006, with events being moved from riot-prone Welch Avenue to central campus. In April 2005, the student group Leaders INspiring Connections (LINC) organized several events on what would have been [[VEISHEA]] weekend, including Operation Playground, a community service project involving 700 students building three playgrounds in the community. "This Is Your April," was another opportunity for students to enjoy their campus atmosphere sponsored by the student government and numerous student groups.
==Iowa State University presidents==
{| class="wikitable"
|- bgcolor="#CCCCCC"
! # !! President !! Start of term !! End of term
|-
| 1 || [[Adonijah Welch]] || 1868 || 1883
|-
| 2 || [[ISU notables#Knapp|Seaman A. Knapp]] || 1883 || 1884
|-
| 3 || [[ISU notables#Hunt|Leigh S.J. Hunt]] || 1885 || 1886
|-
| 4 || [[ISU notables#Chamberlain|William I. Chamberlain]] || 1886 || 1890
|-
| 5 || [[ISU notables#Beardshear|William M. Beardshear]] || 1891 || 1902
|-
| 6 || [[ISU notables#Storms|Albert B. Storms]] || 1903 || 1910
|-
| 7 || [[ISU notables#Pearson|Raymond A. Pearson]] || 1912 || 1926
|-
| 8 || [[ISU notables#Hughes|Raymond M. Hughes]] || 1927 || 1936
|-
| 9 || [[ISU notables#Friley|Charles E. Friley]] || 1936 || 1953
|-
| 10 || [[ISU notables#Hilton|James H. Hilton]] || 1953 || 1965
|-
| 11 || [[ISU notables#Parks|W. Robert Parks]] || 1965 || 1986
|-
| 12 || [[ISU notables#Eaton|Gordon P. Eaton]] || 1986 || 1990
|-
| 13 || [[Martin C. Jischke]] || [[June 1]], [[1991]] || [[August 14]], [[2000]]
|-
| 14 || [[ISU notables#Geoffroy|Gregory L. Geoffroy]] || [[July 1]], [[2001]] || present
|}
== Alumni or faculty members ==
[[Image:George washington carver.jpg|thumb|250px|George Washington Carver]]
See [[ISU notables]] for a complete list.
* [[Roberta Green Ahmanson]], author and philanthropist
* [[John Vincent Atanasoff]] and [[Clifford E. Berry]] (see also [[Atanasoff Berry Computer]]), developers of the first digital computer
*[[Bennett Bean]], studio potter
* [[Georgina Jinkinson Bonesteel]], author and television show host
* [[Griffith Buck]], alumnus and professor of horticulture; developed nearly 100 new varieties of roses
* [[George Washington Carver]], first [[African-American]] student and faculty member; musician, artist, orator, athletic trainer and student leader
* [[Carrie Chapman Catt]], women's rights activist
* [[Clarence Chamberlin]], aviation pioneer
* [[Vine Deloria, Jr.]], Native American activist and author
* [[Lawrence D. Downing]], President of the Sierra Club
* [[Michael J. Dubes]], President of [[Conseco]] Insurance Group
* [[Charles Lester Fous]], CEO of Big Earl's and Big Earl's II
* [[John Garang]], former commander of [[SPLA]] and former vice president of [[Sudan]]
* [[Henry Gilman]], the "Father of Organometallic Chemistry"
* [[Tom Harkin]], U.S. Senator, Democrat, Iowa
* [[Steve 'Flash' Juon]], OHHLA Webmaster
* [[Jerry Junkins]], CEO of [[Texas Instruments]]
* [[Ted Kooser]], U.S. Poet Laureate and Pulitzer Prize winner
* [[Robert Krasa]], former Vice-President of [[Dow Corning]], former President and CEO of [[Haworth (company) | Haworth, Inc.]]
* [[Tom Latham]], U.S. Representative, Republican, Iowa
* [[Jay L. Lush]], pioneer of modern animal breeding
* [[Norma "Duffy" Lyon]], sculptor and butter artist
* [[Sally Pederson]], Lt. Governor of Iowa
* [[ISU notables#Petersen|Christian Petersen]], sculptor, whose works appear around campus.
* [[Hugh Sidey]], journalist for ''[[Life magazine|Life]]'' and ''[[Time magazine|Time]]'' magazines covering Presidents Eisenhower through Clinton and Washington insider
* [[Jane Smiley]], winner of the 1992 Pulitzer Prize for fiction
* [[George W. Snedecor]], statistician
* [[Mallory Snyder]], [[Sports Illustrated Swimsuit Issue|Sports Illustrated swimsuit model]], actress, [[MTV]]'s ''[[The Real World]]''.
* [[Stephen R. Walker]], television show host
* [[Henry Agard Wallace]], [[United States Secretary of Agriculture|U.S. Secretary of Agriculture]], [[United States Secretary of Commerce]], [[Vice President of the United States]], and founder of [[Pioneer Hi-Bred]]
* [[James Wilson (U.S. politician)|James Wilson]], professor who later became [[United States Secretary of Agriculture|U.S. Secretary of Agriculture]]
===Athletics===
* [[Mike Born]], former basketball player and IBA player and coach
* [[John Cooper (coach)|John Cooper]], football captain and MVP and later coach at Ohio State
* [[Tim Floyd]], former men's basketball coach with 81-49 record and only coach with three consecutive 20-win seasons.
* [[Dan Gable]], two-time NCAA wrestling champion and [[1972 Summer Olympics|1972 Olympic]] gold medalist who later became wrestling coach at the [[University of Iowa]]
* [[Weylan Harding]], Arena Football League head coach and former player
* [[Keith "Lefty" Moore]], CBA coach and former player
* [[Johnny Orr]], the most successful coach in Iowa State and Michigan men's basketball history
* [[Darryl Peterson]], NCAA all american and former professional wrestler
* [[Cael Sanderson]], four-time undefeated NCAA wrestling champion who won a gold medal at the [[2004 Summer Olympics]] in [[Athens]], [[Greece]]
* [[Jack Trice]], football player and pioneer for minorities in sports, died of injuries sustained in a football game
* NBA Players: [[Zaid Abdul-Aziz (born Donald A. Smith)]], [[Victor Alexander]], [[Bill Cain]], [[Kelvin Cato]], [[Marcus Fizer]], [[Jeff Grayer]], [[Fred Hoiberg]], [[Jeff Hornacek]], [[Paul Shirley]], [[Barry Stevens (basketball) | Barry Stevens]], [[Jamaal Tinsley]], [[Jackson Vroman]], and [[Dedric Willoughby]]
* NFL Players: [[Richard Barker (American football player) | Richard Barker]], [[Jordan Carstens]], [[Ellis Hobbs]], [[Keith Krepfle]], [[J.J. Moses]], [[James Reed]], [[Sage Rosenfels]], [[Reggie Hayward]], [[Seneca Wallace]], and [[Tom Watkins]]
==Iowa State chronology==
Events occurring in the same year did not necessarily happen in the order presented here.
{| class="wikitable"
|- bgcolor="#CCCCCC"
! Year !! Event
|-
| 1858 || [[Iowa General Assembly]] enacted legislation for creation of the State Agricultural College & Model Farm
|-
| 1859 || [[Story County, Iowa|Story County]] was the chosen county for the State Agricultural College & Model Farm
|-
| 1860 || Construction starts on [[ISU notables#Farm House|Farm House]]
|-
| 1862 || [[Morrill Act of 1862]] was passed; college to be named Iowa State Agricultural College
|-
| 1884 || Construction of [[ISU notables#English Office Building|English Office Building]] finished
|-
| 1891 || Construction of [[ISU notables#Morrill Hall|Morrill Hall]] finished
|-
| 1891 || First run of [[ISU notables#Dinkey|Dinkey]] on [[July 4]]
|-
| 1892 || Addition made to the [[ISU notables#English Office Building|English Office Building]]
|-
| 1892 || Construction of [[ISU notables#The Hub|The Hub]]
|-
| 1895 || Football team nicknamed Cyclones for their performance against [[Northwestern University]]
|-
| 1895 || Severe water shortage; classes cancelled; spurred construction of the [[ISU notables#Marston Water Tower|Marston Water Tower]]
|-
| 1897 || Construction for the [[ISU notables#Campanile|Campanile]] was started on [[ISU notables#Central Campus|Central Campus]]
|-
| 1897 || Construction of the [[ISU notables#Marston Water Tower|Marston Water Tower]]
|-
| 1898 || Renamed the Iowa State College of Agriculture and Mechanical Arts
|-
| 1903 || Construction of [[ISU notables#Marston Hall|Marston Hall]] finished
|-
| 1904 || Construction first started on what would be the [[ISU notables#Alumni Hall|Alumni Hall]]
|-
| 1897 || End of operation of [[ISU notables#Dinkey|Dinkey]]; start of operation of an electric [[tram|streetcar]]
|-
| 1908 || Construction of [[ISU notables#Central Building|Central Building]] finished
|-
| 1908 || President's, Vice-president's, & Treasurer's offices moved from [[ISU notables#Office Building|Office Building]] to [[ISU notables#Beardshear Hall|Beardshear Hall]]
|-
| 1920 || [[ISU notables#Edgar W. Stanton|Edgar W. Stanton]] dies and 26 bells are added to the [[carillon]] in the [[ISU notables#Campanile|Campanile]] (36 bells total)
|-
| 1922 || [[VEISHEA]] was established
|-
| 1928 || The marching band competes in a band contest held in conjunction with the Drake Relays in Des Moines
|-
| 1929 || Construction of the [[ISU notables#Memorial Union|Memorial Union]] finished
|-
| 1938 || [[ISU notables#Central Building|Central Building]] renamed to [[ISU notables#Beardshear Hall|Beardshear Hall]]
|-
| 1939 || The [[Atanasoff Berry Computer]] is first demonstrated
|-
| 1940 || English department moves into [[ISU notables#Office Building|Office Building]] and is renamed to [[ISU notables#English Office Building|English Office Building]]
|-
| 1941 || The [[ISU notables#Fountain of Four Seasons|Fountain of Four Seasons]] is sculpted by [[ISU notables#Petersen|Christian Petersen]].
|-
| 1954 || 13 more bells were added to the [[carillon]] in the [[ISU notables#Campanile|Campanile]] (49 bells total)
|-
| 1959 || Renamed the Iowa State University of Science and Technology
|-
| 1967 || [[ISU notables#Bessey Hall|Bessey Hall]] opens for use
|-
| 1967 || 1 more bell was added to the [[carillon]] in the [[ISU notables#Campanile|Campanile]] (50 bells total)
|-
| 1969 || Construction of [[ISU notables#Stephens Auditorium|Stephens Auditorium]] finished
|-
| 1973 || English and speech departments relocate from [[ISU notables#English Office Building|English Office Building]] to [[ISU notables#Ross Hall|Ross Hall]] & [[ISU notables#Pearson Hall|Pearson Hall]], respectively.
|-
| 1978 || [[ISU notables#Alumni Hall|Alumni Hall]] placed on the [[National Register of Historic Places]]
|-
| 1978 || The [[ISU notables#marston Water Tower|Marston Water Tower]] is disconnected from use.
|-
| 1982 || The [[ISU notables#Marston Water Tower|Marston Water Tower]] is added to the [[National Register of Historic Places]]
|-
| 1983 || [[ISU notables#Marston Hall|Marston Hall]] placed on the [[National Register of Historic Places]]
|-
| 1984 || Library named the W. Robert and Ellen Sorge Parks Library
|-
| 1988 || First [[VEISHEA]] riot
|-
| 1992 || Second [[VEISHEA]] riot
|-
| 1996 || [[ISU notables#Morrill Hall|Morrill Hall]] determined unsafe for occupancy
|-
| 1997 || Restoration of the [[ISU notables#Marston Water Tower|Marston Water Tower]]
|-
| 1999 || [[ISU notables#Central Campus|Central Campus]] is listed as a "medallion site" by the [[American Society of Landscape Architects]]
|-
| 2003 || Control of the [[ISU notables#Memorial Union|Memorial Union]] was transferred to ISU
|-
| 2004 || [[VEISHEA]] riot; resulted in VEISHEA for 2005 being cancelled
|-
| 2004 || [[ISU notables#English Office Building|English Office Building]] demolished. The Gerdin Business Building, a new high-tech 111,000 square foot (10,000 m²) building equipped with the latest state-of-the-art technology, opens to replace the old business building in Carver Hall.
|-
| 2005 || Two of the Towers residence halls, Knapp and Storms, demolished by implosion
|-
| 2008 || [[Sesquicentennial]] of Iowa State
|}
==See also==
*[[Atanasoff Berry Computer]]
*[[Buildings of Iowa State University]]
*[[ISU notables]]
*[[ISUCF"V"MB]]
*[[Land-grant university]]
*[[Reiman Gardens]]
==External links==
*[http://www.iastate.edu/ Official site]
*[http://www.cyclones.com/ Athletics site]
*[http://www.collegefair.tv/ia_iowa_state_university.html Iowa State University admissions video on CollegeFair.tv]
*[http://www.iowastatedaily.com/ Iowa State Daily] (student newspaper)
*[http://iowa.stateuniversity.com/ Iowa State Information] (Unofficial)
*[http://www.ratemyprofessors.com/SelectTeacher.jsp?sid=452 Information from RateMyProfessors.com]
*[http://www.rofflehaus.com/wiki/Main_Page Student-run wiki for Iowa State University] (Unofficial)
*[http://www.veishea.iastate.edu/index.php?page=history The History of VEISHEA]
{{Big 12 Conference}}
<!-- Look at the below category before adding another category -->
[[Category:Iowa State University]][[Category:Universities and colleges in Iowa]]
[[fr:Université d'Iowa]]
[[ja:アイオワ州立大学]]
[[zh:爱荷华州立大学]]
IMDb
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2005-10-08T15:51:23Z
Thorpe
164156
#REDIRECT [[The Internet Movie Database]] {{r_from_abbreviation}}
Induction
14877
39026362
2006-02-10T05:09:04Z
Mike Serfas
362180
Induction by morphogens (developmental biology)
The term '''induction''' has more than one meaning in the English language. Please see:
* [[Induction (philosophy)|Induction]] in the fields of [[philosophy]] and [[logic]], and used in [[science]] and the [[scientific method]].
* [[Mathematical induction]] is a method of proof in the field of [[mathematics]].
** [[Strong induction]], or Complete induction, is a variant of mathematical induction.
** [[Transfinite induction]] is a kind of mathematical induction.
*** [[∈-induction]] is a kind of transfinite induction.
** [[Structural induction]] is a generalization of mathematical induction.
** Statistical induction is the same as [[inferential statistics]].
* [[Inductive reasoning aptitude]].
* [[Induction heating]].
* [[Electromagnetic induction]] in [[physics]] and engineering (see also: [[radio frequency induction]], [[Sunyaev-Zeldovich effect]]).
* [[Electrostatic induction]].
* [[induction (birth)|Induction]] of [[childbirth]].
* [[Atkins Nutritional Approach|Induction]] period related to the [[Atkins Nutritional Approach|Atkins diet]].
* [[Backward induction]] in [[game theory]] and [[economics]].
* Induction can refer to an [[initiation rite]], at times in the form of [[hazing]].
* [[Rhetorical induction]].
* In [[theatre]], Induction is the use of rumors to twist and complicate the plot of a play or to narrate in a way that does not have to state truth nor fact within the play.
* In [[enzymology]] and [[molecular biology]], the mechanism of appearance of a gene product; see [[Regulation of gene expression]].
* In [[developmental biology]], the development of a feature from part of a formerly homogenous field of cells in response to a [[morphogen]] whose source determines the feature's position and extent.
{{disambig}}
[[cs:Indukce]]
[[da:Induktion]]
[[de:Induktion]]
[[es:Inducción]]
[[fr:Induction]]
[[nl:Inductie]]
[[no:Induksjon]]
[[pl:Indukcja]]
[[pt:Indução]]
[[ru:Индукция]]
International Astronomical Union
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[[Image:IAU_logo.jpg|thumb|right|200px|Logo of the IAU]]
The '''International Astronomical Union''' ([[French language|French]]: ''Union astronomique internationale'') unites national [[astronomy|astronomical]] societies from around the world. It is a member of the [[International Council for Science]] (ICSU). It is internationally recognized as the authority responsible for naming stars, planets, asteroids, and other celestial bodies and phenomena in the scientific community.
Working groups include the Working Group for Planetary System Nomenclature (WGPSN), which maintains the [[astronomical naming conventions]] and [[planetary nomenclature]] for planetary bodies. The IAU is also responsible for the system of [[Astronomical Telegrams]] which are produced and distributed on its behalf by the [[Central Bureau for Astronomical Telegrams]]. The [[Minor Planet Center]] (MPC), a clearinghouse for all non-planetary or non-moon bodies in the [[solar system]], also operates under the IAU.
The IAU was founded in [[1919]], as a merger of various international projects including the ''[[Carte du Ciel]]'', the [[Solar Union]] and the [[International Time Bureau]] (''Bureau International de l'Heure''). The first president was [[Benjamin Baillaud]]. [[Pieter Johannes van Rhijn]] served as president from [[1932]] to [[1958]].
The IAU currently has 9040 individual members - i.e., professional astronomers - (mainly) at the [[PhD]] level; and 63 national members, i.e., countries that are affiliated with the IAU. 87 percent of all members are male; 13 percent are female. The current president is [[Ronald D. Ekers]].
The '''[http://www.astronomy2006.com XXVIth General Assembly]''' of the International Astronomical Union (August 2006) will be held in [[Prague]], [[Czech Republic]].
==Pop culture==
* In the song "[[Planet X]]" by [[Christine Lavin]], there are lyrics referring to both the IAU and WGPSN.
* In the movie ''[[Deep Impact (film)|Deep Impact]]'', the actual scientific group to which the amateur would report the finding of a new asteroid would be the [[Minor Planet Center|MPC]].
==See also==
* [[Astronomical naming conventions]]
* [[Planetary nomenclature]]
==External links==
*[http://www.iau.org/ Website of the International Astronomical Union]
*[http://www.astronomy2006.com XXVIth General Assembly 2006]
[[Category:Standards organizations]]
[[Category:Astronomy organizations]]
[[bg:Международен астрономически съюз]]
[[ca:Unió Astronòmica Internacional]]
[[da:Internationale Astronomiske Union]]
[[de:Internationale Astronomische Union]]
[[es:Unión Astronómica Internacional]]
[[eo:Internacia Astronomia Unio]]
[[fa:اتحادیه بینالمللی اخترشناسی]]
[[fr:Union astronomique internationale]]
[[hr:Međunarodna Astronomska Unija]]
[[it:Unione Astronomica Internazionale]]
[[he:האיגוד האסטרונומי הבינלאומי]]
[[nl:Internationale Astronomische Unie]]
[[ja:国際天文学連合]]
[[nn:Den internasjonale astronomiske unionen]]
[[pl:Międzynarodowa Unia Astronomiczna]]
[[ru:Международный астрономический союз]]
[[sk:Medzinárodná astronomická únia]]
[[sv:Internationella Astronomiska Unionen]]
[[th:สหพันธ์ดาราศาสตร์สากล]]
[[vi:Hiệp hội Thiên văn Quốc tế]]
[[zh:國際天文聯會]]
Interval
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2006-01-25T14:32:24Z
200.4.169.4
+ka
The term '''''interval''''' is used in the following contexts:
* [[Playing time (cricket)#Intervals|Playing time (cricket)]]
* [[Interval (mathematics)]]
* [[Interval (music)]]
* [[Interval (time)]]
* A synonym for an [[intermission]] in theatre.
{{disambig}}
[[cs:Interval]]
[[da:Interval]]
[[de:Intervall]]
[[ka:ინტერვალი]]
[[nl:Interval]]
[[su:Interval]]
[[sv:Intervall]]
International Criminal Court
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[[Image:International Criminal Court logo.gif|thumb|Official logo of the ICC.]]
The '''International Criminal Court''' ('''ICC''') was established in 2002 as a permanent tribunal to prosecute individuals for [[genocide]], [[crimes against humanity]], and [[war crime]]s, as defined by several international agreements, most prominently the [[Rome Statute of the International Criminal Court]]. The ICC is designed to complement existing national judicial systems,
however, the Court can exercise its jurisdiction if national courts are unwilling or unable to investigate or prosecute such crimes, thus being a "court of last resort," leaving the primary responsibility to exercise jurisdiction over alleged criminals to individual states.
Note that "International Criminal Court" is sometimes initialized as ICCt to distinguish it from "[[International Chamber of Commerce]]." Also, the ICC is separate from the ''[[International Court of Justice]]'', which is a body to settle disputes between nations, and the [[War Crimes Law (Belgium)]].
== Cases before the court ==
Three states parties (countries that have ratified the Court's [[Rome Statute of the International Criminal Court|Rome Statute]]) have referred situations to the Office of the Prosecutor (OTP) of the ICC:
* The [[Uganda|Republic of Uganda]] on [[January 29]], [[2004]];
* The [[Democratic Republic of the Congo]] on [[April 19]], [[2004]];
* The [[Central African Republic]] on [[January 6]], [[2005]].
* In March 2005, the OTP received its first [[United Nations Security Council]] referral for [[Darfur]], [[Sudan]].
After rigorous analysis in accordance with the Rome Statute and the Rules of Procedure and Evidence, the Chief Prosecutor decided to open investigations into three situations: in the Democratic Republic of the Congo, in the Republic of Uganda, and in Darfur, Sudan [http://www.monuc.org/news.aspx?newsID=5480]. On [[October 6]], [[2005]] the ICC issued its first arrest warrants for the [[Lord's Resistance Army]] leader [[Joseph Kony]], his deputy [[Vincent Otti]], and LRA commanders [[Raska Lukwiya]], [[Okot Odiambo]] and [[Dominic Ongwen]].
===Potential cases===
====Alleged war crimes in connection with Invasion of Iraq in March 2003====
In March 2003, the [[United States]] and its allies, the [[United Kingdom]], [[Australia]] and [[Poland]] [[2003 invasion of Iraq|invaded]] [[Iraq]]. The UK, Australia and Poland are all parties to the ICC Statute and therefore their nationals are liable to prosecution by the court for any relevant crimes. As the United States is not a party, American citizens can only be prosecuted by the court if the crime takes place in the territory of a state party (e.g. Jordan), or if the situation is referred to it by the Security Council.
The Office of the Prosecutor of the International Criminal Court reported in February 2006, that it had received 240 communications in connection with the invasion of Iraq in March 2003 which alleged that various war crimes had been committed. Many of these complaints concerned the British participation in the the invasion, as well as the alleged responsibility for torture deaths whilst in detention in British-controlled areas. [http://www.guardian.co.uk/print/0,3858,5187283-111289,00.html].
On [[2006-02-09]], Luis Moreno-Ocampo, Chief Prosecutor of the International Criminal Court, published a letter [http://www.icc-cpi.int/library/organs/otp/OTP_letter_to_senders_re_Iraq_9_February_2006.pdf] that he had sent to all those who had communicated with him concerning the above, which set out his conclusions on these matters, following a preliminary investigation of the complaints. He explained in his decision letter, that essentially two sets of complaints were involved.
#Complaints concerning the legality of the invasion itself;
#Complaints concerning the conduct of hostilities between March and May 2003, which included allegations in respect of
##the targeting of civilians or clearly excessive attacks;
##wilful killing or inhuman treatment of civilians.
The Prosecutor's conclusions were as follows:
#He did not have authority to consider the complaint about the legality of the invasion. Although the ICC Statute includes the crime of "aggression", it indicates that the Court may not exercise jurisdiction over the crime until a provision has been adopted which defines the crime and sets out the conditions under which the Court may exercise jurisdiction with respect to it.
#The available information did not provide sufficient evidence for proceeding with an investigation of the complaints in connection with targeting of civilians or clearly excessive attacks.
#The available information did provide a reasonable basis for believing that there had been an estimated 4 to 12 victims of wilful killing and a limited number of victims of inhuman treatment, totaling in all less than 20 persons. However this on its own was not sufficient for the initiation of an investigation by the ICC because the Statute requires consideration of admissibility before the Court, in light of the gravity of the crimes. Bearing in mind that a key consideration in this regard is the number of victims of particularly serious crimes, he concluded that the situation did not appear to meet the "gravity" threshold.
See further [[The International Criminal Court and the 2003 invasion of Iraq]]
== Development of the ICC ==
The development of the ICC followed the creation of several [[ad hoc]] tribunals to try war crimes in the former Yugoslavia and Rwanda ([[International Criminal Tribunal for the Former Yugoslavia]] in 1993, [[International Criminal Tribunal for Rwanda]] in 1994). Subsequently, it was desired to create a permanent tribunal, so that an ''ad hoc'' tribunal would not have to be created after each occurrence of these crimes.
The General Assembly called the "United Nations Diplomatic Conference of Plenipotentiaries on the Establishment of an International Criminal Court", in Italy, where the [[Rome Statute of the International Criminal Court]] was adopted on [[July 17]], [[1998]]. Almost all states participating voted in favor of the Statute; only the [[United States]], [[Israel]], [[People's Republic of China]], [[Iraq]], [[Qatar]], [[Libya]] and [[Yemen]] voted against. [[Israel]] went on to sign the Statute just before the statute was closed for signatures but later nullified its signature. The [[United States]] under [[Bill Clinton]] signed the treaty, but never submitted it for ratification. When [[George W. Bush]] took office shortly afterwards, he nullified the signature amid bipartisan consensus on the matter.
The Statute became a binding treaty after it received its 60th ratification, which was deposited at a ceremony at United Nations Headquarters on [[11 April]] [[2002]]. Ten countries ([[Bosnia-Herzegovina]], [[Bulgaria]], [[Cambodia]], [[Democratic Republic of Congo]], [[Ireland]], [[Jordan]], [[Mongolia]], [[Niger]], [[Romania]] and [[Slovakia]]) submitted their ratifications at this time, bringing the total to 66, so that no one nation would hold the honor of depositing the 60th ratification. As of October 2005, 100 States are Parties to the Statute. The ICC legally came into existence on [[1 July]] [[2002]], and can only prosecute crimes that occurred after this date.
The official seat of the ICC is in [[The Hague]] (Netherlands); but its Statute permits it to hold its proceedings anywhere. The court became operational when the signatory nations met in the Assembly of State Parties to appoint a [[prosecutor]] and 18 [[judge]]s. It opened on [[March 11]], [[2003]]. The Judge-President is [[Philippe Kirsch]] from [[Canada]], and the Vice-Presidents are [[Akua Kuenyenia]] from [[Ghana]] and [[Elizabeth Odio Benito]] from [[Costa Rica]]. Its Chief Prosecutor is [[Luis Moreno Ocampo]] of [[Argentina]].
== Structure and powers ==
The International Criminal Court is composed of the Court itself, divided into a number of chambers (Pre-Trial, Trial and Appellate), the Registry, the Office of the Prosecutor and the Assembly of State Parties.
The initial impetus for its establishment came from within the United Nations. Although it is legally a separate entity established by a separate treaty between states, and not the Security Council acting under the United Nations Charter, the UN has a clearly defined role towards the court. The court's relationship with the United Nations is governed by a Relationship Agreement between the Court and the United Nations, which mainly provides for Security Council referrals under the Rome Statute, and for United Nations assistance in payment for any prosecutions made under such a referral.
Countries ratifying the treaty that created the ICC grant it authority to try their citizens for [[war crime]]s, [[crimes against humanity]] and [[genocide]]. It provides for ICC jurisdiction over-state party or on the territory of a non-state party where that non-state party has entered into an agreement with the court providing for it to have such jurisdiction in a particular case (consent).
Many states wanted to add "aggression," "[[terrorism]]" and drug trafficking to the list of crimes covered by the Rome Statute; however other states opposed this, on the grounds that these crimes were difficult to define, and that dealing with less serious crimes such as terrorism and drug trafficking would distract from the seriousness of the crimes the ICC was established to deal with. As a compromise, the treaty merely brands "aggression" as a crime without providing a definition, pending adoption of an amendment to the Statute. It may also be amended to include other crimes. However, no amendments can be made to the Rome Statute until seven years after the Statute became legally binding.
=== How cases reach the ICC ===
Cases may be referred to the ICC by one of four methods:
#A country member of the Assembly of States Parties (ratified the Court's Statute) sends the case;
#A country that has chosen to accept the ICC's jurisdiction sends the case;
#The Security Council sends the case (subject to veto from the permanent five members); or
#The three-judge panel authorizes a case initiated by the ICC Prosecutor.
Even though the Court has jurisdiction over the [[crime against peace|crime of international aggression]], it will not exercise such jurisdiction until the crime has been further defined. The statute that established the ICC mandates that the state parties attempt to define aggression in 2009.
== List of states party to the treaty ==
[[Image:World map ICC member states.png|thumb|right|400px|World map of ICC member states]]
[[As of 2005|As of October 2005]], the following 100 countries have ratified or acceded to the ICC Statute: [http://untreaty.un.org/ENGLISH/bible/englishinternetbible/partI/chapterXVIII/treaty10.asp]
*In '''[[Europe]]''': [[Albania]], [[Andorra]], [[Austria]], [[Belgium]], [[Bosnia and Herzegovina]], [[Bulgaria]], [[Croatia]], [[Cyprus]], [[Denmark]], [[Estonia]], [[Finland]], [[France]], [[Germany]], [[Greece]], [[Hungary]], [[Iceland]], [[Republic of Ireland|Ireland]], [[Italy]], [[Georgia (country)|Georgia]], [[Latvia]], [[Liechtenstein]], [[Lithuania]], [[Luxembourg]], [[Republic of Macedonia|Macedonia]], [[Malta]], [[Netherlands]], [[Norway]], [[Poland]], [[Portugal]], [[Romania]], [[San Marino]], [[Serbia and Montenegro]], [[Slovakia]], [[Slovenia]], [[Spain]], [[Sweden]], [[Switzerland]], [[United Kingdom]]
*In '''[[Africa]]''': [[Benin]], [[Botswana]], [[Burkina Faso]], [[Burundi]], [[Central African Republic]], [[Republic of the Congo|Congo]], [[Democratic Republic of Congo]], [[Djibouti]], [[Gabon]], [[The Gambia|Gambia]], [[Ghana]], [[Guinea]], [[Kenya]], [[Lesotho]], [[Liberia]], [[Malawi]], [[Mali]], [[Mauritius]], [[Namibia]], [[Niger]], [[Nigeria]], [[Senegal]], [[Sierra Leone]], [[South Africa]], [[Tanzania]], [[Uganda]], [[Zambia]].
*In the '''[[Americas]]''': [[Antigua and Barbuda]], [[Argentina]], [[Barbados]], [[Belize]], [[Bolivia]], [[Brazil]], [[Canada]], [[Colombia]], [[Costa Rica]], [[Dominica]], [[Dominican Republic]], [[Ecuador]], [[Guyana]], [[Honduras]], [[Mexico]], [[Panama]], [[Paraguay]], [[Peru]], [[Saint Vincent and the Grenadines]], [[Trinidad and Tobago]], [[Uruguay]], [[Venezuela]]
*In '''[[Asia]]''': [[Afghanistan]], [[Cambodia]], [[Jordan]], [[Mongolia]], [[South Korea]], [[Tajikistan]]
*In '''[[Oceania]]''': [[Australia]], [[East Timor]], [[Fiji]], [[Marshall Islands]], [[Nauru]], [[New Zealand]], [[Samoa]]
In addition to the above states, there are 39 other states which have signed but not ratified the treaty. Signing has some legal consequences from customary international law. A state is expected not to sabotage a treaty it has signed although it has not ratified it. Therefore the USA and Israel "unsigned" the Rome treaty, after which the USA engaged in bilateral agreements which undermine the obligations of states who have ratified.
== Opposition to the ICC ==
The creation and existence of the court has been controversial with a number of states. The largest disagreement continues to surround the source and nature of the court's jurisdiction.
Some countries object to the court, saying that there is very little legal supervision of the court's apparatus, and that the court's verdicts may become subject to political motives. They argue that the court's mandate was already excessively wide (and would be even more so if the crime of aggression was defined in its Statute), meaning the court could (perhaps unwillingly) become a tool for [[barratry]] and pointless legal hassle. Although supporters say that the checks and balances in the ICC made this an unlikely possibility, opponents argue that giving even a temporary member of the Security Council the power to veto any objections of prosecutorial bias gave the ICC no accountability whatsoever.
Supporters would counter that the ICC's definitions are very similar to those of the [[Nuremberg trials]]. They also argue that the [[state]]s which object to the ICC are those which regularly carry out [[genocide]], [[war crime]]s and [[crimes against humanity]] in order to protect or promote their political or economic interests.
=== U.S. objections ===
The [[United States]] did not ratify the treaty. [[Bill Clinton|Clinton]] signed the ICC Statute during his last hours in office, with the stated objective that the US could continue to take part in negotiations on the rules of procedure for the new court, in an attempt to obtain an exemption for U.S. nationals taking part in UN-sponsored peacekeeping missions—as several other countries were able to do. Nevertheless, the [[Bill Clinton|Clinton]] administration was opposed to the treaty as it then stood. A Presidential signature on a treaty does not make it legally binding until it is submitted and approved by the [[United States Senate]] which did not occur in the case of this treaty.
Amid bipartisan consensus, the U.S. has since stated that it does not intend to ratify the treaty, and so is not legally bound by it. To this end the US has negotiated over 100 so-called article 98 opt outs that give US troops protection from the ICC while on the soil of a member country.
The U.S. claims that American soldiers and political leaders may be subject to "frivolous or politically motivated prosecutions." (a form of [[barratry]]) Supporters of this position have argued that many countries in the world have an [[anti-American]] agenda, and may enjoy constantly charging American politicians or military officials with trumped-up war crimes charges, simply to cause embarrassment and bad publicity for the United States. The Bush administration has criticized ICC's lack of checks and balances, while some counter that the US administration itself has denied such checks and balances to terror suspects. Opponents of the position of the U.S. point to the adoption of the treaty by other countries, such as the [[United Kingdom]], equally or even more at risk of being the subject of politically motivated prosecutions.
A formal US position on the ICC can be found at http://www.state.gov/t/us/rm/15158.htm.
Many in the U.S. who believe that the U.S. has a history of supporting human rights also believe that the United States is more qualified to move against war criminals than many of the signatories of the ICC. They cite the following examples to support their case:
* The [[Nuremberg trials]] were convened under pressure from the [[United States]] and one of the four chief prosecutors of the first trial was [[Robert H. Jackson]], a Justice of the [[Supreme Court of the United States]].
* The U.S.-led military actions in [[Iraq]] in 2003 have led to the killing, capture, or removal from power of alleged Iraqi war criminals like [[Ali Hassan al-Majid]] and [[Saddam Hussein]].
The ICC was conceived during the Nuremberg trials as the natural extension of the principles of international justice. The United States itself was instrumental in early efforts to bring the ICC into being. Recent attempts by the United States government in opposition to the ICC run contrary to the official U.S. position during Nuremberg.
Furthermore, opponents contend that extradition of criminals from non-ICC members would require [[Security Council]] approval and support. Therefore, any kind of military action to force compliance would have to be undertaken (in large part) by the U.S. Supporters of the Court point out that it is true that the ICC relies on member states to find and capture criminals inside their own borders(called extradition), no law allows a state to capture ICC suspects in foreign states. The United States would therefore only be responsible for war criminals inside its own borders. Thus, Enos Irigaba Kagaba, a participant in the Rwandan genocide, was arrested in Minneapolis in 2004 and later deported to Rwanda. However, many people wanted by the Special Court in Sierra Leonne for war crimes are living in surrounding African countries which refuse extradition.
Prosecution of a US national would not lead to the obligation of the US to cooperate or assist the court in any way and would therefore not create any 'obligation for a non-State party'. Supporters of the Court further argue that under international law states have the right to try foreign nationals for crimes committed on their territory under the legal concept of Universal jurisdiction. Providing the ICC with jurisdiction over U.S. nationals in this case would not interfere with U.S. sovereignty, say ICC proponents. Some have, however, argued that their territorial jurisdiction is non-delegable [<small>''see'' Madeline Morris, ''High crimes and misconceptions: the ICC and non-party states, Law and Contemporary Problems'', Winter 2001 vol. 64 no. 1 p. 13ff</small>]. [http://www.law.duke.edu/journals/lcp/articles/lcp64dWinter2001p13.htm]
<h5> ICC violates US Constitution <h5>
Another argument is that the ICC is a violation of the US constitution by creating a court of appeals which is higher than the US Supreme Court. Because ICC takes cases where it deems the host nation not willing to do enough to prosecute a crime, it is theoretically possible for someone to appeal to the ICC after losing a case before the Supreme Court.
<h4> U.S. measures against the ICC <h4>
When it became clear in 2002 that the treaty creating the ICC would receive the requisite number of ratifications to enter into force, the United States began to undertake a number of measures to exempt U.S. nationals from the Court's jurisdiction.
Sceptics say there may be other reasons, than those advanced by the [[Bush administration]], for frustrating the International Criminal Court.[http://www.crimesofwar.org/icc_magazine/icc-kahn.html] One might think of the role the [[Opposition to U.S. foreign policy|U.S. administration]] or U.S. subjects have played in conflicts around the world in the past, i.e. [[Gulf of Tonkin Incident]], [[My Lai Massacre]], aid to [[Operation Condor]] through the [[Western Hemisphere Institute for Security Cooperation|School of the Americas]].[http://www.zmag.org/CrisesCurEvts/interventions.htm] Continuing these policies today, under the [[Rome Statute of the International Criminal Court|ICC Statute]], could be grounds for prosecution.
In addition, they point to the possible legal challenges[http://alternet.org/rights/30758/] as a result of the "[[war on terror]]" regarding the memos refuting the [[Geneva Convention]],[http://www.gwu.edu/~nsarchiv/NSAEBB/NSAEBB127/][http://msnbc.msn.com/id/4999734/][http://www.thenation.com/doc.mhtml?i=20050718&s=holtzman][http://www.ccr-ny.org/v2/reports/report.asp?ObjID=ci38xk7IHk&Content=509] the use of [[unlawful combatant]] status, [[extraordinary rendition]] and the invasion of [[2003 Invasion of Iraq|Iraq]].[http://www.wagingpeace.org/articles/2005/06/27_jury-of-conscience-declaration.htm] They all could be seen as [[war crimes]].[http://www.counterpunch.org/lindorff02092006.html][http://www.counterpunch.org/boyle12222005.html][http://www.truthout.org/docs_05/011905A.shtml][http://www.laprensa-sandiego.org/archieve/november19-04/quaint.htm][http://www.counterpunch.org/brecher12062005.html][http://www.truthout.org/docs_2005/120905M.shtml]
<h5> American Servicemembers Protection Act <h5>
In 2002, the U.S. Congress passed the [[American Servicemembers' Protection Act]] (ASPA), which contained a number of provisions, including prohibitions on the U.S. providing military aid to countries which had ratified the treaty establishing the court; however, there were a number of exceptions to this, including [[NATO]] members, [[major non-NATO ally]], and countries which entered into an agreement with the United States not to hand over U.S. nationals to the Court (see "Article 98" agreements below). ASPA also excluded any military aid that the U.S. President certified to be in the U.S. national interest.
In addition, ASPA contained provisions prohibiting U.S. co-operation with the Court, and permitting the President to authorize military force to free any U.S. military personnel held by the court, leading opponents to dub it "[[The Hague Invasion Act]]." The act was later modified to permit U.S. cooperation with the ICC when dealing with U.S. enemies.
In addition, the Nethercutt Amendment to the Foreign Appropriations Bill suspends Economic Support Fund assistance to ICC States Parties who have not signed bilateral immunity agreements (BIAs) with the US. The funds affected support initiatives including peacekeeping, anti-terrorism measures, democracy-building and drug interdiction. The omnibus appropriations bill containing the controversial amendment was signed by President Bush on December 7, 2004.
<h5> United Nations Security Council Resolutions <h5>
In July 2002, the United States threatened to use its Security Council veto to block renewal of the mandates of several United Nations peacekeeping operations, unless the Security Council agreed to permanently exempt U.S. nationals from the Court's jurisdiction.
Initially, the U.S. had sought to prevent personnel on UN missions being tried by any country except that of their nationality. When the other members of the Security Council rejected that approach, the United States then sought to make use of a provision of the Rome Statute, which permits the Security Council to request the ICC not to exercise its jurisdiction over a certain matter for up to one year at a time. The United States sought the Security Council to convey such a request to the ICC concerning personnel on United Nations peacekeeping and enforcement operations, and to have that request renewed automatically each year. (If it was renewed automatically each year, then another Security Council resolution would be required to cease the request, which the U.S. could then veto—which would effectively make the request permanent.) Court supporters argued that the Rome Statute requires the request to be valid to be voted upon anew each year in the Security Council, and hence that an automatically renewing request would violate the Statute.
Other members of the Security Council opposed this United States request also. However, they were increasingly concerned about the future of peacekeeping operations. The United Kingdom eventually negotiated a compromise, whereby the U.S. would be granted its request, but only for a period of one year, and a new Security Council vote would be required in July each year for the exclusion of peacekeepers from ICC jurisdiction to be continued. All members of the Security Council endorsed this resolution, although many did so reluctantly. The result was [[UN Security Council Resolution 1422]].
NGO supporters of the Court, along with several countries not on the Security Council (including Canada and New Zealand), protested the legality of the resolution. The resolution was made under Chapter VII of the UN Charter, which requires a "threat to international peace or security" for the Security Council to act; ICC supporters have argued that a U.S. threat to veto peacekeeping operations does not constitute a threat to international peace or security.
A resolution to exempt citizens of the U.S. from jurisdiction of the court was renewed in 2003 by Resolution 1487, but after the [[Abu Ghraib prisoner abuse|abuse of prisoners in Iraq]] it became clear that there was no majority for it, the U.S. withdrew its second proposed renewal of the resolution.
<h5> "Article 98" agreements <h5>
[[Image:Axis_Of_Impunity_2005.PNG|thumb|right|400px|Map of countries which have signed Article 98 agreements with the US]]
As part of the U.S. campaign to exclude its citizens and military personnel from the jurisdiction of the ICC, the U.S. Bush administration has been approaching countries around the world seeking to conclude Bilateral Immunity Agreements, or so-called “Article 98” agreements.
These agreements prohibit the surrender to the ICC of a broad scope of persons including current or former government officials, military personnel, and U.S. employees (including non-national contractors) and nationals. These agreements, which in some cases are reciprocal, do not always include an obligation by the United States to subject those suspected persons to investigation and/or prosecution.
The U.S. has attempted to pressure states into signing these bilateral agreements with it by adopting legislation requiring the suspension of military assistance and U.S. Economic Support Fund (ESF) aid to those States Parties which do not sign these agreements. ESF funding entails a wide range of governance programs including international counter-terrorism efforts, peace process programs, anti-drug trafficking initiatives, truth and reconciliation commissions, wheelchair distribution and HIV/AIDS education, among others. In 2003 the U.S. stopped military aid for 35 countries (among them nine European countries). U.S. law requires the cessation of such aid payments if a state is unwilling to sign the bilateral agreement (there are exceptions for [[NATO]]-members and allies such as Israel, Egypt, Australia and South Korea).
Article 98 of the Rome Statute provides that a country need not hand over a foreign national to the Court if it is prohibited from doing so by an agreement with that national's country. The U.S. has used this measure in an attempt to exempt its nationals from the Court's jurisdiction, by negotiating agreements with State Parties making use of Article 98.
[[Amnesty International]] and the [[European Commission]] Legal Service, along with several other groups supporting the ICC, have claimed that these agreements the U.S. is attempting to negotiate are not valid under Article 98. They argue that the language in Article 98 is normally used in international law to refer to Status of Forces Agreements (SOFA), mission agreements and extradition treaties; hence they claim that Article 98 can only be used for these purposes, and not to create a general exclusion for other states' nationals from being handed over to the ICC.
[[Romania]] and [[Israel]] (even though the latter is not a party to the Statute) were the first to sign Article 98 agreements with the U.S. In response to Romania's action, the European Union requested that candidate countries not sign Article 98 agreements with the United States until the EU ministers had met to agree upon a common position. The U.S. State Department called this action inappropriate. ICC supporters countered that the United States was attempting to use issues of military aid and NATO membership to "bully" other countries into signing.
Finally, in October 2002, the Council of the European Union adopted a common position, permitting member states to enter into Article 98 agreements with the United States, but only concerning U.S. military personnel, U.S. diplomatic or consular officials, and persons extradited, sent to their territories by the United States with their permission; not the general protection of U.S. nationals that the U.S. sought; furthermore the common position provided that any person protected from ICC prosecution by such agreements would have to be prosecuted by the United States. This was in agreement with the original position of the EU, that Article 98 agreements were allowed to cover these restricted classes of persons but could not cover all the citizens of a state.
On [[December 26]], [[2002]], [[India]] became the 15th country to sign a bilateral agreement with the U.S. under Article 98. The agreement aims to prevent the "extradition of nationals of either country to any international tribunal without the other country's express consent".
By June 2005 around 100 states had signed a bilateral agreement with the U.S., including at least seven of them that signed the agreement secretly. Many of these agreements are with non-States Parties to the Court. 58 of the 100 countries have not signed these bilateral agreements, despite U.S. pressure. At least 54 governments (including Brazil, Canada, Estonia, Peru, South Africa, and Trinidad and Tobago) and several intergovernmental bodies have publicly opposed these agreements and have encouraged other states to resist signing such agreements. Less than 30% of these agreements have actually been ratified by national parliaments. Instead, it is unclear how the majority of these agreements have been entered into, though at least 18 of them are known to have been secured through “executive agreements" which many legal experts argue are unconstitutional and require the approval of parliament.
The United States has cut aid and development funding for many countries in retaliation for cooperating with the ICC. Countries who have lost aid include Brazil, Costa Rica, Peru, Venezuela, Ecuador, South Africa, and several other Latin American and African countries.
=== Israeli objections ===
[[Israel]] initially objected to the Rome Statute because of the clause defining "the war crime of the transfer of parts of the civilian population of an occupying power into occupied territory", which it feared implied that settlement activity in the occupied territories is a "war crime" and "grave offense". [http://www.cicweb.ca/publications/ForTheRecord/un.html] Israel fears prosecution of [[Israeli settlement|Israeli settlers]], or Israeli government officials who support the policy of settlements, as "war crimes". It did eventually sign the treaty establishing the court despite its misgivings, but on [[28 August]] [[2002]] submitted a letter to the United Nations declaring that it did not intend to ratify the treaty, using the same wording as the US declaration of [[6 May]] [[2002]].[http://untreaty.un.org/ENGLISH/bible/englishinternetbible/partI/chapterXVIII/treaty10.asp]
=== Chinese objections ===
The [[People's Republic of China]] has expressed opposition to even the other states involved going ahead with it, claiming that the Statute is an attempt to interfere with the domestic affairs of sovereign states. It has not signed the treaty.
=== Zimbabwean objections ===
The press spokesman for [[Zimbabwe]]an president [[Robert Mugabe]] has dismissed calls by [[Australia]] and [[New Zealand]] and international human rights organisations for the [[UN Security Council]] to indict Mugabe for trial before the ICC for [[crimes against humanity]]. Press secretary George Charamba told the local newspaper The Sunday Mirror in January 2006 that the call for Mugabe's indictment was "spurious" and "an attempt to tarnish the image of the president and the country." Charamba went on to say that [[Zimbabwe]] is not a signatory to the statute that created the ICC and is therefore not legally bound by its dictates. As a non-signatory state, an ICC trial would require either a [[UN Security Council]] indictment or Zimbabwe to accept the ICC’s jurisdiction.
=== Other objections to the Statute ===
Some have argued that the crimes the ICC has jurisdiction over are recognized under international law as crimes of [[universal jurisdiction]], meaning that any state may try individuals who commit these crimes, even if they are committed by foreign nationals on foreign territory. From this perspective, the state parties could therefore have authorized the ICC to exercise this universal jurisdiction on their behalf. However, the concept of universal jurisdiction itself is controversial, not all the crimes for which the Rome Statute provides the court with jurisdiction have been proposed as being subject to universal jurisdiction at the present time under customary international law, and some have argued that even where universal jurisdiction exists it is non-delegable [http://www.law.duke.edu/journals/lcp/articles/lcp64dWinter2001p13.htm ''ibid'' ].
==In popular culture==
* ''[[The Interpreter]]'' is a 2005 film featuring a fictional African head of state, apparently based on [[Robert Mugabe]], seeking to avoid being sent to the ICC by the [[UN Security Council]] for [[crimes against humanity]].
==See also==
*[[Command responsibility]]
*[[International Law]]
*[[Peace Palace]]
*[[Universal jurisdiction]]
*[[War crimes]]
*[[World Government]]
*[[World Federalist Movement]]
==External links==
===UN===
* [http://www.icc-cpi.int/ Official ICC website]
* [http://www.un.org/law/icc/ UN website on the Statute of the International Criminal Court]
* [http://www.un.org/law/icc/statute/romefra.htm Text of the ICC Rome statute (treaty)]
**[http://www.un.org/law/icc/statute/99_corr/2.htm Article 5: Crimes within the jurisdiction of the Court]
**[http://www.un.org/law/icc/statute/99_corr/9.htm Article 98: Cooperation with respect to waiver of immunity and consent to surrender]
*[http://untreaty.un.org/ENGLISH/bible/englishinternetbible/partI/chapterXVIII/treaty10.asp Rome Statute of the International Criminal Court: depositary notifications]
===Other===
* [http://www.iccnow.org The Coalition for the International Criminal Court]
* [http://www.npwj.org No Peace Without Justice]
* [http://www.amicc.org American NGO Coalition for the International Criminal Court]
* [http://www.globalpolitician.com/articles.asp?ID=84 Objections to the ICC under the U.S. Constitution and International Law]
* [http://www.globalpolicy.org/intljustice/general/2001/07kiss.htm The Pitfalls of Universal Jurisdiction: Risking Judicial Tyranny] by [[Henry Kissinger]]
** [http://www.derechos.org/nizkor/icc/ferencz4.html A reply to Henry Kissinger's paper] by [[Benjamin B. Ferencz]], a former Prosecutor at the [[Subsequent Nuremberg Trials]].
* [http://www.derechos.org/nizkor/icc/ciccart98.html Why Bilateral Agreements with the U.S. are not valid under Art.98 of ICC Statute] by Derechos.org
* [http://www.guardian.co.uk/Iraq/Story/0,2763,1477620,00.html "International court hears anti-war claims"], Richard Norton-Taylor, [[The Guardian]], [[6 May]] [[2005]],
* [http://www.state.gov/t/us/rm/25818.htm American Justice and the International Criminal Court] Remarks by [[John R. Bolton]], Under Secretary for Arms Control and International Security, at the [[American Enterprise Institute]] in [[Washington, D.C.]] on November 3, 2003
*[http://www.iht.com/articles/2005/12/27/opinion/edellis.php Indict Zimbabwe's demagogue before the International Criminal Court] - the International Bar Association calls in the International Herrald Tribune for Robert Mugabe's indictment
*[http://www.hrw.org/campaigns/icc/facts.htm "Myths and Facts About the International Criminal Court"] - by [[Human Rights Watch]]
[[Category:Human rights bodies]]
[[Category:International courts]]
[[Category:International Criminal Court| ]]
[[Category:International criminal law]]
[[da:Den internationale straffedomstol]]
[[de:Internationaler Strafgerichtshof]]
[[es:Corte Penal Internacional]]
[[fi:Kansainvälinen sotarikostuomioistuin]]
[[fr:Cour pénale internationale]]
[[he:בית הדין הבינלאומי הפלילי]]
[[it:Corte Penale Internazionale]]
[[ja:国際刑事裁判所]]
[[nl:Internationaal Strafhof]]
[[no:Den internasjonale straffedomstolen]]
[[pl:Międzynarodowy Trybunał Karny]]
[[pt:Corte penal internacional]]
[[ro:Curtea Penală Internaţională]]
[[sv:Internationella brottmålsdomstolen]]
ICC
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'''ICC''' may stand for:
*[[ICC Bank]], [[Ireland]]
*[[Immunocytochemistry]]
*[[Indianapolis Children's Choir]]
*[[Integration Competency Center]]
*[[Inter-Cooperative Council at the University of Michigan]]
*[[Intercounty Connector]]
*[[International Chamber of Commerce]]
*[[International Churches of Christ]]
*[[International Color Consortium]]
*The [[International Control Commission]], which oversaw the 1954 [[Geneva Accords]] ending the [[First Indochina War]]
*The [[International Convention Centre]], [[Birmingham]], [[England]]
*[[International Cricket Council]]
*'''[[International Criminal Court]]'''
*[[Internet Chess Club]]
*[[Integrated circuit card]]
*[[Interstate Commerce Commission]]
*[[Inuit Circumpolar Conference]]
*[[Islamic Clerics Committee]]
*[[Integrated Chip Card]]
*[[Intel C Compiler]]
*[[International Congregational Council]]
*[[Interstitial cells of Cajal]]
*[[International Association for Cereal Science and Technology]] (formerly International Association for Cereal Chemistry)
*[[International Communist Current]]
*[[ICC Records]] part of ICC (International Christian Communications) and is a UK charitable-status christian record production and distribution company
{{TLAdisambig}}
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[[sl:ICC]]
Incubus
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Butko
795873
'''Incubus''' can refer to:
* [[Incubus (demon)]], a demon said to rape women while they slept
* [[Incubus (band)]], an American alternative rock band.
* [[Incubus (film)]], a 1965 film in Esperanto starring William Shatner.
* [[Incubus (NWOBHM)]], a [[NWOBHM]] band from the early 1980s.
'''Incubus''' can also be:
* "Incubus", a song on [[Marillion]]'s 1984 album ''[[Fugazi (album)| Fugazi]]''.
* Incubus, a line of [[running shoes]] manufactured by Reebok.
*[[Inkubus Sukkubus]], a British Goth metal band.
{{disambig}}
[[de:Incubus (Begriffsklärung)]]
[[nl:Incubus]]
[[ru:Инкуб]]
Iberian Peninsula
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2006-03-01T11:38:11Z
80.34.148.142
/* Languages */
The '''Iberian Peninsula''', or '''Iberia''', is located in the extreme southwest of [[Europe]]. It is bordered on the south and east by the [[Mediterranean Sea]], and on the north and west by the [[Atlantic Ocean]]. The [[Pyrenees]] form the northeast edge of the [[peninsula]], connecting it to the rest of Europe. At [[Gibraltar]] in the south, it approaches the northern coast of [[Africa]]. It is the biggest peninsula of Europe with an area of 582 860 km².
==Countries & Territories==
[[Image:Iberian peninsula.jpg|thumb|350px|right|The positions of the different countries/territories.]]
* [[Spain]], occupying the majority of Iberia
* [[Portugal]], the western most part
* [[Andorra]], a microstate bordering France and Spain in the Pyrenees
* [[Gibraltar]], British territory in the southernmost tip
==Languages==
The following languages are spoken in the Iberian peninsula:
*[[Andorra]]:
**[[Catalan language|Catalan]]
*[[Gibraltar]]:
**[[English language|English]] (official recognition)
**[[Llanito]]
*[[Portugal]]:
**[[Portuguese language|Portuguese]]
**[[Mirandese]] (official recognition)
*[[Spain]]:
**[[Spanish language|Spanish]] (also called Castilian)
**[[Catalan language|Catalan]] (called [[Valencian]] in the [[Land of Valencia]])
**[[Basque language|Basque]]
**[[Galician]]
**[[Aragonese language|Aragonese]]
**[[Asturian language|Asturian]] (official recognition)
**[[Occitan language|Occitan]] (locally called [[Aranese]], official recognition)
==Pre-Roman languages==
The following languages were spoken in the Iberian peninsula before the Roman occupation:
*[[Lusitanian language|Lusitanian]]
*[[Basque language|Aquitan (Basque)]]
*[[Iberian language|Iberian]]
*[[Celtiberian language|Celtiberian]]
*[[Tartessian language|Tartessian]]
==History==
[[Image:España y Portugal.jpg|thumb|300px|right|Satellite view of the Iberian peninsula]]
[[Image:IberianPeninsula.png|right|thumb|320px|Topographic map of the Iberian Peninsula]]
The Iberian Peninsula has been inhabited for at least 500,000 years, first by [[Neanderthals]] and then by [[Mitochondrial Eve|modern humans]].
The original peoples of the Iberian peninsula (in the sense that they are not known to have come from elsewhere), consisting of a number of separate tribes, are given the generic name of [[Iberians]]. This may have included the [[Basque people|Basques]], the only pre-[[Celts|Celtic]] people in Iberia surviving to the present day as a separate ethnic group.
In the early [[first millennium BCE]], several waves of [[Celts]] invaded Iberia from [[central Europe]] and intermarried with the local Iberian people, forming the [[Celtiberians]] (with many different nations).
The seafaring [[Phoenicians]], [[Greeks]] and [[Carthaginians]] successively settled along the Mediterranean coast and founded trading colonies there over a period of several centuries.
Around [[1100 BC]] Phoenician merchants founded the trading colony of [[Gadir]] or Gades (modern day [[Cádiz]]) near [[Tartessos]]. In the 8th century BC the first Greek colonies, such as Emporion (modern [[Empúries]]), were founded along the Mediterranean coast on the East, leaving the south coast to the Phoenicians. The Greeks are responsible for the name Iberia, after the river Iber ([[Ebro]]). In the 6th century BC the [[Carthaginians]] arrived in Iberia while struggling with the Greeks for control of the Western Mediterranean. Their most important colony was [[Carthago Nova]] (Latin name of modern day [[Cartagena, Spain|Cartagena]]).
In [[219 BC]], the first [[Ancient Rome|Roman]] troops invaded the Iberian Peninsula, during the [[Second Punic war]] against the Carthaginians, and annexed it under [[Augustus]] after two centuries of war with the Celtic and Iberian tribes and the Phoenician, Greek and Carthaginian colonies becoming the province of [[Hispania]]. It was divided in [[Hispania Ulterior]] and [[Hispania Citerior]] during the late [[Roman Republic]]; and, during the [[Roman Empire]], [[Hispania Taraconensis]] in the northeast, [[Hispania Baetica]] in the south and [[Lusitania]] in the southwest.
Hispania supplied the Roman Empire with food, olive oil, wine and metal. The emperors [[Trajan]], [[Hadrian]] and [[Theodosius I]], the philosopher [[Seneca the Younger|Seneca]] and the poets [[Martial]] and [[Lucan (poet)|Lucan]] were born in Iberia.
In the early [[5th century]], [[Germanic tribes]] invaded the peninsula, namely the [[Suevi]], the [[Vandals]] ([[Silingi]] and [[Hasdingi]]) and their allies, the [[Sarmatian]] [[Alans]]. Only the kingdom of the [[Suevi]] ([[Quadi]] and [[Marcomanni]]) would endure after the arrival of another wave of Germanic invaders, the [[Visigoths]], who conquered all of the Iberian peninsula and expelled or partially integrated the Vandals and the Alans. The Visigoths eventually conquered the Suevi kingdom and its capital city [[Bracara]] (modern day [[Braga]]) in [[584]]-[[585]].
In [[711]] CE, a [[Moors|Moorish]] [[Umayyad]] army from [[North Africa]] invaded [[Visigoth]] [[Christian]] [[Spain]]. Under their leader [[Tariq ibn-Ziyad]], they landed at [[Gibraltar]] and brought most of the Iberian Peninsula under Islamic rule in an eight-year campaign. [[Al-Andalus|Al-ʾAndalūs]] ([[Arabic language|Arabic]] '''الإندلوس''') is the Arabic name given the Iberian Peninsula by its [[Muslim]] conquerors.
From the [[8th century|8th]] to the [[15th century|15th centuries]], parts of the Iberian peninsula were ruled by the [[Moors]] (mainly [[Berber]] with some [[Arab]]) who had crossed over from [[North Africa]]. Many of the ousted [[Goths|Gothic]] nobles took refuge in the unconquered north [[Kingdom of Asturias|Asturian highlands]]. From there they aimed to reconquer their lands from the Moors: this war of reconquest is known as the [[Reconquista]].
Christian and Muslim kingdoms fought and allied among themselves. The Muslim [[taifa]] kings competed in patronage of the arts, the [[Way of Saint James]] attracted pilgrims from all Western Europe and the [[Jews in Spain|Jewish population of Iberia]] set the basis of [[Sephardic]] culture.
In [[medieval times]] the peninsula housed many small states including [[Castille]], [[Aragon]], [[Kingdom of Navarre|Navarre]], [[Kingdom of León|León]] and [[Portugal]]. The peninsula was part of the Islamic [[Almohad]] empire until they were finally uprooted. The last major Muslim stronghold was [[Granada]] which was eliminated by a combined Castillian and Aragonese force in [[1492]], these small states gradually amalgamated over time, until the end of the [[Napoleonic Wars]] (including the [[Peninsular War]]) in [[1815]]. At that point the modern position was reached and the peninsula now consists of the countries of [[Spain]] and [[Portugal]] (excluding their islands - the Portuguese [[Azores]] and [[Madeira Islands]] and the Spanish [[Canary Islands]] and [[Balearic Islands]]; and the Spanish possessions of [[Ceuta]] and [[Melilla]]), [[Andorra]], and the territory of [[Gibraltar]].
== External links==
*[http://www.iberianature.com Iberianature]A guide to the environment, geography, climate, wildlife, natural history and landscape of Iberia
*[http://www.arqueotavira.com/Mapas/Iberia/Populi.htm Detailed map of the Pre-Roman Peoples of Iberia (around 200 BC)]
[[Category:Geography of Europe]]
[[Category:Geography of Portugal]]
[[Category:Geography of Spain]]
[[Category:Iberian Peninsula| ]]
[[Category:Peninsulas]]
[[ar:شبه جزيرة أيبيريا]]
[[an:Peninsula Iberica]]
[[ast:Península Ibérica]]
[[bg:Пиренейски полуостров]]
[[be:Пірэнэйская паўвыспа]]
[[ca:Península Ibèrica]]
[[da:Den Iberiske Halvø]]
[[de:Iberische Halbinsel]]
[[es:Península Ibérica]]
[[eo:Iberio]]
[[eu:Iberiar penintsula]]
[[fr:Péninsule Ibérique]]
[[gl:Península Ibérica]]
[[ko:이베리아 반도]]
[[io:Iberia]]
[[ia:Peninsula iberic]]
[[is:Íberíuskaginn]]
[[it:Penisola iberica]]
[[he:חצי האי האיברי]]
[[la:Iberia]]
[[nl:Iberisch Schiereiland]]
[[ja:イベリア半島]]
[[no:Den iberiske halvøy]]
[[pl:Półwysep Iberyjski]]
[[pt:Península Ibérica]]
[[ru:Пиренейский полуостров]]
[[sl:Iberski polotok]]
[[sv:Iberiska halvön]]
[[vi:Bán đảo Iberia]]
[[zh:伊比利亚半岛]]
Intermediate value theorem
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2006-02-28T19:34:26Z
Heron
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Reverted edits by [[Special:Contributions/Lilchicklet007|Lilchicklet007]] ([[User talk:Lilchicklet007|talk]]) to last version by 213.10.11.73
In [[analysis]], the '''intermediate value theorem''' is either of two theorems of which an account is given below.
==Intermediate value theorem==
[[Image:Intermediatevaluetheorem.png|thumb|327px|Intermediate Value Theorem]]
The '''intermediate value theorem''' states the following: Suppose that ''I'' is an [[interval (mathematics)|interval]] [a, b] in the [[real number|real numbers]] '''R''' and that ''f'' : ''I'' → '''R''' is a [[continuous function|continuous]] [[function (mathematics)|function]]. Then the image set ''f'' ( ''I'' ) is also an interval, and either it contains [''f''(''a''), ''f''(''b'')], or it contains [''f''(''b''), ''f''(''a'')]. I.e.
* ''f'' ( ''I'' ) ⊇ [''f'' (''a''), ''f'' (''b'')],
or
* ''f'' ( ''I'' ) ⊇ [''f'' (''b''), ''f'' (''a'')].
It is frequently stated in the following equivalent form: Suppose that ''f'' : [''a'', ''b''] → '''R''' is continuous and that ''u'' is a real number satisfying ''f'' (''a'') < ''u'' < ''f'' (''b'') or ''f'' (''a'') > ''u'' > ''f'' (''b''). Then for some ''c'' in (''a'', ''b''), ''f''(''c'') = ''u''.
This captures an intuitive property of continuous functions: given ''f'' continuous on [1, 2], if ''f'' (1) = 3 and ''f'' (2) = 5 then ''f'' must be equal to 4 somewhere between 1 and 2. It represents the idea that the graph of a continuous function can be drawn without lifting your pencil from the paper.
The theorem depends on the completeness of the [[real number]]s. It is false for the [[rational number]]s '''Q'''. For example, the function ''f'' (''x'') = ''x''<sup>2</sup>-2 from '''Q''' to '''Q''' satisfies ''f'' (0) = -2, ''f'' (2) = 2. However there is no rational number ''x'' such that ''f'' (''x'') = 0.
=== Proof ===
We shall prove the first case ''f'' (''a'') < ''u'' < ''f'' (''b''); the second is similar.
Let ''S'' = {''x'' in [a, b] : ''f''(''x'') ≤ ''u''}. Then ''S'' is non-empty (as ''a'' is in ''S'') and bounded above by ''b''. Hence by the [[completeness]] property of the real numbers, the [[supremum]] ''c'' = sup ''S'' exists. We claim that ''f'' (''c'') = ''u''.
Suppose first that ''f'' (''c'') > ''u''. Then ''f'' (''c'') - ''u'' > 0, so there is a δ > 0 such that | ''f'' (''x'') - ''f'' (''c'') | < ''f'' (''c'') - ''u'' whenever | ''x'' - ''c'' | < δ, since ''f'' is continuous. But then ''f'' (''x'') > ''f'' (''c'') - ( ''f'' (''c'') - ''u'' ) = ''u'' whenever | ''x'' - ''c'' | < δ and then ''f'' (''x'') > ''u'' for ''x'' in ( ''c'' - δ, ''c'' + δ) and thus ''c'' - δ is an upper bound for ''S'' which is smaller than ''c'', a contradiction.
Suppose next that ''f'' (''c'') < ''u''. Again, by continuity, there is a δ > 0 such that | ''f'' (''x'') - ''f'' (''c'') | < ''u'' - ''f'' (''c'') whenever | ''x'' - ''c'' | < δ. Then ''f'' (''x'') < ''f'' (''c'') + ( ''u'' - ''f'' (''c'') ) = ''u'' for ''x'' in ( ''c'' - δ, ''c'' + δ) and there are numbers ''x'' greater than ''c'' for which ''f'' (''x'') < ''u'', again a contradiction to the definition of ''c''.
We deduce that ''f'' (''c'') = ''u'' as stated.
=== History ===
For ''u''=0 above, the statement is also known as ''Bolzano's theorem''; this theorem was first stated by [[Bernard Bolzano]], together with a proof which used techniques which were especially rigorous for their time but which are now regarded as non-rigorous.
===Generalization===
The intermediate value theorem can be seen as a consequence of the following two statements from [[topology]]:
* If ''X'' and ''Y'' are [[topological space]]s, ''f'' : ''X'' → ''Y'' is continuous, and ''X'' is [[connectedness|connected]], then ''f''(''X'') is connected.
* A subset of '''R''' is connected if and only if it is an interval.
===Example of Use in Proof===
The theorem is rarely applied with concrete values; instead, it gives some characterization of continuous functions. For example, let <math>g(x) = f(x) - x</math> for ''f'' continuous over the reals. Also, let ''f'' be bounded (above and below). Then we can say ''g'' equals 0 at least once. To see this, consider the following:
Since ''f'' is bounded, we can pick a > sup{f(x)} and b < inf{f(x)}. Clearly g(a) < 0 and g(b) > 0. If ''f'' is continuous, then ''g'' is also continuous. Since ''g'' is continuous, we can apply the intermediate value theorem and state that ''g'' must take on the value of 0 somewhere between a and b. This result proves that any continuous bounded function must cross the function, ''x''.
===Converse is false===
Suppose ''f'' is a real-valued function defined on some interval ''I'', and for every two elements ''a'' and ''b'' in ''I'' and for every ''u'' between ''f''(''a'') and ''f''(''b'') there exists a ''c'' between ''a'' and ''b'' such that ''f''(''c'') = ''u''. Does have ''f'' have to be continuous? The answer is no; the converse of the intermediate value theorem fails. As an example, take the function ''f''(''x'') = sin(1/''x'') for ''x'' non-zero, and ''f''(0) = 0. This function is not continuous as the [[limit (mathematics)|limit]] for ''x'' → 0 does not exist; yet the function has the above intermediate value property.
Historically, this intermediate value property has been suggested as a ''definition'' for continuity of real-valued functions; this definition was not adopted.
[[Darboux's theorem (analysis)|Darboux's theorem]] states that all functions that result from the [[derivative|differentiation]] of some other function on some interval have the intermediate value property (even though they need not be continuous).
==Intermediate value theorem of integration==
The intermediate value theorem of [[integration]] is derived from the [[mean value theorem]] and states:
If <math>f</math> is a [[continuous function|continuous]] [[function (mathematics)|function]] on some interval <math>[a,b]</math>, then the signed [[area (geometry)|area]] under the function on that interval is equal to the length of the interval <math>b-a</math> multiplied by some function value <math>f(c)</math> such that <math>a < c < b</math>. I.e.,
:<math>\int_a^b f(x) \, dx = f(c)(b-a).</math>
==External links==
* [http://www.cut-the-knot.org/Generalization/ivt.shtml Intermediate value Theorem - Bolzano Theorem] at [[cut-the-knot]]
[[Category:Calculus]]
[[Category:Mathematical theorems]]
[[de:Zwischenwertsatz]]
[[fr:Théorème des valeurs intermédiaires]]
[[he:משפט ערך הביניים]]
[[ko:중간값 정리]]
[[nl:middelwaardestelling]]
[[pl:Twierdzenie Darboux]]
[[fi:Jatkuvien funktioiden väliarvolause]]
[[vi:Định lý Bolzano]]
Insane Clown Posse
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69.254.140.177
The '''Insane Clown Posse''' ('''ICP''') are a two-piece [[horrorcore]] [[Rap music|rap]] / [[rapcore]] group originally from [[Wayne, Michigan]], consisting of Violent J ([[Joseph Bruce]]) and Shaggy 2 Dope ([[Joseph Utsler]]). They almost always professionally display themselves in full black and white "[[evil clown]]" makeup that could be compared to the [[corpse paint]] of [[black metal]] musicians or the [[makeup]] of the rock group [[KISS (band)|KISS]]. Violent J's makeup is usually drawn as a smiling face, while Shaggy's is an angry face. The group is also well known for on-stage antics such as dousing the audience with [[Faygo]]–brand [[cola|soda]] at its shows and lighting fires.
== Early history ==
The first incarnation of the group was in [[1988]] as The JJ Boys, a trio that Violent J, Shaggy, and John Utsler (a.k.a. John Kickchazz) had formed while still in their early teens. This later became "Inner City Posse", and consisted of three members: J, Shaggy, and Kickchazz (Shaggy's brother) (who performed on Inner City Posse [[album (music)|album]]s ''Bassment Cuts'' and ''[[Dog Beats]]''). Kickchazz left the group before ''[[Carnival of Carnage]]'' was released. J and Shaggy still wanted ICP to be a trio, and so brought in a local rapper called Greez-E, who appeared on ''[[Beverly Kills 50187]]''. He subsequently left as well, and ICP have been a duo ever since, forming [[Psychopathic Records]] with manager [[Alex Abbiss]] in [[1991]].
== The six Joker's Cards ==
In [[1992]], ICP released ''Carnival of Carnage'', which they designated as "The First Joker's Card". The group hinted at the next five major-release albums being numbered in this fashion. They also stated that "the end of time will consume us all" once the Sixth Joker's Card was revealed, and that their fans would know all there is to know about [[The Dark Carnival]] (alternatively referred-to as "The Dead Carnival" on ''[[The Riddlebox]]'')— something the band refers to on every album as a powerful force which has spoken to them and is directly opposed to [[the Devil]]. In ICP's songs, the Dark Carnival often took the shape of a travelling carnival road-show, where instead of harmless entertainment, the clowns and rides serve up death and pain as punishment for the wicked.
[[Image:icp-the_riddlebox-cover-200.jpg|right|thumb|Cover of [[The Riddle Box]]]]
The title and theme for each Joker's Card revealed a different "persona" of the Dark Carnival, directing the listener to confront both the sins and mortality of the self and of the world, in the form of fables about the Jokers' purpose within the Carnival. For example, [[The Great Milenko]], a magician, represents the illusions which people may present themselves in order to justify their actions. [[The Amazing Jeckel Brothers]] appear upon one's death and juggle fireballs, one for every sin committed in one's life. Jack represents one's evil spirit while Jake represents one's good spirit. If Jake drops any one ball thrown to him by Jack, then the newly-departed is banished to Hell. This concept of inner-duality is expanded-upon in the Sixth Joker's Card.
===The Sixth Joker's Card===
As explained by Violent J: "There is one Sixth Joker's Card, but there are two versions." While the face of the Sixth Joker's Card was "The Wraith" (or simply [[Death (personification)|Death]]), The Wraith had two "exhibits" to present to all who will listen, ''[[The Wraith: Shangri-La]]'' (Heaven) and ''[[The Wraith: Hell's Pit]]'' (Hell). Each of The Wraith's exhibits was given its own album. It was up to each listener, ICP claimed, to decide which version of "The Wraith" is the correct one.
In November [[2002]], ten years after the first Joker's Card was released, in the final track of [[The Wraith: Shangri-La]], ICP revealed their big secret — that nearly all the songs they wrote were masked with [[subliminal message]]s that have been pointing to one thing: "Truth is, we follow [[God]], we've always been behind Him. The Carnival is God, and may all Juggalos find Him! We're not sorry if we tricked you. We don't care what happens now."
ICP's ultimate message to the world was that we all have a choice as to where we will spend our afterlife, and that choice is made with every right and wrong deed one does in one's life. The choice of preference between ''The Wraith: Shangri-La'' and ''The Wraith: Hell's Pit'' appears to be a metaphor for that decision.
== Fan base and criticism ==
Fans of ICP are called [[Juggalo]]s (although Juggalo is not a gender based word, female fans are sometimes called Juggalettes to avoid some confusion, i.e. Two juggalos got married) and a [[Juggaho]] is a poser trying to act like a Juggalo. This derived from one of Violent J's habits, which is constantly inventing strange names and personas for himself in their songs. One of these personalities is "The Juggla", a psychotic carnival juggler, and somehow the fans came to be known as "Juggalos" in homage. Even more common is the sight of Juggalos painting their faces in clownface, the unofficial Juggalo badge.
ICP have been voted the worst band of any genre of music in various [[magazine]] polls including [[Spin Magazine|Spin]] and [[Rolling Stone]]. This has not discouraged the group, and they repeatedly state they do not care what music critics think of their work. In return, Spin, Rolling Stone, and [[Vibe]] have been singled out for mockery in several ICP raps.
. In an interview in PBS's Frontline documentary series, [http://www.pbs.org/wgbh/pages/frontline/shows/cool/ Merchants of Cool],[[Violent J]] stated:
:"Everybody that likes our music feels a super connection. [...] they feel so connected to it because it's — it's exclusively theirs. See, when something's on the radio, it's for everybody, you know what I mean? It's everybody's song. 'Oh, this is my song.' That ain't your song. It's on the radio. It's everybody's song. But to listen to ICP, you feel like you're the only one that knows about it." " icp is the closest thing some of my friends have known to family, it's like a getaway from reality, whenever your feeling low just throw on your headphones and let the music take you.... it's not about all the killing and violence, that just makes them different from all the other mainstream groups."
On [[February 1]], [[2006]], self-described Juggalo [[Jacob D. Robida]] attacked people in a gay bar with a handgun and a [[hatchet]], a weapon featured on the logo of ICP's record label, Psychopathic Records. Mr. Robida wore a swastika tattoo and flaunted [[nazism|Nazi]] insignia and paraphernalia on his website, and was a former teen cadet in the Junior Police Academy. [http://news.bostonherald.com/localRegional/view.bg?articleid=124233] On [[February 5]], he killed a traffic officer at a routine stop. When police stopped him, he killed the passenger in the car and opened fire on the police. He shot himself with the same gun used in the bar shooting during the standoff. [http://en.wikinews.org/wiki/Manhunt_on_for_gay_bar_attacker_in_Massachusetts]
On [[February 7]], [[2006]], Insane Clown Posse released a statement on the Robida attacks. [http://www.insaneclownposse.com/page.php?page_id=icp_news] <!-- Note that this link is not permanent and I can't figure out how to link to their news archive, so it won't last long. Best I could do. --> Alex Abbiss, ICP's manager, extended ICP's condolences and prayers to the families of the victims. "This guy had problems," said Abbiss, and "anyone going into a bar swinging an axe and shooting a gun ... would clearly have to be insane and out of their mind to do this." He went on, "it's quite obvious that this guy had no clue what being a Juggalo is all about. If anyone knows anything at all about ICP, then you know that they have never, ever been down or will be down with any racist or bigotry bull****." (This was in reference to ICP's long-standing mockery and contempt for racists in their song lyrics). Abbiss claimed ICP was being scapegoated by the media.
== Professional wrestling ==
The Insane Clown Posse have long been involved in [[professional wrestling]]. In [[1998]] they were brought in by the then [[World Wrestling Federation]], now known as the WWE, in a musical role for the stable The Oddities, a group of freak wrestlers led by Golga, a masked [[John Tenta]], formerly known as Earthquake. ICP entered [[World Championship Wrestling|WCW]] in [[1999]] and teamed with wrestler [[Ian Hodgkinson|Vampiro]], forming the group the Dead pool along with [[Raven]]. It was the first time fans saw ICP in a nationwide wrestling role, making their debut with a [[run-in (professional wrestling)|run-in]] on [[Oscar Gutierrez|Rey Mysterio]] and [[Konnan]]. One of their more infamous moments in WCW was a handicap hardcore match against [[Mike Alfonso|Mike Awesome]] (using the That 70s Guy moniker) where in a spot gone wrong Shaggy 2 Dope was [[powerbomb]]ed on top of the "70's Bus" and slid off the side falling to the ground below. They also run their own independent promotion, JCW or [[Juggalo Championshit Wrestling]]. JCW was modeled after the [[backyard wrestling]] of Violent J and Shaggy 2 Dope's youth, as well as the Japanese hardcore wrestling matches featured in bootleg-style videos released by ICP. They are also main characters in the video game series ''Backyard Wrestling'' by [[Eidos Interactive|Eidos]] for the [[Microsoft Xbox]] and [[Sony]] [[PlayStation 2]]. ICP was also in [[Extreme Championship Wrestling]], [[Xtreme Pro Wrestling]], and [[Total Nonstop Action Wrestling]].
ICP are also involved in TNA's first ever house show in Plymoth, Michigan were they will help to heavily promote the event, as well as wrestling in it.
=== Signature moves ===
*Shaggy 2 Dope = [[Professional wrestling aerial techniques#Diving leg drop|'''''Triple Lindy From The Rafters''''' (Top Rope Leg Drop)]]
*Violent J = [[Moonsault|'''''720 Moonflip''''' (Moonsault)]]
== Discography ==
*The Pre-ICP Days
#''Party at the Top of the Hill'' (1989 — single) * [[The JJ Boys]]
#''Southwest Song'' (1989? — single) * [[The JJ Boys]]
#''Enter the Ghetto Zone'' (1990 — LP) * [[Violent J]]
#''Ghetto Territory'' (1990 — LP) * [[Inner City Posse]]
#''[[Intelligence and Violence]]'' (1990 — EP) * [[Violent J]] and [[D-Lyrical]]
#''[[Bass-ment Cuts]]'' (1991 — LP) * [[Inner City Posse]]
#''[[Dog Beats]]'' (1991 — EP) * [[Inner City Posse]]
#''Gangsta Codes'' (1992 — unreleased, became Carnival of Carnage) * [[Inner City Posse]]
*Insane Clown Posse — The Joker Card albums
#''[[Carnival of Carnage]]'' (1992)
#''[[The Ringmaster]]'' (1994)
#''[[The Riddlebox]]'' (1995)
#''[[The Great Milenko]]'' (1997) (Hollywood Records (Disney))
#''[[The Great Milenko]]'' (1998) (Island Records)
#''[[The Amazing Jeckel Brothers]]'' (1999)
#''[[The Wraith: Shangri-La]]'' (with bonus DVD of live concert) (2002)
#''[[The Wraith: Shangri-La]]'' (with bonus DVD of [[Gathering of the Juggalos|Gathering]] seminar) (2002)
#''[[The Wraith: Hell's Pit]]'' (with bonus DVD of the Bowling Balls video) (2004)
#''[[The Wraith: Hell's Pit]]'' (with bonus DVD containing Real Underground Baby and Bootlegged in Denver) (2004)
In the years between the fifth and sixth Joker's Cards, several sites announced the sixth as being "The Red Magician", even offering a track listing, featuring a wealth of otherwise unknown ICP tracks. Whether this was a hoax or an unreleased album is still unknown.
*Insane Clown Posse — The Side Shows / EPs
#''[[Beverly Kills 50187 EP]]'' (1993)
#''[[The Terror Wheel EP]]'' (1994)
#''[[Carnival X-Mas '94]]'' (1994)
#''[[Tunnel of Love EP]]'' (1996)
#''[[A Carnival XMas '97]]'' (1997)
#''[[The Pendulum EP]]'' (2000 - 2002)
*Insane Clown Posse — the Necromonicon
#''[[Bizzar]]'' (2000)
#''[[Bizaar]]'' (2000)
*Insane Clown Posse — the new era
#''[[The Calm EP]]'' (2005)
#''[[The Tempest (album)|The Tempest]]'' (2006)
*Insane Clown Posse — compilations
#''[[Forgotten Freshness (Original)]]'' (1995)
#''[[Mutilation Mix]]'' (1997)
#''[[Mystic Wonders]]'' (1997) - bootleg; an unofficial follow-up to "Forgotten Freshness"
#''[[Forgotten Freshness Volume 1 & 2]]'' (1998)
#''[[Psychopathics from Outer Space]]'' (1999)
#''[[Forgotten Freshness Volume 3]]'' (2001)
#''[[Psychopathics from Outer Space 2]]'' (2003)
#''[[Forgotten Staleness]]'' (2004) - bootleg
#''[[Bootilation Mix]]'' (2005) - bootleg
#''[[Forgotten Freshness Volume 4]]'' (2005)
*Insane Clown Posse — Hallowicked give-aways
#"Dead Pumpkins" (1994)
#"Mr. Rotten Treats" (1995)
#"Witches & Warlocks" (1996)
#"Mr. Johnson's Head (Remix)" (1997)
#"Pumpkin Carvers" (with [[Twiztid]] & [[Kottonmouth Kings]]) (1998)
#"Sleepwalker" (1999)
#"Hallowicked 2000 Box Set" (Includes [[Bizaar]], [[Bizzar]], [[Freek Show]], Hallowicked 2000 EP, Hallowicked shirt, Hallowicked sticker, Hallowicked flier, certificate of authenticity) (2000)
#"Every Halloween" (2001)
#"Children of the Wasteland" ([[Blaze Ya Dead Homie]]) (2001)
#"Waited Till Halloween" ([[Twiztid]]) (2001)
#"Silence of the Hams" ([[Violent J]] & [[Esham]]) (2002)
#"Dead Body Man 2002" ([[Blaze Ya Dead Homie]]) (2002)
#"Thug Pit" (with [[Bone Thugs N Harmony]], [[Kottonmouth Kings]], [[Tech N9ne]], & [[Esham]]) (2003)
#"Murda Cloak" (with [[Anybody Killa]]) (2004)
#"Wicked Hellaween" (2005)
*Insane Clown Posse — singles, rare recordings, event tracks, etc.
#"Fat Sweaty Betty" (1995)
#"Chicken Huntin" (1995)
#"Jokers Wild Sampler" (1995)
#"Halls of Illusions" (1997)
#"Psychopathic Sampler" (1998)
#"Hokus Pokus" (1998)
#"Join the Show" (1998)
#"Phat or Wack sampler" (1999)
#[[Fuck the World (single)| Fuck the World]] (1999)
#"Another Love Song" (1999)
#"Mad Professor" (1999)
#"Party Mix" (1999)
#"Jacob's Word" (2000)
#"Bizzar/Bizaar sampler" (2000)
#"Tilt-A-Whirl" (2000)
#"Let's Go All the Way" (2000)
#"Psychopathic Sampler '01" (2001)
#"[[The Wraith: Shangri-La sampler]]" (2002)
#"Homies" (2003)
*Violent J and Shaggy solo
#''[[Fuck Off (Shaggy 2 Dope solo album)|Fuck Off]]'' (1994 - EP) * [[Shaggy 2 Dope]]
#''[[Wizard of the Hood EP]]'' (2003) * [[Violent J]]
#''[[Fuck the Fuck Off]]'' (2006) * [[Shaggy 2 Dope]]
===Filmography===
* [[Stranglemania]] (199?) This ultra rare [[VHS]] tape (now out of print) was the 1995 IWA [[King Of The Deathmatch]] tournament featuring Superleather, [[Cactus Jack]], [[Terry Funk]], and many more. Violent J and Shaggy dubbed over the commentary and added their own humorous [[commentary]], similar to those on their JCW tapes.
*Juggalo Championshit Wrestling: Volume 1,2 and 3
*Strangle-Mania 2
*The Shaggy Show - An internet based reality show from the road. The concept was taken from an identically-named skit on the ''Amazing Jeckel Brothers'' album.
*Shockumentary - (DVD & VHS) This is ICPs hard-to-find documentary. It features all the flavor of the documentary and five music videos.
*[[Big Money Hustlas]] (2000)
*[[Bootlegged In L.A.]] (2004)
===[[RIAA certifications]]===
#05/04/98 [[The Great Milenko]] - Gold
#07/23/98 [[Shockumentary]] - Gold
#04/21/99 [[The Great Milenko]] - Platinum
#09/30/99 [[Forgotten Freshness]] - Gold
#11/23/99 [[The Riddle Box]] - Gold
#01/06/00 [[The Amazing Jeckel Brothers]] - Gold
#04/04/01 [[Big Money Hustlas]] - Gold
#05/21/02 [[Shockumentary]] - Platinum
#09/17/02 [[The Ringmaster]] - Gold
#10/08/03 [[Bootlegged in L.A.]] - Gold
#06/07/04 [[The Ringmaster]]* - Gold
*[[The Ringmaster]] went gold twice, once on Island and the other on their independent release on [[Psychopathic Records]]. Source: [http://www.faygoluvers.net Faygoluvers]
==Chart positions==
===Albums===
1997 The Great Milenko The [[Billboard 200]] No. 63
1998 Forgotten Freshness, Vol. 1-2 The Billboard 200 No. 46
1999 The Amazing Jeckel Brothers The Billboard 200 No. 4
2000 Bizaar The Billboard 200 No. 20
2000 Bizzar The Billboard 200 No. 21
2002 The Wraith: Shangri-La The Billboard 200 No. 15
2004 Hell's Pit The Billboard 200 No. 12
2005 The Calm (EP) The Billboard 200 No. 32
2005 Forgotten Freshness: Volume 4 The Billboard 200 No. 88
===Singles===
1997 Santa's a Fat Bitch The [[Billboard Hot 100]] No. 67
==External links and references==
* [http://www.insaneclownposse.com/ Insane Clown Posse official site]
* [http://www.psychopathicrecords.com/ Psychopathic Records official site (portal)]
* [http://www.faygoluvers.net Faygoluvers.net The number 1 Juggalo source for everything Psychopathic, Featuring Scottie D, Dfens, Carnie, Southeast Strangla, Bonko, Dank, and Freekjoka]
* [http://www.wijuggalos.com Wisconsin Juggalos The number 1 Wisconsin Juggalo Website brought to you by the former Juggalo-empire crew]
* [http://www.paoracle.com/?archive=77 An Intelligent Look at the Insane Clown Posse]
* [http://www.hallsofillusions.com/mainsite/icp/5602 Halls of Illusions: The Story of Insane Clown Posse]
* [http://www.juggalos4life.com What Is A Juggalo ?: Juggalos Juggalos Juggalos come one come all]
* [http://www.hatchetradio.com HatchetRadio.com--The Best in the Biz]
* [http://sbdjuggalos.tripod.com SBDjuggalos A great fansite that strives on accurate lyrics]
* ''Behind the Paint'', Violent J with Hobey Echlin. (ISBN 09741846083)
[[Category:American hip hop groups|Insane Clown Posse]]
[[de:Insane Clown Posse]]
[[pl:Insane Clown Posse]]
Iran-Iraq War
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41999965
2006-03-03T03:25:41Z
69.229.179.134
/* U.S.-Iraqi arms transfers in the war */
{{Infobox Military Conflict
|conflict=Iran-Iraq War
|campaign=
|image=
|caption=
|date=[[22 September]] [[1980]]–[[20 August]] [[1988]]
|place=[[Persian Gulf]], Iranian-Iraqi border
|casus=
|result=[[stalemate]]; [[United Nations]]-mandated [[cease-fire]]
|combatant1=[[Image:Flag of Iran.svg|100ppx]] [[Iran]]
|combatant2=[[Image:Flag of Iraq (1963-1991).svg|100ppx]] [[Iraq]]
|commander1=
|commander2=
|strength1=
|strength2=
|casualties1=Est. 450,000-950,000 (incl. 100,000 [[Kurd]]s)
|casualties2=Est. 450,000-950,000
}}
{{Campaignbox Persian Gulf Wars}}
The '''Iran-Iraq War''', also called the '''First [[Persian Gulf]] War''', or the '''Imposed War''' (جنگ تحمیلی, ''Jang-e-tahmīlī'') in Iran and '''Saddām's Qādisiyyah''' (قادسيّة صدّام, ''Qādisiyyat Saddām'') in Iraq, was a [[war]] between the armed forces of Iraq and Iran lasting from September [[1980]] to August [[1988]]. It was commonly referred to as the '''(Persian) Gulf War''' until the [[Persian Gulf War|Iraq-Kuwait conflict]] ([[1990]]–[[1991|91]]), which became known as the Second Persian Gulf War and later simply the '''Persian Gulf War'''.
It has been called "the longest conventional warfare of the 20th century", and cost 1 million casualties and $US 1.19 Trillion. <small>(''[[Iran-Iraq War#References|D. Hiro]]'')</small>
The war began when [[Iraq]] invaded [[Iran]] on [[22 September]] [[1980]] following a long history of border disputes. The conflict saw early successes by the Iraqis, but before long they were repulsed and the conflict stabilized into a long war of attrition. The [[United Nations Security Council]] called upon both parties to end the conflict on multiple occasions, but a ceasefire was not agreed to until [[20 August]] [[1988]], and the last [[prisoner of war|prisoners of war]] were not exchanged until [[2003]]. The war irrevocably altered politics in the area, playing into wider global politics and leading to the 1990 Iraqi invasion of [[Kuwait]]. The war is also noted for extensive use of chemical weapons by Iraqi forces.
==Background==
[[Image:Iraqi_stamp.jpg|right|250px|frame|Iraqi commemorative stamp depicting the victorious [[Battle of al-Qādisiyyah]] in the [[Islamic conquest of Iran]] and its parallel during the Iran-Iraq war.]]Although the Iran-Iraq war of 1980–1988 was a war over dominance of the [[Persian Gulf]] region, the roots of the war go back many centuries. There has always been a rivalry between various kingdoms of [[Mesopotamia]] (modern [[Iraq]]) and [[Persians|Persia]] (Iran).
Before the [[Ottoman empire]], Iraq was part of Persia ruled under the [[Aq Qoyunlu]] dynasty. The rising power of the Ottomans put an end to this when [[Murad IV]] annexed what is today Iraq from the weakening [[Safavid]] Persia in 1638. The border disputes between Persia and the Ottomans never ended however: between 1555 and 1918, Persia and Turkey signed no less than 18 treaties re-addressing their disputed borders. Modern Iraq was created with the British involvement in the region and the final collapse of the Ottoman empire, hence inheriting all the disputes with Persia.
More precisely, the origins of the Iran-Iraq war of 1980–1988 go back to the question of sovereignty over the resource-rich province of [[Khuzestan]]. Khuzestan, home to Iran's [[Elamite Empire]], was an independent non-[[Semitic]] speaking kingdom whose capital was [[Susa]]. Khuzestan has, however, been attacked and occupied by various kingdoms of Mesopotamia (the precursors of modern Iraq) many times.
On [[18 December]] [[1959]], [[Abdul Karim Qassim|`Abd al-Karīm Qāsim]], who had just taken control over Iraq by a ''[[coup d'etat|coup d'état]]'', openly declared: "''We do not wish to refer to the history of Arab tribes residing in Al-Ahwaz and Mohammareh [Khorramshahr]. The [[Ottoman Empire|Ottoman]]s handed over Mohammareh, which was part of Iraqi territory, to Iran.''" The Iraqi regime's dissatisfaction over Iran's possession of [[petroleum|oil]]-rich Khuzestan province was not limited to rhetorical statements; Iraq started supporting [[secession]]ist movements in Khuzestan, and even raised the issue of its territorial claims in the next meeting of the [[Arab League]], without any success. Iraq showed reluctance in fulfilling existing agreements with Iran, especially after the death of [[Egypt]]ian President [[Gamal Abdel Nasser|Gamāl `Abd an-Nāsir]] and the rise of the [[Ba'ath Party|Ba`th Party]], when Iraq decided to take on the role of "leader of the [[Arab world]]".
In 1969, the deputy prime minister of Iraq openly declared: "''Iraq's dispute with Iran is in connection with Arabistan ([[Khuzestan]]) which is part of Iraq's soil and was annexed to Iran during foreign rule.''" Soon Iraqi [[radio station]]s began exclusively broadcasting into "Arabistan", encouraging Iranian Arabs and even [[Baloch|Balūchīs]] to revolt against Iran's central government. [[Basra]] TV stations even started showing Iran's Khuzestan province as part of Iraq's new province called 'Nasiriyyah', renaming all Iranian cities with [[Arabic language|Arabic]] names.
In 1971, Iraq broke off diplomatic relations with Iran after claiming sovereignty rights over the islands of [[Abu Musa]], [[Greater and Lesser Tunbs|Greater Tunb and Lesser Tunb]] in the [[Persian Gulf]], following the withdrawal of the British. Iraq then expelled 70,000 Iranians from Iraq after complaining to the Arab League, and the UN, without any success.
One of the factors contributing to hostility between the two powers was a dispute over full control of the [[Arvand/Shatt al-Arab|Shatt al-Arab]] waterway at the head of the Persian Gulf, an important channel for the oil exports of both countries. In [[1975]], [[United States]] [[United States Secretary of State|Secretary of State]] [[Henry Kissinger]] had sanctioned that [[Mohammad Reza Pahlavi|Mohammad Rezā' Pahlavī]], the [[Shah of Iran]], attack Iraq over the waterway, which was under Iraqi control at the time; soon afterward both nations signed the [[Algiers Accord]], in which Iraq made territorial concessions, including the waterway, in exchange for normalized relations.
Iraq had staged a battle against Iranian forces a year earlier in 1974, resulting in heavy casualties on both sides. Iran attempted to destabilize Iraq and encouraged [[Kurd]]ish nationalists to break up the country, in answer to Iraq's similar activities in Iran's [[Khuzestan]] province. Iran's embassy in [[London]] was subsequently attacked by Iraqi-sponsered terrorist forces a few months prior to the war in 1980, in what came to be known as The [[Iranian Embassy Siege]].
Iraq's president, [[Saddam Hussein]], was eagerly interested in elevating Iraq to a strong regional power. A successful invasion of Iran would make Iraq the dominating force in the Persian Gulf region and its lucrative oil trade. Such lofty ambitions were not that far-fetched. Severe officer purges (including several executions ordered by [[Sadegh Khalkhali|Sādeq Khālkhālī]], the post-revolution ''[[Sharia|sharī`ah]]'' ruler) and spare part shortages for Iran's American-made equipment had crippled Iran's once mighty [[military of Iran|military]]. The bulk of the Iranian military was made up of poorly armed, though committed, [[militia|militias]]. Iran had minimal defenses in the Arvand/Shatt al-`Arab river.
Saddām on numerous occasions alluded to the [[Islamic conquest of Iran]] in propagating his ''anti-Persian'' position against Iran. For example, on [[02 April]] [[1980]], a half-year before the outbreak of the war, in a visit by Saddām to al-Mustansiriyyah University in Baghdad, drawing parallels to the 7th-Century defeat of Persia in the [[Battle of al-Qādisiyyah]] he announced:
:"In your name, brothers, and on behalf of the Iraqis and Arabs everywhere we tell those [Persian] cowards and dwarfs who try to avenge Al-Qadisiyah that the spirit of Al-Qadisiyah as well as the blood and honor of the people of Al-Qadisiyah who carried the message on their spearheads are greater than their attempts." (See Saddām, E3)
The aftermath of the [[Iranian Revolution]] of [[1979]] was central to the conflict. The [[Ayatollah|Āyat-Allāh]] [[Ruhollah Khomeini|Rūh-Ollāh Khomaynī]] was threatening to export Islamic revolution to the rest of the [[Middle East]], even though Iran was hardly in any position to do so militarily, for most of the Shah's army had already been disbanded. The Khomeinist camp despised Iraq's Ba`thist secularism in particular, and believed that the oppressed [[Shi'a Islam|Shī`īs]] in Iraq, [[Saudi Arabia]], and [[Kuwait]] could follow the Iranian example and turn against their governments. At the same time the revolution in Iran, the destabilization of the country and its alienation from the [[Western world|West]] made it a tempting target to the expansionist [[Saddam Hussein|Saddām Husayn]]. In particular he felt that Iranian Sunni citizens would rather join a powerful Sunni-led Iraq than remain in the Shia dominated Iran.
Thus both sides entered the war believing that citizens of the southern portions of the enemy's country - Sunnīs in Iran and Shī`īs in Iraq - would join the opposing forces. Neither seems to have fully appreciated the powers of nationalism over historically clan-centered differences, nor the power of the central state apparatus who controlled the press. In the end both were surprised to find their expected allies turning against them as invaders.
The [[UN Secretary General]] report dated [[9 December]] [[1991]] (S/23273) explicitly states "Iraq's aggression against Iran" in starting the war and breaching International security and peace. (See also "Who started the Iran-Iraq war?" by R.K. Ramazani, [http://www.student.virginia.edu/~vjil/ ''The Virginia Journal of International Law''] 33, Fall 1992, pp. 69–89)
==Invasion and repulse==
[[image:Jang.jpg|right|thumb|280px|The eight-year Iran-Iraq war resulted in [[USD]]$350 billion in damage in Iran alone.]] The two nations severed diplomatic relations in June 1980, and sporadic border clashes increased. On [[September 17]], Iraq declared the Shatt al-Arab part of its territory. [[Iraq]] launched a full-scale invasion of [[Iran]] on [[September 22]] [[1980]], claiming as a pretext, an Iranian assassination attempt on [[Foreign Minister]] [[Tariq Aziz]].
The objectives of Iraq's invasion of Iran were:
#Acquisition of the [[Arvand/Shatt al-Arab]] waterway as part of Iraqi territory (Iraq's only port connection to The [[Persian Gulf]]).
#Acquisition of the three islands of [[Abu Musa]] and the [[Greater and Lesser Tunbs]], on the unilateral behalf of the [[UAE]].
#Annexing [[Khuzestan]] (or "Arabistan") as part of Iraqi territory.
The [[blitzkrieg|surprise offensive]] advanced quickly against the still disorganized [[military of Iran|Iranian forces]], advancing on a wide front into Iranian territory along the [[Mehran]]-[[Khorramabad]] axis in Central Iran and towards Ahvaz in the oil-rich southern province of [[Khuzestan]].
[[Image:Jang2.jpg|right|thumb|Iranian soldiers protecting their territory.]]
Iraq encountered unexpected resistance, however. Rather than turning against the Ayatollah's government as exiles had promised, the people of Iran rallied around their revolution and mounted far stiffer resistance; an estimated 100,000 volunteers arrived at the front by November. An Iraqi Air Force attack on Iranian airfields was ineffective, and the Iraqis soon found the Iranian military was not nearly as depleted as they had thought. In June of [[1982]], a successful Iranian counter-offensive recovered the areas previously lost to Iraq.
Most of the fighting for the rest of the war occurred on Iraqi territory, although some have interpreted the Iraqi withdrawal as a [[tactics|tactical]] ploy by the Iraqi military. By fighting just inside Iraq, Saddām Husayn could rally popular Iraqi patriotism. The Iraqi army could also fight on its own territory and in well- established defensive positions. The Iranians continued to employ unsophisticated human wave attacks, while Iraqi soldiers remained, for the most part, in a defensive posture.
[[image:Saddam7.jpg|thumb|left|Upon invading Iran on [[22 September]] [[1980]], then-Iraqi President Saddām Husayn boasted he would be in [[Tehran]] in 3 days.]]
Iraq offered a cessation of hostilities in [[1982]], but Iran's insistence from July 1982 onward to destroy the Iraqi government prolonged the conflict for another six years of static warfare.
Newly declassified US intelligence (SNIE 34/36.2-82 available at http://www.gwu.edu/~nsarchiv/NSAEBB/NSAEBB167/) explores a number of documents produced by U.S. agencies over the last thirty years concerning the Iraqi regime's policies and activities directed at maintaining itself in power and eliminating or neutralizing opposition to the regime.
==The Tanker War and U.S. entanglement==
The [[United States]] had been wary of the [[Tehran]] regime since the [[Iranian Revolution]], not least because of the detention of its Tehran [[embassy]] staff in the 1979–81 [[Iran hostage crisis]]. Starting in 1982 with Iranian success on the battlefield, the U.S. made its backing of Iraq more pronounced, supplying it with intelligence, economic aid, normalizing relations with the government (broken during the 1967 [[Six-Day War]]), and allegedly also supplying weapons [http://www.iranchamber.com/history/articles/arming_iraq.php].
Starting in 1981, both Iran and Iraq attacked [[oil tanker]]s and merchant ships, including those of neutral nations, in an effort to deprive the opponent of trade. After repeated Iraqi attacks on Iran's main exporting facility on [[Bushehr Province#Kharg Island (Khark Island)|Khark Island]], Iran attacked a Kuwaiti tanker near [[Bahrain]] on [[May 13]] [[1984]], and a [[Saudi Arabia|Saudi]] tanker in Saudi waters on [[May 16]]. Attacks on ships of noncombatant nations in the Persian Gulf sharply increased thereafter, and this phase of the war was dubbed the "Tanker War."
[[Lloyd's of London]], a British [[insurance]] [[market]], estimated that the Tanker War damaged 546 commercial vessels and killed about 430 civilian mariners. The largest of attacks were directed by Iran against Kuwaiti vessels, and on [[November 1]] [[1986]], Kuwait formally petitioned foreign powers to protect its shipping. The [[Soviet Union]] agreed to charter tankers starting in [[1987]], and the United States offered to provide protection for tankers [[flag of convenience|flying the U.S. flag]] on [[March 7]] [[1987]] ([[Operation Earnest Will]] and [[Operation Prime Chance]]). Under [[international law]], an attack on such ships would be treated as an attack on the U.S., allowing the U.S. to retaliate militarily. This support would protect ships headed to Iraqi ports, effectively guaranteeing Iraq's revenue stream for the duration of the war.
An Iraqi plane accidentally attacked the ''[[USS Stark (FFG-31)|USS Stark]]'', a [[Oliver Hazard Perry class|''Perry'' class]] [[frigate]] on [[May 17]], killing 37 and injuring 21. But U.S. attention was on isolating Iran; it criticized Iran's mining of international waters, and sponsored [[Wikisource:UN Security Council Resolution 598|UN Security Council Resolution 598]], which passed unanimously on [[July 20]], under which it skirmished with Iranian forces. In [[October]] 1987, the U.S. attacked Iranian oil platforms in retaliation for an Iranian attack on the U.S.-flagged tanker ''Sea Isle City''.
On [[April 14]] [[1988]], the frigate [[USS Samuel B. Roberts (FFG-58)|USS ''Samuel B. Roberts'']] was badly damaged by an Iranian mine. U.S. forces responded with [[Operation Praying Mantis]] on [[April 18]], the [[United States Navy]]'s largest engagement of surface warships since [[World War II]]. Two Iranian ships were destroyed, and an American helicopter was shot down, killing the two pilots.
In the course of these escorts by the U.S. Navy, the cruiser [[USS Vincennes (CG-49)|USS ''Vincennes'']] shot down [[Iran Air Flight 655]] with the loss of all 290 passengers and crew on [[July 3]] [[1988]]. The [[Federal Government of the United States|American government]] claimed that the airliner had been mistaken for an Iranian [[F-14 Tomcat]], and that the Vincennes was operating in international waters at the time and feared that it was under attack. It has since emerged, however, that the Vincennes was in fact in Iranian territorial waters, and that the Iranian passenger jet was turning away and increasing altitude after take-off. The U.S. paid compensation but never apologised.
Through all of this members of the [[Reagan Administration]] had, at the same time, also been secretly selling weapons to Iran; first indirectly (possibly through [[Israel]]) and then directly. It claimed that the administration hoped Iran would, in exchange, persuade several radical groups to release Western hostages. (for details see the [[Iran-Contra Affair]]). The money from the sales was channeled to equip the [[Nicaragua]]n ''contrarrevolucionarios'' (''[[Contras]]''), right-wing rebels.
=="War of the Cities"==
Toward the end of the war, the land conflict regressed into stalemate largely because neither side had enough self-propelled artillery or airpower to support ground advances.
The relatively professional Iraqi armed forces could not make headway against the far more numerous Iranian infantry. But the Iranians were overmatched in towed and self-propelled artillery, which left their tanks and troops vulnerable. What followed was a blood bath with the Iranians substituting infantry for artillery. Both sides turned to more brutal weapons and tactics.
Iraq's air force soon began strategic bombing against Iranian cities, chiefly Tehran, starting in 1985. In response to these, Iran began launching SS-1 "[[Scud]]" missiles against [[Baghdad]]. Iraq did not respond in kind against Tehran until early 1988, able to deploy only air raids against the Iranian capital up until that point. In October 1986, Iraqi aircraft attacked civilian passenger trains and aircraft, including an [[Iran Air]] Boeing 737 airliner unloading passengers at [[Shiraz International Airport]]. 34 elementary and high schools were attacked by Iraqi warplanes in 1986 alone, killing hundreds of children. ''(source: [[IRNA]] archives)''
In retaliation for the successful Iranian ''Karbala-5'' operation in the fronts, during the course of 42 days, Iraq attacked 65 cities in 226 sorties, bombing civilian neighborhoods. Eight Iranian cities came under the attack of Iraqi missiles. Sixty-five children were killed during bombings in an elementary school in [[Borujerd]] alone. These events became known as "the war of the cities". ''(Source: ibid.)''
The war saw the use of [[chemical weapon]]s, especially [[tabun (nerve gas)|tabun]], by Iraq. International antipathy to the Tehran regime meant Iraq suffered few repercussions despite these attacks. The UN eventually condemned Iraq for using chemical weapons against Iran, after the war. Chemical weapons had not been used in any major war since World War I.
Iraq financed, with foreign assistance, the purchase of more technologically advanced weapons, and built more modern, well-trained armed forces. After setbacks on the battlefield it offered to return to the 1975 border. Iran was internationally isolated and facing rising public discontent. Finally, a cease-fire was agreed to on [[August 20]] [[1988]].
==Arming the combatants==
Iraq's [[military of Iraq|army]] was primarily armed with weaponry it had purchased from the [[Soviet Union]] and its [[satellite state|satellites]] in the preceding decade. During the war, it purchased billions of dollars worth of advanced equipment from the Soviets and the [[France|French]] [http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/middle_east/3324053.stm], as well as from the [[People's Republic of China]], [[Egypt]], [[Germany]], and other sources (including [[Europe]] and facilities for making and/or enhancing chemical weapons). [[Germany]] [http://www.dw-world.de/dw/article/0,,716376,00.html] along with other Western countries (among them [[United Kingdom]], [[France]], [[Spain]](Explosivos Alaveses), [[Italy]] and the [[United States]]) provided Iraq with [[biological weapon|biological]] and [[chemical weapon]]s technology and the precursors to nuclear capabilities. Much of Iraq's financial backing came from other [[Arab]] states, notably oil-rich [[Kuwait]] and [[Saudi Arabia]].
The source of Iraqi arms purchases between 1970 and 1990 (10 % of the world market during this period) are estimated to be:
<center>
{| border="1"
! Suppliers !! in Billions (1985 $US) !! % of total
|-
|align="center" |[[Soviet Union]]
|align="center" |19.2
|align="center" |61
|-
|align="center" |[[France]]
|align="center" |5.5
|align="center" |18
|-
|align="center" |[[People's Republic of China]]
|align="center" |1.7
|align="center" |5
|-
|align="center" |[[Brazil]]
|align="center" |1.1
|align="center" |4
|-
|align="center" |[[Egypt]]
|align="center" |1.1
|align="center" |4
|-
|align="center" |Other countries
|align="center" |2.9
|align="center" |6
|-
|align="center" |'''Total'''
|align="center" |'''31.5'''
|align="center" |'''100.0'''
|}</center>
Iran's foreign supporters included [[Syria]] and [[Libya]], through which it obtained Scuds. It purchased weaponry from [[North Korea]] and the [[People's Republic of China]], notably the [[Silkworm missile|Silkworm antiship missile]]. Iran acquired weapons and parts for its Shah-era U.S. systems through covert arms transactions from officials in the [[Reagan Administration]], first indirectly through [[Israel]] and then directly. It was hoped Iran would, in exchange, persuade several radical groups to release Western hostages, though this did not result; proceeds from the sale were diverted to the [[Nicaragua]]n [[Contras]] in what became known as the [[Iran-Contra Affair]].
===Aircraft===
<!-- Unsourced image removed: [[Image:iraqi_airforce1.jpg|thumb|right|Iraqi Aircraft attacking Iranian territory.]] -->
During war, Iran operated U.S.-manufactured [[F-4 Phantom II|F-4 Phantom]] and [[F-5 Freedom Fighter]] fighters, as well as [[AH-1 Cobra]] attack [[helicopter]]s. It also operated a number of [[F-14 Tomcat]] fighters, which, according to a few sources, proved devastating to the Iraqis in the early phases of the war. However, due to the Iranian government's estrangement, spare parts were difficult to obtain. Despite this the Iranians managed to maintain a constant presence with their Tomcats during the entire conflict, mostly due to a combination of spare parts acquired on the black market and parts made in Iran. These were supported by [[KC-135 Stratotanker|KC-135]]s, a [[aerial refueling|refueling tanker]] based on the [[Boeing 707]].[http://www.globalsecurity.org/military/world/iran/airforce.htm]
Iraq's air force used Soviet weapons and reflected Soviet training, although it expanded and upgraded its fleet considerably as the war progressed. It conducted strategic bombing using [[Tupolev Tu-16]] Badgers. Its fighters included the [[Mikoyan-Gurevich MiG-21]], later supplemented by large purchases of [[Sukhoi Su-17|Sukhoi Su-22]]s and French [[Dassault Mirage F1]]s. It also deployed the Anglo-French [[Aérospatiale Gazelle]] attack helicopter and the [[Exocet]] antiship missile.[http://www.globalsecurity.org/military/world/iraq/airforce.htm]
===U.S.-Iraqi arms transfers in the war===
[[image:Saddam_rumsfeld.jpg|thumb|right|[[Donald Rumsfeld]] meeting Saddām on [[19 December]] – [[20 December]] [[1983]]. Rumsfeld visited again on [[24 March]] [[1984]]; the same day the UN released a report that Iraq had used [[Mustard gas|mustard]] and [[Tabun (nerve gas)|Tabun]] nerve gas against Iranian troops. The ''NY Times'' reported from Baghdad on [[29 March]] [[1984]], that "American diplomats pronounce themselves satisfied with Iraq and the U.S., and suggest that normal diplomatic ties have been established in all but name." [http://www.gwu.edu/~nsarchiv/NSAEBB/NSAEBB82/ NSA Archive Source] ]]
Western support for Iraq during the Iran-Iraq war has clearly been established. It is no secret that the [[United States]], the [[Soviet Union]], [[West Germany]], [[France]], many western companies, and [[United Kingdom|Britain]] provided military support and even components of Iraq's Weapons of Mass Destruction program. The role the United States played in the war against Iran however, although present to some degree, is not as well known.
After the revolution, with the Ayatollahs in power and levels of enmity between Iran and the U.S. running high, early on during the Iran-Iraq war, [[realpolitik]]ers in Washington came to the conclusion that Saddām was the lesser of the two evils, and hence efforts to support Iraq became the order of the day, both during the long war with Iran and afterward. This led to what later became known as the ''Iraq-gate'' scandals.
Much of what Iraq received from the West, however, were not arms per se, but so-called dual-use technology— mainframe computers, armored ambulances, helicopters, chemicals, and the like, with potential civilian uses as well as military applications. It is now known that a vast network of companies, based in the West, fed Iraq's warring capabilities right up until August 1990, when Saddam invaded Kuwait [http://www.cjr.org/archives.asp?url=/93/2/iraqgate.asp].
The Iraq-gate scandal revealed that an [[Atlanta, Georgia|Atlanta]] branch of Italy's largest bank, Banca Nazionale del Lavoro, relying partially on U.S. taxpayer-guaranteed loans, funneled $5 billion to Iraq from 1985 to 1989. In August 1989, when [[Federal Bureau of Investigation|FBI]] agents finally raided the Atlanta branch of BNL, the branch manager, Christopher Drogoul, was charged with making unauthorized, clandestine, and illegal loans to Iraq—some of which, according to his indictment, were used to purchase arms and weapons technology.
Beginning in September, 1989, the ''[[Financial Times]]'' laid out the first charges that BNL, relying heavily on U.S. government-guaranteed loans, was funding Iraqi chemical and nuclear weapons work. For the next two and a half years, the ''Financial Times'' provided the only continuous newspaper reportage (over 300 articles) on the subject. Among the companies shipping militarily useful technology to Iraq under the eye of the U.S. government, according to the ''Financial Times'', were [[Hewlett-Packard]], [[Tektronix]], and [[Matrix Churchill]], through its [[Ohio]] branch [http://www.cjr.org/archives.asp?url=/93/2/iraqgate.asp].
Even before the [[Persian Gulf War]] started in 1990, the ''Intelligencer Journal'' of Pennsylvania in a string of articles reported: "If U.S. and Iraqi troops engage in combat in the Persian Gulf, weapons technology developed in Lancaster and indirectly sold to Iraq will probably be used against U.S. forces ... And aiding in this ... technology transfer was the Iraqi-owned, British-based precision tooling firm Matrix Churchill, whose U.S. operations in Ohio were recently linked to a sophisticated Iraqi weapons procurement network." [http://www.cjr.org/archives.asp?url=/93/2/iraqgate.asp]
Aside from the ''New York Times'', the ''Los Angeles Times'', and ABC's Ted Koppel, the Iraq-gate story never picked up much steam, even though The U.S. Congress became involved with the scandal. [http://www.fas.org/spp/starwars/congress/1992/h920519l.htm FAS report]
In December 2002, Iraq's 1,200 page Weapons Declaration revealed a list of Western corporations and countries—as well as individuals—that exported chemical and biological materials to Iraq in the past two decades. Many American names were on the list. Alcolac International, for example, a [[Maryland]] company, transported thiodiglycol, a mustard gas precursor, to Iraq. A [[Tennessee]] manufacturer contributed large amounts of a chemical used to make sarin, a nerve gas implicated in so-called (Persian) Gulf War Syndrome. A [http://www.laweekly.com/ink/03/23/news-crogan.php full list] of those companies and their involvements in Iraq [http://www.laweekly.com/ink/03/18/features-crogan1.php] [http://www.laweekly.com/ink/03/18/features-crogan2.php].
On [[25 May]] [[1994]], The [[U.S. Senate Committee on Banking, Housing, and Urban Affairs|U.S. Senate Banking Committee]] released a report in which it was stated that ''pathogenic (meaning ''disease producing''), toxigenic (meaning ''poisonous'') and other biological research materials were exported to Iraq, pursuant to application and licensing by the U.S. Department of Commerce.'' It added: ''These exported biological materials were not attenuated or weakened and were capable of reproduction.'' [http://www.gulfwarvets.com/arison/banking.htm]
The report then detailed 70 shipments (including anthrax bacillus) from the United States to Iraqi government agencies over three years, concluding ''It was later learned that these microorganisms exported by the United States were identical to those the UN inspectors found and recovered from the Iraqi biological warfare program.'' See another list [http://cns.miis.edu/research/wmdme/flow/iraq/seed.htm here], and [http://groups.msn.com/exposureofthetruth/biologicalssoldtoiraq.msnw another here].
843 companies has been listed as being involved in the arming of Iraq. [http://www.cooperativeresearch.org/context.jsp?item=us_support_of_iraq_wmd_843] Twenty-four U.S. firms exported arms and materials to Baghdad [http://www.iranchamber.com/history/articles/arming_iraq.php].
[[Donald W. Riegle, Jr.|Donald Riegle]], Chairman of the [[U.S. Senate Committee on Banking, Housing, and Urban Affairs|Senate committee]] that made the report, said, "''UN inspectors had identified many United States manufactured items that had been exported from the United States to Iraq under licenses issued by the Department of Commerce, and [established] that these items were used to further Iraq's chemical and nuclear weapons development and its missile delivery system development programs.''" He added, "''the executive branch of our government approved '''771''' different export licenses for sale of dual-use technology to Iraq. I think that is a devastating record.''"
The [[Centers for Disease Control and Prevention|U.S. Centers for Disease Control]] sent Iraq 14 agents "with biological warfare significance," including West Nile virus, according to Riegle's investigators [http://www.sptimes.com/2003/03/16/Perspective/How_Iraq_built_its_we.shtml] [http://www.tallahassee.com/mld/tallahassee/news/politics/4186725.htm].
The [[Simon Wiesenthal Center]], a [[Jewish]] organization dedicated to preserving the memory of [[the Holocaust]], released a list of U.S. companies and their exports to Iraq. See page [http://www.sfbg.com/News/32/21/images/b11.gif 11] of this report: [http://www.sfbg.com/News/32/21/images/b1.gif p1] [http://www.sfbg.com/News/32/21/images/b2.gif p2] [http://www.sfbg.com/News/32/21/images/b3.gif p3] [http://www.sfbg.com/News/32/21/images/b4.gif p4] [http://www.sfbg.com/News/32/21/images/b5.gif p5] [http://www.sfbg.com/News/32/21/images/b6.gif p6] [http://www.sfbg.com/News/32/21/images/b7.gif p7] [http://www.sfbg.com/News/32/21/images/b8.gif p8] [http://www.sfbg.com/News/32/21/images/b9.gif p9] [http://www.sfbg.com/News/32/21/images/b10.gif p10] [http://www.sfbg.com/News/32/21/images/b11.gif p11]
A [http://www.cooperativeresearch.org/timeline.jsp?timeline=us_support_of_iraq_wmd timeline] of U.S. support for Saddām against Iran. Another [http://www.casi.org.uk/info/usdocs/usiraq80s90s.html timeline]. For the Statement of Henry B. Gonzalez, Chairman, House Committee on Banking, Finance, and Urban Affairs on Iraq-gate, see links given on [http://www.sfbg.com/News/32/21/Features/iraq.html this page].
More sources:
* [http://foi.missouri.edu/terrorintelligence/ussentgerms.html University of Missouri School of Journalism database]
* [http://www.iraqwatch.org/perspectives/Sussexreport.htm University of Sussex report]
* [http://www.globalpolicy.org/security/issues/iraq/2001/1022iraq.htm A Global Policy Forum Report]
* [http://www.gulfweb.org/bigdoc/report/riegle1.html Text of the U.S. Senate Riegle Report]
* [http://www.gwu.edu/~nsarchiv/NSAEBB/NSAEBB82/ NSA Archives]
* [http://www.smh.com.au/articles/2002/08/18/1029114048796.html?oneclick=true Sydney Morning Herald report]
==Weapons of Mass Destruction==
[[Image:Iran-iraq-war-gas-masks.JPG|right|thumb|Iran suffered heavy casualties from Saddām's chemical weapons.]]With more than 100,000 Iranian victims{{ref|1}} of Iraq's chemical and biological weapons during the eight-year war, [[Iran]] is, after Japan, one of the world's top afflicted countries by [[Weapons of Mass Destruction]].
The official estimate does not include the civilian population contaminated in bordering towns or the children and relatives of veterans, many of whom have developed blood, lung and skin complications, according to the Organization for Veterans of Iran.
Nerve gas agents killed about 20,000 Iranian soldiers immediately, according to official reports. Of the 90,000 survivors, some 5,000 seek medical treatment regularly and about 1,000 are still hospitalized with severe, chronic conditions. Many others were hit by mustard gas.
Furthermore, 308 Iraqi missiles were launched at population centers inside Iranian cities between 1980 and 1988 resulting in 12,931 casualties.{{ref|1}}
There is great resentment in Iran that the international community helped Iraq develop its chemical weapons arsenal and armed forces, and also that the world did nothing to punish Iraq for its use of chemical weapons against Iran throughout the war — particularly since the US and other western powers later felt obliged to oppose the Iraqi invasion of Kuwait and eventually invade Iraq itself to remove Hussein.
Also see [[Halabja poison gas attack|The Chemical Attack on Halabja]].
Further reading on surviving veterans of these weapons:
*[http://www.sc-ems.com/ems/NuclearBiologicalChemical/MedicalAspectsofNBC/chapters/chapter_7.htm A report on Iranian victims of Iraqi blister agents], ''Medical Management of Chemical Casualties''
* [http://www.nj.com/specialprojects/index.ssf?/specialprojects/mideaststories/me1209.html The New Jersey Star Ledger, report]
* [http://www.thestar.co.za/index.php?fArticleId=39470 The South Africa Star, report]
* [http://www.commondreams.org/headlines03/0213-05.htm The NY Times report]
* [http://msnbc.msn.com/id/3068535/site/newsweek/ MSNBC report]
* [http://www.netiran.com/?fn=artd(1585) Report: Iranian WMD Veterans sue Germany]
* [http://www.payvand.com/news/00/nov/1108.html Vets suing the U.S.]
* [http://www.npr.org/templates/story/story.php?storyId=1742878 NPR report on Iranian WMD veterans] (audio)
* [http://www.chronicillnet.org/PGWS/tuite/IRMED/IRANTOC.htm Medical reports]
{{note|1}} Center for Documents of The Imposed War, Tehran.
==Human Wave Attacks in the Iran-Iraq War==
Many people claim that the Iran-Iraq conflict spawned a particularly gruesome variant of the "human wave" attack. The Iranian clergy, with no professional military training, were slow to adopt and apply professional military doctrine. The country at that time lacked sufficient equipment to breach Iraqi minefields and were not willing to risk their small tank force. Therefore, [[Islamic Revolutionary Guards Corps|Pasdaran]] forces and [[Basij]] volunteers were often used to sweep over minefields and entrenched positions developed by the more professional Iraqi military. Allegedly, unarmed human wave tactics involving children as young as 9 were employed. One unnamed East European journalist claims to have seen "tens of thousands of children, roped together in groups of about 20 to prevent the faint-hearted from deserting, make such an attack."[http://countrystudies.us/iraq/104.htm]
There has been a suggestion that girls were more commonly used for frontline mine clearance, and boys for unarmed "assaults." Reliable firsthand accounts of the use of children in human wave attacks are rare, however. The most serious contemporary firsthand account recently surfaced at the end of an article[http://www.pbs.org/cringely/pulpit/pulpit20041104.html] by the technology journalist [[Robert X. Cringely]], who relates the experience of a trip to the front for an unconnected ''[[Penthouse magazine|Penthouse]]'' magazine assignment. In recent years, however, Cringely's credibility has been questioned, after the ''San Francisco Chronicle'' and [[Stanford University]] revealed in 1998 that Cringely falsely claimed to hold a Ph.D. from Stanford University. Cringely also falsely claimed to be a former Stanford professor. ''[http://daily.stanford.org/Daily98-99/11-11-1998/news/tempo?page=content&id=4462&repository=0001_article (The Stanford Daily, [[11 November]] [[1998]])]''
==Aftermath==
<!--Image of unknown copyright status removed. [[Image:Iraqibaghdadi.jpg|frame|The [[Hands of Victory]] triumphal arch in Baghdad has 5000 helmets of killed Iranian soldiers piled at the base of the swords, and alludes to the [[Islamic conquest of Iran]] where the [[Persian empire]] fell to invading Arab forces.]]-->
The war was disastrous for both countries, stalling economic development and disrupting oil exports. It cost Iran an estimated 1.5 million casualties (1, p. 206), and $350 billion (1, p. 1). [[Iraq]] was left with serious debts to its former [[Arab]] backers, including US$14 billion loaned by [[Kuwait]], a debt which contributed to [[Saddam Hussein|Saddām's]] [[1990]] decision to [[Persian Gulf War|invade]].
Much of both sides' oil industry was damaged in [[air raid]]s.
The war left the [[border]]s unchanged. Two years later, as war with the western powers loomed, Saddām recognized Iranian rights over the eastern half of the [[Shatt al-Arab|Shatt al-`Arab]], a reversion to the status quo ante bellum that he had repudiated a decade earlier.
The war was extremely costly, one of the deadliest wars since the [[Second World War]]. (Conflicts since [[1945]] which have surpassed the Iran-Iraq War in terms of casualties include the [[Vietnam War]], [[Korean War]], the [[Second Sudanese Civil War]], and the [[Second Congo War|war in the Democratic Republic of the Congo]]). Many of the prisoners taken by both sides weren't released until up to 10 years after the conflict was over.
==Final ruling==
[[Image:Shohada hoveizeh.JPG|thumb|right|An Iranian mother mourns the loss of her son in a war cemetery in [[Hoveizeh]].]]
On [[9 December]] [[1991]], the UN Secretary-General reported the following to the UN Security Council:
<blockquote>
<p>That Iraq's explanations do not appear sufficient or acceptable to the international community is a fact. Accordingly, the outstanding event under the violations referred to is the attack of [[22 September]] [[1980]], against Iran, which cannot be justified under the charter of the United Nations, any recognized rules and principles of international law or any principles of international morality and entails the responsibility for the conflict.
<p>Even if before the outbreak of the conflict there had been some encroachment by Iran on Iraqi territory, such encroachment did not justify Iraq's aggression against Iran—which was followed by Iraq's continuous occupation of Iranian territory during the conflict—in violation of the prohibition of the use of force, which is regarded as one of the rules of jus cogens.
<p>On one occasion I had to note with deep regret the experts' conclusion that "chemical weapons ha[d] been used against Iranian civilians in an area adjacent to an urban centre lacking any protection against that kind of attack" (s/20134, annex). The Council expressed its dismay on the matter and its condemnation in resolution 620 (1988), adopted on [[26 August]] [[1988]].
</blockquote>
==List of successful Iranian operations during the war==
#[[27 September]] [[1981]]: ''Operation Thamen-ol-A'emeh''.
#[[29 November]] [[1981]]: ''Operation Tarigh ol-Qods''.
#[[21 March]] [[1982]]: ''Operation Fath-ol-Mobeen''.
#[[30 April]] [[1982]]: ''Operation Beit-ol-Moqaddas''.
#[[14 July]] [[1982]]: ''Operation Ramadhan''.
#[[9 April]] [[1983]]: ''Operation Valfajr-1''.
#[[19 October]] [[1983]]: ''Operation Valfajr-4''.
#[[22 February]] [[1984]]: ''Operation Kheibar''.
#[[10 March]] [[1985]]: ''Operation Badr''.
#[[9 February]] [[1986]]: ''Operation Valfajr-8''.
#[[2 June]] [[1986]]: ''Operation Karbala-1''.
#[[1 September]] [[1986]]: ''Operation Karbala-2''.
#[[9 January]] [[1986]]: ''Operation Karbala-5''.
#[[21 June]] [[1987]]: ''Operation Nasr 4''.
#[[16 March]] [[1988]]: ''Operation Valfajr-10''.
#[[27 July]] [[1988]]: ''Operation Mersad''.
==References==
* Martsching, Brad. "[http://www.american.edu/ted/ice/iraniraq.htm Iran-Iraq War and Waterway Claims]," [[American University]] Inventory of Conflict & Environment, May 1998.
* [[Center for Strategic and International Studies]]: [http://www.csis.org/burke/reports/9005lessonsiraniraqII-chap01.pdf ''The Lessons of Modern War: Volume Two - The Iran-Iraq Conflict''], with Abraham R. Wagner, Westview, Boulder, 1990.
* Center for Strategic and International Studies: [http://www.csis.org/burke/sa/iranwmdbackground032700.pdf ''Weapons of Mass Destruction in Iran and Iraq ''], [[March 27]] [[2000]].
* GlobalSecurity.org: [http://www.globalsecurity.org/military/world/war/iran-iraq.htm Iran-Iraq War (1980-1988)]
* The Iran-Iraq war: the politics of aggression. Farhang Rajaee. Gainesville : University Press of Florida, 1993.
* UN Secretary General report to the UNSC: [http://www.irna.com/occasion/defence/english/un/page1.pdf p1] [http://www.irna.com/occasion/defence/english/un/page2.pdf p2] * [http://www.irna.com/occasion/defence/english/un/page3.pdf p3].
* [[United States Marine Corps]]: [http://www.fas.org/man/dod-101/ops/war/docs/3203/ FMFRP 3-203 - Lessons Learned: Iran-Iraq War, [[10 December]] [[1990]]].
* Saddām Husayn. 'Address given'. Baghdād, Voice of the Masses in Arabic, 1200 GMT 02 April 1980. FBIS-MEA-80-066. 03 April 1980, E2-3.
*D. Hiro. The Longest War''. 1991. ISBN 0-415-90406-4
*[http://www.historyguy.com/wars_of_iraq.html A list of Iraq's wars and conflicts.]
==See also==
*[[Iran-Israel relations]]
*[[US-Iran relations]]
*[[Battle of al-Qādisiyyah]]
*[[History of Iran]]
*[[History of Iraq]]
*[[Al-Faw Peninsula]]
*[[Frans Van Anraat]]
*[[Mostafa Chamran]], Minister of Defense killed during the Iran-Iraq war.
*[[Saddam's Trial and Iran-Iraq War|Saddam's trial and Iran-Iraq War]]
*[[Arms sales to Iraq 1973-1990]]
*[[Operation Prime Chance]], the United State's involvement
*[[Iran Ajr]], the minelaying ship captured by the U.S.
==External links and further reading==
{{wikisourcecat|Iran-Iraq War}}
* [http://www.ogrish.com/archives/footage_from_iraniraq_war_Oct_06_2005.html Video footage from the war]
*[http://www.rotten.com/library/history/war/wmd/chemical-weapons/nerve-agents/ Iraqi nerve agents]
*Paul Reynolds. [http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/middle_east/3324053.stm How Saddam could embarrass the West], ''BBC'', [[December 16]] [[2003]]. (regarding foreign powers which armed Iraq)
*[http://users.erols.com/mwhite28/iraniraq.htm Global map of countries who took sides in the Iran-Iraq war]
*Kendal Nezan. [http://mondediplo.com/1998/03/04iraqkn When our 'friend' Saddam was gassing people], [[Le Monde Diplomatique]], March 1998.
*[[Robert Fisk]]. [http://www.zmag.org/hussein.htm Poison gas from Germany], [[The Independent]], [[December 30]] [[2000]].
*Lev Lafayette. [http://www.hartford-hwp.com/archives/51/040.html Who armed Saddam?], ''World History Archives'', [[July 26]] [[2002]].
*Norm Dixon. [http://www.greenleft.org.au/back/2002/506/506p12.htm How the U.S. armed Saddam with Chemical Weapons], ''Green Left Weekly'', [[August 28]] [[2002]].
*Neil Mackay, F. Arbuthnot. [http://www.commondreams.org/headlines02/0908-08.htm How did Saddam get his Chemical Weapons?], [[Sunday Herald]], [[September 8]] [[2002]].
*[http://www.fas.org/irp/congress/2002_cr/s092002.html U.S. helped Saddam acquire Biological Weapons], ''Congressional Record'', [[September 20]] [[2002]].
*[[Eric Margolis]]. [http://www.mtholyoke.edu/acad/intrel/bush/margolis.htm British helped Saddam develop biological weapons], [[The American Conservative]], [[October 7]] [[2002]].
*[[Robert Fisk]]. [http://www.zmag.org/content/showarticle.cfm?SectionID=15&ItemID=2442 America wants us to forget about the sources of Saddam's WMD], [[The Independent]], [[October 8]] [[2002]].
*Robert Fisk. [http://www.robert-fisk.com/articles154.htm Did Saddam's army test poison gas on missing 5000?], [[The Independent]], [[December 13]] [[2002]].
*Elaine Sciolino. [http://www.commondreams.org/headlines03/0213-05.htm Iraq WMD condemned, but West once looked the other way], [[New York Times]], [[February 13]] [[2003]].
*Paul Bond. [http://www.wsws.org/articles/2003/mar2003/chem-m13.shtml British built Chemical Weapons plant in Iraq], ''World Socialist Web Site'', [[March 13]] [[2003]].
*Tom Drury. [http://72.14.207.104/search?q=cache:h2KzqQZl1ToJ:www.sptimes.com/2003/03/16/news_pf/Perspective/How_Iraq_built_its_we.shtml+St.+Petersburg+Times+tom+drury+16+2003&hl=en&lr=&strip=1 How Iraq built its weapons programs: with help from the West], [[St. Petersburg Times]], March 16, 2003.
*[http://www.fas.org/nuke/guide/iraq/cw/az120103.html Iraqi scientist reports on German, other help for Iraq Chemical Weapons program], ''Al-Zaman'', [[December 1]] [[2003]].
*Elaine Sciolino. [http://www.informationclearinghouse.info/article1420.htm Saddam's gas victims blame the West], ''New York Times'', [[February 14]] [[2003]].
*Eddie Davers. [http://members.optushome.com.au/spainter/Murdoch.html Australia's support for Saddam in the 1980s], ''Overland'', Autumn 2003.
*Alan Maass. [http://www.socialistworker.org/2004-1/480/480_05_SaddamHussein.shtml When the U.S. supported Saddam: The crimes of a U.S. ally], ''Socialist Worker'', January 2, 2004.
*Joseph Kay, A. Lefebvre. [http://www.wsws.org/articles/2004/mar2004/iraq-m19.shtml The diplomacy of imperialism: Washington-Saddam connection], ''World Socialist Web Site'', [[March 19]] [[2004]].
*Alex Lefebvre. [http://www.wsws.org/articles/2004/mar2004/iraq-m24.shtml The diplomacy of imperialism: Reagan administration deepens ties with Saddam], ''World Socialist Web Site'', [[March 24]] [[2004]].
*Alex Lefebvre. [http://www.wsws.org/articles/2004/mar2004/iraq-m26.shtml The diplomacy of imperialism: U.S. financial assistance for Saddam in the 1980s], ''World Socialist Web Site'', [[March 26]] [[2004]].
*Joseph Kay. [http://www.wsws.org/articles/2004/mar2004/irq8-m29.shtml The diplomacy of imperialism: The end of the Iran-Iraq war], ''World Socialist Web Site'', [[March 29]] [[2004]].
*Joseph Kay, A. Lefebvre. [http://www.wsws.org/articles/2004/apr2004/irq9-a02.shtml The diplomacy of imperialism: American policy after the Iran-Iraq war], ''World Socialist Web Site'', [[April 2]] [[2004]].
*[[Robert Fisk]]. [http://www.robert-fisk.com/articles394.htm When I reported Saddam's use of mustard gas, British government told me to stop criticizing our ally, Saddam], [[The Independent]], [[April 10]] [[2004]].
*Norm Dixon. [http://counterpunch.org/dixon06172004.html How Reagan armed Saddam with Chemical Weapons], ''CounterPunch'', [[June 17]] [[2004]].
*Jacob Hornberger. [http://www.fff.org/comment/com0406g.asp Reagan’s WMD connection to Saddam], ''Future of Freedom Foundation'', [[June 18]] [[2004]].
*Aaron Glantz. [http://www.globalpolicy.org/intljustice/tribunals/iraq/2004/0618west.htm The West should go on trial with Saddam], [[Inter Press Service]], [[June 18]] [[2004]].
*[http://www.payvand.com/news/04/jun/1199.html 100,000 Iranians are victims of chemical weapons, supplied by the West], [[IRNA]], June 30, 2004.
*[[Eric Margolis]]. [http://www.bigeye.com/fc122004.htm Put Saddam's backers on trial], ''Foreign Correspondent'', [[December 20]] [[2004]].
*[http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/world/middle_east/4360137.stm Dutchman charged for selling chemicals to Saddam], [[BBC]], March 18, 2005.
*[http://72.14.207.104/search?q=cache:pLDvnuglYNwJ:www.irna.ir/en/news/view/menu-236/0512019282195123.htm+December+01+2005+Vienna+Dec+1+IRNA+testify&hl=en&lr=&strip=1 Iranian survivors of nerve gas attack testify in Chemical Frans' trial], [[IRNA]], December 1, 2005.
*[http://72.14.207.104/search?q=cache:UaBS4eRo6wgJ:www.iranmania.com/News/ArticleView/Default.asp%3FNewsCode%3D38327%26NewsKind%3DCurrent%2520Affairs+LONDON+December+3+IranMania&hl=en&lr=&strip=1 Dutchman know the chemicals were for nerve agents], [[Agence France-Presse]], December 3, 2005.
*[http://www.trial-ch.org/trialwatch/profiles/en/legalprocedures/p286.html Trial Watch: Frans Van Anraat]
*[http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/world/middle_east/4358741.stm Chemical Frans: Saddam's Dutch link], [[BBC]], December 23, 2005.
*Jeff Moore. [http://www.bnfp.org/neighborhood/jmoore.htm Saddam: Made in the USA], ''Bainbridge Neighbors for Peace''.
*[http://www.gwu.edu/~nsarchiv/NSAEBB/NSAEBB82 Shaking hands with Saddam: U.S. supports for Iraq in the 1980s], ''U.S. National Security Archive''.
*[http://www.sc-ems.com/ems/NuclearBiologicalChemical/MedicalAspectsofNBC/chapters/chapter_7.htm A report on Iranian victims of Iraqi blister agents], ''Medical Management of Chemical Casualties''
====Iranian sources====
* John King. [http://www.iranchamber.com/history/articles/arming_iraq.php Arming Iraq: A Chronology of U.S. Involvement], ''Iran Chamber Society'', March 2003.
* [http://www.jao.ir/ Iran Veterans Affairs Organization]
* [http://www.iranian.com/Revolution/war.html Memoirs, photos, and essays about the war], ''Iranian.com''.
* [http://www.janbazanesfahan.ir/ Isfahan's War Veterans Foundation]
* [[Islamic Republic News Agency]], [http://www.irna.com/occasion/defence/ ''Sacred Defense Epic'']
* [http://www.avini.com/ Martyr Avini's website]. A prominent photographer of the war.
[[Category:Wars of Iran]]
[[Category:Wars of Iraq]]
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{{Link FA|no}}
[[ar:حرب الخليج الأولى]]
[[de:Erster Golfkrieg]]
[[es:Guerra Irán-Iraq]]
[[fr:Guerre Iran-Iraq]]
[[hr:Iračko-iranski rat]]
[[is:Stríð Íraks og Írans]]
[[it:Guerra Iran-Iraq]]
[[he:מלחמת איראן-עיראק]]
[[nl:Iran-Irak-oorlog]]
[[ja:イラン・イラク戦争]]
[[no:Iran–Irak-krigen]]
[[pl:Wojna iracko-irańska]]
[[pt:Guerra Irã-Iraque]]
[[ru:Ирано-иракская война]]
[[sk:Iránsko-iracká vojna]]
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Isambard Kingdom Brunel
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{{featured article}}
[[Image:IKBrunelChains.jpg|thumb|right|250px|Brunel before the launching of the ''[[SS Great Eastern|Great Eastern]]''.]]
'''Isambard Kingdom Brunel''' ([[April 9]], [[1806]] – [[September 15]], [[1859]]), [[Royal Society|FRS]] was a [[British]] [[engineer]]. Voted the second greatest Briton of all time in a [[2002]] [[BBC]] poll (after [[Winston Churchill]]),<ref>BBC News [http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/entertainment/tv_and_radio/2509465.stm Churchill voted greatest Briton] Retrieved Feb. 11, 2006.</ref> he is best known for the creation of the [[Great Western Railway]], a series of famous [[steamship]]s, and numerous important [[bridge]]s. Though his projects were not always successful, they often contained innovative solutions to long-standing engineering problems. During his short career, Brunel achieved many engineering "firsts", including the building of the first [[tunnel]] under a [[navigable river]] and development of the first [[propeller]]-driven steamship, which was at the time also the largest ship ever built.<ref>Humphreys, Rob. ''The Rough Guide To London'', Rough Guides, 2003. ISBN 1843530937</ref>.
Brunel was a heavy [[cigar]] smoker and suffered several years of ill health with [[kidney]] problems, before succumbing to a [[stroke]] at the age of fifty-three.<ref>Smith, John. ''Troubled It Projects: Prevention and Turnaround'', IEE, 2001. ISBN 0852961049</ref>
A major programme of events celebrating the life and work of Brunel is planned for the bicentenary of his birth under the name ''Brunel 200''.<ref>Brunel 200 [http://www.brunel200.com Brunel 200 website] Retrieved Feb. 21, 2006.</ref> Brunel is also to be featured on the reverse side of the [[British two pound coin|£2 coin]] in the UK to commemorate the same anniversary.<ref>British Royal Mint [http://www.royalmint.com/RoyalMint/web/site/PackedSets/UKIB2BP.asp?pg=1&orderby=release 2006 Brunel £2 Two-Coin] Retrieved Feb. 21, 2006.</ref>
==Early Life==
The son of noted engineer [[Sir]] [[Marc Isambard Brunel]] and Sophia Brunel ''née'' Kingdom, Isambard K. Brunel was born in [[Portsmouth]], [[England]], on [[April 9]], [[1806]].<ref>Brunel University [http://www.brunel.ac.uk/about/history/ikb History : Isambard Kingdom Brunel] Retrieved Feb. 20, 2006.</ref> His father was working there on the block-making machinery for the [[Portsmouth Block Mills]]. At 14 the young Brunel was sent to [[France]] to be educated at the the [[Lycée Henri-Quatre]] in [[Paris]] and later, the [[University of Caen]] in [[Normandy]].<ref name=3ships>Dumpleton. ''Brunel's Three Ships'', Intellect Books, 2002. ISBN 1841508004</ref>
Isambard rose to prominence when, aged 20, he was appointed as the chief engineer of his father's greatest achievement, the [[Thames Tunnel]], which runs beneath the river between [[Rotherhithe]] and [[Wapping]]. The first major sub-river tunnel ever built, it succeeded where other attempts had failed thanks to Marc Brunel's ingenious [[tunnelling shield]] – the human-powered forerunner of today's mighty tunnelling machines – which protected workers from cave-in by placing them within a protective casing. Marc Brunel had been inspired to create the shield after observing the habits and anatomy of the [[shipworm]] (''Teredo navalis''). Most modern tunnels are cut in this way, notably the [[Channel Tunnel]] between England and France.<ref>West, Graham. ''Innovation and the Rise of the Tunnelling Industry'', Cambridge University Press, 1988. ISBN 0521335124</ref>
Brunel established his Design Offices at 17-18 Duke Street, London, and he lived with his family in the rooms above.<ref>Mendelssohn-Bartholdy, Felix; Mendelssohn, Cecille; Ward, Jones. ''The 1837 Diary of Felix and Cecille Mendelssohn Bartholdy'', Oxford University Press, 1997. ISBN 0198165978</ref> [[R.P. Brereton]], who became his chief assistant in 1845, was in charge of the office in Brunel's absence, and also took direct responsibility for major construction activities such as the Royal Albert Bridge as Brunel's health declined.
==The Thames Tunnel==
[[Image:ThamesTunnelFromWapping.jpg|thumb|250px|The [[Thames Tunnel]] in 2005, now part of the [[London Underground]] [[East London Line]] between [[Rotherhithe]] and [[Wapping]].]]
{{main|Thames Tunnel|the Thames Tunnel}}
Isambard worked for nearly two years to create a tunnel under [[London|London's]] [[River Thames]], with operatives driving a horizontal shaft from one side of the river to the other under the most difficult and dangerous conditions. Brunel's father, Marc, was the chief engineer, and the project was funded by the Thames Tunnel Company. The composition of the Thames river bed at Rotherhithe was often little more than waterlogged sediment and loose gravel, and although the extreme conditions proved the ingenuity of Brunel's tunnelling machine, the work was hard and hazardous. <ref>Aaseng, Nathan. ''Construction : Building The Impossible'', The Oliver Press, Inc., 1999. ISBN 1881508595</ref>
The tunnel was often in imminent danger of collapse due to the instability of the river bed, yet the management decided to allow spectators to be lowered down to observe the diggings at a [[shilling]] a time. For the workers the building of the tunnel was particularly unpleasant because the Thames at that time was still little better than an open sewer, so the tunnel was usually awash with foul-smelling, contaminated water. Further complications occurred because the [[superstition|superstitious]] Irish [[navvies]] would frequently extinguish the lights if they feared that a breach was going to occur, believing that the leaking water could not find them in the darkness.<ref>Shelton Kirby, Richard. ''Engineering in History'', Courier Dover Publications, 1990. ISBN 0486264122</ref>
Two severe incidents of flooding halted work for long periods, killing several workers and badly injuring the younger Brunel. The latter incident, in 1828, killed Collins and Ball, the two most senior miners, and Brunel himself narrowly escaped death; a water break-in hurled him from a tunnelling platform, knocking him unconscious, and he was washed up to the other end of the tunnel by the surge. As the water rose, by luck he was carried up a service stairway, where he was plucked from almost certain death by an assistant moments before the surge receded. Brunel was seriously hurt (and never fully recovered from his injuries), and the event ended work on the tunnel for several years.<ref name=3ships>Dumpleton. ''Brunel's Three Ships'', Intellect Books, 2002. ISBN 1841508004</ref>
Nonetheless, the first underwater tunnel had been built, and is still in operation on the [[London Underground]] [[East London Line]] between [[Rotherhithe]] and [[Wapping]].<ref>UK Government - Transport for London [http://www.tfl.gov.uk/tube/company/history/early-years.asp London Underground History - The Early Years] Retrieved Feb. 18, 2006.</ref>
==Bridges==
[[Image:Clifton.bridge.arp.750pix.jpg|thumb|right|250px|The [[Clifton Suspension Bridge]] spans the [[Avon Gorge]], linking [[Clifton]] in [[Bristol]] to [[Leigh Woods]] in North [[Somerset]].]][[Image:Saltashrab.jpg|thumb|right|250px|The [[Royal Albert Bridge]], seen from [[Saltash railway station]].]]
Brunel's earliest solo engineering feats started with bridges – the [[Royal Albert Bridge]] spanning the [[River Tamar]] at [[Saltash]] near [[Plymouth]], and an unusual timber-framed bridge near [[Bridgwater]].<ref>Billington, David P. ''Tower and the Bridge'', Princeton University Press, 1985. ISBN 069102393X</ref>
Built in 1838, the Maidenhead Railway Bridge over the Thames in [[Berkshire]] remains the flattest, widest brick arch bridge in the world and is still carrying main line trains to the south west. There are two arches, with each span totalling 128 [[foot (unit of length)|ft]] (39 [[metre|m]]), having a rise of only 24 ft (7 m), and a width that carries four tracks. There remains an older bridge nearby which is not to be confused with Brunel's bridge - the Maidenhead Road Bridge. Built in 1280 and rebuilt in 1777, it spans the same section of river but relies on twelve arches.
The Royal Albert bridge was designed in 1855 for the [[Cornwall Railway]] Company after [[Parliament of the United Kingdom|Parliament]] rejected his original plan for a train [[ferry]] across the [[Hamoaze]] - the estuary of the tidal [[River Tamar|Tamar]], [[River Tavy|Tavy]] and [[River Lynher|Lynher]]. The bridge consists of two main spans of 455 ft (139 m), 100 ft (30 m) above mean high spring [[tide]], plus seventeen much shorter approach spans. Opened by [[Prince Albert of Saxe-Coburg-Gotha|Prince Albert]] on [[May 2]], [[1859]], it was completed the year of the great engineer's death.
However, he is perhaps best remembered for the [[Clifton Suspension Bridge]] in Bristol. Spanning over 700 ft (213 m) in width, and nominally 200 ft (61 m) over the [[River Avon]] below, it was the longest bridge in the world at the time of conception. Brunel submitted four designs to a committee headed by [[Thomas Telford]] and gained approval to commence with the project. Afterwards, Brunel wrote to his brother-in-law, the politician [[Benjamin Hawes]]: "Of all the wonderful feats I have performed, since I have been in this part of the world, I think yesterday I performed the most wonderful. I produced unanimity among 15 men who were all quarrelling about that most ticklish subject – taste." He did not live to see it built, although his colleagues and admirers at the [[Institution of Civil Engineers]] felt the bridge would be a fitting memorial, and started to raise new funds and to amend the design. Work started in 1862 and was complete in 1864, five years after Brunel's death.<ref>BBC History [http://www.bbc.co.uk/history/society_culture/industrialisation/brunel_isambard_01.shtml Brunel: 'The Practical Prophet of Technological Innovation' by Professor G Ross Peters] Retrieved Feb. 17, 2006.</ref>
As of 2006, there is the possibility that several of Brunel's bridges on the Great Western Raiway may be demolished, because newer rail lines that travel beneath the arches are set to be electrified. South Buckinghamshire County Council is petitioning to have further options pursued, in order that all nine of the historic remaining bridges on the line can remain.<ref>Bucks CC [http://www.buckscc.gov.uk/archaeology/brunel_bridges_news.htm Brunel’s Bridges under threat] Retrieved Feb. 22, 2006.</ref><ref>UK Govt. Dept. for Culture, Media and Sport [http://www.culture.gov.uk/global/publications/archive_1999/World_Heritage_Sites+.htm World Heritage Sites: The Tentative List of the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Northern Ireland] Retrieved Feb. 22, 2006.</ref>
== The Great Western Railway ==
[[Image:Paddington Station.jpg|thumb|right|250px|[[Paddington Station]], still a mainline station, was the [[London]] [[terminus]] of the [[Great Western Railway]].]]
{{main|Great Western Railway|the Great Western Railway}}
In 1833 before the Thames Tunnel was complete, Brunel was appointed chief engineer of the [[Great Western Railway]], one of the wonders of [[Victorian era|Victorian]] Britain, running from [[London]] to [[Bristol]] (and finally [[Exeter, England|Exeter]]).<ref>Garrison, Ervan G. ''A History of Engineering and Technology'', CRC Press, 1998. ISBN 084939810X</ref> The Company was founded at a public meeting in [[Bristol]] in 1833, and was incorporated by [[Act of Parliament]] in 1835. Isambard made two controversial decisions: to use a [[broad gauge]] of 7 ft (actually 7 ft 0.25 [[inch|in]] or 2140 [[millimetre|mm]]) for the track, which he believed would offer superior running at high speeds; and to take a route which passed north of the [[Marlborough Downs]], an area with no significant towns, though it did offer potential connections to [[Oxford, England|Oxford]] and [[Gloucester, England|Gloucester]] and then to follow the [[Thames|Thames Valley]] into London. His decision to use the broad gauge for the line was controversial in that almost all British railways to date had used the {{standard gauge}} [[standard gauge]]. Brunel said that this was nothing more than a carry-over from the mine railways that [[George Stephenson]] had worked on prior to making the world's first passenger railway. Brunel worked out through mathematics and a series of trials that his broader gauge was the optimum railway size for providing stability and a comfortable ride to passengers (in addition to allowing for bigger carriages and more freight capacity).<ref>Oliivier, J. ''The Broad Gauge the Banc of the Great Western Railway Company'', 1846</ref> He surveyed the entire length of the route between London and Bristol himself.
The initial group of locomotives ordered by Brunel to his own specifications proved unsatisfactory, apart from the [[GWR Star Class|North Star locomotive]], and 20-year-old [[Daniel Gooch]] (later Sir) was appointed as Superintendent of [[Locomotive]]s. Brunel and Gooch chose to locate their [[Swindon railway works|locomotive works]] at the village of [[Swindon]], at the point where the gradual ascent from London turned into the steeper descent to the [[River Avon, Bristol|Avon]] valley at [[Bath]]. Drawing on his experience with the Thames Tunnel, the Great Western contained a series of impressive achievements – soaring viaducts, specially designed stations, and vast tunnels including the famous [[Box Tunnel]], which was the longest railway tunnel in the world at that time.<ref name=3ships>Dumpleton. ''Brunel's Three Ships'', Intellect Books, 2002. ISBN 1841508004</ref> Brunel's achievements ignited the imagination of the technically minded Britons of the age, and he soon became one of the most famous men in the country on the back of this interest.
There is an anecdote which states that Box Tunnel is placed such that the sun shines all the way through it on Brunel's birthday. For more information, see the entry on the tunnel.<ref>Williams, Archibald. ''The Romance of Modern Locomotion'', C. A. Pearson Ltd., 1904.</ref>
After Brunel's death the decision was taken that the [[standard gauge]] should be used for all railways in the country. Despite the Great Western's claim of proof that its broad gauge was the better (disputed by at least one Brunel historian), the decision was made to go with Stephenson's narrow gauge – mainly because this had already covered a far greater amount of the country. In any event, by May 1892 (when the broad gauge was abolished) the Great Western had already been relaid to "[[dual gauge]]" (both broad and narrow) and so the transition was a relatively painless one.<ref name=3ships>Dumpleton. ''Brunel's Three Ships'', Intellect Books, 2002. ISBN 1841508004</ref>
== Brunel's "atmospheric caper" ==
[[Image:Brunel's_Atmospheric_Railway.jpg|thumb|right|250px|The remains of Brunel's atmospheric railway at [[Didcot Railway Centre]]]]
Another of Brunel's interesting though ultimately unsuccessful technical innovations was the [[atmospheric railway]], the extension of the GWR southward from Exeter towards [[Plymouth, England|Plymouth]] (technically the South Devon Railway (SDR), though supported by the GWR). Instead of using [[locomotive]]s, the trains were moved by Clegg and Samuda's patented system of atmospheric ([[vacuum]]) traction, whereby [[piston|pistons]] sucked air from the tunnel. The section from Exeter to Newton (now [[Newton Abbot]]) was completed on this principle, with pistons spaced every two miles, and trains ran at approximately 20 [[miles per hour]] (32 [[km/h]]).<ref name=3ships>Dumpleton. ''Brunel's Three Ships'', Intellect Books, 2002. ISBN 1841508004</ref>. Fifteen-inch (381 mm) pipes were used on the level portions, and 22-inch (559 mm) pipes were intended for the steeper gradients. Unfortunately, the technology required the use of leather flaps to seal the vacuum pipes. The leather had to be kept supple by the use of [[tallow]], and tallow is attractive to [[rat]]s; the result was inevitable – the flaps were eaten, and air-powered vacuum service lasted less than a year, from 1847 (experimental services began in September; operationally from February 1848) to September 10, 1848.<ref>Parkin, Jim. ''Engineering Judgement and Risk'', Thomas Telford (publishers), 2000. ISBN 0727728733</ref> The accounts of the SDR for 1848 suggest that the atmospheric traction cost 3s 1d per mile (£0.10/km) compared to 1s 4d (£0.04/km) for conventional steam power. The pumping station at [[Starcross]], on the estuary of the [[River Exe]], remains a striking landmark, and a reminder of the atmospheric railway – which is also commemorated as the name of the village [[pub]]. A section of the pipe, without the leather covers, is preserved in [http://www.didcotrailwaycentre.org.uk/ Didcot Railway Centre].
==Transatlantic shipping==
[[Image:Great eastern launch attempt.jpg|thumb|right|250px|SS ''Great Eastern'' shortly before its launching, 1858.]]
Even before the Great Western Railway was opened, Brunel was moving on to his next project – [[transatlantic]] shipping. He used his prestige to convince his railway company employers to build the ''[[SS Great Western|Great Western]]'', at the time by far the largest steamship in the world. She first sailed in 1837. She was 236 ft (72 m) long, built of wood, and powered by sail and paddlewheels. Her first return trip to [[New York]] took just 29 days, compared to two months for an average sail ship. In total, 74 crossings to New York were made. The ''[[SS Great Britain|Great Britain]]'' followed in 1843; much larger at 322 ft (98 m) long, it was the first iron-hulled, propeller-driven ship to cross the [[Atlantic Ocean]].<ref>Lienhard, John H. ''The Engines of Our Ingenuity'', Oxford University Press US, 2003. ISBN 0195167317</ref>
Building on these successes, Brunel turned to a third ship in 1852, even larger than both of its predecessors, and intended for voyages to India and Australia. The ''[[SS Great Eastern|Great Eastern]]'' (originally dubbed ''[[Leviathan]]'') was cutting-edge technology for its time: almost 700 ft (213 m) long, fitted out with the most luxurious appointments and capable of carrying over 4,000 passengers. It was the first ship that was able to cruise under it's own power non-stop from London to New York, and it remained the largest ship built until the turn of the century. Like many of Brunel's ambitious projects, the ship soon ran over budget and behind schedule in the face of a series of momentous technical problems.<ref name=3ships>Dumpleton. ''Brunel's Three Ships'', Intellect Books, 2002. ISBN 1841508004</ref>
The ship has been portrayed as a [[white elephant]], but it can be argued that in this case Brunel's failure was principally one of economics – his ships were simply years ahead of their time. His vision and engineering innovations made the building of large-scale, screw-driven, all-metal steamships a practical reality, but the prevailing economic and industrial conditions meant that it would be several decades before transoceanic steamship travel emerged as a viable industry. Though a failure at its original purpose of passenger travel, it eventually found a role as an oceanic telegraph cable-layer, and the ''Great Eastern'' remains one of the most important vessels in the history of shipbuilding - the [[Trans-Atlantic cable]] had been laid, which meant that Europe and America now had a [[telecommunications]] link.<ref name=3ships>Dumpleton. ''Brunel's Three Ships'', Intellect Books, 2002. ISBN 1841508004</ref>
==Illnesses and death of Brunel==
[[Image:Isambard Kingdom Brunel - Bronze - Temple - London.jpg|thumb|250px|right|Bronze statue of Brunel at [[Temple]] in London.]]
In 1843, while performing a [[conjuring trick]] for the amusement of his children, Brunel accidentally inhaled a [[half-sovereign]] coin which became lodged in his windpipe. A special pair of [[forceps]] failed to remove it, as did a machine to shake it loose devised by Brunel himself. Eventually, at the suggestion of Sir Marc, Isambard was strapped to a board and turned upside-down, and the coin was jerked free.<ref>Dyer, T.F. Thiselton. ''Strange Pages from Family Papers 1900'', Kessinger Publishing, 2003. ISBN 0766153460</ref>
Brunel suffered a [[stroke]] in 1859, just before the ''Great Eastern'' made its first voyage to [[New York]]. He died ten days later at the age of 53 and was buried, like his father, at [[Kensal Green Cemetery]] in London.<ref>Kempton, A; Rennison, Robert William; CoxHumphreys, Rob. ''Biographical Dictionary of Civil Engineers in Great Britain and Ireland v. 1 1500-1830'', Thomas Telford (publishers), 2002. ISBN 072772939X</ref> He left behind his wife, Mary; and son [[Henri Marc Brunel]], who also enjoyed some success as a [[civil engineer]].
==Legacy==
Many monuments to Brunel exist, from the statue at [[Temple]] in [[London]] (pictured) and a further statue at the capital's [[Paddington station]], to the flagpole of the Great Eastern at the entrance to [[Liverpool FC]]. Contemporary locations bear Brunel's name, such as [[Brunel University]] in London, and a collection of streets in [[Exeter]]: Isambard Terrace, Kingdom Mews, and Brunel Close. A road and school in his home town of Portsmouth are also named in his honour, along with the town's largest ''Wetherspoons'' pub. Although not of any real architectural merit, the Brunel shopping centre in [[Bletchley, Milton Keynes]], is also named after Brunel.
Most of Brunel's bridges are still in use, either as rail routes or converted to motor traffic. The Thames Tunnel is now part of the [[London Underground]], and the [[Brunel Engine House]] at Rotherhithe that once housed the steam engines that powered the tunnel pumps still stands – as a museum dedicated to the work and lives of Marc and Isambard Kingdom Brunel.
Many of Brunel's original papers and designs are now held in the [http://www.bris.ac.uk/is/services/specialcollections/brunel.html Brunel collection] at the [[University of Bristol]].
In 1975, noted British animator [[Bob Godfrey]] was awarded an [[Oscar]] for his short ''Great'', an irreverent look at Brunel and his times.
Brunel was included in the top 10 of the heavily publicised ''[[100 Greatest Britons]]'' TV poll conducted by the [[BBC]] and voted for by the public. In the second round of voting, which concluded on [[November 24]] [[2002]], Brunel placed second behind [[Winston Churchill]]. The building of the ''Great Eastern'' was also dramatised in an episode of the recent [[BBC]] TV series ''[[Seven Wonders of the Industrial World]]'' (2003).
{{Isambard Kingdom Brunel timeline}}
==See also==
*[[Bristol Temple Meads railway station]]
*[[Chepstow Bridge]]
*[[Hungerford Bridge]]
*[[Maidenhead Railway Bridge]]
*[[Taff Vale Railway]]
==Notes and References==
<div style="font-size: 85%">
<references/>
</div>
==External links==
*[http://en.structurae.de/persons/data/index.cfm?id=d000002 Structurae: Isambard Kingdom Brunel]
*[http://www.designmuseum.org/design/index.php?id=99 Design Museum - British Council]]
*[http://www.whoosh.care4free.net/brunel%27s.htm The Atmospheric Railway]
==Further reading==
*[[L. T. C. Rolt]] <cite>Isambard Kingdom Brunel</cite> ISBN 058210744X, ISBN 0140079866, ISBN 0140117520 ([http://books.fantasticfiction.co.uk/x0/x1445.htm?authorid=2462 Fantasticfiction])
*R. Angus Buchanan ''Brunel:The Life and Times of Isambard Kingdom Brunel'', Hambledon and London, 2002, 294pp, 22pl and 11 text illus, ISBN 1-85285-331-X
*Adrian Vaughan ''Isambard Kingdom Brunel: Engineering Knight-Errant'', John Murray, 1991, ISBN 0-7195-4636-2
*Nick Walters ''Reckless Engineering'', BBC Books, ISBN 0-563-48603-1
*Steven Brindle <cite>Paddington Station: Its history and architecture</cite> , English Heritage, 2004, ISBN 1-873592-70-1
*Andrew Mathewson and Derek Laval <cite>Brunel's Tunnel... and where it led</cite>, Brunel Exhibition Rotherhithe, 1992, ISBN 0-9504361-1-9
[[Category:1806 births|Brunel, Isambard Kingdom]]
[[Category:1859 deaths|Brunel, Isambard Kingdom]]
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[[Category:British civil engineers|Brunel, Isambard Kingdom]]
[[Category:English architects|Brunel, Isambard Kingdom]]
[[Category:English inventors|Brunel, Isambard Kingdom]]
[[Category:Fellows of the Royal Society|Brunel, Isambard Kingdom]]
[[Category:Marine engineers and naval architects|Brunel, Isambard Kingdom]]
[[Category:People buried in Kensal Green Cemetery|Brunel, Isambard Kingdom]]
[[Category:Pioneers of rail transport|Brunel, Isambard Kingdom]]
[[bg:Айзъмбард Кингдъм Брънел]]
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[[ja:アイサムバード・キングダム・ブルネル]]
[[nl:Isambard Kingdom Brunel]]
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[[uk:Брунель Ісамбард Кіндом]]
Incremental reading
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'''Incremental reading''' subdivides a load of material into articles and its extracts. All articles and extracts are processed according to the rules of [[spaced repetition]]. This means that all processed pieces of information are presented at increasing intervals. Individual articles are read in portions proportional to the attention span, which depends on the user, his mood, the article, etc. The name "incremental" comes from "reading in portions". Without the use of spaced repetition, the reader would quickly get lost in the glut of information when studying dozens of subjects at the same time. However, spaced repetition makes it possible to retain traces of the processed material in memory. Incremental reading makes it possible to read hundreds of articles at the same time with a substantial gain to [[attention]]. For incremental reading to leave a permanent mark in [[long-term memory]], the processed material must be gradually converted into material based on [[active recall]]. This means that extracts such as "George Washington was the first U.S. President" must be changed to questions such as "Who was the first U.S. President?", "Who was George Washington?", etc.
{{psych-stub}}
[[Category:Learning]]
Intelligence quotient
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{{redirect|IQ}}
[[Image:6sigmaIQrange.png|thumb|350px|IQ tests are designed to give approximately [[normal distribution|normally distributed]] results, which causes a [[normal distribution|"bell curve"]] graph of IQ score frequency. Colors delineate one [[standard deviation]].]]
An '''intelligence quotient''' or '''IQ''' is a score derived from a set of [[standardized test]]s developed to measure a person's [[cognition|cognitive abilities]] ("[[intelligence (trait)|intelligence]]") in relation to their age group. An IQ test does not measure intelligence the way a ruler measures height (absolutely), but rather the way a [[racing|race]] measures speed (relatively).
For people living in the prevailing conditions of the developed world, IQ is highly [[heritability|heritable]], and by adulthood the influence of family environment on IQ is undetectable. IQ test scores are correlated with measures of brain structure and function, as well as performance on simple tasks that anyone can complete within a few seconds.
IQ is correlated with academic success; it can also predict important life outcomes such as job performance, socioeconomic advancement, and "social pathologies". Recent work has demonstrated links between IQ and health, longevity, and functional literacy.
==History==
Early attempts of mental tests were those of Sir Galton (1863) and James Cattell (1888). These tests were more physical tests than mental ones. Their importance was in developing the idea that one's IQ can be measured and is different from person to person. They also proposed normal distributions of mental tests results within a large population.
[[Alfred Binet]] and his colleague [[Theodore Simon]] created the '''Binet-Simon scale''' in [[1905]], which used testing to identify students who could benefit from extra help in school. Their assumption was that lower scores indicated the need for more teaching, not an inability to learn. This interpretation is still held by some modern experts.
Notably, Binet himself made ''no claim'' that his test properly measured intelligence. He stated in his paper ''New Methods for the Diagnosis of the Intellectual Level of Subnormals'' that
:"This scale properly speaking does not permit the measure of the intelligence, because intellectual qualities are not superposable, and therefore cannot be measured as linear surfaces are measured, but are on the contrary, a classification, a hierarchy among diverse intelligences; and for the necessities of practice this classification is equivalent to a measure." [http://psychclassics.yorku.ca/Binet/binet1.htm]
In [[1910]], [[Henry H. Goddard]] proposed three categories for the "feeble-minded" based on IQ scores: [[Moron (psychology)|moron]] (IQ of 51–70), [[imbecile]] (IQ of 26–50), and [[idiot]] (IQ of 0–25). This taxonomy was the standard of intelligence research for decades.
In [[1916]], [[Stanford University]] psychologist [[Lewis Terman]] released the "Stanford Revision of the Binet-Simon Scale", generally known as the '''[[Stanford-Binet test]]'''. This became the most commonly administered test for many decades. The term "intelligence quotient," in which each student's score was the quotient of his or her tested mental age with his or her actual age, was adopted by Terman from a [[1912]] proposal by German psychologist [[William Stern]]. This led to refined testing developed by [[Robert Yerkes]] for [[United States Army]] recruits.
Today, the most commonly administered IQ test is the '''[[Wechsler Intelligence Scale for Children|WISC-III]]''' test, originally developed by [[David Wechsler]] in 1974. The WISC-III test comprises ten types of problems, categorized by difficulty and by skill type (verbal and performance scales). A revised version, the WISC-IV, was released in 2003 and is used regularly in assessments. However, the interpretation of various combinations of subscales is still being researched. Another notable type of IQ test is the Bailey Scale of Infant Development, regarded as the 'best' means of testing cognitive development in infants.
Today, informal online IQ tests are popular, but they are at best rough approximations. The tests are not expert certified and notable limitations include a small number of questions and a lack of the time limit.
==IQ score distribution==
{| border="2" cellpadding="4" cellspacing="0" style="margin: 1em 1em 1em 0; border: 1px #aaa solid; border-collapse: collapse; font-size: 95%;" ALIGN="right"
|+ '''IQ score distribution'''
|- bgcolor=#ccccff
!IQ Range !! Percentile Range
|- bgcolor=E9E8FF
|Below 30 || 0 – 0.0002
|- bgcolor=#DFE0FF
|30 to 50 || 0.0002 – 0.04
|- bgcolor=E9E8FF
|50 to 60 || 0.04 – 0.4
|- bgcolor=#DFE0FF
|60 to 74 || 0.4 – 4
|- bgcolor=E9E8FF
|74 to 89 || 4 – 23
|- bgcolor=#DFE0FF
|89 to 100 || 23 – 50
|- bgcolor=E9E8FF
|100 to 111 || 50 – 77
|- bgcolor=#DFE0FF
|111 to 120 || 77 – 91
|- bgcolor=E9E8FF
|120 to 125 || 91 – 95
|- bgcolor=#DFE0FF
|125 to 132 || 95 – 98
|- bgcolor=E9E8FF
|132 to 137 || 98 – 99.3
|- bgcolor=#DFE0FF
|137 to 150 || 99.3 – 99.96
|- bgcolor=E9E8FF
|above 150 || 99.96 – 100
|}
IQ scores are expressed as a number normalized so that the average IQ in an age group is 100. In other words, an individual scoring 115 is above average when compared to people in the same age group. It is common practice to standardize so that the [[standard deviation]] (σ) of scores is 15, although some IQ tests use difference scales (for example, the Stanford Binet IQ test uses a standard deviation of 16, and the [[Cattell IIIB]] test uses a standard deviation of 24). Tests are designed so that the distribution of IQ scores is [[normal distribution|Gaussian]]; that is, it follows a [[bell curve]]. A difference has been documented between the IQ score distributions of left-handed and right-handed test subjects; the distribution in left-handed people tends to cluster at the two extremes of the IQ scale.<!--ref-->
(The following numbers apply to IQ scales standard deviation σ = 15.) Roughly 68% of the population has an IQ between 85 and 115. The "normal" range, or range between −2 and +2 standard deviations from the mean, is between 70 and 130, and contains about 95% of the population. An accurate score below 70 may indicate [[mental retardation]], and a score above 130 may indicate [[gifted|intellectual giftedness]]. Retardation may result from normal variation or from a genetic or developmental malady; analogously, some otherwise normal people are very short, and others have [[dwarfism]]. Giftedness appears to be normal variation; [[autistic savant|autistic savants]] have often astonishing cognitive powers but below-average IQ's.
It has been observed that scores outside the range 55 to 145 must be cautiously interpreted because there are smaller numbers of respondents with which to make comparisons in those ranges. Moreover, at such extreme values, the normal distribution is a less accurate estimate of the true IQ distribution.
In actuality there is a higher percentage of the population measured at 3 or more standard deviation levels on the test than the probabilities of the normal distribution would predict([[Lewis Terman]], ''Genetic Studies of Genius'', 1959). Some IQ scoring procedures may attempt to integrate such clusters of statistical outliers into the curve by adjusting the scores so that they better represent actual probabilities (according to Silverman) and in these cases, scores around 145 and above may actually have been notably higher, were they not so adjusted.
Most IQ tests in the [[United States]] tend to use a SD-15 or SD-16 scale, meaning that one standard deviation corresponds to +/- 16 points on the IQ scale. However, European IQ tests tend to use a SD-24 or SD-25 scale, resulting in discrepancies. Therefore, an IQ of 130 (+2 standard deviations) in the U.S. might correspond to an IQ of 148-150 in Europe. Due to these differences, percentiles are more accurate measurements than IQ numbers.
==IQ and General Intelligence Factor''==
{{main|General intelligence factor}}
Modern IQ tests produce scores for different areas (e.g., language fluency, three-dimensional thinking, etc.), with the summary score calculated from subtest scores. Individual subtest scores tend to [[correlation|correlate]] with one another, even when seemingly disparate in content. Analyses of an individual's scores on the subtests of a single IQ test or the scores from a variety of different IQ tests (e.g., [[Stanford-Binet]], [[WISC-R]], [[Raven's Progressive Matrices]] and others) will reveal that they all measure a single common factor and various factors that are specific to each test. This kind of [[factor analysis]] has led to the theory that underlying these disparate cognitive tasks is a single factor, termed the [[general intelligence factor]] (or ''g''), that corresponds with the common-sense concept of intelligence. In the normal population, ''g'' and IQ are roughly 90% correlated and are often used interchangeably.
==Genetics vs environment==
The role of genes and environment (nature vs. nurture) in determining IQ is reviewed in Plomin ''et al.'' (2001, 2003). The degree to which genetic variation contributes to observed variation in a trait is measured by a statistic called [[heritability]]. Heritability scores range from 0 to 1, and can be interpreted as the percentage of variation (e.g. in IQ) that is due to variation in genes. [[Twin study|Twins studies]] and adoption studies are commonly used to determine the heritability of a trait. Until recently heritability was mostly studied in children. These studies yield an estimate of heritability of 0.5; that is, half of the variation in IQ among the children studied was due to variation in their genes. The remaining half was thus due to environmental variation and measurement error. A heritability of 0.5 implies that IQ is "substantially" heritable. Studies with adults show that they have a higher heritability of IQ than children do and that heritability could be as high as 0.8, though it is probably not this high. The [[American Psychological Association]]'s 1995 task force on "Intelligence: Knowns and Unknowns" concluded that within the White population the heritability of IQ is “around .75” (p. 85).[http://www.lrainc.com/swtaboo/taboos/apa_01.html]
Considerable research has focused on biological correlates of ''g''; see [[General intelligence factor]] and the section on brain size below. For example, general intelligence and [[MRI]] brain volume measurements are correlated, and the effect is primarily determined by genetic factors.
===Environment===
Environmental factors play a large role in determining IQ in situations where environmental conditions are variable. <!-- this is almost a tautology. Can we say "... in third world countries" to make it concrete? --> Proper childhood [[nutrition]] appears critical for [[cognitive development]]; [[malnutrition]] can lower IQ. Other research indicates environmental factors such as prenatal exposure to [[toxin]]s, duration of [[breastfeeding]], and [[micronutrient]] deficiency can affect IQ. However, in the developed world, none of these effects are sufficiently pronounced to be important. <!-- would rather say "... explain variance..." or something like that, but maybe it's too technical -->
In the developed world, there is some environmental effect on the IQ of children, accounting for up to a quarter of the variance. However, by adulthood, this correlation disappears, so that the cognitive ability of adults living in the prevailing conditions of the developed world is highly heritable.
Nearly all [[personality]] traits show that, contrary to expectations, environmental effects actually cause adoptive siblings raised in the same family to be as different as children raised in different families (Harris, 1998; Plomin & Daniels, 1987). Put another way, shared environmental variation for personality is zero, and all environmental effects are nonshared. Intelligence is actually an exception to this rule, at least among children. The IQs of adoptive siblings, who share no genetic relation but do share a common family environment, are correlated at .32. Despite attempts to isolate them, the factors that cause adoptive siblings to be similar have not been identified, though it could be related to parents choosing the type of children they will adopt. However, as explained below, shared family effects on IQ disappear after adolescence.
Active genotype-environment correlation, also called the "nature of nurture", is observed for IQ. This phenomenon is measured similarly to heritability; but instead of measuring variation in IQ due to genes, variation in environment due to genes is determined. One study found that 40% of variation in measures of home environment are accounted for by genetic variation. This suggests that the way human beings craft their environment is due in part to genetic influences.
===Development===
It is reasonable to expect that genetic influences on traits like IQ should become less important as we gain experiences with age. Surprisingly, the opposite occurs. Heritability measures in infancy are as low as 20%, around 40% in middle childhood, and as high as 80% in adulthood.
Shared family effects also seem to disappear by adulthood. Adoption studies show that, after adolescence, adopted siblings are no more similar in IQ than strangers (IQ correlation near zero), while full siblings show an IQ correlation of 0.6. Twin studies reinforce this pattern: [[twin|monozygotic (identical) twins]] raised separately are highly similar in IQ (0.86), more so than [[Twin|dizygotic (fraternal) twins]] raised together (0.6) and much more than adopted siblings (~0.0).
Most of the IQ studies described above were conducted in developed countries, such as the [[United States]], [[Japan]], and [[Western Europe]]. Also, a few studies have been conducted in Moscow, East Germany, and India, and those studies produce similar results. Any such investigation is limited to describing the genetic and environmental variation found within the populations studied. This is a caveat of any heritability study.
===Mental retardation===
About 75–80 percent of [[mental retardation]] is familial (runs in families), and 20–25 percent is due to organic problems, such as chromosomal abnormalities or brain damage.[http://www.isteve.com/2002_IQ_Supreme_Court_Death_Penalty.htm] Mild to severe mental retardation is a symptom of several hundred single-gene disorders and many chromosomal abnormalities, including small deletions. Based on twin studies, moderate to severe mental retardation does not appear to be familial, but mild mental retardation does. That is, the relatives of the moderate to severely mentally retarded have normal ranges of IQs, whereas the families of the mildly mentally retarded have IQs skewing lower.
IQ score ranges (from DSM-IV):
* mild mental retardation: IQ 50–55 to 70; children require mild support; formally called "Educable Mentally Retarded".
* moderate retardation: IQ 35–40 to 50–55; children require moderate supervision and assistance; formally called "Trainable Mentally Retarded".
* severe mental retardation: IQ 20–25 to 35–40; can be taught basic life skills and simple tasks with supervision.
* profound mental retardation: IQ below 20–25; usually caused by a neurological condition; require constant care.
The rate of mental retardation is higher among males than females, and higher among blacks than whites, according to a 1991 U.S. [[Centers for Disease Control and Prevention]] (CDC) study.[http://www.cdc.gov/MMWR/preview/mmwrhtml/00040928.htm]
By race, the overall rate was 16.6 per 1000 for blacks and 6.8 per 1000 for whites. Rates of mental retardation for black males, the group with the highest rates, were 1.7 times higher than black females, 2.4 times higher than white males, and 3.1 times higher than white females. <!--The following statement isn't clear or notable in its present form: Mild mental retardation is almost never diagnosed until a person enters elementary school, which critics claim lends strong support to the notion that IQ tests are racially biased.-->
Individuals with IQs below 70 have been exempted from the death penalty in the U.S. since 2002.[http://www.isteve.com/2002_IQ_Supreme_Court_Death_Penalty.htm]
===IQ, education, and income===
Tambs ''et al.'' (1989) found that occupational status, educational attainment, and IQ are individually heritable; and further found that "genetic variance influencing educational attainment … contributed approximately one-fourth of the genetic variance for occupational status and nearly half the genetic variance for IQ". In a sample of US siblings, Rowe ''et al.'' (1997) report that the inequality in education and income was predominantly due to genes, with shared environmental factors playing a subordinate role.
===Regression===
The heritability of IQ determines the extent to which the IQ of children will be similar to the IQ of parents. Because the heritability of IQ is less than 100%, the IQ of children tends to "regress" towards the mean IQ of the population. That is, high IQ parents tend to have children who are less bright than their parents, whereas low IQ parents tend to have children who are brighter than their parents. The effect can be quantified by the equation <math>\hat y = \bar x + h^2 \left ( \frac{\mbox{mom} + \mbox{dad}}{2} - \bar x \right)</math> where:
* <math>\hat y</math> is the predicted average IQ of Mom and Dad's children
* <math>\bar x</math> is the mean IQ of the population that Mom and Dad come from
* <math>h^2</math> is the heritability of IQ
Thus, if the heritability of IQ is 50%, a couple with an average IQ of 120 may have children that average around an IQ of 110, assuming that both parents come from a population with a median IQ of 100.
==IQ and the Brain==
{{main|Neuroscience and intelligence}}
===Brain size and IQ===
Modern studies using [[MRI]] imaging have shown that brain size correlates with IQ by a factor of approximately .40 among adults (McDaniel, 2005). The correlation between brain size and IQ seems to hold for comparisons between and within families (Gignac et al. 2003; Jensen 1994; Jensen & Johnson 1994). However, one study found no within family correlation (Schoenemann et al. 2000). A [[Twin study|study on twins]] (Thompson ''et al.'', 2001) showed that frontal [[gray matter]] volume was correlated with ''g'' and highly heritable. A related study has reported that the correlation between brain size (reported to have a [[heritability]] of 0.85) and ''g'' is 0.4, and that correlation is mediated entirely by genetic factors (Posthuma et al 2002).
===Brain areas associated with IQ===
Many different sources of information have converged on the view that the frontal lobes are critical for fluid intelligence. Patients with damage to the frontal lobe are impaired on fluid intelligence tests (Duncan et al 1995). The volume of frontal grey (Thompson et al 2001) and white matter (Schoenemann et al 2005) have also been associated with intelligence. In addition, recent neuroimaging studies have limited this association to the lateral prefrontal cortex. Duncan and colleagues (2000) showed using Positron Emission Tomography that problem-solving tasks that correlated more highly with IQ also activate the lateral prefrontal cortex. More recently, Gray and colleagues (2003) used functional magnetic resonance imaging (fMRI) to show that those individuals that were more adept at resisting distraction on a demanding working memory task had both a higher IQ and increased prefrontal activity. For a review of this topic, see Gray and Thompson (2004).
==The Flynn effect==
{{main|Flynn effect}}
Worldwide, IQ scores appear to be slowly rising, a trend known as the Flynn effect. However, tests are only renormalized occasionally to obtain mean scores of 100, for example WISC-R (1974), WISC-III (1991) and WISC-IV (2003). Hence it is difficult to compare IQ scores measured years apart.
==IQ correlations==
===Race and IQ===
{{main|Race and intelligence}}
<!--Please read the race and intelligence article thoroughly before contributing to this section-->
While the distributions of IQ scores among different racial-ethnic groups overlap considerably, groups differ in where their members cluster along the IQ scale. Some groups (e.g. East Asians and Jews) tend to cluster higher than whites, while other groups (e.g. blacks and Hispanics) tend to cluster lower than whites. Similar clustering occurs with related variables, such as school achievement, reaction time, and brain size. Many hypotheses have been proposed to explain racial-ethnic group differences in IQ. Neither test bias nor simple differences in socioeconomic status explain the IQ differences. The primary focus of the scientific debate is whether group differences are entirely caused by environmental factors or whether they also reflect a genetic component. The findings of this field are often thought to conflict with fundamental social philosophies, and have thus engendered a large controversy.
===Religiousness and IQ===
{{main|Religiousness and intelligence}}
Several studies show an inverse correlation between IQ and degree of religious belief. While almost all research indicates a negative correlation between intelligence and religiosity [http://kspark.kaist.ac.kr/Jesus/Intelligence%20&%20religion.htm], this remains a controversial point.
===Health and IQ===
Persons with a higher IQ have generally lower adult morbidity and mortality. This may be because they better avoid injury and take better care of their own health. It also decreases the risk of [[Post-Traumatic Stress Disorder]], severe [[clinical depression|depression]], and [[schizophrenia]]. On the other hand, it increases the risk of [[Obsessive Compulsive Disorder]] [http://www.loni.ucla.edu/~thompson/PDF/GT_DM_5b.pdf].
Research in Scotland has shown that a 15-point lower IQ meant people had a fifth less chance of seeing their 76th birthday, while those with a 30-point disadvantage were 37% less likely than those with a higher IQ to live that long [http://news.bbc.co.uk/hi/english/health/newsid_1260000/1260794.stm].
===Economic development and IQ===
A controversial book ''[[IQ and the Wealth of Nations]]'', claims to show that the wealth of a nation can in large part be explained by the average IQ score. This claim has been both disputed and supported in peer-reviewed papers. The data used has also been questioned.
==Practical validity==
[[Image:Corr-example.png|thumb|Linear correlations between 1000 pairs of numbers. The data are graphed on the lower left and their correlation coefficients listed on the upper right. Each set of points correlates maximally with itself, as shown on the diagonal (all correlations = +1).]]
Evidence for the practical validity of IQ comes from examining the [[correlation]] between IQ scores and life outcomes.
{| border="2" cellpadding="4" cellspacing="0" style="margin: 1em 1em 1em 0; border: 1px #aaa solid; border-collapse: collapse; font-size: 95%;"
|- bgcolor=#ccccff
|+ '''Economic and social correlates of IQ'''
! Factors || Correlation
|- bgcolor=E9E8FF
| School grades and IQ || 0.5
|- bgcolor=#DFE0FF
| Total years of education and IQ || 0.55
|- bgcolor=E9E8FF
| IQ and parental socioeconomic status || 0.33
|- bgcolor=#DFE0FF
| Job performance and IQ || 0.54
|- bgcolor=E9E8FF
| Negative social outcomes and IQ || −0.2
|- bgcolor=#DFE0FF
| IQs of identical twins || 0.86
|- bgcolor=E9E8FF
| IQs of husband and wife || 0.4
|- bgcolor=#DFE0FF
| ''Heights'' of parent and child || 0.47
|}
{| border="2" cellpadding="4" cellspacing="0" style="margin: 1em 1em 1em 0; border: 1px #aaa solid; border-collapse: collapse; font-size: 95%;"
|- bgcolor=#ccccff
|+ '''Economic and social correlates of IQ'''
! IQ || <75 || 75–90 || 90–110 || 110–125 || >125
|- bgcolor=E9E8FF
| US population distribution || 5 || 20 || 50 || 20 || 5
|- bgcolor=#DFE0FF
| Married by age 30 || 72 || 81 || 81 || 72 || 67
|- bgcolor=E9E8FF
| Out of labor force more than 1 month out of year (men) || 22 || 19 || 15 || 14 || 10
|- bgcolor=#DFE0FF
| Unemployed more than 1 month out of year (men) || 12 || 10 || 7 || 7 || 2
|- bgcolor=E9E8FF
| Divorced in 5 years || 21 || 22 || 23 || 15 || 9
|- bgcolor=#DFE0FF
| % of children w/ IQ in bottom decile (mothers) || 39 || 17 || 6 || 7 || -
|- bgcolor=E9E8FF
| Had an [[Illegitimacy|illegitimate]] baby (mothers) || 32 || 17 || 8 || 4 || 2
|- bgcolor=#DFE0FF
| Lives in poverty || 30 || 16 || 6 || 3 || 2
|- bgcolor=E9E8FF
| Ever incarcerated (men) || 7 || 7 || 3 || 1 || 0
|- bgcolor=#DFE0FF
| Chronic welfare recipient (mothers) || 31 || 17 || 8 || 2 || 0
|- bgcolor=E9E8FF
| High school dropout || 55 || 35 || 6 || 0.4 || 0
|- bgcolor=#DFE0FF
| colspan="6" | Values are the percentage of each IQ sub-population fitting each descriptor. Compiled by Gottfredson (1997) from Herrnstein & Murray (1994) pp. 171, 158, 163, 174, 230, 180, 132, 194, 247–248, 194, 146 respectively.
|}
Research shows that intelligence plays an important role in many valued life outcomes. In addition to academic success, intelligence correlates with job performance (see below), socioeconomic advancement (e.g., level of education, occupation, and income), and "social pathology" (e.g., adult criminality, poverty, unemployment, dependence on welfare, children outside of marriage). Recent work has demonstrated links between intelligence and health, longevity, and functional literacy. Correlations between ''[[g (factor)|g]]'' and life outcomes are pervasive, though IQ and [[happiness]] do not correlate. IQ and ''g'' correlate highly with school performance and job performance, less so with occupational prestige, moderately with income, and to a small degree with law-abidingness.
General intelligence (in the literature typically called "cognitive ability") is the best predictor of job performance by the standard measure, validity. ''Validity'' is the correlation between score (in this case cognitive ability, as measured, typically, by a paper-and-pencil test) and outcome (in this case job performance, as measured by a range of factors including supervisor ratings, promotions, training success, and tenure), and ranges between −1.0 (the score is perfectly wrong in predicting outcome) and 1.0 (the score perfectly predicts the outcome). See [[validity (psychometric)]]. The validity of cognitive ability for job performance tends to increase with job complexity and varies across different studies, ranging from 0.2 for unskilled jobs to 0.8 for the most complex jobs.
A large [[meta-analysis]] (Hunter and Hunter, 1984) which pooled validity results across many studies encompassing thousands of workers (32,124 for cognitive ability), reports that the validity of cognitive ability for entry-level jobs is 0.54, larger than any other measure including job tryout (0.44), experience (0.18), interview (0.14), age (−0.01), education (0.10), and biographical inventory (0.37).
Because higher test validity allows more accurate prediction of job performance, companies have a strong incentive to use cognitive ability tests to select and promote employees. IQ thus has high practical validity in economic terms. The [[utility]] of using one measure over another is proportional to the difference in their validities, all else equal. This is one economic reason why companies use job interviews (validity 0.14) rather than randomly selecting employees (validity 0.0).
However, legal barriers, most prominently the 1971 United States Supreme Court decision ''[[Griggs v. Duke Power Co.]]'', have prevented American employers from directly using cognitive ability tests to select employees, despite the tests' high validity. This is largely based on that cognitive ability scores in selection adversely affects some minority groups, due to that different groups have different mean scores on tests of cognitive ability. However, cognitive ability tests are still used in some organizations. The U.S. military uses the [[Armed Services Vocational Aptitude Battery|Armed Forces Qualifying Test]] (AFQT), as higher scores correlate with significant increases in effectiveness of both individual soldiers and units,[http://www.rand.org/pubs/technical_reports/2005/RAND_TR193.pdf] [http://www.rand.org/pubs/monograph_reports/MR818/MR818.ch2.pdf] and [[Microsoft]] is known for using non-illegal tests that correlate with IQ tests as part of the interview process, weighing the results even more than experience in many cases.[http://www.highbeam.com/doc/1G1:18847742/Microsofts+big+advantage+-+hiring+only+the+supersmart%7eR%7e+(Company+Operations).html] [https://www.keepmedia.com/Auth.do?extId=10022&uri=/archive/forbes/2005/1031/045.html]
Some researchers have echoed the popular claim that "in economic terms it appears that the IQ score measures something with decreasing marginal value. It is important to have enough of it, but having lots and lots does not buy you that much." (Detterman and Daniel, 1989)[http://www.americanscientist.org/template/AssetDetail/assetid/24538/page/4]
However, some studies suggest IQ continues to confer large benefits even at very high levels. Ability and performance for jobs are linearly related, such that at all IQ levels, an increase in IQ translates into a concomitant increase in performance (Coward and Sackett, 1990). In an analysis of hundreds of siblings, it was found that IQ has a substantial effect on income independently of family background (Murray, 1998).
Other studies question the real-world importance of whatever is measured with IQ tests, especially for differences in accumulated [[wealth]] and general [[economic inequality]] in a nation. IQ correlates highly with school performance but the correlations decrease the closer one gets to real-world outcomes, like with job performance, and still lower with income. It explains less than one sixth of the income variance [http://www.lrainc.com/swtaboo/taboos/apa_01.html]. Even for school grades, other factors explain most the variance. Regarding economic inequality, one study found that if we could magically give everyone identical IQs, we would still see 90 to 95 percent of the inequality we see today. [http://home.att.net/~Resurgence/L-IQpredicts.htm]. Another recent study (2002) found that wealth, race, and schooling are important to the inheritance of economic status, but IQ is not a major contributor and the genetic transmission of IQ is even less important [http://www.umass.edu/preferen/gintis/intergen.pdf]. Some argue that IQ scores are used as an excuse for not trying to reduce poverty or otherwise improve living standards for all. Claimed low intelligence has historically been used to justify the [[feudal system]] and unequal treatment of women (but note that many studies find identical average IQs among men and women; see [[sex and intelligence]]). In contrast, others claim that the refusal of high-IQ elites to take IQ seriously as a cause of inequality is itself immoral.[http://www.isteve.com/How_to_Help_the_Left_Half_of_the_Bell_Curve.htm]
== Public policy ==
{{main|Intelligence and public policy}}
Because public policy is often intended to influence the same outcomes (for example to improve education, fight poverty and crime, promote fairness in employment, and counter racial discrimination), policy decisions frequently interact with intelligence measures. In some cases, modern public policy references intelligence measures or even aims to alter cognitive development directly.
While broad consensus exists that intelligence measures neither dictate nor preclude any particular social policy, controversy surrounds many other aspects of this interaction. Central issues concern whether intelligence measures should be considered in policy decisions, the role of policy in influencing or accounting for group differences in measured intelligence, and the success of policies in light of individual and group intelligence differences. The importance and sensitivity of the policies at issue have produced an often-emotional ongoing debate spanning scholarly inquiry and the popular media from the national to the local level.
===Use of IQ in the United States legal system===
The Supreme Court of the United States has also validated the use of IQ results during the sentencing phase of some criminal proceedings. The Supreme Court case of ''Atkins v. Virginia'', decided [[June 20]] [[2002]], [http://supct.law.cornell.edu/supct/html/00-8452.ZO.html] held that executions of mentally retarded criminals are "cruel and unusual punishments" prohibited by the Eighth Amendment. In ''Atkins'' the court stated that
:"…[I]t appears that even among those States that regularly execute offenders and that have no prohibition with regard to the mentally retarded, only five have executed offenders possessing a known IQ less than 70 since we decided ''Penry''. The practice, therefore, has become truly unusual, and it is fair to say that a national consensus has developed against it."
In overturning the Virginia Supreme Court's holding, the ''Atkins'' opinion stated that petitioner's IQ result of 59 was a factor making the imposition of capital punishment a violation of his eighth amendment rights. In the opinion's notes the court provided some of the facts relied upon when reaching their decision
:"At the sentencing phase, Dr. Nelson testified: "Atkins' full scale IQ is 59. Compared to the population at large, that means less than one percentile…. Mental retardation is a relatively rare thing. It's about one percent of the population." App. 274. According to Dr. Nelson, Atkins' IQ score "would automatically qualify for Social Security disability income." Id., at 280. Dr. Nelson also indicated that of the over 40 capital defendants that he had evaluated, Atkins was only the second individual who met the criteria for mental retardation. Id., at 310. He testified that, in his opinion, Atkins' limited intellect had been a consistent feature throughout his life, and that his IQ score of 59 is not an "aberration, malingered result, or invalid test score." Id., at 308."
==Validity and ''g''-loading of specific tests==
While IQ is sometimes treated as an end unto itself, scholarly work on IQ focuses to a large extent on IQ's [[validity (psychometric)|validity]], that is, the degree to which IQ predicts outcomes such as job performance, social pathologies, or academic achievement. Different IQ tests differ in their validity for various outcomes.
Tests also differ in their [[General intelligence factor|''g'']]-loading, which is the degree to which the test score reflects general mental ability rather than a specific skill or "group factor" such as verbal ability, spatial visualization, or mathematical reasoning). ''g''-loading and validity are related in the sense that most IQ tests derive their validity mostly or entirely from the degree to which they measure ''g'' (Jensen 1998).
==Social construct==
Some maintain that IQ is a [[social construct]] invented by the privileged classes, used to maintain their privilege. Others maintain that intelligence, measured by IQ or ''g'', reflects a real ability, is a useful tool in performing life tasks and has a biological reality.
The social-construct and real-ability interpretations for IQ differences can be distinguished because they make opposite predictions about what would happen if people were given equal opportunities. The social explanation predicts that equal treatment will eliminate differences, while the real-ability explanation predicts that equal treatment will accentuate differences. Evidence for both outcomes exists. Achievement gaps persist in socioeconomically advantaged, integrated, liberal, suburban school districts in the United States (see Noguera, 2001). Test-score gaps tend to be larger at higher socioeconomic levels (Gottfredson, 2003). Some studies have reported a narrowing of score gaps over time.
The reduction of intelligence to a single score seems extreme and wrong to many people. Opponents argue that it is much more useful to know a person's strengths and weaknesses than to know their IQ score. Such opponents often cite the example of two people with the same overall IQ score but very different ability profiles. As measured by IQ tests, most people have highly balanced ability profiles, with differences in subscores being greater among the more intelligent.
The creators of IQ testing did not intend for the tests to gauge a person's worth, and in many (or, as some people suggest, all) situations, IQ may have little relevance.
===The Mismeasure of Man===
Some scientists dispute [[psychometrics]] entirely. In ''[[The Mismeasure of Man]]'', Professor [[Stephen Jay Gould]] argues that intelligence tests are based on faulty assumptions and shows their history of being used as the basis for [[scientific racism]]. He writes:
:…the abstraction of intelligence as a single entity, its location within the brain, its quantification as one number for each individual, and the use of these numbers to rank people in a single series of worthiness, invariably to find that oppressed and disadvantaged groups—races, classes, or sexes—are innately inferior and deserve their status. (pp. 24–25)
He spends much of the book debunking the concept of IQ, including a historical discussion of how the IQ tests were created and a technical discussion of why ''g'' is simply a mathematical artifact. Later editions of the book include criticism of ''[[The Bell Curve]]''.
[[Arthur Jensen]], Professor of Educational Psychology, University of California, Berkeley, responds to Gould's criticisms in a paper titled ''The Debunking of Scientific Fossils and Straw Persons''.[http://www.mugu.com/cgi-bin/Upstream/jensen-gould-fossils]
===The view of the American Psychological Association===
In response to the controversy surrounding ''The Bell Curve'', the [[American Psychological Association]]'s Board of Scientific Affairs established a task force to write a consensus statement on the state of intelligence research which could be used by all sides as a basis for discussion. The full text of the report is available at a third-party website. [http://www.lrainc.com/swtaboo/taboos/apa_01.html]
The findings of the task force state that IQ scores ''do'' have high predictive validity for individual (but not necessarily population) differences in school achievement. They confirm the predictive validity of IQ for adult occupational status, even when variables such as education and family background have been statistically controlled. They agree that individual (again, not necessarily population) differences in intelligence are substantially influenced by genetics.
They state there is little evidence to show that childhood diet influences intelligence except in cases of severe malnutrition. They agree that there are no significant differences between the average IQ scores of males and females. The task force agrees that large differences do exist between the average IQ scores of blacks and whites, and that these differences cannot be attributed to biases in test construction. While they admit there is no empirical evidence supporting it, the APA task force suggests that explanations based on social status and cultural differences may be possible. Regarding genetic causes, they noted that there is not much direct evidence on this point, but what little there is fails to support the genetic hypothesis.
The APA journal that published the statement, ''[[American Psychologist]]'', subsequently published eleven critical responses in January 1997, most arguing that the report failed to examine adequately the evidence for partly-genetic explanations.
The report was published in 1995 and thus does not include a decade of recent research.
==Improving IQ==
While a large amount of one's IQ is predetermined by genetic factors, the environment can play a role as well. IQ can be improved to a certain extent through reading and application. Improvement in diet and regular exercise can help certain cognitive functions, and getting more sleep may help as well. Depression and stress reduce IQ somewhat, so removal of these factors might also help.
Drugs designed to improve cognitive function, and sometimes IQ scores are called [[nootropic]]s.
Working memory training, an experimental treatment which has according to one study by Klingberg et al, improved raw scores substantially on Ravens progressive matrices and Ravens advanced progressive matrices, both IQ tests. It has also been claimed in some studies that [[neurofeedback]] can increase IQ. However, some would argue that these studies should not necessarily be interpreted as proof that neurofeedback can increase IQ as (a) they don't have a double blind component and (b) it is unknown whether their effects would apply to persons without ADHD, as most of these studies were performed on persons with ADHD. It is possible that the increase in IQ was just a result of better concentration in the subjects.
A recent scientific article on the concept of cognitive reserve included an argument that education and application of the mind can substantially increase IQ.
The "[[Mozart effect]]" is the claimed ability of certain musics to enhance intelligence, especially spatial reasoning. However, this effect is not universally accepted. Musical education, as opposed to appreciation, has been shown a number of times to marginally increase IQ in children; however, there is sparsity of information on whether such an effect might apply to adults.
The levels of a variety of chemicals in the brain, such as chlorine, have been shown to relate to intelligence in a variety of ways. It is possible that by adjusting diet, these could be substantially changed.
Future possibilities for improving the skills IQ tests measure include stem cells treatment, genetic modification, better education based on neurological and cognitive discoveries, better nootropics, etc. [http://www.newscientist.com/channel/being-human/mg18625011.900.]
==Controversy==
See article on [[IQ test controversy]].
==End material==
===See also===
* [[Nature versus nurture]]
* [[Emotional intelligence]]
* [[Gifted]]
* [[SAT]]
* [[List of countries by IQ]]
* Societies:
** [[International High IQ Society]] — 95th percentile, or SD16 IQ of 126
** [[Sigma Society]] — 97.7th percentile, or SD16 IQ of 132
** [[Mensa International]] — 98th percentile, or SD16 IQ of 133
** [[Colloquy (society)]] — 99.5th percentile
** [[Cerebrals Society]] — 99.7th percentile, or SD16 IQ of 144
** [[Civiq Society]] — 99.87th percentile, or SD16 IQ of 148
** [[Sigma Society III]] — 99.87th percentile, or SD16 IQ of 148
** [[International Society for Philosophical Enquiry]] — 99.9th percentile
** [[Intertel (group)]]
** [[Triple Nine Society]] — 99.9th percentile, or SD16 IQ of 150
** [[Prometheus Society]] — 99.997th percentile, or SD16 IQ of 164
** [[Heliq Society]] — 99.997th percentile, or SD16 IQ of 164
** [[Sigma Society IV]] — 99.997th percentile, or SD16 IQ of 164
** [[Pi Society]] — 99.9999th percentile, or SD16 IQ of 176
** [[Mega Society]] — 99.9999th percentile, or SD16 IQ of 176
** [[Olympiq Society]] — 99.99997th percentile, or SD16 IQ of 180
** [[Pars Society]] — 99.99997th percentile, or SD16 IQ of 180
** [[Sigma Society V]] — 99.99997th percentile, or SD16 IQ of 180
** [[Giga Society]] — 99.9999999th percentile, or SD16 IQ of 196
** [[Sigma Society VI]] — 99.9999999th percentile, or SD16 IQ of 196
===External links===
* [http://www.mensa-test.com www.mensa-test.com] — Nice intelligence test (not a standard IQ test)
* [http://www.hirhome.com/rr/rrcontents.htm Resurrecting Racism] — The History of IQ Testing and Research
* [http://www.sigmasociety.com/sigma_teste/sigma_sigma_teste.asp Sigma Test] — Available in 14 languages, accepted for admission in dozens of high IQ societies (with articles on Psychometry, history of IQ tests etc.)
* [http://members.shaw.ca/delajara/ IQ Comparison Site]
* [[American Psychological Association|APA]] — [http://www.lrainc.com/swtaboo/taboos/apa_01.html Intelligence: Knowns and Unknowns]
* [http://www.psych.utoronto.ca/~reingold/courses/intelligence/cache/1198yam.html Scientific American: Intelligence Considered]
* [http://www.psych.utoronto.ca/~reingold/courses/intelligence/cache/1198gottfred.html Scientific American: The General Intelligence Factor]
* [http://www.iqte.st iqte.st: Online IQ test reviews]
* [http://www.apa.org/science/testing_on_the_internet.pdf APA Committee on Online Psychological Tests and Assessment report]
* [http://hem.bredband.net/b153434/Index.htm Estimated IQs of the greatest geniuses]
* [http://www.volkmar-weiss.de/lehrl.html The Basic Period of Individual Mental Speed, Underlying IQ]
* [http://www.eskimo.com/~miyaguch/hoeflin.html Uncommonly difficult IQ tests]
===References===
*Carroll, J.B. (1993). Human cognitive abilities: A survey of factor-analytical studies. New York: Cambridge University Press.
*Coward, W.M. and Sackett, P.R. (1990). Linearity of ability-performance relationships: A reconfirmation. ''Journal of Applied Psychology,'' 75:297–300.
*Duncan, J., P. Burgess, and H. Emslie (1995) Fluid intelligence after frontal lobe lesions. Neuropsychologia, 33(3): p. 261-8.
*Duncan, J., et al., A neural basis for general intelligence. Science, 2000. 289(5478): p. 457-60.
* Frey, M.C. and Detterman, D.K. (2003) Scholastic Assessment or ''g''? The Relationship Between the Scholastic Assessment Test and General Cognitive Ability. ''Psychological Science,'' 15(6):373–378. [http://www.gnxp.com/MT2/archives/2003_frey_and_detterman_IQ_SAT.pdf PDF]
*Gottfredson, L. S. (1997). "Why g matters: The complexity of everyday life." ''Intelligence'', 24(1), 79–132. [http://www.udel.edu/educ/gottfredson/reprints/1997whygmatters.pdf PDF]
*Gottfredson, L.S. (1998). The general intelligence factor. ''Scientific American Presents,'' 9(4):24–29. [http://www.udel.edu/educ/gottfredson/reprints/1998generalintelligencefactor.pdf PDF]
*Gottfredson, L. S. (2005). Suppressing intelligence research: Hurting those we intend to help. In R. H. Wright & N. A. Cummings (Eds.), Destructive trends in mental health: The well-intentioned path to harm (pp. 155–186). New York: Taylor and Francis. [http://www.udel.edu/educ/gottfredson/reprints/2003suppressingintelligence.pdf Pre-print PDF] [http://www.udel.edu/educ/gottfredson/reprints/2005suppressingintelligence.pdf PDF]
* Gottfredson, L. S. (in press). "Social consequences of group differences in cognitive ability (Consequencias sociais das diferencas de grupo em habilidade cognitiva)". In C. E. Flores-Mendoza & R. Colom (Eds.), ''Introducau a psicologia das diferncas individuais''. Porto Allegre, Brazil: ArtMed Publishers. [http://www.udel.edu/educ/gottfredson/reprints/2004socialconsequences.pdf PDF]
*Gray, J.R., C.F. Chabris, and T.S. Braver, Neural mechanisms of general fluid intelligence. Nat Neurosci, 2003. 6(3): p. 316-22.
*Gray, J.R. and P.M. Thompson, Neurobiology of intelligence: science and ethics. Nat Rev Neurosci, 2004. 5(6): p. 471-82.
*{{cite journal | author=Haier RJ, Jung RE, Yeo RA, et al. | title=The neuroanatomy of general intelligence: sex matters | journal=NeuroImage | year=2005 | volume=25 | pages=320–327}}
*Hunt, E. (2001). Multiple views of multiple intelligence. [Review of Intelligence Reframed: Multiple Intelligences for the 21st Century.]
*Jensen, A.R. (1998). ''The ''g'' Factor.'' Praeger, Connecticut, USA.
*Jensen, A.R. (2006). "Clocking the Mind: Mental Chronometry and Individual Differences." Elsevier Science. --->Highly anticipated new release scheduled for early June, 2006.
*McClearn, G. E., Johansson, B., Berg, S., Pedersen, N. L., Ahern, F., Petrill, S. A., & Plomin, R. (1997). Substantial genetic influence on cognitive abilities in twins 80 or more years old. Science, 276, 1560–1563.
*Murray, Charles (1998). Income Inequality and IQ, AEI Press [http://www.aei.org/docLib/20040302_book443.pdf PDF]
*Noguera, P.A. (2001). Racial politics and the elusive quest for excellence and equity in education. [http://www.inmotionmagazine.com/er/pnrp1.html In Motion Magazine article]
*Plomin, R., DeFries, J. C., Craig, I. W., & McGuffin, P. (2003). ''Behavioral genetics in the postgenomic era''. Washington, DC: American Psychological Association.
*Plomin, R., DeFries, J. C., McClearn, G. E., & McGuffin, P. (2001). ''Behavioral genetics (4th ed.)''. New York: Worth Publishers.
* Rowe, D. C., W. J. Vesterdal, and J. L. Rodgers, "The Bell Curve Revisited: How Genes and Shared Environment Mediate IQ-SES Associations," University of Arizona, 1997
*Schoenemann, P.T., M.J. Sheehan, and L.D. Glotzer, Prefrontal white matter volume is disproportionately larger in humans than in other primates. Nat Neurosci, 2005.
* Tambs K, Sundet JM, Magnus P, Berg K. "Genetic and environmental contributions to the covariance between occupational status, educational attainment, and IQ: a study of twins." Behav Genet. 1989 Mar;19(2):209–22. PMID 2719624.
*Thompson, P.M., Cannon, T.D., Narr, K.L., Van Erp, T., Poutanen, V.-P., Huttunen, M., Lönnqvist, J., Standertskjöld-Nordenstam, C.-G., Kaprio, J., Khaledy, M., Dail, R., Zoumalan, C.I., Toga, A.W. (2001). "Genetic influences on brain structure." Nature Neuroscience 4, 1253-1258.
[[Category:Cognitive tests]]
[[Category:Psychometrics]]
[[ca:Quocient intel·lectual]]
[[da:Intelligenskvotient]]
[[de:Intelligenzquotient]]
[[et:Intelligentsuskvoot]]
[[es:Cociente intelectual]]
[[fr:Quotient intellectuel]]
[[gl:Cociente intelectual]]
[[is:Greindarvísitala]]
[[he:מנת משכל]]
[[lt:Intelekto koeficientas]]
[[hu:IQ]]
[[nl:Intelligentiequotiënt]]
[[ja:知能指数]]
[[no:Intelligenskvotient]]
[[pl:Iloraz inteligencji]]
[[pt:Quociente de inteligência]]
[[sk:IQ]]
[[sl:Inteligenčni količnik]]
[[fi:Älykkyysosamäärä]]
[[sv:IQ]]
[[zh:智商]]
Implicit repetition
14893
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2006-02-24T04:05:15Z
Rfrisbie
896545
subcat enough
In [[learning]], '''implicit repetition''' is unintentional repetition. For example, an [[explicit repetition]] is when we review the material before an exam. An implicit repetition is when we suddenly recall some fact on the way to school. We remember our name or events from childhood via implicit repetition. This means we do not need to explicitly sit down to a textbook and review those events to be sure they do not get forgotten. Unfortunately, implicit repetition cannot be used to ensure we do not forget things we learn at school. This is why explicit review of material is needed.
{{psych-stub}}
[[Category:Learning]]
Indian Institute of Technology, Kanpur
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2006-02-26T06:30:21Z
66.68.106.192
/* Laboratories and other facilities */
{{Infobox_University
|name = Indian Institute of Technology, Kanpur
|motto = ''Tamaso Ma Jyotirgamaya''
|image = [[Image:IITKLogo.jpg|100px]]
|established = 1959
|campus = 1200 acres
|type = [[Education]] and [[Research]] [[Institution]]
|dean= Dr. S G Dhande
|city = Kanpur
|state = Uttar Pradesh
|country = India
|undergrad = 2,000 (approx)
|postgrad = 2,000 (approx)
|staff= 500 (approx)
|website= http://www.iitk.ac.in
}}
The '''Indian Institute of Technology, Kanpur''' ('''IIT Kanpur''') is one of the [[Indian Institutes of Technology]], set up in the then-industrial city of [[Kanpur]] in [[1960]]. Today, IIT Kanpur has grown into one of the top technological institutes in India, primarily focused on research in engineering and science, and the teaching of undergraduates.
== History ==
IIT Kanpur was established by an act of [[Parliament of India|Parliament]] in [[1959]]. The institute was started in December 1959 in a room borrowed in the Canteen Building of the [[Harcourt Butler Technological Institute]] at Agricultural Gardens in Kanpur. In [[1963]], the Institute moved to its present location, on the historic [[Grand Trunk Road]] near the village of Kalyanpur in Kanpur district. During the first ten years of its existence, IIT Kanpur benefited from the Kanpur Indo-American Programme, where a consortium of 9 US universities helped set up the research laboratories and academic programmes. The first Director of the Institute was [[Dr. P. K. Kelkar]] (after whom the Central Library was renamed in 2003).
Indian Institute of Technology Kanpur was the among the first Institute in India to start Computer Science education. The earliest computer courses were started at IIT Kanpur in August 1963 on an IBM 1620 system, a novelty then even in many North American and European universities. Gradually, the Institute drew upon some of the brightest young Indians in Computer Science to serve on its faculty and initiated an independent academic program in 1971, leading to Ph.D. and M. Tech. degrees.
== Laboratories and other facilities ==
The Institute has a number of facilities, including the National Wind Tunnel Facility.Spread in a sprawling campus of 1200 acres, IIT Kanpur has one of the best computational facilities in India. Apart from a large number of engineering laboratories, IIT Kanpur also has its own airfield, for flight testing and gliding activities. Other large research centres include the Advanced Centre for Material Science, one of the country's best Bio-technology centre, the Advanced Centre for Electronic Systems, and the Samtel Centre for Display Technology. The P.K. Kelkar library has one of the most exhaustive collections of academic textbooks, peer-reviewed journals and other research material in the country, and boasts of an excellent reference section (where course material is reserved for students). In addition, the various departments have their own smaller libraries. The Computer-Centre (referred to by the campus residents as "C-C") is quite an impressive facility in comparison to other academic institutions in the country. It has about 100-150 Linux terminals, about 50 Windows-NT terminals, and is continuously available to the students for academic work and recreation. Disk storage is provided using a networked file server system. Internet access is provided by the means of two proxy servers, one for students and another for faculty (the computer science department in IIT Kanpur has its own independent network). In addition, it hosts about 50 SUN workstations that are considered powerful workhorses for heavy computational tasks. It is a major intellectual, social and cultural hub for the technokrati on campus. The IIT's (and especially IIT Kanpur) are among the first large academic institutions in India to be extensively networked, with an institute-wide LAN and Ethernet access to every student room in the residence halls.
[[Image:IITKLibrary.jpg|thumb|270px|PK Kelkar Library, IIT Kanpur]]
== Students ==
The undergraduate students at IIT Kanpur are selected through the [[Joint Entrance Examination]] of the IITs. The graduate students (Masters) are mainly selected through the [[Graduate Aptitude Test in Engineering]] (GATE). Presently, the institute has around 3800 students, with an equal distribution of graduate and undergraduate students.
Students at IIT Kanpur reside in the hostels, or 'halls of residence', most of which have their own unique history and lore. There are seven hostels for boys and two for girls called GH and hall 6.
The annual [[culfest|cultural festival]] is called ''[[Antaragni]]''. It is held around the end of October every year. The annual science and technology festival, ''[[Techkriti]]'', is held at the end of February each year. The annual sports festival, ''[[Udghosh/Galaxy]]'', is held around the end of November each year and the annual film festival, ''[[Umang]]''. All four are amongst the most popular college events in North [[India]].
Another highlight of the student community is the self governance achieved in the form of the Students' Gymkhana, which is a democratically elected body.
==Alumni==
* [[Ashoke Sen]] (String theorist)
* [[N.R. Narayana Murthy]] (founded the software corporation [[Infosys]])
* [[Manindra Agrawal]], [[Nitin Saxena]], and [[Neeraj Kayal]] (proved that the problem of checking [[primality]] has a polynomial time algorithm, a major result in theoretical [[computer science]])
*[[Umang Gupta]] (Entrepreneur, wrote first business plan for Oracle, first PC-implementation of SQL and currently CEO of [[Keynote Systems]])
*[[Raj Singh]] (Venture Capitalist, former billionaire, funded Teligent among others, married to Nita, also an alumnus of IIT Kanpur)
*[[Ambuj Goyal]] (VP/GM of IBM's Lotus business)
*[[Satish Kaura]] (Padma Shri and founder of Samtel Group)
* [[Umesh Mishra]] (Professor of Electrical and Computer Engineering and a leading expert on wide-band gap semiconductors)
* [[Pradeep Sindhu]] (Founder - [[Juniper Networks]])
==Miscellaneous==
It was rated the no. 1 engineering institute in India by [[India Today]] in [[2004]].
It was rated the no. 1 engineering college in India by Data Quest in 2005
==External links==
* [http://www.iitk.ac.in Official Website]
* [http://www.iitkalumni.org Alumni Website]
{{Indian_Institute_Of_Technology}}
[[Category:Universities and colleges in India]]
[[Category:Engineering colleges in India]]
Insulin
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Reverted edits by [[Special:Contributions/210.186.172.160|210.186.172.160]] to last version by Goto Dengo
[[image:Insulin.jpg|right|thumbnail|300px|The structure of insulin <br> Red: [[carbon]]; green: [[oxygen]]; blue: [[nitrogen]]; pink: [[sulfur]]. The blue/purple ribbons denote the skeleton <nowiki>[-N-C-C-]</nowiki><small>n</small> in the protein's [[amino acid]] sequence <nowiki>H-[-NH-CHR-CO-]</nowiki><small>n</small>-OH where R is the part protruding from the skeleton in each amino acid.]]
[[image:Insulin_structure.JPG|right|thumbnail|400px|The primary structure of insulin <br>i.e. amino acid sequence]]
'''Insulin''' (from [[Latin]] ''insula'', "island", as it is produced in the [[Islets of Langerhans]] in the [[pancreas]]) is a [[polypeptide]] [[Peptide hormone|hormone]] that regulates [[carbohydrate metabolism]]. Apart from being the primary effector in [[carbohydrate]] [[homeostasis]], it also has a substantial effect on small vessel muscle tone, controls storage and release of [[lipid|fat]] ([[triglyceride]]s) and cellular uptake of both amino acids and some electrolytes. In this last sense, it has [[Anabolism|anabolic]] properties. Its concentration (more or less, presence or absence) has extremely widespread effects throughout the body.
Insulin is used medically in some forms of [[diabetes mellitus]]. Patients with [[Diabetes_mellitus#Type_1|type 1 diabetes mellitus]] depend on exogenous insulin (injected subcutaneously) for their survival because of an absolute deficiency of the hormone; patients with [[Diabetes_mellitus#Type_2|type 2 diabetes mellitus]] have either relatively low insulin production or [[insulin resistance]] or both, and a non-trivial fraction of type 2 diabetics eventually require insulin administration when other medications become inadequate in controlling blood glucose levels.
Insulin has the empirical formula [[carbon|C]]<sub>257</sub>[[hydrogen|H]]<sub>383</sub>[[nitrogen|N]]<sub>65</sub>[[oxygen|O]]<sub>77</sub>[[sulfur|S]]<sub>6</sub>.
Insulin structure varies slightly between [[species]] of animal. Its [[carbohydrate metabolism]] regulatory function strength in humans also varies. [[Pig]] insulin is particularly close to the [[human]] one.
==Discovery and characterization ==
In 1869 [[Paul Langerhans]], a medical student in [[Berlin]], was studying the structure of the pancreas under a [[microscope]] when he noticed some previously-unidentified cells scattered in the exocrine tissue. The function of the "little heaps of cells," later [[eponym|known as]] the ''Islets of Langerhans'', was unknown, but [[Edouard Laguesse]] later argued that they may produce a secretion that plays a regulatory role in digestion.
[[Image:Insulincrystals.jpg|left|300px|frame|Insulin [[crystal|crystals]]]]
In 1889, the [[Germany|Polish-German]] physician [[Oscar Minkowski]] in collaboration with Joseph von Mehring removed the [[pancreas]] from a healthy dog to demonstrate this assumed role in digestion. Several days after the dog's pancreas was removed, Minkowski's animal keeper noticed a swarm of flies feeding on the dog's urine. On testing the urine they found that there was sugar in the dog's urine, demonstrating for the first time the relationship between the pancreas and diabetes. In 1901, another major step was taken by [[Eugene Opie]], when he clearly established the link between the Islets of Langerhans and diabetes: ''Diabetes mellitus.... is caused by destruction of the islets of Langerhans and occurs only when these bodies are in part or wholly destroyed.'' Before this demonstration, the link between the pancreas and diabetes was clear, but not the specific role of the islets.
Over the next two decades, several attempts were made to isolate the secretion of the islets as a potential treatment. In 1906 [[Georg Ludwig Zuelzer]] was partially successful treating dogs with pancreatic extract, but unable to continue his work. Between 1911 and 1912, [[E.L. Scott]] at the [[University of Chicago]] used aqueous pancreatic extracts and noted ''a slight diminution of glycosuria'', but was unable to convince his director and the research was shut down. [[Israel Kleiner]] demonstrated similar effects at [[Rockefeller University]] in 1919, but his work was interrupted by [[World War I]] and he was unable to return to it. [[Nicolae Paulescu]], a professor of physiology at the [[Romanian School of Medicine]], published similar work in 1921 that was carried out in [[France]] and patented in [[Romania]], and it has been argued ever since by Romanians that he is the rightful discoverer.
However, the Nobel prizes committee in 1923 credited the practical extraction of insulin to a team at the [[University of Toronto]]. In October 1920, [[Frederick Banting]] was reading one of Minkowski's papers and concluded that it is the very digestive secretions that Minkowski had originally studied that were breaking down the secretion, thereby making it impossible to extract successfully. He jotted a note to himself ''Ligate pancreatic ducts of the dog. Keep dogs alive till acini degenerate leaving islets. Try to isolate internal secretion of these and relieve glycosurea.''
He travelled to Toronto to meet with [[John James Richard Macleod|J.J.R. Macleod]], who was not entirely impressed with his idea. Nevertheless, he supplied Banting with a lab at the University, an assistant, medical student [[Charles Best]], and ten dogs, while he left on vacation during the summer of 1921. Their method was tying a ligature (string) around the pancreatic duct, and, when examined several weeks later, the pancreatic digestive cells had died and been absorbed by the immune system, leaving thousands of islets. They then isolated the protein from these islets to produce what they called ''isletin''. Banting and Best were then able to keep a pancreatectomized dog alive all summer.
Macleod saw the value of the research on his return from Europe, but demanded a re-run to prove the method actually worked. Several weeks later it was clear the second run was also a success, and he helped publish their results privately in Toronto that November. However, they needed six weeks to extract the isletin, dramatically slowing testing. Banting suggested that they try to use fetal calf pancreas, which had not yet developed digestive glands; he was relieved to find that this method worked well. With the supply problem solved, the next major effort was to purify the protein. In December 1921, Macleod invited the [[biochemist]] [[James Collip]]<!--"James Collip" is NOT a descriptive phrase and therefore should NOT be enclosed in commas; it is a qualifier--> to help with this task, and, within a month, he felt ready to test.
On [[January 11]], [[1922]], [[Leonard Thompson]], a fourteen-year-old diabetic, was given the first injection of insulin. However, the extract was so impure that he suffered a severe [[anaphylaxis|allergic reaction]], and further injections were canceled. Over the next 12 days, Collip worked day and night to improve the extract, and a second dose injected on the 23rd. This was completely successful, not only in not having obvious side-effects, but in completely eliminating the symptoms of diabetes. However, Banting and Best never worked well with Collip, regarding him as something of an interloper, and Collip left soon after.
Over the spring of 1922, Best managed to improve his techniques to the point where large quantities of insulin could be extracted on demand, but the extract remained impure. However, they had been approached by [[Eli Lilly and Company|Eli Lilly]] with an offer of help shortly after their first publications in 1921, and they took Lilly up on the offer in April. In November, Lilly made a major breakthrough, and were able to produce large quantities of<!--"very pure" is nonsensical--> pure insulin. Insulin was offered for sale shortly thereafter.
For this landmark discovery, Macleod and Banting were awarded the [[Nobel Prize]] in [[Physiology]] or [[Medicine]] in [[1923]]. Banting, insulted that Best was not mentioned, shared his prize with Best, and MacLeod immediately shared his with Collip. The patent for insulin was sold to the [[University of Toronto]] for one dollar.
The exact sequence of [[amino acid]]s comprising the insulin molecule, the so-called [[primary structure]], was determined by British molecular biologist [[Frederick Sanger]]. It was the first protein to have its structure be completely determined. For this he was awarded the [[Nobel Prize in Chemistry]] in 1958. In 1967, after decades of work, [[Dorothy Crowfoot Hodgkin]] determined the spatial conformation of the molecule, by means of [[X-ray diffraction]] studies. She also was awarded a Nobel Prize.
[[image:insulin_synthesis.png|framed|right|1. Preproinsulin ('''L'''eader, '''B''' chain, '''C''' chain, '''A''' chain); proinsulin consists of BCA, without L<BR>2. Spontaneous folding<BR>3. A and B chains linked by sulphide bonds<BR>4. Leader and C chain are cut off<BR>5. Insulin molecule remains]]
==Structure and production==
Insulin is synthesized in humans and other mammals within the [[beta cell]]s (B-cells) of the [[islets of Langerhans]] in the pancreas. One to three million islets of Langerhans (pancreatic islets) form the [[endocrine]] part of the [[pancreas]], which is primarily an [[exocrine]] [[gland]]. The endocrine part accounts for only 2% of the total mass of the pancreas. Within the islets of Langerhans, beta cells constitute 60–80% of all the cells.
Insulin is synthesized from the proinsulin precursor molecule by the action of proteolytic enzymes known as prohormone convertases (PC1 and PC2). Active insulin has 51 amino acids and is one of the smallest proteins known. Beef insulin differs from human insulin in three [[amino acid]] residues, and pork insulin in one residue. Fish insulin is also close enough to human insulin to be effective in humans. In humans, insulin has a [[molecular weight]] of 5808. Insulin is structured as 2 polypeptide chains linked by 2 [[sulfur bridges]] (see figure shown above), with one additional sulfur bond in the A chain (not shown). Chain A consists of 21, and chain B of 30 amino acids. Insulin is produced as a [[prohormone]] molecule – [[proinsulin]] – that is later transformed by [[proteolysis|proteolytic]] action into the active hormone.
The remaining part of the proinsulin molecule is called [[C-peptide]]. This polypeptide is released into the blood in equal amounts to the insulin protein. Since exogenous insulins contain no C-peptide component, serum levels of C-peptide are good indicators of endogenous insulin production. C-peptide has recently been discovered to have itself biological activity; the activity is apparently confined to an effect on the muscular layer of the [[artery|arteries]].
==Actions on cellular and metabolic level==
The actions of insulin on the global human metabolism level include:
* Control of cellular intake of certain substances, most prominently [[glucose]] in muscle and adipose tissue (about 2/3 of body cells).
* Increase of [[DNA replication]] and [[protein synthesis]] via control of amino acid uptake.
* Modification of the activity of numerous [[enzymes]] ([[allostery|allosteric effect]]).
The actions of insulin on cells include:
* Increased [[glycogen]] synthesis – insulin forces storage of glucose in liver (and muscle) cells in the form of glycogen; lowered levels of insulin cause liver cells to convert glycogen to glucose and excrete it into the blood. This is the clinical action of insulin which is useful in reducing high blood glucose levels as in diabetes.
* Increased [[fatty acid]] synthesis – insulin forces fat cells to take in glucose which is converted to [[triglycerides]]; lack of insulin causes the reverse.
* Increased esterification of fatty acids – forces [[adipose tissue]] to make fats (ie, triglycerides) from fatty acid esters; lack of insulin causes the reverse.
* Decreased [[proteinolysis]] – forces reduction of protein degradation; lack of insulin increases protein degradation.
* Decreased [[lipolysis]] – forces reduction in conversion of fat cell lipid stores into blood fatty acids; lack of insulin causes the reverse.
* Decreased [[gluconeogenesis]] – decreases production of glucose from various substrates in liver; lack of insulin causes glucose production from assorted substrates in the liver and elsewhere.
* Increased amino acid uptake – forces cells to absorb circulating amino acids; lack of insulin inhibits absorption.
* Increased potassium uptake – forces cells to absorb serum potassium; lack of insulin inhibits absorption.
* Arterial muscle tone – forces arterial wall muscle to relax, increasing blood flow, especially in micro arteries; lack of insulin reduces flow by allowing these muscles to contract.
==Regulatory action on blood glucose==
Despite long intervals between meals or the occasional consumption of meals with a substantial [[carbohydrate]] load (e.g., half a [[birthday cake]] or a bag of [[potato chip]]s), human [[blood glucose]] levels normally remain within a narrow range. In most humans this varies from about 70 mg/dl to perhaps 110 mg/dl (3.9 to 6.1 [[mmol]]/litre) except shortly after eating when the blood glucose level rises temporarily. In a healthy adult male of 75 [[kilogram|kg]] with a [[blood]] volume of 5 [[litre]], a blood glucose level of 100 mg/dl or 5.5 mmol/l corresponds to about 5 g (1/5 ounce) of glucose in the blood and approximately 45 g (1 1/2 ounces) in the total [[body water]] (which obviously includes more than merely blood and will be usually about 60% of the total [[body weight]] in men). This [[homeostasis|homeostatic]] effect is the result of many factors, of which hormone regulation is the most important.
There are two groups of mutually antagonistic metabolic hormones affecting blood glucose levels:
* catabolic hormones (such as [[glucagon]], [[growth hormone]], and [[catecholamines]]), which increase blood glucose
* and one anabolic hormone (insulin), which decreases blood glucose
Mechanisms which restore satisfactory blood glucose levels after [[hypoglycemia]] must be quick and effective because of the immediate serious consequences of insufficient glucose. This is because, at least in the short term, it is far more dangerous to have too little glucose in the blood than too much. In healthy individuals these mechanisms are indeed generally efficient, and symptomatic hypoglycemia is generally only found in diabetics using insulin or other pharmacologic treatment. Such hypoglycemic episodes vary greatly between persons and from time to time, both in severity and swiftness of onset. In severe cases prompt medical assistance is essential, as damage (to brain and other tissues) and even death will result from sufficiently low blood glucose levels.
[[Image:Glucose-insulin-release.png|right|thumb|400px|Mechanism of glucose dependent insulin release]]
Beta cells in the islets of Langerhans are sensitive to variations in blood glucose levels through the following mechanism (see figure to the right):
* Glucose enters the [[beta cell]]s through the [[glucose transporter]] [[GLUT2]]
* Glucose goes into the [[glycolysis]] and the [[respiratory cycle]] where the high-energy [[adenosine triphosphate|ATP]] molecule is produced by oxidation
* Dependent on blood glucose levels and hence ATP levels, the ATP controlled [[potassium]] channels (K+) close and the cell membranes depolarise
* On [[depolarisation]], voltage controlled [[calcium]] channels (Ca2+) open and calcium flows into the cells
* An increased calcium level causes activation of [[phospholipase|phospholipase C]], which cleaves the membrane phospholipid [[phosphatidyl inositol 4,5-bisphosphate]] into [[inositol 1,4,5-triphosphate]] and [[diacylglycerol]].
*Inositol 4,5-biphosphate binds to receptor proteins in the membrane of [[endoplasmic reticulum]]. This further raises the cell concentration of calcium.
* Significantly increased amount of calcium in the cells causes release of previously synthesised insulin, which has been stored in [[secretion|secretory]] [[vesicle (biology)|vesicles]]
* The calcium level also regulates [[gene expression|expression]] of the insulin [[gene]] via the calcium responsive element binding protein ([[CREB]]).
This is the main mechanism for release of insulin and regulation of insulin synthesis. In addition some insulin synthesis and release takes place generally at food intake, not just glucose or [[carbohydrate]] intake, and the beta cells are also somewhat influenced by the [[autonomic nervous system]].
Substances that stimulate insulin release are also acetylcholine, released from vagus nerve endings ([[parasympathetic nervous system]]), [[cholecystokinin]], released by [[enteroendocrine cell]]s of [[Intestinal_mucosa#Your_digestive_system_and_how_it_works|intestinal mucosa]] and [[gastrointestinal inhibitory peptide]] (GIP). The first of these act similarly as glucose through phospholipase C, while the last one acts through the mechanism of [[adenylate cyclase]].
[[Sympathetic nervous system]] ([[Alpha2-adrenergic agonists|α<sub>2</sub> adrenergic agonists]]) inhibits the release of insulin.
When the glucose level comes down to the usual physiologic value, insulin release from the beta cells slows or stops. If blood glucose levels drop lower than this, especially to dangerously low levels, release of hyperglycemic hormones (most prominently glucagon from Islet alpha cells) forces release of glucose into the blood from cellular stores. The release of insulin is strongly inhibited by the [[stress hormone]] [[adrenalin]] (epinephrine).
==Signal transduction==
There are special transport channels in [[cell membrane]]s through which [[glucose]] from the blood can enter a cell. These channels are, indirectly, under insulin control in certain body cell types. A lack of circulating insulin will prevent glucose from entering those cells (eg, in untreated Type 1 diabetes). However, more commonly there is a decrease in the sensitivity of cells to insulin (e.g. the reduced insulin sensitivity characteristic of Type 2 diabetes), resulting in decreased glucose absorption. In either case, there is 'cell starvation', weight loss, sometimes extreme. In a few cases, there is a defect in the release of insulin from the pancreas. Either way, the effect is the same: elevated blood glucose levels.
Activation of [[insulin receptor]]s leads to internal cellular mechanisms which directly affect glucose uptake by regulating the number and operation of protein molecules in the cell membrane which transport glucose into the cell.
Two types of tissues are most strongly influenced by insulin as far as the stimulation of glucose uptake is concerned: muscle cells ([[myocyte|myocytes]]) and fat cells ([[adipocyte|adipocytes]]). The former are important because of their central role in movement, breathing, circulation, etc, and the latter because they accumulate excess [[food energy]] against future needs. Together, they account for about 2/3 of all cells in a typical human body.
==The brain and hypoglycemia==
Though other cells can use other fuels for a while (most prominently fatty acids), [[neurons]] are dependent on glucose as a source of energy in the non-starving human. They do not require insulin to absorb glucose, unlike muscle and adipose tissue and they have very small internal stores of glycogen. Thus, a sufficiently low glucose level first and most dramatically manifests itself in impaired functioning of the [[central nervous system]] – dizziness, speech problems, even loss of consciousness, are common. This phenomenon is known as [[hypoglycemia]] or, in cases producing unconsciousness, "hypoglycemic coma" (formerly termed "insulin shock" from the most common causative agent). Because endogenous causes of insulin excess (such as an [[insulinoma]]) are extremely rare naturally, the overwhelming majority of hypoglycemia cases are caused by human action (e.g. [[iatrogenic]], caused by human action, eg medicine), and are usually accidental. There have been a few cases reported of murder, attempted murder or suicide using insulin overdoses, but most insulin shock appears to be due to mismanagement of insulin (didn't eat as much as anticipated, or exercised more than expected), or a mistake (e.g. 200 units of insulin instead of 20).
Causes of hypoglycemia are:
* Oral hypoglycemic agents (eg, any of the sulfonylureas, or similar drugs, which increase insulin release from beta cells in response to a particular blood glucose level).
* External insulin (usually injected subcutaneously).
* Ingestion of low-carbohydrate sugar substitutes (animal studies show these can trigger insulin release according to Discover magazine August 2005, p18).
== Diseases and syndromes caused by an insulin disturbance==
There are several conditions in which insulin disturbance is pathologic:
* [[Diabetes mellitus]] – general term referring to all states characterized by hyperglycemia.
** [[Diabetes mellitus#Type 1|Type 1]] – autoimmune-mediated destruction of insulin producing beta cells in the pancreas resulting in absolute insulin deficiency.
** [[Diabetes mellitus#Type 2|Type 2]] – multifactoral syndrome with combined influence of genetic susceptibility and influence of environmental factors, the best known being [[obesity]], age, and physical inactivity, resulting in [[insulin resistance]] in cells requiring insulin for glucose absorption. This form of diabetes is strongly inherited.
** Other types of impaired glucose tolerance (see the diabetes article).
* [[Insulinoma]] or [[reactive hypoglycemia]].
* [[Metabolic syndrome]] – precondition first called Metabolic Syndrome X by Gerald Reaven, sometimes called prediabetes. The precondition is characterized by elevated blood pressure, dyslipidemia (disturbances in blood cholesterol forms and other blood lipids), and increased waist circumference in Western populations. The basic underlying cause is insulin resistance, a dimished capacity of insulin response tissues (muscle, fat, liver) to respond to insulin. Untreated, Metabolic Syndrome can lead to morbidities such as essential hypertension, obesity, Type 2 diabetes, and cardiovascular disease (CVD).
==Insulin as a medication==
===Principles===
Insulin is absolutely required for all animal (including human) life. The mechanism is almost identical in nematode worms (e.g. ''[[Caenorhabitis elegans|C. elegans]]''), fish, and in mammals. In humans, insulin deprivation due to the removal or destruction of the pancreas leads to death in days or at most weeks. Insulin must be administered to patients in whom there is a lack of the hormone for this, or any other, reason. Clinically, this is called [[diabetes mellitus#Type 1|diabetes mellitus type 1]].
The initial source of insulin was from [[cow|cows]], [[pig|pigs]] or [[fish]] pancreases. Insulin from these sources are effective in humans as they are nearly identical to human insulin (two amino acid difference for bovine insulin, one amino acid difference for porcine). Insulin is a protein which has been very strongly conserved across evolutionary time. Differences in suitability of beef, pork, or fish insulin preparations for particular patients have been primarily the result of preparation purity and of allergic reactions to assorted non-insulin substances remaining in those preparations. Purity has improved more or less steadily since the 1920s, but allergic reactions have continued. Though production of insulin from animal pancreases was widespread for decades, there are very few patients today relying on this form of insulin.
Human insulin is now manufactured for widespread clinical use using [[genetic engineering]] techniques, which significantly reduces impurity reaction problems. [[Eli Lilly and Company|Eli Lilly]] marketed the first such insulin, Humulin, in [[1982]]. Humulin was the first medication produced using modern genetic engineering techniques, in which actual human DNA is inserted into a host cell (''E. coli'' in this case). The host cells are then allowed to grow and reproduce normally, and due to the inserted human DNA, they produce actual human insulin.
[[Genentech]] developed the technique Lilly used to produce Humulin. [[Novo Nordisk]] has also developed a genetically engineered insulin independently. Most insulins used clinically are produced this way, for it avoids the allergic reaction problem.
=== Modes of administration ===
Unlike many medicines, insulin cannot be taken orally. It is treated in the [[gastrointestinal tract]] precisely as any other protein; that is, reduced to its amino acid components, whereupon all 'insulin activity' is lost. There are research efforts underway to develop methods of protecting insulin from the digestive tract so that it can be taken orally, but none has yet reached clinical use. Instead insulin is usually taken as [[subcutaneous]] [[injection]]s by single-use [[syringe]]s with [[hypodermic needle|needle]]s, or by repeated-use [[insulin pen]]s with needles.
There are several difficulties with the use of insulin as a clinical treatment for diabetes:
* Mode of administration.
* Selecting the 'right' dose and timing.
* Selecting an appropriate insulin preparation (typically on 'speed of onset and duration of action' grounds).
* Adjusting dosage and timing to fit food amounts and types.
* Adjusting dosage and timing to fit exercise undertaken.
* Adjusting dosage, type, and timing to fit other conditions as for instance the increased stress of illness.
* The dosage is non-physiologic in that a subcutaneous [[bolus]] dosage of only insulin is given instead of the pancreas releasing insulin and C-peptide gradually and directly into the [[portal vein]].
* It is simply a nuisance for patients to inject themselves once or several times a day.
* It may be dangerous in the case of mistake (most especially 'too much' insulin).
There have been several attempts to improve upon this mode of administering insulin as many people find injection awkward and painful. One alternative is jet injection (also sometimes used for some vaccinations) which has different insulin delivery peaks and durations as compared to needle injection of the same amount and type of insulin. Some diabetics find control possible with jet injectors, but not with hypodermic injection. There are also 'insulin pumps' of various types which are 'electrical injectors' attached to a semi-permanently implanted needle (ie, a catheter). Some who cannot achieve adequate glucose control by conventional injection (or sometimes jet injection) are able to with the appropriate pump.
An [[insulin pump]] is a reasonable solution for some. However there are several major limitations - cost, the potential for hypoglycemic episodes, catheter problems, and, thus far, no approvable means of controlling insulin delivery in the field based on blood glucose levels. If too much insulin is delivered or the patient eats less than normal, there will be hypoglycemia. On the other hand, if too little insulin is delivered by the pump, there will be hyperglycemia. Both of these can lead to potentially life-threatening conditions. In addition, indwelling catheters pose the risk of infection and ulceration. However, that risk can be minimized by keeping catheter sites clean. Thus far, insulin pumps require considerable care and effort to use correctly. However, some diabetics are able to keep their glucose in reasonable control only on a pump.
Researchers have produced a watch-like device that tests for blood glucose levels through the skin and administers corrective doses of insulin through [[pore]]s in the skin of the patient. Both electricity and ultrasound have been found to make the skin temporarily porous. The insulin administration aspect remains experimental at this writing. The blood glucose test aspect of such 'wrist appliances' is, at this writing, commercially available essentially as described.
Another 'improvement' would be to avoid periodic insulin administration entirely by installing a self-regulating insulin source. For instance, pancreatic, or beta cell, [[transplantation]]. Transplantation of an entire pancreas (as an individual [[organ (anatomy)|organ]]) is technically difficult, and is not common. Generally, it is performed in conjunction with [[liver]] or [[kidney]] transplant surgery. However, transplantation of only pancreatic beta cells is a possibility. It has been highly experimental (for which read 'prone to failure') for many years, but some researchers in [[Alberta, Canada]], have developed techniques which have produced a much higher success rate (about 90% in one group). Beta cell transplant may become practical, and common, in the near future. Additionally, some researchers have explored the possibility of transplanting [[Genetic Engineering|genetically engineered]] non-beta cells to secrete insulin, as an alternative to beta cell transplantation.<sup>[http://endo.endojournals.org/cgi/content/abstract/145/8/3840]</sup> Clinically testable results are far from realization. Several other non-transplant methods of automatic insulin delivery are being developed in the research labs as this is written. None is currently close to clinical approval.
[[Inhaled insulin]] is under active investigation as are several other insulin administration techniques. Currently the only inhalable insulin approved by the [[FDA]] {{ref|exubera}} for use is [[Exubera]].
=== Dosage and timing ===
The central problem for those requiring external insulin is picking the right dose of insulin and the right timing.
<!-- It would be best to show this graphically. Eg, a graph of typical blood glucose levels and blood insulin levels in people without diabetes and in those with diabetes injecting themselves 1, 2, 3 or more times a day. -->
Physiological regulation of blood glucose, as in the non-diabetic, would be best. Increased blood glucose levels after a meal is a stimulus for prompt release of insulin from the pancreas. The increased insulin level causes glucose absorption and storage, reducing glycogen to glucose conversion, reducing blood glucose levels, and so reducing insulin release. The result is that the blood glucose level rises somewhat after eating, and within an hour or so returns to the normal 'fasting' level. Even the best diabetic treatment with human insulin, however administered, falls short of normal glucose control in the non-diabetic.
Complicating matters is that the composition of the food eaten (see ''[[glycemic index]]'') affects intestinal absorption rates. Glucose from some foods is absorbed more (or less) rapidly than the same amount of glucose in other foods. And, fats and proteins both cause delays in absorption of glucose from carbohydrate eaten at the same time. As well, exercise reduces the need for insulin even when all other factors remain the same, since working muscle has some ability to take up glucose without the help of insulin.
It is in principle impossible to know for certain how much insulin (and which type) is needed to 'cover' a particular meal in order to achieve a reasonable blood glucose level within an hour or two after eating. Non-diabetics' beta cells routinely and automatically manage this by continual glucose level monitoring and adjustment of insulin release. All such decisions by a diabetic must be based on general experience and training (ie, at the direction of a physician or PA, or in some places a specialist diabetic educator) and, further, specifically based on the individual experience of the patient. It is not straightforward and should never be done by habit or routine, but with care can be done quite successfully in practice.
For example, some diabetics require more insulin after drinking [[skim milk]] than they do after taking an equivalent amount of fat, protein, carbohydrate, and fluid in some other form. Their particular reaction to skimmed milk is different than other diabetics', but the same amount of whole milk is likely to cause a still different reaction even in that same person. Whole milk contains considerable fat while skimmed milk has much less. It is a continual balancing act for all diabetics, especially for those taking insulin.
Insulin dependant diabetics require a base level of insulin (Basal Insulin), as well as extra short acting insulin to cope with meals (Bolus Insulin). Maintaining the basal rate and the bolus rate is a continuous balancing act that all insulin diabetics have to manage each day. This is normally achieved through regular blood tests, although there is work being undertaken on continuous blood sugar testing equipment.
It is important to notice that diabetics generally need more insulin than the usual -not less- during physical stress like infections or surgeries.
===Types===
Medical preparations of insulin (from the major suppliers – [[Eli Lilly and Company|Eli Lilly]] and [[Novo Nordisk]] -- or from any other) are never just 'insulin in water'. Clinical insulins are specially prepared mixtures of insulin plus other substances. These delay absorption of the insulin, adjust the pH of the solution to reduce reactions at the injection site, and so on. Some recent insulins are not even precisely insulin, but so called [[insulin analog]]s. The insulin molecule in an insulin analog is slightly modified so that they are:
* Absorbed rapidly enough to mimic real beta cell insulin (Lilly's is 'lispro', Novo Nordisk's is 'aspart').
* Steadily absorbed after injection instead of having a 'peak' followed by a more or less rapid decline in insulin action ([[Novo Nordisk]] version is 'Insulin detemir' and [[Aventis]]' version is 'Insulin glargine').
* All while retaining insulin action in the human body.
The management of choosing insulin type and dosage / timing should be done by an experienced medical professional working with the diabetic.
Allowing blood glucose levels to rise, though not to levels which cause acute hyperglycemic symptoms, is not a sensible choice. Several large, well designed, [[clinical trial|long term studies]] have conclusively shown that diabetic complications decrease markedly, linearly, and consistently as blood glucose levels approach 'normal' patterns over long periods. In short, if a diabetic closely controls blood glucose levels (ie, on average, both over days and weeks, and avoiding too high peaks after meals) the rate of diabetic complications goes down. If glucose levels are very closely controlled, that rate can even approach 'normal'. The chronic diabetic complications include [[cerebrovascular accident]]s (CVA or stroke), heart attack, blindness (from proliferative diabetic [[retinopathy]]), toehr vascular damage, nerve damage from [[diabetic neuropathy]], or kidney failure from [[diabetic nephropathy]]. These studies have demonstrated ''beyond doubt'' that, if it is possible for a patient, so-called [[intensive insulinotherapy]] is superior to [[conventional insulinotherapy]]. However, close control of blood glucose levels (as in intensive insulinotherapy) does require care and considerable effort, for [[hypoglycemia]] is dangerous and can be fatal.
A good measure of long term diabetic control (over approximately 90 days in most people) is the serum level of [[glycosylated hemoglobin]] ([[HbA1c]]). A shorter term integrated measure (over two weeks or so) is the so-called 'fructosamine' level, which is a measure of similarly glyclosylated proteins (chiefly albumin) with a shorter half life in the blood. There is a commercial meter available which measures this level in the field.
===Abuse===
There are reports that some patients abuse insulin by injecting larger doses that lead to mild hypoglycemic states. This is extremely dangerous. Severe acute or prolonged hypoglycemia can result in brain damage or death.
On [[July 23]], [[2004]], news reports claim that a former spouse of a prominent international track athlete said that, among other drugs, the ex-spouse had used insulin as a way of 'energizing' the body. The intended implication would seem to be that insulin has effects similar to those alleged for some [[steroid]]s. This is not so; eighty years of insulin use has given no reason to believe it to be in any respect a performance enhancer for non diabetics. Improperly treated diabetics are, to be sure, more prone than others to exhaustion and tiredness, and in some of these cases, proper administration of insulin can relieve such symptoms. However, insulin is not, chemically or clinically, a steroid, and its use in non diabetics is dangerous and always an abuse outside of a well-equipped medical facility. However, while not strictly performance increasing, its ability to shuttle nutrients into the cells is a sought after effect from athletes trying to increase muscle mass.
However, when properly administered, insulin can restore body metabolism to something sufficiently close to normal to allow athletes to return to their former performance levels. Examples include [[Bill Talbert]], the best male tennis player in the world for an extended time, [[Gary Hall Jr.]] the Olympic champion swimmer, [[Bobby Clarke]], an NHL Hall of Famer, at least one young professional Tour golfer, etc. Performance in other fields can also be maintained. Examples include [[Jerry Garcia]] of the [[Grateful Dead]], and [[David Crosby]], of [[Crosby, Stills & Nash]].
==Timeline==
*1922 Banting and Best use bovine insulin extract on human
*1923 [[Eli Lilly and Company|Eli Lilly]] produces commercial quantities of bovine insulin
*1923 Hagedorn founds the Nordisk Insulinlaboratorium in Denmark forrunner of [[Novo Nordisk]]
*1926 [[Nordisk]] receives Danish charter to produce insulin as a non profit
*1936 Canadians D.M. Scott and A.M. Fisher formulate zinc insulin mixture and license to [[Novo]]
*1936 Hagedorn discovers that adding protamine to insulin prolongs the effect of insulin
*1946 Nordisk formulates Isophane® porcine insulin aka Neutral Protamine Hagedorn or [[NPH insulin]]
*1946 [[Nordisk]] crystallizes a protamine and insulin mixture
*1950 [[Nordisk]] markets [[NPH insulin]]
*1953 [[Novo]] formulates Lente® porcine and bovine insulins by adding zinc for longer lasting insulin
*1973 Purified monocomponent (MC) insulin is introduced
*1978 [[Genentech]] produces human insulin in ''Escheria coli'' bacteria using recombinant DNA
*1981 [[Novo Nordisk]] chemically and enzymatically converts bovine to human insulin
*1982 [[Genentech]] human insulin approved
*1983 [[Eli Lilly and Company|Eli Lilly]] produces recombinant human insulin, Humulin®
*1985 Axel Ullrich sequences the human insulin receptor
*1988 [[Novo Nordisk]] produces recombinant human insulin
*1996 [[Eli Lilly and Company|Lilly]] Humalog® "lyspro" insulin analogue approved
*2004 [[Aventis]] [[Lantus]]® "glargine" insulin analogue approved
*2006 [[Novo Nordisk]] "detemir" up for approval in USA, being researched in Nunnery Wood High, Worcester, England
==See also==
* Anatomy and physiolologye
** [[Glucagon]]
** [[Pancreas]]
** [[Islets of Langerhans]]
** [[Endocrinology]]
* Forms of diabetes mellitus
** [[Diabetes mellitus]]
** [[Diabetes mellitus type 1]]
** [[Diabetes mellitus type 2]]
* Treatment
** [[Diabetic coma]]
** [[Intensive insulinotherapy]]
** [[Insulin pump]]
** [[Conventional insulinotherapy]]
== References ==
* Gerald M Reaven, Ami Laws, ''Insulin Resistance: The Metabolic Syndrome X'', ISBN 0896035883
* Jack L Leahy, William T Cefalu, ''Insulin Therapy'', ISBN 0824707117
* Sudhesh Kumar, Stephen O'Rahilly, ''Insulin Resistance: Insulin Action and Its Disturbances in Disease'', ISBN 0470850086
* Ann Ehrlich, Carol L Schroeder, ''Medical Terminology for Health Professions'', ISBN 0766812979
* Draznin, ''Molecular Biology of Diabetes: Autoimmunity and Genetics; Insulin Synthesis and Secretion'', ISBN 0896032868
* {{note|exubera}} FDA approval of ''Exubera'' inhaled insulin http://www.fda.gov/bbs/topics/news/2006/NEW01304.html
== External links ==
*[http://nist.rcsb.org/pdb/molecules/pdb14_1.html Insulin: entry from protein databank]
*[http://www.med.uni-giessen.de/itr/history/inshist.html The History of Insulin]
*[http://www.rxlist.com/cgi/generic/insulinlispro.htm Insulin Lispro]
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Inductor
14896
42038131
2006-03-03T10:51:56Z
Rtdrury
172514
/* Formulae */
An '''inductor''' is a [[passive]] electrical device employed in [[Electrical network|electrical circuits]] for its property of [[inductance]]. An inductor can take many forms.
[[Image:Inductors-photo.JPG|thumb|right|370px|Inductors]]
==Physics==
=== Overview ===
Inductance (measured in [[Henry (inductance)|henrys]]) is an effect which results from the [[magnetic field]] that forms around a current carrying [[Conductor (material)|conductor]]. [[Current (electricity)|Electrical current]] flowing through the inductor creates a magnetic field which has an associated electromotive field which opposes the applied voltage. This counter [[electromotive force]] (emf) is generated which opposes the change in voltage applied to the inductor and current in the inductor resists the change but does rise. This is known as inductive reactance. It is opposite in phase to capacitive reactance. Inductance can be increased by looping the conductor into a coil which creates a larger magnetic field.
=== Stored energy ===
The [[energy]] (measured in [[joule]]s, in [[SI]]) stored by an inductor is equal to the amount of work required to establish the current flowing through the inductor, and therefore the magnetic field. This is given by:
:<math> E_\mathrm{stored} = {1 \over 2} L I^2 </math>
where ''L'' is inductance and ''I'' is the current flowing through the inductor.
===Hydraulic model===
As electrical current can be modeled by fluid flow, much like water through pipes; the inductor can be modeled by the flywheel effect of a turbine rotated by the flow. As can be demonstrated intuitively and mathematically, this mimics the behavior of an electrical inductor; current is the integral of voltage, in cases of a sudden interruption of flow it will generate a high pressure across the blockage, etc. Magnetic interactions such as transformers, however, are not modeled.
== In electric circuits ==
While a capacitor resists changes in voltage, an inductor resists changes in current. An ideal inductor would offer no resistance to [[direct current]], however, all real-world inductors have non-zero [[electrical resistance]].
In general, the relationship between the time-varying voltage ''v''(''t'') across an inductor with inductance ''L'' and the time-varying current ''i''(''t'') passing through it is described by the [[differential equation]]:
:<math>v(t) = L \frac{di(t)}{dt}</math>
When a sinusoidal [[alternating current]] (AC) flows through an inductor, a sinusoidal alternating voltage (or [[electromotive force]] (emf) ) is induced. The amplitude of the emf is equal to the amplitude of the current and to the frequency of the sinusoid by the following equation. The [[Phase (waves)|phase]] of the current lags that of the voltage by 90 degrees. In a capacitor the current leads voltage by 90 degrees. When the inductor is combined with a capacitor, in series or parallel, an [[LC circuit]] is formed with a specific resonant frequency:
:<math>V = I \times \omega L\,</math>
where ω is the ''[[angular frequency]]'' of the sinusoid defined in terms of the frequency ''F'' as:
:<math>\omega = 2 \pi F\,</math>
Inductive reactance, Xl, is defined as:
:<math> X_L = \omega L = 2 \pi F L\, </math>
where ''X<sub>L</sub>'' is the [[inductive reactance]], ω is the [[angular frequency]], ''F'' is the frequency in [[hertz]], and ''L'' is the [[inductance]] in henries.
Inductive reactance is the positive component of [[impedance]]. It is measured in ohms. The impedance of an inductor (inductive reactance) is then given by:
:<math> Z = j \omega L = j 2 \pi F L = j X_L\, </math>
where ''X<sub>L</sub>'' is in ohms.
When using the [[Laplace transform]] in circuit analysis, the inductive impedance is represented in the ''s'' domain by:
:<math>Z(s) = s L\, </math>
In an ideal inductor, the current lags behind the voltage by 90° or π/2 radians, but since physical inductors are made from wire that has resistance, a combination resistive-inductive circuit results causing the Q of the tank to be lower.
=== Inductor networks ===
{{main|Series and parallel circuits}}
Inductors in a [[Series and parallel circuits|parallel]] configuration each have the same potential difference (voltage). To find their total equivalent inductance (''L''<sub>eq</sub>):
:[[image:inductorsparallel.png|A diagram of several inductors, side by side, both leads of each connected to the same wires]]
:<math> \frac{1}{L_\mathrm{eq}} = \frac{1}{L_1} + \frac{1}{L_2} + \cdots + \frac{1}{L_n}</math>
The current through inductors in [[Series and parallel circuits|series]] stays the same, but the voltage across each inductor can be different. The sum of the potential differences (voltage) is equal to the total voltage. To find their total inductance:
:[[image:inductorsseries.png|A diagram of several inductors, connected end to end, with the same amount of current going through each]]
:<math> L_\mathrm{eq} = L_1 + L_2 + \cdots + L_n \,\! </math>
These relationships hold true only in the limit that they are in magnetically decoupled environments.
== ''Q'' Factor ==
There has not been an ideal inductor created to-date, the nearest approximation being a supercooled inductor (for example, one cooled with liquid nitrogen or a similar supercooled substance). In the real world inductors have a series resistance created by the copper or other electrically conductive metal wire forming the coils. This series resistance converts the electrical current flowing through the coils into heat, thus causing a loss of inductive quality.
This is where the quality factor is born. The quality factor is a ratio of the inductance to the resistance.
The [[Q factor|quality factor]] of an inductor can be found through this formula, where ''R'' is its internal [[electrical resistance]]:
:<math>Q = \frac{\omega{}L}{R}</math>
==Formulae==
1. Basic inductance formula:
<math>L=\frac{\mu_0\mu_rN^2A}{l}</math><br>
:''L'' = Inductance in [[Henry (inductance)|henries]]<br>
:''μ<sub>0</sub>'' = [[permeability]] of [[vacuum|free space]] = 4π × 10<sup>-7</sup> H/m<br>
:''μ<sub>r</sub>'' = relative permeability of core material<br>
:''N'' = number of turns<br>
:''A'' = area of cross-section of the coil in [[square metre]]s (m<sup>2</sup>)<br>
:''l'' = length of coil in [[metre]]s (m)<br>
(note: the following formulas were optimized to be used with [[imperial unit]]s)
<!-- where are the SI formulas? :| -->
2. Inductance of a straight wire conductor:
<math>L = 5.08 \cdot l\left(\ln\frac{4l}{d}-1\right)</math><br>
:''L'' = inductance in nH<br>
:''l'' = length of conductor in inches<br>
:''d'' = diameter of conductor in inches<br>
3. Inductance of air core inductor in terms of geometric parameters:
<math>L=\frac{r^2N^2}{9r+10l}</math><br>
:''L'' = inductance in μH<br>
:''r'' = outer radius of coil in inches<br>
:''l'' = length of coil in inches<br>
:''N'' = number of turns<br>
4. For multilayered air core coil:
<math>L = \frac{0.8r^2N^2}{6r+9l+10d}</math><br>
:''L'' = inductance in μH<br>
:''r'' = mean radius of coil in inches<br>
:''l'' = length of coil in inches<br>
:''N'' = number of turns<br>
:''d'' = depth of coil in inches<br>
5. Inductance of a spring coil:
<math>L=\frac{r^2N^2}{6r+11d}</math>
:''L'' = inductance in μH<br>
:''r'' = mean radius of coil in inches<br>
:''N'' = number of turns<br>
:''d'' = depth of coil in inches<br>
== Inductor construction ==
An inductor is usually constructed as a [[coil]] of [[Conductor (material)|conducting]] material, typically copper wire, wrapped around a [[magnetic core|core]] either of air or of ferrous material. Core materials with a higher [[Permeability (electromagnetism)|permeability]] than air confine the magnetic field closely to the inductor, thereby increasing the inductance. Inductors come in many shapes. Most are constructed as enamel coated wire wrapped around a ferrite [[bobbin]] with wire exposed on the outside, while some enclose the wire completely in ferrite and are called "shielded". Some inductors have an adjustable core, which enables changing of the inductance. Small inductors can be etched directly onto a [[printed circuit board]] by laying out the trace in a [[spiral]] pattern. Small value inductors can also be built on [[integrated circuit]]s using the same processes that are used to make [[transistors]]. In these cases, aluminum [[interconnect]] is typically used as the conducting material. However, practical constraints make it far more common to use a circuit called a "[[gyrator]]" which uses a [[capacitor]] and active components to behave similarly to an inductor.
Inductors used to block very high frequencies are sometimes made with a wire passing through a [[ferrite]] cylinder or bead.
== Applications ==
Inductors are used extensively in [[analog circuit]]s and signal processing. Inductors in conjunction with [[capacitor]]s and other components form tuned circuits which can emphasize or [[electronic filter|filter]] out specific signal frequencies. This can range from the use of large inductors as '''chokes''' in power supplies, now obsolete, which in conjunction with filter [[capacitor]]s remove residual [[hum]] or other fluctuations from the direct current output, to such small inductances as generated by a [[ferrite]] bead or [[torus]] around a cable to prevent [[radio frequency interference]] from being transmitted down the wire. Smaller inductor/capacitor combinations provide [[tuned circuit]]s used in radio reception and broadcasting, for instance.
Two (or more) inductors which have coupled magnetic flux form a [[transformer]], which is a fundamental component of every electric [[Public utility|utility]] power grid. The efficiency of a transformer increases as the frequency increases; for this reason, aircraft used 400 hertz alternating current rather than the usual 50 or 60 hertz, allowing a great savings in weight from the use of smaller transformers.
An inductor is used as the energy storage device in a [[switched-mode power supply]]. The inductor is energized for a specific fraction of the regulator's switching frequency, and de-energized for the remainder of the cycle. This energy transfer ratio determines the input-voltage to output-voltage ratio. This ''X''<sub>L</sub> is used in complement with an active semiconductor device to maintain very accurate voltage control.
Inductors are also employed in electrical transmission systems, where they are used to intentionally depress system voltages or limit [[fault current]]. In this field, they are more commonly referred to as reactors.
As inductors tend to be larger and heavier than other components, their use has been reduced in modern equipment; solid state switching power supplies eliminate large transformers, for instance, and circuits are designed to use only small inductors, if any; larger values are simulated by use of [[gyrator]] circuits.
== See also ==
* [[Capacitor]]
* [[Resistor]]
* [[Electricity]]
* [[Electronics]]
* [[Gyrator]]
* [[Inductance]] (including ''mutual inductance'')
* [[induction coil]]
* [[Induction loop]]
* [[Saturable reactor]]
* [[Transformer]]
== Synonyms ==
<!-- Are some of these circular Wikilinks? Should they become hard-redirects back to here? -->
* [[coil]]
* [[choke]]
* [[reactor]]
==External links==
;General
*[http://www.mpdigest.com/Articles/2005/aug2005/agilent/Default.htm Spiral inductor models]. Good article on inductor characteristics and modeling.
* [http://www.phys.unsw.edu.au/~jw/AC.html AC circuits]
* [http://www.theinductor.com The Inductor] Example of commercial use of inductors to create "flameless" heat.
* [http://www.mag-inc.com Magnetic Cores] Good link to magnetic cores.
*[http://www.gass-transformatoren.de/en/frame_wissenswert.htm About Reactors]
;Patents
* '''{{US patent|2415688}}''' -- "''Induction device''"
[[Category:Electromagnetic components]]
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Insulin pump
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El C
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Reverted edits by [[Special:Contributions/68.144.224.166|68.144.224.166]] ([[User talk:68.144.224.166|talk]]) to last version by Mustard
[[Image:Insulin_pump.jpg|thumb|right|Insulin pump]]
An '''insulin pump''' is a device used for administering [[insulin]] in the treatment of [[diabetes mellitus]].
The device consists principally of three parts :
* the pump itself including controls, processing module, and [[Battery (electricity)|batteries]]
* delivery tube to carry the insulin
* needle or more commonly a catheter inserted into the body subcutaneously
The insulin pump delivers a single type of fast-acting insulin in two ways :
* a basal (small) dose that is delivered constantly
* a bolus dose that is delivered before meals or to correct high blood [[glucose]] levels
[[Image:Insulin pump in use.jpg|thumb|right|Insulin pump in use]]
Because a single type of insulin is used, it is easier to determine the effect of a given dose by looking at the delivery profile of that insulin. Insulin pumps also make it possible to deliver much smaller amounts of insulin than can be injected using a syringe. This provides tighter control over blood sugar and [[HbA1c|Hemoglobin A1c]] levels, reducing the chance of [[Diabetes_mellitus#Long-term_complications|long-term complications]] associated with diabetes.
The amount of insulin delivered for a bolus is determined by the bloodsugar level and the grams of carbohydrates consumed. In all cases, delivery rates are determined by the user in consultation with his [[endocrinologist]]. Currently there is no means to automatically control the insulin delivery based on the blood glucose level of the user. However, the two main manufacturers of pumps, Medtronic (Paradigm, Minimed), and Roche Diagnostics (Disetronic H-Tron and D-Tron) are testing the concept of a closed-loop system but even if the concept is as promising as it appears there remains the legal problem of what happens if the system is incorrect. For example, continuous blood glucose monitoring technology can report very wide variances of blood glucose. Using the non-US measuring system of mmol/l a closed-system that detects glucose of say, 15 mmol/l might dispense 10u of fast acting insulin. If the patient has an actual glucose of 6 mmol/l (within the accepted glycaemic range), those 10 units of insulin could very quickly lead to hypoglycaemic [[coma]] which if not recognised and treated can kill very quickly. There is a lot more research to do on CBGM technology but the first closed-loop systems may be made available for clinical trials by mid-2006.
Use of insulin pumps is increasing as it provides an easier means to deliver multiple insulin injections for those using [[intensive insulinotherapy]]. It's also interesting to note that because of differences in health insurance and public funding, the US has about 150,000 pump users. In the UK, where public funding is limited, most patients have to self-finance their pumps. Because of this, there are maybe 1100 pump users in the UK by comparison.
==References==
* [http://www.diabetescaregroup.info/category/insulin-pump/ Diabetes Care Group blog on insulin pumps]
* [http://www.diabetes.org/type-1-diabetes/insulin-pumps.jsp American Diabetes Association guide to insulin pumps]
* [http://www.medicinenet.com/insulin_pump_for_diabetes_mellitus/article.htm Medicine.net guide for insulin pumps]
[[Category:Medical pumps]]
[[Category:Diabetes]]
[[cs:Inzulínová pumpa]]
[[he:משאבת אינסולין]]
ISO 3166
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Agentsoo
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[[:en:Wikipedia:Tools/Navigation_popups|Popups]]-assisted disambiguation from [[Standard]] to [[standardization]]
'''[[International Organization for Standardization|ISO]] 3166''' is a three-part [[geographic coding]] [[standardization|standard]] for [[code|coding]] the names of [[country|countries]] and [[dependent area]]s, and the principal [[country subdivision|subdivisions]] thereof.
*[[ISO 3166-1]] codes for country and dependent area names, first published in [[1974]]
**[[ISO 3166-1 alpha-2]] the famous two-letter [[country code]]s
**[[ISO 3166-1 alpha-3]] three-letter country codes
**[[ISO 3166-1 numeric]] three-digit country codes
*[[ISO 3166-2]] defines codes for the principal subdivisions of a country or dependent area.
**[[ISO 3166-2:2000-06-21]] Newsletter I-1
**[[ISO 3166-2:2002-05-21]] Newsletter I-2
**[[ISO 3166-2:2002-08-20]] Newsletter I-3
**[[ISO 3166-2:2002-12-10]] Newsletter I-4
**[[ISO 3166-2:2003-09-05]] Newsletter I-5
**[[ISO 3166-2:2004-03-08]] Newsletter I-6
**[[ISO 3166-2:2005-09-13]] Newsletter I-7
*[[ISO 3166-3]] defines codes for superseded ISO 3166-1 codes, first published in [[1998]].
==See also==
*[[Nomenclature of Territorial Units for Statistics]]
*[[Federal Information Processing Standard]]
*[[ISO 639]] (codes for languages)
*[[List of international license plate codes]]
==External links==
* From [[International Organization for Standardization|ISO]] website
** [http://www.iso.org/iso/en/prods-services/iso3166ma/index.html The ISO 3166/MA-Secretariat]
** [http://www.iso.org/iso/en/prods-services/iso3166ma/04background-on-iso-3166/you-and-iso3166.html ISO 3166 and You]
** [http://www.iso.org/iso/en/prods-services/iso3166ma/04background-on-iso-3166/implementations-of-iso3166-1.html Implementations of ISO 3166-1]
* [http://www.unc.edu/~rowlett/units/codes/country.htm Country Codes]
* [http://www.statoids.com/wab.html Country Codes with comparison]
[[Category:ISO standards|#03166]]
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Interactive Fiction
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#REDIRECT [[-ism]]
Intensive insulinotherapy
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2006-02-08T00:33:25Z
Ανδρέας
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/* Semantics of changing care: why "flexible" is replacing "intensive" therapy */ remove editor's comment
'''Intensive insulinotherapy''' or '''flexible insulin therapy''' is a therapeutic regimen for [[diabetes mellitus]] treatment.<br>In North America in 2004, many endocrinologists prefer the term "flexible insulin therapy" to intensive therapy and use it to refer to any method of replacing [[insulin]] that attempts to mimic the pattern of insulin secretion of a working pancreas. See at end of article for how semantic distinctions reflect changing treatment.
===Rationale for intensive or flexible treatment===
Long-term studies like the [[UK Prospective Diabetes Study]] (''UKPDS'') and the [[Diabetes Control and Complications Trial]] (''DCCT'') showed that '''intensive insulinotherapy''' achieved blood glucose levels closer to non-diabetic people and that this was associated with reduced frequency and severity of blood vessel damage. Damage to large and small blood vessels ([[macroangiopathy|macro-]] and [[diabetic microangiopathy| microvascular damage]]) is central to the development of [[diabetic complications|complications of diabetes mellitus]].
This evidence convinced most physicians who specialize in diabetes care that an important goal of treatment is to make the biochemical profile of the diabetic patient (blood lipids, HbA1c, etc.) as close to the values of non-diabetic people as possible. This is especially true for young patients with many decades of life ahead.
===A general description of intensive or flexible therapy===
A working pancreas continually secretes small amounts of insulin into the blood to prevent the body from shifting into "starvation metabolism." This insulin is referred to as ''basal insulin secretion''.
However, most insulin produced each day is produced during the digestion of meals. Insulin levels rise immediately as we begin to eat, remaining higher than the basal rate for 1 to 4 hours. This meal-associated (''prandial'') insulin production is roughly proportional to the amount of carbohydrate in the meal.
Intensive or flexible therapy involves supplying a continual supply of insulin to serve as the ''basal insulin'', supplying meal insulin in doses proportional to the size of the meals, and supplying extra insulin when needed to correct high glucose levels. These three components of the insulin regimen are commonly referred to as basal insulin, meal insulin, and high correction.
====Two common intensive/flexible regimens: pens and pumps====
One method of '''intensive insulinotherapy''' is based on multiple daily injections (sometimes referred to in medical literature as ''MDI''). Meal insulin is supplied by injection of rapid acting insulin before each meal in an amount proportional to the size of the meal. Basal insulin is provided as a once or twice daily injection of dose of a long acting insulin.
In an MDI regimen, [[insulin glargine]] (brandname: ''Lantus'', made by [[Aventis]]) is the long-acting insulin currently preferred for basal insulin. An older insulin used for this purpose is ultralente. ''Levemir'', made by [[Novo]], is another long-acting insulin in trials. Rapid-acting insulin analogs such as [[lispro]] (brandname: ''Humalog'', made by [[Eli Lilly and Company]]) and [[aspart]] (brandname: ''Novolog'', made by Novo) are preferred over older regular insulin for meal coverage and high correction. Most people using MDI regimens carry [[insulin pen]]s to inject their rapid acting insulins instead of traditional [[syringe]]s.
The other method of intensive/flexible insulin therapy is an [[insulin pump]]. It is a small mechanical device about the size of a deck of cards. It contains a syringe-like reservoir of about 3 days' insulin supply. This is connected by thin, disposable, plastic tubing to a needle-like "infusion device" inserted into the patient's skin and held in place by an adhesive patch. The infusion tubing and needle must be removed and replaced every few days.
An insulin pump can be programmed to infuse a steady amount of rapid-acting insulin under the skin. This steady infusion is termed the basal rate and is designed to supply the basal insulin needs. Each time the patient eats, he or she must press a button on the pump to instruct the pump to give a specified number of units of insulin to cover that meal. Extra insulin is also given the same way to correct a high glucose reading. Current pumps do not include a glucose sensor and cannot automatically respond to meals or to rising or falling glucose levels.
Both MDI and pumping can achieve similarly excellent glycemic control. Some people prefer pens because they are less expensive than pumps and do not require the wearing of a continually attached device. A primary advantage of pumps is the freedom from syringes and injections.
Intensive/flexible insulin therapy requires frequent blood glucose checking
To achieve the best balance of blood sugar with either intensive/flexible method a patient must check his or her glucose level with a meter [[blood glucose monitoring|monitoring of blood glucose]] several times a day. This allows optimization of the basal insulin and meal coverage as well as correction of the occasional high glucose.
===Advantages and disadvantages of intensive/flexible insulin therapy===
For most people with diabetes, the two primary advantages of intensive/flexible therapy over more traditional 2 or 3 injection regimens are greater flexibility of timing and amounts of meals, and better glycemic control. Major disadvantages of intensive/flexible therapy are that it requires greater amounts of education and effort to achieve the goals, and it substantially increases the daily cost of diabetes care.
It is a common misconception that more frequent hypoglycemia is a disadvantage of intensive/flexible regimens. The frequency of hypoglycemia increases with increasing effort to achieve normal blood glucoses with any insulin regimen. When traditional regimens are used aggressively enough to achieve near-normal hemoglobin A1c levels, hypoglycemia is at least as frequent as with flexible regimens. When used correctly, flexible regimens offer greater ability to achieve good glycemic control with easier accommodation to variations of eating and physical activity.
===Semantics of changing care: why "flexible" is replacing "intensive" therapy===
Over the last two decades, the evidence that better glycemic control (i.e., keeping blood glucose and HbA1c levels as close to normal as possible) reduces the rates of many complications of diabetes has become overwhelming. As a result, diabetes specialists have expended increasing effort to help most people with diabetes achieve blood glucose levels as close to normal as achievable. It takes about the same amount of effort to achieve good glycemic control with a traditional 2 or 3 injection regimen as it does with flexible therapy: frequent glucose monitoring, attention to timing and amounts of meals. Many diabetes specialists no longer think of flexible insulin therapy as "intensive" or "special" treatment for a select group of patients but simply as standard care for most patients with [[diabetes mellitus type 1|type 1 diabetes]].
See also: [[conventional insulinotherapy]], [[diabetes mellitus]].
Ice Age (film)
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{{Infobox Film |
name = Ice Age|
image = IceAge.png |
director = [[Chris Wedge]]<br>[[Carlos Saldanha]] |
producer = [[John C. Donkin]]<br>[[Lori Forte]]<br>[[Christopher Meledandri]] |
writer = [[Michael J. Wilson]]<br>[[Michael Berg]] |
starring = [[Ray Romano]]<br>[[John Leguizamo]]<br>[[Dennis Leary]] |
distributor = [[20th Century Fox]] |
released = [[March 12]], [[2002]] ([[United States|U.S.]])<br>[[DVD]]: [[November 26]], [[2002]]|
runtime = 81 min |
language = English |
imdb_id = 0268380|
music = [[David Newman]] |
awards = |
budget = $60,000,000 (est)|
}}
:''This article is about a film. For information on continental glaciation, see [[Ice age]].''
'''''Ice Age''''' is a feature-length [[computer animation|computer-animated]] [[film]] created by [[Blue Sky Studios]] and released by [[20th Century Fox]] in [[2002 in film|2002]]. It was directed by [[Carlos Saldanha]] and [[Chris Wedge]] from a story by [[Michael J. Wilson]]. A [[sequel]] is currently in production called ''[[Ice Age 2: The Meltdown]]'' ([[2006 in film|2006]]).
==Characters==
The characters are all [[prehistory|prehistoric]] animals with the exception of some non-speaking early humans (who bear some Neanderthal-like facial features, but are technologically much more sophisticated). The animals can talk to and understand each other and are voiced by a variety of famous [[actor]]s.
*Manfred ([[mammoth]]) - [[Ray Romano]]
*Sid ([[Giant sloth]]) - [[John Leguizamo]]
*Diego ([[smilodon]]) - [[Denis Leary]]
*Soto (smilodon) - [[Goran Visnjic]]
*Zeke (smilodon) - [[Jack Black (actor)|Jack Black]]
*Scrat ([[squirrel]]-[[rat]]) - [[Chris Wedge]]
*Smilodon - [[Diedrich Bader]]
*Carl - [[Cedric the Entertainer]]
* Frank- [[Stephen Root]]
*Female sloth - [[Jane Krakowski]]
*Female sloth - [[Lorri Bagley]]
==Plot==
{{spoiler}}
After an attack by a pack of [[saber-toothed cat]]s (Soto, the leader, with Diego, Zeke and two others) a camp of hunter-gatherer humans try to protect their women and children. Jumping into a raging river with her baby, one woman is dragged downstream. She manages to place the infant on an embankment but is too drained to climb out of the water herself. Soto orders Diego to find the baby and bring it to him alive.
Meanwhile the animals are all trying to avoid the coming ice age by retreating to warmer climates. Left by his family, Sid, a clumsy [[Sloth]], is rescued from two rhinoceroses by Manfred, one of the last remaining mammoths. Not wanting to be alone Sid follows Manfred, much to the mammoth's annoyance.
Sid and Manfred spot the baby on the side of the river and decide to return it to its tribe, but when they get there the humans have already left. Diego, still trying to pinch the baby, convinces the pair that he knows where the humans are going and begins leading Sid and Manfred to find them.
The trio take the baby across an assortment of different terrains and into several comedic situations. These include an army of [[dodo]]s trying to escape extinction by eating [[watermelons]]; the trio venturing into a series of ice caves where they discover all sorts of odd things including a frozen [[Tyrannosaurus Rex]] and even a [[UFO]]. In the end, Diego learns that it is wrong to harm a child and helps Manny and Sid help the baby back to his father. We also learn that Manny does not trust humans as they killed his wife and child.
At the end of the film, Diego, Manny and Sid battle Diego's pack and manage to return the baby to his father, before heading off to escape the Ice Age.
There is also a subplot where an animal named Scrat (compare a [http://www.asifa-hollywood.org/hello/603205/400/scrat-2005.03.12-16.43.03.jpg picture of Scrat] and [http://www.ryanphotographic.com/images/JPEGS/Tree%20shrew.jpg one of a tree shrew]), makes many comical attempts to bury his beloved [[acorn]]. His misfortunes include getting chased by an enormous [[glacier]], being struck by [[lightning]], and later getting cryogenically frozen in an ice cube along with a nut. 20,000 years into the future, the ice cube washes up on the shore of an island. The sun slowly melts the cube, thawing Scrat and the ice surrounding his acorn, which is barely out of reach, and ends up being removed from the ice cube by the tide. Scrat then explodes in anger and hits his head on a tree, which drops a [[coconut]]. Scrat's anger immediately turns to glee at this new find. He tries to pack it into the ground as he did previously with his acorns, but in the process causes a volcanic eruption. Scrat also gets his own short film entitled [[Gone Nutty]], where he loses his meticulously-organized collection of acorns in a catastrophic chain of events occurring after ramming his acorn into the hole in the exact middle of the collection.
Alert viewers will notice the plot has some similarity to [[The Walt Disney Company|Disney]]'s animated version of ''[[The Jungle Book (1967 film)|The Jungle Book]]'' ([[1967]]).
==Soundtrack==
The soundtrack features songs such as "Send Me on My Way" by [[Rusted Root]]. The [[Japan]]ese release's theme song is "Hitoshizuku" by [[ZONE (band)|ZONE]].
==Controversy==
[[Ivy Supersonic]] claims the "Scrat" character concept is a trademark infringement on her "Sqrat" as reported in 2002 on [[CNN]] by [[Jeanie Moos]]. Ivy's Sqrat is a combination character concept of a [[Squirrel]] and a [[Rat]] as new species and Ivy is credited with coining that term for New Yorkers to describe Central Park rodents in 2000, and a small product line of related items was available at that time. Since her trademark was established prior to the movie release of ''Ice Age'', it would appear that [[20th Century Fox]] attempted to skirt the concept, look and feel, and trademark by naming their adaptation as a "Scrat" spelled with a "c" rather than a "q", but the Squirrel/Rat composite was applied to the character now in the ''Ice Age'' movie. It is reported that [[Chris Wedge]] presented the "Scrat" after exposure to Ivy's Sqrat, and the movie producers liked it enough to take the risks associated with similarity to Ivy's Sqrat. This has spawned a heated debate in and out of court that is on-going. Please refer to http://scrat.com.
Counterpoint: Ivy [http://www.uspto.gov/ trademarked] the term "sqrat" in Nov. 2001, by which time the character design, name, and preliminary sketches of the character Scrat had already been completed (Ivy includes raw sketches of the final Scrat, dated Sep. 2001 on her site). [[20th Century Fox]] changed the character name from Sqrat to Scrat, but since the creature is not described and the proper name Sqrat does not infringe on the descriptive term sqrat, they were not in actual trademark infringement. Trademark law protects uniquely specific logos and phrases, not unique pictures or artwork, which fall under copyright law. Ivy first filed a [http://www.copyright.gov/records/ copyright] on her drawing of a sqrat in Dec. 2001. Since the character design of her sqrat bears little resemblance to the character design already finalized in Sep. 2001, 20th Century Fox did not infringe on this registration either. While it may be true that Ivy coined the term and drew 2 logos in 1999, she tried to sell the concept to Hollywood before properly registering either trademark or copyright, and some Hollywood people used her concept as a starting point for their own unique work.
[[Conservative Christians]] have criticized the movie for allegedly promoting [[evolution]] and referencing to [[homosexuality]] in a few scenes, such as the pair of rhino-like animals which have a strong dislike for Sid the sloth.
==Factual accuracy==
The film has numerous [[anachronism]]s and factual errors, though the creators can claim [[artistic license]]. Probably the most glaring anachronism is the portrayed fate of the [[dodo]] which, unlike the other animals in the movie, did not actually become extinct until modern times.
==External links==
*{{imdb title|id=0268380|title=Ice Age}}
[[Category:2002 films]]
[[Category:Anthropomorphic films]]
[[Category:Films about animals]]
[[Category:Computer-animated films]]
[[Category:Children's films]]
[[de:Ice Age]]
[[fr:L'Âge de glace]]
[[pl:Epoka lodowcowa (film)]]
InterWiki
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/* External links */ Remove dead link
'''InterWiki''' is a facility for creating links to the many [[wiki wiki web]]s on the [[World Wide Web]]. Users avoid pasting in entire [[URL]]s (as they would for regular web pages) and instead use a shorthand similar to links within the same wiki.
Unlike [[domain name]]s on the Internet, there is not a globally defined list of InterWiki prefixes — and owners of a wiki must define a mapping appropriate to their needs. Users generally have to create separate accounts for each wiki they intend to use (unless they intend to edit anonymously). Variations in text formatting and layout can also hinder a seamless transition from one wiki to the next.
By making wiki links simpler to type for the members of a particular community, these features help bring the different wikis closer together. Furthering that goal, InterWiki "bus tours" (similar to [[webring]]s) have been created to explain the purposes and highlights of different wikis. Such examples on [[Wikipedia]] include [[Wikipedia:TourBusStop]] and [[Wikipedia:WikiNode]].
==Notations==
InterWiki notations vary, depending largely on what kind of ''link pattern'' a wiki uses. The two most common link patterns in wikis are [[CamelCase]] and free links (arbitrary phrases surrounded by some set [[delimiter]], such as <nowiki>[[double square brackets]]</nowiki>).
Accordingly, InterWiki links on a CamelCase-based wiki frequently take the form of "Code:PageName", where ''Code'' is the defined InterMap prefix for another wiki. Thus, a link "WikiPedia:InterWiki" could be rendered in [[HTML]] as a link to an article on [[Wikipedia]] for example [[Wikipedia:Interlanguage links]]. Linking from a CamelCase-wiki to a page that contains spaces in its title typically requires substitution of the spaces with underscores (e.g. WikiPedia:Main_Page).
InterWiki links on wikis based on free links, such as Wikipedia, typically follow the same principle, but using the delimiters that would be used for internal links. These links can then be parsed and escaped as they would be if they were internal, allowing easier typing of spaces but potentially causing problems with other special characters. For example, on Wikipedia, <code><nowiki>[[MeatBall:AssumeGoodFaith]]</nowiki></code> appears as [[MeatBall:AssumeGoodFaith]], and <code><nowiki>[[:de:InterWiki]]</nowiki></code> (former syntax: <code><nowiki>[[DeWikipedia:InterWiki]]</nowiki></code>) appears as [[:de:InterWiki]].
The [[MediaWiki]] software has an additional feature which uses similar notation to create automatic interlanguage links - for instance, the link <code><nowiki>[[de:InterWiki]]</nowiki></code> (with no leading colon) automatically creates a reference labelled "Other languages: [[:de:InterWiki|Deutsch]] | ..." at the top and bottom of the article display. Various other [[wiki software]] systems have features for "semi-internal" links of this kind, such as support for [[namespace]]s or multiple sub-communities.
==Implementation==
Internally, a wiki that uses InterWiki links needs to have an "InterMap" that defines the mapping from wiki-code links to full URLs. For example, <code><nowiki>[[MeatBall:InterWiki]]</nowiki></code> might appear as [[MeatBall:InterWiki]], but link to <code>http://usemod.com/cgi-bin/mb.pl?InterWiki</code>.
Since most wiki systems use URLs for individual pages where the page's title appears at the end of an otherwise unchanging address, the simplest way of defining such mappings is by substituting the InterWiki prefix for the unchanging part of the URL. So in the example above, the <code>MeatBall:</code> has simply been replaced by <code><nowiki>http://usemod.com/cgi-bin/mb.pl?</nowiki></code> in creating the target of the [[HTML]] rendered link.
Care must be taken, however, in the handling of special characters - both those that violate local link pattern rules, and those that must be represented specially in crafting a URL for the target system. So a CamelCase-based wiki must make special provision for recognising that non-[[alphanumeric]] characters can be part of an InterWiki link, and even a free link based system may disallow local links containing characters such as '+' or '"' for technical reasons. Similarly, characters such as '?' and '&' are treated specially within URLs and may need to be converted into some other representation, as might unusual characters when linking between sites using different [[character encoding]]s.
However, rather than creating a new list from scratch for every wiki, it is often useful to obtain a copy of that from another site. Sites such as [[MeatballWiki]] [http://www.usemod.com/cgi-bin/mb.pl?InterMap] and the [[UseModWiki]] site contain comprehensive lists which are often used for this purpose - the former being publicly editable in the same way as any other wiki page, and the latter being verified as usable but potentially out of date.
MeatballWiki uses a mechanism called [[FileReplacement]] to directly use the openly editable InterWiki map for its own pages. Changes to that map do not take effect immediately, but the InterMap configuration file is re-generated if the wiki page remains unedited for a defined period of time. This delay is intended to assure proper review of all changes to the map while not preventing open editing.
==Shorthand for non-wiki sites==
Most InterMap implementations simply substitute the InterWiki prefix with a full URL prefix, so many non-wiki websites can also be referred to using the system. A reference to a definition on the [[Free On-line Dictionary of Computing]], for instance, could take the form <code><nowiki>[[Foldoc:foo]]</nowiki></code> which would tell the system to append "foo" to "http://www.foldoc.org/foldoc/foldoc.cgi?", and display the link as [[Foldoc:foo]]. This makes it very easy to link to commonly referenced resources from within a wiki page, without the need to even know the form of the URL in question.
The InterWiki concept can equally be applied to links ''from'' non-wiki websites. [[Advogato]], for instance, offers a syntax for creating shorthand links based on a MeatBall-derived InterMap.
==External links==
* [[meta:Interwiki map|Wikimedia's InterWiki map]]
* [[MeatBall:InterMap|Discussion of the InterWiki concept]] at [[MeatballWiki]]
* [[MeatBall:FileReplacement|Discussion of the FileReplacement concept]]
<!-- Interwikis found using http://vs.aka-online.de/globalwpsearch/ -->
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Inverse function
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In [[mathematics]], an '''inverse function''' is in simple terms a [[function (mathematics)|function]] which "does the reverse" of a given function. More formally, if ''f'' is a function with domain ''X'', then ''f''<sup> −1</sup> is its inverse function if and only if for every <math>x \in X</math> we have:
: <math>f^{-1}(f(x))=f(f^{-1}(x))=x.\,</math>
For example, if the function ''x'' → 3''x'' + 2 is given, then its inverse function is ''x'' → (''x''−2) / 3. This is usually written as:
: <math>f\colon x\to 3x+2</math>
: <math>f^{-1}\colon x\to(x-2)/3</math>
The superscript "−1" is not an exponent. Similarly, as long as we are not in [[trigonometry]], ''f'' <sup> 2</sup>(''x'') means "do ''f'' twice", that is ''f''(''f''(''x'')), not the square of ''f''(''x''). For example, if : ''f'' : ''x'' → 3''x'' + 2, then ''f'' <sup> 2</sup> : ''x'' = 3 ((3''x'' + 2)) + 2, or 9''x'' + 8. However, in trigonometry, for historical reasons, sin<sup>2</sup>(''x'') usually ''does'' mean the square of sin(''x''). As such, the prefix ''arc'' is sometimes used to denote [[inverse trigonometric function]]s, e.g. arcsin ''x'' for the inverse of sin(''x'').
If a function ''f'' has an inverse then ''f'' is said to be '''invertible'''.
=== Simplifying rule ===
Generally, if ''f''(''x'') is any function, and ''g'' is its inverse, then ''g''(''f''(''x'')) = ''x'' and ''f''(''g''(''x'')) = ''x''. In other words, an inverse function undoes what the original function does. In the above example, we can prove ''f''<sup>−1</sup> is the inverse by substituting (''x'' − 2) / 3 into ''f'', so
: 3(''x'' − 2) / 3 + 2 = ''x''.
Similarly this can be shown for substituting ''f'' into ''f''<sup>−1</sup>.
Indeed, an equivalent definition of an inverse function ''g'' of ''f'', is to require that ''g'' <small>o</small> ''f'' be the [[identity function]] on the [[Domain (mathematics)|domain]] of ''f'', and ''f'' <small>o</small> ''g'' be the identity function on the [[codomain]] of ''f'', where "<small>o</small>" represents [[function composition]].
=== Existence ===
For a function ''f'' to have a valid inverse, it must be a [[bijection]], that is:
* (''f'' is [[onto]]) each element in the [[codomain]] must be "hit" by ''f'': otherwise there would be no way of defining the inverse of ''f'' for some elements.
* (''f'' is [[one-to-one]]) each element in the codomain must be "hit" by ''f'' only once: otherwise the inverse function would have to send that element back to more than one value.
If ''f'' is a real-valued function, then for ''f'' to have a valid inverse, it must pass the [[horizontal line test]], that is a horizontal line <math>y=k</math> placed on the graph of ''f'' must pass through ''f'' exactly once for all real ''k''.
It is possible to work around this condition, by redefining ''f'''s codomain to be precisely its [[range]], and by admitting a multi-valued function as an inverse.
If one represents the function ''f'' graphically in an ''x''-''y'' [[cartesian coordinate system|coordinate system]], then the graph of ''f''<sup> −1</sup> is the reflection of the graph of ''f'' across the line ''y'' = ''x''.
Algebraically, one computes the inverse function of ''f'' by solving the equation
: <math>y=f(x)</math>
for ''x'', and then exchanging ''y'' and ''x'' to get
:<math>y=f^{-1}(x)</math>
This is not always easy; if the function ''f''(''x'') is [[analytic function|analytic]], the [[Lagrange inversion theorem]] may be used.
The symbol <var>f</var><sup> −1</sup> is also used for the (set valued) function associating to an element or a subset of the codomain, the [[inverse image]] of this subset (or element, seen as a [[singleton (mathematics)|singleton]]).
==See also==
* [[Implicit function theorem]]
* [[Inverse function theorem]]
* [[Image (mathematics)|Inverse image]]
* [[Inverse relation]]
[[Category:Set theory]]
[[de:Umkehrfunktion]]
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[[io:Simetra elemento]]
[[pl:funkcja odwrotna]]
[[uk:Обернена функція]]
Inertia
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:''This article is about inertia as it applies to [[physics]]. You may be looking for the [[psychological]]/[[sociological]] term; see [[social inertia]]. In [[economics]], inertia has two meanings, the tendency of an economy to continue moving in a fixed direction until a sufficient force acts to change that direction, and the "unwillingness to change" at a large firm which may contribute to a [[diseconomy of scale]].''
The principle of '''inertia''' is one of the fundamental [[Law (principle)|laws]] of [[classical physics]] which are used to describe the [[motion]] of [[matter]] and how it is affected by applied [[forces]]. The concept of inertia is today most commonly defined using [[Isaac Newton]]'s [[Newton's laws of motion|First Law of Motion]], which states:
<blockquote>''Every body perseveres in its state of being at rest or of moving uniformly straight ahead, except insofar as it is compelled to change its state by forces impressed.'' [Cohen & Whitman 1999 translation]</blockquote>
The description of inertia presented by Newton's law is still considered the standard for [[classical physics]]. However, it has also been refined and expanded over time to reflect developments in understanding of [[theory of relativity|relativity]] and [[quantum physics]] which have led to somewhat different (and more mathematical) interpretations in some of those fields.
== Common usage of term ==
It should be emphasised that 'inertia' is a scientific [[principle]], and thus not [[quantitative|quantifiable]].
In common usage, people may also use the term "inertia" to refer qualitatively to an object's [[momentum]] or its "amount of resistance to change in velocity" (its [[mass]]), depending on context (e.g. "this object has a lot of inertia"). The term "inertia" is more properly understood as a shorthand for "the principle of inertia as described by Newton in his First Law".
==History and development of the concept==
===Early understanding of motion===
Prior to the [[Renaissance]] in the [[15th century]], the generally accepted theory of motion in western philosophy was that proposed by [[Aristotle]] (around [[335 BC]] to [[322 BC]]), which stated that in the absence of a force, all objects (on earth) would naturally come to rest in a state of no movement, and that moving objects only continue to move so long as there is a force inducing them to do so{{ref|physics}}. This position also presumed that the earth itself was static and did not move, and also implied that there must be different rules for movement on earth (where objects are naturally at rest) and movement in the heavens (which appeared to exhibit perpetual motion).
Despite its remarkable success and general acceptance, this position was disputed on several occasions by notable philosophers over the nearly 2 [[millennia]] of its reign. In the [[6th century]], [[Joannes Philoponus]] first criticised Aristotle's view, proposing instead that motion was maintained by some property of the object, imparted when it was set in motion{{ref|philoponus}}. This view was strongly opposed by [[Averroës]] and the [[scholastic]] philosophers who supported Aristotle.
====Theory of impetus====
However, in the [[14th century]] [[Jean Buridan]] rejected the notion that this motion-generating property, which he named ''impetus'', dissipated spontaneously. Instead, Buridan's position was that a moving object would be arrested by the forces of air resistance and [[gravity]] which might oppose its impetus{{ref|buridan}}. Buridan also maintained that impetus increased with speed; thus, his initial idea of impetus was similar in many ways to the modern concept of [[momentum]]. However, the two concepts differ in that Buridan proposed impetus as ''causing'' motion, whereas momentum is defined as being ''caused by'' motion. Despite the obvious similarities to more modern ideas of inertia, Buridan saw his theory as only a modification to Aristotle's basic philosophy, maintaining many other [[peripatetic]] views, including the belief that there was still a fundamental difference between an object in motion and an object at rest. Buridan also maintained that impetus could be not only linear, but also circular in nature, causing objects (such as celestial bodies) to move in a circle.
===Classical inertia===
The Aristotelian philosophy of motion became increasingly problematic in the face of the conclusions of [[Nicolaus Copernicus]] in the [[16th century]], who argued that the earth (and everything on it) was in fact never "at rest", but was actually in constant motion around the sun{{ref|revolutionibus}}. [[Galileo]], in his further development of the Copernican model, recognized these problems with the then-accepted nature of motion and, at least partially as a result, developed what is commonly considered the first description of what has ultimately come to be the modern idea of inertia:
<blockquote>A body moving on a level surface will continue in the same direction at a constant speed unless disturbed.</blockquote>
It is also worth noting that Galileo later went on to conclude that based on this initial premise of inertia, it is impossible to tell the difference between a moving object and a stationary one without some outside reference to compare it against{{ref|galileo-worldsys}}. This observation ultimately came to be the basis for [[Einstein]] to develop the theory of [[Special Relativity]].
Galileo's concept of inertia would later come to be refined and codified by [[Isaac Newton]] as the first of his [[Newton's laws of motion|Laws of Motion]] (first published in Newton's work, ''[[Philosophiae Naturalis Principia Mathematica]]'', in 1687):
<blockquote>Unless acted upon by an unbalanced force, an object will maintain a constant velocity.</blockquote>
Note that "velocity" in this context is defined as a [[vector]], thus Newton's "constant velocity" implies both constant speed and constant direction (and also includes the case of zero speed, or no motion). Since initial publication, Newton's Laws of Motion (and by extension this first law) have come to form the basis for the almost universally accepted branch of [[physics]] now termed [[classical mechanics]].
The actual term "inertia" was first introduced by [[Johannes Kepler]] in his ''Epitome Astronomiae Copernicanae'' (published in three parts from 1618-1621); however, the meaning of Kepler's term (which he derived from the latin word for "idleness" or "laziness") was not quite the same as its modern interpretation. Kepler defined inertia only in terms of a resistance to movement, once again based on the presumption that rest was a natural state which did not need explanation. It was not until the later work of Galileo and Newton unified rest and motion in one principle that the term "inertia" could be applied to these concepts as it is today.
Nevertheless, despite defining the concept so elegantly in his laws of motion, even Newton did not actually use the term "inertia" to refer to his First Law. In fact, Newton originally viewed the phenomenon he described in his First Law of Motion as being caused by "innate forces" inherent in matter, which resisted any acceleration. Given this perspective, and borrowing from Kepler, Newton actually attributed the term "inertia" to mean "the innate force posessed by an object which resists changes in motion"; thus Newton defined "inertia" to mean the ''cause'' of the phenomenon, rather than the phenomenon itself. However, Newton's original ideas of "innate resistive force" were ultimately problematic for a variety of reasons, and thus most physicists no longer think in these terms. As no alternate mechanism has been readily accepted, and it's now generally accepted that there may not be one which we can know, the term "inertia" has come to mean simply the phenomenon itself, rather than any inherent mechanism. Thus, ultimately, "inertia" in modern classical physics has come to be a name for the same phenomenon described by Newton's First Law of Motion, and the two concepts are now basically equivalent.
===Relativity===
[[Albert Einstein]]'s theory of [[Special Relativity]], as proposed in his 1905 paper, "On the Electrodynamics of Moving Bodies," built on the understanding of inertia and [[inertial reference frames]] developed by Galileo and Newton. While this revolutionary theory did significantly change the meaning of many Newtonian concepts such as [[mass]], [[energy]], and [[distance]], Einstein's concept of inertia remained unchanged from Newton's original meaning (in fact the entire theory was based on Newton's definition of inertia). However, this resulted in a limitation inherent in Special Relativity that it could only apply when reference frames were ''inertial'' in nature (meaning when no acceleration was present). In an attempt to address this limitation, Einstein proceeded to develop his theory of [[General Relativity]] ("The Foundation of the General Theory of Relativity," 1916), which ultimately provided a unified theory for both ''inertial'' and ''noninertial'' (accelerated) reference frames. However, in order to accomplish this, in General Relativity Einstein found it necessary to redefine several fundamental aspects of the universe (such as gravity) in terms of a new concept of "curvature" of [[spacetime]], instead of the more traditional system of forces understood by Newton.
As a result of this redefinition, Einstein also redefined the concept of "inertia" in terms of [[geodesic deviation]] instead, with some subtle but significant additional implications. The result of this is that according to General Relativity, when dealing with very large scales, the traditional Newtonian idea of "inertia" does not actually apply, and cannot necessarily be relied upon. Luckily, for sufficiently small regions of spacetime, the Special Theory can still be used, in which inertia still means the same (and works the same) as in the classical model.
Another profound, perhaps the most well-known, conclusion of the theory of Special Relativity was that energy and mass are not separate things, but are, in fact, interchangeable. This new relationship, however, also carried with it new implications for the concept of inertia. The logical conclusion of Special Relativity was that if mass exhibits the principle of inertia, then inertia must also apply to energy as well. This theory, and subsequent experiments confirming some of its conclusions, have also served to radically expand the definition of inertia in some contexts to apply to a much wider context including energy as well as matter.
==Interpretations==
===According to Isaac Asimov===
According to [[Isaac Asimov]] in "Understanding Physics": "This tendency for motion (or for rest) to maintain itself steadily unless made to do otherwise by some interfering force can be viewed as a kind of "laziness," a kind of unwillingness to make a change. And indeed, [Newton's] first law of motion is referred to as the principle of inertia, from a Latin word meaning "idleness" or "laziness." With the footnote: "In Aristotle's time the earth was considered a motionless body fixed at the center of the universe; the notion of 'rest' therefore had a literal meaning. What we ordinarily consider 'rest' nowadays is a state of being motionless with respect to the surface of the earth. But we know (and Newton did, too) that the earth itself is in motion about the sun and about its own axis. A body resting on the surface of the earth is therefore not really in a state of rest at all."
As [[Isaac Asimov]] goes on to explain, "Newton's laws of motion represent assumptions and definitions and are not subject to proof. In particular, the notion of 'inertia' is as much an assumption as Aristotle's notion of 'natural place.'...To be sure, the new relativistic view of the universe advanced by Einstein makes it plain that in some respects Newton's laws of motion are only approximations...At ordinary velocities and distance, however, the approximations are extremely good."
=== Mass as a measure of inertia ===
[[Physics]] and [[mathematics]] appear to be less inclined to use the original concept of inertia as "a tendency to maintain momentum" and instead favor the mathematically useful definition of inertia as the measure of a body's resistance to changes in momentum or simply a body's inertial mass.
This was clear in the beginning of the [[20th century]], when the [[theory of relativity]] was not yet created. Mass, '''m''', denoted something like amount of substance or quantity of matter. And at the same time mass was the quantitative measure of inertia of a body.
Inertia of a body determines momentum '''P''' of the body at given velocity '''v''' of the body, i. e. it is a proportionality factor in the formula:
'''P=mv'''
The factor m is referred to as inertial mass.
But mass as a measure of inertia of a body can be defined also by the formula:
'''F = ma'''
By this formula, the more is mass, the less is the acceleration of a body at given force. Masses '''m''' defined by the formulae (1) and (2) are equal because the formula (2) is a consequence of the formula (1) if mass does not depend on time and speed. Thus, "mass is the quantitative or numerical measure of body’s inertia, that is of its resistance to being accelerated".
This definition of a body's inertia therefore is altered from the original definition of inertia as "a tendency to maintain momentum" to a definition of the measure of how difficult it is to change the momentum of a body.
=== Inertial mass ===
The only difference there appears to be between inertial mass and gravitational mass is the method used to determine them.
[[Gravitational mass]] is measured by comparing the force of gravity of an unknown mass to the force of [[gravity]] of a known mass. This is typically done with some sort of balance scale. The beauty of this method is that no matter where, or what planet, you are, the masses will always balance out because the gravitational acceleration on each object will be the same. This does break down near supermassive objects such as black holes and neutron stars due to the high gradient of the gravitational field around such objects.
Inertial mass is found by applying a known force to an unknown mass, measuring the acceleration, and applying Newton's Second Law, '''m = F/a'''. This gives an accurate value for mass, limited only by the accuracy of the measurements. When astronauts need to be weighed in outer space, they actually find their inertial mass in a special chair.
The interesting thing is that, physically, no difference has been found between gravitational and inertial mass. Many experiments have been performed to check the values and the experiments always agree to within the margin of error for the experiment. [[Einstein]] used the fact that gravitational and inertial mass were equal to begin his [[Theory of General Relativity]] in which he postulated that gravitational mass was the same as inertial mass, and that the acceleration of gravity is a result of a 'valley' or slope in the [[space-time continuum]] that masses 'fell down' much as pennies spiral around a hole in the common donation toy at a chain store.
Since Einstein used inertial mass to describe [[Special Relativity]], inertial mass is closely related to [[relativistic mass]] and is therefore different from [[rest mass]].
=== Inertial frames ===
In a location such as a steadily moving railway carriage, a dropped ball would behave as it would if it were dropped in a stationary carriage. The ball would simply descend vertically. It is possible to ignore the motion of the carriage by defining it as an [[inertial frame]]. In a moving but non-accelerating frame, the ball behaves normally because the train and its contents continue to move at a constant velocity. Before being dropped, the ball was traveling with the train at the same speed, and the ball's inertia ensured that it continued to move in the same speed and direction as the train, even while dropping. Note that, here, it is inertia which ensured that, not its mass.
In an [[inertial frame]] all the observers in uniform (non-accelerating) motion will observe the same laws of physics. However observers in another inertial frames can make a simple, and intuitively obvious, transformation (the [[Galilean transformation]]), to convert their observations. Thus, an observer from outside the moving train could deduce that the dropped ball within the carriage fell vertically downwards.
However, in frames which are experiencing acceleration (''non-inertial frames''), objects appear to be affected by ''[[fictitious force]]s''. For example, if the railway carriage was accelerating, the ball would not fall vertically within the carriage but would appear to an observer to be deflected because the carriage and the ball would not be traveling at the same speed while the ball was falling. Other examples of fictitious forces occur in rotating frames such as the earth. For example, a missile at the North Pole could be aimed directly at a location and fired southwards. An observer would see it apparently deflected away from its target by a force (the [[Coriolis effect|Coriolis force]]) but in reality the southerly target has moved because earth has rotated while the missile is in flight. Because the earth is rotating a useful inertial frame of reference is defined by the stars, which only move imperceptibly during most observations.
In summary, the principle of inertia is intimately linked with the principles of [[conservation of energy]] and [[Momentum#Conservation of momentum|conservation of momentum]].
===Rotational inertia===
Another form of inertia is ''rotational inertia'', which refers to the fact that a rotating rigid body maintains its state of uniform [[rotation]]al motion. Its [[angular momentum]] is unchanged, unless an external [[torque]] is applied; this is also called conservation of angular momentum. Rotational inertia often has hidden practical consequences.
==See also==
*[[Energy]]
*[[General relativity]]
*[[Inertial frame]]
*[[Inertial guidance system]]
*[[Inertial mass]]
*[[List of moments of inertia]]
*[[Mach's principle]]
*[[Momentum]]
*[[Newton's laws of motion]]
*[[Newtonian physics]]
*[[Special relativity]]
==References and footnotes==
# {{note|physics}} [http://etext.library.adelaide.edu.au/a/aristotle/a8ph/ Aristotle: Physics], (335-322 BC), trans. by R. P. Hardie and R. K. Gaye ([[Physics (Aristotle)|Wikipedia Article]])
# {{note|philoponus}} [http://plato.stanford.edu/entries/philoponus/ Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy: Joannes Philoponus]
# {{note|buridan}} Jean Buridan: Quaestiones on Aristotle's Physics (quoted at http://brahms.phy.vanderbilt.edu/a203/impetus_theory.html)
# {{note|revolutionibus}} [http://webexhibits.org/calendars/year-text-Copernicus.html Nicholas Copernicus: The Revolutions of the Heavenly Spheres], 1543
# {{note|galileo-worldsys}} [http://webexhibits.org/calendars/year-text-Galileo.html Galileo: Dialogue Concerning the Two Chief World Systems], 1632 ([[Dialogue Concerning the Two Chief World Systems|Wikipedia Article]])
==External links==
*[http://www.seop.leeds.ac.uk/entries/buridan/ ''Jean Buridan'' Stanford Encyclopaedia of Philosophy]
*Principia: [http://members.tripod.com/~gravitee/]
==Books and papers==
*Butterfield, H (1957) ''The Origins of Modern Science'' ISBN 071350160X
*Clement, J (1982) "Students' preconceptions in introductory mechanics", ''American Journal of Physics'' vol 50, pp66-71
*Crombie, A C (1959) ''Medieval and Early Modern Science'', vol 2
*McCloskey, M (1983) "Intuitive physics", ''Scientific American'', April, pp114-123
*McCloskey, M & Carmazza, A (1980) "Curvilinear motion in the absence of external forces: naïve beliefs about the motion of objects", ''Science'' vol 210, pp1139-1141
* http://arxiv.org/abs/physics/0211106 UNIVERSALITY Emil Marinchev, Technical University of Sofia, Physics Department, 8 Kliment Ohridski St., Sofia-1000, BG, e-mail: emar@tu-sofia.bg Abstract: This article is an attempt for a new vision of the basics of Physics, and of Relativity, in particular. A new generalized principle of inertia is proposed, as an universal principle, based on universality of the conservation laws. A new theoretical scheme is proposed based on two basic principles: 1.The principle of universality of the conservation laws, and 2.The principle of the universal velocity. It is well- founded with examples of different fields of physics. Comments: 5 pages, 1 figure, Subj-class: General Physics, Key words:Universality, New Insight in Physics http://arxiv.org/abs/physics/0211106
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[[Category:Introductory physics]]
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Ibanez
14910
41816090
2006-03-01T22:59:14Z
TheJesterRace07
1000013
/* Electric Guitars */
:''This article is about the guitar manufacturer. For a list of people named Ibáñez see [[Ibáñez (disambiguation)]]''
[[Image:Ibanez logo.jpg|thumb|200px|The Ibanez logo]]
'''Ibanez''' is a guitar company in [[Nagoya, Aichi]], [[Japan]], the company was started by Hoshino Gakki.
==History==
The Hoshino Gakki company began in [[1908]] as a musical instrument sales division of the ''Hoshino Shoten'' [[bookstore]] company. In [[1935]] they began manufacturing their own stringed instruments. The company had little presence in the Western world until the mid-1960s.
In [[1954]], [[Harry Rosenbloom]] opened a music store in [[Bryn Mawr, Pennsylvania]], northwest of [[Philadelphia]]. Due to the post-[[World War II]] music boom, his sales soon outstripped his inventory, and he began a company called '''Elger Guitars''' in an attempt to manufacture enough guitars to fill his needs. The Elger Guitar company made a relatively small number of hand-built, high quality guitars through the early 1960s.
[[Image:JEM7VWH.jpg|thumb|150px|right|Ibanez Jem]]
By 1965 Rosenbloom had decided to stop manufacturing guitars and chose to become the exclusive North American distributor for Hoshino Gakki instruments. At the time, the phrase "made in Japan" was considered to have negative connotations of low quality, so Hoshino Gakki and Rosenbloom wanted to distribute the instruments under a "non-Japanese" name. Hoshino had recently acquired a small Spanish guitar company named '''Ibanez''', and it was decided to market the instruments under this brand name. In [[1971]] Hoshino purchased Elger Guitars, renaming the company "Ibanez U.S.A." and retaining the company headquarters in Bensalem, Pennsylvania as a distribution and quality-control center.
In the early 1970s Ibanez began making guitars that were almost exact copies of popular models by [[Gibson Guitar Corporation|Gibson]], [[Fender]] and [[Rickenbacker]]. Using somewhat cheaper materials and greater automation in manufacturing, they were able to sell these guitars for a significantly lower price than the originals. The low price combined with the relatively high quality of the guitars made these models very popular. Many guitar aficionados feel that the early- and mid-70s mark a low point in the quality of guitars from the major manufacturers, which helped contribute to the popularity of the Ibanez copies. These guitars have become known as "lawsuit" guitars and have become somewhat collectible.
The actual lawsuit referred to was brought by the '''Norlin Corporation''', the parent company of [[Gibson Guitar Corporation|Gibson]] guitars, in [[1977]], and was based on an Ibanez [[Guitar#Headstock|headstock]] design that had been discontinued by [[1976]]. Ibanez settled out of court, and by [[1978]] had begun making guitars from their own designs.
Abandoning the strategy of copying "classic" electric guitar designs, the newer models began incorporating more modern elements into their design, such as radical body shapes, slimmer necks and flatter fingerboards (which allowed for faster playing), higher-output electronics and colorful finishes. This led to an increasing popularity with [[heavy metal music|heavy metal]] musicians. The company also began an extensive program of consulting with well-known guitar players, such as [[Joe Satriani]] and [[Steve Vai]] and creating signature models made to the players' specifications.
[[Image:K7BGvert.jpg|thumb|200px|Ibanez K7]]
==Guitars==
===Electric Guitars===
*ARTCORE Series
*ARTIST Series
*AT Series
*AX Series
*GB Series
*GSA Series
*JEM Series
*JETKING Series
*JS Series
*JSM Series
*JUMPSTART Series
*[[K7 Series]]
*MMM Series
*[[MTM Series]]
*NDM Series
*PGM Series
*PM Series
*RG Series
*S Series
*SA Series
*SZ Series
*X Series
===Bass Guitars===
*ARTCORE Series
*BTB Series
*DWB Series
*EDB Series
*GAXB Series
*GSR Series
*GWB Series
*ICB Series
*JUMPSTART Series
*K5 Series
*ROADGEAR Series
*SR Series
*SRX Series
===Acoustic Guitars===
*AE Series
*AES Series
*AW Series
*DT Series
*EP9 Series
*EW Series
*GA Series
*JAMPACK Series
*MANDOLIN Series
*MASA Series
*PF Series
*TALMAN Series
*V Series
==Effect Pedals==
In the 1970's, the Maxon company developed and began selling a series of effect pedals in Japan. Ibanez licensed these for sale under their name outside of Japan. The two companies eventually began doing less and less business together until Maxon ceased manufacting the TS-9 reissue for Ibanez in 2002.
'''Tube Screamers''' - Based on the earlier Overdrive I and II pedals, Ibanez began releasing the first Tube Screamer, the TS-808 in the late 1970's. These contained the famed JRC4558D [[integrated circuit|integrated circuit (IC)]]. Many players consider this one of the best [[solid state]] pedals to emulate the sound produced by an [[Overdrive (music)|overdriven]] [[vacuum tube]] [[Instrument amplifier|guitar amplifier]]. Over the years, Ibanez released many different kinds of pedals bearing the Tube Screamer name. The first was the TS-9 Tube Screamer, which included only a few component changes and often, but not always, different IC's. In 1985 the Master or L series were introduced and sold only for a year. Many claim that in this series there's no Tubescreamer. Looking closer circuitwise shows that there is one but in the disguise of the Metal Screamer with slightly changed component values. The name change was most likely for marketing reasons. Based on the Master series but with slight changes in in housing in 1986, the Power Series were introduced, which included the TS-10. Like many of the Master and Power Series pedals, there were not many differences in the circuitry between these and their 9-series counterparts. To make production cheaper, these pedals used circuit board-mounted [[potentiometer|potentiometers (pots)]] and jacks. In 1992, Ibanez began re-issuing the TS-9. Then in 1996, Ibanez added a [[CE_mark|CE mark]] to the back of the pedal, which is required for it to be sold in Europe. In the early 90's, Ibanez released the Soundtank series, which, except for the first run which was metal, had cheap plastic enclosures and like the Power Series before it, used less expensive parts. Around 2000 came the Tone Lok series, and the TS-7, which included a switch for added gain. In 1998, the new TS-9DX was introduced, which included a 4-way switch for capacitor changes and changes in the clipping section. Then in 2002, Maxon stopped production of the TS-9 for Ibanez. Post-2002 circuit boards say Ibanez instead of Maxon. Due to popular demand, Ibanez reissued the TS-808 in 2004, complete with the JRC4558D chip. Original TS-808's, and to a lesser extent, TS-9s, have become highly collectible. Many overdrive pedals in production, especially those by "boutique" manufacturers, are a modified version of the Tube Screamer circuit.
==References/External links==
*[http://www.ibanez.com/ Ibanez]
*[http://www.hoshinogakki.co.jp/hoshino_e/history/history.html History of Hoshino Gakki Co., Ltd.]
*[http://www.guitarattack.com/destroyer/lawsuit.htm Origins of Ibanez and the Lawsuit Models]
*[http://www.ibanezregister.com/ Ibanez Register] - Gallery of past and present Ibanez guitars and basses.
*[http://www.ibanezrules.com/ IbanezRules] - Buy/Sell used Ibanez guitars, technical guides, catalog scans, manuals, wiring diagrams, etc.
*[http://www.jemsite.com/ JEM Site] - An Ibanez JEM series fansite
*[http://www.geocities.com/louferri Ibanez JS Site] - Ibanez Joe Satriani fansite
*[http://www.chrisbsmusic.com/hisofibguit.html Ibanez History] - Ibanez History
*[http://www.korn.com Korn Site] - Official KoRn website.
[[Category:Guitar manufacturers]]
[[da:Ibanez]]
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Isothermal
14911
15912437
2004-08-05T21:18:17Z
Stevertigo
4099
#redirect:[[Isothermal process]]
Incest
14912
41908411
2006-03-02T15:15:00Z
Natalinasmpf
107009
/* Inbreeding among animals */ formalise
{{FamilyLaw}}
'''Incest''' is [[sexual activity]] between close [[family]] members.
Although incest is [[taboo]] or forbidden in the majority of current and historical [[culture]]s, the precise meaning of the word varies widely, because different cultures have differing notions of "sexual activity" and "close family member." Some [[jurisdiction]]s consider only those related by birth, others also those related by [[adoption]] or [[marriage]]; some prohibit sexual relations between people who grew up in the same [[household]], while others prohibit sexual relations between people who grew up in related households.
Incest between close blood-relations is a [[felony]] in many [[Western world|Western]] nations, as well as in those nations that were [[colonialism|colonialised]] by Western nations, although again the extent of the definition of "close" varies. However, child abuse attorney, Andrew Vachss, notes that in the United States, most states' penal codes give priviledged treatment to parents who rape their own children. He states that despite those penal codes, "most US citizens agree that child sexual abuse is one of the foulest crimes imaginable".
==Inbreeding among animals==
[[Biology|Biologically]], [[animal]]s may have an aversion or inclination to inbreeding based on specific local circumstances and [[theory of evolution|evolutionary]] trends. In some species, most notably [[Bonobo]]s, sexual activity, including between closely related individuals, is a means of [[dispute resolution]] or even a [[greeting]]. Incest between family members, including parents and children occurs; however, incest between a mother and immature sons, who are less than four years old, has not been observed.
The pattern of parenting behavior combined with the structure of dominance hierarchies among many species of animals serves to discourage inbreeding. For example, offspring, in some cases only the male offspring, are often driven away by the mother at about the same age they reach sexual maturity.
==Distinctions between incest and inbreeding==
The concepts "incest" and "[[inbreeding]]" are not synonymous. Incest refers to inappropriate [[Human sexuality|sexual activity]] between individuals who are considered to be too closely related either socially or [[genetics|genetically]]. It is a social and cultural term, in other words, within any culture, any given sexual activity can in principle be categorized as either incestuous or non-incestuous.
Inbreeding refers to [[procreation]] between individuals with varying degrees of ''genetic'' closeness only. It is a scientific term rather than a social or cultural term.
In many societies, the definition of incest relations and the degree of inbreeding may correlate positively. For example, any sexual relations between people of a given degree of genetic closeness is considered incestuous. In many other societies, the definition of incest and the degree of inbreeding may not correlate as sexual relations between certain people of a given degree of genetic closeness are considered incestuous, whereas sexual relations between other people of the same degree of genetic closeness are not considered incestuous.
The consequence of inbreeding is to increase the frequency of [[homozygote]]s within a population. Depending on the size of the population and the number of generations in which inbreeding occurs, the increase of homozygotes may have either good or bad effects.
==Genetics==
Some have suggested that the incest taboo is a social mechanism to reduce the chances of congenital birth defects that can result from inbreeding. This argument oversimplifies the consequences of inbreeding in a population. Inbreeding leads to an increase in [[homozygote|homozygocity]], that is, the same allele at the same locus on both members of a chromosome pair. This occurs because close relatives are more likely to share more [[allele]]s than unrelated individuals. If an individual has an allele linked to a [[congenital disorder|congenital birth defect]], it is likely that close relatives would either both have, or both lack this allele; some [[homozygote|homozygotes]] would entirely lack the allele and be born healthy, while others would have two alleles and express the congenital birth defect. In small societies lacking advanced medical care, children with congenital birth defects (i.e. possessing both alleles) would die before reaching the age of reproduction. Consequently, over time the frequency of the allele linked to the defect will decrease over time. The ultimate result would be a healthier population.
Anthropologists have argued that this is the case in societies where partners with whom marriage is forbidden and partners with whom marriage is preferred are equally related in genetic terms.
In large populations with good health care, however, the diversity of the population would make it likely that there will be consistently high levels of [[heterozygote|heterozygosity]] despite periodic inbreeding. Consequently the alleles linked to congenital birth defects will remain in the population, with a significant chance of a homozygote with the linked allele.
Some have suggested that strong psychological inhibitions against incest are the result of evolutionary forces. In what is now a key study of the [[Westermarck effect]], the [[anthropology|anthropologist]] [[Melford E. Spiro]] demonstrated that the inhibition against incest has more to do with social closeness than genetic closeness. In a [[cohort (statistics)|cohort]] study of children raised as [[commune (intentional community)|communal]], that is to say, fictive, siblings in the [[Kiryat Yedidim]] [[kibbutz]] in the [[1960s]], Spiro found practically no intermarriage between his subjects as adults despite pressure from parents and community, even when subjects were not closely related genetically. The social experience of having grown up ''as'' brothers and sisters outweighed any biological drive.
==Incest versus exogamy==
[[Anthropology|Anthropologists]] have found that marriage everywhere is governed, often informally, by rules of [[exogamy]], which is [[marriage]] of individuals outside their own groups, and [[endogamy]] where individuals marry inside their own group. What is considered a group, for purposes of either exogamy or endogamy, varies considerably. Thus, in most stratified societies one must marry outside of one's [[nuclear family]], a form of exogamy, but should marry a member of one's own [[Social class|class]], [[race]] or [[religion]], a form of endogamy. In this example, the exogamous group is small and the endogamous group is large. But in some societies, the exogamous group and endogamous group may be of equal size. This is the case in societies divided into [[clan]]s or [[lineage]]s.
In most such societies, membership in a clan or lineage is inherited through only one parent. Sex with a member of one's own clan or lineage — whether a parent or a genetically very distant relative — would be considered incestuous, whereas sex with a member of another clan or lineage — including the other parent — would not be considered incest (although it may be considered wrong for other reasons).
For example, [[Trobriand Islands|Trobriand Islanders]] prohibit both sexual relations between a man and his mother, and between a woman and her father, but they describe these prohibitions in very different ways: relations between a man and his mother fall within the category of forbidden relations among members of the same clan; relations between a woman and her father do not. This is because the Trobrianders are [[matrilineal]]; children belong to the clan of their mother and not of their father. Thus, sexual relations between a man and his mother's sister (and mother's sister's daughter) are also considered incestuous, but relations between a man and his father's sister are not. Indeed, a man and his father's sister will often have a flirtatious relationship, and a man and the daughter of his father's sister may prefer to have sexual relations or marry. Anthropologists have hypothesized that in these societies, the incest taboo reinforces the rule of exogamy, and thus ensures that social ties between clans or lineages will be maintained through intermarriage.
Chinese and Indian society provides an example of a society with a very broad notion of the endogamous group, as relations between two individuals with the same surname may be banned.
Some cultures cover relatives by marriage in incest prohibitions. For example, the question of the legality and morality of a widower who wished to marry his [[Deceased Wife's Sister's Marriage Act 1907|deceased wife's sister]] was the subject of long and fierce debate in [[19th century]] [[United Kingdom|Britain]], involving, among others, [[Matthew Boulton]].
The [[Tanakh]], which is the [[Hebrews|Hebrew]] [[Old Testament]], contains prohibitions, primarily in [[Leviticus]], against sexual relations between various pairs of family members. Father and daughter, mother and son, and other pairs are forbidden on pain of death to engage in sexual relations. According to the interpretation given to it by some anthropologists, it prohibits sexual relations between [[aunt]]s and [[nephew]]s but not between [[uncle]]s and [[niece]]s.
==Types of Incest==
===Overt parental incest===
Overt, or ''contact'', incest by parents against their children, including adolescents, is considered the cruelest form of [[sexual offense]] by child [[psychologist|psychologists]] and is a [[felony]] [[criminal offense]] in the United States and many other nations. Parental incest includes opposite-sex and same-sex forms committed by both fathers and mothers. Child-therapist Susan Forward calls parental incest "perhaps the cruelest, most baffling of human experiences" as it "betrays the very heart of childhood--its innocence".
Parental incest often occurs in situations where one parent is either absent from the household or emotionally or sexually unavailable. The present parent may use the child as a substitute for their missing [[spouse]], and the missing spouse may not be present to provide a check on the other parent. Parental incest obviously has tremendous potential for doing psychological harm to a child, given the child's physical, mental, and emotional dependence on a parent, the total disparity in the power of authority, the disparity in emotional and physical maturity, and the fact that an incestuous relationship is likely to disrupt any healthy aspects of the parent-child relationship.
Clinical psychologist, Ken Adams states that "a common myth is that overt incest is the exception not the rule in America. This is not the case.". He quotes researcher Mike
Lew's estimate that there are over 40 million American adults who as children were victims of sexual abuse, 15 million of whom were men. Given the taboo nature of parent-child incest and the fact that it is committed against dependent children it is likely to be under-reported in official government statistics.
===Covert parental incest===
The psychological community uses the term ''covert incest'', ''emotional incest'' or ''psychological incest'' where a parent seduces a child, usually of the opposite-sex, into the role of a lover, spouse, or parent. This is seen as a psycho-sexual violation of a child by his or her parent, and a "covert" one as it is concealed within the parenting role and as no overt, contact incest occurs. Covert incest is seen by child-psychologists as violating the child with demands to protect, love, or parent, to be an intimate [[confidant]], or to fulfill other roles that are obligations of the parent or the parent's spouse. The parent often calls the parent-child relationship "special", as in adult love, and treats the child as a ''peer'' partner. This is seen, by therapists, as a show of pseudo-respect for the child's pseudo-maturity so the parent can use the child, within pathological parent-child [[role reversal]]s, to meet the ''parent's'' needs, at great cost to the child.
Covert incest is thus seen by child-psychologists as deeply harmful to children, as it denies them proper parenting, betrays their innocence, and places ''pathological'' demands on them to deal with what are their ''parents''' obligations. Psychologists who research covert incest, indicate that in most of these cases, the child will come to feel great resentment towards the parent, and yet feel [[shame]] about those feelings, not being able to articulate how the parent has wronged him or her. The demands of this type of parent-child relationship can continue into the child's adulthood, and in extreme cases, for the rest of the parent's life. Covert incest is known, by therapists, to cause damage similar to that associated with what they call ''overt'' or contact incest.
In America (1991), there were an estimated 28 million children of alcoholic parents, in addition to an unknown number of children of parents physically addicted to other chemical substances or children of parents psychologically addicted to various forms of religion, gambling, and sex. Many of these children were believed to have become victims of covert parental incest as their predatory parent used them to fill in for a physically or psychologically absent spouse, partner, and parent. Thus, although largely unknown outside the psychological profession, covert parental incest is seen as a widespread form of child abuse to therapists who research this phenomenon.
===Incest by grandparents, aunts, uncles and siblings in parental roles===
Other elder relatives can commit either overt or covert incest against children alone, or, in extreme cases, in combination with the child's incestuous parent. In cases where siblings are used by parents to parent other siblings, incest against the dependent siblings by the pseudo-parent siblings can occur. The effects to children of incest by other elder or elder-appearing relatives can approach those associated with parent-child incest.
===Incestuous abuse by other adults in responsible roles===
Sexual predation by priests, nuns or other religious authorities against parishioners, by teachers against students, by therapists against clients, and by a host of other authorities against people in dependent roles is seen by therapists as incestuous in nature, although not in form. Clinical psychologist and incest researcher, Ken Adams states that "Sexual contact in dependent relationships is never justifiable because there is always a loss of choice.". As a host of media stories on church related sexual abuse show, the consequences to children, (and on occasion dependent adults too) of this form of incestuous sexual predation are similar to those associated with parent-child incest (see Effects of Incest below.)
===Sibling incest in children===
Incest between siblings is a fairly common part of sexual exploration by children, especially in families with children who are close in age. A study by [[Floyd Martinson]] found that 10-15% of college students had childhood sexual experiences with a brother or sister, a form of child [[sexuality]]. However, where significant differences in age or capabilities occur between siblings, childhood sibling incest can cause serious psychological damage to the younger or less capable sibling according to researcher Richard Niolon. It can also damage or destroy the sibling bond in such a case.
Author Jane Leder estimates that "23,000 women per million in (America) may have been victimized by a sibling" before age 18. Researcher Andrea Peterson notes that "This may be, at best, a conservative estimate when one considers the scarcity of data, particularly where males are the victims."
===Consensual adult incest===
Consensual incest between adults occurs where there is no dependence on the adults as parent-child or sibling-sibling dependence precludes independent consent. Consensual incest is commonly seen between adult siblings as in the English film ''Sister my Sister'', screened in 1994, which is based on a true story. The French film, ''La Petite Lilly'', which was screened in 2005, shows a fictional case of incipient consensual mother-son incest between ostensibly independent adults.
===Sex between cousins and other distant relatives===
In most of the Western world incest generally refers to forbidden sexual relations within the family. However, even here, definitions of family vary. Within the United States, marriage between (first) cousins is illegal in some states, but not in others, and sociologists have classified marriage laws in the United States into two categories: One, used mainly in southern states, in which the definitions of incest are taken from the Bible, and which frowns upon marriage within one's lineage but less so on one's blood relatives, and the other known which frowns more on marriage between blood relatives (such as cousins), but less on one's lineage.
Twenty-four states prohibit marriages between first cousins, and another seven permit them only under special circumstances. Utah, for example, permits first cousins to marry only provided both spouses are over age 65, or at least 55 with evidence of sterility. North Carolina permits first cousins to marry unless they are "double first cousins" (cousins through more than one line). Maine permits first cousins to marry only upon presentation of a certificate of genetic counseling. The remaining nineteen states and the District of Columbia permit first-cousin marriages without restriction.
==Laws and mores regarding incest in industrialized societies==
===Degrees of criminality===
The laws of many U.S. states recognize two separate degrees of incest, the more serious degree covering the closest blood relationships such as father-daughter, mother-son and brother-sister, with the less-serious charge being pressed against more distantly-related individuals who engage in sexual intercourse, usually down to and including first cousins and sometimes half cousins. In [[New York state]] for example, the maximum penalty is four years in prison, while the less serious charge is usually only a [[misdemeanor]]. Curiously, many incest laws do not expressly proscribe sexual conduct other than vaginal intercourse — such as [[oral sex]] — or, for that matter, any sexual activity between relatives of the same gender, so long as neither party is a minor. This legal position is in stark contrast with that in [[Australia]], where incest is punishable by a maximum of 25 years imprisonment for the more serious form of [[sexual penetration|penetrating]] a [[child]], even if that child is over 18, and 5 years for the less serious charge of sexual penetration of a sibling or half-sibling.
=== Consensual adult incest ===
Consensual incestuous relations between adults, such as between an adult brother and sister, is illegal in most parts of the industrialized world. These laws are sometimes questioned on the grounds that such relations do not harm other people (provided the couple have no children) and so should not be criminalized. Proposals have been made from time to time to repeal these laws — for example, the proposal by the Australian Model Criminal Code Officer's Committee discussion paper "Sexual Offenses against the Person" released in November [[1996]]. (This particular proposal was later withdrawn by the committee due to a large public outcry. Defenders of the proposal argue that the outcry was mostly based on the mistaken belief that the committee was intending to legalize sexual relations between parents and their minor children.)
In the wake of the [[Lawrence v. Texas]] decision by the US Supreme Court, striking down laws criminalizing homosexual sodomy as unconstitutional, some have argued that by the same logic laws against consensual adult incest should be unconstitutional. Some civil libertarians argue that all private sexual activity between consenting adults should be legal, and its criminalization is a violation of human rights — thus, they argue that the criminalization of consensual adult incest is a violation of human rights. In [[Muth v. Frank]], the [[7th U.S. Circuit Court of Appeals|7th Circuit Court]] interpreted the case applying to homosexual activity, and refused to draw this conclusion from Lawrence, however, a decision that attracted mixed opinions.
In France, incest isn't a crime in itself. Incestuous relations between an adult and a minor are prohibited and punished by law, but not between two minors or two adults.
===Incest as a topic in fiction===
The degree to which even the topic of incest is forbidden varies between societies. In the United States incest is infrequently described in books or the media and then usually as a very traumatic and perverse experience (e.g. the 1994 film ''Spanking The Monkey'' in which mother-son incest takes place, leading to the latter's suicide attempt). Also in ''The House of Yes'', a late 90's film where incest again leads only to tragedy. A depiction of incestuous word in [[science fiction]] is [[Theodore Sturgeon]]'s story [[If All Men Were Brothers Would You Let One Marry Your Sister?]]. Meanwhile in Japanese [[manga]] and [[anime]] the topic of incest is often covered in a more neutral and tolerant, sometimes even sympathetic, way. Notable series dealing with incest between major characters (to wit, siblings; most often an older brother with younger sister pairing) include ''[[Koi Kaze]]'', ''[[Angel Sanctuary]]'', ''[[Marmalade Boy]]'' (between step-siblings), ''[[Onegai Twins]]'', and ''[[Cream Lemon]]'' (which was one of the first and most notable [[hentai]] anime).
==Effects of incest==
===Parental incest===
Recent findings by psychologists view non-consenting parent-child incest as a form of predation. Child abuse [[attorney]], Andrew Vachss, calls parental incest a form of [[rape]] of a child by the child's parent. Therefore, along with the effects associated with child-rape, parental incest is seen by therapists as a double-bind form of [[betrayal]] by his or her closest caregiver. Child incest victims are often called "secret survivors", by therapists, because there is often no one to take their side much less listen to their shame and self-loathing as incest is a taboo topic. It is known to therapists, that in many cases of such incest the non-perpetrating parent colludes with or denies the other parent's perpetration so the child does not have the other parent to turn to either.
Child victims have been observed to go into disassociated or [[recluse|reclusive]] mental or emotional states due to [[shame]] associated with their parent's predation, which is thought to overwhelm their coping capabilities. Becoming "dead inside" is another tactic children have been observed to use in an attempt to deaden the associated pain. Suppression of emotions, as well as a halt or a severe reduction in personal growth has been observed, similar to the effects studied in the [[psychology of torture]].
In adulthood, chronic, complex, and cyclic [[post traumatic stress]] has been observed in victims of childhood parental incest. [[Shame]], [[suspicion]], and unconscious [[alienation]] is thought by some psychologists to occur in the first stage of trauma transformation as the victim attempts to suppress past pain. [[Rage]], [[terror]], and [[sorrow]] have been observed to surface in the second stage as the victim begins to become conscious of the incest acts. In the last stage of trauma transformation, genuine [[self-esteem]], genuine [[desire]], and, on occasion, genuine [[joy]] have been seen in victims. These stages have been observed to take decades to complete and, in extreme cases, to cycle on until the victim's death.
Some victims of parental incest suffer severe [[depression]], and/or have committed [[suicide]], which is thought to be due to the inability accomplish the associated trauma transformations shown above. Some victims also predate against their own children thus resulting in a legacy of incest in following generations, a form of a [[vicious cycle]]. Often, even if trauma transformation was successful, survivors have reported that due to the betrayal of innocence, the incest-associated losses, and the transformation related costs, their lives were much worse off than peers who had not suffered incest by their parents.
==History==
===Ancient Egypt===
Some experts claim that incestuous marriages were widespread at least during part of Egyptian history, such as Naphtali Lewis (''Life in Egypt under Roman Rule'': Oxford, [[1983]]), who claims that numerous [[papyrus|papyri]] attest to many husbands and wives as being brother and sister.
:When instances of brother-sister marriages first began to appear in the papyri, they were greeted with great skepticism in some quarters, where doubt was expressed that any society would really have countenanced such common violation of the incest taboo. Such arguments [to otherwise explain the evidence] are ingenious, but they collapse completely in the face of the cumulative evidence of scores of papyri, official as well as private documents, in which the wife is unequivocally identified as the husband's "sister born of the same father and the same mother". (pp.43f)
Joyce Tyldesley (''Ramesses: Egypt's Great Pharaoh'': London, 2000), writing about the pre-Roman Egyptian period, expresses the opposite viewpoint. She states that within the royal family there was a tradition of [[hypergamy]], where a king or his son might marry a commoner, but his daughter could not marry beneath herself, without the act being considered as degrading to herself. As a result, the royal princess often found herself either marrying her royal brother, or living her life without a spouse.
Incestuous unions were frowned upon and considered as ''nefas'' (a violation of the natural and social order) in [[Roman Empire|Roman]] times, and were explicitly forbidden by an imperial edict in AD [[295]], which divided the concept of ''incestus'' into two categories of unequal gravity: the ''incestus iuris gentium'', who was applied to both Romans and non-Romans in the Empire, and the ''incestus iuris civilis'' which concerned only the Roman citizens. Therefore, for example, an Egyptian could marry an aunt, but a Roman could not.
===Royal dynasties===
Adult incest has been notable in royal dynasties, probably in order to help concentrate wealth and political influence within the family (historical evidence suggests that this practice actually weakened the genetic makeup of elite society family lines, resulting in abnormally high occurrences of rare genetic defects and diseases). Although the marriage unions were often not consensual, with young adults or children forced to marry close relatives, this does not imply the sex was non-consensual. Best known for this practice, which included brother-sister marriages, are some of the dynasties of Ancient Egypt (as explained above), ancient [[Hawaii]], and the pre-Columbian [[Mixtec]].
Dynasties of the modern era where there was frequent familial intermarriage were the mid-[[Habsburg]]s; one branch ruled over [[Spain]] and the other over [[Austria]]. Spanish princesses, however, did marry [[France|French]] kings, [[Louis XIII of France|Louis XIII]] and [[Louis XIV of France|Louis XIV]] who were not [[Habsburg]]s. The Spanish branch died out in [[1700]], but the last Spanish Habsburg king, [[Charles II of Spain|Carlos II]] had been married to María-Luisa of Orléans, grand-daughter of King [[Charles I of England]] and niece to King [[Louis XIV of France]]. However, over the last century, Kings [[Philip II of Spain|Philip II]], [[Philip III of Spain|Philip III]], and (for his second time) [[Philip IV of Spain|Philip IV]] all married their Austrian cousins. The Austrian branch continued to rule until [[1918]], and they are still alive and prospering today. Although the ruler of Egypt, [[Cleopatra]], was of Greek origin, she was the daughter of her father's sister, and while reigning she married her brother, [[Ptolemy XIII]].
In Christian society, in which most of the great royal dynasties of the early modern era functioned, incest was a terrible taboo. In [[1536]] [[Anne Boleyn|Queen Anne Boleyn of England]] was falsely accused of incest with [[George Boleyn|her brother]] in order to blacken her name and enable [[Henry VIII of England|her husband]] to execute her and [[Lady Jane Seymour|marry again]].
==In religious traditions==
===In mythology===
Examples of incest in [[mythology]] are rampant. In [[Greek mythology]] [[Zeus]] and [[Hera]] are brother and sister as well as husband and wife. They were the children of [[Cronus]] and [[Rhea (mythology)|Rhea]] (also married siblings) and grandchildren of [[Uranus (mythology)|Uranus]] and [[Gaia (mythology)|Gaia]] (a son who took his mother as consort). Cronus and Rhea's siblings, the other [[Titan (mythology)|Titans]], were also all married brothers and sisters.
In [[Norse mythology]], [[Loki]] accuses [[Freyr]] and [[Freya]] of committing incest, in ''[[Lokasenna]]''. Moreover, in the [[Völsunga saga]], the hero [[Sigmund]] and his sister [[Signy]] murdered her children and begat a son, [[Sinfjötli]]. When Sinfjötli had grown up, he and Sigmund murdered Signy's husband [[Siggeir]].
In [[Icelandic folklore]] a common plot involves a brother and sister (illegally) conceiving a child. They subsequently escape justice by moving to a remote valley. There they proceed to have several more children. The man has some magical abilities which he uses to direct travelers to or away from the valley as he chooses. The siblings always have exactly one daughter but any number of sons. Eventually the magician allows a young man (usually searching for sheep) into the valley and asks him to marry the daughter and give himself and his sister a civilized burial upon their deaths. This is subsequently done.
Sibling incest forms an important part of the plot in the story of [[Kullervo]] in the [[Finland|Finnish]] national epic, the [[Kalevala]], as also in medieval versions of the [[Britain|British]] legend of [[King Arthur]].
===In religion===
The [[Bible]] also contains a number of references to incest: see [[Biblical references to incest]].
==Fiction==
{{spoiler}}
Incest is a somewhat popular topic in English [[erotic fiction]]; there are entire collections and websites devoted solely to this genre, with an entire genre of pornographic [[pulp fiction]] known as "incest novels". This is probably because, as with many other fetishes, the taboo nature of the act adds to the titillation. With the advent of the Internet, there is even more of this type of fiction available.
Besides this, incest is sometimes mentioned or described in mainstream, non-erotic fiction. Connotations can be negative, very rarely positive, or neutral. For example, in [[Gabriel García Márquez]]'s ''[[One Hundred Years of Solitude]]'' there are several cases of sex between more or less close relatives, the last of which occurs between a nephew and his aunt, resulting in the birth of a child who is born with a pig's tail and precedes the destruction of the whole town of [[Macondo]] by a [[tropical cyclone]]. Other works of literature show consequences not so grave, such as the [[V.C. Andrews]] novel ''[[Flowers in the Attic]]'' and its subsequent sequels, in which brother and sister uphold a loving relationship; [[Arundhati Roy]]'s ''[[The God of Small Things]]'', in which fraternal twins share a cathartic sexual experience; and several of [[Robert A. Heinlein]]'s later stories.
In [[J. R. R. Tolkien]]'s ''[[Silmarillion]]'', there are two examples of accidental incest such as when a couple do not realize they are brother and sister. When the relation is discovered, events inevitably end in tragedy.
Incest is an<!-- Not small --> element of the [[Sophocles]] play ''[[Oedipus the King]]'', based on the story from [[Greek mythology]], in which the [[title character]] unknowingly kills his father and marries his mother. This act came to great prominence in the [[20th century]] with [[Freud]]'s analysis of the [[Oedipus complex]] as lying beneath the psychology of all men. Its female counterpart is called the [[Electra complex]].
[[Vladimir Nabokov]]'s novel ''[[Ada or Ardor: A Family Chronicle]]'' deals very heavily with the incestuous relationships in the intricate family tree of the main character Van Veen. There are explicit moments of sexual relations primarily between Van and his sister Ada, as well as between Ada and her younger sister Lucette. Nabokov does not necessarily deal with any complexities or consequences, social or otherwise, which may be inherent to incestuous relationships--outside of the strictly practical concerns of having to hide the taboo relationships from others. Incest in ''Ada'' seems mainly to be a sexual manifestation of the characters' intellectual incestuousness, and operates on a similar plane as do other instances of "sexual transgression" in his novels of this period, such as [[pedophilia]] in ''[[Lolita]]'' and [[homosexuality]] in ''[[Pale Fire]]''.
[[Thomas Mann]]'s [[The Holy Sinner]] explores the spiritual consequences of unintentional incest.
It is also a main plot device in the movie ''[[Caligula (film)|Caligula]]'', the Korean movie ''[[Oldboy]]'', Roman Polanski's ''[[Chinatown (film)|Chinatown]]'' and [[Guy Maddin]]'s film [[Careful]].
In the finale episode of season 3 from [[FX Networks|FX Network's]] television drama [[Nip/Tuck]], the characters of [[Quentin Costa]] and [[Kit McGraw]] are exposed as incestuous lovers, of likewise incestuous parents. This discovery comes soon after Quentin is unmasked as [[The Carver]], the main [[antagonist]] of season 3, along with his accomplice, Kit.<!---My first Wiki contribution, sorry if I screwed up--->
==Incest as a metaphor==
Sometimes the word "incestuous" is also used metaphorically to describe other inappropriately close relationships, for example between an [[authority figure]] and a [[subordinate]], or between people in the same [[profession]] or creative field. The term "incest group" is also common in [[high school]], and denotes a group of friends that only date others within their group. Institutions such as [[church]]es, [[college]]s, and sometimes whole [[nation]]s can be described as ''incestuous'' when inappropriately close relationships, corrupt [[conflict of interest|conflicts of interest]] and secret [[conspiracy|collusions]] occur inside the institution and especially within the institution's top echelons such as in cases [[John Boyd (military strategist)|John Boyd]] exposed in the Pentagon.
==See also==
*[[Imprinting (psychology)#Westermarck effect|Westermarck effect]]
*[[Genetic sexual attraction]]
*[[Inbreeding]]
*[[Kinship and descent]]
*[[Sexual morality]]
*[[Incest pornography]]
*[[Incest taboo]]
*[[Human sexual behavior]]
*[[Oedipus complex]]
*[[Electra complex]]
*[[Levirate marriage]]
*[[Paraphilia]]
==External links==
* [http://www.vachss.com/av_dispatches/nyt-11202005.html ''The Incest Loophole'']
* [http://movingforward.org/v1n4-cover.html Sibling Sexual Abuse: An Emerging Awareness of an Ignored Childhood Trauma]
* [http://www.psychpage.com/family/library/sib_abuse.htm Sibling Sexual Abuse]
* [http://www.vachss.com/av_dispatches/disp_9803_a.html ''Our Endangered Species: A Hard Look at How We Treat Children'', Parade Magazine, (3/29/98)]
* [http://www.vachss.com/av_dispatches/disp_9408_a.html ''You Carry the Cure In Your Own Heart'', Parade Magazine, (8/28/94)]
* [http://www.fright.com/edge/sistermysister.html ''Sister My Sister'' English, 1994.]
* [http://www.kalimunro.com/article_mother_son_sexual_abuse.html Male Sexual Abuse Victims of Female Perpetrators: Society's Betrayal of Boys]
* [http://www.enotalone.com/article/4290.html Silently Seduced: When Parents Make Their Children Partners: Understanding Covert Incest]
* [http://www.kalimunro.com/article_sexual_abuse_by_mothers.html Mother-Daughter Sexual Abuse: A Painful Topic]
* [http://www.kalimunro.com/article_sexualabuse.html Incest and Child Sexual Abuse: Definitions, Perpetrators, Victims, and Effects]
* [http://www.drmiletski.com/mother_son.html Mother-Son Incest: The Unthinkable Broken Taboo]
* [http://www.safersociety.org/allbks/wp046.html The Last Secret: Daughters Sexually Abused By Mothers]
* [http://www.hup.harvard.edu/catalog/HERFAY.html Father-Daughter Incest]
* [http://ajp.psychiatryonline.org/cgi/content/abstract/135/7/835 Father-Son Incest: Underreported Psychiatric Problem?]
* [http://www.newadvent.org/cathen/04264a.htm Catholic Consanguinity (in Canon Law)]
* [[Lloyd deMause]]. "The Universality of Incest", ''The Journal of Psychohistory'', Fall 1991, Vol. 19, No. 2. ([http://www.psychohistory.com/htm/06a1_incest.html]) - author argues that incest is universal across all human societies; equates incest with incest with children; argues that sexual relations between children and third persons with parental knowledge or consent constitutes 'indirect incest'
* [http://www.vachss.com/av_dispatches/disp_9119_a.html Comment on "The Universality of Incest," by Andrew Vachss] - comments on deMause's article by well-known children's attorney and child protection consultant
* [http://www.guardian.co.uk/Archive/Article/0,4273,4331603,00.html article from The Guardian newspaper, concerning a case of allegedly consensual adult parent-child incest]
* [http://www.umanitoba.ca/anthropology/tutor/marriage/usa-ncst.html State Variations on American Marriage Prohibitions]
* [http://www.vachss.com/help_text/incest.html Intrafamilial (Incest) Abuse Resources]
* [http://samvak.tripod.com/incest.html The incest taboo - origins, history, and ethical aspects]
* [http://freepages.genealogy.rootsweb.com/~jamesdow/wrigco.htm The "mathematics of inbreeding"]
* [http://www.anth.ucsb.edu/faculty/tooby/classes/anth7/incest.htm The evolution of incest avoidance mechanisms]
* [http://www.geocities.com/luvacuzn4/CousinsMarryingCousins.html Cousins Marrying Cousins - an article from the New York Times]
* [http://www.coej.org/Medical/marrying_cousins_not_risky.htm Recent research results]
* [http://www.phoenixnewtimes.com/issues/2005-12-29/news/feature.html Forbidden Fruit] December 2005 ''New Times'' article on fumarase deficiency following multigenerational cousin marriages in Colorado City, Arizona
==References and further reading==
* Scruton, Roger, ''Sexual Desire: A Moral Philosophy of the Erotic'', Free, 1986.
* Pryor, Douglass, ''Unspeakable Acts: Why Men Sexually Abuse Children'', New York Univ Press, 1996.
* Miller, Alice, ''That Shalt Not Be Aware: Society's Betrayal of the Child'', Farrar Strauss Giroux, 1983.
* Lobdell, William, ''Missionary's Dark Legacy; Two remote Alaska villages are still reeling form a Catholic volunteer's sojourn three decades ago, when he allegedly molested nearly every Eskimo boy in the parishes. The accusers, now men, are scarred emotionally and struggle to cope. They are seeking justice.'', Los Angeles Times, Nov 19, 2005, p. A.1.
* Shaw, Risa, ''Not Child's Play: An Anthology on Brother-Sister Incest'', Lunchbox, 2000.
* DeMilly, Walter, ''In My Father's Arms: A True Story of Incest'', Univ. of Wisc. Press, 1999.
* Blume, E Sue, ''Secret Survivors: Uncovering Incest and It's Aftereffects in Women'', Ballantine, 1991.
* Rosencrans, Bobbie and Bear, Eaun, ''The Last Secret: Daughters Sexually Abused by Mothers'', Safer Society, 1997.
* Adams, Kenneth, M., ''Silently Seduced: When Parents Make Their Children Their Partners, Understanding Covert Incest'', HCI, 1991.
* Love, Pat, ''Emotional Incest Syndrome: What to Do When a Parent's Love Rules Your Life'', Bantam, 1991.
* Herman, Judith, ''Father-Daughter Incest'', Harvard University Press, 1982.
* Miletski, Hani, ''Mother-Son Incest: The Unthinkable Broken Taboo'', Safer Society, 1999.
* {{cite book | author= Forward , Susan | title=Toxic Parents: Overcoming Their Hurtful Legacy and Reclaiming Your Life| publisher= Bantam | year=1990 | id=ISBN 0553284347}}
* Lew, Mike, ''Victims No Longer: Men Recovering from Incest and Other Sexual Child Abuse.'' Nevraumont, 1988.
* Hislop, Julia, ''Female Sexual Offenders: What Therapists, Law Enforcement, and Child Protective Services Need to Know'', Issues, 2001.
* Elliot, Michelle, '' Female Sexual Abuse of Children'', Guilford, 1994.
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Industrial Revolution
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The '''Industrial Revolution''' (sometimes known as the First Industrial Revolution) was one of the major [[technology|technological]], [[socioeconomic]] and [[culture|cultural]] changes in the late 18th and early 19th century resulting from the replacement of an economy based on manual labour to one dominated by industry and machine manufacture. It began in [[Britain]] with the introduction of [[steam engine|steam power]] (fueled primarily by [[coal]]) and powered [[machine|machinery]] (mainly in [[textile]] [[manufacturing]]). The development of all-metal [[machine tools]] in the first two decades of the nineteenth century enabled the manufacture of more production machines for manufacturing in other industries.
The dating of the First Industrial Revolution is not exact. [[T.S. Ashton]] held that it occurred roughly between 1760 and 1830 (in effect the reigns of [[George III of the United Kingdom|George III]], The [[English Regency|Regency]], and part of [[William IV of the United Kingdom|William IV]]). There was no cut-off point for the First Revolution as it merged into the [[Second Industrial Revolution]] around 1850, when technological and economic progress gained momentum with the development of steam-powered [[ship]]s and [[railway]]s, and later in the nineteenth century, of the [[internal combustion engine]] and [[Electric power|electrical power generation]].
The effects spread throughout [[Western Europe]] and [[North America]], eventually affecting the rest of the world. The impact of this change on [[society]] was enormous and is often compared to the [[Neolithic revolution]], when mankind developed [[agriculture]] and gave up its [[nomad|nomadic lifestyle]].
The term ''[[revolution]]'' applied to technological change was introduced by [[Friedrich Engels]] and [[Louis-Auguste Blanqui]] in the second half of the 19th century.
[[Image:Maquina vapor Watt ETSIIM.jpg|thumb|300px|A Watt steam engine in [[Madrid]]. The development of the [[steam engine]] started the industrial revolution in Great Britain. The steam engine was created to pump water from coal mines, enabling them to be deepened.]]
==Causes==
The causes of the Industrial Revolution were complex and remain a topic for debate, with some historians seeing the Revolution as an outgrowth of social and institutional changes wrought by the end of [[feudalism]] in [[Great Britain]] after the [[English Civil War]] in the 17th century. As national border controls became more effective, diseases spread less, therefore preventing the epidemics common in previous times. The percentage of children who lived past infancy rose significantly as well, leading to a larger workforce. The [[Enclosure]] movement and the [[British Agricultural Revolution]] made food production more efficient and less labour-intensive, forcing the surplus population who could no longer find employment in [[agriculture]] into [[cottage industry]], such as [[weaving]], and in the longer term into the cities and the newly-developed [[factories]]. The [[colonial expansion]] of the 17th century with the accompanying development of international [[trade]], creation of [[financial markets]] and accumulation of [[Capital (economics)|capital]] are also cited as factors, as is the [[scientific revolution]] of the 17th century. [[Technology|Technological]] innovation was another important factor, in particular the new invention and development of the [[steam engine]] (which later was developed by Fulton into a steam boat) during the 18th century.
The presence of a large domestic market should also be considered an important catalyst of the Industrial Revolution, particularly explaining why it occurred in Britain. In other nations, such as [[France]], markets were split up by local regions, which often imposed tolls and [[tariff]]s on goods traded among them.
===Causes for occurrence in Europe===
One question of active interest to historians is why the Industrial Revolution occurred in Europe and not other parts of the world, particularly [[China]] and [[India]]. Numerous factors have been suggested, including [[ecology]], [[government]], and [[culture]]. [[Benjamin Elman]] argues that China was in a [[high level equilibrium trap]] in which the nonindustrial methods were efficient enough to prevent use of industrial methods with high costs of capital. [[Kenneth Pomeranz]], in the ''Great Divergence'', argues that Europe and China were remarkably similar in 1700, and that the crucial differences which created the Industrial Revolution in Europe were: sources of [[coal]] near manufacturing centres and raw materials such as food and wood from the New World, which allowed Europe to expand economically in a way that China could not.
However, modern estimates of per capita income in Western Europe in the late 18th century are of roughly 1,500 of 1990 dollars (and England had a per capita income of nearly 2,000 dollars) and China, by comparison, had only 450 dollars. Also, the average [[interest rate]] was about 5% in England and over 30% in China, which illustrates how much more abundant capital was in England, capital that was available for investment.
Some historians believe it was the different belief systems in China and Europe that dictated where the industrial revolution occurred. The religion and beliefs of Europe were largely products of [[Christianity]], [[Socrates]], [[Plato]], and [[Aristotle]]. Conversely, Chinese society was founded on men like [[Confucius]], [[Mencius]], [[Han Feizi]] ([[Legalism]]), [[Laozi]] ([[Taoism]]), and [[Buddha]] ([[Buddhism]]). The key difference between these belief systems was that European beliefs focused on the individual, while Chinese beliefs centered around relationships between people. The family unit was more important than the individual for the large majority of Chinese history, and this may have played a role in why the industrial revolution took much longer to occur in China. There was the additional difference as to whether people looked backwards to a reputedly glorious past for answers to their questions or looked hopefully to the future.
Western European peoples had experienced the [[Renaissance]] and [[Reformation]]; other parts of the world had not had a similar intellectual breakout, a condition that holds true even into the 21st century.
In [[India]], the noted historian Rajni Palme Dutt has been quoted as saying, " The capital to finance the Industrial Revolution in India instead went into financing the Industrial Revolution in [[England]]." In direct contrast to [[China]], India was split up into many different kingdoms all fighting for supremacy, with the three major ones being the [[Marathas]], [[Sikhs]] and the [[Mughals]]. In addition, the economy was highly dependent on two sectors--agriculture of subsistence and cotton, and technical innovation was non-existent. The vast amounts of wealth were stored away in palace treasuries, and as such, were easily moved to [[England]].
====Causes for occurrence in Great Britain====
[[Image:Philipp Jakob Loutherbourg d. J. 002.jpg|thumb|right|330px|[[Coalbrookdale]] at night, 1801 :<br> Artist: [[Philip James de Loutherbourg|Philipp Jakob Loutherbourg the Younger]]]]
The debate about the start of the Industrial Revolution also concerns the lead of 30 to 100 years that Britain had over other countries. Some have stressed the importance of natural or financial resources that the [[United Kingdom]] received from its many overseas [[colonies]] or that profits from the British [[slave trade]] between Africa and the Caribbean helped fuel industrial investment.
Alternatively, the greater liberalisation of trade from a large merchant base may have allowed Britain to utilise emerging scientific and technological developments more effectively than countries with stronger monarchies, such as China and Russia. Great Britain emerged from the [[Napoleonic Wars]] as the only European nation not ravaged by financial plunder and economic collapse, and possessing the only merchant fleet of any useful size (European merchant fleets having been destroyed during the war by the [[Royal Navy]]). The United Kingdom's extensive exporting cottage industries also ensured markets were already available for many early forms of manufactured goods. The nature of conflict in the period resulted in most British warfare being conducted overseas, reducing the devastating effects of territorial conquest that affected much of Europe. This was further aided by Britain's geographical position— an island separated from the rest of mainland Europe.
Another theory is that Great Britain was able to succeed in the Industrial Revolution due to the availability of key resources it possessed. It had a dense population for its small geographical size. [[Inclosure|Enclosure]] of common land and the related [[British Agricultural Revolution|Agricultural revolution]] made a supply of this labour readily available. There was also a local coincidence of natural resources in the [[North of England]], the [[English Midlands]], [[South Wales]] and the [[Scottish Lowlands]]. Local supplies of coal, iron, lead, copper, tin, limestone and water power, resulted in excellent conditions for the development and expansion of industry.
The stable political situation in Great Britain from around 1688, and British society's greater receptiveness to change (when compared with other European countries) can also be said to be factors favouring the Industrial Revolution.
====Protestant work ethic====
Another theory is that the British advance was due to the presence of an entrepreneurial class which believed in progress, technology and hard work.<sup>[[#Notes|1]]</sup> The existence of this class is often linked to the [[Protestant work ethic]] (see [[Max Weber]]) and the particular status of dissenting Protestant sects, such as the [[Religious Society of Friends|Quakers]], [[Baptists]] and [[Presbyterians]] that had flourished with the [[English Civil War]]. Reinforcement of confidence in the rule of law, which followed establishment of the prototype of constitutional monarchy in Great Britain in the [[Glorious Revolution]] of [[1688]], and the emergence of a stable financial market there based on the management of the [[National debt|national debt]] by the [[Bank of England]], contributed to the capacity for, and interest in, private financial investment in industrial ventures.
Dissenters found themselves barred or discouraged from almost all public offices, as well as education at England's only two Universities at the time, Oxford and Cambridge, when the restoration of the monarchy took place and membership in the official [[Anglican church]] became mandatory due to the [[Test Act]]. They thereupon became active in banking, manufacturing and education, The [[Unitarians]], in particular, were very involved in education, by running Dissenting Academies, where, in contrast to the Universities of Oxford and Cambridge, and schools such as Eton and Harrow, much attention was given to mathematics and the sciences--areas of scholarship vital to the development of manufacturing technologies.
Historians sometimes consider this social factor to be extremely important, along with the nature of the national economies involved. While members of these sects were excluded from certain circles of the government, they were considered fellow Protestants, to a limited extent, by many in the [[middle class]], such as traditional financiers or other businessmen. Given this relative tolerance and the supply of capital, the natural outlet for the more enterprising members of these sects would be to seek new opportunities in the technologies created in the wake of the [[Scientific revolution]] of the 17th century.
====Lunar society====
The work ethic argument has, on the whole, tended to neglect the fact that several inventors and entrepreneurs were rational free thinkers or "Philosophers" typical of a certain class of British intellectuals in the late 18th century, and were by no means normal church goers or members of religious sects. Examples of these free thinkers were the [[Lunar Society]] of [[Birmingham]] which flourished from 1765 to 1809. Its members were exceptional in that they were among the very few who were conscious that an industrial revolution was then taking place in Great Britain. They actively worked as a group to encourage it, not least by investing in it and conducting scientific experiments which led to innovative products.
==Innovations==
The invention of the [[steam engine]] was one of the most important innovations of the industrial revolution. This was made possible by earlier improvements in iron smelting and metal working based on the use of [[coke (fuel)|coke]] rather than charcoal. Earlier in the 18th century the textile industry had harnessed water power to drive improved spinning machines (see [[spinning jenny]]) and looms (see [[flying shuttle]]). These textile mills became the model for the organisation of human labour in factories.
====Transmission of innovation====
Knowledge of new innovation was spread by several means. Workers who were trained in the technique might move to another employer, or might be poached. A common method was for someone to make a study tour, gathering information where he could. Today this is called [[industrial espionage]], with modern concepts of automatic illegality.
During the whole of the Industrial Revolution and for the century before, all European countries and America engaged in this manner of study-touring; some nations, like Sweden and France, trained civil servants or technicians to undertake it as a matter of state policy. In other countries, notably Britain and America, this practice was carried out by individual manufacturers anxious to improve their own methods. Study tours were common then, as was the keeping of travel diaries; writings made by industrialists and technicians of the period are an incomparable source of information about their methods.
Another means for the spread of innovation was by the network of informal philosophical societies like the [[Lunar Society]] of Birmingham, in which members met to discuss science and often its application to manufacturing. Some of these societies published volumes of proceedings and transactions, and the London-based [[Society for the encouragement of Arts, Manufactures and Commerce]] or, more commonly, [[Society of Arts]] published an illustrated volume of new inventions, as well as papers about them in its annual Transactions.
There were publications describing technology. [[Encyclopedia]]s such as Harris's ''[[Lexicon technicum]]'' (1704) and Dr Abraham Rees's ''[[Cyclopaedia]]'' (1802-1819) contain much of value. Rees's ''Cyclopaedia'' contains an enormous amount of information about the science and technology of the first half of the Industrial Revolution, very well illustrated by fine engravings. Foreign printed sources such as the ''[[Descriptions des Arts et Métiers]]'' and Diderot's ''[[Encyclopédie]]'' explained foreign methods with fine engraved plates.
Periodical publications about manufacturing and technology began to appear in the last decade of the 18th century, and a number regularly included notice of the latest patents. Foreign periodicals, such as the [[Annales des Mines]], published accounts of travels made by French engineers who observed British methods on study tours.
===Industry===
====Factories====
[[Image:Dore_London.jpg|thumb|300px|right|''Over London by Rail'' [[Gustave Doré]] c 1870. Shows the densely populated and polluted environments created in the new industrial cities]]
Industrialisation also led to the creation of the [[factory]]. [[John Lombe]]'s [[Derby Industrial Museum|water-powered silk mill]] at [[Derby]] was operational by 1721. In 1746, an integrated brass mill was working at [[Warmley]] near [[Bristol]]. Raw material went in at one end, was smelted into brass, and was turned into pans, pins, wire, and other goods. Housing was provided for workers on-site.
[[Josiah Wedgwood]] and [[Matthew Boulton]] were other prominent early industrialists.
The factory system was largely responsible for the rise of the modern [[city]], as workers migrated into the cities in search of employment in the factories. For much of the 19th century, production was done in small mills, which were typically powered by water and built to serve local needs.
The transition to industrialisation was not wholly smooth. For example, a group of English workers known as [[Luddite]]s formed to protest against industrialization and sometimes [[sabotage]]d factories.
One of the earliest reformers of factory conditions was [[Robert Owen]].
====Machine tools====
The Industrial Revolution could not have developed without [[machine tool]]s, for they enabled manufacturing machines to be made. They have their origins in the tools developed in the 18th century by makers of clocks and watches, and scientific instrument makers to enable them to batch-produce small mechanisms. The mechanical parts of early textile machines were sometimes called 'clock work' due to the metal spindles and gears they incorporated. The manufacture of textile machines drew craftsmen from these trades and is the origin of the modern engineering industry. Machine makers early developed special purpose machines for making parts.
Machines were built by various craftsmen--[[carpenter]]s made wooden framings, and smiths and turners made metal parts. Because of the difficulty of manipulating metal, and the lack of machine tools, the use of metal was kept to a minimum. Wood framing had the disadvantage of changing dimensions with temperature and humidity, and the various joints used tended to rack (work loose) over time. As the Industrial Revolution progressed, machines with metal frames became more common, but required machine tools to make them economically. Before the advent of machine tools metal was worked manually using the basic hand tools of hammers, files, scrapers, saws and chisels. Small metal parts were readily made by this means, but for large machine parts, such as castings for a lathe bed, where components had to slide together, the production of flat surfaces by means of the hammer and chisel followed by filing, scraping and perhaps grinding with emery paste, was very laborious and costly.
Apart from workshop lathes used by craftsmen, the first large [[machine tool]] was the cylinder [[boring machine]], used for boring the large-diameter cylinders on early steam engines. They were to be found at all steam-engine manufacturers. The [[planing machine]], the [[slotting machine]] and the [[shaping machine]] were developed in the first decades of the 19th century. Although the [[milling machine]] was invented at this time, it was not developed as a serious workshop tool until during the Second Industrial Revolution.
Military production had a hand in the development of machine tools. [[Henry Maudslay]], who trained a school of machine tool makers early in the 19th century, was employed at the [[Royal Arsenal]], [[Woolwich]], as a young man where he would have seen the large horse-driven wooden machines for cannon boring made and worked by the [[Verbruggans]]. He later worked for [[Joseph Bramah]] on the production of metal locks, and soon after he began working on his own he was engaged to build the machinery for making ships' pulley blocks for the [[Royal Navy]] in the [[Portsmouth Block Mills]]. These were all metal, and the first machines for [[mass production]] and making components with a degree of [[interchangeability]]. The lessons Maudslay learned about the need for stability and precision he adapted to the development of machine tools, and in his workshops he trained a generation of men to build on his work, such as [[Richard Roberts (engineer)|Richard Roberts]], [[Joseph Clement]] and [[Joseph Whitworth]].
Maudslay made his name for his lathes and precision measurement. [[James Fox]] of [[Derby]] had a healthy export trade in machine tools for the first third of the century, as did [[Matthew Murray]] of Leeds. Roberts made his name as a maker of high-quality machine tools, and as a pioneer of the use of jigs and gauges for precision workshop measurement.
====Textile manufacture====
{{main|Textile manufacture during the Industrial Revolution}}
[[image:Spinning jenny.jpg|280px|thumb|left|Model of the spinning jenny in a museum in Wuppertal, Germany. The spinning jenny was one of the innovations that started the revolution.]]
In the early 18th century, British [[textile]] [[manufacture]] was based on [[wool]] which was processed by individual [[artisan]]s, doing the [[spinning]] and [[weaving]] on their own premises. This system is called a [[cottage industry]]. [[Flax]] and [[cotton]] were also used for fine materials, but the processing was difficult because of the pre-processing needed, and thus goods in these materials made only a small proportion of the output.
Use of the [[spinning wheel]] and [[loom|hand loom]] restricted the production capacity of the industry, but a number of incremental advances increased productivity to the extent that manufactured cotton goods became the dominant British export by the early decades of the 19th century. [[India]] was displaced as the premier supplier of cotton goods.
Step by step, individual inventors increased the [[efficiency]] of the individual steps of spinning ([[carding]], [[twisting]] and spinning, and subsequently [[rolling]]) so that the supply of [[yarn]] fed a weaving industry that itself was advancing with improvements to [[shuttle]]s and the loom or 'frame'. The output of an individual labourer increased dramatically, with the effect that these new [[machine]]s were seen as a threat to employment, and early innovators were attacked and their inventions were wrecked. The inventors often failed to exploit their inventions, and fell on hard times.
To capitalize upon these advances it took a class of [[entrepreneur]]s, of which the most famous is [[Richard Arkwright]]. He is credited with a list of inventions, but these were actually developed by people such as [[Thomas Highs]] and [[John Kay (Spinning Frame)|John Kay]]; Arkwright nurtured the inventors, patented the ideas, financed the initiatives, and protected the machines. He created the [[cotton mill]] which brought the production processes together in a [[factory]], and he developed the use of power – first [[horse power]], then [[water power]] and finally [[steam power]] – which made cotton manufacture a mechanized industry.
====Mining====
Coal mining in Britain, particuarly in [[Economy of Wales|South Wales]] is of great age. Before the steam engine, [[open-pit mine|pits]] were often shallow bell pits following a seam of coal along the surface and being abandoned as the coal was extracted. In other cases, if the geology was favourable, the coal was mined by means of an [[adit]] driven into the side of a hill. [[Shaft mining]] was done in some areas, but the limiting factor was the problem of removing water. It could be done by hauling buckets of water up the shaft by means of a horse gin, or it could be drained by an adit leading to a stream or ditch at lower level where it could flow away by gravity. The introduction of the steam engine enabled shafts to be made deeper, hence increasing output.
====Metallurgy====
{{main|Metallurgy during the Industrial Revolution}}
In the early 18th century, small-scale [[iron]] working and [[extractive metallurgy|extraction]] and processing of other [[metal]]s were carried out where local resources permitted. Fuel was primarily [[wood]] in the form of [[charcoal]], but consumption was starting to be constrained by lack of available timber. At the same time, demand for high-quality iron was dramatically increasing to keep pace with the improvements in [[weapon|military technology]] and the involvement of [[British military history#Early Modern period|Britain in numerous European wars]].
Principal suppliers of high-quality iron goods were [[Sweden]] and [[Russia]], with Russia being able to command increasingly high prices as Britain's need grew.
To fuel the iron [[smelting]] process, people moved from wood to [[coal]] and [[coke (fuel)|coke]]. Production of [[pig iron]], [[cast iron]] and [[wrought iron]] improved through the exchange of ideas (although this was by no means a fast process), with the most well-known name being [[Abraham Darby]]. The first Abraham Darby made great strides with using coke to fuel his [[blast furnace]]s at [[Coalbrookdale]] ([[1709]]), although this was principally due to the nature of the [[coke (fuel)|coke]] he was using, and the scientific reasons for the improvement were only discovered later. His family followed in his footsteps, and iron became a major construction material.
Other improvements followed, with [[Benjamin Huntsman]] developing a [[crucible steel]] technique in the [[1740s]], and [[Henry Cort]]'s [[puddling furnace]] enabling large-scale production of wrought iron to take place.
The reliance on overseas supplies was diminished, and improvements in [[machine tool]]s and the use of iron and steel in the development of the railways further boosted the industrial growth of Great Britain.
====Steam power====
{{main|Steam power during the Industrial Revolution}}
[[Image:Newcomens Dampfmaschine aus Meyers 1890.png|thumb|right|250px|Newcomen's atmospheric steam engine]]
The [[stationary steam engine]] had great influence on the progress of the Industrial Revolution, but for the period of the Industrial Revolution many industries still relied on wind and water power as well as horse and man-power for driving small machines.
The first [[atmospheric engine|steam engine]], invented by [[Thomas Newcomen]] in [[1712]], was used for draining mines or for driving mills by pumping water back to a reservoir that had passed through a water wheel. [[James Watt]]'s [[James Watt#Steam engine|engines]] added many efficiency improvements especially the external [[condenser]] [[1776]], steam under pressure and the centrifugal governor which enabled steam engines to be used to drive a factory or mill directly.
Until about 1800, the most common pattern of steam engine was the beam engine, which was built within a stone or brick engine-house but after then various patterns of portable (ie readily removable engines, not on wheels) were developed, such as the [[table engine]].
[[Richard Trevithick]]'s use of high pressure steam [[1799]], improved efficiency still further and made engines compact enough to be used in mobile [[locomotive]]s and [[steamboat|steam boats]].
The development of [[machine tools]] such as the planing and shaping machine enabled all the metal parts of the engines to be easily and accurately cut.
===Transportation===
{{main|Transport during the Industrial Revolution}}
At the beginning of the Industrial Revolution, inland transport was by navigable rivers and roads, with coastwise vessels employed to move heavy goods by sea. Railways or wagon ways were used for conveying coal to rivers for further shipment, and canals were beginning to be cut for moving goods between larger towns and cities.
During the Industrial Revolution, these different methods were improved and developed.
====Navigable rivers====
{{main|Rivers of Great Britain}}
All the major rivers were made navigable to a great or lesser degree. The [[Severn]] in particular was used for the movement of goods to the Midlands which had been imported into [[Bristol]] from abroad, and the export of goods from centres of production in [[Shropshire]] such as iron goods from [[Coalbrookdale]]. Transport was by way of [[Trow]]s - small sailing vessels which could pass the various shallows and bridges in the river. These could navigate the Bristol Channel to the South Wales ports and Somerset ports, such as [[Bridgwater]] and even as far as France.
====Coastal sail====
Sailing vessels had long been used for moving goods round the British coast. The trade transporting coal to London from Newcastle had begun in medieval times. The major international seaports such as London, Bristol and Liverpool were the means by which raw materials such as cotton might be imported and finished goods exported. Transporting goods onwards within Britain by sea was common during the whole of the Industrial Revolution and only fell away with the growth of the railways at the end of the period.
====Canals====
{{main|History of the British canal system}}
Canals began to be built in the late eighteenth century to link the major manufacturing centres in the Midlands and north with seaports and with London, at that time the largest manufacturing centre in the country. Canals were the first technology to allow bulk materials to be easily transported across county. A single canal horse could pull a load dozens of times larger than a cart at a faster pace. By the 1820s, a national network was in existence. Canal construction served as a model for the organisation and methods later used to construct the railways. They were eventually largely superseded as profitable commercial enterprises by the spread of the railways from the 1840s on.
Britain's canal network, together with its surviving mill buildings, is one of the most enduring features of the early Industrial Revolution to be seen in Britain.
====Roads====
Much of the original British road system was poorly maintained by thousands of local parishes, but from the [[1760s]] [[turnpike]] trusts were set up to charge tolls and maintain some roads. New engineered roads were built by [[John Metcalf (Civil engineer)|John Metcalf]], [[Thomas Telford|Thomas Telford]] and [[John Loudon McAdam|John Macadam]]. The major turnpikes radiated from London and were the means by which the Royal Mail was able to reach the rest of the country. Heavy goods transport on these roads was by means of slow broad wheeled carts hauled by teams of horses. Lighter goods were conveyed by smaller carts or by teams of pack horses. Stage coaches transported rich people. The less wealthy walked or paid to ride on a carriers cart.
====Railways====
{{main|History of rail transport in Great Britain}}
Wagonways for moving coal in the mining areas had started in the 17th century, and were often associatad with canal or river systems for the further movement of coal. These were all horse drawn or relied on gravity, with a stationary steam engine to haul the wagons back to the top of the incline. The first applications of the steam [[locomotive]] were on waggon or plate ways (as they were then often called from the cast iron plates used). Horse-drawn public railways did not begin until the early years of the 19th century. Steam-hauled public railways began with the [[Liverpool and Manchester]] and [[Stockton and Darlington]] Railways of the late 1820s. The construction of major railways connecting the larger cities and towns began in the 1830s but only gained momentum at the very end of the Industrial Revolution.
After many of the workers had completed the railways, they did not return to their rural lifestyles, but instead remained in the cities, providing additional workers for the factories.
==Social effects==
The industrial revolution led to a number of social problems within the newly developed [[working class]]. Children worked under miserable conditions and the families lived in [[slum|bad housing]].
===Child labour===
[[Child labour]] existed before the Industrial Revolution, and in fact dates back to [[prehistoric times]], but during the Industrial Revolution it grew far more abusive than ever before.[http://www.galbithink.org/child.htm] Politicians tried to limit child labour by law. Factory owners resisted; some felt that they were aiding the poor by giving their children work from the age of five years onward, and others simply welcomed the cheap labour. In [[1833]], the first [[law]] against child labour, the [[Factory Act of 1833]], was passed in England: Children younger than nine were not allowed to work, children were not permitted to work at night and the work day of youth under the age of 18 was limited to twelve hours. Factory [[inspector]]s supervised the execution of this law. About ten years later, the employment of children and women in mining was forbidden. These laws improved the situation; however child labour remained a problem in [[Europe]] up to the 20th century.
===Housing situation===
[[image:Glasgow-slum.png|thumb|200px|Slum in [[Glasgow]], 1871]]
In 1832, James Phillips Kay, an Edinburgh doctor, published a detailed report on the working conditions of the poor and describes worker's housing establishments as follows: <br>
:''Here, without distinction of age or sex, careless of all decency, they are crowded in small and wretched apartments; the same bed receiving a succession of tenants until too offensive for their unfastidious senses.'' <sup>[[#Notes|3]]</sup><br>
In 1842, a Sanitary Report was produced by Edwin Chadwick:<br>
:"In a cellar in Pendleton, I recollect there were three beds in the two apartments of which the habitation consisted, but having no door between them, in one of which a man and his wife slept; in another, a man, his wife and child; and in a third two unmarried females.(...)I have met with upwards of 40 persons sleeping in the same room, married and single, including, of course, children and several young adult persons of either sex."
===Luddites===
{{main|Luddite}}
The rapid industrialization of the English economy cost many craft workers their jobs. The textile industry in particular industrialized early, and many weavers found themselves suddenly unemployed since they could no longer compete with machines which only required relatively limited (and unskilled) labour to produce more cloth than a single weaver. Many such unemployed workers, weavers and others, turned their animousity towards the machines that had taken their jobs and began destroying factories and machinery. These attackers became known as Luddites, supposedly followers of [[Ned Ludd]], a folklore figure. The first attacks of the Luddite movement began in [[1811]]. The Luddites rapidly gained popularity, and the British government had to take drastic measures to protect industry.
===Organization of labour===
:''See also [[History of the labour movement|Labour history]]''
Conditions for the working class were so bad during the industrial revolution, unions were formed to help protect the rights of the working man. The main method the unions used to effect change was [[strike action]]. Strikes were painful events for both sides, the unions and the management. The management was upset because strikes took their precious working force away for a large period of time, and the unions had to deal with riot police and various middle class prejudices that striking workers were the same as criminals, as well as loss of income. The strikes often led to violent and bloody clashes between police and workers. Factory managers usually reluctantly gave in to various demands made by strikers, but the conflict was generally long standing.
In England, the [[Combination Laws|Combination Act]] forbade workers to form any kind of trade union from [[1799]] until its repeal in [[1824]]. Even after this, unions were still severely restricted.
In 1842, Cotton Workers in England staged a widespread strike.
===Other effects===
[[Image:graph_rel_share_world_manuf_1750_1900_01.png|right|thumb|300px]]
[[Image:Global Carbon Emission by Type.png|right|thumb|300px|Roughly exponential increase in carbon dioxide emissions from [[fossil fuels]], driven by increasing energy demands since the Industrial Revolution]]
The application of steam power to the industrial processes of [[printing]] supported a massive expansion of [[newspaper]] and popular [[book]] [[publishing]], which reinforced rising [[literacy]] and demands for mass political participation. Universal white male [[suffrage]] was adopted in the United States, resulting in the election of the popular [[Andrew Jackson]] in 1828 and the creation of political parties organised for mass participation in elections. In the [[United Kingdom]], the [[Reform Act 1832]] addressed the concentration of population in districts with almost no representation in Parliament, expanding the electorate, leading to the founding of modern political parties and initiating a series of reforms which would continue into the 20th century. In France, the [[July Revolution]] widened the franchise and established a [[constitutional monarchy]]. Belgium established its independence from the [[Netherlands]], as a constitutional monarchy, in 1830. Struggles for liberal reforms in [[Switzerland]]'s various cantons in the 1830s had mixed results. A further series of attempts at political reform or revolution would sweep Europe in 1848, with mixed results, and initiated massive migration to North America, as well as parts of South America, [[South Africa]], and [[Australia]]. The mass migration of rural families into urban areas saw the growth of bad living conditions in cities, long work hours without the traditional agricultural breaks (such as after harvest or in mid winter), a rise in child labour (the children received less pay and benefits than adults) and the rise of nationalism in most of Europe. The increase in coal usage saw a massive increase in atmospheric pollution.
The Industrial Revolution had significant impacts on the structure of society. Prior to its rise, the [[Public sphere|public]] and [[private sphere]]s held strong overlaps; work was often conducted through the home, and thus was shared in many cases by both a wife and her husband. However, during this period the two began to separate, with work and home life considered quite distinct from one another. This shift made it necessary for one partner to maintain the home and care for children. Women, holding the distinction of being able to [[breastfeeding|breastfeed]], thus more often maintained the home, with men making up a sizeable fraction of the workforce. With much of the family income coming from men, then, their power in relation to women increased further, with the latter often dependent on men's income. This had enormous impacts on the defining of [[gender role]]s and was effectively the model for what was later termed the [[traditional family]].
However, the need for a large workforce also pressured many women into industrial work, where they were often paid much less in relation to men. This was in large part due to a lack of organised labour among women to push for benefits and wage increases, and in part to ensure women's continued dependence on a man's income to survive.
==Intellectual paradigms==
===Capitalist===
{{main|Capitalism}}
The advent of [[The Enlightenment]] provided an intellectual framework which welcomed the practical application of the growing body of scientific knowledge — a factor evidenced in the systematic development of the steam engine, guided by scientific analysis, and the development of the political and [[sociology|sociological]] analyses, culminating in [[Adam Smith]]'s [[The Wealth of Nations]].
==Criticism==
===Marxism===
{{main|Marxism}}
[[Karl Marx]] saw the industrialization process as the logical [[dialectics|dialectical]] progression of feudal economic modes, necessary for the full development of [[capitalism]], which he saw as in itself a necessary precursor to the development of [[socialism]] and eventually [[communism]]. According to Marx, industrialization polarizes societies into the [[bourgeoisie]] (those who own the [[means of production]], e.g., the factories and land) and the much larger [[proletariat]] (the working class who actually perform the [[labour (economics)|labour]] necessary to extract something valuable from the means of production). Marx asserts that the relationship between the two classes is fundamentally parasitic, insofar as the proletariat are always undercompensated for the true value of their labour by the bourgeoisie (according to the [[labour theory of value]]), which allows the bourgeoisie to grow absurdly wealthy through nothing more than the wholesale exploitation of the proletarians' labour.
Rapid advancements in technology left many skilled workers unemployed, as one agricultural and manufacturing task after another was mechanized. The flight of millions of newly unemployed people from rural areas or small towns to the large cities, and thus the development of large urban population centers, led to unprecedented conditions of poverty in the slums that housed workers for the new factories. At the same time, the bourgeois class, at only a small fraction of the proletariat's size, became exceedingly wealthy.
Marx believed that the industrial proletariat would eventually develop [[class consciousness]] and revolt against the bourgeoisie, leading to a more egalitarian [[socialism|socialist]] and eventually [[Communist]] state where the workers themselves would own the means of industrial production.
===Romantic Movement===
{{main|Romanticism}}
Concurrent with the industrial revolution there developed an intellectual and artistic hostility towards the new industrialisation known as the [[Romanticism|Romantic Movement]]. Its major exponents included the artist and poet [[William Blake]], and poets [[William Wordsworth]] ,[[Samuel Taylor Coleridge]], [[Keats]] and [[Percy Bysshe Shelley|Shelley]]. The movement stressed the importance of "nature" in art and language, in contrast to the 'monstrous' machines and factories. In Blake's words they were the, "''Dark satanic mills''" of his poem ''[[And did those feet in ancient time]]''.
==The Second Industrial Revolution==
:''Main article: [[Second Industrial Revolution]]''
The insatiable demand of the [[railroads]] for more durable rail led to the development of the means to cheaply mass-produce [[steel]]. Steel is often cited as the first of several new areas for industrial mass-production, which are said to characterize a "[[Second Industrial Revolution]]", beginning around [[1850]]. This "second" Industrial Revolution gradually grew to include the [[chemical industry|chemical industries]], [[petroleum]] refining and distribution, [[electrical industry|electrical industries]], and, in the twentieth century, the [[automotive industry|automotive industries]], and was marked by a transition of technological leadership from Great Britain to the United States and [[Germany]].
The introduction of [[hydroelectric power]] generation in the [[Alps]] enabled the rapid [[industrialization]] of coal-starved northern Italy, beginning in the 1890s. The increasing availability of economic petroleum products also reduced the relation of coal to the potential for industrialization.
By the 1890s, industrialisation in these areas had created the first giant industrial corporations with often nearly global international operations and interests, as companies like [[United States Steel Corporation|U.S. Steel]], [[General Electric]], and [[Bayer|Bayer AG]] joined the railroads on the world's [[stock market]]s and among huge organisations.
==See also==
*[[Economic history of Britain]]
*[[Industrialization]]
*[[Second Industrial Revolution]]
*[[Revolution]]
*[[Capitalism in the nineteenth century]]
*[[Dialectics of progress]]
*[[Pre-industrial society]]
==Notes==
<sup>1</sup> ''[[The Protestant Ethic and the Spirit of Capitalism]]'', [[Max Weber]], (1904-1905, Eng. trans. 1930)<br>
<sup>2</sup> ''In Praise of Idleness'', [[Bertrand Russell]]<br>
<sup>3</sup> [http://www.historyhome.co.uk/peel/p-health/mterkay.htm The full text of the report published by James Phillips Kay in 1832]
==References==
===General===
*Bernal, John Desmond. ''Science and Industry in the Nineteenth Century'' Bloomington: Indiana University Press, 1970.
*Derry, Thomas Kingston and Trevor I. Williams. ''A Short History of Technology : From the Earliest Times to A.D. 1900'' New York : Dover Publications, 1993.
*Hobsbawm, Eric J.. ''Industry and Empire : From 1750 to the Present Day'' . New York : New Press ; Distributed by W.W. Norton,1999.
*Kranzberg, Melvin and Carroll W. Pursell, Jr. editors. ''Technology in Western civilization'' New York, Oxford University Press, 1967.
*Lines, Clifford, ''Companion to the Industrial Revolution'', London, New York etc., Facts on File, 1990, ISBN 0-8160-2157-0
*[[Friedrich Hayek|Hayek, Friedrich ]]: ''Capitalism and the Historians'', The University of Chicago Press, ISBN 0-226-32072-3 (Paperback 1963)
===Causes===
*Landes, David S. ''The Unbound Prometheus : Technical Change and Industrial Development in Western Europe from 1750 to the Present'' 2nd ed. New York : Cambridge University Press, 2003.
*Paul Mantoux, ''The Industrial Revolution in the Eighteenth Century'', First English translation 1928, revised and reset edition 1961.
===Machine tools===
*Norman Atkinson ''Sir Joseph Whitworth'',[[1996]], [[Sutton Publishing]] Limited [[1996]] ISBN 0-7509-1211-1 (hc), ISBN 0-7509-1648-6 (pb)
*John Cantrell and Gillian Cookson, eds., ''Henry Maudslay and the Pioneers of the Machine Age'', [[2002]], Tempus Publishing, Ltd, pb., (ISBN 0-7524-2766-0)
*Rev. Dr. Richard L. Hills, ''Life and Inventions of Richard Roberts, 1789-1864'', Landmark Publishing Ltd, [[2002]], (ISBN 1-84306-027-2)
*Joseph Wickham Roe, ''English and American Tool Builders'', Yale University Press, [[1916]]. Rep. Lindsay Publications Inc., Bradley IL.,[[1987]], (ISBN 0-917914-74-0),(cloth), (ISBN 0-9107914-73-2), paper.
===External links===
*[http://search.dmoz.org/cgi-bin/search?search=industrial+revolution Industrial Revolution links at the Open Directory Project] Has over 50 linked pages on the Industrial Revolution
*[http://www.fordham.edu/halsall/mod/modsbook14.html Internet Modern History Sourcebook: Industrial Revolution]
*[http://www.bbc.co.uk/history/society_culture/industrialisation/ BBC History Home Page: Industrial Revolution]
*[http://www.makingthemodernworld.org.uk/ National Museum of Science and Industry website: machines and personalities ]
*[http://www.econlib.org/library/Enc/IndustrialRevolutionandtheStandardofLiving.html ''Industrial Revolution and the Standard of Living''] by Clark Nardinelli - the debate over whether standards of living rose or fell
*[http://mars.acnet.wnec.edu/~grempel/courses/wc2/lectures/industrialrev.html An Overveiw of The Industrial Revolution: Industrial Revolution]
{{Industrial Revolution}}
[[Category:Industrial Revolution|*]]
[[Category:Historical eras]]
[[Category:History of Britain]]
[[Category:History of technology]]
[[bg:Индустриална революция]]
[[ca:Revolució industrial]]
[[cy:Y Chwyldro Diwydiannol]]
[[da:Den Industrielle Revolution]]
[[de:Industrielle Revolution]]
[[es:Revolución industrial]]
[[eo:Industria revolucio]]
[[fr:Révolution industrielle]]
[[ko:산업혁명]]
[[id:Revolusi Industri]]
[[he:המהפכה התעשייתית]]
[[hu:Ipari forradalom]]
[[nl:Industriële revolutie]]
[[nds:Industrielle Revolutschoon]]
[[ja:産業革命]]
[[no:Den industrielle revolusjon]]
[[nn:Den industrielle revolusjonen]]
[[pl:Rewolucja przemysłowa]]
[[pt:Revolução Industrial]]
[[simple:Industrial Revolution]]
[[fi:Teollinen vallankumous]]
[[sr:Индустријска револуција]]
[[sv:Industriella revolutionen]]
[[th:การปฏิวัติอุตสาหกรรม]]
[[tr:Sanayi devrimi]]
[[zh:工业革命]]
International Court of Justice
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[[Image:Peace Palace.jpg|thumb|330px|Peace Palace, seat of the ICJ.]]The '''International Court of Justice''' (known colloquially as the '''World Court''' or '''ICJ''') is the principal judicial organ of the [[United Nations]]. Its seat is in the [[Peace Palace]] at [[The Hague]], [[Netherlands]]. Established in [[1945]] by the [[Charter of the United Nations]], the Court began work in [[1946]] as the successor to the [[Permanent Court of International Justice]]. The Statute of the International Court of Justice, similar to that of its predecessor, is the main constitutional document constituting and regulating the Court.{{ref|1}} The ICJ shouldn't be confused with the [[International Criminal Court]] or the [[War Crimes Law (Belgium)]], both of which also potentially have "global" jurisdiction. English and French are its two official languages.
The Court's workload is characterised by a wide range of judicial activity. Its main functions are to settle [[legal]] disputes submitted to it by [[state]]s and to give advisory opinions on legal questions submitted to it by duly authorised international organs and agencies. The number of [[case law|decisions]] made by the ICJ has been relatively small, but there has clearly been an increased willingness to use the Court since the [[1980s]], especially among [[developing countries]], although the [[USA]] withdrew from compulsory jurisdiction in 1986, meaning it only accepts the court's jurisdiction on a case-to-case basis.
==Composition==
The ICJ is composed of fifteen permanent [[judge]]s elected by the [[UN General Assembly]] and the [[UN Security Council]] from a list of persons nominated by the national groups in the [[Permanent Court of Arbitration]]. The election process is set out in Articles 4-12 of the ICJ statute. Judges serve for nine years terms and may be re-elected. Elections take place every three years, with one-third of judges retiring each time, in order to ensure continuity within the court.
Should a judge die in office, the practice has generally been to elect a judge of the same [[nationality]] to complete the term. No two may be nationals of the same country. According to Article 9, the membership of the Court is supposed to represent the "main forms of civilization and of the principal legal systems of the world". Essentially, this has meant [[common law]], [[civil law (legal system)|civil law]] and [[socialist law]] (now [[post-communist law]]). Since the [[1960s]] each of the five permanent members of the Security Council ([[France]], [[China and the United Nations|China]], [[Russia]], the [[United Kingdom]], and the [[United States]]) have always had a judge on the Court. The exception was China (the [[Republic of China]] until [[1971]], the [[People's Republic of China]] from 1971 onwards), which did not have a judge on the Court from [[1967]]-[[1985]], because it did not put forward a candidate. The rule on a [[geopolitical]] composition of the bench exists despite the fact that there is no provision for it in the Statute of the ICJ.
Article 2 of the Statute provides that all judges should be "elected regardless of their nationality among persons of high [[moral]] character", who are either qualified for the highest judicial office in their home states or known as lawyers with sufficient competence in international law. Judicial independence is dealt specifically with in Articles 16-18. Judges of the ICJ are not able to hold any other post, nor act as [[counsel]]. A judge can only be dismissed by [[unanimous]] vote of other members of the Court. Despite these provisions, the independence of ICJ judges has been questioned. For example, during the ''[[Nicaragua v. United States|Nicaragua Case]]'', the [[USA]] issued a communiqué suggesting that it could not present sensitive material to the Court because of the presence of judges from [[Eastern bloc]] states.{{ref|2}}
Judges may deliver joint judgments or give their own separate opinions. Decisions and Advisory Opinions are by majority and, in the event of an equal division, the President's vote becomes decisive.{{ref|3}} Judges may also deliver separate dissenting opinions.
===''Ad hoc'' judges===
Article 31 of the statute sets out a procedure whereby ''[[ad hoc]]'' judges sit on contentious cases before the Court. This system allows any party to a contentious case to nominate a judge of their choice (usually of their nationality), if a judge of their nationality is not already on the bench. ''Ad hoc'' judges participate fully in the case and the deliberations, along with the permanent bench. Thus, it is possible that as many as seventeen judges may sit on one case.
This system may seem strange when compared with domestic court processes, but its purpose is to encourage states to submit cases to the Court. For example, if a state knows it will have a judicial officer who can participate in deliberation and offer other judges local knowledge and an understanding of the state's perspective, that state may be more willing to submit to the Court's jurisdiction. Although this system does not sit well with the judicial nature of the body, it is usually of little practical consequence. ''Ad hoc'' judges usually (but not always) vote in favour of the state that appointed them and thus cancel each other out.
===Chambers===
Generally, the Court sits as a full bench, but in the last fifteen years it has on occasion sat as a chamber. Articles 26-29 of the statute allow the Court to form smaller chambers, usually three or five judges, to hear cases. Two types of chambers are contemplated by Article 26: firstly, chambers for special categories of cases, and second, the formation of ''ad hoc'' chambers to hear particular disputes. In [[1993]] a special chamber was established, under Article 26(1) of the ICJ statute, to deal specifically with [[Natural environment|environmental]] matters (although this chamber has never been used).
''Ad hoc'' chambers are more frequently convened. For example, chambers were used to hear the ''Gulf of Maine Case'' ([[USA]] v [[Canada]]).{{ref|4}} In that case, the parties made clear they would withdraw the case unless the Court appointed judges to the chamber who were acceptable to the parties. Chambers judgments may have less authority than full Court judgments, or may diminish the proper interpretation of universal international law informed by a variety of cultural and legal perspectives. On the other hand, the use of Chambers might encourage greater recourse to the Court and thus enhance international [[dispute resolution]].{{ref|5}}
===Current composition===
[[Image:Rosalyn Higgins.jpg|thumb|Judge Higgins, President of the ICJ.]]
As of [[6 February]] [[2006]] the composition of the court is as follows:
*President: Dame [[Rosalyn Higgins]] ([[United Kingdom]])
*Vice-President: [[Awn Shawkat Al-Khasawneh]] ([[Jordan]])
In addition to the President and Vice-President, the ICJ judges are:
*[[Raymond Ranjeva]] ([[Madagascar]])
*[[Shi Jiuyong]] ([[People's Republic of China]])
*[[Abdul G. Koroma]] ([[Sierra Leone]])
*[[Gonzalo Parra Aranguren]] ([[Venezuela]])
*[[Thomas Buergenthal]] ([[United States|United States of America]])
*[[Hisashi Owada]] ([[Japan]])
*[[Bruno Simma]] ([[Germany]])
*[[Peter Tomka]] ([[Slovakia]])
*[[Ronny Abraham]] ([[France]])
*Sir [[Kenneth Keith]] ([[New Zealand]])
*[[Bernardo Sepúlveda Amor]] ([[Mexico]])
*[[Mohamed Bennouna]] ([[Morocco]])
*[[Leonid Skotnikov]] ([[Russia|Russian Federation]])
==Jurisdiction==
''See main article: [[Jurisdiction of the International Court of Justice]].''
As stated in Article 93 of the UN Charter, all 191 UN members are automatically [[Party (law)|parties]] to the Court's statute. Non-UN members may also become parties to the Court's statute under the Article 93(2) procedure. For example, [[Switzerland]] used this procedure in [[1948]] to become a party; [[Nauru]] also became a party in [[1988]]. Once a state is a party to the Court's statute, it is entitled to participate in cases before the Court. However, being a party to the statute does not automatically give the Court jurisdiction over disputes involving those parties. The issue of [[jurisdiction]] is considered in the two types of ICJ cases: contentious issues and advisory opinions.
===Contentious issues===
In contentious cases, the ICJ produces a binding ruling between states that agree to submit to the ruling of the court. Only [[state]]s may be parties in contentious cases. [[Individual]]s, [[corporation]]s, parts of a [[federal state]], [[NGO]]s, UN organs and [[self-determination]] groups are excluded from direct participation in cases, although the Court may receive information from public [[international organisations]]. This does not preclude non-state interests from being the subject of proceedings if one state brings the case against another. For example, a state may, in case of "diplomatic protection", bring a case on behalf of one of its nationals or corporations.{{ref|6}}
Jurisdiction is often a crucial question for the Court in contentious cases. (See [[International Court of Justice#Procedure|Procedure]] below.) The key principle is that the ICJ only has jurisdiction on the basis of consent. Article 36 outlines four bases on which the Court's jurisdiction may be founded.
*First, 36(1) provides that parties may refer cases to the Court (jurisdiction founded on "special agreement" or "''compromis''"). This method is based on explicit consent rather than true compulsory jurisdiction. It is, perhaps, the most effective basis for the Court's jurisdiction because the parties concerned have a desire for the dispute to be resolved by the Court and are thus more likely to comply with the Court's judgment.
*Second, 36(1) also gives the Court jurisdiction over "matters specifically provided for ... in treaties and conventions in force". Most modern [[treaty|treaties]] will contain a [[compromissory clause]], providing for dispute resolution by the ICJ.{{ref|7}} Cases founded on compromissory clauses have not been as effective as cases founded on special agreement, since a state may have no interest in having the matter examined by the Court and may refuse to comply with a judgment. For example, during the [[Iran hostage crisis]], [[Iran]] refused to participate in a case brought by USA based on a compromissory clause contained in the [[Vienna Convention on Diplomatic Relations]], nor did it comply with the judgment.{{ref|8}} Since the [[1970s]], the use of such clauses has declined. Many modern treaties set out their own dispute resolution regime, often based on forms of [[arbitration]].{{ref|9}}
*Thirdly, Article 36(2) allows states to make optional clause declarations accepting the Court's jurisdiction. The tag of "compulsory" which is sometimes placed on Article 36(2) jurisdiction is misleading since declarations by states are voluntary. Furthermore, many declarations contain reservations, such as exclusion from jurisdiction certain types of dispute ("''ratione materia''").{{ref|10}} The principle of [[reciprocity]] may further limit jurisdiction. As of [[December 2005]], sixty-five states had a declaration in force.{{ref|11}} Out of the [[Security Council]] members, only the [[United Kingdom]] has a declaration. In the Court's early years, most declarations were made by industrialised countries. Since the ''[[Nicaragua v. United States|Nicaragua Case]]'', declarations made by developing countries have increased, reflecting a growing confidence in the Court since the [[1980s]].
*Finally, 36(5) provides for jurisdiction on the basis of declarations made under the [[Permanent Court of International Justice]]'s statute. Article 37 of the ICJ's statute similarly transfers jurisdiction under any compromissory clause in a treaty that gave jurisdiction to the PCIJ.
In addition, the Court may have jurisdiction on the basis of tacit consent (''[[forum prorogatum]]''). In the absence of clear jurisdiction under Article 36, jurisdiction will be established if the respondent accepts its jurisdiction explicitly or simply pleads to the merits. The notion arose in the ''Corfu Channel Case'' (UK v Albania) in which it was held that letter from [[Albania]] stating that it submitted to the jurisdiction of the ICJ was sufficient to found jurisdiction.
===Advisory opinion===
An advisory opinion is a function of the court open only to specified United Nations bodies and agencies. On receiving a request, the Court decides which States and organizations might provide useful information and gives them an opportunity to present written or oral statements. Advisory Opinions were intended as a means by which UN agencies could seek the Court's help in deciding complex legal issues that might fall under their respective mandates. In principle the Court's advisory opinions are consultative in character, though they are also influential and widely respected. Whilst certain instruments or regulations can provide in advance that the advisory opinion shall be specifically binding on particular agencies or states, they are inherently non-binding under the Statute of the Court.
Advisory Opinions have often been controversial, either because the questions asked are controversial, or because the case was pursued as a "backdoor" way of bringing what is really a contentious case before the Court.
Examples of cases include:
*Advisory Opinion of the International Court of Justice on the [[Israeli West Bank Barrier]].
*[[Advisory Opinion of the International Court of Justice of 8 July 1996| An advisory opinion on the legality of the use (or threat to use) nuclear weapons]].
*The [[International Court of Justice Advisory Opinion on Western Sahara|opinion]] on [[Western Sahara]], issued in [[1975]].
===The ICJ and the Security Council===
Article 94 establishes the duty of all UN members to comply with decisions of the Court involving them. If parties do not comply, the issue may be taken before the [[Security Council]] for enforcement action. There are obvious problems with such a method of enforcement. If the judgment is against one of the permanent five members of the Security Council or its allies, any resolution on enforcement will be vetoed. This occurred, for example, after the [[Nicaragua v. United States|''Nicaragua'' case]], when [[Nicaragua]] brought the issue of the USA's non-compliance with the Court's decision before the Security Council.{{ref|2}} Furthermore, if the Security Council refuses to enforce a judgment against any other state, there is no method of forcing the state to comply.
The relationship between the ICJ and the [[Security Council]], and the separation of their powers, was considered by the Court in [[1992]], in the [[Pan Am case|''Pan Am'' case]]. The Court had to consider an application from [[Libya]] for the order of provisional measures to protect its rights, which, it alleged, were being infringed by the threat of economic sanctions by the [[UK]] and [[USA]]. The problem was that these sanctions had been authorised by the Security Council, which resulted with a potential conflict between the Chapter VII functions of the Security Council and the judicial function of the Court. The Court decided, by eleven votes to five, that it could not order the requested provisional measures because the rights claimed by Libya, even if legitimate under the [[Montreal Convention]], could no longer be upheld since the action was justified by the Security Council. In accordance with Article 103 of the UN Charter, obligations under the Charter took precedence over other treaty obligations.
There was a marked reluctance on the part of a majority of the Court to become involved in a dispute in such a way as to bring it potentially into conflict with the Council. The Court stated in the ''Nicaragua'' case (Jurisdiction) that there is no necessary inconsistency between action by the Security Council and adjudication by the ICJ. However, where there is room for conflict, the balance appears to be in favour of the Security Council.
Should either party fail "to perform the obligations incumbent upon it under a judgment rendered by the Court", the Security Council may be called upon to "make recommendations or decide upon measures" if the security council deems such actions necessary. In practice, the Court's powers have been limited by the unwillingness of the losing party to abide by the Court's ruling, and by the Security Council's unwillingness to enforce consequences. However, in theory, "so far as the parties to the case are concerned, a judgment of the Court is binding, final and without appeal," and "by signing the Charter, a State Member of the United Nations undertakes to comply with any decision of the International Court of Justice in a case to which it is a party".
For example, in [[Nicaragua v. United States]] the [[United States|United States of America]] had previously accepted the Court's compulsory jurisdiction upon its creation in [[1946]] but withdrew its acceptance following the Court's judgment in [[1984]] that called on the [[United States]] to "cease and to refrain" from the "unlawful use of force" against the government of [[Nicaragua]]. In a split decision, the majority of the Court ruled the [[United States]] was "in breach of its obligation under customary international law not to use force against another state" and ordered the US pay [[reparations]] (see note 2), although it never did.
Examples of cases include:
*A complaint by the [[United States]] in [[1980]] that [[Iran]] was detaining American diplomats in [[Tehran]] in violation of international law.
*A dispute between [[Tunisia]] and [[Libya]] over the delimitation of the continental shelf between them.
*A dispute over the course of the maritime boundary dividing the U.S. and [[Canada]] in the [[Gulf of Maine]] area.
*A complaint by the [[Federal Republic of Yugoslavia]] against the member states of the [[North Atlantic Treaty Organisation]] regarding their actions in the [[Kosovo War]]. This was denied on [[15 December]], [[2004]] due to lack of jurisdiction, because the FRY was not a party to the ICJ statute at the time it made the application.
The last example can be used as evidence of the Court's failure to take on politically controversial cases; as the Court has no means to enforce its rulings, its survival is dependent on its political legitimacy. That would be endangered if it constantly came with rulings which states have no interest of taking into consideration. This is one of the Court's major shortcomings: its rulings must be considered in a political context.
==Law applied==
''See main article: [[Sources of international law]].''
When deciding cases, the Court applies international law as summarised in Article 38. Article 38 of the Statute provides that in arriving at its decisions the Court shall apply international conventions, international custom, the "general principles of law recognized by civilized nations". It may also refer to academic writing and previous judicial decisions to help interpret the law, although the Court is not formally bound by its previous decisions. If the parties agree, the Court may also decide ''[[ex aequo et bono]]'' ("in justice and fairness"), in which the Court makes a decision based on what is fair in the circumstances or a reasonable adjustment of the rights of the parties, rather than a decision based strictly on legal rights and obligations. If exercised, it would allow the Court to operate in some ways similar to a [[mediator]]. However, this provision has never been used in the Court's history.
Article 59 makes clear that the [[common law]] notion of [[precedent]] or ''[[stare decisis]]'' does not apply to the decisions of the ICJ. The Court's decision binds only the parties in the individual case. Under 38(1)(d), however, the Court may have regard to its own previous decisions. In reality, the ICJ rarely departs from its own previous decisions and treats them in a similar way as [[superior court]]s in common law systems treat their own judgments. They are often referred to by the Court as authoritative statements of law. Further, international lawyers commonly operate as though ICJ judgments had precedential value.
==Procedure==
The ICJ is vested with the power to make its own rules. Court procedure is set out in ''Rules of Court of the International Court of Justice 1978'' (as amended on [[29 September]] [[2005]]).{{ref|5}}
Cases before the ICJ will follow a standard pattern. The case is lodged by the applicant who files a written memorial setting out the basis of the Court's jurisdiction and the merits of its claim. The respondent may accept the Court's jurisdiction and file its own memorial on the merits of the case.
===Preliminary Objections===
A respondent who does not wish to submit to the jurisdiction of the Court may raise Preliminary Objections. Any such objections must be ruled upon before the Court can address the merits of the applicant's claim. These objections must be ruled upon by the Court before it can proceed on the merits. Often a separate public hearing is held on the Preliminary Objections and the Court will render a judgment. Respondents normally file Preliminary Objections to the jurisdiction of the Court and/or the [[admissibility]] of the case. Inadmissibility refers to a range of arguments about factors the Court should take into account in deciding jurisdiction; for example, that the issue is not justiciable or not a "legal dispute".
In addition, objections may be made because all necessary parties are not before the Court. If the case necessarily requires the Court to rule on the rights and obligations of a state that has not consented to the Court's jurisdiction, the Court will not proceed to judgment on the merits.
If the Court decides it has jurisdiction and the case is admissible, the respondent will then be required to file a Memorial addressing the merits of the applicant's claim. Once all written arguments are filed, the Court will hold a public hearing on the merits.
Once a case has been filed, any party (but usually the Applicant) may seek an order from the Court to protect the ''status quo'' pending the hearing of the case. Such orders are known as Provisional (or Interim) Measures and are analogous to [[interlocutory injunction]]s in domestic law. Article 41 of the statute allows the Court to make such orders. The major legal question that has arisen on such applications is to what extent the Court must be satisfied that it has jurisdiction to hear the merits of the case before granting provisional measures.
===Applications to intervene===
In cases where a third state's interests are affected, that state may be permitted to intervene in the case, and participate as a full party. Under Article 62, a state "with an interest of a legal nature" may apply; however, it is within the Court's discretion whether or not to allow the intervention. Intervention applications are rare - the first successful application occurred in [[1990]].
Once deliberation has taken place, the Court will issue a majority opinion. Individual judges may issue separate opinions (if they agree with the outcome reached in the judgment of the court but differ in their reasoning) or dissenting opinions (if they disagree with the majority). No appeal is possible.
==See also==
*[[UN Economic and Social Council]]
*[[UN Secretariat]]
*[[UN Trusteeship Council]]
*[[International Criminal Tribunal for the Former Yugoslavia]]
*[[International Criminal Tribunal for Rwanda]]
*[[List of International Court of Justice cases]]
*[[List of treaties that confer jurisdiction on the ICJ]]
* [[Mundialization]]
* [[Nicaragua vs. United States]]
* [[World citizen]]
==Notes==
<div style="font-size: 90%">
#{{note|1}}[http://www.icj-cij.org/icjwww/ibasicdocuments/ibasictext/ibasicstatute.htm Statute of the International Court of Justice]. Accessed [[17 December]] [[2005]].
#{{note|2}}See ''Case Concerning Military and Paramilitary Activities In and Against Nicaragua'' (Nicaragua v USA), [1986] ICJ Reports 14, 158-60 (Merits) per Judge Lachs.
#{{note|3}}This occurred in the ''Legality of the Use by a State of Nuclear Weapons in Armed Conflict'' (Opinion requested by WHO), [1996] ICJ Reports 66.
#{{note|4}}''Gulf of Maine Case'' (USA v Canada), [1984] ICJ Reports 53.
#{{note|5}}Schwebel S "Ad Hoc Chambers of the International Court of Justice" (1987) 81 ''American Journal of International Law'' 831.
#{{note|6}}See the ''Nittebohm Case'' (Liechtenstein v Guatemala), [1955] ICJ Reports 4.
#{{note|7}}See [[List of treaties that confer jurisdiction on the ICJ]].
#{{note|8}}''Case Concerning United States Diplomatic and Consular Staff in Tehran'' (USA v Iran), [1979] ICJ Reports 7.
#{{note|9}}See Charney J "Compromissory Clauses and the Jurisdiction of the International Court of Justice" (1987) 81 ''American Journal of International Law'' 855.
#{{note|10}}See Alexandrov S ''Reservations in Unilateral Declarations Accepting the Compulsory Jurisdiction of the International Court of Justice'' (Leiden: Martinus Nijhoff, 1995).
#{{note|11}}For a complete list of countries and their stance with the ICJ, see [http://www.icj-cij.org/icjwww/ibasicdocuments/ibasictext/ibasicdeclarations.htm Declarations Recognizing as Compulsory the Jurisdiction of the Court]. Accessed [[17 December]] [[2005]].
#{{note|4}}[http://www.icj-cij.org/icjwww/ibasicdocuments/ibasictext/ibasicrulesofcourt_20050929.htm Rules of Court of the International Court of Justice 1978] (as amended on [[5 December]] [[2000]]). Accessed [[17 December]] [[2005]]. See also [http://www.icj-cij.org/icjwww/ibasicdocuments/ibasictext/ibasic_practice_directions_20040730_I-XII.htm Practice Directions I-XII] (as at [[30 July]] [[2004]]). Accessed [[17 December]] [[2005]].
</div>
==Further reading==
*Rosenne S, ''Rosenne's the world court: what it is and how it works'' 6th ed (Leiden: Martinus Nijhoff, 2003).
==External links==
*[http://www.icj-cij.org/ International Court of Justice], Official site
*[http://www.icj-cij.org/icjwww/idecisions.htm List of cases] ruled upon by the ICJ since its creation in 1946
{{United Nations}}
[[Category:International courts]]
[[Category:United Nations]]
[[Category:International law]]
[[Category:International Court of Justice]]
[[ar:محكمة العدل الدولية]]
[[bg:Международен съд]]
[[zh-min-nan:Kok-chè Hoat-têng]]
[[ca:Cort Internacional de Justícia de l'ONU]]
[[da:ICJ]]
[[de:Internationaler Gerichtshof]]
[[es:Corte Internacional de Justicia]]
[[fa:دیوان دادگستری بینالمللی]]
[[fr:Cour internationale de justice]]
[[ko:국제사법재판소]]
[[is:Alþjóðadómstóllinn]]
[[it:Corte Internazionale di Giustizia]]
[[he:בית הדין הבינלאומי לצדק]]
[[kn:ಅಂತರರಾಷ್ಟ್ರೀಯ ನ್ಯಾಯಸ್ಥಾನ]]
[[ka:გაეროს საერთაშორისო სასამართლო]]
[[nl:Internationaal Gerechtshof]]
[[ja:国際司法裁判所]]
[[no:Den internasjonale domstolen]]
[[pl:Międzynarodowy Trybunał Sprawiedliwości]]
[[pt:Tribunal Internacional de Justiça]]
[[sl:Meddržavno sodišče OZN]]
[[sv:Internationella domstolen i Haag]]
[[tl:Hukumang Internasyonal ng Katarungan]]
[[th:ศาลยุติธรรมระหว่างประเทศ]]
[[vi:Tòa án Quốc tế vì Công lý]]
[[zh:国际法院]]
ISBN
14919
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2006-03-03T19:40:59Z
Amaltsev
284107
reverting back what seems like an accidental edit
The '''International Standard Book Number''', or '''ISBN''' (sometimes pronounced "is-ben"), is a unique{{ref|1}} [[identifier]] for books, intended to be used commercially. The ISBN system was created in the [[United Kingdom]] in [[1966]] by the booksellers and stationers [[W H Smith]] and originally called Standard Book Numbering or SBN (still used in [[1974]]). It was adopted as international standard [[International Organization for Standardization|ISO]] 2108 in [[1970]]. A similar identifier, the International Standard Serial Number ([[ISSN]]), is used for periodical publications such as magazines.
==Overview==
Each edition and variation (except reprints) of a book receives its own ISBN. The number is either 10 or 13 digits long, and consists of four or five parts:
#if 13-digit ISBN, an [[European Article Number|EAN]] prefix, either 978 or 979
#the country of origin or language code,
#the publisher,
#the item number, and
#a [[checksum]] character.
The different parts can have different lengths and are usually separated by hyphens. Hyphens are not strictly necessary however, since [[prefix code]]s are used, which ensure that no two codes start the same way. If present, hyphens must be placed correctly (instructions are given [http://www.isbn.org/standards/home/isbn/international/hyphenation-instructions.asp here]); however they are not sufficient since different agencies are responsible for allocating different ISBN subranges and a complete, up-to-date list is not available at isbn.org.
The country field is 0 or 1 for English speaking countries, 2 for French speaking countries, 3 for German speaking countries, etc. (The original SBN lacked the country field, but prefixing 0 to a 9-digit SBN creates a valid ISBN.) The country field can be up to 5 digits long; 99936 for instance is used for [[Bhutan]]. See [http://www.isbn-international.org/en/identifiers/allidentifiers.html this complete list].
The publisher number is assigned by the national ISBN agency, and the item number is chosen by the publisher. There is, in general, no requirement for a publisher to assign an ISBN to a book nor for that book to display its number - but see below for the exception in China. However, many bookstores will only deal with items bearing an ISBN.
Publishers receive blocks of ISBNs, with larger blocks going to publishers that are expected to need them; a small publisher might receive ISBNs consisting of a digit for the language, seven digits for the publisher, and a single digit for the individual items. Once that block is used up, the publisher can receive another block of numbers, with a different publisher number. As a consequence, different publisher numbers may correspond to the same publisher.
The [[International ISBN Agency]] [http://www.isbn-international.org/] in its official manual [http://www.isbn-international.org/en/userman/download/ISBNmanual.pdf] states that the 10-digit ISBN [[check digit]], which is the last digit of the 10 digit ISBN, is calculated on a [[modular arithmetic|modulus]] 11 with weights 10 to 2, using X in lieu of 10 where ten would occur as a check digit. This means that each of the first nine digits of the 10-digit ISBN – excluding the check digit itself – is multiplied by a number in a sequence from 10 to 2 and that the resulting sum of the products, plus the check digit, must be divisible by 11 without a remainder.
By this method the calculation for the 10-digit ISBN whose first nine digits are 0-306-40615 would be done thus:
10×0 + 9×3 + 8×0 + 7×6 + 6×4 + 5×0 + 4×6 + 3×1 + 2×5
= 0 + 27 + 0 + 42 + 24 + 0 + 24 + 3 + 10
= 130
The next complete multiple of 11 is 12×11 = 132
132 - 130 = 2
So the check digit is 2, and the complete sequence is <nowiki>ISBN 0-306-40615-2</nowiki>.
A second method to find the check digit is by first multiplying each digit of the 10-digit ISBN by that digit's place in the number sequence from 1 to 9, with the leftmost digit being multiplied by 1, the next digit by 2, and so on. Next, take the sum of these multiplications and calculate the sum [[modular arithmetic|modulo]] 11, with "10" represented by the character "X".
For example, to find the check digit for the 10-digit ISBN whose first nine digits are 0-306-40615:
1×0 + 2×3 + 3×0 + 4×6 + 5×4 + 6×0 + 7×6 + 8×1 + 9×5
= 0 + 6 + 0 + 24 + 20 + 0 + 42 + 8 + 45
= 145
= 13×11 + 2
So the check digit is 2, and the complete sequence is <nowiki>ISBN 0-306-40615-2</nowiki>.
Since 11 is a [[prime number]], this scheme ensures that a single error (in the form of an altered digit or two transposed digits) can always be detected.
==EAN format used in barcodes, and planned upgrade==
Currently, the barcodes found on the backs of books (or inside front covers of mass-market paperbacks) are [[EAN-13]]; they may be "Bookland"—that is, with a separate barcode encoding five digits for the currency and recommended retail price. There is a detailed description of the EAN13 format [http://www.barcodeisland.com/ean13.phtml here]. "978", the asset code for books, is prepended to the ISBN in the barcode data, and the check digit is recalculated according to the EAN13 formula (modulo 10, 1x, and 3x weighting on alternate digits).
Because of a pending shortage in certain ISBN categories, the [[International Organization for Standardization]] (ISO) started migrating to a thirteen-digit ISBN (sometimes referred to as ISBN-13) in a process that began on [[1 January]] [[2005]] and will finish on [[1 January]] [[2007]]. This move will also bring the ISBN system into line with the [[Universal Product Code|UPC]] barcode system. There is a [http://www.collectionscanada.ca/iso/tc46sc9/isbn.htm FAQ document] about this change. Existing ISBNs will be prefixed with "978" (and the check digit recalculated); as the "978" ISBNs are exhausted, the "979" prefix will be introduced. This is expected to happen more rapidly outside of the US. Note that publisher identification codes are unlikely to be the same in 978 and 979 ISBNs.
Since the new 13-digit ISBNs will be identical to the EAN barcoded format of any existing 10-digit ISBNs, this process will not break compatibility with any existing barcodes. This means that moving to an EAN-based system will allow booksellers to use a single numbering system for both book and non-book products without breaking backwards compatibility with existing ISBN-based information, and with only minimal changes to their IT systems. For this reason, many [[bookstore|booksellers]], including [[Barnes & Noble]], have already opted to start the process of phasing out usage of ISBNs in favour of using EAN codes as of March 2005.
== ISBNs and book censorship in the People's Republic of China ==
ISBNs are used as a means of book censorship in the [[People's Republic of China]]. For a printer to legally print a run of books, they
must have an ISBN, which are assigned in blocks to state owned publishing houses. However, since the 1990s, this means of censorship has become
much less effective as state publishing houses, which have been weaned from government subsidy like all [[state owned enterprises]], will now sell ISBNs to the highest bidder without regard to the content.
== See also ==
* [[Amazon Standard Identification Number|ASIN]] (Amazon Standard Identification Number)
* [[ESBN]] (Electronic Standard Book Number, see http://esbn.org )
* [[ISMN]] (International Standard Music Number)
* [[ISAN]] (International Standard Audiovisual Number)
* [[ISSN]] (International Standard Serial Number)
* [[ISWC]] (International Standard Work Code, see http://iswc.org )
* [[Library of Congress Control Number]]
* [http://www.iso.org/iso/en/CatalogueDetailPage.CatalogueDetail?CSNUMBER=36563&ICS1=1&ICS2=140&ICS3=20 ISO 2108:2005] at [http://www.iso.org www.iso.org]
* [http://www.cwi.nl/~dik/english/codes/isbn.html Brief Summary of ISBN]
* [http://wikibooks.org/wiki/How_to_find_a_book How to find a book] from Wikibooks
* [http://www.isbn.org/standards/home/isbn/transition.asp ISBN to EAN transition at isbn.org]
* [http://www.bookweb.org/education/6865.html Description of the ISBN to EAN upgrade process] at bookweb.org
* [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:ISBN Wikipedia:ISBN], use of ISBN on [[Wikipedia]]
;National and international agencies
* [http://www.isbn-international.org International <nowiki>ISBN Agency</nowiki>] - coordinates and supervises the world-wide use of the ISBN system.
* [http://www.thorpe.com.au/isbn/ <nowiki>ISBN Agency</nowiki> Australia] - Thorpe-Bowker, a division of R R Bowker LLC
* [http://www.nbdrs.com/isbn_agency.htm ISBN agency for UK and Republic of Ireland] - Nielsen BookData
* [http://www.isbn.org/ ISBN agency for US and Puerto Rico] - R.R. Bowker LLC
* [http://www.isbn-international.org/en/identifiers/allidentifiers.html Numerical List of Group Identifiers] List of language/region prefixes
;Online tools
* [http://www.bowkerlink.com/ Publisher access system] for Books In print and Global Books In Print database products
* [http://www.kimbakano.com Kimba Kano] - Internet Explorer and Firefox add-on adding built in ISBN & ASIN searching.
* [http://www.isbn-check.com ISBN check form] checks checksum; outputs list of possible correct ISBN when the input is incorrect.
* [http://isbndb.com/ ISBNdb.com] - find books by ISBN, author, title, subject, etc; auto-corrects ISBN checksums if needed.
* [http://ISBN.nu/ ISBN.nu] - offers free searching of a titles database.
* [http://www.toothycat.net/cgi/book.pl Yet another ISBN lookup tool] that searches a number of database and bookseller sites.
* RFC 3187 <!-- should be automatically linked by Wikipedia --> Using International Standard Book Numbers as Uniform resource names ([[URN]])
* [http://www.cgpp.com/bookland/isbn.html Online tool] to produce barcodes from ISBNs.
* [http://www.bisg.org/isbn-13/for.dummies.html ISBN-13 For Dummies]
* [http://isbn-international.org/en/download/implementation-guidelines-04.pdf Implementation guidelines] (pdf document) for the 13 digit ISBN code.
* [http://isbntools.com/ The ISBN tools website] has open-source java classes to implement 10 and 13-digit ISBNs.
==Footnotes==
{{note|1}} Occasionally publishers will use an ISBN in error for more than one title (for example, the first edition of "The Ultimate Alphabet" and "The Ultimate Alphabet Answerbook" have the same ISBN). Conversely, at least one book has been published with four ISBN numbers printed inside, depending on the binding and which of the two joint publishers were deemed applicable to a particular copy.
[[Category:ISO standards]]
[[Category:Universal_Identifiers]]
[[Category:Checksum algorithms]]
[[Category:Identifiers]]
[[Category:Library and information science]]
[[Category:books]]
[[br:ISBN]]
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[[cy:Rhif Llyfr Safonol Rhyngwladol]]
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International System of Units
14920
15912445
2002-02-25T15:51:15Z
Tarquin
83
moved to "SI"
#REDIRECT [[SI]]
IP address
14921
move=:edit=
42119515
2006-03-03T23:17:58Z
Jaxl
309415
Reverted edits by [[Special:Contributions/24.63.23.64|24.63.23.64]] ([[User talk:24.63.23.64|talk]]) to last version by Cburnett
An '''IP address''' ('''I'''nternet '''P'''rotocol address) is a unique number that devices use in order to identify and communicate with each other on a [[computer network|network]] utilizing the [[Internet Protocol]] standard. Any participating device — including [[routers]], [[computers]], time-servers, printers, internet FAX machines, and some telephones — must have its own unique address. This allows information passed onwards on behalf of the sender to indicate where to send it next, and for the receiver of the information to know that it is the intended destination.
The numbers currently used in IP addresses range from ''1.0.0.0'' to ''255.255.255.255'', though some of these values are reserved for specific purposes. This does not provide enough possibilities for every internet device to have its own permanent number. [[Subnet]] routing, [[Network Address Translation]] and the [[Dynamic Host Configuration Protocol]] (DHCP) server all allow local networks to use the same IP addresses as other networks elsewhere though both are connected to the Internet. Devices such as network [[printer|printers]], [[web server]]s and [[mail server]]s are often allocated static IP addresses so they can always be found.
IP addresses are conceptually similar to phone numbers, except they are used in [[Local area network|LAN]]s (Local Area Network), [[WAN]]s (Wide Area Network), or the [[Internet]]. Because the numbers are not easy for humans to remember, the [[Domain Name System]] provides a service analogous to an address book lookup called "domain name resolution" or "name resolution".
Special [[DNS server]]s on the internet are dedicated to performing the translation from a [[domain name]] to an IP address and vice versa.
== More details ==
The [[Internet Protocol]] (IP) knows each logical host interface by a number, the IP address. On any given network, this number must be unique among all the host interfaces that communicate through this network. Users of the [[Internet]] are sometimes given a [[host name]] in addition to their numerical IP address by their [[Internet service provider]].
The IP addresses of users browsing the [[World Wide Web]] are used to enable communications with the server of the Web site. Also, it is usually in the header of [[e-mail]] messages one sends. In fact, for all programs that utilize the [[TCP/IP]] protocol, the sender IP address and destination IP address are required in order to establish communications and send data.
Depending on one's [[Internet]] connection the IP address can be the same every time one connects (called a static IP address), or different every time one connects, (called a dynamic IP address). In order to use a dynamic IP address, there must exist a server which can provide the address. IP addresses are usually given out through a server service called DHCP or the [[Dynamic Host Configuration Protocol]]. If a static address is used, it must be manually programmed into parameters of the device's [[network interface]].
Internet addresses are needed not only for unique enumeration of hosted interfaces, but also for routing purposes, therefore a high fraction of them are always unused or reserved.
The unique nature of IP addresses makes it possible in many situations to track which computer — and by extension, which person — has sent a message or engaged in some other activity on the Internet. This information has been used by law enforcement authorities to identify criminal suspects; however dynamically-assigned IP addresses can make this difficult.
== IP version 4 ==
{{main|IPv4#Addressing}}
IPv4 uses 32-[[bit]] (4 [[byte]]) addresses which limits the [[address space]] to 4,294,967,295 possible unique addresses.
However, many are reserved for special purposes such as [[private network]]s (~18 million addresses) or [[multicast]] addresses (~1 million addresses). This reduces the number of addresses that can be allocated as public Internet addresses and as the number of addresses available is consumed, an [[#Exhaustion|IPv4 address shortage]] appears to be inevitable in the long run.
This limitation has helped stimulate the push towards [[IPv6]], which is currently in the early stages of deployment and is currently the only contender to replace IPv4.
== IP version 5 ==
What would be considered ''IPv5'' existed only as an experimental non-IP real time streaming protocol called ST2, described in RFC 1819. In keeping with standard [[UNIX]] release conventions, all odd-numbered versions are considered experimental, and this version was never intended to be implemented; the protocol was not abandoned. [[Integrated services|RSVP]] has replaced it to some degree.
== IP version 6 ==
In '''[[IPv6]]''', the new (but not yet widely deployed) standard protocol for the Internet, addresses are 128 bits wide, which, even with generous assignment of netblocks, should suffice for the foreseeable future. In theory, there would be exactly 2<sup>128</sup>, or about 3.403 × 10<sup>38</sup> unique host interface addresses. If the earth were made entirely out of 1 cubic millimeter grains of sand, then you could give a unique address to each grain in 300 million planets the size of the earth. This large address space will be sparsely populated, which makes it possible to again encode more routing information into the addresses themselves.
=== Addressing ===
A version 6 address is written as eight 4-digit [[hexadecimal]] numbers separated by colons. For readability, addresses may be shortened in two ways. Within each colon-delimited section, leading zeroes may be truncated. Secondly, one string of zeroes (and only one) may be replaced with two colons (::). For example, all of the following addresses are equivalent:
* 1080:0000:0000:0000:0000:0034:0000:417A
* 1080:0:0:0:0:34:0:417A
* 1080::34:0:417A
Global [[unicast]] IPv6 addresses are constructed as two parts: a 64-bit routing part followed by a 64-bit host identifier.
Netblocks are specified as in the modern alternative for IPv4: network number, followed by a slash, and the number of relevant bits of the network number (in decimal). Example: 12AB::CD30:0:0:0:0/60 includes all addresses starting with 12AB00000000CD3.
IPv6 has many improvements over IPv4 other than just bigger address space, including [[autorenumbering]] and mandatory support for [[IPsec]].
''Further reading:'' [[Request for Comments|Internet RFCs]] including RFC 791, RFC 1519 (IPv4 addresses), and RFC 2373 (IPv6 addresses).
==See also==
*[[Ping]]
*[[MAC address]]
*[[Regional Internet Registry]]
**[[African Network Information Center]]
**[[American Registry for Internet Numbers]]
**[[RIPE Network Coordination Centre]]
**[[Asia-Pacific Network Information Centre]]
**[[Latin American and Caribbean Internet Addresses Registry]]
*[[Subnet address]]
*[[Geolocation]]
*[[Geolocation software]]
==External links==
*[http://www.linuxjournal.com/article/7856 Introduction to geolocation by IP address]
*[http://www.circleid.com/community/topics/view/IP%20Addressing/ Articles on CircleID about IP addressing]
*[http://www.securityfocus.com/infocus/1674 IP Spoofing: An Introduction]
*[http://www.byte.com/art/9602/sec16/art4.htm IP-Address Management on LANs] - article in [[Byte magazine]]
*[http://www.circleid.com/posts/ip_address_allocation_vs_internet_production_i_understanding_the_relationsh/ Introduction to IP Address Allocation]
*[http://www.hostip.info/ Community project to geotarget IP addresses]
<!--
Before you add new external link here, please make sure it points to information about IP addresses, and not to services offering IP location, etc.
Especially, simple IP lookup tools are dozen on a dime and this article has decided not to list any of them.
Please provide also short explanation in form of HTML comment so your link won't be treated as yet another spam.
-->
[[Category:Computer networks]]
[[Category:Information technology]]
[[Category:Internet architecture]]
[[Category:Identifiers]]
<!-- interwiki -->
[[als:IP-Adresse]]
[[ar:IP]]
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[[fa:نشانی پروتکل اینترنت]]
[[fr:Adresse IP]]
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If and only if
14922
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2006-02-20T06:30:23Z
Matthew Low
75033
revert - the presence of the link does not imply that "if and only if" is mathematical jargon; further, "iff" redirects here, so there should be a reference to mathematical jargon here
{{merge|Logical biconditional}}
<div id="shortcut" class="noprint" style="border:1px solid #999; background:#fff; margin:0 0 .5em 1em; text-align:center; padding:5px; float:right; clear:right; font-size:smaller;">
<big><big><big><big><big>
↔ <br/>
⇔ <br/>
≡</big></big></big></big></big><br/><div style="line-height: 120%; text-align: left">logical symbols<br/>representing '''iff'''.</div></div>
{{dablink|'''Iff''' redirects here. For other meanings, see [[IFF]].}}
In [[logic]] and technical fields that rely on it, such as [[mathematics]] and [[philosophy]], "'''if and only if'''" is a connective between statements which means that the truth of either one of the statements requires the truth of the other. Thus, either both statements are true, or both are false.
In writing, common alternative phrases to "if and only if" include '''iff''', "Q is [[Necessary and sufficient conditions|necessary and sufficient]] for P", "P is equivalent to Q", "P precisely if Q", and "P precisely when Q". Many authors regard "iff" as unsuitable in formal writing; others use it freely.
In logical formulae, logical symbols are used instead of these phrases; see the discussion of notation.
==Usage==
===Notation===
The corresponding logical symbols are "↔", "⇔" and "≡", and sometimes "iff". These are usually treated as equivalent. However, some texts of [[mathematical logic]] (particularly those on [[first-order logic]], rather than [[propositional logic]]) make a distinction between these, in which the first, ↔, is used as a symbol in logic formulas, while ⇔ is used in reasoning about those formulas (e.g., in [[metalogic]]).
Another term for the [[logical connective]] is [[exclusive nor]].
===Proofs===
In most logical systems, one [[Proof theory|proves]] a statement of the form "P iff Q" by proving "if P, then Q" and "P if Q" (or its [[contrapositive]], "if not P, then not Q"). Proving this pair of statements sometimes leads to a more [[natural proof]], since there are not obvious conditions in which one would infer a biconditional directly. An alternative is to prove the [[disjunction]] "(P and Q) or (not-P and not-Q)", which itself can be inferred directly from either of its disjuncts — that is, because "iff" is [[truth-function]]al, "P iff Q" follows if P and Q have both been shown true, or both false.
===Origin of the abbreviation===
Usage of the abbreviation ''iff'' first appeared in print in [[John Kelley]]'s [[1955]] book <cite>General Topology</cite>.
Its invention is often credited to the [[mathematician]] [[Paul Halmos]], but in his [[autobiography]] he states that he borrowed it from [[puzzle]]rs.
==The difference between "if" and "iff"==
Put simply, the difference between ''if'' and ''iff'' can be explained with the following two sentences:
# Madison will eat [[pudding]] ''if'' the pudding is a [[custard]]. (equivalently: If the pudding is a custard, then Madison will eat it)
#:
# Madison will eat pudding ''if and only if'' (iff) the pudding is a custard.
Sentence (1) states only that Madison will eat custard pudding. It does not however preclude the possibility that Madison might also have occasion to eat [[bread pudding]]. Maybe she will, maybe she will not. The sentence does not tell us. All we know for certain is that she will eat custard pudding.
Sentence (2) however makes it quite clear that Madison will eat custard pudding ''and custard pudding only''. She will '''not''' eat any other type of pudding.
A further difference is that "if" is used in definitions (except in formal logic); see more below.
==Advanced considerations==
===Philosophical interpretation===
A sentence that is composed of two other sentences joined by "''iff''" is called a '''[[logical biconditional|biconditional]]'''. ''Iff'' joins two sentences to form a new sentence. It should not be confused with [[logical equivalence]] which is a description of a relation between two sentences. The biconditional "A ''iff'' B" ''uses'' the sentences ''A'' and ''B'', describing a relation between the states of affairs ''A'' and ''B'' describe. By contrast "''A'' is logically equivalent to ''B''" mentions the two sentences: it describes a relation between those two sentences, and not between whatever matters they describe.
The distinction is a very confusing one, and has led many a philosopher astray. Certainly it is the case that when ''A'' is logically equivalent to ''B'', "A ''iff'' B" is true. But the converse does not hold. Let's reconsider the sentence:
:Madison will eat pudding today if and only if it's custard.
There is clearly no logical equivalence between the two halves of this particular biconditional. For more on the distinction, see [[W. V. Quine]]'s ''Mathematical Logic'', Section 5.
===Definitions===
In philosophy and logic, "iff" is used to indicate [[definition]]s, since definitions are supposed to be [[universal quantification|universally quantified]] biconditionals. In mathematics and elsewhere, however, the word "if" is normally used in definitions, rather than "iff". This is due to the observation that "if" in the English language has a definitional meaning, separate from its meaning as a propositional conjunction. This separate meaning can be explained by noting that a definition (for instance: A [[group (mathematics)|group]] is "abelian" if it satisfies the commutative law; or: A grape is a "raisin" if it is well dried) is not an equivalence to be proved, but a rule for interpreting the term defined.
(Some authors, nevertheless, explicitly indicate that the "if" of a definition means "iff"!)
===Examples===
Here are some examples of true statements that use "iff" - true biconditionals (the first is an example of a definition, so it should normally have been written with "if"):
*A person is a bachelor ''iff'' that person is an unmarried but marriageable man.
*"Snow is white" (in English) is true ''iff'' "''Schnee ist weiß''" (in German) is true.
*For any ''p'', ''q'', and ''r'': (''p'' & ''q'') & ''r'' iff ''p'' & (''q'' & ''r''). (Since this is written using variables and "[[logical and|&]]", the statement would usually be written using "↔", or one of the other symbols used to write biconditionals, in place of "iff").
===Analogs===
Other words are also sometimes emphasized in the same way by repeating the last letter; for example ''orr'' for "Or and only Or" (the [[exclusive disjunction]]).
==More general usage==
'''''Iff''''' is used outside the field of logic, wherever logic is applied, especially in [[mathematics|mathematical]] discussions. It has the same meaning as above: it is an abbreviation for ''if and only if'', indicating that one statement is both [[Necessary and sufficient conditions|necessary and sufficient]] for the other. This is an example of mathematical [[jargon]]. (However, as noted above, ''if'', rather than ''iff'', is generally used in statements of definition.)
==See also==
* [[Mathematical jargon]]
[[Category:Logic]]
[[Category:Mathematical terminology]]
<!-- The below are interlanguage links. -->
[[de:Logische Äquivalenz]]
[[ca:si i només si]]
[[es:Si y sólo si]]
[[fr:SSI]]
[[he:אם ורק אם]]
[[is:Eff]]
[[it:Sse]]
[[lt:Tada ir tik tada (teiginys)]]
[[nl:Dan en slechts dan als]]
[[ja:同値]]
[[pl:Gddy]]
[[pt:Se e somente se]]
[[sr:Акко]]
[[sv:Om och endast om]]
[[zh:当且仅当]]
IP
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Mzajac
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Reverted edits by [[Special:Contributions/212.135.1.84|212.135.1.84]] ([[User talk:212.135.1.84|talk]]) to last version by 82.245.240.2
'''IP''' may mean:
* [[IP (complexity)]] or Interactive Polynomial-time, a particular complexity class of languages that have interactive proofs
* [[IP address]] (Internet Protocol address), a computer network address
* Ip, a Chinese family name, represented by 葉
* [[Ip, Sălaj]], a village in Romania
* [[Image processing]]
* [[Internet Protocol]], the computer networking protocol used on the Internet
* [[Internet protocol suite]] or TCP/IP protocol suite, Internet communications protocols
* [[Intellectual property]]: the legal concept that the works created with intellectual effort is a form of property
* [[Internet service provider]] or Internet provider
* [[Ingress protection rating]], safety rating of electrical equipment
* [[Iraqi Police]]
* [[Integrated production]], natural farming
* [[Incontinentia pigmenti]], a genetic disorder
* [[Insolvency practitioner]], a specialist in formal insolvency cases
* [[Independence Party of Minnesota]], a political party in Minnesota
* [[Inflection phrase]], in syntax
* [[Clipperton Island]] (FIPS territory code)
* [[Ipswich]] (post code IP)
* Instruction pointer, or [[program counter]] in computer processing
* Integer programming, a special case of [[Linear programming#Integer_unknowns|Linear programming]]
{{disambig}}
[[cs:IP]]
[[de:IP]]
[[fr:IP]]
[[ko:IP (동음이의)]]
[[it:Ip]]
[[nl:IP]]
[[ja:IP]]
[[pl:IP]]
[[pt:IP]]
[[sv:IP]]
Internet protocol
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GrinBot
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robot Adding: hu
'''Internet protocol''' may refer to:
*The [[Internet Protocol]], a data-oriented protocol used for communicating data across a [[Packet-switched|packet-switched]] [[Internetwork|internetwork]].
*The [[Internet protocol suite]], a set of [[communications protocol]]s that implement the [[protocol stack]] on which the [[Internet]] runs.
{{disambig}}
[[hu:Internet Protokoll]]
List of Italian dishes
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Smokey Russell
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{{merge|Italian cuisine}}
These dishes are representative of [[Italian cuisine]].
==Dishes and Recipes==
===[[Italian starters|Antipasti]]===
* [[Insalata Caprese]]
* [[Bruschetta]]
* [[Bresaola]]
*Crostini con condimenti misti
*Verdure in Pinzimonio
*Cocktail di gamberi
*[[Olive Ascolane]]
*Mozzarelline fritte
*Pizzette e Salatini
*Tartine
===Italian soup and sauce recipes===
* [[Bagna Cauda]]
* [[Minestrone]]
* Pasta e Fagioli
* [[Soup all'Imperatrice]]
* [[Soup alla Nazionale]]
* [[Soup alla Lombarda]]
* [[Venetian soup]]
* [[Tomato sauce]]
* [[Fonduta]]
===Italian [[Bread]]s===
*[[Ciabatta]]
*[[Pane carasau]]
*[[Pane Casareccio]]
*[[Panini (sandwich)|Panino]]
*[[Focaccia]]
*[[Pane Toscano]] (without salt)
*[[Michetta]] (typical bread of Milano)
*[[Rosetta]] (typical bread of Roma)
*[[Pane Pugliese]]
*[[Pane di Altamura]]
*[[Grissini Torinesi]]
*[[Tigella]]
*[[Crescentina]]
*[[Piadina]]
===Common [[Pizza]] recipes===
*[[Focaccia al rosmarino]] - based on [[rosemary]] and [[olive oil]], sometimes served with [[prosciutto]]. Usually served as [[Antipasto|appetizer]]
*[[Pizza marinara]] - based on tomato, [[oregano]] and [[garlic]]
*[[Pizza Margherita]] - based on tomato and [[mozzarella]]
*[[Pizza alla Napoletana]] (or [[Naples|Napoli]]) - same as Margherita with [[oregano]] and [[basil]]
*[[Pizza capricciosa]] - with tomato, [[mozzarella]], mushrooms, [[Globe artichoke|artichokes]], black and green olives
*[[Pizza quattro stagioni]] - based on tomato and divided in four sectors, one for each season:
** Spring: olives and [[Globe artichoke|artichokes]]
** Summer: [[salami]] and [[bell pepper|pepper]]
** Autumn: tomato and [[mozzarella]] (like Pizza Margherita)
** Winter: mushrooms and boiled egg
*[[Pizza ai quattro formaggi]] - with four different cheeses (sometimes melted, sometimes in sectors)
*[[Pizza ai funghi e salsicce]] (or boscaiola)- with [[mozzarella]], mushrooms and sausages, with or without tomato.
*[[Calzone]] - folded over dough usually filled with [[ricotta]] and other ingredients
===[[Pasta]] varieties - (over 650)===
* [[Agnolotti]]
* Bavette, Bigoli, [[Bucatini]]
* [[Cannelloni]], Crespelle
* Cappellini
* Conchiglie
* [[Ditalini]]
* Eliche
* [[Farfalle]], Festoni, [[Fettuccine]], Filatieddi, [[Fusilli]]
* Garganelli
* [[Gnocchi]]
* [[Lasagne]], [[Linguine]], Lumaconi (large slugs)
* [[Macaroni|Maccheroni]] ([[Macaroni]]), Malloreddus ([[Sardinia]]n pasta), Maltagliate, Marille, Marrubini
* Offelle, [[Orecchiette]]
* Orzo
* Paccheri, Paglia e fieno, Pansotti, Panzarotti, [[Pappardelle]], [[Penne]], Perciatelli, Pinzillacchere, [[Pizzoccheri]],
* [[Ravioli]], [[Rigatoni]]
* [[Spaghetti]], Spaghetti alla chitarra, Strangolapreti, Strangozzi, Strascinati
* Stelline
* Tacconi, [[Tagliatelle]], Tagliarini, Tonnarelli, [[Tortellini]], [[Trenette]], Trottole, Trofie
* Vermicelli
* [[Ziti]]
====See also====
[[List of pasta]]
===Pasta dishes===
*[[Bucatini all'Amatriciana]], [[Bucatini coi Funghi]], [[Bucatini alla Sorrentina]]
*[[Cannelloni al Ragù]], [[Cannelloni ai Carciofi]]
*[[Penne all'Arrabbiata]], Pansotti alla Genovese
*[[Rigatoni alla Pajata]], [[Rigatoni al Forno con Salsa Aurora]]
*[[Spaghetti alla Bolognese]], [[Spaghetti alla Carrettiera]], [[Spaghetti al nero di seppia]], [[Spaghetti alla Puttanesca]], [[Spaghetti con la bottarga]], [[Spaghetti aglio, olio e peperoncino]], [[Spaghetti Indiavolati]], [[Spaghetti Siracusani]], [[Wikibooks:Cookbook:Spaghetti alla Carbonara|Spaghetti alla Carbonara]]
*[[Tagliatelle alla Boscaiola]], [[Tagliatelle ai Carciofi]], [[Tagliatelle ai Funghi]], [[Tagliatelle al Pomodoro]], [[Tagliatelle al sugo di lepre]], [[Tagliatelle al Ragù]]
* Tortelloni alla zucca
*Trofie al Pesto, Trofie al sugo di noci
===Rice dishes===
(Rice -Riso- dishes are very common in North Italy, specially in Lombardia and Veneto Regions)
* Basic [[Risotto]]
*Risotto alla Milanese or Risotto with Saffron
*Risi e Bisi
*Risotto con la luganega
*Riso with schrimpfs
*Riso con Piselli
*Riso alla Toscana
*Riso al nero di seppia
*Riso con i Porcini
*Risotto alla Sbirraglia
*Risotto alla Zucca
*Risotto di Seppie alla Veneziana
*Sformato al Basilico
*Sformato di Riso Dolce
*Tiella di Riso, Patate e Cozze
*Risotto ai Gamberoni
*Risotto ai Quattro Sapori
*Risotto al Cavolfiore
*Risotto al Gorgonzola
*Riso Tonnato
*Riso Valdostano
*Risotto saltato
*Risotto al Barolo
*Risotto con scamorza e champagne
*Risotto indivia e fiori di zucca
*Risotto allo zafferano con petto d'anatra
*Riotto alla Marinara
*Risotto con Agoni
*Risotto mantecato con Grana Padano
===Italian [[Fish]]===
* [[Baccalà]]
*Cacciucco
*Seppioline in umido
*Missultin e Polenta
*Frittata di bianchetti
*Orate al forno
*Acciughe fritte in pastella
*Acciughe in carpione
*Acquadella o latterino fritto
*Agghiotta di pesce spada
*Anguilla marinata
*Baccalà alla vicentina
*Baccalà fritto
*Branzino al sale
*Brodetto di arselle
*Burrida
*Calamaretti fritti
*Calamari in zimino
*Calamari Ripieni
*Capesante alla veneziana
*Cappon magro
*Carpaccio di pesce
*Cartoccio di pesce spada
*Cozze alla tarantina
*Cozze fritte alla viareggina
*Cozze ripiene
*Filetti di Baccalà
*Filetti di orata al cartoccio
*Frittura mista di pesce
*Grancevola alla Veneziana
*Impanata di pesce spada
*Involtini di pesce
*Moscardini lessati alla genovese
*Murena fritta
*Nasello al forno
*Orata arrosto
*Pepata di cozze
*Pesce a scabecciu
*Pesce al cartoccio
*Pesce alla pizzaiola
*Pesce spada alla siciliana
*Pesce Spada arrosto in salmoriglio
*Polpettine di mare
*Sarde a beccafico
*Sarde arraganate ( Sarde con origano e pane)
*Sarde grigliate
*Sarde ripiene
*Sarde Sfiziose Panate
*Sardele in saor
*Sbroscia bolsenese
*Scampi a zuppetta
*Scampi gratinati
*Seppie col nero alla veneziana
*Seppie con i piselli
*Seppie ripiene
*Sogliole alla mugnaia
*Spiedini ai frutti di mare
*Spiedini di alici
*Spiedini di anguilla
*Stoccafisso alla genovese
*Stoccafisso alla ligure
*Tonno sott'olio
*Tortiera di cozze
*Triglie alla livornese
*Zuppa di pesce
===Italian [[Meat]]s===
* [[Prosciutto|Parma Ham]]
* [[Prosciutto|Prosciutto cotto]], [[Prosciutto|Prosciutto crudo]]
* [[Veal|Vitello]]
* [[Bresaola]]
* [[Coda alla vaccinara]]
* [[Mortadella]]
* [[Salami|Salame]]
* [[Pezzetti di cavallo]]
* [[Violino Valtellinese]]
===Italian [[Wine]]===
*[[Abruzzi]]
**[[Montepulciano d'Abruzzo]], [[Trebbiano d'Abruzzo]]
*[[Tuscany]]
**[[Bolgheri]], [[Carignano]], [[Chianti]], [[Colli Apuani]], [[Colli Etruria Centrale]], [[Colline Lucchesi]], [[Elba]], [[Scansano]], [[Montalcino]], [[Montescudaio]], [[Nipozzano]], [[Nobile di Montepulciano]], [[Parrina]], [[Pitigliano]], [[San Gimignano]], [[Val di Chiana]], [[Val di Cornia]], [[Valdinievole]], [[Valle di Arbia]]
*[[Piedmont (Italy)|Piedmont]]
**[[Alba, Italy|Alba]], [[Acqui]], [[Asti]], [[Barolo]], [[Carema Riserva]], [[Colli Tortonesi]], [[Gattinara]], [[Gavi]], [[Langhe]], [[Monferrato]], [[Nebbiolo]], [[Ovada]]
*[[Veneto]]
**[[Amarone]], [[Bardolino]], [[Colli Euganei]], [[Conegliano Veneto]], [[Custoza]], [[Soave]], [[Valdobbiadene]]
*[[Liguria]]
**[[Cinque Terre]]
*[[Emilia-Romagna]]
**[[Sangiovese]], [[Lambrusco]], [[Pignoletto]], [[Gutturnio]], [[Bonarda]], [[Trebbiano]], [[Albana]]
*[[Sardinia]]
**[[Cagliari]], [[Monti]], [[Nuragus]], [[Ogliastra]]
*[[Marche]]
**[[Castelli di Jesi]], [[Conero]], [[Piceno]]
*[[Lombardia]]
**[[Franciacorta]], [[Oltrepò Pavese]], Valpolicella, Sassella, Inferno, Grumello, Bonarda, Barbera, Spumante Brut, Valcalepio
*[[Sicily]]
**[[Etna wine]], [[Noto wine]], [[Passito di Pantelleria]], [[Marsala_wine]], [[Nero d’Avola]]
*[[Umbria]]
**[[Orvieto]], [[Torgiano]]
*[[Calabria]]
**Cirò
*[[Puglia]]
** [[Negroamaro]]
===Italian [[cheese]]s===
* [[Asiago cheese|Asiago]]
* [[Bel Paese]], [[Bitto]], [[Bra cheese|Bra]], [[Burrini]], [[Burrata]], [[Butirro]]
* [[Caciocavallo]], [[Cacioricotta]], [[Canestrato]] pugliese, [[Casècc]], [[Castelmagno]], [[Caprini]], [[Casiello]], [[Casu marzu|Casu modde]], [[Ciccillo]], [[Crescenza]], Crotonese
* [[Fontina]], [[Fiore sardo]], [[Formai de mut]]
* [[Giuncata]], [[Grana Padano]], [[Gorgonzola cheese|Gorgonzola]]
* [[Marzolino]], [[Marzotica]], [[Mascarpone]], [[Mozzarella]], [[Montasio]], [[Monte veronese]], [[Murazzano]]
* [[Parmigiano Reggiano]], Pecorino di Fossa, [[Pecorino]] romano, Pecorino sardo, [[Piacentinu]], Primo Sale, [[Provolone]], Puzzone di Moena
* Quartirolo
* [[Ragusano]], [[Raschera]], [[Ricotta]] rifatta, Ricotta salata, [[Robiola]],
* [[Slattato]], [[Stracchino]], Squacquerone
* [[Taleggio cheese|Taleggio]], [[Toma cheese|Toma]], [[Tumazzu]]
===Italian [[Dessert]]s and [[pastry]]===
* [[Cannolo siciliano]]
* [[Cassata siciliana]]
* [[Ciarduna]]
* [[Gelato]] ([[Ice Cream]])
* [[Granita]]
* [[Macedonia (food)|Macedonia (fruit salad)]]
* [[Panna cotta]]
* [[Pandoro]]
* [[Panettone]]
* [[Pastiera]]
* [[Pignolata]] (Specialità Siciliana)
* [[Pizzelle]]
* [[Sfogliatelle]]
* [[Tiramisu|Tiramisù]]
* [[Torta caprese]]
* [[Zabaglione]]
===Italian [[Coffee]] ([[Caffè]])===
* [[Caffè]]
* [[Caffè Corretto]]
* [[Caffè macchiato]]
* [[Latte|Caffelatte]]
* [[Espresso]]
* [[Cappuccino]]
*Marocchino (small cappuccino)
* [[Bicerin]] (coffee, hot chocolate and whipped cream, only in Turin)
*[[Grolla dell'amicizia]] (coffe and [[grappa]] served in a traditional wooden pot, only in [[Aosta Valley]])
===Famous Italian dishes===
* [[Fiorentina beefsteak]]
* [[Baccalà alla Vicentina]]
* [[Lasagne]]
== Italian Cuisine Ingredients ==
Most important ingredients (see also [[#Italian Herbs and Spices|Italian Herbs and Spices]]):
* Olio d'oliva ([[Olive oil]])
* Pomodoro ([[Tomato]])
Other common ingredients:
* Asparagi ([[Asparagus]])
* [[Baccalà]] (Dried, salted [[cod]])
* [[Bresaola]]
* Carciofi ([[Globe artichoke|Artichokes]])
* Cavolfiore ([[Cauliflower]])
* Ceci ([[Chickpea]]s)
* Fagioli ([[Bean]]s)
* Farro ([[Spelt]])
* Funghi ([[Mushroom]]s)
* Lenticchie ([[Lentil]]s)
* Melanzane ([[Aubergine]]s)
* Olive ([[Olives]])
* Peperoni ([[Bell pepper]]s)
* Piselli ([[Pea]]s)
* [[Prosciutto]]
* Funghi porcini ([[Porcini|Porcini mushrooms]])
* [[Radicchio]] Rosso di Treviso
* Rucola (or Rughetta) ([[Arugula]])
* Seppie ([[Sepia (genus)|Sepia]])
* Spinaci ([[Spinach]])
* Fragole ([[Strawberry|Strawberries]])
* Tartufo ([[Truffle]])
* Trippa ([[Tripe]])
* Tonno ([[Tuna]])
* Zucchine ([[Zucchini]])
== Italian Herbs and Spices ==
* Aglio ([[Garlic]])
* Alloro ([[Bay leaves]])
* Basilico ([[Basil]])
* Cipolla ([[Onion]])
* Finocchio ([[Fennel]])
* Menta ([[Mint]])
* [[Mentuccia]]
* Origano ([[Oregano]])
* Peperoncino ([[Chile pepper]])
* Prezzemolo ([[Parsley]])
* Rosmarino ([[Rosemary]])
* Salvia ([[Sage]])
* Timo ([[Thyme]])
[[Category:Italian cuisine]]
Isaac Ambrose
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Standardising 1911 references.
'''Isaac Ambrose''' ([[1604]] - [[January 20]] [[1663]] or [[1664]]) was an [[England|English]] [[Puritan]] divine, the son of [[Richard Ambrose]], vicar of [[Ormskirk]], and was probably descended from the Ambroses of Lowick in Furness, a well-known [[Catholic]] family.
He entered [[Brasenose College, Oxford]], in 1621, in his seventeenth year. Having graduated B.A. in 1624 and been ordained, he received in 1627 the little cure of [[Castleton]] in [[Derbyshire]]. By the influence of [[William Russell, 1st Duke of Bedford|William Russell, earl of Bedford]], he was appointed one of the king's itinerant preachers in [[Lancashire]], and after living for a time in Garstang, he was selected by the Lady Margaret Hoghton as vicar of [[Preston]]. He associated himself with [[Presbyterianism]], and was on the celebrated committee for the ejection of "scandalous and ignorant ministers and schoolmasters" during the [[Commonwealth of England|Commonwealth]].
So long as Ambrose continued at Preston he was favoured with the warm friendship of the Hoghton family, their ancestral woods and the tower near [[Blackburn]] affording him sequestered places for those devout meditations and "experiences" that give such a charm to his [[diary]], portions of which are quoted in his ''Prima Media'' and ''Ultima'' (1650, 1659). The immense auditory of his sermon (''Redeeming the Time'') at the funeral of Lady Hoghton was long a living tradition all over the county. On account of the feeling engendered by the civil war Ambrose left his great church of Preston in 1654, and became minister of Garstang, whence, however, in 1662 he was ejected with the two thousand ministers who refused to conform. His after years were passed among old friends and in quiet meditation at Preston. He died of [[apoplexy]] about the 20th of January 1663/4.
As a religious writer Ambrose has a vividness and freshness of imagination possessed by scarcely any of the [[Puritan]] Nonconformists. Many who have no love for Puritan doctrine, nor sympathy with Puritan experience, have appreciated the [[pathos]] and beauty of his writings, and his ''Looking to Jesus'' long held its own in popular appreciation with the writings of [[John Bunyan]].
==References==
*{{1911}}
[[Category:1604 births|Ambrose, Isaac]]
[[Category:1664 deaths|Ambrose, Isaac]]
[[Category:English diarists|Ambrose, Isaac]]
[[Category:Deaths by apoplexy|Ambrose, Isaac]]
Internet/History
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IteratedPrisonersDilemma
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#REDIRECT [[Prisoner's dilemma]]
Iterated Prisoners Dilemma
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#REDIRECT [[Prisoner's dilemma]]
International Convention for the Regulation of Whaling
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2006-01-16T00:23:46Z
213.13.213.161
The '''International Convention for the Regulation of Whaling''' is an international agreement (see [[environmental agreement]]) signed in 1946 designed to make [[whaling]] sustainable.
It was signed by 42 nations in [[Washington, D.C.]] on [[December 2]] [[1946]] and took effect on [[November 10]] [[1948]]. Its protocol (which represented the first substantial revision of the convention and extended the definition of a "[[whale catcher|whale-catcher]]" to include helicopters as well as ships) was signed in Washington on [[November 19]] [[1956]]. The convention is a successor to the '''International Agreement for the Regulation of Whaling''', signed in [[London]] on [[June 8]] [[1937]], and the protocols for that agreement signed in London on [[June 24]] [[1938]], and [[November 26]], [[1945]].
Objectives are protection of all whale species from overhunting, establishment of a system of international regulation for the whale fisheries to ensure proper conservation and development of whale stocks, and safeguarding for future generations the great natural resources represented by whale stocks. The primary instrument through which these aims were followed was the establishment of the [[International Whaling Commission]]. The commission has made many revisions to the schedule that makes up the bulk of the convention, reflecting changing economical, ecological and commercial standards.
==Signatories==
Nations signed up to the convention are [[Antigua and Barbuda]], [[Argentina]], [[Australia]], [[Austria]], [[Brazil]], [[Chile]], [[Republic of China]] (expelled and replaced with [[People's Republic of China]]), [[Costa Rica]], [[Denmark]], [[Dominica]], [[Finland]], [[France]], [[Germany]], [[Grenada]], [[Guinea]], [[India]], [[Republic of Ireland|Ireland]], [[Italy]], [[Japan]], [[Kenya]], [[South Korea]], [[Mexico]], [[Monaco]], [[Morocco]], [[Netherlands]], [[New Zealand]], [[Norway]], [[Oman]], [[Panama]], [[Peru]], [[Russia]], [[Saint Kitts and Nevis]], [[Saint Lucia]], [[Saint Vincent and the Grenadines]], [[Senegal]], [[Solomon Islands]], [[South Africa]], [[Spain]], [[Sweden]], [[Switzerland]], [[United Kingdom]] and the [[United States]].
==References==
*[http://www.iwcoffice.org/commission/convention.htm Text of the Convention at the IWC website]
*''CIA World Factbook 2003''. Available online at [http://www.cia.gov/cia/publications/factbook/]
[[de:International Convention for the Regulation of Whaling]]
[[pt:Convenção Internacional para a Regulação da Actividade Baleeira]]
[[Category:Treaties on the environment]]
[[Category:Whaling]]
[[Category:1948 in law]]
International Organization for Standardization
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86.136.108.111
/* See also */
:'''''ISO''' redirects here. For other uses, see [[Iso]].''
[[Image:Iso_logo.gif|frame|right|Logo of the International Organization for Standardization]]
The '''International Organization for Standardization''' ('''ISO''') is an international standard-setting body composed of representatives from national standards bodies. Founded on [[February 23]] [[1947]], the organization produces world-wide industrial and commercial [[standardization|standard]]s.
While the ISO defines itself as a [[non-governmental organization]], its ability to set standards which often become law through treaties or national standards makes it more powerful than most [[Non-governmental organization|NGO]]s, and in practice it acts as a consortium with strong links to governments. Participants include several major [[corporation]]s and at least one standards body from each member country.
ISO cooperates closely with the [[International Electrotechnical Commission]] (IEC), which is responsible for standardization of electrical equipment.
The organization is usually referred to simply as ISO ''(pronounced eye-so)''.
It is a common misconception that ISO stands for "International Standards Organization", or something similar. ISO is not an [[acronym]]; it comes from the Greek word ''isos'', meaning "equal". In [[English language|English]], the organization’s long-form name is "International Organization for Standardization", while in [[French language|French]] it is called "Organisation internationale de normalisation"; to use an acronym would result in different acronyms in ISO’s official languages, English (IOS) and French (OIN), thus the founders of the organization chose "ISO" as the universal short form of its name.
ISO standards are numbered, and have a format that contains ''"ISO[/IEC] [IS] nnnnn[:yyyy]: Title"'' where ''"nnnnn"'' is the standard number, ''"yyyy"'' is the year published, and ''"Title"'' describes the subject. IEC will only be included if the standard results from work of JTC1. The date and IS will always be left off an incomplete or unpublished standard, and may (under certain circumstances) be left off the title of the published work.
Aside from standards, ISO also creates Technical Reports for documents that cannot or should not become International Standards such as references, explanations, etc. The naming conventions for these are the same as for standards with the exception of having TR prepended in the place of IS in the standard's name. Examples:
*ISO/IEC TR 17799:2000 Code of Practice for Information Security Management
*ISO TR 15443-1/3 Information Technology - Security Techniques - A Framework for IT Security Assurance parts 1-3
Finally, ISO will on rare occasions issue a Technical Corrigendum. These are amendments to existing standards because of minor technical flaws, improvements to usability or to extend applicability in a limited way. Generally, these are issued with the expectation that the affected standard will be updated or withdrawn at its next scheduled review.
ISO documents are copyrighted and ISO charges for copies of most. ISO does not, however, charge for most draft copies of documents in electronic format. Although useful, care must be taken using these drafts as there is the possibility of substantial change before it becomes finalized as a standard.
Some ISO standards are made freely available.
For examples, see
[http://isotc.iso.org/livelink/livelink/fetch/2000/2489/Ittf_Home/PubliclyAvailableStandards.htm Freely Available Standards] and [http://webstore.ansi.org/ansidocstore/free_standards.asp Free Standards2]
During the 1990s, ISO gained a reputation for being slow, bureaucratic, congested, and insensitive to feedback from both vendors and their customers. One problematic project was the enormous [[Open Systems Interconnect]] project, which attempted the development of one single computer networking standard, but was finally shut down in 1996 after becoming mired in interoperability problems and bickering between vendors. Attention then turned to the volunteer-based, open-process and non-profit [[Internet Engineering Task Force]] (IETF), which develops the standards necessary for the [[Internet]] to function. When IETF turned out to be too slow, vendors began funding more focused, agile consortia like the [[W3C]], another open, non-profit organisation headed by the inventor of the World Wide Web, [[Tim Berners-Lee]]. Since then, ISO has undertaken modest reforms to decrease the time required to promulgate new standards.
ISO International Standards are not in any way binding on either governments or industry merely by virtue of being International Standards. This is to allow for situations where certain types of standards may conflict with social, cultural or legislative expectations and requirements. This also reflects the fact that national and international experts responsible for creating these standards do not always agree and not all proposals become standards by unanimous vote. The individual nations and their standards bodies remain the final arbiters.
The fact that many of the ISO-created standards are ubiquitous has led, on occasion, to common usage of "ISO" to describe the actual product that conforms to a standard. Some examples of this are:
*[[CD image]]s end in the [[file extension]] "[[ISO image|ISO]]" to signify that they are using the [[ISO 9660]] standard filesystem (there are other file systems that can be used) - hence CD images are commonly referred to as "ISOs". Virtually all computers with [[CD-ROM]] drives can read CDs that use this standard. DVD-ROMs also use ISO 9660 filesystems.
*Photographic film sensitivity to light, its speed, is measured and determined by ISO standard, hence the [[film speed]] is often referred to as its "ISO number". There are equivalent standards giving us its [[American National Standards Institute|ASA]] and [[DIN]].
==ISO/IEC Joint Technical Committee 1==
To deal with the consequences of substantial overlap in areas of standardization and work related to information technology, ISO and [[International Electrotechnical Commission|IEC]] formed a Joint Technical Committee known as the ISO/IEC JTC1. It was the first such committee, and to date remains the only one. Its official mandate is:
Develop, maintain, promote and facilitate IT standards required by global markets meeting business and user requirements concerning:
*design and development of IT systems and tools,
*performance and quality of IT products and systems
*security of IT systems and information
*portability of application programs
*interoperability of IT products and systems
*unified tools and environments
*harmonized IT vocabulary
*user friendly and ergonomically designed user interfaces
There are currently 18 sub-committees:
*SC 02 - Coded Character Sets
*SC 06 - Telecommunications and Information Exchange Between Systems
*SC 07 - Software and System Engineering
*SC 17 - Cards and Personal Identification
*SC 22 - Programming Languages, their Environments and Systems Software Interfaces
*SC 23 - Removable Digital Storage Media Utilizing Optical and/or Magnetic Recording * Technology for Digital
*SC 24 - Computer Graphics and Image Processing
*SC 25 - Interconnection of Information Technology Equipment
*SC 27 - IT Security Techniques
*SC 28 - Office Equipment
*SC 29 - Coding of Audio, Picture, and Multimedia and Hypermedia Information
*SC 31 - Automatic Identification and Data Capture Techniques
*SC 32 - Data Management and Interchange
*SC 34 - Document Description and Processing Languages
*SC 35 - User Interfaces
*SC 36 - Information Technology for Learning, Education, and Training
*SC 37 - Biometrics
Membership in ISO/IEC JTC1 is restricted in much the same way as membership in either of the two parent organizations. A member can be either participating (p) or observing (O) and the difference is mainly the ability to vote on proposed standards and other product. There is no requirement for any member body to maintain either (or any) status on all of the sub-committees. Although rare, sub-committees can be created to deal with new situations (SC 37 was approved only in the last year) or disbanded if the area of work is no longer relevant.
==See also==
*[[List of ISO standards]]
*[[:Category:ISO standards]]
*[[Standardization]]
*[[International Electrotechnical Commission|IEC]]
*[[ISO A4]]
==External links==
*[http://www.iso.org/ ISO's official website] (free access to the catalogue of standards only, not to the contents)
*[http://isotc.iso.org/livelink/livelink/fetch/2000/2489/Ittf_Home/PubliclyAvailableStandards.htm Publicly Available Standards] (free access to a small subset of the standards)
*[http://www.standardsglossary.com/ The ISO Standards Glossary]
*[http://www.jtc1.org/ ISO/IEC JTC1]
[[Category:non-governmental organizations]]
[[Category:Standards organizations]]
[[Category:International standards|*]]
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[[es:Organización Internacional para la Estandarización]]
[[eo:Internacia Organizo por Normigado]]
[[fr:Organisation internationale de normalisation]]
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[[sl:Mednarodna organizacija za standardizacijo]]
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IC
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'''IC''' or '''ic''' may stand for:
* [[-ic]] [[suffix]]
* The [[IATA airline designator]] for [[Indian Airlines]]
* In [[chat]]ting terms, it stands for "I See". Also see [[Internet Slang]]
* [[Identity document|Identity card]]
* [[Illinois Central Railroad]] {{reporting mark|IC}}
* [[Immediate constituent]] (IC), in [[Morphology (linguistics)|morphology]]
* [[Imperial College London]] - The famous science university is often referred to simply as 'IC'
* ''In Casu'', [[Latin]] for 'in this case'
* [[In Character]] - as opposed to OOC ([[Out of Character]]) in [[Roleplaying]]
* [[Index Catalog]]
* [[Industry Canada]]
* Institute of Computing
* [[Integrated circuit]]
* [[Intellectual capital]]
* [[Intelligence Community]]
* [[InterCity]] in railway travel
* [[InterContinental]] hotel chain, or its parent company [[InterContinental Hotels Group]]
* International Canoe in [[Canoe sailing]]
* "International Coordinator", the top coordinator of the [[FidoNet]]
* [[Interstitial cystitis]], a disease
* Introductory [[Calculus]]
* [[Ithaca College]]
* [[IC codes]], [[police]] shorthand expressions
* [[iCommune]]
{{disambig}}
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Individualist anarchism
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{{Anarchism}}
'''Individualist Anarchism''' is a philosophical tradition that opposes [[collectivism]]{{ref|Spooner_Property}} and has a particularly strong emphasis on the supremacy and autonomy of the [[individualism|individual]]. The tradition appears most often in the [[United States]], most notably in regard to its advocacy of private property.{{ref|TuckerLiberty}} Individualist anarchism's roots includes Europeans such as [[William Godwin]], [[Pierre-Joseph Proudhon]], [[Emile Armand]], [[Oscar Wilde]], Han Ryner and [[Max Stirner]] (who is also connected to the [[existentialism|existentialist]] philosophy), though the individualist anarchist tradition draws heavily on American independent thinkers, including [[Josiah Warren]], [[Benjamin Tucker]], [[Lysander Spooner]], [[Ezra Heywood]], [[Stephen Pearl Andrews]], and [[Henry David Thoreau]]. The writer and poet [[John Henry Mackay]] is also considered an individualist anarchist. Contemporary individualist anarchists include [[Robert Anton Wilson]], [[Joe Peacott]], [[Daniel Burton]], [[Kevin Carson]], and [[Keith Preston]]. Individualist anarchism is sometimes seen as an evolution of [[classical liberalism]], and hence, has been called "liberal anarchism" [http://www.weisbord.org/conquest8.htm].
Some of the 19th century individual anarchists, such as Benjamin Tucker, referred to themselves as socialists [http://www.infoshop.org/faq/secGint.html], however "the libertarian socialists such as Proudhon were not socialists in the usual sense of today, meaning state socialists, because they did believe in property rights. They were oriented toward cooperative and decentralized forms of ownership -- yet they agreed with other progressive libertarians in advocating genuinely free markets, with an end to land monopoly and other government-created monopolies..." The libertarian socialists were divided into two main categories: "the individualists who remained true to Proudhonian mutualism and the collectivists represented by the anarcho-communists." {{ref|Gagnon}}
== Origins ==
[[Image:WilliamGodwin.jpg|thumb|left|[[William Godwin]], a radical [[liberalism|liberal]] and [[utilitarian]]. There is a lack of consensus as to whether he was an individualist, a communist, or neither.]]
There is significant variance between the philosophies of different individualist anarchists. Almost all, following Proudhon, support individual ownership of the particular form of private property he referred to as "possession". Stirner supports private property but rejects the notion of a ''right'' to property. Godwin is an [[altruist]], Stirner an [[egoist]]. Warren espouses natural law as a basis for individual liberty, while Tuckers premises it upon egoism. Tucker opposes intellectual property while Spooner advocates it. However, what these philosophers all have in common is a rejection of both capitalist economics and [[collectivist]] notions of society and a pronounced focus on individuality.
William Godwin, of England, wrote essays advocating a society without government that are considered some of the first, if not the first, anarchist treatises. As such, some consider the [[liberalism|liberal]] British writer to be the "father of philosophical anarchism." There is a lack of consensus as to whether Godwin was an individualist or a communist. He is regarded by some as one of the first individualist anarchists, although his philosophy has some communist-like characteristics. He advocates an extreme form of individualism, proposing that all sorts of cooperation in labor should be eliminated; he says: "everything understood by the term co-operation is in some sense an evil." Godwin's individualism is to such a radical degree that he even opposes individuals performing together in orchestras. The only apparent exception to this opposition to cooperation is the spontaneous association that may arise when a society is threatened by violent force. One reason he opposes cooperation is he believes it to interfere with an individual's ability to be benevolent for the greater good. Godwin opposes the existence of government and expressly opposes democracy, fearing oppression of the individual by the majority (though he believes democracy to be preferable to dictatorship). Godwin supports individual ownership of property, defining it as "the empire to which every man is entitled over the produce of his own industry." However, he does advocate that individuals give to each other their surplus property on the occasion that others have a need for it, without involving trade (see ''[[gift economy]]''). This was to be based on [[utilitarian]] principles; he says: "Every man has a right to that, the exclusive possession of which being awarded to him, a greater sum of benefit or pleasure will result than could have arisen from its being otherwise appropriated." However, benevolence was not to be enforced but a matter of free individual "private judgement." He does not advocate a community of goods or assert collective ownership as is embraced in communism, but his belief that individuals ought to share with those in need was influential on [[anarchist communism]] later. Some consider Godwin both an individualist and a communist rather than a strict individualist for this reason. [http://64.233.161.104/search?q=cache:iCK-K7dEYK4J:www.worldsocialism.org/spgb/overview/shelley.pdf] Some, such as [[Murray Rothbard]], do not regard Godwin as being in the individualist camp at all [http://www.b.150m.com/writers/rothbard/burke.html] (Some restrict "individualist anarchism" to the market anarchists). Others consider him an individualist anarchist without reservation. [http://www.weisbord.org/conquest8.htm] Some writers see a conflict between Godwin's advocacy of "private judgement" and utilitarianism, as he says that ethics requires that individuals give their surplus property to each other resulting in an egalitarian society, but, at the same time, he insists that all things be left to individual choice. [http://plato.stanford.edu/entries/godwin/] [[Communist-anarchist]] [[Peter Kropotkin]] says in the 1911 Encyclopedia Britannica that Godwin "entirely rewrote later on his chapter on property and mitigated his communist views in the second edition of Political Justice." Godwin's basis in utilitarianism and ethical altruism contrasts with later individualists, such as Max Stirner and Benjamin Tucker, who ground their philosophy on [[egoism]] or [[self-interest]] (though not all are egoists). Also, Godwin's aversion to cooperation and a market economy is not typical among the individualists.
[[Image:Max_stirner.jpg|thumb|right|[[Max Stirner]] was the first of the [[egoism|egoist]] individualist anarchists. Portrait by [[Friedrich Engels]].]]
While individualists typically assert property as a right, Germany's [[Max Stirner]] that a "right" to property is an illusion, or "ghost"; property is only a matter of control --it is not based in any moral right but solely in the right of might: "Whoever knows how to take, to defend, the thing, to him belongs property.". Stirner considers the world and everything in it, including other persons, available to one's taking or use without moral constraint --that rights do not exist in regard to objects at all. He sees no rationality in taking the interests of others into account unless doing so furthers one's self-interest, which he believes is the only legitimate reason for acting. His embrace of [[egoism]] is in stark contrast to Godwin's [[altruism]]. He denies society as being an actual entity, calling society a "spook" and that "the individuals are its reality" (''The Ego and Its Own''). Whether individualist anarchism is properly justified by self-interest (egoism) or natural law has been a subject of debate among the individualists. For example, [[Lysander Spooner]] holds that there are natural property rights, but egoists such as [[Benjamin Tucker]] agree with Stirner that there are no natural property rights but hold that property can come only about by [[contract]] between individuals.
France's [[Pierre-Joseph Proudhon]] was the first philosopher to label himself an "anarchist." He was particularly influential among the American individualists, mainly by way of Benjamin Tucker who had translated and studied his works. Proudhon opposes government privilege that protects banking and land interests, and any form of coercion that led to the accumulation or acquisition of property, which he believes hampers competition and keeps wealth in the hands of the few. Proudhon favors a right of individuals to retain the product of their labor as their own property, but believed that any property beyond that which an individual produced and could possess was illegitimate. Thus, he saw private property as both essential to liberty and a road to tyranny, the former when it resulted from labor and the latter when it resulted from extortion (interest, tax, etc). He says: "Where shall we find a power capable of counter-balancing the... State? There is none other than property... The absolute right of the State is in conflict with the absolute right of the property owner. Property is the greatest revolutionary force which exists." Proudhon maintains that those who labor should retain the entirety of what they produce, and that monopolies on credit and land are the forces that prohibiting such. He advocated an economic system that included private property as possession and exchange market but without profit, which he called [[mutualism (economic theory)|mutualism]]. It is Proudhon's philosophy that was explicitly amended by [[Joseph Dejacque]] in the inception of [[anarchist-communism]], with the latter asserting directly to Proudhon in a letter that "it is not the product of his or her labor that the worker has a right to, but to the satisfaction of his or her needs, whatever may be their nature." Proudhon said that "communism...is the very denial of society in its foundation..." (''Philosophy of Poverty'') and was famous for declaring that "property is theft" in reference to the capitalist practices of his time.
After Dejacque and others split from Proudhon due to the latter's support of individual property and an exchange economy, the relationship between the individualists, who continued in relative alignment with the philosophy of Proudhon, and the anarcho-communists was characterised by various degrees of antagonism and harmony. For example, individualists like Tucker on the one hand translating and reprinted the works of collectivists like [[Mikhail Bakunin]], while on the other hand rejecting the economic aspects of collectivism and communism as incompatible with anarchist ideals.
While individualist anarchism is often seen as including William Godwin and Max Stirner, it is most often associated with the American tradition, which advocates individual ownership of the produce of labor and a [[market economy]] where this property may be bought and sold.{{fact}} However, this form of individualist anarchism is not exclusive to the Americans.{{fact}} It is also found in the philosophy of other radical individualists, such as those in England and France though almost all were influenced by the early American individualists. Individualist anarchism of this type is in contrast to some other forms of anarchism, such as [[anarcho-communism]], which holds that productive property should be in the control of the society at large in various forms of worker collectives and that the produce of labor should be collectivized.{{fact}} Both individualists anarchists and communist anarchists agree, however, in many of their critiques of most common conceptions of property. Most of the individualist anarchists in the 19th and 18th centuries adhered to a labor theory of value, and hence, saw profit as subverting natural law. However, there have been a few theorists in the 19th and 18th centurues that did not adhere to labor-value. These include [[Jakob Muavillon]], [[Julius Faucher]], [[Gustave de Molinari]], [[Auberon Herbert]], and [[Herbert Spencer]].
== The American tradition ==
{{Main article|[[American individualist anarchism]]}}
Individualist anarchism in America is noted for its strong advocacy of private property in the product of labor, and a competitive free market economy. [[Josiah Warren]], who is the first individualist anarchist in the American tradition, had participated in a failed collectivist experiment headed by [[Robert Owen]] called "[[New Harmony]]" and came to the conclusion that such a system is inferior to one where individualism and private property is respected. On ''Practical Details'', he discusses his conclusions in regard to the experiment. In a much cited quotation from that text, he makes a vehement assertion of individual [[negative liberty]]: "Society must be so converted as to preserve the SOVEREIGNTY OF EVERY INDIVIDUAL inviolate. That it must avoid all combinations and connections of persons and interests, and all other arrangements which will not leave every individual at all times at liberty to dispose of his or her person, and time, and property in any manner in which his or her feelings or judgment may dictate WITHOUT INVOLVING THE PERSONS OR INTERESTS OF OTHERS" (Warren's capitalization). Though Warren and Proudhon did not associate with each other, working on separate continents they both came to like conclusions in regard to labor theory of value and property. However, according to Benjamin Tucker, that profiting by violating the labor theory of value is exploitative "was Proudhon's position before it was Marx's, and Josiah Warren's before it was Proudhon's" (Liberty or Authority).
While Warren based his philosophy on [[natural law]], [[Benjamin Tucker]] eventually switched his allegiance to [[egoism]] as a result of his reading of Max Stirner. Many individualists followed in his footsteps in this respect. Tucker maintained that there were two rights, "the right of might" and "the right of contract" and that moral rights do not exist until they are devised by contract initiated out of the self-interest of the contracting parties. However, this was a source of conflict among the individualists as many continued to assert natural law.
The individualists' economic theory (''[[mutualism (economic theory)|mutualism]]'') is based on the [[labor theory of value]]. Accepting that the value of a good is the amount of labor undertaking in producing it, they conclude that it is unethical to charge a higher price for a commodity than the cost of producing or acquiring and bringing it to market (''[[Cost the limit of price]]''). To ensure that labor receives its "full produce" they advocate that a commodity should be purchased with an amount of labor that is equivalent to the amount of labor undertaken in producing that commodity. As a result, equal amounts of labor would receive equal pay; those that did not labor would not be paid. In the area of employment, this would obviate the possibility of an employer profiting from the labor of an employee, which they opposed as being exploitative, since the employee must receive the "full produce" of his labor. With the exception of Warren, this led to their position that private ownership of land should be supported only if the possessor of that land is using it, otherwise, the possessor would be able to charge rent to others without laboring to produce anything (Warren does not oppose ownership of land but does advocate that it be sold at cost). Profiting from lending money for interest is generally seen as usurious as an income is seen as being derived without labor. To the individualists, profit from interest, profit from wages, and rental of land is only made possible by government-backed "monopoly" and "privilege" that restricts competition in the marketplace and concentrates wealth in the hands of a few.
=== Anarcho-capitalism ===
{{main|anarcho-capitalism}}
Most pre-20th century individualist anarchists espoused the [[labor theory of value]], so they find profit to be unnatural and exploitative. Anarcho-capitalists hold a [[subjective theory of value]], and hence have no opposition to profit. Labor-value individualists and [[Murray Rothbard|Rothbardian]] anarcho-capitalists espouse a [[labor theory of property]], and therefore agree that an individual should have private property in the product of labor. However, whereas most labor-value individualists do not recognize land itself as property since it is not the product of labor, prefering instead a right to exclusive individual use, anarcho-capitalists in the [[Murray Rothbard|Rothbardian]] school do allow the creation of private property in land by "mixing" it with labor. In other words, for Rothbard, an individual still has title to the land if he discontinues using it. In the United States the popularity of the [[labor theory of value]] of [[classical economics]] was superceded by much greater acceptance of the [[subjective theory of value]] of [[neo-classical economics]]. This [[marginalism|marginalist]] revolution influenced the thoughts of some radical individualists. Eventually, in the 20th century, [[Murray Rothbard]] coined the term ''[[anarcho-capitalism]]''. Most anarchists do not accept anarcho-capitalism as a "true" form of anarchist thought, as [[anarchism]] as been traditionally opposed to [[capitalism]]. See also [[American individualist anarchism and anarcho-capitalism]].
== Comparison of property systems ==
:''Note: Not all philosophers, in the various camps agree on everything; for that reason, it is not necessarily true that this table is representative of all anarcho-communists, individualist anarchists, or anarcho-capitalists (see the [[Talk:Individualist anarchism|talk page]] for more information).''
{| border="3" cellspacing="1" cellpadding="12" style="margin-left:auto;margin-right:auto;background:#FFF;text-align:center;border-outset:1px;"
|width="200"|'''Philosophies'''
|width="140"|Anarcho-communism
|width="140"|Individualist Anarchism (labor-value)
|width="140"|Anarcho-capitalism
|-
|style="text-align:left;"|Does the '''community own''' the land and other natural resources?
|Yes
|No
|No
|-
|style="text-align:left;"|Is '''land''' legitimate transferrable private property?
|No
|No (some say yes)
|Yes
|-
|style="text-align:left;"|Is the '''product of labour''' legitimate private property?
|No
|Yes
|Yes
|-
|style="text-align:left;"|Are privately-owned '''capital goods''' permissible?
|No
|Yes
|Yes
|-
|style="text-align:left;"|Is '''profit''' from labor, land and loans exploitative?
|Yes; such profits should be confiscated.
|Yes; but should not be prohibited.
|No
|}
'''(NRxCO)''' "The land, and all natural resources, are the common property of everyone, but will be used only by those who cultivate it by their own labor. Without expropriation, only through the powerful pressure of the worker’s associations, capital and the tools of production will fall to those who produce wealth by their own labor." - Michael Bakunin, ''Revolutionary Catechism''.
'''(NRxCO)''' "The only way, in which ['the wealth of nature'] can be made useful to mankind, is by their taking possession of it individually, and thus making it private property." - Lysander Spooner, ''Law of Intellectual Property''. "That there is an entity known as the community which is the rightful owner of all land anarchists deny. I...maintain that the community is a non-entity, that it has no existence, and is simply a combination of individuals having no prerogative beyond those of the individuals themselves." -Benjamin Tucker, ''Liberty''
'''(NRxCO)''' "The only 'natural' course for man to survive and to attain wealth, therefore, is by using his mind and energy to engage in the production-and-exchange process. He does this, first, by finding natural resources, and then by transforming them (by 'mixing his labor' with them, as Locke puts it), to make them his individual property, and then by exchanging this property for the similarly obtained property of others." Murray Rothbard, ''The Anatomy of the State''.
'''(LdxCol)''' see (NRxCol) above.
'''(LdxInd)''' Though, most labor-value individualists oppose buying and selling of land itself, they maintain that an individual should be allowed exclusive of use of land against any claims of the community. "Anarchism holds that land belongs not to the people but the occupant and user..." - Benjamin Tucker ''Liberty X May 19 1894''. But Warren, Andrews, and Greene supported an individual holding transferable title to land itself; for example, "the prime cost of land, the taxes, and other contingent expenses of surveying, etc., added to the labor of making contracts, would constitute the equitable price of land purchased for sale." -Josiah Warren, ''Equitable Commerce''
'''(LdxAC)''' "If Columbus lands on a new continent, is it legitimate for him to proclaim all the new continent his own, or even that sector 'as far as his eye can see'? Clearly, this would not be the case in the free society that we are postulating. Columbus or Crusoe would have to use the land, to 'cultivate' it in some way, before he could be asserted to own it.... If there is more land than can be used by a limited labor supply, then the unused land must simply remain unowned until a first user arrives on the scene. Any attempt to claim a new resource that someone does not use would have to be considered invasive of the property right of whoever the first user will turn out to be. There is no requirement, however, that land ''continue'' to be used in order for it to continue to be a man’s property." -Murray Rothbard, ''Man, Economy, and State''
'''(PoLxCol)''' "It is not the product of his or her labor that the worker has a right to, but to the satisfaction of his or her needs, whatever may be their nature." -Joseph Dejacque, ''Letter to Proudhon'' "If we preserved the individual appropriation of the products of labour, we would be forced to preserve money, leaving more or less accumulation of wealth according to more or less merit rather than need of individuals." -Carlo Cafiero, ''Anarchism and Communism'' "In other words, labour and its products must be exchanged without price, without profit, freely, according to necessity. This logically leads to ownership in common and to joint use. Which is a sensible, just, and equitable system, and is known as Communism." -Alexander Berkman, ''ABC of Anarchism''
'''(PoLxInd)''' "One of the tests of any reform movement with regard to personal liberty is this: Will the movement prohibit or abolish private property? If it does, it is an enemy of liberty. For one of the most important criteria of freedom is the right to private property in the products of ones labor. State Socialists, Communists, Syndicalists and Communist-Anarchists deny private property." -Clarence Swartz, ''What is Mutualism'' "...the principle of individual property... says that each man has an absolute dominion, as against all other men, over the products and acquisitions of his own labor." -Lysander Spooner, ''The Law of Intellectual Property''
'''(PoLxAC)''' The labor theory of value is erroneous. Profit is not exploitative and contract is supreme. "The capitalist, then, is a man who has labored, saved out of his labor (i.e., has restricted his consumption) and, in a series of voluntary contracts has (a) purchased ownership rights in capital goods, and (b) paid the laborers for their labor services in transforming those capital goods into goods nearer the final stage of being consumed. Note again that no one is preventing the laborers themselves from saving, purchasing capital goods from their owners and then working on their own capital goods, finally selling the product and reaping the profits. In fact, the capitalists are conferring a great benefit on these laborers, making possible the entire complex vertical network of exchanges in the modern economy." - Murray Rothbard, ''The Ethics of Liberty''.
'''(CGxCol)''' The means of production are owned by the community in collective. "The revolution as we understand it will have to destroy the State and all the institutions of the State, radically and completely, from its very first day. The natural and necessary consequences of such destruction will be: ... f. the confiscation of all productive capital and of the tools of production for the benefit of workers’ associations, who will have to have them produced collectively." - Bakunin, ''The Program of the International Brotherhood''.
'''(CGxInd)''' All products of labor are the property of the individual, regardless of in the form of capital or not."Proudhon scoffed at this distinction between capital and product. He maintained that capital and product are not different kinds of wealth, but simply alternate conditions or functions of the same wealth. ... For these and other reasons Proudhon and Warren found themselves unable to sanction any such plan as the seizure of capital by society." - Benjamin Tucker, ''State Socialism and Anarchism''.
'''(CGxAC)''' "Production begins with natural resources, and then various forms of machines and capital goods, until finally, goods are sold to the consumer. At each stage of production from natural resource to consumer good, money is voluntarily exchanged for capital goods, labor services, and land resources. At each step of the way, terms of exchanges, or prices, are determined by the voluntary interactions of suppliers and demanders. This market is "free" because choices, at each step, are made freely and voluntarily." - Rothbard, ''[http://www.econlib.org/library/Enc/FreeMarket.html Free Market]''.
'''(LrxCol)''' Will you stand up for that piece of chicanery which consists in affirming 'freedom of contract'? Or will you uphold equity, according to which a contract entered into between a man who has dined well and the man who sells his labor for bare subsistence, between the strong and the weak, is not a contract at all?" -Peter Kropotkin, ''An Appeal to the Young''
'''(LrxInd)''' It is considered exploitative to pay an individual for less than the "full produce" of his labor. - "The price is not sufficient: the labor of the workers has created a value; now this value is their property. But they have neither sold nor exchanged it; and you, capitalist, you have not earned it. That you should have a partial right to the whole, in return for the materials that you have furnished and the provisions that you have supplied, is perfectly just. You contributed to the production, you ought to share in the enjoyment. But your right does not annihilate that of the laborers, who, in spite of you, have been your colleagues in the work of production. Why do you talk of wages? The money with which you pay the wages of the laborers remunerates them for only a few years of the perpetual possession which they have abandoned to you. Wages is the cost of the daily maintenance and refreshment of the laborer. You are wrong in calling it the price of a sale. The workingman has sold nothing; he knows neither his right, nor the extent of the concession which he has made to you, nor the meaning of the contract which you pretend to have made with him. On his side, utter ignorance; on yours, error and surprise, not to say deceit and fraud." - [[Pierre-Joseph Proudhon]] "In defending the right to take usury, we do not defend the right [ethicality] of usury" -Benjamin Tucker, ''Liberty I,3'' Note- Tucker used the term "usury" to mean profit --both from capital and labor.
'''(LrxAC)''' see (PoLxAC) above.
==References==
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# {{note|Spooner_Property}} "The only way, in which ['the wealth of nature'] can be made useful to mankind, is by their taking possession of it individually, and thus making it private property." - Lysander Spooner, Law of Intellectual Property. "That there is an entity known as the community which is the rightful owner of all land anarchists deny. I...maintain that the community is a non-entity, that it has no existence, and is simply a combination of individuals having no prerogative beyond those of the individuals themselves." - Benjamin Tucker, Liberty
# {{note|Gagnon}} Gagnon, Paul E. [http://www.progress.org/2003/libsoc01.htm] ''Libertarian Socialism'']
# {{note|TuckerLiberty}} [http://www.zetetics.com/mac/tir1.htm Benjamin Tucker, Liberty And Individualist Anarchism], by Wendy McElroy
==See also==
* [[Individualism]]
* [[Anarchism]]
* [[American individualist anarchism]]
* [[Christian anarchism]]
* [[Geolibertarianism]]
== External links ==
* [http://www.spaz.org/~dan/individualist-anarchist/resources.html Individualist Anarchist Resources]
* [http://oll.libertyfund.org/Texts/LFBooks/Burke0061/Vindication/0339_Bk.html ''A Vindication of Natural Society: or, a View of the Miseries and Evils arising to Mankind from every Species of Artificial Society''] by [[Edmund Burke]] - some regard this liberal essay to be the first to advocate anarchy
* [http://socserv2.socsci.mcmaster.ca/~econ/ugcm/3ll3/godwin/pj.html ''Enquiry Concerning Political Justice''] by [[William Godwin]]
*[http://www.blancmange.net/tmh/teaho/theego0.html ''The Ego and his Own''] by [[Max Stirner]], translated by Christian individualist anarchist [[Steven T. Byington]]
* [http://raforum.apinc.org/article.php3?id_article=169 ''Manifesto'' by Josiah Warren] (1841)
* [http://www.blancmange.net/tmh/pdf/jwarren.pdf ''Equitable Commerce'' by Josiah Warren]
* [http://flag.blackened.net/daver/anarchism/tucker/tucker2.html ''State Socialism and Anarchism: How far they agree, and wherein they differ.''] by [[Benjamin Tucker]] (1886)
* [http://melior.univ-montp3.fr/ra_forum/en/people/armand_e/individualism.html ''Anarchist Individualism as Life and Activity''] by E. Armand (1907)
* [http://www.weisbord.org/conquest8.htm ''I. Liberal-Anarchism VIII. Libertarianism''] from ''The Conquest of Power'', by Albert Weisbord[http://www.weisbord.org/] discusses individualism of Godwin and Stirner
* [http://www.weisbord.org/conquest10.htm American Liberal-Anarchism] from ''The Conquest of Power'', by Albert Weisbord[http://www.weisbord.org/]
* [http://www.independent.org/issues/article.asp?id=10 ''American Anarchism'' by Wendy McElroy] 19th Century Individualist Anarchism in America
* [http://libcom.org/library/social-anarchism--lifestyle-anarchism-murray-bookchin A critique of Individualist Anarchism by Murray Bookchin]
* [http://world.std.com/~bbrigade/ Bad Press] Contemporary Individualist Anarchist Publications
* [http://www.spaz.org/~dan/individualist-anarchist/ Individualist-Anarchist.Net]
* [http://www.zetetics.com/mac/articles/jlsorg.html ''The Schism Between Individualist and Communist Anarchism'']
* [http://flag.blackened.net/liberty/proudanar.html Proudhon and Anarchism] by Larry Gambone
* [http://www.spaz.org/~dan/ias/index.html Individualist Anarchist Society at UC Berkeley]
[[Category:Political theories]]
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[[es:Anarquismo individualista]]
[[fr:Anarchisme individualiste]]
[[he:אנרכיזם אינדיבידואליסטי]]
[[sv:Individualanarkism]]
Italo Calvino
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'''Italo Calvino''' ([[October 15]],[[1923]] – [[September 19]], [[1985]]) was an [[Italy|Italian]] [[writer]] and [[novelist]].
Born in [[Santiago de Las Vegas]], [[Cuba]], to botanists Mario Calvino and Evelina Mameli (a descendant of [[Goffredo Mameli]]) and brother of [[Floriano Calvino]], a famous [[geologist]], he soon moved to his family's homeland of [[Italy]], where he lived most of his life.
[[Image:calvino-italo.jpg|thumb|Italo Calvino]]
==Timeline==
He stayed in [[San Remo, Italy|San Remo]], on the [[Italian Riviera]], for some 20 years, and enrolled in the ''Avanguardisti'' (a [[fascism|fascist]] youth organisation to which membership was practically compulsory) with whom he took part in the occupation of the [[French Riviera]]. He suffered some religious troubles, his relatives being followers of the [[Waldensian]] Protestant Church. He met [[Eugenio Scalfari]] (later a politician and the founder of the major newspaper ''La Repubblica''), with whom he would remain a close friend.
In [[1941]] he moved to [[Turin]], after a long hesitation over living in this town or [[Milan]]. He often humorously described this choice, and used to define Turin as "a city that is serious but sad."
In [[1943]], he joined the Partisans in the Italian Resistance, in the [[Giuseppe Garibaldi|Garibaldi]] brigade, with the battlename of ''Santiago'', and with Scalfari he created the MUL (liberal universitarian movement). He then entered the (still clandestine) [[Italian Communist Party]].
In [[1947]], Calvino graduated from Turin's [[university]] with a thesis on [[Joseph Conrad]] and started working with the official Communist paper ''L'Unità''; he also had a short relationship with the [[Einaudi]] publishing house, which put him in contact with [[Norberto Bobbio]], [[Natalia Ginzburg]], [[Cesare Pavese]] and [[Elio Vittorini]]. With Vittorini he wrote for the weekly ''Il Politecnico'' (a cultural magazine associated with the university). He then left Einaudi to work mainly with L'Unità and the newborn communist weekly political magazine ''Rinascita''.
In [[1950]], he worked again for the Einaudi house, where he became responsible for the literary volumes. The following year, presumably in order to verify a possibility of advancement in the communist party, he visited the [[Soviet Union]]. The reports and correspondence he produced from this visit were later collected and earned him literary prizes.
In [[1952]] Calvino wrote with [[Giorgio Bassani]] for ''[[Botteghe Oscure]]'', a magazine named after the popular name of the party's head-offices, and worked for ''Il Contemporaneo'', a [[marxism|Marxist]] weekly.
It was in [[1957]] that Calvino unexpectedly left the Communist party, and his letter of resignation (soon famous) was published in ''L'Unità''.
He found new spaces for his periodic writings in the magazines ''Passato e Presente'' and ''Italia Domani''. Together with Vittorini he became a co-editor of ''Il Menabò di letteratura'', a position that he held for many years.
Despite the previously severe restrictions for foreigners holding communist views, he was allowed to visit the [[United States]], where he stayed six months (four of which he spent in [[New York]]), after an invitation by the [[Ford Foundation]]. Calvino was particularly impressed by the "New World": "Naturally I visited the South and also California, but I always felt a New Yorker. My city is New York." In the States he also met Esther Judith Singer, whom he married a few years later in [[Havana]], during a trip in which he visited his birthplace and met [[Ernesto Che Guevara]].
Back in Italy, and once again working for Einaudi, he started publishing some of his ''cosmicomics'' in ''Il Caffè'', a literary magazine.
Vittorini's death in [[1966]] had a heavy influence on Calvino and caused him to experience what has been defined as an "intellectual depression", which the writer himself described as an important passage in his life: "...I ceased to be young. Perhaps it's a metabolic process, something that comes with age, I'd been young for a long time, perhaps too long, suddenly I felt that I had to begin my old age, yes, old age, perhaps with the hope of prolonging it by beginning it early".
He then started to frequent [[Paris]] (where he was nicknamed ''L'ironique amusé''). Here he soon joined some important circles like the [[Oulipo]] (''Ouvroir de littérature potentielle'') and met [[Roland Barthes]] and [[Claude Lévi-Strauss]], in the fermenting atmosphere that was going to evolve into the [[1968]]'s cultural revolution (the [[French May]]); in his French experience he also became fond of [[Raymond Queneau]]'s works, which would sensibly influence his later production.
Calvino also had more intense contacts with the academic world, with notable experiences at the [[University of Paris|Sorbonne]] (with Barthes) and at [[Urbino]]'s [[university]]. His interests included classical studies ([[Honoré de Balzac]], [[Ludovico Ariosto]], [[Dante Alighieri|Dante]], [[Ignacio de Loyola]], [[Miguel de Cervantes|Cervantes]], [[William Shakespeare|Shakespeare]], [[Cyrano de Bergerac|Cyrano de Bergérac]], [[Giacomo Leopardi]]) while at the same time, not without a certain surprise from the Italian intellectual circles, he wrote [[novel]]s for [[Playboy]]'s Italian edition ([[1973]]). He became a regular contributor to the important Italian newspaper ([[Corriere della Sera]]).
In [[1975]] he was made Honorary Member of the [[American Academy]], the following year he was awarded the Austrian State Prize for European Literature. He visited [[Japan]] and [[Mexico]] and gave lectures in several American towns.
In [[1981]] he was awarded the prestigious French [[Légion d'Honneur]].
In [[1985]] he died in [[Siena, Italy|Siena]] at the ancient [[hospital]] of ''Santa Maria della Scala'' of a [[cerebral hemorrhage]].
==[[If On a Winter's Night a Traveler]]==
Perhaps Calvino's most famous novel, this begins with the words, "You are about to begin reading Italo Calvino's new novel, ''If on a winter's night a traveller''." It's a novel therefore in which the reader plays a starring role. The reader gets a love interest, the Other Reader, and obstacles thrown in his way. In particular, the first story runs out after only a chapter. A pattern is quickly set up with single chapters of novels being cut off in their prime. Interspersed with these are chapters in which the reader's story, the pursuit of the end of these intriguing novels, and the pursuit of the Other Reader, is played out. Each chapter is written in the style of a different genre of work.
The central concept of this novel is the quest to find a complete and coherent narrative: a quest being undertaken by the actual reader and the Reader as character, struggling to hunt down the ever-elusive Chapters. In fact Calvino does hide a short, elegant story in the book (more of a vignette, really), and with a magician's flair he hides it in plain sight in a part of the book to which most readers give cursory attention.
== Bibliography ==
''(dates are of original publication)''
* 1947 [[The Path to the Nest of Spiders]] - ''Il sentiero dei nidi di ragno''
* 1949 ''Ultimo viene il corvo''
* 1951 ''I giovani del Po''
* 1951, 1959 [[The Nonexistent Knight The Cloven Viscount|The Nonexistent Knight & The Cloven Viscount]] - ''Il cavaliere inesistente'', ''Il Visconte dimezzato'' - (two novellas)
* 1952 The Argentine Ant - ''La formica argentina''
* 1954 ''L'entrata in Guerra''
* 1956 [[Italian Folktales]] - ''Fiabe Italiane'' - (retelling of traditional stories)
* 1956 [[libretto]] for ''La panchina'', [[opera]] by [[Sergio Liberovici]]
* 1958 ''I racconti''
* 1957 [[The Baron in the Trees]] - ''Il barone rampante''
* 1959 [[Our Ancestors]] - ''I nostri antenati'' (a single edition containing "Il cavaliere inesistente", "Il Visconte dimezzato", and "Il barone rampante")
* 1963 [[Marcovaldo]]
* 1963 The Watcher - ''La Giornata di Uno Scrutatore''
* 1963 [[La speculazione edilizia]]
* 1965 [[Cosmicomics]] - ''Cosmicomiche''
* 1967 [[T Zero]] - ''Ti con zero''
* 1969 [[The Castle of Crossed Destinies]] - ''Il castello dei destini incrociati''
* 1970 [[Difficult Loves]] - ''Gli amori difficili'' (stories from the [[1940s]] and [[1950s]])
* 1972 [[Invisible Cities]] - ''Le Città Invisibili''
* 1973 ''Il nome, il naso''
* 1974 ''Autobiografia di uno spettatore''
* 1975 ''La corsa delle giraffe''
* 1963 [[The Watcher and other stories]] (stories)
* 1979 [[If On a Winter's Night a Traveler]] - ''Se una notte d'inverno un viaggiatore'' (English translation ISBN 0919630235)
* 1980, 1982 [[The Uses of Literature]] (essays)
* 1982 libretto for ''La Vera Storia'', opera by [[Luciano Berio]]
* 1983 [[Mr. Palomar]] - ''Palomar''
* 1983 [[Fantastic Stories]] (stories) - ''Racconti Fantastici Dell'Ottocento: Volume Primo, Il Fantastico Visionario'' and ''Racconti Fantastici Dell'Ottocento: Volume Secondo, Il Fantastico Quotidiano''
* 1983 ''Science et métaphore chez [[Galileo Galilei|Galilée]]'', lecture at the Ecole des Hautes Etudes de la Sorbonne
* 1984 ''Collezione di sabbia''
Posthumous editions:
* 1988 [[Under the Jaguar Sun]] - ''Sotto il sole giaguaro'' (stories)
* 1988 [[Six Memos for the Next Millennium]] - ''Lezioni Americane''
* 1990 [[The Road to San Giovanni]] - ''La strada di San Giovanni'' (autobiographical stories)
* 1993 [[Numbers in the Dark]], containing ''Prima che tu dica "Pronto"'' (Before You Say Hello)
== Quotations ==
===Italo Calvino===
:I set my hand to the art of writing early on. Publishing was easy for me, and I at once found favor and understanding. But it was a long time before I realized and convinced myself that this was anything but mere chance.
:Everything can change, but not the language that we carry inside us, like a world more exclusive and final than one's mother's womb.
:Your first book already defines you, while you are really far from being defined. And this definition is something you may then carry with you for the rest of your life, trying to confirm it or extend or correct or deny it; but you can never eliminate it. (preface to ''The Path to the Nest of Spiders'')
:In an age when other fantastically speedy, widespread media are triumphing and running the risk of flattening all communication onto a single, homogeneous surface, the function of literature is communication between things that are different simply because they are different, not blunting but even sharpening the differences between them, following the true bent of the written language. (''Six Memos for the Next Millennium'')
:Then we have computer science. It is true that software cannot exercise its powers of lightness except through the weight of hardware. But it is the software that gives the orders, acting on the outside world and on machines that exist only as functions of software and evolve so that they can work out ever more complex programs. The second industrial revolution, unlike the first, does not present us with such crushing images as rolling mills and molten steel, but with "bits" in a flow of information traveling along circuits in the form of electronic impulses. The iron machines still exist, but they obey the orders of weightless bits.
:(''Six Memos for the Next Millennium {Lightness}'')
===[[Gore Vidal]]===
:Italo Calvino has advanced far beyond his American and English contemporaries. As they continue to look for the place where the spiders make their nests, Calvino has not only found this special place but learned how himself to make fantastic webs of prose to which all things adhere.
== External links ==
* [http://des.emory.edu/mfp/calvino/cal.html Italo Calvino, Excerpts]
* [http://www.korculainfo.com/marco-polo-korcula-invisible-cities.htm Italo Calvino - Invisible Cities]
* [http://www.comradeche.com/index.php?id=articles/italocalvino Italo Calvino's reflections on Che Guevara]
* [http://www.italo-calvino.com Outside the Town of Malbork]
* [http://www.italo-calvino.com/ifon.htm If on a winter's night a traveler] (A selection from the first chapter)
* [http://www.emory.edu/EDUCATION/mfp/calvaldrada.html Cities & Eyes] (from ''Invisible cities'')
* [http://members.ozemail.com.au/~xenophon/calvino.html Calvino on Myth]
* [http://www.online-library.org/fictions/bet.html How Much Shall We Bet]? by Italo Calvino
* [http://www.sccs.swarthmore.edu/users/00/pwillen1/lit/index2.htm In Calvino veritas] - in this site, [http://www.sccs.swarthmore.edu/users/00/pwillen1/lit/calchap.htm Calvino and Chaplin]
* [http://greatsfandf.com/AUTHORS/ItaloCalvino.shtml Italo Calvino]: discussion of Calvino's fantastic and quasi-fantastic works.
* [http://www.themodernword.com/calvino/index.html Libyrinth (sic): Italo Calvino]
[[Category:1923 births|Calvino, Italo]]
[[Category:1985 deaths|Calvino, Italo]]
[[Category:Italian novelists|Calvino, Italo]]
[[Category:Postmodernists|Calvino, Italo]]
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ICBM
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#REDIRECT [[Intercontinental ballistic missile]]
Intercontinental ballistic missile
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[[Image:minuteman3launch.jpg|framed|A [[Minuteman III]] missile soars after a test launch.]]
An '''intercontinental ballistic missile''', or '''ICBM''', is a very-long-range (greater than 5,500 km or 3,500 miles) [[ballistic missile]] typically designed for [[nuclear weapons delivery]], i.e., delivering one or more [[nuclear weapon|nuclear warheads]]. It uses a [[Ballistics|ballistic]] [[trajectory]] involving a significant ascent and descent, including [[sub-orbital flight]]. ICBMs are differentiated by maximum range from other [[ballistic missile]]s: [[intermediate-range ballistic missile]]s (IRBMs), short-range ballistic missiles, and the newly named theater ballistic missiles. One particular weapon developed by the Soviet Union ([[FOBS]]) had a partial [[orbit|orbital]] trajectory, and unlike most ICBMs its target could not be deduced from its orbital flight path. It was decommissioned in compliance with arms control agreements, which address the maximum range of ICBMs and prohibit orbital or fractional-orbital weapons. The following nations currently have operational ICBM systems: [[Russia]], the [[United States]], [[France]] [http://www.nrdc.org/nuclear/nudb/datab16.asp], the [[UK]], and [[People's Republic of China|China]]. [[Pakistan]] has IRBMs but its ICBMs are under Research and Development see [[Pakistan and weapons of mass destruction#Missiles|Pakistan's ballistic missiles]].
[[India]] has IRBMs but is developing ICBMs, see [[India and weapons of mass destruction#Missiles|ballistic missiles of India]].
In [[2002]], the United States and Russia agreed in the [[SORT]] treaty to reduce their deployed stockpiles to not more than 2,200 warheads each.
== Flight phases ==
The following flight phases can be distinguished:
*boost phase - 3 to 4 minutes (for a [[solid rocket]] shorter than for a [[Liquid rocket propellants|liquid-propellant rocket]]); altitude at the end of this phase is 150 -200 km, typical burn-out speed is 7 km/s
*midcourse phase - ca. 25 minutes - [[suborbital flight]] in an [[elliptic orbit]], i.e. the orbit is part of an [[ellipse]] with vertical major axis; the [[apogee]] (halfway the midcourse phase) is at an altitude of typically ca. 1200 km; the [[semi-major axis]] is between one half of the radius of the Earth and the radius; the projection of the orbit on the Earth's surface is a [[great circle]] - the missile may release several independent warheads, and penetration aids such as metallic-coated balloons, aluminum [[Chaff (radar countermeasure)|chaff]], and full-scale warhead [[decoy]]s
*[[reentry]] phase (starting at an altitude of 100 km) - 2 minutes - impact is at a speed of up to 4 km/s (for early ICBMs less than 1 km/s).
See also [[Missile Defense Agency]], [[countermeasure]].
== History ==
The [[progenitor]] of the ICBM was the German A9/10, which was never developed but only proposed by [[Wernher von Braun]]. The [[progenitor]] of the IRBM was the German [[V-2 rocket|V2]] (Vergeltung, or "vengeance") rocket designed by von Braun that used liquid propellant and an inertial guidance system. It was launched from a mobile launcher in order to make it less susceptible to Allied air attacks. Following World War 2 von Braun and his lead scientist went to work directly for the US Army through [[Operation Paperclip]] developing the V2 into the [[Redstone]] [[IRBM]] and [[Jupiter IRBM]]. Due to treaty agreements the US was able to base these IRBMs in countries close to the [[USSR]] within strategic range. The USSR had no similar territory in the 1950s so under the direction of [[Sergei Korolev]] a crash programme to develop an ICBM began which at one stage consumed 5% of the entire Soviet military budget. Korolev was given access to captured V2 materials but evolved a distinct design, the [[R-7 rocket|R-7]], that was declared 'operational' in 1957. Competition between the US armed services meant that each force developed its own ICBM programme, slowing progress. The US's first ICBM was the [[Atlas (rocket)|Atlas]], operational in 1959. Both the R7 and Atlas required a large launch facility making them vulnerable to attack and could not be kept in a ready state. Early ICBMs formed the basis of many space launch systems. Examples include: [[Atlas (rocket)|Atlas]], [[Redstone rocket]], [[Titan (rocket family)|Titan]], [[R-7 rocket|R-7]], and [[Proton (rocket)|Proton]], which was derived from the earlier ICBMs but never deployed as an ICBM. The [[UK]] built its own ICBM [[Black Knight (rocket)|Black Knight]] but it was never made operational due to the difficulty of finding a launch site away from population centers. Under the direction of [[Robert McNamara]] the US initiated the [[LGM-30 Minuteman]], [[Polaris ballistic missile|Polaris]] and [[Skybolt]] solid fuel ICBMs. Modern ICBMs tend to be smaller than their ancestors (due to increased accuracy and smaller and lighter warheads) and use solid fuels, making them less useful as orbital launch vehicles. Deployment of these systems was governed by the strategic theory of [[Mutually Assured Destruction]].
In the 1970s development began of [[Anti-ballistic missile|Anti-Ballistic Missile]] Systems by both the US and USSR but these were restricted by treaty in order to preserve the value of the existing ICBM systems. President [[Ronald Reagan]] launched the [[Strategic Defense Initiative]] as well as the [[MX]] and [[Midgetman]] ICBM programmes. This led to the agreement of a series of [[Strategic Arms Reduction Treaty]] negotiations.
Countries in the early stages of developing ICBMs have all used liquid propellants for simplicity's sake.
== Modern ICBMs ==
Modern ICBMs typically carry [[multiple independently targetable reentry vehicle]]s (''MIRVs''), each of which carries a separate [[nuclear weapon|nuclear]] warhead, allowing a single missile to hit multiple targets. MIRV was an outgrowth of the rapidly shrinking size and weight of modern warheads and the Strategic Arms Limitation Treaties which imposed limitations on the number of launch vehicles ([[SALT I]] and [[SALT II]]). It has also proved to be an "easy answer" to proposed deployments of [[Anti-ballistic missile|ABM]] systems – it is far less expensive to add more warheads to an existing missile system than to build an ABM system capable of shooting down the additional warheads; hence, most ABM system proposals have been judged to be impractical. The only operational ABM systems were deployed in the 1970s, the US Safeguard ABM facility was located in North Dakota and was operational from 1975-1976. The USSR deployed its Galosh ABM system around Moscow in the 1970s, which remains in service.
ICBMs can be deployed from multiple platforms:
*in [[missile silo]]s, which offer some protection from military attack (including, the designers hope, some protection from a nuclear first strike)
*on [[submarine]]s: [[submarine-launched ballistic missile]]s (SLBMs); most or all SLBMs have the long range of ICBMs (as opposed to IRBMs)
*on heavy trucks; this applies to one version of the [[RT-2UTTH Topol M]] which may be deployed from a self-propelled [[Mobile launcher vehicle|mobile launcher]], capable of moving through roadless terrain, and launching a missile from any point along its route
*mobile launchers on rails; this applies, for example, to РТ-23УТТХ "Молодец" ([[RT-23 Molodets|RT-23UTTH "Molodets"]] -- SS-24 "Sсаlреl")
The last three kinds are mobile and therefore hard to find.
During storage, one of the most important features of the missile is its serviceability. One of the key features of the first [[embedded system|computer-controlled]] ICBM, the [[Minuteman missile]] was that it could quickly and easily use its computer to test itself.
In flight, a booster pushes the warhead and then falls away. Most modern boosters are [[solid rocket|solid-fueled rocket motor]]s, which can be stored easily for long periods of time. Early missiles used [[liquid rocket|liquid-fueled rocket motor]]s. Liquid-fueled ICBMs were generally not kept fueled all the time, and therefore fueling the rocket was necessary before a launch. This annoying procedure was a source of significant operational delay, and therefore might cause the rockets to be destroyed before they could be used. It also provided opponents with intelligence because it was a definite observable event that indicated the start of an attack.
Once the booster falls away, the warhead falls on an unpowered path much like an orbit, except that it hits the earth at some point. Moving in this way is stealthy. No rocket gases or other emissions occur to indicate the missile's position to defenders. Also, it is the fastest way to get from one part of the Earth to another. This increases the element of surprise. The high speed of a ballistic warhead (near 5 miles per second) also make it difficult to intercept.
Many authorities say that missiles also release aluminized balloons, electronic noisemakers, and other items intended to confuse interception devices and radars.
The high speed can cause the missile to get very hot as it reenters the atmosphere. Ballistic warheads are protected by heatshields constructed of materials such as [[pyrolytic graphite]], and in early missiles, thick [[plywood]]. Plywood approaches the strength per weight of carbon fiber/epoxy composites and chars slowly, protecting the missile.
Accuracy is crucial, because doubling the accuracy decreases the needed warhead energy by a factor of four. Accuracy is limited by the accuracy of the navigation system and the available geophysical information. Many authorities believe that most government-supported geophysical mapping initiatives such as [[GPS]], and ocean satellite altitude systems such as [[Seasat]], probably have a covert purpose to map mass concentrations and determine local gravitic anomalies, in order to improve accuracies of ballistic missiles.
Strategic missile systems are thought to use custom [[integrated circuit]]s designed to calculate [[navigation]]al [[differential equation]]s thousands to millions of times per second in order to reduce navigational errors caused by calculation alone. These circuits are usually a network of binary addition circuits that continually recalculate the missile's position. The inputs to the navigation circuit are set by a general purpose computer according to a navigational input schedule loaded into the missile before launch.
Low-flying guided [[cruise missile]]s are an alternative to [[ballistic missile]]s.
== Specific missiles ==
=== Land-based ICBMs and cruise missiles ===
The US Air Force currently operates just over 500 ICBMs at around 15 missile complexes located primarily in the northern Rocky Mountain states and the Dakotas. These are of the [[LGM-30 Minuteman]] III and [[Peacekeeper missile|Peacekeeper]] ICBM variants. Peacekeeper missiles were phased out in 2005[http://www.af.mil/news/story.asp?storyID=123011845]. All USAF [[Minuteman II]] missiles have been destroyed in accordance to START, and their launch silos have been sealed or sold to the public. To comply with the [[START II]] most US multiple independently targetable reentry vehicles, or [[MIRV]]s, have been eliminated and replaced with single warhead missiles. However, since the abandonment of the START II treaty, the U.S. is said to be considering retaining 800 warheads on 500 missiles.[http://www.thebulletin.org/issues/nukenotes/mj04nukenote.html]
The United States Air Force awards two badges for performing duty in a nuclear missile silo. The [[Missile Badge]] is presented to commissioned officers while the [[Space and Missile Badge|Space and Missile Pin]] is awarded to silo ground and support personnel.
=== Sea-based ICBMs ===
[[Image:Trident missile image.jpg|thumb|Trident launch at sea from a Royal Navy submarine.]]
*The [[US Navy]] currently has 14 [[Ohio class submarine|''Ohio''-class]] [[SSBN]]s deployed. Each submarine is equipped with a complement of 24 Trident missiles, eight with [[Trident I]] missiles, and ten with [[Trident II]] missiles (336 missiles total).
*The [[French Navy]] constantly maintains at least four active units, relying on two classes of nuclear-powered ballistic submarines ([[SSBN]]): the older [[Redoutable class submarine|''Redoutable'' class]], which are being progressively decommissioned, and the newer [[Triomphant class submarine|''Triomphant'' class]]. These carry 16 [[M45 SLBM|M45]] missiles with TN75 warheads, and are scheduled to be upgraded to [[M51 SLBM|M51]] nuclear missile around 2010.
*The UK's [[Royal Navy]] has four [[Vanguard class submarine]]s, each armed with 16 Trident II SLBMs.
*[[China]]'s [[People's Liberation Army Navy]] has one [[Xia class submarine]] with 12 single-warhead JL-1 [[SLBM]]s. The PLAN is also developing the new Type 094 [[SSBN]] that will have up to 16 [[JL-2]] SLBMs (possibly [[MIRV]]), which are also in development.
=== Current and former US ballistic missiles ===
*[[Atlas (rocket)|Atlas]] (SM-65, CGM-16) former ICBM launched from silo, the rocket is now used for other purposes
*[[Titan I]] (SM-68, HGM-25A)
*[[Titan II]] (SM-68B, LGM-25C) - former ICBM launched from silo, the rocket is now used for other purposes
*[[Minuteman missile|Minuteman I]] (SM-80, LGM-30A/B, HSM-80)
*[[Minuteman missile|Minuteman II]] (LGM-30F)
*[[Minuteman missile|Minuteman III]] (LGM-30G) - launched from silo - as of [[June 28]], [[2004]], there are 517 Minuteman III missiles in active inventory
*[[LG-118A Peacekeeper]] / MX (LG-118A, MX) - silo-based; 29 missiles were on alert at the beginning of 2004; all are to be removed from service by 2005.
*[[Midgetman missile|Midgetman]] - has never been operational - launched from mobile launcher
*[[Polaris missile|Polaris]] A1, A2, A3 - (UGM-27/A/B/C) former SLBM
*[[Poseidon missile|Poseidon]] C3 - (UGM-73) former SLBM
*[[Trident missile|Trident]] - (UGM-93A/B) SLBM - Trident II (D5) was first deployed in 1990 and is planned to be deployed past 2020.
=== Soviet/Russian ===
Specific types of Soviet/Russian ICBMs include:
*[[SS-6]] SAPWOOD / R-7 / 8K71
*[[SS-7]] SADDLER / [[R-16]]
*[[SS-8]] SASIN / R9
*[[SS-9]] SCARP
*[[SS-11]] SEGO
*[[SS-17]] SPANKER
*[[SS-18]] SATAN / R-36M2 / Voivode
*[[SS-19]] STILLETO
*[[SS-24]] SCALPEL / RT-23
*[[SS-25]] SICKLE / Topol
*SS-27 / [[Topol-M]]
=== People's Republic of China ===
Specific types of Chinese ICBMs called Dong Feng ("East Wind").
*[[DF-3]] - cancelled. Program name transferred to a MRBM.
*[[DF-5]] [[CSS-4]] - silo, 12,000km range (replaced now with DF-5A 13,000km)
*[[DF-6]] - cancelled
*[[DF-22]] - cancelled by 1995.
*[[DF-31]] [[CSS-9]] - silo and road mobile, 8,000km range (DF-31A 10,000km)
*[[DF-41]] [[CSS-X-10]] - in development.
== Ballistic missile submarines ==
Specific types of [[ballistic missile]] [[submarine]]s include:
*[[George Washington class submarine|''George Washington'' class]]
*[[Ethan Allen class submarine|''Ethan Allen'' class]]
*[[Lafayette class submarine|''Lafayette'' class]]
*[[Benjamin Franklin class submarine|''Benjamin Franklin'' class]]
*[[Ohio class submarine|''Ohio'' class]]
*[[Resolution class submarine|''Resolution'' class]]
*[[Vanguard class submarine|''Vanguard'' class]]
*[[Typhoon class submarine|''Typhoon'' class]]
*[[Delta IV class submarine|''Delta IV'' class]]
*[[Redoutable class submarine|''Redoutable'' class]]
*[[Triomphant class submarine|''Triomphant'' class]]
*[[Xia class submarine|''Xia'' class]]
*[[List of NATO reporting names for ballistic missile submarines|Additional Soviet/Russian ballistic missile submarines]]
== See also ==
* [[United States and weapons of mass destruction]]
* [[Russia and weapons of mass destruction]]
* [[China and weapons of mass destruction]]
* [[France and weapons of mass destruction]]
* [[SLBM]]
* [[Anti-ballistic missile]]
* [[Anti-Ballistic Missile Treaty]]
* [[Atmospheric reentry]]
* [[nuclear disarmament]]
* [[nuclear navy]]
* [[nuclear warfare]]
* ''[[Force de frappe]]''
* [[submarine]]
* [[Fractional Orbital Bombardment System]]
* [[Strategic triad]]
* [[Air Force Space Command]]
* [[ICBM address]]
== External links ==
*[http://es.rice.edu/projects/Poli378/Nuclear/f04.stratg_invent.html Estimated Strategic Nuclear Weapons Inventories (September 2004)]
* [http://www.fas.org/nuke/guide/usa/icbm/index.html Intercontinental Ballistic and Cruise Missiles]
{{Missile types}}
{{airlistbox}}
[[Category:Intercontinental ballistic missiles]]
[[cs:Mezikontinentální balistická raketa]]
[[de:Interkontinentalrakete]]
[[es:Misil balístico intercontinental]]
[[it:Missile balistico intercontinentale]]
[[ms:Peluru berpandu balistik jarak benua]]
[[ja:大陸間弾道ミサイル]]
[[pl:Międzykontynentalny pocisk balistyczny]]
[[ru:Межконтинентальная баллистическая ракета]]
[[sk:Medzikontinentálna balistická raketa]]
[[sl:Medcelinska balistična raketa]]
[[fi:ICBM]]
[[sv:Interkontinental ballistisk missil]]
Irish Sessions
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#REDIRECT [[Irish traditional music session]]
Irish traditional music session
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{{merge|Pub session}}
'''Irish traditional music sessions''' are informal gatherings at which people play [[Irish traditional music]]. The general session scheme is that someone starts a tune, and those who know it join in. Good session etiquette requires not playing if one does not know the tune, and waiting until a tune one knows comes along.
Typically, the first tune is followed by another two or three tunes in a ''set''. The art of putting together a set is hard to put into words, but the tunes must flow from one to another in terms of key and melodic structure, without being so similar as to all sound the same. The tunes of a set will usually all be of the same sort, i.e. all jigs or all reels, although on rare occasions and amongst a more skilled group of players a complementary tune of a different sort will be included, such as a slip jig (9/8) amongst the jigs (6/8). Although bands sometimes arrange sets of reels and jigs together, this is all but unheard of in an Irish session context.
Some sets are specific to a locale, or even to a single session, whilst others, like the "Coleman set" of reels ("The Tarboulton"/"The Longford Collector"/The Sailor's Bonnet"), represent longstanding combinations that have been played together for decades. Sets are sometimes thrown together ''ad hoc'', which sometimes works brilliantly and sometimes fails on the spot.
After the set ends, someone will usually starts another. Most often there are more-or-less recognized session leaders; sometimes there are no leaders. At times a song will be sung or a slow air played by a single musican between sets.
Sessions are often held in [[pub]]s (with the hope that listeners will buy drink for the musicians) and everyone who is able to play Irish music is welcome, within limits; this can be problematic when non-Irish musicians encounter a session and imagine that they may "jam" without knowing a single tune or even having a clear idea of what traditional music is, or when some over-enthusiastic neophyte shows up with a bodhrán, guitar, pair of spoons, or some other instrument chosen because "it's easy to play." A pub owner might have one or two musicians paid to come regularly in order for the session to have a base. Sunday afternoons and weekday nights (especially Tuesday and Wednesday) are common times for sessions to be scheduled, on the theory that these are the least likely times for dances and concerts to be held, and therefore the times that professional musicians will be most able to show.
Sessions can be held in homes or at various public places in addition to pubs; often at a festival sessions will be got together in the beer tent or in the vendor's booth of a music-loving craftsman or dealer. When a particularly large musical event "takes over" an entire village, spontaneous sessions may erupt on the street corners.
The objective in a session is not to provide music for an audience of passive listeners; although the ''punters'' (non-playing attendees) often come for the express purpose of listening, the music is most of all for the musicians themselves. This is why, as a general rule, requesting a particular song or tune of the players is considered rude (quite aside from the fact that most Irish traditional musicians have never learnt "Misty" or "Free Bird"). The session is an experience that's shared, not a performance that's bought and sold.
In his "Field Guide to the Irish Music Session," Barry Foy defines a session as:
<blockquote>
''...a gathering of Irish traditional musicians for the purpose of celebrating their common interest in the music by playing it together in a relaxed, informal setting, while in the process generally beefing up the mystical cultural mantra that hums along uninterruptedly beneath all manifestations of Irishness worldwide.''</blockquote>
The sessions are a key aspect of traditional music; some say it is the main sphere in which the music is formulated and innovated. Further, the sessions enable young musicians to practice in a group.
Socially, sessions (Seisiún in Gaelic) have often been compared to an evening of playing card games, where the conversation and cameraderie are an essential component. In many rural communities in Ireland, sessions are an integral part of community life.
Sessions are an excellent way to witness the real, amorphous identity of Irish traditional tunes.
== See also ==
* [[List of Irish session venues]]
* [[Irish traditional music]]
* [[Pub session]]
{{ireland-stub}}
{{music-stub}}
Insect
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{{Taxobox
| color = pink
| name = Insects
| image = Hymenoptere2.jpg
| image_width = 300px
| image_caption = [[Honeybee]] (order [[Hymenoptera]])
| regnum = [[Animal]]ia
| phylum = [[Arthropod]]a
| subphylum = [[Hexapoda]]
| classis = '''Insecta'''
| classis_authority = [[Carolus Linnaeus|Linnaeus]], 1758
| subdivision_ranks = Classes & Orders
| subdivision =
See [[#Taxonomy|taxonomy]]
}}
'''Insects''' are [[invertebrate]] [[animal]]s of the Class '''Insecta''', the largest and (on land) most widely-distributed [[taxon]] within the [[Phylum]] [[Arthropod]]a. Insects comprise the most diverse group of animals on the earth, with around 925,000 [[species]] described—more than all other animal groups combined: "Indeed, in no one of her works has Nature more fully displayed her exhaustless ingenuity," [[Pliny's Natural History|Pliny the Elder]] exclaimed. Insects may be found in nearly all environments on the planet, although only a small number of species have adapted to life in the [[ocean]]s where [[crustacea]]ns tend to predominate.
[[Image:Zorak-Mantis.png|thumb|none|200px|[[Chinese mantis]]]]
The exopterygote part of the [[Neoptera]] are sometimes divided into Orthopteroida (cerci present) and Hemipteroida (cerci absent), also called lower and higher Exopterygota.
There are approximately 5,000 [[Odonata|dragonfly]] species, 2,000 [[Mantodea|praying mantis]], 20,000 [[orthoptera|grasshopper]], 170,000 [[lepidoptera|butterfly and moth]], 120,000 [[Diptera|fly]], 82,000 [[hemiptera|true bug]], 350,000 [[beetle]], and 110,000 [[hymenoptera|bee and ant]] species. Estimates of the total number of current species, including those not yet known to science, range from two to thirty million, with most authorities favoring a figure midway between these extremes. The study of insects is called [[entomology]].
[[Image:Diptera 02gg.jpg|thumb|right|260px|[[Green bottle fly]]]]
==Relationship to other arthropods==
A few smaller groups with similar body plans, such as springtails ([[Collembola]]), are united with the insects in the Subphylum [[Hexapoda]]. But this Subphylum is proved to be artificial as springtails are no longer considered as relatives. They have most likely a different origin. This may also be that case for the rest of the members of the Entognatha; [[Protura]] and [[Diplura]]. The true insects (that is, species classified in the Class Insecta) are distinguished from all other arthropods in part by having '''ectognathous''', or exposed, mouthparts and eleven (11) abdominal segments. Their mouthparts are also the reason why they are called Ectognatha. Most species, but by no means all, have [[wing]]s as adults. Terrestrial arthropods, such as [[centipede]]s, [[millipede]]s, [[scorpion]]s and [[spider]]s, are sometimes confused with insects due to the fact that both have similar body plans, sharing (as do all arthropods) a jointed exoskeleton.
==Morphology and development==
[[Image:robal.png|left|300px|thumb|Insect anatomy <br>
'''A'''- Head '''B'''- Thorax '''C'''- Abdomen <br/>
1. antenna<br/>
2. ocelli (lower)<br/>
3. ocelli (upper)<br/>
4. compound eye<br/>
5. brain (cerebral ganglia)<br/>
6. prothorax<br/>
7. dorsal artery<br/>
8. [[trachea]]l tubes (trunk with [[spiracle]])<br/>
9. mesothorax<br/>
10. metathorax<br/>
11. first wing<br/>
12. second wing<br/>
13. mid-gut (stomach)<br/>
14. heart<br/>
15. ovary<br/>
16. hind-gut (intestine, rectum & anus)<br/>
17. anus<br/>
18. vagina<br/>
19. nerve chord (abdominal ganglia)<br/>
20. Malpighian tubes<br/>
21. pillow<br/>
22. claws<br/>
23. [[arthropod tarsus|tarsus]]<br/>
24. [[arthropod tibia|tibia]]<br/>
25. [[arthropod femur|femur]]<br/>
26. [[arthropod trochanter|trochanter]]<br/>
27. fore-gut (crop, gizzard)<br/>
28. thoracic ganglion<br/>
29. [[arthropod coxa|coxa]]<br/>
30. salivary gland<br/>
31. subesophageal ganglion<br/>
32. mouthparts<br/>]]
Insects range in size from less than a millimeter to over 18 centimeters (some [[walkingstick]]s) in length. Insects possess segmented bodies supported by an [[exoskeleton]], a hard outer covering made mostly of [[chitin]]. The body is divided into a head, a [[thorax]], and an [[abdomen]]. The head supports a pair of sensory [[Antenna (biology)|antennae]], a pair of [[compound eye]]s, and a mouth. The thorax has [[6 (number)|six]] [[leg]]s (one pair per segment) and wings (if present in the species). The abdomen, originally made up of eleven segments, has [[Excretion|excretory]] and reproductive structures.
Their nervous system can be divided into a brain and a ventral nerve cord. As the head capsule are made up of six anterior body segments, the brain reflects this in its anatomy in containing six pairs of [[ganglia]]. The first three pairs are fused into the brain, while the three following pairs are fused into a structure called the subesophageal ganglion.
The thorax pairs have one ganglion on each side, which are connected into a pair, one pair of ganglia in each thoraic segment. This arrangement is also found in the abdomen, but here there is one pair of ganglia in the first eight segments only, that is, three thoraic and eight abdominal paired ganglia.
Many species of insects have since then reduced this number by losing or fusing some of the abdominal ganglions and/or fusing those in the thorax. Some cockroach have just six ganglia in the abdomen, whereas the wasp ''Vespa crabro'' have reduced the number further with only two in the thorax and three abdominal. And then finally insects like the well known housefly have fused all the body ganglions into on big thoraic ganglion.
Insects have a complete digestive system. That is, their digestive system consists basically of a tube that runs from mouth to anus, contrasting with the incomplete digestive systems found in many simpler invertebrates. The excretory system consists of [[Malpighian tubule]]s for the removal of nitrogenous wastes and the hindgut for [[osmoregulation]]. At the end of the hindgut, insects are able to reabsorb water along with potassium and sodium ions. Therefore, insects don't usually excrete water with their feces, allowing storage of water in the body. This process of reabsorption enables them to withstand hot, dry environments.
Most insects have two pairs of wings located on the second and third thoracic segments. Insects are the only invertebrate group to have developed flight, and this has played an important part in their success. The winged insects, and their wingless relatives, make up the subclass [[Pterygota]]. Insect flight is not very well understood, relying heavily on turbulent atmospheric effects. In more primitive insects, flight tends to rely heavily on direct flight muscles, which act upon the wing structure. More advanced flyers, which make up the [[Neoptera]], in general, have wings that can be folded over their back, keeping them out of the way when not in use. In these insects, the wings are powered mainly by indirect-flight muscles that move the wings by stressing the thorax wall. These muscles are able to contract when stretched without nervous impulses, allowing the wings to beat much faster than would be otherwise possible.
Their outer skeleton called the cuticle is made up of two layers; the epicuticle which is a thin and waxy water resistant outer layer and contains no chitin, and another layer under it called procuticle. This is chitinous and much thicker than the first one, and who can be divided into two new layers. The first one is named the exocuticle and the second, last and deepest one is the endocuticle. The very tough and flexible endocuticle is built like numerous layers, made of fibres of chitin and proteins, crossing each others in a sandwich pattern.
Insects use [[trachea]]l respiration in order to transport oxygen through their bodies. Openings on the surface of the body called [[spiracle]]s lead to the tubular tracheal system. Air reaches internal tissues via this system of branching trachea. There are never more than one pair of spiracles per segment. And never more than two pairs of spiracles on thorax (mesothorax and metathorax), or more than eight pairs on the amdomen (the first eight segments). Many higher insects have reduced the number of spiracles; the hoverflies have lost all the spiracles on their abdomen. There is a limit to the pressure that the walls of the tracheal tubes can withstand without collapsing, even if they are stiffened with bands of chitin, which is one of the reasons why insects are relatively small.
The spiracles are equipped with muscle controlled valves, enabling the insects to open and close them. By closing them, they can avoid drowning in water, or prevent moisture from escaping their body by opening them only when new air is needed. With little activity, the spiracles are often partially closed. To stop dust and other unwelcome small particles from entering their trachea system when inhaling, the spiracles are blocked with hair that filters the particles away.
There are some species of insects, like members of [[Chironomidae]], commonly called "blood worms," that contain true respiratory pigments such as [[hemoglobin]] in their larval stage. Here the trachea are often reduced as their body can absorb oxygen directly from the water, allowing them to live in bottom mud where the oxygen levels are low.
Three pairs of the spiracles in water bugs are covered by a pressure-sensitive membrane. These work in much the same way as the human [[inner ear]], and make it possible to know their position in the water.
The last abdominal spiracle and associated trachea of caterpillars in the Lepidoptera have also been modified; the trachea of the eighth segment are modified into what can be called a trachea lung, as it has adapted to hemocyte gas exchange. Short [[tracheole]]s from this trachea ends in knots within the tracheole cell basement membrane. Since they do not supply any cellular tissue, it seems most likely that they are supplying the hemocytes with oxygen.
The [[Madagascar hissing cockroach]] expels air from certain spiracles to create a loud hissing sound.
A diffuse tissue of cells found through out the hemocoel of insects, most of all in the abdomen, is called the fat body. Energy storage and metabolic processes are among its main functions. It is also the closest insects comes to a liver.
The [[circulatory system]] of insects, like that of other arthropods, is open: The heart pumps the [[hemolymph]] through arteries to open spaces surrounding the internal organs; when the heart relaxes, the hemolymph seeps back into the heart.
Like some other invertebrates, insects cannot synthesise cholesterol and must receive it from the diet. With a very few exceptions, they also depends on long-chain fatty acids in their diet, especially 18-carbon chains. A lack of these fatty acids will affect ther development in a negative way, causing such things as longer time to mature and deformed adults.
We can also find [[polyembryony]] in some insects. A single fertilized egg from polyembryonic parastic wasps can actually divide into literally thousands of separate embryos.
[[image:insect.anartia.amathea.arp.750pix.jpg|thumb|right|200px|A [[butterfly]] is the adult stage of an insect with complete metamorphosis. This species is ''[[Anartia amathea]]''.]]
Most insects hatch from [[egg (biology)|eggs]], others are [[ovoviviparous]] or [[viviparous]], and all undergo a series of [[moult]]s as they develop and grow in size. This manner of growth is necessitated by the exoskeleton. Moulting is a process by which the individual escapes the confines of the exoskeleton in order to increase in size, then grows a new outer covering. In most types of insects, the young, called '''nymphs''', are basically similar in form to the adults (an example is the grasshopper), though wings are not developed until the adult stage. This is called ''incomplete [[metamorphosis (biology)|metamorphosis]]''. ''Complete metamorphosis'' distinguishes the [[Endopterygota]], which includes many of the most successful insect groups. In these species, an egg hatches to produce a '''[[larva]]''', which is generally worm-like in form, and can be divided into five different forms; eruciform (caterpillar-like), scarabaeiform (grublike), campodeiform (elongated, flattened, and active), elateriform (wireworm-like) and vermiform (maggot-like). The larva grows and eventually becomes a '''[[pupa]]''', a stage sealed within a [[cocoon]] or [[chrysalis]] in some species. There are three types of pupae; obtect, exarate and coarctate. In the pupal stage, the insect undergoes considerable change in form to emerge as an adult, or '''[[imago]]'''. Butterflies are an example of an insect that undergoes complete metamorphosis. Some insects have even evolved [[hypermetamorphosis]]. Other development traits are [[haplodiploidy]], [[polymorphism]], [[paedomorphosis]] (metathetely and prothetely), [[sexual dimorphism]], [[parthenogenesis]] and more rarely [[hermaphroditism]].
==Behavior==
[[Image:Flies around 60 watt light globe.jpg|thumb|250px|left|Flies attracted to a light in summer]]
Many insects possess very refined organs of [[sense|perception]]. In some cases, their senses can be more capable than humans. For example, bees can see in the [[ultraviolet]] spectrum, and male moths have a specialized sense of smell that enables them to detect the [[pheromone]]s of female moths over distances of many kilometers.
Many insects also have a well-developed number sense, especially among the solitary wasps. The mother wasp lays her eggs in individual cells and provides each egg with a number of live caterpillars on which the young feed when hatched. Some species of wasp always provide five, others twelve, and others as high as twenty-four caterpillars per cell. The number of caterpillars is different among species, but it is always the same for each sex of eggs. The male solitary wasp in the genus ''Eumenus'' is smaller than the female, so the mother supplies him with only five caterpillars; the larger female receives ten caterpillars in her cell. She can in other words distinguish between both the numbers five and ten in the caterpillars she is providing and which cell contains a male or a female.
[[Social insect]]s, such as the [[ant]] and the [[bee]], are the most familiar species of [[Eusociality|eusocial]] animal. They live together in large well-organized colonies that are so tightly integrated and genetically similar that the colonies are sometimes considered [[superorganism]]s.
==Roles in the environment and human society==
[[Image:Aedes aegypti biting human.jpg|thumb|right|''[[Aedes aegypti]]'', a parasite, and vector of [[dengue]] and [[yellow fever]]]]
Many insects are considered pests by humans. Insects commonly regarded as pests include those that are parasitic ([[mosquito]]es, [[lice]], [[bedbug]]s), transmit diseases ([[mosquito]]s, [[fly|flies]]), damage structures ([[termite]]s), or destroy agricultural goods ([[locust]]s, [[weevil]]s). Many [[entomologist]]s are involved in various forms of [[pest (animal)|pest]] control, often using [[insecticides]], but more and more relying on methods of [[biocontrol]].
Although pest insects attract the most attention, many insects are beneficial to the [[natural environment|environment]] and to [[human]]s. Some [[pollination|pollinate]] [[flowering plant]]s (for example [[wasp]]s, [[bee]]s, [[butterfly|butterflies]], [[ant]]s). Pollination is a trade between plants that need to reproduce, and pollinators that receive rewards of [[nectar (plant)|nectar]] and [[pollen]]. A serious environmental problem today is the [[pollinator decline|decline of populations of pollinator]] insects, and a number of species of insects are now cultured primarily for [[pollination management]] in order to have sufficient pollinators in the field, [[orchard]] or [[greenhouse]] at [[bloom]] time.
Insects also produce useful substances such as [[honey]], [[wax]], [[lacquer]] and [[silk]]. [[Honeybee]]s, (pictured above) have been cultured by humans for thousands of years for honey, although contracting for crop pollination is becoming more significant for [[beekeeper]]s. The [[silkworm]] has greatly affected human history, as [[Silk Road|silk-driven trade]] established relationships between China and the rest of the world. [[Fly]] larvae ([[maggot]]s) were formerly used to treat wounds to prevent or stop [[gangrene]], as they would only consume dead flesh. This treatment is finding modern usage in some hospitals. Insect larvae of various kinds are also commonly used as fishing bait.
In some parts of the world, insects are used for human food ("[[Entomophagy]]"), while being a [[taboo]] in other places. There are proponents of developing this use to provide a major source of [[protein]] in human [[nutrition]]. Since it is impossible to entirely eliminate pest insects from the human food chain, insects already are present in many foods, especially grains. Most people do not realize that [[food laws]] in many countries do not prohibit insect parts in food, but rather limit the quantity. According to [[cultural materialism|cultural materialist]] anthropologist [[Marvin Harris]], the eating of insects is taboo in cultures that have protein sources that require less work, like farm birds or cattle.
[[Image:A lubber grasshopper eats a piece of grass.jpg|thumb|150px|left|Lubber grasshopper]]
Many insects, especially [[beetle]]s, are [[scavenger]]s, feeding on dead animals and fallen trees, [[recycling]] the biological materials into forms found useful by other [[organism]]s. The ancient [[Egyptian religion]] adored beetles and represented them as [[scarabeum]]s.
Although mostly unnoticed by most humans, the most useful of all insects are [[insectivore]]s, those that feed on other insects. Many insects, such as [[grasshopper]]s, can potentially reproduce so quickly that they could literally bury the earth in a single season. However, there are hundreds of other insect species that feed on grasshopper eggs, and some that feed on grasshopper adults. This role in ecology is usually assumed to be primarily one of [[bird]]s, but insects, though less glamorous, are much more significant. For any pest insect one can name, there is a species of wasp that is either a [[parasitoid]] or [[predator]] upon that pest, and plays a significant role in controlling it.
Human attempts to control pests by insecticides can backfire, because important but unrecognized insects already helping to control pest populations are also killed by the poison, leading eventually to population explosions of the pest species.
==Taxonomy==
<div style="font-size: 85%">
'''Subclass:''' [[Apterygota]]
:'''Orders'''
:* [[Archaeognatha]] (Bristletails)
:* [[Thysanura]] (Silverfish)
:* [[Monura]] - ''extinct''
'''Subclass:''' [[Pterygota]]
:*'''Infraclass:''' "[[Paleoptera]]" (paraphyletic)
::'''Orders'''
::* [[Ephemeroptera]] (mayflies)
::* [[Palaeodictyoptera]] - ''extinct''
::* [[Megasecoptera]] - ''extinct''
::* [[Archodonata]] - ''extinct''
::* [[Diaphanopterodea]] - ''extinct''
::* [[Protodonata]] - ''extinct''
::* [[Odonata]] ([[dragonfly|dragonflies]] and [[damselfly|damselflies]])
:*'''Infraclass:''' [[Neoptera]]
::* '''Superorder:''' [[Exopterygota]]
:::'''Orders'''
::* [[Caloneurodea]] - ''extinct''
::* [[Titanoptera]] - ''extinct''
::* [[Protorthoptera]] - ''extinct''
:::'''Polyneoptera'''
::* [[Grylloblattodea]] (ice-crawlers)
::* [[Mantophasmatodea]] (gladiators)
::* [[Plecoptera]] (stoneflies)
::* [[Embioptera]] (webspinners)
::* [[Zoraptera]] (angel insects)
::* [[Dermaptera]] (earwigs)
:::''' Orthopteroidea '''
::* [[Orthoptera]] ([[grasshopper]]s, etc)
::* [[Phasmatodea]] (walking sticks)
:::'''Dictyoptera'''
::* [[Blattodea]] (cockroaches)
::* [[Isoptera]] (termites)
::* [[Mantodea]] (mantids)
:::'''Paraneoptera'''
::* [[Psocoptera]] (booklice, barklice)
::* [[Thysanoptera]] (thrips)
::* [[Phthiraptera]] ([[lice]])
::* [[Hemiptera]] (true [[bug (disambiguation)|bug]]s)
:* '''Superorder:''' [[Endopterygota]]
::'''Orders'''
::* [[Hymenoptera]] ([[ant]]s, [[bee]]s, etc.)
::* [[beetle|Coleoptera]] (beetles)
::* [[Strepsiptera]] (twisted-winged parasites)
:::'''Neuropteroidea'''
::* [[Raphidioptera]] (snakeflies)
::* [[Megaloptera]] ([[alderfly|alderflies]], etc.)
::* [[Neuroptera]] (net-veined insects)
:::'''Mecopteroidea'''
::* [[Mecoptera]] (scorpionflies, etc.)
::* [[Siphonaptera]] ([[flea]]s)
::* [[Diptera]] (true [[fly|flies]])
::* [[Protodiptera]] ''extinct''
:::'''Amphiesmenoptera'''
::* [[Trichoptera]] ([[caddisfly|caddisflies]])
::* [[Lepidoptera]] ([[butterfly|butterflies]], [[moth]]s)
::'''Incertae sedis'''
::* [[Glosselytrodea]] ''extinct''
::* [[Miomoptera]] - ''extinct''
</div>
As seen above, insects are divided into two subclasses; Apterygota and Pterygota (flying insects), but this could relatively soon change. Apterygota is made up of two orders; Archaeognatha (Bristletails) and Thysanura (Silverfish). In the suggested classification, the Archaeognatha makes up the Monocondylia while Thysanura and Pterygota are grouped together as Dicondylia. It is even possible that the Thysanura itself are not [[monophyletic]], making the family Lepidotrichidae a sister group to the Dicondylia (Pterygota + the rest of the Thysanura).
Also within the infraclass Neoptera we will probably see some re-organization in not too long. Today Neoptera is divided into the superorders Exopterygota and Endopterygota. But even if the Endopterygota are monophyletic, the Exopterygota seems to be [[paraphyletic]], and can be separated into smaller groups; Paraneoptera, Dictyoptera, Orthopteroidea and to other groups (Grylloblattodea + Mantophasmatodea and Plecoptera +
Zoraptera + Dermaptera). Phasmatodea and Embioptera has been suggested to form Eukinolabia, while Strepsiptera and Diptera are sometimes grouped together in Halteria. Paraneoptera has turned out to be more closeley related to Endopterygota than to the rest of the Exopterygota. It is not still clear how closley related the remaining Exopterygote groups are and if they belongs together in a larger unit. Only more research will give the answear.
==Evolution==
[[Image:Insect antennae.jpg|thumb|right|100px|Evolution has produced astonishing variety in insects. Pictured are some of the possible shapes of [[Antenna (biology)|antennae]].]]
{{Main|Insect evolution}}
The relationships of insects to other animal groups remain unclear.
Although more traditionally grouped with millipedes and centipedes, evidence has emerged favoring closer [[evolution]]ary ties with the crustaceans. In the [[Pancrustacea]] theory insects, together with [[Remipedia]] and [[Malacostraca]], make up a natural [[clade]].
Apart from some tantalizing [[Devonian]] fragments, insects first appear suddenly in the fossil record at the very beginning of the Late [[Carboniferous]] period, Early [[Bashkirian|Bashkirian age]], about 350 million years ago. Insect species were already diverse and highly specialized by this time, with fossil evidence reflecting the presence of more than half a dozen different orders. Thus, the first insects probably emerged earlier in the Carboniferous period, or even in the preceding Devonian. Research to discover these earliest insect ancestors in the fossil record continues.
The origin of insect flight remains obscure, since the earliest winged insects currently known appear to have been capable fliers.
Some extinct insects had an additional pair of winglets attaching to the first segment of the thorax, for a total of three pairs. So far, there is nothing that suggests that the insects were a particularly successful group of animals before they got their wings.
[[Pennsylvanian|Late Carboniferous]] and [[Cisuralian|Early Permian]] insect orders include both several current very long-lived groups and a number of Paleozoic forms. During this era, some giant dragonfly-like forms reached wingspans of 55 to 70 cm, making them far larger than any living insect. Also their nymphs must have had a very impressive size. This gigantism may have been due to higher atmospheric oxygen levels that allowed increased respiratory efficiency relative to today. The lack of flying vertebrates could have been another factor.
Most extant orders of insects developed during the [[Permian]] era that began around 270 million years ago. Many of the early groups became extinct during the [[Permian-Triassic extinction event]], the largest mass extinction in the history of the Earth, around 252 million years ago.
The remarkably successful Hymenopterans appeared in the Cretaceous but achieved their diversity more recently, in the Cenozoic. A number of highly-successful insect groups evolved in conjunction with [[flowering plants]], a powerful illustration of [[co-evolution]].
Many modern insect genera developed during the [[Cenozoic]]; insects from this period on are often found preserved in [[amber]], often in perfect condition. Such specimens are easily compared with modern species. The study of fossilized insects is called [[paleoentomology]].
==References==
*{{cite book|author=Triplehorn, Charles A. and Norman F. Johnson|title=Borror and DeLong's Introduction to the Study of Insects|edition=7th edition|year=[[2005-05-19]]|publisher=Thomas Brooks/Cole|id=ISBN 0030968356}} — a classic textbook in North America
*{{cite book|author=Grimaldi, David and Michael S. Engel|title=Evolution of the Insects|year=[[2005-05-16]]|publisher=[[Cambridge University Press]]|id=ISBN 0521821495}} — an up to date review of the evolutionary history of the insects
==Quotes==
*"''Something in the insect seems to be alien to the habits, morals, and psychology of this world, as if it had come from some other planet: more monstrous, more energetic, more insensate, more atrocious, more infernal than our own.''"
::—[[Maurice Maeterlinck]] ([[1862]]–[[1949]])
==Gallery==
<gallery>
Image:Adult citrus root weevil, Diaprepes abbreviatus.jpg|Adult citrus root [[weevil]] (''Diaprepes abbreviatus'')
Image:Ctenomorpha chronus02.jpg|A [[stick insect]] (''Ctenomorpha chronus'')
Image:Wasserläufer bei der Paarung crop.jpg|[[Water strider]] (''Gerris najas'')
Image:Aelia acuminata.JPG|Bishop's mitre [[shield bug]] (''Aelia acuminata'')
Image:Prachtlibelle-2.jpg|[[Beautiful Demoiselle]] (''Calopteryx virgo'')
Image:Forficula auricularia.jpg|Common [[Earwig]] (''Forficula auricularia'')
Image:Termite Cathedral DSC03570.JPG|Cathedral [[termite]] mound
Image:Patanga_japonica_larva.jpg|A juvenile ''Patanga japonica''
Image:Schwebfliege.jpg|A [[flower fly]], ''Episyrphus balteatus''
Image:Osmia rufa couple (aka).jpg|Red [[Mason Bee]] (''Osmia rufa'')
Image:Guepe.jpg|Wasp, drinking
Image:Aleiodes indiscretus wasp parasitizing gypsy moth caterpillar.jpg|''Aleiodes indiscretus'' parasitising a [[gypsy moth]] (''Lymantria dispar'') larva
Image:Ant on mosshill02 crop.jpg|Ant
Image:Iphiclides podalirius.jpg|[[Scarce swallowtail]] (''Iphiclides podalirius'')
Image:LeopardMoth.jpg|[[Giant Leopard Moth]] (''Ecpantheria scribonia'')
Image:Rosy Maple Moth.png|Rosy Maple Moth (''Dryocampa rubicunda'')
</gallery>
==See also==
{{Wikispecies|Insecta}}
{{Commonscat|Insecta}}
*[[Animal]]
*[[Entomology]]
*[[Invertebrate]]
*[[Prehistoric insect]]
*[[Insect flight]]
*[[image:FilmRoll-small.gif|left|Film (Xvid/ogg)]] [[:Image:Sarcophaga carnaria (Portugal2005).ogg|Cleanly flesh-fly, 4:05 minute film]] - 8MB [[xvid]] in [[ogg]] container showing a [[flesh-fly]] using its front and back pairs of legs to clean wings and head. The film runs at half speed to enable the viewer to appreciate the fast movements of the animal.
==External links==
* [http://www.cirrusimage.com/ North American Insects] A library of 4,000+ reference quality large format insect pictures. Creative Commons licensed
* [http://cmave.usda.ufl.edu/~rmankin/soundlibrary.html Bug Bytes] A reference library of digitized insect sounds.
* [http://www.insects.org/index.html INSECTS .org] A shameless promotion of insect appreciation.
* [http://www.food-insects.com/ Insects as Food] by Gene DeFoliart. Information about insects as a food resource.
* [http://www.kendall-bioresearch.co.uk/index.htm Kendall Bioresearch] Bug Index, Featured Bugs, Classification, ID, Fossils, Body-parts, Micro Views, Life Cycles, Pesticide Safety.
* [http://www.ub.es/dpep/meganeura/meganeura.htm Meganeura] Website about insect evolution and fossil record.
* [http://tolweb.org/tree?group=Insecta&contgroup=Hexapoda Tree of Life Project] – Insecta
* [http://ufbir.ifas.ufl.edu/ UF Book of Insect Records], documenting "insect champions" in different categories
* [http://bugguide.net/ BugGuide] Photographs, life history information, and identification of North American arthropods, especially insects
[[Category:Arthropods]]
[[Category:Entomology]]
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[[Image:Mg-k_Eisfall.jpg|thumb|right|Frozen [[Waterfall]] in the [[Rhön]] mountains]]
[[Image:IceBlockNearJoekullsarlon.jpg|thumb|left|A natural, 4 tonne, block of ice on a beach in [[Iceland]]]]
'''Ice''' can refer any of the 14 known solid [[phases of matter|phases]] of water. However, in non-scientific contexts, it usually describes [[ice Ih|ice I<sub>h</sub>]], which is the most abundant of these phases in [[Earth|Earth's]] [[Biosphere|biosphere]]. This type of ice is a soft, fragile, [[crystal|crystalline]] solid, which can appear transparent or an opaque bluish-white [[color]] depending on the presence of [[Impurity|impurities]] such as [[air]]. The addition of other materials such as [[soil]] may further alter appearance. The most common [[phase transition]] to [[ice Ih|ice I<sub>h</sub>]] occurs when [[liquid]] water is cooled below 0 [[Celsius|°C]] (273.15 [[Kelvin|K]], 32 [[Fahrenheit|°F]]) at [[standard atmospheric pressure]]. However, it can also [[Sublimation_%28physics%29|sublimate]] from a vapor with no intervening liquid phase such as in the formation of [[frost]]. Ice appears in varied forms such as [[hail]], [[ice cube]]s, and [[glacier|glaciers]]. It plays an important role with many meteorological phenomena. The ice caps of the polar regions are of significance for the [[global climate]] and particularly the [[water cycle]].
An unusual feature of ice frozen at a pressure of one [[Atmosphere (unit)|atmosphere]] is that the solid is some 8% less dense than liquid water. Ice has a [[density]] of 0.917 g/cm³ at 0 °C, whereas water has a density of 0.9998 g/cm³ at the same temperature. Liquid water is most dense, essentially 1.00 g/cm³, at 4 °C and becomes less dense as the water molecules begin to form the [[Hexagonal (crystal system)|hexagonal]] [[crystal]]s of [[ice crystals|ice]] as the temperature drops to 0 °C. (In fact, the word "crystal" derives from the Greek word for frost.) This is due to [[hydrogen bond]]s forming between the water molecules, which line up [[molecules]] less efficiently (in terms of volume) when water is frozen. The result of this is that ice floats on liquid water, an important factor in Earth's [[climate]]. Density of ice increases slightly with decreasing temperature (density of ice at at -180 °C (93 K) is 0.9340 g/cm³).
When ice melts, it absorbs as much heat [[energy]] (the [[heat of fusion]]) as it would take
to heat an equivalent mass of water by 80 °C, while its temperature remains a constant 0 °C.
As a crystalline solid, ice is considered a [[mineral]].
== Types of ice ==
[[Image:SnowflakesWilsonBentley.jpg|left|thumb|235px|[[Snowflake]]s by [[Wilson Bentley]], 1902]]
Everyday ice and [[snow]] is [[Hexagonal (crystal system)|hexagonal]] ice ([[ice Ih|ice I<sub>h</sub>]]). Subjected to higher pressures and varying temperatures, ice can form in roughly a dozen different phases. Only a little less stable (metastable) than I<sub>h</sub> is cubic structure ice ([[Ice Ic|I<sub>c</sub>]]). But cooling I<sub>h</sub> causes a different arrangement to form in which the protons move, [[Ice XI|XI]].
With both cooling and pressure more types exist, each being created depending on the phase diagram of ice. These are [[Ice II|II]], [[Ice III|III]], [[Ice V|V]], [[Ice VI|VI]], [[Ice VII|VII]], [[Ice VIII|VIII]], [[Ice IX|IX]], and [[Ice X|X]]. With care all these types can be recovered at ambient pressure. The types are differentiated by their crystalline structure, ordering and density. There are also two metastable phases of ice under pressure, both fully hydrogen disordered, these are [[Ice IV|IV]] and [[Ice XII|XII]]. Ice XII was discovered in 1996. As well as crystalline forms solid water can exist in amorphous states as [[amorphous solid water]] (ASW), [[low density amorphous ice]] (LDA), [[high density amorphous ice]] (HDA), [[very high density amorphous ice]] (VHDA) and [[hyperquenched glassy water]] (HGW).
[[Kurt Vonnegut]]'s novel ''[[Cat's Cradle]]'' features Ice IX as a central element of the plot, although real Ice IX does not have the properties of Vonnegut's fictional [[ice-nine]] (i.e. the ability to freeze all water on Earth with the introduction of one granule).
[[Rime Ice|Rime]] is a type of ice formed by [[fog]] freezing on cold objects. It contains a high proportion of trapped air, making it appear white rather than transparent, and giving it a [[density]] about one quarter of that of pure ice.
Ice can also form '''icicles''', similar to [[stalactite]]s in appearance, as water drips and re-freezes.
[[Clathrate hydrate]]s are forms of ice that contain gas molecules trapped within its crystal lattice. [[Pancake ice]] is a formation of ice generally created in areas with less calm conditions.
Some other substances (particularly solid forms of those usually found as fluids) are also called "ice": [[dry ice]], for instance, is a popular term for solid [[carbon dioxide]].
[[Image:Ice Harvesting on Lake St Clair Michigan circa 1905--photograph courtesy Detroit Publishing Company.jpg|left|frame|Harvesting ice on [[Lake Saint Clair (North America)|Lake Saint Clair]] in [[Michigan]], ''circa'' 1905.]]
== Human relationship with ice ==
[[Image:Yakhchal.jpg|thumb|right|An ancient ice house ([[yakhchal]]) in [[Kerman]], [[Iran]], built during the [[Middle Ages]] for storing harvested ice.]]
Ice has long been valued as a means of cooling. Until recently, the [[Hungarian Parliament]] building used ice harvested in the winter from [[Lake Balaton]] as its primary source of energy for air conditioning. [[Icehouse (building)|Icehouse]]s were used to store ice formed in the winter to make ice available year-round, and early [[refrigerator]]s were known as [[icebox]]es because they had a block of ice in them. In many cities it was not unusual to have a regular ice delivery service during the summer. The advent of artificial [[refrigeration]] technology has since made delivery of ice obsolete.
In 400 BC [[Iran]], [[Persian Empire|Persian]] engineers had already mastered the technique of storing ice in the middle of summer in the desert. The ice was brought in during the winters from nearby mountains in bulk amounts, and stored in specially designed, naturally cooled ''refrigerators'', called [[yakhchal]] (meaning ''ice storage''). This was a large underground space (up to 5000 m³) that had thick walls (at least two meters at the base) made out of a special mortar called ''sārooj'', composed of sand, clay, egg whites, lime, goat hair, and ash in specific proportions, and which was resistant to heat transfer. This mixture was thought to be completely water impenetrable. The space often had access to a [[Qanat]], and often contained a system of [[windcatcher]]s that could easily bring temperatures inside the space down to frigid levels in summer days. The ice was then used to chill treats for royalty during hot summer days.
=== Sports on ice ===
[[Image:Ice surfing.jpg|thumb|Ice surfing on the [[Żnin]] Great Lake]]
Ice also plays a role in winter recreation, in sports such as [[ice skating]], [[ice hockey]], [[ice fishing]], [[ice climbing]], [[curling]] and sled racing on [[bobsled]] and [[luge]]. A sort of sailboat on blades gives rise to iceboating.
The human quest for excitement has even led to [[ice racing]], where drivers must speed on lake ice while also controlling the skid of their vehicle (similar in some ways to [[dirt track racing]]). The sport has even been modified for [[ice rink]]s.
===Ice travel===
[[Image:IcebreakerNasa.jpg|left|thumb|Coast Guard [[icebreaker]]s near [[McMurdo Station]], February 2002.]]
Ice can also be an obstacle; for [[harbor]]s near the [[geographical pole|pole]]s, being ice-free is an important advantage, ideally all-year round. Examples are [[Murmansk]] (Russia), [[Petsamo]] (Russia, formerly Finland) and [[Vardø]]. Harbors that are not ice-free are opened up using [[icebreaker]]s.
Ice forming on [[road]]s is a dangerous winter hazard. [[Black ice]] is very difficult to see because it lacks the expected glossy surface. Whenever there is [[freezing rain]] or snow that occurs at a temperature near the melting point, it is common for ice to build up on the [[window]]s of vehicles. Driving safely requires the removal of the ice build-up. [[Ice scraper]]s are tools designed to break the ice free and clear the windows, though removing the ice can be a long, labor-intensive, and stressful process—especially when a driver ends up running late for work as a result.
Far enough below the freezing point, a thin layer of ice crystals can form on the inside surface of windows. This usually happens when a vehicle has been left alone after being driven for a while, but can happen while driving if the outside temperature is low enough. Moisture from the driver's breath is the source of water for the crystals. It is troublesome to remove this form of ice, so people often open their windows slightly when the vehicle is parked in order to let the moisture dissipate, and it is now common for cars to have rear-window [[defroster]]s to combat the problem. A similar problem can happen in homes, which is why many colder regions require [[Insulated glazing|double-pane windows]] for insulation.
[[Image:Ice_water.jpg|thumb|A glass of iced water.]]
When the outdoor temperature stays below freezing for extended periods, very thick layers of ice can form on [[lake]]s and other bodies of water (although places with flowing water require much colder temperatures). The ice can become thick enough to drive onto with [[automobile]]s and [[truck]]s. Doing this safely requires a thickness of at least 30 centimeters (one foot).
=== Other uses of ice ===
[[Image:Icicles at Big White.jpg|220px|left|Icicles at [[Big White Ski Resort]], [[Canada]].]]
*The manufacture and use of [[ice cube]]s or [[crushed ice]] is common for drinks.
*[[Pagophagia]], a type of [[pica (disorder)|pica]] eating disorder, is the compulsive consumption of ice.
*Structures and [[ice sculpture]]s are built out of large chunks of ice. The structures are mostly ornamental (as in the case with [[ice castle]]s) and not practical for long-term habitation. [[Ice hotel]]s exist on a seasonal basis in a few cold areas. [[Igloo]]s are another example of a temporary structure, made primarily from snow.
== Ice at different pressures ==
Ice can be formed at higher temperatures in pressurized environments, and water will remain a liquid or gas until -30 °C at lower pressures. Ice formed at high pressure has a different crystal structure and density than ordinary ice. Ice, water, and [[water vapor]] can coexist at the [[triple point]], which is 273.16 K at a pressure of 611.73 [[Pascal|Pa]].
=== Phases of ice ===
{|border="1" cellpadding="2" cellspacing="0"
|-
! Phase
! Characteristics
|-
| [[Amorphous ice]]
| [[Amorphous]] ice is an ice lacking crystal structure. Amorphous ice exists in two forms: low-density (LDA), formed at atmospheric pressure, or below, and high density (HDA), forming at higher pressures. It forms by extremely quick cooling of liquid water.
|-
| [[Ice Ih]]
| Normal hexagonal crystalline ice. Virtually all ice in the biosphere is ice Ih, with the exception only of a small amount of ice Ic.
|-
| [[Ice Ic]]
| Metastable [[cubic crystal|cubic]] crystalline variant of ice. The oxygen atoms are arranged in a diamond structure. It is produced at temperatures between 130-150 [[kelvin|K]], and is stable for up to 200 K, when it transforms into ice Ih. It is occassionally present in the upper atmosphere.
|-
| [[Ice II]]
| A [[rhombohedral]] crystalline form with highly ordered structure. Formed from ice Ih by compressing it at temperature of 190-210 K. When heated it undergoes transformation to ice III.
|-
| [[Ice III]]
| A [[tetragonal]] crystalline ice, formed by cooling water down to 250 K at 300 MPa. Least dense of the high-pressure phases. More dense than water.
|-
| [[Ice IV]]
| Metastable rhombohedral phase. Does not easily form without a nucleating agent.
|-
| [[Ice V]]
| A [[monoclinic]] crystalline phase. Formed by cooling water to 253 K at 500 MPa. Most complicated structure of all the phases.
|-
| [[Ice VI]]
| A tetragonal crystalline phase. Formed by cooling water to 270 K at 1.1 GPa. Exhibits [[Debye relaxation]].
|-
| [[Ice VII]]
| A cubic phase. The hydrogen atoms position is disordered, the material shows Debye relaxation. The hydrogen bonds form two interpenetrating lattices.
|-
| [[Ice VIII]]
| A more ordered version of ice VII, where the hydrogen atoms assume fixed positions. Formed from ice VII by cooling it beyond 5 °C.
|-
| [[Ice IX]]
| A tetragonal metastable phase. Formed gradually from ice III by cooling it from -65 to -108 °C, stable below 140K and pressures between 200 and 400 MPa. It has density of 1.16 g/cm³, slightly higher than ordinary ice.
|-
| [[Ice X]]
| Proton-ordered symmetric ice. Forms at about 40-45 GPa. A transformation of ice VII to ice X at 70 GPa is predicted.
|-
| [[Ice XI]]
| An [[orthorhombic]] low-temperature equilibrium form of hexagonal ice. It is [[ferroelectric]].
|-
| [[Ice XII]]
| A tetragonal metastable dense crystalline phase. It is metastable in the phase space of ice V and ice VI. It can be prepared by heating high-density amorphous ice from 77K to about 183K at 810 MPa.
|}
== See also ==
[[Image:Icicles forming.jpg|thumb|250px|right|Icicles forming on a cabin's roof at [[Dinner Plain]] [[Australia]].]]
* [[Black ice]]
* [[De-icing]]
* [[Diamond dust]]
* [[Firn]]
* [[Frazil ice]]
* [[Iceberg]]
* [[Glacier]]
* [[Ice cream]]
* [[Polynya]]
* [[Pykrete]]
* [[Sea ice]]
* [[Amorphous solid water]]
* [[Europa (moon)|Europa]], an ice-covered moon
== Related terms ==
* A [[rusticle]] is a rust formation similar to an icicle.
* [[Isaz]] is the Proto-Germanic rune for "ice".
== External links ==
{{commons|Ice}}
* [http://www.its.caltech.edu/~atomic/snowcrystals/ice/ice.htm The phase diagram of water, including the ice variants]
* [http://www.webmineral.com/data/Ice.shtml Webmineral listing for Ice]
* [http://www.mindat.org/min-2001.html MinDat.org listing and location data for Ice]
* [http://www-2.cs.cmu.edu/~dst/ATG/ice.html The physics of ice]
* [http://www.martin.chaplin.btinternet.co.uk/phase.html The phase diagrams of water with some high pressure diagrams]
* [http://www.livescience.com/forcesofnature/050630_melting_discovery.html A recent discovery about how ice melts]
* [http://www.phys.unsw.edu.au/~jw/unfreezable.html 'Unfreezable' water, 'bound water' and water of hydration]
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Instantaneous dipole attraction
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Ionic bond
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Ilmari Karonen
398996
/* Polarization effects */ surely this was a mistake?
[[Image:Ionic_bonding.png|thumb|right|200px|[[Electron configuration]]s of [[lithium]] and [[fluorine]]. Lithium has one electron in its outer shell, held rather loosely because the [[ionisation energy]] is low. Fluorine carries 7 electrons in its outer shell. When one electron moves from lithium to fluorine, each [[ion]] acquires the [[noble gas]] configuration. The bonding energy from the [[electrostatic attraction]] of the two oppositely-charged ions has a large enough negative value that the overall bonded state energy is lower than the unbonded state]]
'''Ionic bonds''' are a type of [[chemical bond]] based on [[electrostatic force]]s between two oppositely-charged [[ion]]s. Often ionic bonds form between [[metal]]s and [[non-metals]]. In ordinary [[table salt]], the bonds between the [[sodium]] and [[chlorine]] ions are ionic bonds. In ionic bond formation, a metal donates an electron, due to a low [[electronegativity]] to form a positive ion or [[cation]]. The non-metal atom has an [[electron configuration]] just short of a [[noble gas]] structure. They are [[electronegative]], and so readily gain electrons to form negative ions or [[anion]]s. The two or more ions are then attracted to each other by [[electrostatic force]]s. Such bonds are stronger than [[hydrogen bond]]s, but similar in strength to [[covalent bond]]s.
: <math>Li + F\ \ \ \to\ \ \ Li^+F^-\,\!</math>
: <math>3Na + P\ \ \ \to\ \ \ Na^+_3P^{3-}</math>
Ionic bonding occurs only if the overall energy change for the reaction is favourable when the bonded atoms have a lower energy than the free ones. The larger the resulting energy change the stronger the bond.
''Pure'' ionic bonding is not known to exist. All ionic bonds have a degree of [[covalent bond]]ing or [[metallic bond]]ing. The larger the difference in [[electronegativity]] between two atoms the more ionic the bond. Ionic compounds conduct [[electricity]] when molten or in solution. They generally have a high [[melting point]] and tend to be soluble in water.
[[Image:ionicbond.JPG|thumb|right|200px|Impression of two ions, for example Na<sup>+</sup> and Cl<sup>-</sup> forming an ionic bond. The [[electron orbital]]s generally do not overlap (i.e., [[molecular orbital]]s are not formed), because each of the ions reached the lowest [[energy state]] and the bond is based only (ideally) on the electrostatic interactions between positive and negative ions.]]
==Polarization effects==
[[Ion]]s in [[crystal lattice]]s of purely ionic compounds are [[sphere|spherical]], but, if the positive ion is small and/or highly charged, it will distort the electron cloud of the negative ion. This [[Polarization (electrostatics)|polarization]] of the negative ion leads to a build-up of extra charge density between the two [[atomic nucleus|nuclei]], i.e., to partial covalency. Larger negative ions are more easily polarized, but the effect is usually only important when positive ions with [[electrical charge|charges]] of 3+ (e.g., Al<sup>3+</sup>) are involved (e.g., pure AlCl<sub>3</sub> is a covalent molecule). However, 2+ ions (Be<sup>2+</sup>) or even 1+ (Li<sup>+</sup>) show some polarizing power because their sizes are so small (e.g., LiI is ionic but has some covalent character). The '''Polarizing Power''' depends on the ratio of charge and size of the ion, often called the '''charge density'''.
==Ionic Structure==
[[Ionic compound]]s in the solid state form a continuous ionic lattice structure in an [[ionic crystal]]. When all the ions are approximately the same size, they can form a structure that is [[Cubic (crystal system)|face-centered cubic]], but, when the ions are different sizes, the structure is often [[Close-packing|body-centered cubic]]. In ionic lattices the [[coordination number]] refers to the number of ions that each is connected, too.
==Ionic versus covalent bonds==
'''In an ionic bond,''' the atoms are bound by attraction of opposite ions, whereas, in a [[covalent bond]], atoms are bound by sharing electrons. In covalent bonding, the [[molecular geometry]] around each atom is determined by [[VSEPR]] rules, whereas, in ionic materials, the geometry follows maximum [[close-packing|packing]] rules. '''Thus''', a compound can be classified as ionic or covalent based on the '''geometry of the atoms'''.
== External links ==
* [http://www.chem.ufl.edu/~chm2040/Notes/Chapter_11/types.html ionic bonding tutorial I]
* [http://dbhs.wvusd.k12.ca.us/webdocs/Bonding/Ionic-Bond.html ionic bonding tutorial II]
* [http://neon.chem.uidaho.edu/~honors/electneg.html ionic bonding tutorial III]
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IBF
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Korg
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interwikis
*[[International Boxing Federation]] ('''IBF''') is one of several [[boxing]] organisations. The IBF's first world champion was cruiserweight [[Marvin Camel]].
*[[International Basketball Federation]] (FIBA) governs [[basketball]] worldwide.
*[[International Badminton Federation]] (IBF) governs [[badminton]] worldwide.
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Individual Films
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Fixed double redirect; [[Wikipedia:Computer help desk/cleanup/double redirects/20050713|You can help!]].
#REDIRECT [[Lists of films]]
Immune system
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2006-03-02T21:45:31Z
Michelus
918490
/* Other factors that affect immune response */
The '''immune system''' is the [[organ system|system]] of specialized [[cell (biology)|cell]]s and [[organ (anatomy)|organs]] that protect an [[organism]] from outside [[biology|biological]] influences. (Though in a broad sense, almost every organ has a protective function - for example, the tight seal of the [[skin]] or the acidic environment of the [[stomach]].) When the immune system is functioning properly, it protects the body against [[bacteria]] and [[virus|viral]] [[infection]]s, destroying [[cancer cell]]s and foreign substances. If the immune system weakens, its ability to defend the body also weakens, allowing [[pathogen]]s, including viruses that cause [[common cold]]s and [[flu]], to grow and flourish in the body. The immune system also performs surveillance of tumor cells, and immune suppression has been reported to increase the risk of certain types of [[cancer]].
The immune system is often divided into two sections:
* '''Innate immunity:''' Comprised of [[Heredity|hereditary]] components that provide an immediate "first-line" of defense to continuously ward off pathogens.
* '''Adaptive (acquired) immunity:''' By manufacturing antibodies (a type of protein) and T-cells specifically designed to target particular pathogens, the body can develop a specific immunity to particular pathogens. This response takes days to develop, and so is not effective at preventing an initial invasion, but it will normally prevent any subsequent infection, and also aids in clearing up longer-lasting infections.
==Structure==
Most multicellular organisms possess an "innate immune system", generally comprising a set of germ-line encoded receptors to pathogens, that does not change during the lifetime of the organism. ''Adaptive immunity'', in which the responses to pathogens change and develop during the lifetime of an individual, seems to have appeared somewhat abruptly in [[evolutionary timeline|evolutionary time]], with the appearance of [[chondrichthyes]] (cartilaginous or jawed fish).
Organisms that possess an adaptive immunity also possess an innate immunity, and with many of the mechanisms between the systems being common, it is not always possible to draw a hard and fast boundary between the individual components involved in each, despite the clear difference in operation. Higher [[vertebrate]]s and all [[mammal]]s have both an innate and an adaptive immune system.
===Innate immune system===
The adaptive immune system may take days or weeks after an initial infection to have an effect. However, most organisms are under constant assault from pathogens that must be kept in check by the faster-acting innate immune system. Innate immunity defends against pathogens by rapid responses coordinated through "innate" receptors that recognize a wide spectrum of conserved pathogenic components. [[Plant]]s and many lower animals do not possess an adaptive immune system, and rely instead on their innate immunity.
The study of the innate immune system has recently flourished. Earlier studies of innate immunity utilized [[model organism|model organisms]] that lack adaptive immunity, such as the plant ''[[Arabidopsis thaliana]]'', the fly ''[[Drosophila melanogaster]]'', and the worm ''[[Caenorhabditis elegans]]''. Recent advances have been made in the field of innate immunology with the discovery of [[toll-like receptor]]s (TLRs) and the intracellular nucleotide-binding site leucine-rich repeat proteins (NODs), which are receptors in mammal cells that are responsible for a large proportion of the innate immune recognition of pathogens.
In 1989, prior to the discovery of mammalian TLRs, [[Charles Janeway]] conceptualized and proposed that evolutionarily conserved features of infectious organisms were detected by the immune system through a set of specialized receptors, which he termed pathogen-associated molecular patterns (PAMPs) and pattern recognition receptors (PRRs), respectively. This was a remarkable insight at the time but was only fully appreciated after the discovery of TLRs by the Janeway lab in 1997. The TLRs now comprise the largest family of innate immune receptors (or PRRs). Janeway’s hypothesis has come to be known as the ‘stranger model’ and substantial debate in the field persists to this day as to whether or not the concept of PAMPs and PRRs, as described by Janeway, is truly suitable to describe the mechanisms of innate immunity. The competing ‘danger model’ was proposed in 1994 by [[Polly Matzinger]] and argues against the focus of the stranger model on microbial derived signals, suggesting instead that endogenous danger/alarm signals from distressed tissues serve as the principle purveyors of innate immune responses.
Both models are supported in the current literature, with discoveries that substances of both microbial and non-microbial sources are able to stimulate innate immune responses, which has led to increasing awareness that perhaps a blend of the two models would best serve to describe the currently known mechanisms governing innate immunity.
The innate immune system, when activated, has a wide array of effector cells and mechanisms. There are several different types of phagocytic cells, which ingest and destroy invading pathogens. The most common [[phagocytes]] are [[neutrophils]], [[macrophages]], and [[dendritic cells]]. Another cell type, [[natural killer cells]] are especially adept at destroying cells infected with viruses. Another component of the innate immune system is known as the [[complement system]]. Complement proteins are normally inactive components of the blood. However, when activated by the recognition of a pathogen or antibody, the various proteins are activated to recruit inflammatory cells, coat pathogens to make them more easily phagocytosed, and to make destructive pores in the surfaces of pathogens.
====First-line defense: physical and chemical barrier====
The first-line defense includes barriers to infection, such as [[skin]] and [[mucus]] coating of the [[gut]] and [[airways]], physically preventing the interaction between the host and the pathogen. Pathogens, which penetrate these barriers, encounter constitutively-expressed anti-microbial molecules (eg. [[lysozyme]]) that restrict the infection.
In addition to the usual defense, the stomach secretes [[gastric acid]] which, apart from aiding digestive enzymes in the stomach to work on food, prevents bacterial colonization by most pathogens.
====Second-line defense: Phagocytic cells====
The second-line defense includes [[Phagocyte|phagocytic cells]] ([[macrophage]]s and [[neutrophil granulocyte]]s) that can engulf ([[phagocytosis|phagocytose]]) foreign substances. Macrophages are thought to mature continuously from circulating [[monocyte]]s.
Phagocytosis involves [[chemotaxis]], where phagocytic cells are attracted to microorganisms by means of chemotactic chemicals such as microbial products, complement, damaged cells and [[white blood cell]] fragments. Chemotaxis is followed by [[cell adhesion|adhesion]], where the phagocyte sticks to the microorganism. Adhesion is enhanced by [[opsonization]], where proteins like [[opsonin]]s are coated on the surface of the bacterium. This is followed by ingestion, in which the phagocyte extends projections, forming [[pseudopod]]s that engulf the foreign organism. Finally, the bacterium is digested by the enzymes in the [[lysosome]], involving [[reactive oxygen species]] and [[protease]]s.
====Anti-microbial proteins====
In addition, anti-microbial proteins may be activated if a pathogen passes through the barrier offered by skin. There are several classes of antimicrobial proteins, such as [[acute phase protein]]s ([[C-reactive protein]], for example, enhances phagocytosis and activates complement when it binds itself to the [[C-protein]] of ''[[Streptococcus_pneumoniae|S. pneumoniae]]'' ), [[lysozyme]], and the [[complement system]].
The [[complement system]] is a very complex group of [[serum protein]]s, which is activated in a [[cascade]] fashion. Three different pathways are involved in complement activation:
* [[classical complement pathway|classical]] pathway: recognizes antigen-antibody complexes
* [[alternative complement pathway|alternative]] pathway: spontaneously activates on contact with pathogenic cell surfaces
* [[mannose-binding lectin pathway|mannose-binding lectin]] pathway: recognizes [[mannose]] sugars, which tend to appear only on pathogenic cell surfaces.
A cascade of protein activity follows complement activation; this cascade can result in a variety of effects, including [[opsonization]] of the pathogen, destruction of the pathogen by the formation and activation of the [[membrane attack complex]], and [[inflammation]].
Interferons are also anti-microbial proteins. These molecules are proteins that are secreted by virus-infected cells. These proteins then diffuse rapidly to neighboring cells, inducing the cells to inhibit the spread of the viral infection. Essentially, these anti-microbial proteins act to prevent the cell-to-cell proliferation of viruses.
===Adaptive immune system===
The adaptive immune system, also called the "acquired immune system", ensures that most mammals that survive an initial infection by a pathogen are generally immune to further illness, caused by that same pathogen. The adaptive immune system is based on dedicated immune cells termed [[leukocyte]]s (white blood cells) that are produced by [[stem cell]]s in the [[bone marrow]], and mature in the [[thymus]] and/or [[lymph node]]s. In many species, including [[mammals]], the adaptive immune system can be divided into two major sections:
* [[humoral immunity|Humoral immune system]]: It acts against bacteria and viruses in the body liquids (eg. [[blood]]) by means of proteins, called [[immunoglobulin]]s (also known as [[antibody|antibodies]]), which are produced by [[B cell]]s.
* [[cell-mediated immunity|Cellular immune system]]: It destroys virus-infected cells (among other duties) with [[T cell]]s (also called "T lymphocytes"; "T" means they develop in the [[thymus]]). There are two major types of T cells:
** [[Cytotoxic T cell]]s (T<sub><small>C</small></sub> cells): These cells recognize infected cells by using [[T cell receptor]]s to probe cell surfaces. If they recognize an infected cell, they release [[granzyme]]s to trigger that cell to become [[apoptosis|apoptotic]] ("commit suicide"), thus killing that cell and any viruses that it is in the process of creating.
** [[Helper T cell]]s (T<sub><small>H</small></sub> cells): These cells activate [[macrophage]]s (cells that ingest dangerous material), and also produce [[cytokine]]s ([[interleukin]]s) that induce the [[Cell growth|proliferation]] of B and T cells.
In addition, there are [[Regulatory T cell|regulatory T cell]]s (T<sub><small>reg</small></sub> cells) which are important in regulating cell-mediated immunity.
===Intersections between systems===
Splitting the innate and adaptive immunity has served to simplify discussions of immunology. However, the systems are quite intertwined in a number of important respects.
One of the most important examples are the mechanisms of 'antigen presentation'. After they leave the thymus, T cells require activation to proliferate and differentiate into cytotoxic ("killer") T cells (CTLs). Activation is provided by [[antigen-presenting cell]]s (APCs), a major category of which are the [[dendritic cells]]. These cells are part of the innate immune system.
Activation occurs when a dendritic cell simultaneously binds itself to a T "helper" cell's antigen receptor ''and'' to its CD28 receptor, which provides the "second signal" needed for DC activation. This signal is a means by which the dendritic cell conveys that the antigen is indeed dangerous, and that the next encountered T "killer" cells need to be activated. This mechanism is based on antigen-danger evaluation by the T cells that belong to the adaptive immune system. But the [[dendritic cells]] are often directly activated by engaging their [[toll-like receptor]]s, getting their "second signal" directly from the antigen. In this way, they actually recognize in "first person" the danger, and direct the T killer attack. In this respect, the innate immune system therefore plays a critical role in the activation of the adaptive immune system.
[[Adjuvant]]s, or chemicals that stimulate an immune response, provide artificially this "second signal" in procedures when an antigen, that would not normally raise an immune response, is artificially introduced into a host. With the adjuvant, the response is much more robust. Historically, a commonly-used formula is [[Freund's Complete Adjuvant]], an emulsion of oil and [[mycobacterium]]. It was later discovered that toll-like receptors, expressed on innate immune cells, are critical in the activation of adaptive immunity.
==Disorders of the human immune system==
The most important function of the human immune system occurs at the cellular level of the blood and tissues. The [[lymphatic system|lymphatic]] and [[blood circulation]] systems are highways for specialized [[white blood cell]]s to travel around the body. White blood cells include [[B cells]], [[T cells]], [[natural killer cells]], and [[macrophages]]. Each has a different responsibility, but all function together with the primary objective of recognizing, attacking and destroying [[bacteria]], [[viruses]], [[cancer cells]], and all substances seen as foreign. Without this coordinated effort, a person would not be able to survive more than a few days, before succumbing to overwhelming infection.
Infections set off an alarm that alerts the immune system to bring out its defensive weapons. Natural killer cells and macrophages rush to the scene to gobble up and digest infected cells. If the first line of defense fails to control the threat, [[antibodies]], produced by the B cells, upon the order of T helper cells, are custom-designed to hone in on the invader.
Many disorders of the human immune system fall into two broad categories that are characterized by:
* Attenuated immune response: There are 'congenital' (inborn) and 'acquired' forms of [[immunodeficiency]], characterized by an attenuated response. [[Chronic granulomatous disease]], in which [[phagocytes]] have trouble destroying pathogens, is an example of the former, while [[AIDS]] ("Acquired Immune Deficiency Syndrome"), an [[infectious disease]] caused by the [[HIV]] virus that destroys CD4<sup>+</sup> T cells, is an example of the latter. Immunosuppressive medication intentionally induces an immunodeficiency in order to prevent [[transplant rejection|rejection]] of [[organ transplantation|transplanted organs]].
* Overzealous immune response: On the other end of the scale, an overactive immune system figures in a number of other disorders, particularly [[autoimmune disorder]]s such as [[lupus erythematosus]], type I [[diabetes mellitus|diabetes]] (sometimes called "juvenile onset diabetes"), [[multiple sclerosis]], [[psoriasis]], and [[rheumatoid arthritis]]. In these, the immune system fails to properly distinguish between self and non-self, and attacks a part of the patient's own body. Other examples of overzealous immune responses in disease include [[hypersensitivity|hypersensitivities]], such as [[allergies]] and [[asthma]].
==Other factors that affect immune response==
{{sect-stub}}
Many factors can also contribute to the general weakening of the immune system:
* [[Malnutrition]] (unbalanced diet / poor eating habits that cause a lack of [[vitamin]]s and minerals)
* [[Alcohol abuse]]
* Drug use either Intravenous or other. (Appears related to associated factors ie. poor diet, use of infected/dirty needles, poor excersice, stress/depression)
* Medications (particularly the use of anti-cancer drugs, [[corticosteroid]]s, and [[antibiotic]]s);
* [[Ionizing radiation|Radiation]]
* Exposure to certain [[environment]]al [[toxin]]s, whether naturally occurring or from [[pollution]]. These include:
** [[Cigarette]] [[smoke]]
* Stress/Depression - Research shows that [[psychological stress]] can greatly increase your susceptibility to colds and other viral diseases, namely through an increase in serum corticosteroid levels
* Age - Ability of the immune system to respond is decreased at early and old age.
* Decrease ability to heal due to disease or medications (ie. [[Diabetes]], [[corticosteroid]]s, immune supressant drugs), causing constant exposure to infectious agents without natural dfense(intact skin)
* Inadequate sleep at the Delta brain wave level. According to a sleep study, we need 4 hours of Delta sleep every night
* Lack of exercise as well as excessive exercise resulting in [[physiological stress]]
* Diseases either infectious or other causing more depression on the immune system like:
** [[Cancer]], and [[hematological malignancy]] (such as [[leukemia]], [[lymphoma]] and [[multiple myeloma|myeloma]]) in particular.
** [[Diabetes Mellitus]]
** [[Cystic fibrosis]]
** [[Lupus Erythematosus]]
** [[Nephrotic syndrome]]
** [[Viral infections]] ie. viral respiratory infections then allowing for bacterial [[pneumonia]] to develop.
** [[HIV]]
** [[Ulcerative colitis]]
** [[Anorexia | Bullimia]] (due to [[malnutrition]], stress, [[depression]]).
** [[Sickle-cell disease]].
** [[Liver disease]] / [[cirrhosis]]
** [[Cushing's syndrome]]
==Pharmacology==
Despite high hopes, there are no [[medication]]s that directly increase the activity of the immune system. Various forms of medication that activate the immune system may indeed cause [[autoimmune disorder]]s.
Suppression of the immune system is often used to control autoimmune disorders or [[inflammation]] when this causes excessive tissue damage, and to prevent [[transplant rejection]] after an [[organ transplant]]. Commonly used [[immunosuppression|immunosuppressants]] include [[glucocorticoid]]s, [[azathioprine]], [[methotrexate]], [[ciclosporin]], [[cyclophosphamide]] and [[mercaptopurine]]. In organ transplants, [[ciclosporin]], [[tacrolimus]], [[mycophenolate mofetil]] and various others are used to prevent organ rejection through selective T cell inhibition.
==See also==
* [[antigen]]/[[antigenic determinant]]/[[epitope]]/[[hapten]]/[[memory cell]]
* [[autoimmune disorder]]s
* [[CD4|CD4 receptor]]/[[CD8|CD8 receptor]]/[[perforin]]/[[apoptosis]]/[[clonal selection]]
* [[immunosuppression]]
* [[immunosuppressive drug]]
* [[immunotherapy]]
* [[lymphatic system]]/[[lymphocyte]]
* [[macrophage]]
* [[major histocompatibility complex]]/[[class I MHC]]/[[class II MHC]]
* [[monoclonal antibody]]/[[polyclonal antibody]]
==Further reading==
* A standard textbook on the immune system is ''Immunobiology'', by [[Charles Janeway]], et al. The paperback of the sixth edition is ISBN 0815341016. [[NCBI]] makes the 5th edition available electronically at [http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/bv.fcgi?call=bv.View..ShowTOC&rid=imm.TOC&depth=10].
* An excellent introduction to the immune system is "How the Immune System Works" by [[Lauren Sompayrac]]. The paperback of the second edition is ISBN 063204702X.
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Immunology
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2006-01-13T22:34:47Z
208.51.65.82
/* Classical immunology */
'''Immunology''' is a broad branch of [[biomedical science|biomedical]] [[science]] that covers the study of all aspects of the [[immune system]] in all [[organism]]s. It deals with, among other things, the [[physiology|physiological]] functioning of the immune system in states of both health and disease; malfunctions of the immune system in immunological disorders ([[autoimmune diseases]], [[hypersensitivity|hypersensitivities]], [[immune deficiency]], [[transplant|allograft]] rejection); the physical, chemical and physiological characteristics of the components of the immune system [[in vitro]], [[in situ]], and [[in vivo]]. Immunology has various applications in several disciplines of science, and as such is further divided.
==Histological examination of the immune system==
Even before the concept of [[immunity]] (from ''immunis'', Latin for "exempt") was developed, numerous early physicians characterised organs that would later prove to be part of the immune system. The key organs of the immune system are [[thymus]], [[spleen]], [[bone marrow]], [[lymphatic system|lymph vessels]], [[lymph node]]s and secondary lymphatic tissues such as [[tonsil]]s, [[adenoid]]s, and [[skin]]. Two major organs, the thymus and spleen, are examined [[histology|histologically]] only post-mortem during [[autopsy]]. However some lymph nodes and secondary lymphatic tissues can be [[surgery|surgically]] excised for examination while patients are still alive.
Many components of the immune system are actually [[cell (biology)|cell]]ular in nature and not associated with any specific organ but rather are embedded or circulating in various [[tissue (anatomy)|tissues]] located throughout the body.
==Classical immunology==
Classical immunology ties in with the fields of [[epidemiology]] and [[medicine]]. It studies the relationship between the body systems, [[pathogen]]s, and immunity. The earliest written mention of immunity can be traced back to the [[Pandemic|plague]] of [[Athens]] in [[430 BCE]]. [[Thucydides]] noted that people who had recovered from a previous bout of the disease could [[nurse]] the sick without contracting the illness a second time. Many other ancient societies have references to this phenomenon, but it was not until the [[19th century|19th]] and [[20th century|20th centuries]] before the concept developed into scientific theory.
The study of the molecular and cellular components that comprise the immune system, including their function and interaction, is the central science of immunology. The immune system has been divided into a more primitive [[innate immunity|innate immune system]], and [[adaptive immunity|acquired or adaptive immune system]] of vertebrates, the latter of which is further divided into [[humoral immunity|humoral]] and [[cell-mediated immunity|cellular components]].
The humoral (antibody) response is defined as the interaction between [[antibody|antibodies]] and [[antigen]]s. Antibodies are specific proteins released from a certain class of immune cells (B lymphocytes). Antigens are defined as anything that elicits generation of antibodies, hence they are '''Anti'''body '''Gen'''erators. Immunology itself rests on an understanding of the properties of these two biological entities. However, equally important is the cellular response, which can not only kill infected cells in its own right, but is also crucial in controlling the antibody response. Put simply, both systems are highly interdependent.
In the [[21st century]], immunology has broadened its horizons with much research being performed in the more specialized niches of immunology. This includes the immunological function of cells, organs and systems not normally associated with the immune system, as well as the function of the immune system outside classical models of immunity.
==Clinical immunology==
[[Clinical immunology]] is the study of [[disease]]s caused by the immune system and diseases of the immune system from a medical perspective.
Many diseases caused by the immune system fall into two broad categories: [[immunodeficiency]], in which parts of the immune system fail to provide an adequate response (examples include [[chronic granulomatous disease]]), and [[autoimmunity]], in which the immune system attacks its own host's body (examples include [[systemic lupus erythematosus]], [[rheumatoid arthritis]], [[Hashimoto's disease]] and [[myasthenia gravis]]). Other immune system disorders include different [[hypersensitivity|hypersensitivities]], in which the system responds inappropriately to harmless compounds ([[asthma]] and [[allergy|allergies]]) or responds too intensely.
The most well-known disease that affects the immune system itself is [[Acquired Immunodeficiency Syndrome|AIDS]], caused by the [[HIV virus]]. AIDS is an immunodeficiency characterized by the lack of CD4+ ("helper") [[T cells]] and [[macrophages]], which are destroyed by the HIV virus.
Clinical immunologists also study ways to prevent [[transplant rejection]], in which the immune system attempts to destroy [[allograft]]s or [[xenograft]]s.
==Immunotherapy==
''See main article [[Immunotherapy]]''
The use of immune system components to treat a disease or disorder is known as immunotherapy. Immunotherapy is most commonly used in the context of the treatment of [[cancer]]s together with [[chemotherapy]] ([[Medication|drug]]s) and [[radiotherapy]] ([[electromagnetic radiation|radiation]]). However, immunotherapy is also often used in the immunosuppressed (such as [[HIV]] patients) and people suffering from other immune deficiencies or autoimmune diseases.
==Diagnostic immunology==
The specificity of the bond between antibody and antigen has made it an excellent tool in the detection of substances in a variety of diagnostic techniques. Antibodies specific for a desired [[antigen]] can be conjugated with a radiolabel, fluorescent label, or color-forming enzyme and are used as a "probe" to detect it.
Well known applications of this include [[immunoblot]]ting, [[ELISA]] and immunohistochemical staining of microscope slides. The speed, accuracy and simplicity of such tests has led to the development of rapid techniques for the diagnosis of disease, microbes and even illegal drugs ''[[in vivo]]'' (of course tests conducted in a closed environment have a higher degree of accuracy). Such testing is also used to distinguish compatible [[blood type]]s.
==Evolutionary immunology==
Study of the immune system in extant and [[extinction|extinct]] species is capable of giving us a key understanding of the [[evolution]] of species and the immune system.
A development of complexity of the immune system can be seen from simple phagocytotic protection of single celled organisms, to circulating antimicrobial peptides in insects to lymphoid organs in vertebrates. Of course, like much of evolutionary observation, these physical properties are often seen from the [[anthropocentric]] aspect. It should be recognised, that every organism living today has an immune system absolutely capable of protecting it from most forms of harm; those organisms that did not adapt their immune systems to external threats are no longer around to be observed.
[[Insect]]s and other [[arthropod]]s, while not possessing true adaptive immunity, show highly evolved systems of innate immunity, and are additionally protected from external injury (and exposure to pathogens) by their [[chitin]]ous shells.
==See also==
*[[Immune system]]
*[[autoimmunity]]
*[[List of immunologists]]
==References==
* [http://en.wikibooks.org/wiki/Immunology Wikibooks Immunology Textbook]
* Goldsby RA, Kindt TK, Osborne BA and Kuby J (2003) '''Immunology''', 5th Edition, W.H. Freeman and Company, New York, New York, ISBN 0-7167-4947-5
[[Category:Immunology| ]]
[[cs:Imunologie]]
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[[ko:면역학]]
[[he:אימונולוגיה]]
[[lb:Immunologie]]
[[hu:Immunológia]]
[[nl:Immunologie]]
[[ja:免疫学]]
[[pl:Immunologia]]
[[pt:Alergia e imunologia]]
[[ro:Imunologie]]
[[ru:Иммунология]]
[[simple:Immunology]]
[[fi:Immunologia]]
[[sv:Immunologi]]
[[th:ภูมิคุ้มกันวิทยา]]
[[vi:Miễn dịch học]]
[[tr:İmmünoloji]]
[[zh:免疫学]]
IPA (disambiguation)
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'''IPA''' can stand for:
* [[International Phonetic Alphabet]], a system of phonetic notation
* [[India Pale Ale]], a style of beer
* [[Isopropyl alcohol]], or rubbing alcohol
* [[Independent Pilots Association]]
* [[Independent practice association]], a group of medical doctors
* [[Insolvency Practitioners Association]] of the UK and Ireland
* [[Institute for Propaganda Analysis]]
* [[Institute of Public Affairs]]
* [[International Police Association]]
* [[International Psychoanalytical Association]]
* [[Invasion, Planeshift, Apocalypse]], expansion for the card game Magic the Gathering
{{TLAdisambig}}
[[de:IPA]]
[[eo:IPA]]
[[ko:IPA]]
[[it:IPA]]
[[nl:IPA]]
[[ja:IPA]]
[[pl:IPA]]
[[ro:IPA (dezambiguizare)]]
[[sl:IPA]]
Ice beer
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Daniel11
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'''Ice beer''' involves lowering the temperature of [[beer]] until [[ice|ice crystals]] form. Since alcohol has a lower freezing point than water and doesn't form crystals, when the ice is filtered off, the alcohol concentration increases. The resulting beer tends to have less character than other beers because the [[yeast]] cells/[[protein]] particles get filtered off with the ice.
<!--
Ice beer became an essential part of a brewer's portfolio, as each company sought to expand its market by imitating the hugely successful introduction of '[[lite]]' beers. In their rush to add an ice beer to their portfolio many companies simplified the brewing process, freezing the beer until ice crystals formed, but then allowing the crystals to melt before continuing with their normal brewing process. This undermined the image of the beer for many consumers, and limited its retail success. (Is there a time for when this happened? A source? Till then, it stays out)
-->
Ice beer is rumoured to have developed by accident in [[Germany]] during [[Oktoberfest]] celebrations with [[bock|bock beers]] which are traditionally brewed in the spring. A particularly cold year froze the beers and a new taste was noticed by the drinkers. These were called ''Eisbocks''. However, in its current form, ice beer was developed from the fruit-juice industry which used to freeze [[orange juice]] [[concentrate]] in order to reduce shipping costs.
[[Category:Beer styles]]
[[th:ไอซ์เบียร์]]
Identity element
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:<span class="dablink">''For other uses, see [[identity (disambiguation)]].''</span>
In [[mathematics]], an '''identity element''' (or '''neutral element''') is a special type of element of a [[set]] with respect to a [[binary operation]] on that set. It leaves other elements unchanged when combined with them. This is used for [[group (mathematics)|group]]s and [[magma (algebra)|related concepts]].
The term ''identity element'' is often shortened to ''identity'' when there is no possibility of confusion; we do so in this article.
Let (''S'',*) be a set ''S'' with a binary operation * on it (known as a [[magma (algebra)|magma]]). Then an element ''e'' of ''S'' is called a '''left identity''' if ''e'' * ''a'' = ''a'' for all ''a'' in ''S'', and a '''right identity''' if ''a'' * ''e'' = ''a'' for all ''a'' in ''S''. If ''e'' is both a left identity and a right identity, then it is called a '''two-sided identity''', or simply an '''identity'''.
An identity with respect to addition is called an '''additive identity''' and an identity with respect to multiplication is called a '''multiplicative identity'''. The distinction is used most often for sets that support both binary operations (such as with [[ring (mathematics)|ring]]s).
==Examples==
{| border=1, align=top
!set!!operation!!identity
|-
|[[real number]]s||+ (addition)||[[0 (number)|0]]
|-
|[[real number]]s||• (multiplication)||[[1 (number)|1]]
|-
<!-- ||'''R'''<sup>''n''</sup> ||• (multiplication)|[[1 (number)|1]] -->
|''n''-by-''n'' square [[matrix (mathematics)|matrices]]|| + (addition)||[[zero matrix]]
|-
|''n''-by-''n'' square [[matrix (mathematics)|matrices]]|| • (multiplication)||[[identity matrix]]
|-
|all [[function (mathematics)|functions]] from a set ''M'' to itself|| function composition||[[identity map]]
|-
|character strings|| concatenation || empty string
|-
|only two elements {''e'', ''f''}||* defined by<br> ''e'' * ''e'' = ''f'' * ''e'' = ''e'' and <br> ''f'' * ''f'' = ''e'' * ''f'' = ''f''||both ''e'' and ''f'' are left identities, but there is no right or two-sided identity
|}
As the last example shows, it is possible for (''S'',*) to have several left identities. In fact, every element can be a left identity. Similarly, there can be several right identities. But if there is both a right identity and a left identity, then they are equal and there is just a single two-sided identity. To see this, note that if ''l'' is a left identity and ''r'' is a right identity then ''l'' = ''l'' * ''r'' = ''r''. In particular, there can never be more than one two-sided identity.
==See also==
*[[Inverse element]]
*[[Additive inverse]]
*[[Group (mathematics)|Group]]
*[[Monoid]]
*[[Unital]]
*[[Quasigroup]]
[[Category:Abstract algebra]]
[[Category:Algebra]]
[[Category:Binary operations|*Identity element]]
[[ar:عنصر حيادي]]
[[cs:Neutrální prvek]]
[[de:Neutrales Element]]
[[et:Ühikelement]]
[[es:Elemento neutro]]
[[fr:Élément neutre]]
[[he:איבר יחידה]]
[[hu:Neutrális elem]]
[[nl:Neutraal element]]
[[ja:単位元]]
[[pl:Element neutralny]]
[[pt:Elemento neutro]]
[[sk:Neutrálny prvok]]
[[sl:Enak element]]
[[sv:Neutralt element]]
[[vi:Phần tử đơn vị]]
[[zh:單位元]]
International Tropical Timber Agreement, 1983
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making an intro paragraph out of the objectives paragraph, adding category
The '''International Tropical Timber Agreement''' (often abbreviated as '''Tropical Timber 83''') is an agreement to provide an effective framework for cooperation between tropical timber producers and consumers and to encourage the development of national policies aimed at sustainable utilization and conservation of tropical forests and their genetic resources.
''opened for signature -'' [[November 18]] [[1983]]
''entered into force -'' [[April 1]] [[1985]]; this agreement expired when the [[International Tropical Timber Agreement, 1994]], went into force.
''parties -'' (54) [[Australia]], [[Austria]], [[Belgium]], [[Bolivia]], [[Brazil]], [[Burma]], [[Cameroon]], [[Canada]], [[People's Republic of China]], [[Colombia]], [[Democratic Republic of the Congo]], [[Republic of the Congo]], [[Côte d'Ivoire]], [[Denmark]], [[Ecuador]], [[Egypt]], [[European Union]], [[Fiji]], [[Finland]], [[France]], [[Gabon]], [[Germany]], [[Ghana]], [[Greece]], [[Guyana]], [[Honduras]], [[India]], [[Indonesia]], [[Republic of Ireland|Ireland]], [[Italy]], [[Japan]], [[South Korea]], [[Liberia]], [[Luxembourg]], [[Malaysia]], [[Nepal]], [[Netherlands]], [[New Zealand]], [[Norway]], [[Panama]], [[Papua New Guinea]], [[Peru]], [[Philippines]], [[Portugal]], [[Russia]], [[Spain]], [[Sweden]], [[Switzerland]], [[Thailand]], [[Togo]], [[Trinidad and Tobago]], [[United Kingdom]], [[United States]], [[Venezuela]]
==References==
{{CIA_WFB_2003}}
[[Category:Treaties on the environment]]
[[Category:1985 in law]]
International Tropical Timber Agreement, 1994
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[[Category:1997 in law]]
'''International Tropical Timber Agreement, 1994''' also known as '''Tropical Timber 94''' was drafted to ensure that by the year [[2000]] exports of tropical [[timber]] originated from sustainably managed sources and to establish a fund to assist tropical timber producers in obtaining the resources necessary to reach this objective.
The agreement was opened for signature on [[January 26]] [[1994]] and entered into force on [[January 1]] [[1997]].
''parties'' - (58) [[Australia]], [[Austria]], [[Belgium]], [[Bolivia]], [[Brazil]], [[Burma]], [[Cambodia]], [[Cameroon]], [[Canada]], [[Central African Republic]], [[People's Republic of China]], [[Colombia]], [[Democratic Republic of the Congo]], [[Republic of the Congo]], [[Côte d'Ivoire]], [[Denmark]], [[Ecuador]], [[Egypt]], [[European Union]], [[Fiji]], [[Finland]], [[France]], [[Gabon]], [[Germany]], [[Ghana]], [[Greece]], [[Guyana]], [[Honduras]], [[India]], [[Indonesia]], [[Republic of Ireland|Ireland]], [[Italy]], [[Japan]], [[South Korea]], [[Liberia]], [[Luxembourg]], [[Malaysia]], [[Nepal]], [[Netherlands]], [[New Zealand]], [[Norway]], [[Panama]], [[Papua New Guinea]], [[Peru]], [[Philippines]], [[Portugal]], [[Spain]], [[Suriname]], [[Sweden]], [[Switzerland]], [[Thailand]], [[Togo]], [[Trinidad and Tobago]], [[United Kingdom]], [[United States]], [[Uruguay]], [[Vanuatu]], [[Venezuela]]
==References==
{{CIA_WFB_2003}}
[[Category:Treaties on the environment]]
[[Category:1997 in law]]
Ica
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* [[Ica (city)|Ica]], a city in [[Peru]]
* The [[Ica Region]], also in Peru
* [[Içá]] - a river, [[tributary]] of [[Amazon River]]
* The [[Ica (language)|Ica language]], a Magdalenic [[Chibchan]] language spoken in [[Colombia]]
* [[Independent component analysis]] (mathematics)
* [[ICA]], a [[TLA|three-letter acronym]] with several possible meanings
{{disambig}}
[[de:Ica]]
[[es:Ica]]
[[sv:Ica]]
Instrumental
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:''For the linguistic declension case, see [[Instrumental case]].''
An '''instrumental''' is, in contrast to a [[song]], a [[musical composition]] or piece without [[lyrics]] or any other sort of [[vocal music]]; all of the [[music]] is produced by [[musical instrument]]s. These instruments include anything in the range of [[string instrument|strings]], [[woodwind|woodwinds]], [[brass instrument|brass]], and [[percussion instrument|percussion]]. Specifically, this term is used when referring to [[popular music]]; some [[musical genre]]s make little use of the [[human voice]], such as [[jazz]], [[electronic music]], [[classical music era|classical]], and large amounts of [[Western classical music]] (although in electronic music, the voice can be sampled just like anything else). In commercial music, some tracks or songs on a [[compact disc]] include instrumental tracks. These tracks are exact copies of the corresponding song, but do not have vocals.
== A Cappella ==
[[A cappella]] singing may be considered the opposite of instrumental music: all sounds are produced by the human body without the use of additional instruments. Several genres of [[performance|performances]] may be considered a cappella, like [[opera]]. Sometimes, though, even operas are not completely a cappella.
==See also==
*[[Instrumental rock]]
*[[List of Rock Instrumentals]]
*[[Brass instrument]]
*[[Percussion instrument]]
*[[woodwind|Woodwind instrument]]
*[[A capella]]
[[Category:Instrumentals|*]]
[[fi:Instrumentaalimusiikki]]
[[nl:instrumentale muziek]]
[[pt:Instrumental]]
Icosahedron
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Tomruen
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Reg polyhedra db
{{Reg polyhedra db|Platonic polyhedron stat table|I}}
An '''icosahedron''' [ˌaıkəsə'hiːdrən] ''noun'' (plural: -drons, -dra [-drə]) is
a [[polyhedron]] having 20 faces, but usually a '''regular icosahedron''' is meant, which has faces which are equilateral [[triangle (geometry)|triangle]]s.
[''Etymology'': 16th Century: from Greek eikosaedron, from eikosi twenty + -edron -hedron], "icosa'hedral ''adjective''
__TOC__
[[image:icosahedron flat.png]]
In [[geometry]], the regular icosahedron is one of the five [[Platonic solid]]s. It is a [[convex]] regular [[polyhedron]] composed of [[twenty]] [[triangle (geometry)|triangular]] faces, with [[five]] meeting at each of the [[twelve]] vertices. It has 30 edges.
Its [[dual polyhedron]] is the [[dodecahedron]].
== Area and volume ==
The surface area ''A'' and the [[volume]] ''V'' of a regular icosahedron of edge length ''a'' are:
:<math>A=5\sqrt3a^2</math>
:<math>V=\begin{matrix}{5\over12}\end{matrix}(3+\sqrt5)a^3</math>
<div style="float:left;margin-right:0.5em;">[[image:Icosahedron-golden-rectangles.png|Golden rectangles in an icosahedron]]</div>
==Cartesian coordinates ==
The following [[Cartesian coordinates]] define the vertices of an icosahedron centered at the origin:
: (0, ±1, ±φ)
: (±1, ±φ, 0)
: (±φ, 0, ±1)
where φ = (1+√5)/2 is the [[golden ratio]] (also written τ). Note that these vertices form sets of three mutually [[orthogonal]] [[golden rectangle]]s.
The 12 edges of an [[octahedron]] can be partitioned in the golden ratio so that the resulting vertices define a regular icosahedron. This is done by first placing vectors along the octahedron's edges such that each face is bounded by a cycle, then similarly partitioning each edge into the golden mean along the direction of its vector. The five octahedra defining any given icosahedron form a regular [[polyhedral compound]].
== Geometric relations ==
There are distortions of the icosahedron that, while no longer regular, are nevertheless vertex-uniform. These are [[invariant (mathematics)|invariant]] under the same [[rotation]]s as the [[tetrahedron]], and are somewhat analogous to the [[snub cube]] and [[snub dodecahedron]], including some forms which are [[chirality (mathematics)|chiral]] and some with T<sub>h</sub>-symmetry, i.e. have different planes of symmetry than the tetrahedron. The icosahedron has a large number of [[stellation]]s, including one of the [[Kepler-Poinsot solid]]s and some of the regular compounds, which could be discussed here.
The icosahedron is unique among the Platonic solids in possessing a dihedral angle not less than 120°. Thus, just as hexagons have angles not less than 120° and cannot be used as the faces of a convex regular polyhedron because such a construction would not meet the requirement that at least three faces meet at a vertex and leave a positive [[defect (geometry)|defect]] for folding in three dimensions, icosahedra cannot be used as the [[cell (mathematics)|cells]] of a convex regular [[polychoron]] because, similarly, at least three cells must meet at an edge and leave a positive defect for folding in four dimensions (in general for a convex [[polytope]] in ''n'' dimensions, at least three [[facet (mathematics)|facets]] must meet at a [[ridge (mathematics)|ridge]] and leave a positive defect for folding in ''n''-space). However, when combined with suitable cells having smaller dihedral angles, icosahedra can be used as cells in semi-regular polychora (for example the [[snub 24-cell]]), just as hexagons can be used as faces in semi-regular polyhedra (for example the [[truncated icosahedron]]). Finally, non-convex polytopes do not carry the same strict requirements as convex polytopes, and icosahedra are indeed the cells of the [[icosahedral 120-cell]], one of the ten non-convex regular polychora.
An icosahedron can also be called a [[Gyroelongated dipyramid|gyroelongated pentagonal bipyramid]]. It can be decomposed into a [[gyroelongated pentagonal pyramid]] and a [[pentagonal pyramid]] or into a [[pentagonal antiprism]] and two equal [[pentagonal pyramid]]s.
The icosahedron can also be called a snub tetrahedron, as [[snubification]] of a regular tetrahedron gives a regular icosahedron. Alternatively, using the nomenclature for snub polyhedra that refers to a snub cube as a snub cuboctahedron (cuboctahedron = [[Rectification (geometry)|rectified]] cube) and a snub dodecahedron as a snub icosidodecahedron (icosidodecahedron = rectified dodecahedron), one may call the icosahedron the snub octahedron (octahedron = rectified tetrahedron).
===Icosahedron vs dodecahedron===
Despite appearances, when an icosahedron is inscribed in a [[sphere]], it occupies less of the sphere's volume (60.54%)
than a [[dodecahedron]] inscribed in the same sphere (66.49%).
== Natural forms and uses ==
Many [[virus]]es, e.g. [[herpes]] virus, have the shape of an icosahedron. Viral structures are built of repeated identical [[protein]] subunits and the icosahedron is the easiest shape to assemble using these subunits. A '''regular''' polyhedron is used because it can be built from a single basic unit protein used over and over again; this saves space in the viral [[genome]].
In several [[roleplaying]] games, such as [[D&D]], the twenty-sided die (for short, [[Dice#Non-cubical dice|d20]]) plays a vital role in determining success or failure of an action. This die is in the form of a regular icosahedron.
The die inside of a [[Magic 8-Ball]] that has printed on it 20 answers to yes-no questions is a regular icosahedron.
If each edge of an icosahedron is replaced by a one [[ohm]] [[resistor]], the resistance between opposite vertices is 0.5 ohms, and that between adjacent vertices 11/30 ohms.
==See also==
*[[:Image:Icosahedron.gif|Spinning icosahedron]]
*[[Truncated icosahedron]]
==External links==
*[http://www.mathconsult.ch/showroom/unipoly/ The Uniform Polyhedra]
*[http://www.georgehart.com/virtual-polyhedra/vp.html Virtual Reality Polyhedra] The Encyclopedia of Polyhedra
*[http://www.tulane.edu/~dmsander/WWW/335/335Structure.html] A discussion of viral structure and the icosahedron
*[http://www.korthalsaltes.com/ Paper Models of Polyhedra] Many links
[[Category:Deltahedra]]
[[Category:Platonic solids]]
[[Category:Polyhedra]]
[[ca:Icosàedre]]
[[da:Ikosaeder]]
[[de:Ikosaeder]]
[[es:Icosaedro]]
[[fr:Icosaèdre]]
[[it:Icosaedro]]
[[ja:正二十面体]]
[[ko:%EC%A0%95%EC%9D%B4%EC%8B%AD%EB%A9%B4%EC%B2%B4]]
[[nl:Icosaëder]]
[[pl:Dwudziestościan foremny]]
[[pt:Icosaedro]]
[[ru:Икосаэдр]]
[[sv:Ikosaeder]]
[[fi:Ikosaedri]]
[[zh:正二十面體]]
Integer sequences
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#redirect [[Integer sequence]]
#redirect [[Integer sequence]]
Industrial archaeology of Dartmoor
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The '''[[industrial archaeology]] of [[Dartmoor]]''' covers a number of the industries which have, over the ages, occurred on Dartmoor, and the remaining evidence surrounding them. Currently only a few industries are economically significant, yet all three will inevitably leave their own traces on the moor: china clay mining, farming and tourism. A good general guide to the commercial activities on Dartmoor at the end of the [[19th century]] is [[William Crossing]]'s ''The Dartmoor Worker''.
== Warrens ==
The significance of the term ''[[warren]]'' nowadays is not what it once was. In the [[Middle Ages]] it was a privileged place, and the creatures of the warren were protected by the king 'for his princely delight and pleasure'.
Until early in the [[20th century]], rabbits were kept on a commercial scale, both for their flesh and their fur. The evidence for this is plentiful as there are still extant a number of warrens which are manifestly man-made, and in place names such as Ditsworthy Warren and [[Warren House Inn]]. Also, whilst walking on Dartmoor near one of the many warrens, it is entirely possible that you might accidentally stumble into a [[weasel]]-trap, placed there originally to capture weasels and stoats attempting to get at the rabbits.
The subject of warrening on Dartmoor is addressed in [[Eden Phillpotts]]' story ''The River''.
== Peat-cutting ==
Peat-cutting for fuel occurred at some locations on Dartmoor until certainly the [[1970s]], usually for personal consumption. The right of [[Dartmoor commoners]] to cut peat for fuel is known as ''turbary''. These rights were conferred a long time ago, predating most written records. The area once known as the ''Turbary of Alberysheved'' between the [[River Teign]] and the headwaters of the [[River Bovey]] is mentioned in the Perambulation of the Forest of Dartmoor of [[1240]] (by 1609 the name of the area had changed to Turf Hill).
An attempt was made to commercialise the cutting of peat in [[1901]] at [[Rattle Brook Head]], however this quickly failed.
== Mining ==
In former times, lead, silver, tin and copper were mined extensively on Dartmoor. The most obvious evidence of mining to the casual visitor to Dartmoor are the remains of the old mine-house at [[Wheal Betsy]] which is alongside of the [[A386]] between [[Tavistock]] and [[Okehampton]]. The word ''Wheal'' has a particular meaning in [[Devon]] and [[Cornwall]] being either a [[tin]] or a [[copper]] mine, however in the case of Wheal Betsy it was principally lead and silver which were mined.
Once widely practised by many miners across the moor, by the early 1900s only a few tinners remained, and mining had almost completely ceased twenty years later. Some of the more significant mines were [[Knock Mine]], [[Vitifer Mine]] and [[Hexworthy Mine]].
See also: [[Dartmoor tin-mining]]
== Farming ==
Farming has been practised on Dartmoor since time immemorial. The [[dry-stone wall]]s which separate fields and mark boundaries give an idea of the extent to which the landscape has been shaped by farming. There is little or no arable farming within the moor, mostly being given over to livestock farming on account of the thin and rocky soil. Some Dartmoor farms are remote in the extreme.
== Quarrying ==
Dartmoor granite has been used in many Devon and Cornish buildings. The prison at [[Princetown, England|Princetown]] was built from granite taken from [[Walkhampton Common]]. When the horse tramroad from [[Plymouth]] to [[Princetown, England|Princetown]] was completed in [[1823]], large quantities of granite were more easily transported. Millions of tons were used in the construction of the breakwater protecting [[Plymouth Sound]].
[[Category:Dartmoor]]
Idempotence
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No reason given for removing pronunciation. Also, bolded word and made it a noun per Wikipedia conventions.
{{otheruses4|the mathematical concept of idempotence|the related computing concept|Idempotence (computer science)}}
There are two main definitions of '''idempotence''' ([[International Phonetic Alphabet|IPA]] {{IPA|[ˈaɪdɛmˌpotns/}}, like [[eye]]-dem-potent-s) in [[mathematics]].
*Given a [[binary operation]], an '''idempotent element''' (or simply an '''idempotent''') is something that when multiplied by (for a [[function (mathematics)|function]], composed with) itself, gives itself as a result. For example, the only two [[real number]]s which are idempotent under multiplication are 0 and 1.
*A [[unary operation]] (i.e., a function), is '''idempotent''' if, whenever it is applied twice to any element, it gives the same result as if it were applied once. For example, the [[greatest integer function]] is idempotent as a function from the set of real numbers to the set of [[integer]]s.
*The [[unary operation]] definition is a special case of the [[binary operation]] definition (see below).
== Formal definitions ==
===Binary operation===
If ''S'' is a set with a [[binary operation]] * on it, then an element ''s'' of ''S'' is said to be idempotent (with respect to *) if
:''s'' * ''s'' = ''s''.
In particular, any [[identity element]] is idempotent. If every element of ''S'' is idempotent, then the binary operation * is said to be idempotent. For example, the operations of [[union (set theory)|set union]] and [[intersection (set theory)|set intersection]] are both idempotent.
===Unary operation===
If ''f'' is a [[unary operation]], say ''f'' maps ''X'' to ''X'', then ''f'' is idempotent if, for all ''x'' in ''X'',
:''f''(''f''(''x'')) = ''f''(''x'').
In particular, the [[identity function]] is idempotent, and any [[constant function]] is idempotent as well.
Note that we may consider ''S'', the set of all functions from ''X'' to itself. Then ''f'' is idempotent in the unary sense if and only
if ''f'' is idempotent in the binary sense with respect to [[function composition]] (denoted "o"). This would be written ''f'' o ''f'' = ''f''.
==Common examples==
=== Functions ===
As mentioned above, the identity map and the constant maps are always idempotent maps. Less trivial examples are the [[absolute value]] function of a [[real number|real]] or [[complex number|complex]] argument, and the [[greatest integer function]] of a real argument.
The function which assigns to every subset ''U'' of some [[topological space]] ''X'' the [[closure (topology)|closure]] of ''U'' is idempotent on the [[power set]] of ''X''. It is an example of a [[closure operator]]; all closure operators are idempotent functions.
=== Idempotent ring elements ===
An idempotent element of a [[ring (mathematics)|ring]] is by definition an element that's idempotent with respect to the ring's multiplication. One may define a [[partial order]] on the idempotents of a ring as follows: if ''e'' and ''f'' are idempotents, we write ''e'' ≤ ''f'' [[iff]] ''ef'' = ''fe'' = ''e''. With respect to this order, 0 is the smallest and 1 the largest idempotent.
If ''e'' is idempotent in the ring ''R'', then ''eRe'' is again a ring, with multiplicative identity ''e''.
Two idempotents ''e'' and ''f'' are called ''orthogonal'' if ''ef'' = ''fe'' = 0. In this case, ''e'' + ''f'' is also idempotent, and we have ''e'' ≤ ''e'' + ''f'' and ''f'' ≤ ''e'' + ''f''.
If ''e'' is idempotent in the ring ''R'', then so is ''f'' = 1 − ''e''; ''e'' and ''f'' are orthogonal.
An idempotent ''e'' in ''R'' is called ''central'' if ''ex'' = ''xe'' for all ''x'' in ''R''. In this case, ''Re'' is a ring with multiplicative identity ''e''. The central idempotents of ''R'' are closely related to the decompositions of ''R'' as a [[direct sum]] of rings. If ''R'' is the direct sum of the rings ''R''<sub>1</sub>,...,''R''<sub>''n''</sub>, then the identity elements of the rings ''R''<sub>''i''</sub> are central idempotents in ''R'', pairwise orthogonal, and their sum is 1. Conversely, given central idempotents ''e''<sub>1</sub>,...,''e''<sub>''n''</sub> in ''R'' which are pairwise orthogonal and have sum 1, then ''R'' is the direct sum of the rings ''Re''<sub>1</sub>,...,''Re''<sub>''n''</sub>. So in particular, every central idempotent ''e'' in ''R'' gives rise to a decomposition of ''R'' as a direct sum of ''Re'' and ''R''(1 − ''e'').
Any idempotent ''e'' which is different from 0 and 1 is a [[zero divisor]] (because ''e''(1 − ''e'') = 0). This shows that [[integral domain]]s and [[division ring]]s don't have such idempotents. [[Local ring]]s also don't have such idempotents, but for a different reason. The only idempotent that's contained in the [[Jacobson radical]] of a ring is 0. There is a [[catenoid]] of idempotents in the [[coquaternion]] ring.
A ring in which ''all'' elements are idempotent is called a [[boolean ring]]. It can be shown that in every such ring, multiplication is commutative, and every element is its own [[additive inverse]].
=== Other examples ===
Idempotent operations can be found in [[Boolean algebra]] as well. [[logical conjunction|Logical and]] and [[logical disjunction|logical or]] are both idempotent operations over the elements of the Boolean algebra.
In [[linear algebra]], [[projection (linear algebra)|projection]]s are idempotent. That is, any [[linear transformation]] that projects all vectors onto a subspace V (not necessarily orthogonally) is idempotent, if V itself is pointwise fixed.
An [[idempotent semiring]] is a semiring whose ''addition'' (not multiplication) is idempotent.
==See also==
[[fixed point (mathematics)]]
[[Category:Abstract algebra]]
[[Category:Closure operators]]
[[de:Idempotenz]]
[[es:Idempotente]]
[[it:Idempotenza]]
[[nl:Idempotentie]]
[[ru:Идемпотентный элемент]]
Ithaca, New York
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/* Geography and Climate */
{{mergefrom|Ithaca Commons}}
{{Infobox City |official_name = Ithaca, New York
|nickname=
|image_flag =
|image_seal =
|image_map = LocationOfIthacaNewYork.gif
|mapsize = 150px
|map_caption = Location in [[New York]]
|subdivision_type = [[Countries of the world|Country]]<br> [[Political divisions of the United States|State]]<br> [[List of counties in New York|County]]
|subdivision_name = [[United States]]<br>[[New York]]<br>[[Tompkins County, New York|Tompkins County]]
|leader_title = [[Mayor]]
|leader_name = [[Carolyn Peterson]]
|area_magnitude = 1 E8
|area_total = 6.1 sq. miles / 15.7
|area_land = 5.5 sq. miles / 14.1
|area_water = 0.6 sq. miles / 1.6
|population_as_of = 2000
|population_note =
|population_total = 29,287 (city proper)
|population_density = 2,071.0
|timezone = [[Eastern Standard Time|EST]]
|utc_offset = -5
|timezone_DST = [[Eastern Daylight Time|EDT]]
|utc_offset_DST = -4
|latitude = 42° 26' 36'' N
|longitude = 76° 30' 0'' W
|latd=42 |latm=26 |lats=36 |latNS=N
|longd=76 |longm=30 |longs=0 |longEW=W
|website = [http://www.ci.ithaca.ny.us www.ci.ithaca.ny.us]
|footnotes = }}
The City of '''Ithaca''' (named for the [[Greece|Greek]] island of ''[[Ithaca]]'' in [[Homer]]'s [[Odyssey]]) sits on the southern shore of [[Cayuga Lake]], in [[Central New York|Central]] [[New York State]].
The City of Ithaca is the center of the Ithaca [[metropolitan area]] and county seat of [[Tompkins County, New York]]. As of 2000, the city had a population of 29,287, and the metropolitan area had a population of 100,135. Ithaca is the smallest metropolitan statistical area in New York State.
==History==
The inhabitants of the Ithaca area at the time of European expansion were the [[Sapony tribe|Sapony]] and [[Tutelo tribe|Tutelo]] Indians, dependent tribes of the [[Cayuga tribe|Cayuga Indians]] who formed part of the [[Iroquois|Iroquois confederation]]. These tribes had been allowed to settle on Cayuga-controlled hunting lands at the south end of [[Cayuga Lake]] as well as in Pony (originally Sapony) Hollow of [[Newfield|Newfield, New York]], after being forced from [[North Carolina]] by European expansion. They were driven from the area by the [[Sullivan Expedition]] which destroyed the Tutelo village of Coregonal, located near the junction of state routes [[New York State Highway 13|13]] and [[New York State Highway 13A|13A]] just south of the Ithaca city limits. Indian presence in the current City of Ithaca was limited to a temporary hunting camp at the base of Cascadilla Gorge. The destruction of [[Iroquois|Iroquois confederation]] power opened the region to settlement by people of European origin, a process which began in [[1789]]. In [[1790]], an official program began for distributing land in the area as a reward for service to the American soldiers of the Revolutionary War; most local land titles trace back to the Revolutionary war grants. Lots were drawn in 1791; informal settlement had already started.
As part of this process, the [[Central New York Military Tract]], which included northern Tompkins County, was surveyed by Simeon DeWitt. His clerk [[Robert Harpur]] apparently had a fondness for ancient Greek and Roman history as well as English authors and philosophers (as evidenced by the nearby townships of Dryden and Locke). The Commissioners of Lands of NY State (chairman Gov. George Clinton) followed Harpur's recommendations at a meeting in 1790. The Military Tract township in which proto-Ithaca was located he named Ulysses, the Latin form of the Greek Odysseus from Homer's Odyssey. A few years later DeWitt moved to Ithaca and named it for the Greek island home of Ulysses (still the surrounding township at the time -- nowadays Ulysses is just a town in Tompkins Country). Contrary to popular myth, DeWitt did not name many of the classical references found in upstate NY such as [[Syracuse, New York|Syracuse]] and [[Troy, New York|Troy]]; these were from the general classical fervor of the times. Perhaps because of the name, [[The Odyssey]] is routinely taught to elementary school students in the Ithaca area.
In the [[1820s]] and [[1830]], Ithacans held high hopes of becoming a major city when the primitive Ithaca and Owego Railway was completed in 1832 to connect the [[Erie Canal]] navigation with the Susquehanna River to the south. These hopes survived the depression of [[1837]] when the railroad was re-organized as the Cayuga & Susquehanna and re-engineered with switchbacks in the late 1840's; much of this route is now used by the [[Trails in Ithaca, New York#South_Hill_Recreation_Way | South Hill Recreation Way]]. However, easier routes soon became available, such as the Syracuse, Binghamton & New York (1854). In the decade following the Civil War railroads were built from Ithaca to all surrounding points (Geneva, Cayuga, Cortland, Elmira, Athens PA) mainly with financing from [[Ezra Cornell]]; however the geography of the city has always prevented it from lying on a major transportation artery. When the [[Lehigh Valley Railroad]] built its main line from Pennsylvania to Buffalo in 1890 it bypassed Ithaca (running via eastern [[Schuyler County]] on easier grades), as the [[Delaware, Lackawanna and Western Railroad]] had done in the 1850's. Ithaca became a city in 1888 and remained a small manufacturing and retail center until the recent education boom.
Ithaca was nationally known for the [[Ithaca Gun Company]], makers of highly-valued shotguns, and Ithaca Calender Clocks. The largest industry was the Morse Chain company, still active in [[Lansing]] as BorgWarner Morse. In the post-war decades [[National Cash Register]] and the Langmuir research labs of [[General Electric]] were also major employers.
[[Cornell University]] was founded by [[Ezra Cornell]] in [[1865]]. It was coeducational from its inception, which was extremely unusual at the time. Ezra Cornell also established a [http://rmc.library.cornell.edu/presidents/view_item.php?sec=2&sub=5 public library] for the city. Ithaca College was founded as the Ithaca Conservatory of Music in [[1892]].
During the early 20th century, Ithaca was an important center in the [[silent film]] industry. The most common type of film produced was the cliffhanger [[serial]], and the films often featured the local natural scenery. Many of these films were the work of [[Leopold Wharton]] and his brother [[Theodore Wharton]] in their [[The Whartons|studio]] on the site of what is now Stewart Park. Eventually the film industry centralized in [[Hollywood]], which offered the possibility of year-round filming, and film production in Ithaca effectively ceased. Few of the silent films made in Ithaca are preserved today.
{{Sectstub}}
==Geography and Climate==
[[Image:Cascadilla_Creek_1.jpg|thumb|350px|Cascadilla Creek Gorge as seen from the [[Cornell University]] campus in Winter]]
The valley in which Cayuga Lake is located is long and narrow, with a north-south orientation. Ithaca was founded on flat land just south of the lake — land that formed in fairly recent geological times when silt filled the southern end of the lake. The city ultimately spread to the adjacent hillsides, which rise several hundred feet above the central flats: East Hill, West Hill, and South Hill. Its sides are fairly steep, and a number of the streams that flow into the valley from east or west have cut deep [[gorge]]s, usually with several [[waterfall]]s.
Ithaca experiences a moderate continental climate, with cold, snowy winters and sometimes hot and humid summers. The valley flatland has slightly milder weather in winter, and occasionally Ithacans experience simultaneous snow on the hills and rain in the valley.
The natural vegetation of the Ithaca area, seen in areas unbuilt and unfarmed, is northern [[Temperate broadleaf and mixed forests|temperate broadleaf forest]], dominated by deciduous trees. Among these, [[maple]]s are particularly common. Steep hillsides seen from a distance resemble a curtain of green from late May through September, show bright fall colors in October, and are a display of gray trunks and branches, often with a white snowy background, from November through early May.
The region surrounding Ithaca is dotted with numerous [[wine|wineries]], many of which specialize in the native [[Labrusca]] [[grape]] varietals, although more and more [[vintners]] have started to focus upon the classic [[Vinifera]] styles such as [[Riesling]] and [[Cabernet Franc]]. Despite the relatively short [[growing season]] in the [[Finger Lakes]] [[American Viticultural Area]], [[vineyard|vineyards]] can flourish due to the [[microclimate|microclimates]] created by the impact of the lakes.
[[Image:Cascadilla_creek_spring.jpg|thumb|350px|The gorge of Cascadilla Creek in Spring]]
==The life of the city==
The economy of Ithaca is based on education and manufacturing with high tech and tourism in strong supporting roles. The city is home to [[Cornell University]], which overlooks the town from East Hill, and [[Ithaca College]], similarly situated on South Hill. The [[College town|student population]] is very high, as almost 20,000 students are enrolled at Cornell, with an additional 6,300 students at Ithaca College. The [[Ithaca City School District]], which encompasses Ithaca and the surrounding area, enrolls about 5,500 K-12 students in eight elementary schools, two middle schools, [[Ithaca High School]], and the [[Lehman Alternative Community School]], which provides its students wide-ranging freedom to choose their own curriculum, occasionally resulting in controversy over political content in academic events.
Tourists come largely for the natural scenery, including three gorges within the city limits and three in nearby state parks. Visitors also enjoy [[Cayuga Lake]], numerous [[Trails in Ithaca, New York|hiking, skiing, and bicycling trails]], and visits to wineries in lakeside vineyards found north and west of the city.
With some level of success, Ithaca has tried to maintain a traditional downtown shopping area that includes the [[Ithaca Commons]] pedestrian mall and Center Ithaca, a small mixed-use complex built at the end of the urban renewal era. Therefore, some in the community regret that downtown has lost vitality to two expanding commercial zones to the northeast and southwest of the old city. These areas contain an increasing number of large retail stores and restaurants run by national chains. Others say the chain stores boost local shopping options for residents considerably, many of whom would have previously shopped elsewhere, while increasing sales tax revenue for the city and county. The tradeoff between sprawl and economic development continues to be debated throughout the city and the surrounding area. (Another commercial center, Collegetown, is located next to the Cornell campus. It features a number of restaurants, shops, and bars, and an increasing number of high rise apartments.)
Ithacans support a popular [[farmer's market]][http://www.ithacamarket.com/home.php], professional theaters[http://www.kitchentheatre.org],[http://www.hangartheatre.org],[http://www.icarustheatre.com], a civic [[orchestra]], much parkland, a [http://www.sciencenter.org/ science museum] for children, and a new [http://www.museumoftheearth.org/ paleontological museum]. Ithaca is noted for its annual artistic celebration of community: The Ithaca Festival[http://www.ithacafestival.org]. (The Ithaca Festival Parade[http://www.ithacafestival.org/about/parade.htm] and Circus Eccentrithaca[http://www.ithacafestival.org/about/circus.htm] are legendary!) Another gem is the Constance Saltonstall Foundation for the Arts [http://www.saltonstall.org] which provides grants and Summer Fellowships at the Saltonstall Arts Colony for NYS artists and writers. Ithaca also hosts what is described as the third-largest [[Friends of the Ithaca Library Booksale|used-book sale]] in the United States.
[[Image:ClintonHouseInIthacaNY.jpg|thumb|300px|The [[Clinton House]], a 19th century building in downtown Ithaca]]
Politically, the city's population has a significant [[American liberalism|liberal]] [[Democratic Party (United States)|Democrat]] political tilt, in contrast to the more [[American conservatism|conservative]] leanings of the region of [[Upstate New York]] that surrounds it.
Ithaca has many of the businesses characteristic of small American university towns: used bookstores, art house cinemas, craft stores, and vegetarian restaurants. The collective [[Moosewood Restaurant]], founded in 1973, was the wellspring for a number of vegetarian cookbooks; [[Bon Appetit]] magazine ranked it among the thirteen most influential restaurants of the twentieth century.
The dominant local newspaper in Ithaca is a morning daily, the ''[[Ithaca Journal]]'', founded 1815. The paper is owned by [[Gannett]], Inc., publishers of ''[[USA Today]]''. Other local print publications include the ''[[Ithaca Times]]'', the ''[[Cornell Daily Sun]]'', the ''[[Ithacan]]'', and the ''[[Tattler]]''. (The latter three are run by student staffs at Cornell University, Ithaca College, and Ithaca High School, respectively.) Local residents often subscribe to out-of-town papers as well. The ''[[Post Standard]]'' of [[Syracuse, New York|Syracuse]] and the ''[[New York Times]]'' are popular among many community members.
Ithaca has also pioneered the [[Ithaca Health Fund]], a popular cooperative health insurance. Ithaca is also home to one of the United States' first [[local currency]] systems, [[Ithaca Hours]].
==Local government==
The name "Ithaca" actually designates two governmental entities in the area. The [[Ithaca (town), New York|Town of Ithaca]] is one of the nine towns comprised by [[Tompkins County]]. ("Towns" in New York are something like townships in other states; every county outside New York City is subdivided into towns.) The [[Ithaca (city), New York|City of Ithaca]] is surrounded by, but legally independent of, the Town of Ithaca.
As of December, 2005, the city and town governments have begun discussing opportunities for increased government consolidation, including the possibility of joining the two into a single town or city. The possibility is controversial for town residents who would be forced to pay higher taxes. This topic was last discussed in 1963 and 1969.
Other non-municipal areas within the Town of Ithaca identified by the US Census Bureau as [[census-designated place]]s are:
*[[East Ithaca, New York|East Ithaca]]
*[[Forest Home, New York|Forest Home]]
*[[Northeast Ithaca, New York|Northeast Ithaca]]
*[[Northwest Ithaca, New York|Northwest Ithaca]]
*[[South Hill, New York|South Hill]]
In addition, the Town of Ithaca contains the [[Cayuga Heights|Village of Cayuga Heights]], a small incorporated upper-middle class suburb located to the northeast of the City of Ithaca.
The Town of Ithaca is bordered by other towns of Tompkins County as follows:
*[[Enfield, New York|Enfield]] to the west
*[[Ulysses, New York|Ulysses]] to the northwest
*[[Lansing (town), New York|Lansing]] to the northeast
*[[Dryden (town), New York|Dryden]] to the east
*[[Danby, New York|Danby]] to the south
*[[Newfield, New York|Newfield]] to the southwest
The majority of local property taxes are actually assessed by an entirely independent agency with entirely different borders, the [[Ithaca City School District]].
[[Image:ViewOfEastHillIthacaNY.jpg|thumb|600px|center|The East Hill area of the city: Cornell University campus and Collegetown]]
==Population and income figures==
For census and income data on the two municipalities called "Ithaca" see [[Ithaca (city), New York]] and [[Ithaca (town), New York]].
==Transportation==
[[Image:LocationOfIthacaNewYork.gif|right|299 px|Location of Ithaca within New York State]]
Ithaca is in the rural [[Finger Lakes]] region about 250 miles to the northwest of [[New York City]]; the nearest larger cities, [[Binghamton, New York|Binghamton]] and [[Syracuse, New York|Syracuse]], are an hour's drive away by car.
Ithaca is served by [[Ithaca Tompkins Regional Airport]], located about three miles to the northeast of the city center. [[US Airways Express]] offers flights to [[LaGuardia Airport|New York LaGuardia]] and [[Philadelphia]] using a mixture of small jets and propeller craft. [[Northwest Airlink]] provides twice-daily service to [[Detroit Metropolitan Wayne County Airport|Detroit Metro]] airport. Many residents travel to [[Syracuse Hancock International Airport]], [[Greater Binghamton Airport]], [[Elmira-Corning Regional Airport]] or [[Greater Rochester International Airport]] for more service options.
Ithaca lies at over a half hour's drive from any [[interstate highway]], and all car trips to Ithaca involve at least some driving on two-lane state rural highways. The city is at the convergence of many regional two-lane state highways: Routes [[New York State Highway 13|13]], 13A, 34, 79, 89, 96, 96B, and 366. These are usually not congested except in Ithaca proper. There is frequent intercity bus service by Greyhound, Adirondack Trailways, and Shortline (First Transit), particularly to[[Binghamton, New York|Binghamton]])and [[New York City]], with limited service to [[Rochester, New York|Rochester]], [[Buffalo, New York|Buffalo]] and [[Syracuse, New York|Syracuse]], and (via connections in [[Binghamton, New York|Binghamton]]) to Utica and Albany.
Ithaca is the center of an extensive bus public transportation system — [http://www.tcatbus.com Tompkins Consolidated Area Transit] (TCAT) — which carried 3.1 million passengers in 2005. TCAT was reorganized as a non-profit corporation in 2004 and is primarily supported locally by Cornell University, the City of Ithaca and Tompkins County. TCAT operates thirty nine routes, many run seven days a week. It has frequent service to Cornell, Pyramid Mall, and downtown, but less frequent service to many residental and rural areas, including [[Trumansburg, New York|Trumansburg]] and [[Newfield, New York|Newfield]]. [[Chemung County Transit]] runs weekday commuter routes into [[Schuyler County, New York|Schuyler]] and [[Chemung County, New York|Chemung]] counties, primarily to serve Cornell employees who prefer to live in these rural counties, or are forced to by the high house prices near Ithaca.
GADABOUT Transportation Services, Inc. provides demand -response paratransit service for seniors over 60 and people with disabilities. [http://www.ithacataxi.biz/ Ithaca Dispatch] and Finger Lakes Taxi provide local and regional taxi service. Ithaca Airline Limousine connects to the airport.
Regional short haul freight trains reach Ithaca from Sayre, PA, mainly to deliver coal to the Milliken Power Station halfway up Cayuga Lake. There is no
passenger rail service, although from the 1870's through the 1930's there was service to Buffalo via Geneva, New York City via Wilkes-Barre ([[Lehigh Valley Railroad]]) and Scranton ([[Delaware, Lackawanna and Western Railroad|DL&W]]), Auburn, and the northeast via Cortland; service to Buffalo and New York lasted until 1961.
==Local transportation issues: growing pains==
As a growing urban area, Ithaca is facing steady increases in levels of vehicular traffic on the city grid and on the state highways. Outlying areas have limited bus service, and many people consider a car essential.
However, Ithaca is a walkable and bikeable community for others. One positive trend for the health of downtown Ithaca is the new wave of increasing urban density in and around the Ithaca Commons. But as multi-story mixed-use projects (of offices, hotels, shops, parking and residences) are built, traffic congestion around the Commons will progressively increase.
Unlike most small (or large) urbanized areas in the United States, Ithaca does not have direct access to the [[Interstate highway]] system. In 1968, it was proposed to convert Route 13 from Horseheads to Cortland through Ithaca into a limited access highway (it is currently such for three miles heading north from Ithaca), but the plan lost local and State support.
The City's current emphasis is on traffic management and better using the existing road capacity rather than building new roads. New road-building in any of the congested areas would require substantial condemnation of private property. Some pro-highway critics have argued that this is an ineffective means of dealing with increasing traffic congestion, especially in the City's West end. The [http://www.tompkins-co.org/itctc/ Ithaca-Tompkins County Transportation Council] is the coordinating body for federal and state funded transportation projects covering Ithaca.
Retail development trends in the city have created traffic pressure in neighborhoods. In the late 1990's, the City decided to encourage "big box" retail development in an area known as the Southwest. The near-disappearance of grocery stores from neighborhood areas (replaced by larger stores in the commercial strips) has made it harder for Ithacans without cars to shop for food.
To influence traffic traveling through neighborhoods, the [http://ithaca.govoffice.com/index.asp?Type=NONE&SEC={A32743F9-A812-49AA-8CC6-5BAA46CFF96C} City Government] adopted traffic plans to introduce traffic calming elements on City roads including, traffic tables at intersections, mini traffic circles, traffic humps, and a traffic rotary. The City also rebuilt a long-absent road bridge over Six Mile Creek.
In 2005, Mayor Peterson emphasized pedestrian and bicycle circulation, safety education and traffic enforcement. Highly publicized pedestrian-vehicle and bicycle-vehicle accidents have focused attention on these traffic conflicts. Underfunding of sidewalk construction and maintenance are basic pedestrian infrastructure issues facing the City.
Critics argue that Ithaca's recent traffic projects and policies, and its emphasis on alternative transportation, have funneled money away from badly needed repairs, resurfacing, and winter maintenance for existing roads. The recently constructed “traffic calming devices” are unpopular among many drivers from Ithaca and the surrounding areas, and are a local subject of criticism and satire. Some also assert that recent changes and policies have actually worsened, rather than improved, the traffic congestion situation, and fear that future proposals will do the same.
==Other recent changes and trends==
For decades, the [[Ithaca Gun Company]] tested their shotguns behind the plant on Lake St.; the shot fell into Fall Creek (a tributary of Cayuga Lake) right at the base of Ithaca Falls. A major clean-up effort sponsored by the United States [[Superfund]] took place from 2002 to 2004.
There have been recent significant increases in property values in the City. House shopping is very competitive.
=="Most Enlightened Town in America"==
Ithaca is commonly listed among the most culturally liberal (or, more controversially and presumptuously, "enlightened") of American small cities. It also sometimes receives accolades for having a high overall quality of life. In 2004, ''Cities Ranked and Rated'' named Ithaca the best "emerging city" to live in the United States. The ''[[Utne Reader]]'' named Ithaca "America's most enlightened town" in 1997 [http://cafeutne.org/towns/ithaca.html].
These designations have at times polarized some local residents: some note the recognition with pride, some see it as an indication of decadence, and others feel that it is a narrow view of the community. Some, particularly conservatives, note that the positive press often appears in left-leaning publications, or have more general questions about the methodologies used in determining the designations.
=="Sin City"==
[[Image:ithaca_sodom_road_sign_sm.jpg|frame|Sodom Road, Ithaca NY]]
Displeased with Ithaca's liberal reputation, members of the far-right [[Free Republic]] web discussion group started a satirical campaign to dub Ithaca the "City of Evil" in the early 21st century. The campaign pointed to some of the following facts: in its earliest years during frontier days, Ithaca had a less savory reputation. In addition to the more innocuous name "The Flats," Ithaca was known as [http://www.wlcj.org/nys/ERIE/ithaca.html "Sin City"] and [http://www.epodunk.com/cgi-bin/genInfo.php?locIndex=922 "Sodom"], the name of the Biblical city of sin, due to its reputation as a town of readily-available loose pleasures. These names did not last long; Simeon Dewitt renamed the town Ithaca in the early 1800s. Nevertheless, in a few instances the old names may have lingered to this day. One of the many nearby waterfalls is known as Lucifer Falls. A dead-end road at the top of Snyder Hill a few miles east of Ithaca is named [http://maps.yahoo.com/maps_result?addr=sodom+rd&csz=ithaca%2C+ny&country=us&new=1&name=&qty= "Sodom Road"], although according to the recent reissue of "Place Names in Tompkins County" this road was actually named for a family with the surname "Sodom" sometime in the 1930's.
*[http://www.wlcj.org/nys/ERIE/ithaca.html Sodom, Sin City] (Women's League for Conservative Judaism)
*[http://www.usgennet.org/usa/ny/state/his/bk7/ch7.html Sodom, The Flats, The City] (History of NY State, Tompkins Cty)
*[http://www.epodunk.com/cgi-bin/genInfo.php?locIndex=922 Sodom, The Flats] (Ithaca NY Community Profile)
== Books set (at least partially) in Ithaca ==
*[[Lolita]] by [[Vladimir Nabokov]] (schoolgirl dialog captured on Ithaca city buses)
*[[War Between the Tates]] by [[Alison Lurie]] ('Corinth University', a thinly-disguised portrait of Cornell)
*[[Been Down So Long It Looks Like Up to Me]] by [[Richard Fariña]] ('Mentor University', same as above)
*[[The Widening Stain]] by [[Morris Bishop]]
*[[The Names of the Dead]] by [[Stewart O'Nan]]
*[[Enchantment (novel)|Enchantment]] by [[Orson Scott Card]] (partially set in Ithaca and fictional nearby towns)
*Various [[Kurt Vonnegut]] books have Ithaca references
*[[Fool on the Hill]] by [[Matt Ruff]]
*[[The Emigrants (book)]] by [[W.G. Sebald]]
*[[Tess of the Storm Country]] by [[Grace White]]
==Notable residents and natives==
*[[A.R. Ammons]], resident, [[poet]], [[Cornell University|Cornell]] [[Professor]]
*[[Hans Bethe]], resident, [[physicist]], Nobel Prize winner, Cornell Professor, head of theoretical division of the [[Manhattan Project]]
*[[Adam C. Engst]], native, resident, publisher of [[TidBITS]] and Take Control ebook series
*[[Richard Feynman]], resident, [[physicist]], Cornell Professor, Nobel Prize winner
*[[Greg Graffin]], resident, musician, lead singer of Bad Religion
*[[Alex Haley]], native, author of ''[[Roots: The Saga of an American Family]]'' and the ''[[Autobiography of Malcolm X]]''
*[[Karel Husa]], resident, composer
*[[David Lehman]], resident, [[poet]]
*[[Mary McDonnell]], native, actor in [[Dances With Wolves]], [[Independence Day]], and others
*[[Vladimir Nabokov]], resident, Cornell Professor, author (most famously of ''[[Lolita]]'')
*[[Roy H. Park]], resident, media executive, founder of Park Communications and the Park Foundation
*[[Hank Roberts]], resident, cellist and composer
*[[Carl Sagan]], resident, astronomer, Cornell Professor, popularizer of science, and author and host of ''[[Cosmos: A Personal Voyage|Cosmos]]''
*[[Rod Serling]], resident, professor, screenwriter, creator and host of ''[[The Twilight Zone]]''
*[[Steve Squyres]], resident, [[astronomer]], Cornell Professor, Principal Investigator of the [[Mars Exploration Rover Mission]]
*[[Steven Stucky]], resident, classical American composer, Cornell Professor, Pulitzer Prize winner
*[[David Foster Wallace]], native, [[novelist]]
*[[E.B. White]], resident, [[novelist]], author of [[Charlotte's Web]] and co-author of [[The Elements of Style]]
*[[Robert R. Wilson]], resident, [[physicist]], head of the [[Cyclotron]] group of the [[Manhattan Project]]
*[[Paul Wolfowitz]], native, academic, [[Deputy Secretary of Defense]] (2001-2005), President of the [[World Bank]] (2005-)
==Points of interest==
* [[Cornell Plantations]]
* [[Cornell University]]
* [[Ithaca College]]
* [[F.R. Newman Arboretum]]
* [http://www.priweb.org/ Paleontological Research Institution's Museum of the Earth]
==Nearby Parks, Major Trails, and Outdoor Recreation==
The Ithaca area is home to beautiful outdoor recreation, including an extensive system of pedestrian, hiking, skiing, snowmobile, and bicycling trails. See [[Trails in Ithaca, New York]].
==External links==
*{{wikitravelpar|Ithaca}}
*[http://www.sciencenter.org/SaganPW/ Carl Sagan Planet Walk]
*[http://home.hetnet.nl/~fatcat/railways.htm History of Ithaca railways]
*[http://home.hetnet.nl/~fatcat/street.htm History and Remnants of the Ithaca trolley system]
*[http://www.ithacadirectory.com Ithaca Website Directory]
== See Also ==
* [[List of Registered Historic Places in New York]]
{{New York}}
[[Category:Ithaca, New York| ]]
[[de:Ithaca]]
[[eo:Ithaca (Nov-Jorkio)]]
[[fr:Ithaca (New York)]]
[[sv:Ithaca]]
Ivy League
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{| border="1" cellpadding="2" cellspacing="0" align="right" style="margin:0.5em;"
!colspan="2" align=center bgcolor="#006600" | <font color="#FFFFFF">'''Ivy League'''
|-
|colspan="2" align=center | [[Image:IvyLeague 100.png|Ivy League]]
|-
!colspan="2" align=center bgcolor="#006600" | <font color="#FFFFFF">'''Data'''
|-
|Established || 1954
|-
|Members || 8
|-
|Continent || [[North America]]
|-
|Country || [[United States]]
|-
|University type || [[Private school|Private]]
|-
|Other names || Ancient Eight
|-
|}
The '''Ivy League''' [[athletic conference]], founded in 1954, consists of eight private [[university|institutions of higher education]] located in the eastern [[United States]]. The term, with its connotations of academic excellence, selectivity in admissions, and a certain amount of [[academic elitism]], dates back to at least 1935{{ref|early_usage}}.
On [[December 3]], [[1937]], the first major effort to formally organize the league was made by editors of seven student-run dailies at universities in the Eastern United States. They made a concerted effort for "the formation of an Ivy League" by simultaneously running an editorial, entitled "Now Is the Time", after having held one-month-long discussions about the proposal{{ref|student_effort_to_organize}}.
All of the Ivy League institutions share some general characteristics: They are among the most prestigious and selective schools in the [[United States|U.S.]], they consistently place close to the top of [[college and university rankings]]; they rank within the top one percent of the world's academic institutions in terms of financial endowment; they attract top-tier students and faculty; and they have relatively small undergraduate populations, ranging between 4,078 for [[Dartmouth College]] and 13,700 for [[Cornell University]] and modestly sized graduate student populations, ranging between 1,666 for Dartmouth and 14,692 for [[Columbia University|Columbia]]. Seven of the eight schools ([[Cornell University]] being the exception) were founded during America's colonial period. Ivy League institutions, therefore, account for seven of the [[Colonial colleges|nine colleges]] chartered before the American Revolution. The Ivies also are all located in the [[U.S. Northeast|Northeast]] region of the [[United States]]. Notably, the Ivies also prohibit the offering of athletic scholarships to students in most cases; this ban differentiates Ivy teams from those of schools that permit students to receive scholarships to attend or to join a team.
The Ivy League institutions are [[private school|privately]] owned and controlled. Although many of them receive funding from the federal or state governments to pursue research, only [[Cornell University|Cornell]] has state-supported academic units, termed [[statutory college]]s, that are an integral part of the institution. Several other prestigous American instituitons are considered to be of Ivy League caliber including [[Stanford University]], [[Duke University]], [[Massachusetts Institute of Technology]], [[Caltech]], and [[Rice University]], among others.
==Members==
The members of the Ivy League are<!-- in alphabetical order-->:
{| class="wikitable"
!Institution
!Location
!School type
!Current religious affiliation
!Founding religious affiliation
!Full time enrollment
!Founded
|-
|[[Brown University]]
|[[Providence, Rhode Island]]
|Private
|Nonsectarian
|[[Baptist]] ([[Sabbatarianism|Sabbatarian]])
|7,595
|1764 as ''College of Rhode Island''
|-
|[[Columbia University|Columbia University]]
|[[New York City|New York, New York]]
|Private
|Nonsectarian
|[[Anglicanism|Anglican]]
|23,813
|1754 as ''[[King's College]]''
|-
|[[Cornell University]]
|[[Ithaca, New York]]
|Private
|Nonsectarian
|Nonsectarian
|20,299
|1865
|-
|[[Dartmouth College]]
|[[Hanover, New Hampshire]]
|Private
|Nonsectarian
|[[Puritan]] / [[Congregational church|Congregationalist]]
|5,744
|1769
|-
|[[Harvard University]]
|[[Cambridge, Massachusetts]]
|Private
|Nonsectarian
|[[Puritan]] / [[Congregational church|Congregationalist]]; sided with the [[Unitarian]]s in their 1825 split from Congregationalists
|19,779
|1636 as ''New College'', named ''[[Harvard College]]'' in 1638
|-
|[[Princeton University]]
|[[Princeton, New Jersey|Princeton Borough and Princeton Township, New Jersey]]
|Private
|Nonsectarian
|[[Presbyterianism|Presbyterian]]
|6,831
|1746 as ''College of New Jersey''
|-
|[[University of Pennsylvania]]
|[[Philadelphia, Pennsylvania]]
|Private
|Nonsectarian
|[[Religious Society of Friends|Quaker]]
|23,305
|1740
|-
|[[Yale University]]
|[[New Haven, Connecticut]]
|Private
|Nonsectarian
|[[Puritan]] / [[Congregational church|Congregationalist]]
|11,359
|1701 as ''Collegiate School''
|}
==Shields and mottos==
<gallery>
Image:Brown Coat of Arms.png|[[Brown University|Brown]] <br> ''In deo speramus'' <br> ("In God we hope")
Image:Cu-shield.png|[[Columbia University|Columbia]] <br> ''In lumine Tuo videbimus lumen'' <br> ("In Thy light shall we see light")
Image:Cornell_emblem.png|[[Cornell University|Cornell]] <br> "I would found an institution where any person can find instruction in any study"
Image:Dartmouth Shield.png|[[Dartmouth College|Dartmouth]] <br> ''Vox clamantis in deserto'' <br> ("The voice of one crying out in the wilderness")
Image:Harvard_shield-University.png|[[Harvard University|Harvard]] <br> ''Veritas'' <br> ("Truth")
Image:PennArms.png|[[University of Pennsylvania|Penn]] <br> ''Leges sine moribus vanae'' <br> ("Laws without morals are useless")
Image:PrincetonShield.gif|[[Princeton University|Princeton]] <br> ''Dei sub numine viget'' <br> ("Under God's power she flourishes")
Image:Official Yale Shield.png|[[Yale University|Yale]] <br> ''[[Urim and Thummim|אורים ותמים]]'' <br> ''Lux et veritas'' <br> ("Light and truth")
</gallery>
== Terminology ==
Named after the [[ivy]] plants that traditionally cover their historic buildings, the term Ivy League was first coined informally to refer to these institutions of [[higher education]] which compete in both [[scholastics]] and [[sport]]s. Formally, it also refers to the association of these schools in [[NCAA]] [[Division I]] [[College Athletic Conference|athletic]] competition. The Ivy League universities are often simply called the '''Ivies''' or, affectionately, the '''Ancient Eight'''.
Some attribute the name to the Roman numerals for four (IV), asserting that there was such a sports league originally with four members. The ''Morris Dictionary of Word and Phrase Origins'' helped to perpetuate this belief. The supposed "IV League" was formed over a century ago and consisted of Harvard, Yale, Princeton, and a 4th school that varies depending on who is telling the story. [http://www.chipublib.org/008subject/005genref/faqiv.html]
[http://ezra.cornell.edu/posting.php?timestamp=1124946000]
[http://badgerherald.com/news/2003/03/03/origins_of_the_term_.php]
[http://www.upenn.edu/pennnews/current/2002/101702/askbenny.html]
The term "Ivy League" refers strictly to the original eight universities. However, the prestige associated with the Ivy League has given rise to associative terms meant to imply perceived preeminence within other various realms of American higher education: "[[Jesuit Ivy]]", "[[Little Ivies]]", "[[Public Ivies]]", etc. These terms are strictly [[colloquial]] and have no relation to the original eight schools.
==History==
The Ivies and their founders share a common heritage. In England, dissident scholars from the [[University of Oxford]] founded the [[University of Cambridge]]. A University of Cambridge alumnus, [[John Harvard (clergyman)|John Harvard]], bequeathed in his will a large donation to New College, which became Harvard University. Ten alumni of Harvard founded Yale, and other Harvard alumni, such as minister [[Increase Mather]] and his son [[Cotton Mather]], nurtured its development. Alumni of Yale founded (or co-founded) other future Ivy League institutions: Princeton University by [[Jonathan Dickinson (of New Jersey)|Jonathan Dickinson]] , Dartmouth College by [[Eleazar Wheelock]], and Cornell University by [[Andrew Dickson White]]. [[James Manning]], an alumnus from Princeton, co-founded Brown University. Clergymen of an [[Episcopal]]ian church in New York City became alarmed by the [[Presbyterian]] founding of Princeton University (then known as the ''College of New Jersey'') [http://beatl.barnard.columbia.edu/kingsv1/biosketches.htm]. They established their own "rival" institution, ''King's College'' (Columbia University), and elected as its first president a Yale alumnus named [[Samuel Johnson (1696-1772)|Samuel Johnson]], who also served as the sole faculty member in the college's early days. When ''King's College'' was renamed to ''Columbia College'' in [[1784]], Johnson's son [[William Samuel Johnson]], also a Yale alumnus, became its president. After the University of Pennsylvania opened, its founder [[Benjamin Franklin]] received [[honorary degree]]s from Harvard and Yale in [[1753]] and an honorary doctorate from the University of Oxford in [[1762]] [http://www.gophila.com/Go/PressRoom/pressreleases/ben300/Resume_Ben_Franklin_Fact_Sheet.aspx].
The Ivies have been competing in sports as long as intercollegiate sports have existed in the United States. Boat clubs from Harvard and Yale met in the first sporting event held between students of two U.S. colleges on [[Lake Winnipesaukee]], [[New Hampshire]], in [[1852]]. As an informal [[American football|football]] league, the Ivy League dates from [[1900]] when [[Yale University|Yale]] took the conference championship with a 5-0 record. For many years Army (the [[United States Military Academy]]), Navy (the [[United States Naval Academy]]), and to a lesser extent [[Rutgers University|Rutgers]] were considered members, but dropped out shortly before formal organization. For instance, Army traditionally had a rivalry with Yale, and Rutgers had rivalries with Princeton and Columbia, which continue today in sports other than [[football]].
Before the formal formation of the Ivy League, there was an "unwritten and unspoken agreement among certain Eastern colleges on athletic relations". In [[1935]], [[The Associated Press]] reported on an example of collaboration between the schools:
<blockquote>''the athletic authorities of the so-called "Ivy League" are considering drastic measures to curb the increasing tendency toward riotous attacks on goal posts and other encroachments by spectators on playing fields.{{ref|early_cooperation}}''</blockquote>
Despite such collaboration, the universities did not seem to consider the formation of the league as imminent. [[Romeyn Berry]], Cornell's director of intercollegiate relations, reported the situation in January [[1936]] as follows:
<blockquote>''I can say with certainty that in the last five years — and markedly in the last three months — there has been a strong drift among the eight or ten universities of the East which see a good deal of one another in sport toward a closer bond of confidence and cooperation and toward the formation of a common front against the threat of a breakdown in the ideals of amateur sport in the interests of supposed expediency.''</blockquote>
<blockquote>''Please do not regard that statement as implying the organization of an Eastern conference or even a poetic "Ivy League." That sort of thing does not seem to be in the cards at the moment.''{{ref|unspoken_agreement}}</blockquote>
Within a year of this statement, on [[December 3]], [[1936]], the idea of an Ivy League gained enough traction among the undergraduate bodies of the universities that the ''[[Columbia Daily Spectator]]'', ''[[The Cornell Daily Sun]]'', ''[[The Dartmouth]]'', ''[[The Harvard Crimson]]'', ''[[The Daily Pennsylvanian]]'', ''[[The Daily Princetonian]]'' and the ''[[Yale Daily News]]'' would simultaneously run an editorial encouraging the seven universities to form the league in an effort to preserve the ideals of athletics. Part of the editorial read as follows:
<blockquote>
''The Ivy League exists already in the minds of a good many of those connected with football, and we fail to see why the seven schools concerned should be satisfied to let it exist as a purely nebulous entity where there are so many practical benefits which would be possible under definite organized association. The seven colleges involved fall naturally together by reason of their common interests and similar general standards and by dint of their established national reputation they are in a particularly advantageous position to assume leadership for the preservation of the ideals of intercollegiate athletics.''
</blockquote>
The proposal did not succeed — on [[January 11]], [[1937]], the athletic authorities at the schools rejected the "possibility of a heptagonal league in football such as these institutions maintain in basketball, baseball and track". However, they noted that the league "has such promising possibilities that it may not be dismissed and must be the subject of further consideration".{{ref|ivy_proposal_rejected}}
In [[1945]] the presidents of the eight schools signed the first '''Ivy Group Agreement''', which set academic, financial, and athletic standards for the [[American football|football]] teams. The principles established reiterated those put forward in the Harvard-Yale-Princeton Presidents' Agreement of [[1916]].
In [[1954]], the date generally accepted as the birth of the Ivy League, the presidents extended the Ivy Group Agreement to all intercollegiate sports. Competition began with the [[1956]] season.
As late as the [[1960s]] many of the Ivy League universities' undergraduate programs remained open only to men, with Cornell the only one to have been coeducational from its founding (1865) and Columbia being the last (1983) to become [[coeducation]]al. Before they became coeducational, many of the Ivy schools maintained extensive social ties with nearby [[Seven Sisters (colleges)|Seven Sisters]] [[women's college]]s, including weekend visits, dances and parties inviting Ivy and Seven Sisters students to mingle. This was the case not only at [[Barnard College]] and [[Radcliffe College]], which were situated very near to Columbia and Harvard, but at more distant institutions as well. The movie ''[[Animal House]]'' includes a satiric version of the formerly common visits by Dartmouth men to Massachusetts to meet [[Smith College|Smith]] and [[Mount Holyoke College|Mount Holyoke]] women, a drive of more than two hours. Some sources suggest that the Seven Sisters group was so named as a parallel to the Ivy League. [http://www.ed.gov/offices/OERI/PLLI/webreprt.html]
==Reputation==
All Ivy League schools are known for their highly selective undergraduate programs, and acceptance rates now range from 9.1% for Harvard to 26.1% for Cornell.
In most [[college and university rankings]], all or almost all of the Ivy League schools rank in the top tier. The ranking of the schools is greatly dependent on what each survey places the most weight, such as average class size, volume of research, and faculty accolades.
==Endowments==
===Total Endowment Wealth===
The Ivy League schools are among the wealthiest private universities in the U.S., a status commensurate with their ages and long-standing relationships with the highest echelons of American society. All of the Ivy League schools have [[financial endowment]]s over $1 billion.[http://www.philly.com/mld/inquirer/business/personal_finance/7774843.htm] Harvard, with a $25.5 billion endowment (as of [[2005]]), is the wealthiest university in the world.[http://www.thecrimson.com/article.aspx?ref=503347] Yale, with an endowment size of $15.2 billion (2005 value), is the second-wealthiest, and Princeton, with $11.2 billion, is fifth. Next within the Ivy League comes Columbia with $5.2 billion, Penn with $4.4 billion, Cornell with $3.8 billion, Dartmouth with $2.7 billion, and Brown with $2.0 billion.
For comparison purposes, other elite private American universities' endowments are: Stanford ($12.4 billion), MIT ($6.7 billion), Emory ($4.4 billion) and University of Chicago ($4.1 billion). Internationally, most other elite schools are publicly owned and financed institutions (University of Tokyo, the French [[Grandes écoles]]). In Britain, Oxford and Cambridge universities have endowments of approximately $6.0 billion and $4.0 billion respectively.
===Per Capita Endowment===
Princeton, the wealthiest institution in the country on a per capita basis, has a per-student endowment of $1.64 million, followed by Yale with $1.34 million, Harvard with $1.29 million, Dartmouth with $470,000, Brown with $263,000, Columbia with $218,000, Penn with $189,000, and Cornell with $187,000.
==Land ownership==
''(In alphabetical order)''
*Brown owns 143 acres (0.6 km²) in urban Providence and the 375 acre (1.5 km²) Mount Hope Grant in Bristol.
*Columbia owns over 82 acres (0.33 km²) in Manhattan, which consists of the 36 acre (0.14 km²) campus in Morningside Heights, the 26 acre (0.1 km²) Baker Field athletic complex, and a 20 acre (0.09 km²) health sciences campus, as well as numerous individual buildings and properties. It is notably among the largest private landowners in New York City, third after the city itself and the [[Catholic Church]]. Columbia also operates the 157 acre (0.64 km²) [[Lamont Doherty Earth Observatory]] in the [[New York Palisades]], and the 500 acre [[Harriman Estate]] ("Arden House") in a northern suburb of New York City, [[Orange County, New York|Orange County]].
*Cornell has the largest campus in the Ivy League with 745 acres (3 km²) of property in [[Upstate New York]].
*Dartmouth, the largest Ivy landowner overall, owns 265 acres (1.1 km²) on its main campus in [[Hanover, New Hampshire]], and over 31,000 acres (109 km²)[http://www.dartmouth.edu/~doc/secondcollegegrant/] in the rest of New Hampshire, making it the largest private New Hampshire landowner as well.
*Harvard owns nearly 571 acres (2.3 km²) in an urban setting (220 in Cambridge[http://thecrimson.com/article.aspx?ref=254361] and 352 directly across the river in Boston[http://www.news.harvard.edu/gazette/daily/2005/10/24-allstonfaq.html]) as well as holding a 1000-year lease (ending in 2882) on the 265 acres of the [[Arnold Arboretum]] also in Boston[http://www.arboretum.harvard.edu/aboutus/history.html].
*Princeton owns 600 acres (2.4 km²) in a suburban environment.
*The University of Pennsylvania has a core campus of 269 acres (1.1 km²), a 92 acre arboretum in northwestern Philadelphia and a 690 acre veterinary research complex in suburban Philadelphia.
*Yale has a core campus of 260 acres (1.1 km²) in an urban setting, 515 acres in a nature preserve and golf course, 100 acres in athletic fields, and 30 acres in off-campus residential land
==Cooperation==
Seven of the eight schools (Harvard excluded) participate in the Borrow Direct [[interlibrary loan]] program, making a total of 40 million items available to participants with a waiting period of four working days. This ILL program is not affiliated with the formal Ivy arrangement.
==Athletics & competition==
Ivy champions are crowned in 33 men's and women's sports. In some sports, Ivy teams actually compete as members of another league, the Ivy championship being decided by isolating the members' records in play against each other. (For example, the six league members who participate in [[ice hockey]] do so as members of the [[ECAC Hockey League]]; but an Ivy champion is extrapolated each year.) Unlike all other Division I [[basketball]] conferences, the Ivy League has no tournament for the league title; the school with the best conference record represents the conference in the Division I NCAA Basketball Tournament (with a playoff in the case of a tie).
On average, each Ivy school has more than 35 varsity teams. All eight are in the top 20 for number of sports offered for both men and women among Division I schools. In some sports, notably baseball and tennis, the Ivy League teams also frequently compete against [[United States Military Academy|Army]] and [[United States Naval Academy|Navy]].
Harvard and Yale are celebrated [[American football|football]] and [[sport rowing|crew]] rivals. Penn and Cornell are football rivals. Columbia and Princeton have a rivalry that goes back to the fourth college football game ever played. Princeton and Penn are mainly basketball rivals. Cornell and Harvard are hockey rivals. Unlike most Division I athletic conferences, the Ivy League prohibits the granting of athletic scholarships; all scholarships awarded are need-based ([[financial aid]]) [http://www.ivyleaguesports.com/whatisivy/index.asp]. Since there is no outright athletic scholarship program, the schools are typically less competitive in football and basketball, even when compared to universities with comparably rigorous academic standards.
In the time before recruiting for college sports became dominated by those offering athletic scholarships, the Ivy League was successful in many sports relative to other universities in the country. In particular, Princeton won 24 recognized national championships in [[college football]], and Yale won 19. Both of these totals are considerably higher than those of other historically strong programs such as [[University of Notre Dame|Notre Dame]], which has won 12, and [[University of Southern California|USC]], which has won 10. Of course, Ivy League schools never win national championships anymore.Yale, who holds the record for most national football championships, hasn't won a national championship in decades. Yale, whose coach [[Walter Camp]] was the "Father of American Football," held on to its place as the all-time wins leader in college football throughout the entire [[20th century]], but was finally passed by [[University of Michigan|Michigan]] on [[November 10]], [[2001]].
Although no longer as successful nationally as they once were in many of the more popular college sports, the Ivy League is still competitive in others. One such example is [[college rowing (United States)|rowing]]. All of the Ivies have historically been among the top crews in the nation, and most continue to be so today. (Other historical top crews include [[University of California, Berkeley|Cal]], [[University of Washington|Washington]],[[University of Wisconsin|Wisconsin]] and [[Naval Academy|Navy]]). Most recently, on the men's side, Harvard won the [[Intercollegiate Rowing Association]] Championships the last three years in a row (2003, 2004, 2005), and on the women's side, Harvard and Brown won the 2003 and 2004 [[NCAA Rowing Championships]], respectively.
===Athletic logos===
<gallery>
Image:Brown 2440.gif|<center>Brown Bears</center>
Image:SmallLionLogo.jpg|<center>Columbia Lions</center>
Image:Corne 2461.gif|<center>[[Cornell Big Red]]</center>
Image:Logo dartmouth.jpg|<center>Dartmouth Big Green</center>
Image:Harvard shield-University.png|<center>Harvard Crimson</center>
Image:PennsylvaniaQuakers2.gif|<center>Penn Quakers</center>
Image:Prn240.gif|<center>Princeton Tigers</center>
Image:Yale bulldog y logo.jpg|<center>Yale Bulldogs</center>
</gallery>
===Conference stadia===
{| border="2" cellpadding="5"
|-
!School
!Football stadium
!Stadium capacity
!Basketball arena
!Arena capacity
|-
|Brown
|[[Brown Stadium]]
|20,000
|[[Pizzitola Sports Center]]
|2,800
|-
|Columbia
|[[Lawrence A. Wien Stadium|Wien Stadium]]
|17,000
|[[Levien Gymnasium]]
|3,408
|-
|Cornell
|[[Schoellkopf Field]]
|25,597
|[[Newman Arena]]
|4,473
|-
|Dartmouth
|[[Memorial Stadium (Dartmouth)|Memorial Field]]
|20,000
|[[Leede Arena]]
|2,100
|-
|Harvard
|[[Harvard Stadium]]
|30,898
|[[Lavietes Pavilion]]
|2,195
|-
|Penn
|[[Franklin Field]]
|52,593
|The [[Palestra]]
|8,700
|-
|Princeton
|[[Princeton Stadium]]
|27,800
|[[Jadwin Gymnasium]]
|6,854
|-
|Yale
|[[Yale Bowl]]
|64,269
|[[Payne Whitney Gym]]
|3,100
|}
Although the Ivy League is usually regarded as a cohesive group from the outside, there is a considerable amount of internal academic rivalry and competition among its eight members. Among these elite universities, there is a heated competition for students. In [[2002]], admissions officers at Princeton logged into the Yale admissions website to view the admissions status of cross-applicants, using the names, birthdates, and social security numbers indicated on their [[Princeton University|Princeton]] applications [http://www.dailyprincetonian.com/archives/2002/05/17/news/5201.shtml]. Yale's administration notified the [[FBI]] about the actions after conducting its own investigation. Princeton moved one admissions official to a different department over the incident and the university's Dean of Admissions retired soon thereafter.
==References==
#{{note|early_usage}} {{news reference
| author=The Associated Press
| title=Yale Jinx Overcome, Dartmouth Now Seeks To Break Spell Cast by Princeton Teams
| org=The New York Times
| page=35
| date=1935-10-5
}}
#{{note|student_effort_to_organize}} {{news reference
| title = Immediate Formation of Ivy League Advocated at Seven Eastern Colleges
| org = The New York Times
| page = 33
| date = 1936-12-3
}}
#{{note|early_cooperation}} {{news reference
| author = The Associated Press
| title = Colleges Searching for Check On Trend to Goal Post Riots
| org = The New York Times
| page = 33
| date = 1935-12-6
}}
#{{note|unspoken_agreement}} {{news reference
| author = Robert F. Kelley
| title = Cornell Club Here Welcomes Lynah
| org = The New York Times
| page = 22
| date = 1936-1-17
}}
#{{note|ivy_proposal_rejected}} {{news reference
| title = Plea for an Ivy Football League Rejected by College Authorities
| org = The New York Times
| page = 26
| date = 1937-1-12
}}
# ''U.S. News and World Report'' 1993 College Guide - June 4, 1993.
# ''StudentsReview Official Rankings'' - Jan 1, 2005.
==See also==
* [[Colonial colleges]]
* [[Jesuit Ivy]]
* [[Little Ivies]]
* [[Oxbridge]]
* [[Public Ivies]]
* [[Southern Ivies]]
* [[Seven Sisters (colleges)|Seven Sisters]]
* [[Ivy League business schools]]
==External links==
*[http://www.ivyleaguesports.com Ivy League Sports Official Website]
*[http://www.ivysport.com/history.php Ivy League History at Ivysport]
*[http://www.ivysport.com Ivy League sanctioned apparel]
{{Ivy League}}
[[Category:College athletics conferences]]
[[Category:Ivy League| ]]
[[Category:Lists of universities and colleges in the United States|*]]
[[da:Ivy League]]
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[[fr:Ivy League]]
[[ko:아이비리그]]
[[id:Ivy League]]
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[[he:ליגת הקיסוס]]
[[ka:აივი ლიგა]]
[[nl:Ivy League]]
[[ja:アイヴィー・リーグ]]
[[pl:Liga Bluszczowa]]
[[ru:Лига плюща]]
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Ithaca Hours
14976
42115505
2006-03-03T22:47:02Z
Paglo
556925
/* Economic Development */
[[Image:Ithaca Hours-One Eighth.jpg|thumb|350px|right|An Eighth Hour, part of the local currency system of Ithaca, NY.]]
'''Ithaca Hours''' is a [[local currency]] in [[Ithaca, New York]]. It is credited as the first modern [[local currency]] and has inspired similar systems throughout the world.
It is notable as one of three [[monetary reform]] measures named as viable alternatives to [[Bretton Woods system]] by [[United Nations]] conferences (the other two being [[UNILETS]] and the [[Global Resource Bank]]).
== How It Started ==
While doing research into local economics during 1989, [[Paul Glover]] had seen an "Hour" note [[19th century]] British industrialist [[Robert Owen]] issued to his workers for spending at his company store. After '''Ithaca Hours''' began, he discovered that Owen's Hours were based on [[Josiah Warren]]'s "Time Store" notes of [[1827]].
In May of [[1991]], local student Patrice Jennings interviewed [[Paul Glover]] about the Ithaca [[LETS]] system. This conversation strongly reinforced his interest in trade systems.
Within a few days, he had designs for the HOUR and Half HOUR notes. At [[GreenStar Cooperative Market]], [[Paul Glover]] approached Gary Fine, a local massage therapist, with photocopied samples. He said "Sure," and put the first signature on a sign-up sheet of people willing to accept HOURS. Later Jim Rohrrsen of Papa Jim's toys became the first retailer to sign-up to accept Ithaca HOURS.
During the next four months, 90 people provided 262 offers and requests. They all agreed to accept HOURS, without waiting for a business plan or guarantee. Emboldened, [[Paul Glover]] began to ask for small donations to help pay for printing HOURS.
Fine Line Printing completed the first run of 1,500 HOURS and 1,500 Half HOURS in October, [[1991]]. These notes, the first modern local currency, were nearly twice as large as the current Ithaca HOURS. Because they didn't fit well in people's wallets, almost all of the original notes have been removed from circulation.
The first issue of Ithaca Money was printed at Our Press in Chenango Bridge, NY, on [[October 16]], [[1991]]. The next day [[Paul Glover]] issued 10 HOURS to Ithaca Hours, the organization he founded to run the system, as the first of four reimbursements for the cost of printing HOURS. The day after that, [[October 18]], 382 HOURS were disbursed and prepared for mailing to the first 93 pioneers.
On [[October 19]], [[1991]], [[Paul Glover]] bought a [[samosa|samoza]] from Catherine Martinez at the Farmers' Market with Half HOUR #751--the first use of an HOUR. Several other Market vendors enrolled that day.
Stacks of the Ithaca Money newspaper were distributed all over town with an invitation to "join the fun". Sign-up forms from Ithaca Money poured in, the first from fiddler Laurie Hart.
A Barter Potluck was held at [[Greater Ithaca Activities Center|GIAC]] on [[November 12]], [[1991]], the first of many monthly gatherings where food and skills were exchanged, friendships made and acquaintances renewed.
The [[Ithaca Journal]] did a fine introductory article about HOURS, followed by a short interview with Casey Stevens on Radio WHCU and stories in the [[Syracuse Post-Standard]], The Grapevine, the [[Cornell Daily Sun]], and the [[Ithaca Times]]. Patrice Jennings, a founding member of the HOURS Advisory Board, was featured on a TV story done by WICB.
In January of [[1992]], ten days after the Farmers' Market closed for the season and only 46 days after the first Ithaca HOURS went into circulation, [[GreenStar Cooperative Market]] burned down. Local food vendors selling through GreenStar quickly organized a Mini-Market on Henry St. Johns school, and most of them decided to accept HOURS. This provided HOURS with a midwinter food base right from the beginning.
== Transition to a Board ==
The Advisory Board incorporated the Ithaca HOUR system as Ithaca Hours, Inc. in October [[1998]], and hosted the first elections for Board of Directors in March of [[1999]]. The first Board of Directors included [[Monica Hargraves]], [[Dan Cogan]], Margaret McCasland, Greg Spence Wolf, Bob LeRoy, LeGrace Benson, Wally Woods, Jennifer Elges, and Donald Stephenson. In May of [[1999]] [[Paul Glover]] turned the administration of Ithaca HOURS over to the newly elected Board of Directors. [[Paul Glover]] has continued to support Ithaca Hours through community outreach to present, most notably through the [[Ithaca Health Fund]] and [[Ithaca Community News]].
The current Board of Directors, as of [[October 20]], [[2004]], includes LeGrace Benson, Steve Burke, [[Monica Hargraves]], Bob LeRoy, Margaret McCasland, Arc Riley, and Rebecca Nellenback.
== Economic Development ==
Several million dollars value of HOURS have been traded since 1991, among thousands of residents and over 500 area businesses, including the Cayuga Medical Center, [[Alternatives Federal Credit Union]], the public library, many local farmers, movie theatres, restaurants, healers, plumbers, carpenters, electricians, and landlords.
One of the primary functions of the Ithaca Hours system is to promote local economic development. Businesses who receive Hours must spend them on local goods and services, thus building a network of inter-supporting local businesses. While non-local businesses are welcome to accept Hours, those businesses need to spend them on local goods and services to be economically sustainable.
In their mission to promote local economic development, the Board of Directors also makes interest-free loans of Ithaca HOURS to local businesses and grants to local non-profit organizations.
==See also==
*[[Time-based currency]]
==External links==
*http://www.ithacahours.org/ - Main Website
*http://www.ithacahours.com/ - Founder's Website
*http://www.smallisbeautiful.org/ - E F Schumacher Society Local Currency website
* [http://www.barter-software.com XO Limited Free Barter Software for Community Exchanges]
[[Category:Ithaca, New York|Hours]]
[[Category:Community currencies]]
Instant Runoff Voting
14977
15912494
2003-01-17T05:48:26Z
Ellmist
2214
#REDIRECT [[Instant-runoff_voting]]
#REDIRECT [[Instant-runoff_voting]]
Immortal Seven
14978
34070348
2006-01-06T04:34:24Z
John Kenney
10512
The '''Immortal Seven''' were seven notable [[England|Englishmen]] who issued the ''[[Invitation to William]]'', a letter of [[30 June]] [[1688]] asking [[William III of Orange|William of Orange]] to depose his father-in-law [[James II of England|James II]] in favour of William's wife [[Mary II of England|Mary]], an invitation which culminated in the [[Glorious Revolution]]. It was carried to William by [[Arthur Herbert, 1st Earl of Torrington|Lord Torrington]], and identified by a secret [[code (cryptography)|code]].
Of the seven, Danby and Compton were generally considered to be [[Tory|Tories]], while the other five signatories were generally seen as [[Whig]]s.
They were:
*[[Thomas Osborne, 1st Duke of Leeds|The Earl of Danby]]
*[[Charles Talbot, 1st Duke of Shrewsbury|The Earl of Shrewsbury]]
*[[William Cavendish, 1st Duke of Devonshire|The Earl of Devonshire]]
*[[Richard Lumley, 1st Earl of Scarbrough|The Viscount Lumley]]
*[[Henry Compton]], [[Bishop of London]]
*[[Edward Russell, 1st Earl of Orford|Edward Russell]]
*[[Henry Sydney, 1st Earl of Romney|Henry Sydney]] (who wrote the Invitation)
[[Category:History of England]]
Interstellar cloud
14979
39963224
2006-02-17T03:18:39Z
Krash
219529
dab "Plasma"
'''Interstellar cloud''' is the generic name given to an accumulation of gas, [[Plasma (physics)|plasma]] and [[Cosmic dust|dust]] in our and other [[galaxy|galaxies]]. Put differently, an interstellar cloud is a denser-than-average region of the [[interstellar medium]]. Depending on the density, size and temperature of a given cloud, the [[hydrogen]] in it can be neutral ([[H I region]]s), ionized ([[H II region]]s) (ie. a plasma), or molecular ([[molecular cloud]]s).
[[image:interstellar.cloud.arp.750pix.jpg|thumb|Over 200 newly formed stars are scattered within a cavern-like, gaseous, interstellar cloud ([[NGC 604]]). The stars irradiate the gas with energetic ultraviolet light stripping electrons from atoms and exciting them - producing a characteristic nebular glow.]]
== Chemical compositions ==
Analysing the composition of interstellar clouds is achieved by studying [[electromagnetic radiation]] that we receive from them. Large [[radio telescope]]s scan the intensity in the sky of particular [[frequency|frequencies]] of electromagnetic radiation which are characteristic of certain molecules' [[electromagnetic spectroscopy|spectra]]. Some interstellar clouds are cold and tend to give out EM radiation of large [[wavelength]]s. We can produce a map of the abundance of these molecules to produce an understanding of the varying composition of the clouds. In hot clouds, there are often ions of many elements, whose spectra can be seen in visible and ultraviolet light.
[[Radio telescope]]s can also scan over the frequencies from one point in the map, recording the intensities of each type of molecule. Peaks of frequencies mean that an abundance of that molecule or atom is present in the cloud. The height of the peak is proportional to the relative percentage that it makes up.
== Unexpected chemicals detected in interstellar clouds ==
Until recently the rates of reactions in interstellar clouds were expected to be very slow, with minimal products being produced due to the low temperature and density of the clouds. However, large [[organic chemistry|organic]] molecules were observed in the spectra that scientists would not have expected to find under these conditions. The reactions needed to create them normally only occur at much higher temperatures and pressures. The fact that they were found indicates that these chemical reactions in interstellar clouds take place faster than suspected. These reactions are studied in the [[CRESU experiment]].
== See also ==
* [[Interstellar medium]]
* [[List of molecules in interstellar space]]
[[Category:Interstellar media|Cloud]]
[[Category:Nebulae]]
[[ca:Pols interestel·lar]]
[[de:Interstellare Wolke]]
[[es:Nube interestelar]]
[[fr:Nuage interstellaire]]
[[it:Nube interstellare]]
[[nl:Nevels en gaswolken]]
[[ja:宇宙塵]]
[[pl:Obłok międzygwiazdowy]]
Imhotep
14980
41665861
2006-02-28T22:59:36Z
69.19.14.29
/* Modern cultural impact */
[[Image:Imhotep.jpg|thumb|Imhotep, the one who comes in peace]]
'''Imhotep''' (sometimes spelled '''Immutef''', '''Ȧmhotep''', or '''Ii-em-Hotep''', Egyptian ''ii-m-ḥtp'') was a [[vizier]], [[wizard]], and the first [[architect]] and [[physician]] known by name to written history. As the [[Pharaoh]] [[Djoser|Djosèr]]'s [[Vizier]], he designed the [[Pyramid of Djzosèr]] ([[Step Pyramid]]) at [[Saqqara]] in [[History of Ancient Egypt|Egypt]] around [[27th century BC|2630]]-[[27th century BC|2611 BC]], during the [[third dynasty of Egypt|3rd Dynasty]]. He may also have been responsible for the first known use of [[column]]s in [[architecture]]. His name means ''the one who comes in peace''.
Imhotep also served as [[chancellor]] to the [[pharaoh]] and high priest of the sun god [[Ra]] at [[Heliopolis]]. He was said to be a son of [[Ptah]], his mother being a mortal named ''Khredu-ankh''. He was revered as a genius and showered with titles. The full list of titles is: ''Chancellor of the King of Lower Egypt, First after the King of Upper Egypt, Administrator of the Great Palace, Hereditary nobleman, High Priest of Heliopolis, Builder, Sculptor and Maker of Vases in Chief''. Imhotep is credited as the founder of Egyptian medicine, and as author of the [[Edwin Smith papyrus]], detailing cures, ailments and [[anatomy|anatomical]] observations. The Edwin Smith Papyrus was probably written around [[1700 BC]] but may perhaps go back to texts written around 1000 years earlier.
Two thousand years after his death, his status was raised to that of a [[god]]. Imhotep became the god of [[medicine]] and [[healing]]. He was linked to [[Asclepius]] by the [[Ancient Greece|Greek]]s. As the ''son of Ptah'', his mother was sometimes said to be [[Sekhmet]], who was often said to be married to Ptah, since she was the patron of [[Upper Egypt]]. As he was thought of as the inventor of healing, he was also sometimes said to be the one who held [[Nuit]] (deification of the ''sky'') up, as the separation of Nuit and [[Geb]] (deification of the ''earth'') was said to be what held [[chaos]] back. Due to the position this would have placed him in, he was also sometimes said to be Nuit's son. In artwork he is also linked with [[Hathor]], who was the wife of [[Ra]], [[Maat]], which was the concept of truth and justice, and [[Amenhotep son of Hapu]], who was another deified architect.
The location for Imhotep's tomb is still unknown. Many Egyptologists have tried locating it but so far haven't succeeded. The general consensus is that his tomb is located at [[Saqqara]].
== Fringe theories ==
One fringe theory, supported by a very few amateur Egyptologists, is that Imhotep has strong similarities to the biblical [[Joseph (Hebrew Bible)|Joseph]] [http://www.s8int.com/joseph.html]. Some have suggested the biblical Joseph is a composite created by the authors of the [[Torah]] from a [[Hebrews|Hebrew]] individual and Imhotep, the authors confusing Imhotep for Joseph.
== Modern cultural impact==
''Imhotep'' is also the name of a [[fictional character]] played by [[Boris Karloff]] in the [[1932]] movie ''[[The Mummy (1932 movie)|The Mummy]]'', and of a similar character played by [[Arnold Vosloo]] in the [[1999]] movie ''[[The Mummy (1999 movie)|The Mummy]]'' and its [[2001]] sequel ''[[The Mummy Returns]]''. The architect Imhotep most likely provided the name (but just the name) for the character.
'Imhotep' is also the name of the mortuary priest in [[Agatha Christie]]'s novel '[[Death Comes as the End]]'.
'Imhotep' is also the name of wide receiver Imhotep Durham for the Virginia Cavaliers football team for the year of [[2004]].
'Imhotep' is also the name of a well-known [[French people|French]] [[hip hop music|rapper]] from the group [[Iam]].
'Imhotep' was used as a continuing [[in-joke]] in the BBC series [[Look Around You]], portrayed as an [[Easter Island]] monolith.
The name Imhotep was used by a minor [[Goa'uld]] in the [[Stargate SG-1]] episode 'The Warrior'. '''''Spoiler:''''' Imhotep pretended to be a [[Jaffa (Stargate)|Jaffa]], and led an army of Jaffa in order to kill other Goa'uld and gain power. He was killed by SG-1.
== See also ==
* [[List of Egypt-related topics]]
** [[History of Ancient Egypt]]
*** [[Old Kingdom]]
*** [[Third dynasty of Egypt]]
** [[Pharaoh]]
** [[Pyramid of Djoser]]
** [[Ptah]]
* ''Other lists''
** [[List of people known by one name]]
** [[List of deities]]
** [[List of architects]]
* [[Timeline of medicine and medical technology]]
* [[Column]]
{{Ancient Egyptians}}
[[Category:Ancient Egyptians]]
[[Category:Egyptian gods]]
[[Category:Wisdom gods]]
[[ar:إمحوتب]]
[[ca:Imhotep]]
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[[de:Imhotep]]
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[[lt:Imhotepas]]
[[hu:Imhotep]]
[[ms:Imhotep]]
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[[ru:Имхотеп]]
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[[zh:伊姆荷太普]]
Iktinos
14981
29298031
2005-11-26T17:48:01Z
LeonardoRob0t
389639
robot Adding: pt
'''Iktinos''' (also '''Iktious''' or '''Ictinus''') was an [[architect]] active in the mid [[5th century BC]], who, together with [[Kallikrates]] designed the [[Parthenon]] (447–432 BC) in [[Athens]], [[Greece]].
Little is known about the life of Iktinos, most contemporary information being based on the writings of [[Plutarch]].
The most complete surviving example of Iktinos's work is the [[Temple of Hephaestus]] in Athens, which has been preserved almost intact as a result of having been a Christian Church. It is a [[Doric order|Doric]] temple.
Iktinos is also believed to have designed the [[temple of Apollo at Bassae]], the first known use of a [[Corinthian order|Corinthian]] column, and also the [[Telesterion]] shrine of [[Eleusis]], a gigantic hall used in the [[Eleusinian Mysteries]].
The artist [[Jean Auguste Dominique Ingres]] painted a scene showing Iktinos together with the lyric poet [[Pindar]] - the painting is known as ''Pindar and Ictinus'' and is exhibited at the [[National Gallery, London]].
==References==
*F. E. Winter (1980) "Tradition and innovation in Doric design: the work of Iktinos" ''in'' American Journal of Archaeology, Issue 4, pp 399 - 416.
See also: [[Kallikrates]]
[[Category:Architects]]
[[es:Ictino]]
[[fr:Iktinos]]
[[it:Ictino]]
[[nl:Ictinus]]
[[pt:Ictinos]]
[[ru:Иктин]]
[[fi:Iktinos]]
[[sv:Iktinos]]
Isidore of Miletus
14982
29305447
2005-11-26T19:24:56Z
LeonardoRob0t
389639
robot Adding: pt
'''Isidore of Miletus''' was an [[architect]] with [[Anthemius of Tralles]] of [[Hagia Sophia]] in [[Constantinople]].
There had been a large [[basilica]] church built in the [[4th century]] and dedicated to Holy Wisdom in Constantinople; during the [[Nika riots]] of [[532]] that building was burned down. [[Justinian I]] decided to rebuild it.
Isidore of Miletus had earlier taught [[physics]] at [[Alexandria, Egypt|Alexandria]] and then later at [[Constantinople]], and had written a commentary on earlier books on building.
[[Category:Byzantine architects]]
[[Category:Byzantine physicists]]
[[fr:Isidore de Milet]]
[[pt:Isidoro de Mileto]]
International Atomic Energy Agency
14984
41310743
2006-02-26T13:23:36Z
Boud
4492
/* IAEA and Iran */ the board did not "refer", it asked ElBaradei to report Iran to the UNSC immediately following the March meeting
[[Image:Flag of IAEA.svg|thumb|right|The IAEA flag]]
The '''International Atomic Energy Agency''' ('''IAEA''', internally often referred to as "The Agency"), established as an autonomous organization on [[July 29]], [[1957]], seeks to promote the peaceful use of [[nuclear energy]] and to inhibit its use for [[nuclear weapon |military purposes]]. [[United States]] [[President of the United States|President]] [[Dwight D. Eisenhower]] envisioned, in his "''[[Atoms for Peace]]''" speech before the [[UN General Assembly]] in 1953, the creation of this international body to control and develop the use of atomic energy. The organization and its Director General, [[Mohamed ElBaradei]], were jointly awarded the [[Nobel Peace Prize]] on [[7 October]] [[2005]].
The IAEA has its headquarters in [[Vienna]], [[Austria]]. Additional facilities are located in [[Seibersdorf]] near Vienna; [[Monaco]]; [[Toronto]]; and [[Tokyo]].
==History==
The IAEA serves as an intergovernmental forum for scientific and technical co-operation in the peaceful use of nuclear technology. The IAEA's programmes encourage the development of the peaceful application of nuclear technology, provide international safeguards against its misuse, and facilitate the application of safety measures in its use. IAEA expanded its nuclear safety efforts in response to the [[Chornobyl|Chernobyl]] disaster in 1986.
The IAEA was headed by [[Hans Blix]] from 1981 to 1997, who became unusually well-known because of the [[2002]]-[[2003]] search for [[weapons of mass destruction]] in Iraq. The current head of the organization is the Egyptian Mohamed ElBaradei. At the 49th General Conference, ElBaradei was confirmed as Director General until 2009.
With the increase of [[nuclear proliferation]] in the 1990s, IAEA tasks began to include inspections and investigations of suspected violations of the [[Nuclear Non-Proliferation Treaty]] under the mandate of the [[United Nations]]; however, it can only refer the matter to the [[UN Security Council]], which has the monopoly on UN coercion measures.
Little has changed in the organizational structure of IAEA; and though its inspection results tend to attract a lot of coverage, the matter of IAEA reform does not.
In a speech to the National Defense University on [[February 11]], [[2004]], U.S. President [[George W. Bush]] proposed: "No state under investigation for proliferation violations should be allowed to serve on the IAEA Board of Governors — or on the new special committee. And any state currently on the Board that comes under investigation should be suspended from the Board. The integrity and mission of the IAEA depends on this simple principle: Those actively breaking the rules should not be entrusted with enforcing the rules." [http://www.whitehouse.gov/news/releases/2004/02/20040211-4.html]
The remarks were seen as a comment on the [[Abdul Qadeer Khan|Khan affair]], which triggered calls for an IAEA investigation of [[Pakistan]], a country currently included in the organization's Board of Governors.
The Agency and Director General Mohamed ElBaradei were awarded the [[Nobel Peace Prize]] in 2005.
ElBaradei said in his speech that only 1% of the money spent on developing new weapons would be enough to feed the entire world.
==IAEA and Iran==
In February [[2003]] Mohamed ElBaradei traveled to [[Iran]] with a team of inspectors to investigate [[Iran's nuclear program]]. By November, Mr. ElBaradei stated that there was "no evidence" that Iran was pursuing [[nuclear weapon|nuclear weapons]]. On [[December 18]], [[2003]] Iran signed the Additional Protocol at the IAEA headquarters in [[Vienna]], and acted in accord with its provisions pending completion of ratification of the protocol.
[http://www.iaea.org/Publications/Documents/Board/2005/gov2005-87.pdf].
[[Ayatollah]] [[Ali Khamenei]] issued a [[fatwa]] forbidding the production, stockpiling and use of nuclear weapons on [[August 9]], [[2005]]. The full text of the [[fatwa]] was released in an official statement at the meeting of the International Atomic Energy Agency (IAEA) in [[Vienna]]. [http://www.ww4report.com/node/929].
In September 2005 the [[International Institute for Strategic Studies]] concluded in a report that Iran was still many years away from acquiring a nuclear weapons capability.
[http://www.iiss.org/showdocument.php?docID=661].
On [[January 9]], [[2006]] Iran resumed certain aspects of nuclear energy research and development in spite of [[2005-2006 US-Israeli threats to attack Iran|international displeasure and pressure]] from the [[United States]], the [[European Union]] and [[Russia]]. [http://www.iaea.org/NewsCenter/PressReleases/2006/prn200601.html] [http://www.cbc.ca/story/world/national/2006/01/10/iran060110.html] [http://news.xinhuanet.com/english/2006-01/11/content_4035891.htm]
On [[February 4]], [[2006]] the Board of the International Atomic Energy Agency decided ("resolved") to request the IAEA director-general, [[Mohamed ElBaradei]], to make a report concerning Iran to the [[United Nations Security Council]] following the March 2006 meeting of the IAEA Board. This resolution was decided by a vote of 27-3 (27 member nations voted for the resolution, 3, [[Cuba]], [[Syria]] and [[Venezuela]], voted against the resolution, and the remaining 5, [[Algeria]], [[Libya]], [[Indonesia]], [[South Africa]] and [[Belarus]], abstained).
[http://www.iaea.org/Publications/Documents/Board/2006/gov2006-14.pdf]
==See also==
*[[Nuclear proliferation]]
*[[Nuclear Non-Proliferation Treaty]]
*[[Nuclear power]]
*[[Nuclear weapon]]
*[[Nuclear reactor]]
*[[Sterile Atomic Fly]]
*[[United Nations Atomic Energy Commission]]
==External links==
*[http://www.iaea.org IAEA website]
*[http://www.iaea.org/NewsCenter/Focus/IaeaIran/index.shtml In Focus : IAEA and Iran]
*[http://www.iaea.org/Publications/Magazines/Bulletin/index.html IAEA Bulletin]
*[http://www.nuclearfiles.org/menu/key-issues/nuclear-energy/history/background-safeguards.htm NuclearFiles.org] Background on IAEA Safeguards Agreements
*[http://explosive.on-topic.net/explosive_by_name/A Explosives]
{{start box}}
{{succession box | before = [[Wangari Maathai]] | title = [[List of Nobel laureates#Peace|Nobel Peace Prize]] | years =2005 | after = incumbent}}
{{end box}}
[[Category:International organizations]]
[[Category:Nuclear organizations]]
[[Category:Nobel Peace Prize winners]]
[[Category:October 2005 news]]
[[cs:Mezinárodní agentura pro atomovou energii]]
[[ca:Agència Internacional de l'Energia Atòmica]]
[[da:IAEA]]
[[de:Internationale Atomenergieorganisation]]
[[es:Organismo Internacional de Energía Atómica]]
[[eo:Internacia Atomenergia Organizo]]
[[fa:آژانس بینالمللی انرژی اتمی]]
[[fr:Agence internationale de l'énergie atomique]]
[[ko:국제원자력기구]]
[[id:Badan Tenaga Atom Internasional]]
[[it:Agenzia Internazionale per l'Energia Atomica]]
[[he:הסוכנות הבינלאומית לאנרגיה אטומית]]
[[nl:Internationaal Atoomenergie Agentschap]]
[[ja:国際原子力機関]]
[[no:Det internasjonale atomenergibyrået]]
[[nn:Det internasjonale atomenergibyrået]]
[[pl:Międzynarodowa Agencja Energii Atomowej]]
[[pt:Agência Internacional de Energia Atómica]]
[[ru:Международное агентство по атомной энергии]]
[[sl:Mednarodna agencija za jedrsko energijo]]
[[fi:Kansainvälinen atomienergiajärjestö]]
[[sv:IAEA]]
[[ta:பன்னாட்டு அணுசக்தி முகமையகம்]]
[[th:สำนักงานพลังงานปรมาณูระหว่างประเทศ]]
[[vi:Cơ quan Năng lượng Nguyên tử Quốc tế]]
[[tr:Uluslararası Atom Enerji Ajansı]]
[[zh:国际原子能机构]]
International Civil Aviation Organization
14985
40563271
2006-02-21T13:20:46Z
Tobias Conradi
10784
/* ICAO Codes */ These consist of the three letter airline identifer
[[Image:ICAO.JPG|right|150px]]
The '''International Civil Aviation Organization''' ('''ICAO'''), an agency of the [[United Nations]], develops the principles and techniques of international air navigation and fosters the planning and development of international [[scheduled air transport|air transport]] to ensure safe and orderly growth.
The ICAO Council adopts standards and recommended practices concerning air navigation, prevention of unlawful interference, and facilitation of border-crossing procedures for international [[civil aviation]]. [[Assad Kotaite]] has served as President of the ICAO Council since [[1976]], but will retire from that post in August, [[2006]].
In addition, the ICAO defines the protocols for [[air accident investigation]] followed by transport safety authorities in countries signatory to the [[Convention on International Civil Aviation]], commonly known as the [[Chicago Convention]]. See [[NTSB]], [[Transportation Safety Board|TSB]], [[AAIB]], [[Bundesstelle für Flugunfalluntersuchung|BFU]], and [[Bureau d'Enquêtes et d'Analyses pour la sécurité de l'Aviation Civile|BEA]].
Its ''headquarters'' are located in the ''[[Quartier international de Montréal|Quartier International]]'' of [[Montreal]], [[Canada]].
The ICAO should not be confused with the [[International Air Transport Association]] (IATA), a trade organization for [[airline]]s also headquartered in Montreal.
==ICAO Codes==
Both ICAO and IATA have their own airport and airline code systems.
ICAO uses 4-letter [[ICAO airport code|airport codes]], and 3-letter [[ICAO airline designator|airline codes]]. IATA is scheduled to eventually switch its codes to the ICAO standard.
ICAO is also responsible for issuing [[alphanumeric]] [[aircraft]] type codes that contain 3 or 4 characters. These codes provide the identification that is typically used in [[flight plan]]s. An example of this is the [[Boeing 747]] that would use (depending on the variant) '''B741''', '''B742''' ,'''B743''', etc.
ICAO provides [[telephony]] designators to aircraft operators worldwide. These consist of the three letter airline identifer and a one or two word designator. They are usually, but not always, similar to the aircraft operator name. Thus the identifer for [[Aer Lingus]] is '''EIN''' and the designator is '''Shamrock''' while [[Japan Airlines]] International is '''JAL''' and '''Japan Air''' . So a flight by Aer Lingus numbered 111 would be written as "EIN111" and pronounced "Shamrock 111" on the radio, while a similarly numbered Japan Airlines flight would be written as "JAL111" and "Japan Air 111".
==ICAO statute==
The 8th edition of the Convention on International Civil Aviation includes modifications from [[1948]] up to year [[2000]]. The ICAO refers to its current edition of the convention the ''statute'', and designates it as ICAO Doc 7300/8.
The convention has 18 annexes:
*Annex 1 - Personnel Licensing
*Annex 2 - Rules of the Air
*Annex 3 - Meteorological Service for International Air Navigation
*Annex 4 - Aeronautical Charts
*Annex 5 - Units of Measurement to be Used in Air and Ground Operations
*Annex 6 - Operation of Aircraft - Aeroplanes
*Annex 7 - Aircraft Nationality and Registration Marks
*Annex 8 - Airworthiness of Aircraft
*Annex 9 - Facilitation
*Annex 10 - Aeronautical Telecommunications - Digital Data Communication Systems
*Annex 11 - Air Traffic Services
*Annex 12 - Search and Rescue
*Annex 13 - Aircraft Accident and Incident Investigation
*Annex 14 - Aerodromes - Aerodrome Design and Operations, Heliports
*Annex 15 - Aeronautical Information Services
*Annex 16 - Environmental Protection - Aircraft Noise
*Annex 17 - Security: Safeguarding International Civil Aviation Against Acts of Unlawful Interference
*Annex 18 - The Safe Transport of Dangerous Goods by Air
==ICAO standards==
The ICAO also standardizes certain functions for use in the airline industry, such as the [[Aeronautical Message Handling System]] AMHS; this probably makes it a [[standards organization]].
==Regions and regional offices==
The ICAO has seven regional offices serving nine regions:
:1. Asia and Pacific, [[Bangkok|Bangkok, Thailand]]
:2. Middle East, [[Cairo|Cairo, Egypt]]
:3. Western and Central Africa, [[Dakar|Dakar, Senegal]]
:4. South America, [[Lima|Lima, Peru]]
:5. North America, Central America and Caribbean, [[Mexico City|Mexico City, Mexico]]
:6. Eastern and Southern Africa, [[Nairobi|Nairobi, Kenya]]
:7. Europe and North Atlantic, [[Paris|Paris, France]]
==See also==
*[[Air safety]]
*[[ICAO airport code]]
* [[Kenneth Beaumont]]
==External links==
* [http://www.icao.int International Civil Aviation Organization website]
* [http://www8.landings.com/cgi-bin/get_file?APT/icao_prefix.html ICAO airport code prefixes] (not to be confused with the [[IATA]] [http://www.faa.gov/ATPUBS/LID/LIDHME.htm location identifiers])
* [http://www.icao.int/anb/ais/8643/MnfctrerList.cfm ICAO Aircraft listing with codes]
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<div style="float:right; margin:0 0 1em 1em; font-style:italic;">[[Image:HeadquartersoftheInternationalMaritimeOrganisation.jpg|thumbnail|none|Headquarters of the International Maritime Organisation in Lambeth, adjacent to the east end of Lambeth Bridge]]
<br>[[Image:International Maritime Organization Building - London - Across the Thames - 240404.jpg|thumbnail|none|Headquarters building taken from the west side of the Thames]]</div>
Headquartered in [[London]], [[United Kingdom|U.K.]], the '''International Maritime Organization (IMO)''' promotes cooperation among governments and the shipping industry to improve [[maritime]] safety and to prevent marine pollution. Recent initiatives at the IMO have included amendments to the [[International Convention for the Safety of Life at Sea|Safety of Life at Sea Convention (SOLAS)]], which upgraded fire protection standards on [[Passenger ship|passenger ships]], the [[STCW|International Convention on Standards of Training, Certification and Watchkeeping for Seafarers (STCW)]] which establishes basic requirements on training, certification and watchkeeping for seafarers and to the Convention on the Prevention of Maritime Pollution ([[MARPOL 73/78]]), which required double hulls on all [[Tanker (ship)|tankers]]. All these initiatives were instigated by representatives of the [[United States]] before the IMO.
The concept of IMO was born after the [[RMS Titanic|RMS ''Titanic'']] disaster. By modern standards, the design of the ''Titanic'' made her appallingly vulnerable. Her "watertight" bulkheads, by design, did not extend all the way to the overhead because the engineers calculated that it was impossible for the ship to take on a trim or list sufficient for water to cascade over their tops if the bulkheads were of a certain height.
When ''Titanic'' struck the iceberg, these calculations were proven dismally incorrect. When people began abandoning ship, it became obvious that not nearly enough [[lifeboat]]s were available. Many lives and much money were lost in this tragedy.
Up until that time, each nation had made its own rules about ship design, construction, and safety equipment. The ''Inter-Governmental Maritime Consultative Organization (IMCO)'' was formed in response to the ''Titanic'' event, but was "put on the back burner" when [[World War I]] broke out. After the war ended, IMCO was revived and produced a group of regulations concerning shipbuilding and safety called "Safety Of Life At Sea"..."[[SOLAS]]". Through the years, SOLAS has been modified and upgraded to adapt to changes in technology and lessons learned.
IMCO eventually became IMO. IMO regularly enacts regulations (such as the [[International Regulations for Preventing Collisions at Sea]]) which are enforced by class societies and recognized organizations who survey ships regularly to ensure compliance with specific laws applicable to each individual ship. Port State Control authority was enacted, allowing such agencies as the US and British [[coast guard]]s to inspect foreign flag ships calling at ports of the many port states. Memoranda of Understanding were signed by some countries unifying Port State Control procedures among the signators.
Of course, the numbers will never be known, but IMO has protected countless lives, saved enormous amounts of money, and prevented numerous environmental disasters over the years.
Prior to [[11 September]] [[2001]], IMO had begun work on the [[ISPS code|International Ship and Port Security Code]], which was designed to provide guidance for shipowners and port facilities in establishing strict security procedures to prevent weapons of mass destruction and other contraband from being transported by ship. The [[September 11, 2001 attacks|tragic events of 9/11]] created greater urgency to this effort and, in [[December 2002]], new amendments to the 1974 SOLAS Convention were enacted. These amendments gave rise to the International Ship and Port Security Code, which went into effect on [[1 July]] [[2004]].
The ISPS Code required most ships and port facilities engaged in international trade to establish and maintain strict security procedures as specified in ship and port specific Ship Security Plans and Port Facility Security Plans. The concept of the Code is to provide layered and redundant defenses against smuggling, terrorism, piracy, stowaways, etc.
The IMO is also responsible for publishing the [[International Code of Signals]] for use between merchant and naval vessels.
==See also==
* [[Supply Chain Security]]
==External links==
*[http://www.imo.org/home.asp International Maritime Organization home page]
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[[Image:International Labour Org.jpg|right|thumb]]
The '''International Labour Organization (ILO)''' is a specialized agency of the [[United Nations]] to deal with [[labour (economics)|labour]] issues. Its headquarters are in [[Geneva]], [[Switzerland]]. Founded in [[1919]], it was formed through the negotiations of the [[Treaty of Versailles]], and was initially an agency of the [[League of Nations]]. It became a UN body after the demise of the League and the formation of the UN at the end of [[World War II]]. Its current charter, the [[Declaration of Philadelphia]], was adopted in [[1944]]. Its [[secretariat]], or support staff, is known as the International Labour Office.
The organization seeks to strengthen [[worker rights]], improve [[working conditions]] and living conditions, create [[employment]], and provide information and training opportunities. ILO programmes include the [[occupational safety and health]] hazard alert system and the [[labour standards]] and [[human rights]] programmes.
Historically, one of the functions the ILO has performed has been the establishment of international standards for workers' conditions, which have then become the basis for [[trade union]] and other activism in individual countries. It is a relatively low-profile UN agency compared to some of those more active in crises, such as the [[World Health Organization]].
== International Labour Conference ==
The ILO hosts the [[International Labour Conference]] in Geneva every year in June. At the Conference, conventions and recommendations are crafted and adopted by majority decision. The Conference also makes decisions on the ILO's general policy, work programme and budget.
Each member state is represented at the International Labour Conference by four delegates: two government delegates, an employer delegate and a worker delegate. All delegates have individual voting rights, and all votes are equal, regardless of the population of the delegate's member state. The employer and worker delegates are normally chosen in agreement with the most representative national organizations of employers and workers. Usually, the worker delegates coordinate their voting, as do the employer delegates.
=== Conventions ===
The decision-making process of the ILO means that conventions need government support to be adopted. Despite this, not all governments voting for a convention end up ratifying it. For instance, after ten years, the [[Part-Time Work Convention]] adopted in 1994 had been ratified by only ten countries. On the other hand, a group of eight conventions, defined by the ILO as "fundamental", have enjoyed far wider recognition. These have all been ratified by a majority of the member states, and are known as the [[international labour standards]].
With the ratification of a convention comes a legal obligation to apply its provisions. Governments are required to submit reports detailing their compliance with the obligations of the resolutions they have ratified. Every year, the International Labour Conference's Committee on the Application of Standards examine a number of suspected breaches of ILO labour standards. Cases can cover all areas of policy and practice, e.g. [[freedom of association]], [[discrimination]], [[child labour]] and maternity protection. In recent years, one of the member states that has received the most attention is [[Myanmar]], as the country has repeatedly been criticized for its failure to guarantee fundamental worker's rights. The ILO's repeated expression of "grave concern" in this case also illustrates the organization's lack of [[sanctions|sanction]] possibilities.
=== Recomendations ===
Recommendations do not have the binding force of Conventions, and are not subject to ratification by member countries. Recommendations may be adopted at the same time as Conventions to supplement the latter with additional or more detailed provisions. The intent of these recomendations is often to more precisely detail the priciples of related Conventions.
In other cases Recommendations may be adopted separately, and address issues not covered by, or unrelated to any particular Convention.
== Child labour ==
The ILO has a specialist programme addressing child labour, the [[International Programme on the Elimination of Child Labour]] (IPEC).
The ILO maintains an International Training Centre in [[Turin, Italy]].
The organization received the [[Nobel Peace Prize]] in [[1969]].[http://nobelprize.org/peace/laureates/1969/labour-history.html]
==External links==
* [http://www.ilo.org/ Official site], including:
**[http://www.ilo.org/public/english/standards/relm/ilc/ International Labour Conference]
**[http://www.ilo.org/ilolex/english/convdisp1.htm ILO conventions]
**[http://www.ilo.org/ilolex/english/recdisp1.htm ILO recommendations]
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The [[three-letter abbreviation]] '''IMO''' may have several meanings, depending on context:
* "In My Opinion" - [[USENET]] and [[internet chat]] slang. Used mostly on sites like NewGrounds BBS and MySpace PMs. See also "[[IMHO]]".
* [[International Maritime Organization]]
* [[International Mathematical Olympiad]]
* [[International Meteor Organization]]
* [[International money order]]
* [[Irish Medical Organisation]] (a [[labor union]])
'''"Imo"''' ''(only first letter in capitals)'' may also refer to:
* [[Imo State, Nigeria]]
* The [[World War I]]-era [[Belgian]]-Relief ship ''[[Imo (ship)|Imo]]'' involved in a collision with the [[France|French]] munitions ship ''[[Mont Blanc (ship)|Mont Blanc]]'' in [[Halifax Harbour]], [[Nova Scotia]], [[Canada]], the result of which caused the [[Halifax Explosion]].
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Ivory-billed Woodpecker
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{{Taxobox
| color = pink
| name = Ivory-billed Woodpecker
| status = {{StatusCritical}}
| image = Ivorybilledwoodpecker.jpg
| image_width = 200px
| regnum = [[Animal]]ia
| phylum = [[Chordate|Chordata]]
| classis = [[Aves]]
| ordo = [[Piciformes]]
| familia = [[Picidae]]
| genus = ''[[Campephilus]]''
| species = '''''C. principalis'''''
| binomial = ''Campephilus principalis''
| binomial_authority = ([[Carolus Linnaeus|Linnaeus]], [[1758]])
}}
The '''Ivory-billed Woodpecker''' (''Campephilus principalis'') is a very large and extremely rare member of the [[woodpecker]] [[Scientific classification|family]], ''[[Picidae]]''. It is officially listed as an [[endangered species]], and until recently had widely been considered [[Extinction|extinct]]. However, highly compelling sightings of at least one male bird in [[Arkansas]] in 2004 and 2005 were reported in [[April 2005]] ([http://www.sciencemag.org/cgi/content/abstract/1114103 abstract]), and audio evidence suggesting the presence of the bird has also been collected. If its rediscovery is confirmed, this would make the Ivory-billed Woodpecker a [[lazarus taxon|lazarus species]].
The Ivory-billed Woodpecker is the second-largest woodpecker in the world, slightly smaller than the closely related [[Imperial Woodpecker]] (''C. imperialis'') of western [[Mexico]], another rare species which is very likely to be extinct. It measures from 48 to 53 cm (19 to 21 in) in length and 450 to 570 g (1.0 to 1.25 lb) in weight, with short legs and feet ending in large, curved claws.
The bird is shiny blue-black with extensive white markings on its neck and on both the upper and lower trailing edges of its wings. It has a pure white bill and displays a prominent top crest, red in the male and black in the female. These characteristics distinguish it from the darker-billed [[Pileated Woodpecker]]. Like all woodpeckers, it has a strong and straight chisel-like bill and a long, mobile, hard-tipped, barbed [[tongue]]. Its drum is a single or double rap, and its alarm call, a ''kent'' or ''hant'', sounds like a toy [[trumpet]] repeated in a series or as a double note.
The reason for the species' decline was primarily due to [[loss of habitat]] and also hunting by collectors. Even if the Ivory-billed Woodpecker is not extinct, most believe that only a handful could still be living.
== Habitat and diet ==
Ivory-billeds are known to prefer thick hardwood swamps and pine [[forest]]s, with large amounts of dead and decaying [[tree]]s. Prior to the [[American Civil War]], much of the [[U.S. Southern states|Southern United States]] was covered in vast tracts of [[Primeval forest|primeval hardwood forests]] that were suitable as habitat for the bird. At that time, the Ivory-billed Woodpecker ranged from east [[Texas]] to [[North Carolina]], and from southern [[Illinois]] to [[Florida]] and [[Cuba]] [http://birds.cornell.edu/ivory/story11.htm]. After the Civil War, the [[logging|timber industry]] [[deforestation|deforested]] millions of acres in the South, leaving only sparse isolated tracts of suitable habitat.
The Ivory-billed Woodpecker feeds mainly on the [[larva|larvae]] of wood-boring [[beetle]]s, but also eats [[seed]]s, [[fruit]], and other [[insect]]s. The bird uses its enormous white bill to hammer, wedge, and peel the bark off dead trees to find the insects. Surprisingly, these birds need about 25 km² (10 square miles) per pair so they can find enough food to feed their young and themselves. Hence, they occur at low densities even in healthy populations. The more common [[Pileated Woodpecker]] may compete for food with this species.
== Breeding biology==
The Ivory-billed Woodpecker is thought to pair for life. Pairs are also known to travel together. These paired birds will mate every year between January and May. Before they have their young, they excavate a nest in a dead or partially dead tree about 8–15 m up from the ground. Usually 2 to 5 [[Egg (biology)|eggs]] are laid and incubated for 3 to 5 weeks. Both parents sit on the eggs and are involved in taking care of the chicks, with the male taking sole responsibility at night. They feed the chicks for months. About five weeks after the young are born, they learn to fly. Even after the young are able to fly, the parents will continue feeding them for another two months. The whole family will eventually split up in late fall or early winter.
== Conservation status ==
Heavy [[logging]] activity and [[hunting]] by collectors decimated the population of Ivory-billed Woodpeckers in the late [[1800s]]. It was generally considered extinct in the 1920s, when a pair turned up in Florida, only to be shot for specimens.
By 1938, an estimated 20 individuals remained in the wild, located in the old-growth forest called the Singer Tract in [[Louisiana]], where logging rights were held by the Chicago Mill and Lumber Company, which brushed aside pleas from four Southern governors and the [[National Audubon Society]] that the tract be publicly purchased and set aside as a reserve. By 1944 the last known Ivory-billed Woodpecker, a female, was gone from the cut-over tract (''Smithsonian'' p 98).
The Ivory-billed Woodpecker was listed as an [[endangered species]] on [[March 11]] [[1967]], though the only evidence of its existence at the time was a possible recording of its call made in East Texas. The last reported sighting of the [[Cuba]]n subspecies (''C. p. bairdii''), after a long interval, was in 1987; it has not been seen since.
There were occasional scattered reports of the bird, but many [[ornithology|ornithologists]] believed the species had been wiped out completely, and it was assessed as "extinct" by the [[World Conservation Union|International Union for Conservation of Nature and Natural Resources]] in 1994. This assessment was later altered to "critically endangered" on the grounds that the species could still be extant [http://www.iucnredlist.org/search/details.php?species=3712].
==Pearl River expedition==
In [[1999]], there was an unconfirmed sighting of a pair of birds in the [[Pearl River (Mississippi-Louisiana)|Pearl River]] region of southeast [[Louisiana]] by a forestry student, David Kulivan. In a [[2002]] expedition in the forests, swamps, and [[bayou]]s of the Pearl River Wildlife Management Area by [[Louisiana State University]], biologists spent 30 days searching for the bird [http://news.nationalgeographic.com/news/2002/02/0220_0220_newwoodpecker.html].
In the afternoon of [[January 27]], after ten days, a rapping sound similar to the "double knock" made by the Ivory-billed Woodpecker was heard and recorded. The exact source of the sound was not found because of the swampy terrain, but signs of active woodpeckers were found (i.e., scaled bark and large tree cavities). The expedition was inconclusive, however, as it was determined that the recorded sounds were likely gunshot echoes rather than the distinctive double rap of the Ivory-billed Woodpecker [http://birds.cornell.edu/publications/birdscope/summer2002/ivory_bill_absent.html].
== Rediscovery ==
A group of seventeen authors headed by the [[Cornell Lab of Ornithology]] reported the discovery of at least one Ivory-billed Woodpecker, a male, in the Big Woods area of [[Arkansas]] in 2004 and 2005, publishing the report in the journal [[Science (journal)|''Science'']] on [[April 28]] [[2005]].
One of the authors, who was kayaking in the [[Cache River National Wildlife Refuge]], [[Monroe County, Arkansas]], on [[February 11]] [[2004]], reported on a website the sighting of an unusually large red-crested woodpecker. This report led to more intensive searches there and in the [[White River National Wildlife Refuge]] undertaken in deepest secrecy—for fear of a stampede of [[bird-watcher]]s—by experienced observers over the next fourteen months. About fifteen sightings occurred during the period (seven of which were considered compelling enough to mention in the scientific article), possibly all of the same bird. The secrecy permitted [[The Nature Conservancy]] and [[Cornell University]] to quietly buy up Ivory-billed habitat to add to the 120,000 acres (490 km²) of the Big Woods protected by the Conservancy.
A very large woodpecker was videotaped on [[April 25]] [[2004]]; its size, wing pattern at rest and in flight, and white plumage on its back between the wings were cited as evidence that the woodpecker sighted was an Ivory-billed Woodpecker. That same video included an earlier image of what was believed to be such a bird perching on a [[Water Tupelo]] (''[[Tupelo|Nyssa]] aquatica'').
The report also notes that drumming consistent with that of Ivory-billed Woodpecker had been heard in the region. It describes the potential for a thinly distributed population in the area, though no birds have been located away from the primary site. A current concern is that many bird enthusiasts will rush to the area in an attempt to catch a glimpse of this rare bird. This is exactly what birders have been encouraged not to do by experts to avoid disturbing the birds. There are stories from when the species was more abundant of adult birds abandoning their nests and young simply because they were being watched.
In June 2005, ornithologists at [[Yale University]], the [[University of Kansas]], and [[Florida Gulf Coast University]] submitted a scientific article skeptical of the initial reports of rediscovery. However, after reviewing new sound recordings from the [[White River (Arkansas)|White River of Arkansas]] supplied to them by the Cornell team that reported the rediscovery, they announced in August 2005 that they had concluded that the bird has indeed been rediscovered and withdrew their paper. Yale ornithologist [[Richard Prum]] stated:
<blockquote>We were very skeptical of the first published reports, and thought that the previous data were not sufficient to support this startling conclusion. But the thrilling new sound recordings provide clear and convincing evidence that the Ivory-billed Woodpecker is not extinct.</blockquote>
In August 2005, despite the arguments for the existence of at least one Ivory-billed Woodpecker, questions about the evidence remained. Cornell could not say with absolute certainty that the sounds recorded in Arkansas were made by Ivory-billeds[http://www.birds.cornell.edu/ivory/field/listening/expert/document_view].
Some skeptics, including Richard Prum, believe the video could have been of a [[Pileated Woodpecker]] [http://www.bioedonline.org/news/news-print.cfm?art=1940].
In December 2005, Richard Prum's position was presented this way:
<blockquote>Prum, intrigued by some of the recordings taken in Arkansas' Big Woods, said the evidence thus far is refutable.[http://www.chron.com/disp/story.mpl/front/3532519.html]</blockquote>
On page 13 of the American Birding Association publication "Winging It" (Nov/Dec 2005), it says:
<blockquote>The ABA Checklist Committee has not changed the status of the Ivory-billed
Woodpecker from Code 6 (EXTINCT) to another level that would reflect a small
surviving population. The Committee is waiting for unequivocal proof that
the species still exists.</blockquote>
In a paper published in The Auk in January 2006, Jerome Jackson expressed skepticism of the Ivory-bill evidence:
<blockquote>Prum, Robbins, Brett Benz, and I remain steadfast in our belief that the bird in the Luneau video is a normal Pileated Woodpecker. Others have independently come to the same conclusion, and publication of independent analyses may be forthcoming...For scientists to label sight reports and questionable photographs as “proof” of such an extraordinary record is delving into “faith-based” ornithology and doing a disservice to science.[http://www.aou.org/persp1231.pdf]</blockquote>
==Other facts==
The Ivory-billed Woodpecker is sometimes referred to as the '''Grail Bird''' or the '''Lord God Bird''' (a name shared with the [[Pileated Woodpecker]]). [[National Public Radio]] interviews concerning the rediscovery of the species were conducted with residents of [[Brinkley, Arkansas]], and then shared with musician [[Sufjan Stevens]] who used the material to write a song titled "Lord God Bird". More information and the song can be found on [http://www.npr.org/templates/story/story.php?storyId=4721675 the NPR website].
== References ==
* [http://www.abirdshome.com/Audubon/VolIV/00426.html The Ivory-billed Woodpecker] from the now [[public domain]] ''Birds of America'' by [[John James Audubon]], hosted by a commercial website. ISBN 0810920611.
* [http://audubon2.org/webapp/watchlist/viewSpecies.jsp?id=110 Watchlist entry for the Ivory-billed Woodpecker], from the [[National Audubon Society]].
* {{cite book | author=Winkler, H., D. A. Christie, and D. Nurney | title=Woodpeckers: A Guide to the Woodpeckers of the World | publisher=Boston: Houghton Mifflin Company | year=1995 | id=ISBN 0395720435}}
* {{cite journal | author=Fitzpatrick JW, Lammertink M, Luneau MD Jr, Gallagher TW, Harrison BR, Sparling GM, Rosenberg KV, Rohrbaugh RW, Swarthout EC, Wrege PH, Swarthout SB, Dantzker MS, Charif RA, Barksdale TR, Remsen JV Jr, Simon SD, Zollner D | title=Ivory-billed woodpecker (Campephilus principalis) persists in continental North America | journal=[[Science (journal)|Science]] | volume=308 | issue=5727 | year=2005 | pages=1460-1462 | id=PMID 15860589}}
* [[United States Fish and Wildlife Service|U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service]] ([[April 28]], [[2005]]). [http://www.fws.gov/southeast/news/2005/r05-029.html Once-thought Extinct Ivory-Billed Woodpecker Rediscovered in Arkansas]. Press Release
* {{cite book | author=Hoose, Phillip M. | title=The Race to Save the Lord God Bird | publisher=New York: Farrar, Straus, and Giroux | year=2004 | id=ISBN 0374361738}} (children's book)
* {{cite book | author=Jackson, Jerome A | title=In Search of the Ivory-Billed Woodpecker | publisher=Smithsonian Institution Press | year=2004 | id=ISBN 1588341321}}
* {{cite book | author=[[Tim Gallagher|Gallagher, Tim]] | title=The Grail Bird: Hot on the Trail of the Ivory-Billed Woodpecker | publisher=Houghton Mifflin | year=2005 | id=ISBN 0618456937}}
* Scott Weidensaul, "Ghost of a chance" ''Smithsonian Magazine'' August 2005 pp 97–102.
== External links ==
* [http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/science/nature/4493825.stm 'Extinct' woodpecker found alive] from [[BBC News]]
* [http://www.museum.lsu.edu/~Remsen/IBW.html The Search for the Ivory-billed Woodpecker], from a [[Louisiana State University]] website
* [http://www.nature.org/ivorybill/ The ivory-billed woodpecker has returned] with information on the Ivory-bill, its habitat, and the core search team, all from [http://www.nature.org/ The Nature Conservancy]
* [http://www.nature.org/magazine/fall2004/animals/ Online excerpt of ''The Race to Save the Lord God Bird''], a book about the history of the Ivory-billed Woodpecker by author Phillip Hoose
* [http://www.nature.org/chat/ Live audio chat about the ivory-bill] with Phillip Hoose, author of <em>The Race to Save the Lord God Bird</em>, on Tuesday, May 10, 2005 (archive to be posted after the chat)
* [http://birds.cornell.edu/ivory/ Website about the bird] with video and sound files, from the [[Cornell University|Cornell]] Lab of Ornithology (CLO) website
* [http://www.npr.org/programs/re/archivesdate/2002/march/ Radio Reports of the 2002 search], from [[National Public Radio]], with streaming [[RealAudio]]
* [http://news.fws.gov/NewsReleases/showNews.cfm?newsId=897957A5-1143-3066-401A20C9DFF1CE36 U.S. Fish & Wildlife Service] - [[April 28]], [[2005]] news release regarding rediscovery of the Ivory-billed Woodpecker
*[http://www.ivorybill.org/ The Big Woods Conservation Partnership], a group led by the CLO and [[The Nature Conservancy]], formed in response to the bird's rediscovery
* [http://www.nature.org/pressroom/features/photos.html Ivory-billed woodpecker photos] from The Nature Conservancy, along with [http://www.nature.org/pressroom/features/maps.html maps of ivory-bill's habitat]
* [http://www.birdingamerica.com/Ivorybill/ivorybilledwoodpecker.htm The Ivory-billed Woodpecker is Rediscovered in Arkansas!], from the personal website of a birder in Arkansas
* [http://www.sciencemag.org/cgi/rapidpdf/1114103v1.pdf Ivory-Billed Woodpecker (''Campephilus principalis'') Persists in Continental North America], from Sciencexpress, in [[Portable Document Format|PDF format]]
* [http://narsal.ecology.uga.edu/ivoryga.htm Ivory-Billed Woodpecker habitat range in Georgia] from the Natural Resources Spatial Analysis Laboratory's Georgia GAP Project
* [http://www.cornellsun.com/vnews/display.v/ART/2005/04/29/4271dfcdb52d7?in_archive=1 'Extinct' Woodpecker Found] from the Cornell University newspaper
* [http://media.eurekalert.org/scipub/images/Cornell_high.mov Quicktime movie about the rediscovery of the Ivory-Billed Woodpecker] – includes video footage that confirmed the woodpecker's rediscovery
* [http://www.yale.edu/opa/newsr/05-08-02-01.all.html Independent Researchers Confirm the Existence of Ivory-billed Woodpecker], an August 2005 [[Yale University]] press release
* [http://tomnelson.blogspot.com/2005/09/ivory-bill-skeptic-home.html Questions about the evidence], from a skeptic
* [http://audubon-print.com/ivory-billed-woodpecker.html Ivory Billed Woodpecker by John Audubon]
* [http://www.cbsnews.com/stories/2005/10/13/60minutes/main940587.shtml Finding The 'Lord God Bird'] from [[CBS News]]
* [http://ca.geocities.com/woodpeck2006/ivory.html Ivory-billed Woodpecker], a bibliographic source
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International English
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{{English dialects}}
'''International English''' is the concept of the [[English language]] as a global means of communication in numerous dialects, and the movement towards an international standard for the language. It is sometimes referred to as ''Global English'', ''World English'' or ''[[Standard English]]''. Sometimes these terms refer simply to the array of varieties of English spoken throughout the world; sometimes they refer to a desired standardisation. However, consensus on the terminology and path to standardisation has not been reached.
== Historical context ==
The modern concept of International English does not exist in isolation, but is the product of centuries of development of the English language.
The language of [[England]] came to dominance throughout the island of [[Great Britain]] during the Middle Ages and in [[Ireland]] during the 18th century and, especially, the 19th century. In the modern era, printing led to the gradual standardisation of English, and particularly the use of the [[prestige dialect]] of the English ruling classes.
The establishment of the first permanent English-speaking colony in [[North America]] in [[1607]] was a major step towards the globalisation of the language. [[British English]] was only partially standardised when the American colonies were established. Isolated from Britain by the Atlantic Ocean, the settlements evolved a distinct standard form of [[American English]]. In particular, [[Noah Webster]]'s reform of American-English spelling in the early [[19th century]] gave rise to the main division in English spelling that exists today.
In the [[18th century]], British colonialism focused on the [[southern hemisphere]]. The standardisation of [[British English]] was more settled than it had been in the previous century, and this confident English was brought to [[Africa]], [[Asia]] and [[Oceania]]. It developed both as the language of English-speaking settlers from Britain and Ireland, and as the administrative language imposed on speakers of other languages in the various parts of the [[British Empire]]. The first form can be seen in [[New Zealand English]], and the latter in [[Indian English]]. The term [[Commonwealth English]] refers to these groups of English dialects.
The English-speaking nations of [[Canada]] and the [[Caribbean]] are caught between historical connections with British and Commonwealth English, and geographical connections with U.S. English. In some things, and more formally, they tend to follow British standards, in others they follow the U.S. standard.
More recently, American English has become predominant as the preferred version of English in many countries that previously either had no preferred form, or preferred some variant of British English. Since World War II, for example, the governments of China (though not Hong Kong) and Japan have generally used American English, though in the case of China, the puncuation is a mixture of both American and British.
The ebb and flow between the standardisation of the language and its diversification have been ever present throughout its history. The flagship of the former is intelligibility and practicality, while the latter has cultural autonomy and flexibility.
== Modern global language ==
There is a distinction between English as spoken as a [[native language]] around the world (in the [[USA]], the [[United Kingdom]], [[Australia]] and so forth) and as a non-native language spoken as a regional or global [[lingua franca]].
A second distinction is made between those countries where non-native English has official or historical importance (''special significance'', for example, in [[Pakistan]] and [[Uganda]]), and those where it does not (for example, in [[Japan]] and [[Peru]]).
In the terminology of [[Language education|English language teaching]] (ELT), we have:
* English as a native language (ENL), also called ''first language'' (L1).
* [[English as an additional language]] (EAL) or English for speakers of other languages (ESOL):
** English as a second language ([[TESL|ESL]]) in an environment where English has a ''special significance'', also called ''second language'' (L2).
** English as a foreign language (EFL) in places where it has no ''special significance'', also called ''third language'' (L3).
English as a second language might refer either to acquisition of the language in southern India, where it is a prominent, regional lingua franca, or the acquisition of the language by a speaker of another language in a predominantly English-speaking country (a Brazilian living in Barbados, for instance). It may not be an individual's actual second language, but perhaps third or fourth.
In the context of language teaching, English as an additional language (EAL) usually is based on the standards of either British/Commonwealth English or American English. English as an international language (EIL) is EAL with emphasis on learning different major dialect forms; in particular, it aims to equip students with the linguistic tools to communicate internationally.
The term ''International English'' is used in the ''International English Language Testing System'' ([[IELTS]]), an English-language definition and evaluation system owned, developed and delivered through the partnership of the [[British Council]], [[IDP Education Australia]]: IELTS Australia and the [[University of Cambridge]] ESOL Examinations. Though concentrating on a kind of English understood almost everywhere, the basic standard is taken to be [[Commonwealth English]].
== Varying concepts ==
=== Universality and flexibility ===
International English sometimes refers to English as it is actually being used and developed in the world; as a language owned not just by native speakers, but by all those who come to use it.
<blockquote>Basically, it covers the English language at large, often (but not always or necessarily) implicitly seen as standard. It is certainly also commonly used in connection with the acquisition, use, and study of English as the world's lingua franca ('TEIL: Teaching English as an International Language'), and especially when the language is considered as a whole in contrast with ''American English'', ''British English'', ''South African English'', and the like. — McArthur (2002, p. 444–45)</blockquote>
It especially means English words and phrases generally understood throughout the English-speaking world as opposed to localisms. The importance of non-native English language skills can be recognised behind the long-standing joke that the international language of science and technology is broken English.
=== Neutrality ===
International English reaches towards cultural neutrality. This has a practical use:
<blockquote>"What could be better than a type of English that saves you from having to re-edit publications for individual regional markets! Teachers and learners of English as a second language also find it an attractive idea — both often concerned that their English should be neutral, without British or American or Canadian or Australian colouring. Any regional variety of English has a set of political, social and cultural connotations attached to it, even the so-called 'standard' forms." — Peters (2004, ''International English'')</blockquote>
According to this viewpoint, International English is a concept of English that minimises the aspects defined by either the colonial [[imperialism]] of Victorian Britain or the [[cultural imperialism]] of the 20th century United States. While British [[colonialism]] laid the foundation for English over much of the world, International English is a product of an emerging world culture, very much attributable to the influence of the United States as well, but conceptually based on a far greater degree of cross-talk and linguistic transculturation, which tends to mitigate both U.S. influence and British colonial influence.
The development of International English often centres around academic and scientific communities, where formal English usage is prevalent, and creative and flowery use of the language is at a minimum. This formal International English allows entry into Western culture as a whole and Western cultural values in general.
=== Opposition ===
The continued growth of the English language itself is seen by many as a kind of [[cultural imperialism]], whether it is English in one form or English in two slightly different forms.
Robert Phillipson argues against the possibility of such neutrality in his ''Linguistic Imperialism'' (1992). Learners who wish to use purportedly correct English are in fact faced with the dual standard of American English and British English, and other less known standard Englishes.
Edward Trimnell, author of ''Why You Need a Foreign Language & How to Learn One'' (2005) argues that the international version of English is only adequate for communicating basic ideas. For complex discussions and business/technical situations, English is not an adequate communication tool for non-native speakers of the language. Trimnell also asserts that native English-speakers have become "dependent on the language skills of others" by placing their faith in international English.
=== Appropriation theory ===
There are also some who reject both linguistic imperialism and Crystal's theory of the neutrality of English. They argue that the phenomenon of the global spread of English is better understood in the framework of [[appropriation]] (e.g. Spichtinger 2000), that is English used for local purposes around the world. Demonstrators in non-English speaking countries often use signs in English to convey their demands to TV-audiences around the globe, for instance.
In English language teaching Bobda shows how [[Cameroon]] has moved away from a mono-cultural, Anglo-centred way of teaching English and has gradually appropriated teaching material to a Cameroonian context. Non Western-topics treated are, for instance, the rule of Emirs, traditional medicine or polygamy (1997:225). Kramsch and Sullivan (1996) describe how Western methodology and textbooks have been appropriated to suit local [[Vietnamese culture]]. The [[Pakistani]] textbook "Primary Stage English" includes lessons such as "Pakistan My Country", "Our Flag", or "Our Great Leader" (Malik 1993: 5,6,7) which might well sound jingoistic to Western ears. Within the native culture, however, establishing a connection between ELT, patriotism and Muslim faith is seen as one of the aims of ELT, as the chairman of the Punjab Textbook Board openly states: "The board...takes care, through these books to inoculate in the students a love of the Islamic values and awareness to guard the ideological frontiers of your [the students] home lands" (Punjab Text Book Board 1997).
=== Many Englishes ===
There are many difficult choices that have to be made if there is to be further standardisation of English in the future. These include the choice over whether to adopt a current standard, or move towards a more neutral, but artificial one. A true International English might supplant both current American and British English as a variety of English for international communication, leaving these as local dialects, or would rise from a merger of General American and standard British English with admixture of other varieties of English and would generally replace all these varieties of English.
<blockquote>We may, in due course, all need to be in control of two standard Englishes—the one which gives us our national and local identity, and the other which puts us in touch with the rest of the human race. In effect, we may all need to become bilingual in our own language. — David Crystal (1988: p. 265)</blockquote>
This is the situation long faced by many users of English who possess a 'non-standard' dialect of English as their birth tongue but have also learned to write (and perhaps also speak) a more standard dialect. Many academics often publish material in journals requiring different varieties of English and change style and spellings as necessary without great difficulty.
=== Dual standard ===
Two approaches to International English are the individualistic and inclusive approach and the new dialect approach.
The individualistic approach gives control to individual authors to write and spell as they wish (within purported standard conventions) and to accept the validity of differences. The ''Longman Grammar of Spoken and Written English'', published in 1999, is a descriptive study of both American and British English in which each chapter follows individual spelling conventions according to the preference of the main editor of that chapter.
The new dialect approach appears in ''The Cambridge Guide to English Usage'' (Peters, 2004) which attempts to avoid any language bias and accordingly uses an idiosyncratic international spelling system of mixed American and British forms (but tending more to American spelling).
== Non-U.S. English ==
Sometimes ''International English'' is used to refer to a general standard that is based on [[Commonwealth English|Commonwealth]] and [[British English]], rather than [[American English|U.S. English]]. Whereas the majority of English native speakers use American English, most nations other than the United States use British/Commonwealth English as a standard, which explains the use of the word "international". However, U.S. English is having a greater influence in the rapidly expanding area of English as a foreign language, due to the economic and cultural influence of the United States.<br>
The international flavour of British/Commonwealth English is dependent on three factors:
# British and Commonwealth English are standard in far more countries around the world than U.S. English.
# Many academic publications outside the United States use the conventions of the [[Oxford University Press]].
# This standard of English has official status in the [[United Nations]] and the [[European Union]], and it is used as the basis of English-language testing by the ''International English Language Testing System'' ([[IELTS]]).
''International English'' is also sometimes used in this manner in the computer industry. The [[Linux]] community, and other [[Open Software]] groups use the term [[Commonwealth English]] instead, usually in giving users a choice of spellings or wordings for messages. But the English language choices given are in fact normally only between American English and British English with ''-ise'' spellings, the latter being called ''International English'' or ''Commonwealth English''.
However, [[Microsoft]]'s ''[[Encarta]]'' has different versions for American English, Australian English, British English, and Canadian English which does not exhaust what could be provided.
== International organisations ==
There are ''three major English varieties'' used as standards by international organisations:
=== British English with -ize spellings ===
Spellings: centre, programme, labour, defence, cooperation, organize, recognize, but: analyse
<br>[[IANA]] language tag [[en-GB-oed]], this standard is based on the [[Oxford English Dictionary]]
Examples of organisations that predominantly adhere to this standard are:
* United Nations system ([[UN]], [[UNESCO]], [[UNICEF]]...),
* World Trade Organization ([[WTO]]),
* International Organization for Standardization ([[International Organization for Standardization|ISO]]),
* International Electrotechnical Commission ([[IEC]]),
* International Telecommunication Union ([[ITU]]),
* World Health Organization ([[WHO]]),
*[[ International Labour Organization]] (ILO),
* International Atomic Energy Agency ([[IAEA]]),
* Organization of the Petroleum Exporting Countries ([[OPEC]]),
* South Asian Association for Regional Cooperation ([[SAARC]]),
* International Criminal Police Organization - [[Interpol]],
* International Committee of the Red Cross ([[ICRC]]),
* [[WWF]] - The Conservation Organization,
* and [[Amnesty International]].
=== British English with -ise spellings ===
Spellings: centre, programme, labour, defence, co-operation, organise, recognise, analyse<br>
Language tag [[en-GB]], the official standard of the UK government.
Examples of organisations that predominantly adhere to this standard are:
* North Atlantic Treaty Organisation ([[NATO]]),
* European Union ([[EU]]),
* Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development ([[OECD]]),
* [[Commonwealth Secretariat]] ([[Commonwealth of Nations]]),
* Organisation of Eastern Caribbean States ([[OECS]]),
* International Olympic Committee ([[IOC]]),
* Fédération Internationale de Football Association ([[FIFA]]),
* [[Transparency International]]
* and [[Greenpeace]]
=== American English ===
Spellings: center, program, labor, defense, cooperation, organize, recognize, analyze<br>
Language tag [[en-US]], used by the U.S. government.
Examples of organisations that predominantly adhere to this standard are:
* International Monetary Fund ([[IMF]]),
* [[World Bank]],
* Organization of American States ([[OAS]]),
* [[NAFTA]] Secretariat,
* and World Intellectual Property Organization ([[WIPO]])
* [[IUPAC]]
==See also==
* [[Globish]], the "dialect" version of International English
==References, further reading, and external links==
===Distinguished from or including both U.S. and British English===
* [http://kfa.univ.szczecin.pl/histvar/around.html Arsoba, Leszek. "Varieties of English: English Around the World"]
* Biber, Douglas; Johansson, Stig; Leech, Geoffrey; Conrad, Susan; Finnegan, Edward (1999). ''Longman Grammar of Spoken and Written English.'' Harlow, Essex: Pearson Education. ISBN 0582237254.
* Bobda, Augustin Simo (1997) "Sociocultural Constraints in EFL Teaching in Cameroon." In: Pütz, Martin (ed.) The cultural Context in Foreign Language Teaching. Frankfurt a.M.: Lang. 221-240.
* Crystal, David (1988). ''The English Language''. London: Penguin. ISBN 0140135324.
* ————— (1997). ''English as a Global Language.'' Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. ISBN 052159247X.
* [http://www.ling.ed.ac.uk/~pgc/archive/2000/subs/elizabeth.ps Erling, Elizabeth J. (2000). "International/Global/World English: Is a Consensus Possible?", Postgraduate Conference Proceedings, The University of Edinburgh, Department of Applied Linguistics.] (Postscript.)
* [http://www.unizar.es/departamentos/filologia_inglesa/garciala/bibliography.html García Landa, José Ángel (2004). "World English" Bibliography. From ''A Bibliography of Literary Theory, Criticism and Philology'' (10th ed.) University of Zaragoza (Spain).]
* [http://www.ielts.org IELTS—International English Language Testing System.]
* [http://www.teachingenglish.org.uk/think/pron/global_english.shtml Jenkins, Jennifer. "Global English and the teaching of pronunciation".] (A discussion of the relative importance of different pronunciation feature for international comprehension of spoken English.)
* [http://www.wordflair.com/Articles/ibearticle.html Johnson, Christine and Bartlett, Cath (1999). "International Business English - What should we be teaching?" ''BESIG Business Issues'' 3.]
* [http://online-communication.net/southernenglish.html Johnson, Angel M. "Southerners, Rednecks, Hicks, and Bumpkins: Sustainers of the Forgotten United States Dialects".]
* Kachru, Braj (1986). ''The Alchemy of English: The Spread, Functions, and Models of Non-native Englishes.'' Chicago: University of Illinois Press. ISBN 0252061721.
* Klaire Kramsch and Particia Sullivan (1996) "Appropriate Pedagogy". ELT Journal 50/3 199-212.
* Malik, S.A. Primary Stage English (1993). Lahore: Tario Brothers.
* McArthur, T. (Oxford, 1992) "The Oxford Companion to the English Language," Oxford University Press, ISBN 019214183X
* ————— (2001). "World English and World Englishes: Trends, tensions, varieties, and standards", ''Language Teaching'' Vol. 34, issue 1. Available in PDF format at [http://journals.cambridge.org/bin/bladerunner?REQUNIQ=1102212066&REQSESS=9188824&118300REQEVENT=&REQINT1=67661&REQINT2=64801&REQAUTH=0 Cambridge: Language Teaching: Sample article] and [http://ltsc.ph-karlsruhe.de/McArthur.pdf Learning and Teacher Support Centre: McArthur].
* ————— (2002). ''Oxford Guide to World English''. Oxford: Oxford University Press. ISBN 0198662483 hardback, ISBN 0198607717 paperback.
* [http://www.fulbright.kiev.ua/newsletters/08/p07en.html Tarnopolsky, Oleg. "What Variety of English to Teach in Ukraine?"] (A study suggesting that teaching both British English and American English is preferable to teaching an artificial "International English".)
* Peters, Pam (2004). ''The Cambridge Guide to English Usage''. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. ISBN 052162181X.
* Phillipson, Robert (1992). ''Linguistic Imperialism.'' Oxford: Oxford University Press. ISBN 0194371468.
* [http://www.geocities.com/dspichtinger/Uni/sp-dipl3.pdf Spichtinger, David (2000). "The Spread of English and its Appropriation." Diplomarbeit zur Erlangung des Magistergrades der Philosophie eingereicht an der Geisteswissenschaftlichen Fakultät der Universität Wien.] (PDF.)
*Punjab Text Book Board (1997) My English Book Step IV. Lahore: Metro Printers.
*[http://www-writing.berkeley.edu/TESL-EJ/ej18/f1.html ***TESL-EJ Forum***: Varieties of English: Definition and Instruction]
*[[Henry Widdowson]] (1998a) " EIL: squaring the Circles. A Reply." World Englishes 17/3 397-401.
===Closely identified or synonymous with standard British English===
* [http://www.bfbs.org.uk/britishisles/anglicisation.html Bible Society: Machine Assisted Translations: Anglicisations] ("The standard English of India, Canada, Australia, New Zealand, South Africa, the Commonwealth and some other countries where English is used follows the conventions of '''British English'''. It is often therefore called '''International English''' to distinguish it from '''American English'''.")
* [http://www.gscassociates.com/pubs/VRML_P1C.html Carson, George S., Puk, Richard F., Carey, Rikk (1998). "Development of the VRML 97 International Standard"]. ("International Standards are written in International English, not American English. The most obvious difference is many minor variations in the way words are spelled, for example "colour" rather than "color", "centre" rather than "center" and "behaviour" rather than "behavior." Although ISO granted a special exception to allow VRML to be published initially in American English if necessary to expedite its publication, both sides decided to convert most of the document to International English. The only exceptions were affecting the syntax of a VRML file, such as node names like "Color" and "ColorInterpolator", where a change to "Colour" and ColourInterpolator" would have made existing VRML files incompatible with the new standard.")
* [http://www.victoriagroup.com/pdfs/9K2KHandbook.pdf Goult, Roderick S. W. (2004). ''Introduction to ISO 9000:2000 Handbook.'' Edition of August, 2004. Methuen, MA: The Victoria Group.] (PDF. From page 6: "An ISO standard which has been 'adopted' by a national standards body of a country will undergo some minor changes for reasons of translation, use of language or local interpretation. Hence, in the ANSI/ISO/ASQ standards, the spelling varies from international English, and the words 'International Standard' have been changed to 'American National Standard.'")
* [http://www.office.xerox.com/perl-bin/product.pl?product=Z740&page=prnt Xerox: Phaser 740/740L: Product Brochures ] (Brochures available for download in either "U.S. English" or "International English".)
[[Category:English dialects]]
[[Category:English language]]
[[Category:Forms of English]]
International African Institute
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The '''International African Institute''' (IAI) was founded (as the '''International Institute of African Languages and Cultures''') in [[1926]] in [[London]] for the study of [[African Languages]]. [[Diedrich Hermann Westermann]] was co-director from 1926 to ????.
The IAI has published a quarterly journal, ''Africa'', since 1928.
==External links==
[http://www.iaionthe.net/ IAI website].
{{org-stub}}
[[Category:1926 establishments]]
IAI
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'''IAI''' is an acronym for:
*[[Inter-American Institute for Global Change Research]]
*[[International African Institute]]
*[[International Association for Identification]]
*[[Israel Aircraft Industries]] (''Ha-Taasiya Ha-Avirit'')
{{TLAdisambig}}
Insulin-like growth factor
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The '''insulin-like growth factors''' (IGFs) are [[polypeptide]]s with high [[Homology (biology)|sequence similarity]] to [[insulin]]. IGFs are part of a complex system that cells use to communicate with their [[physiology|physiologic]] environment. This complex system (often referred to as the IGF "axis") consists of two [[cell-surface receptor]]s (IGF1R and IGF2R), two [[ligand]]s (IGF-I and IGF-II), a family of six high-affinity IGF binding [[protein]]s (IGFBP 1-6), as well as associated IGFBP degrading [[enzyme]]s, referred to collectivly as [[protease]]s.
This system is important for both the regulation of normal physiology, as well as a number of pathological states, including [[cancer]]. The IGF axis has been shown to play roles in the promotion of [[cell proliferation]] and the inhibition of [[cell death]] ([[apoptosis]]). IGF-II is thought to be a primary [[growth factor]] required for early development while IGF-I expression is seen in later life. [[Gene knockout]] studies in mice have confirmed this, though other animals are likely to regulate the expression of these genes in distinct ways. While IGF-2 may be primarily [[fetus|fetal]] in action it is also essential for development and function of organs such as the [[brain]], [[liver]] and [[kidney]].
[[Insulin-like growth factor 1]] (IGF-1) is mainly secreted by the liver as a result of stimulation by [[growth hormone]] (hGH). Almost every [[cell (biology)|cell]] in the human body is affected by IGF-1, especially cells in [[muscle]], [[cartilage]], [[bone]], liver, kidney, [[nerve|nerves]], [[skin]], and [[lungs]]. In addition to the insulin-like effects, IGF-1 can also regulate [[cell growth]] and development, especially in nerve cells, as well as cellular [[DNA]] synthesis.
IGF-II is secreted by the brain, kidney, [[pancreas]] and muscle in [[mammal]]s. It is more specific in action than IGF-1. In adult humans it is found at 600 times the concentration of insulin.
IGF-1 and IGF-II are regulated by a family of genes known as the [[IGF-Binding Proteins.]] These proteins help to modulate IGF action in complex ways that involve both inhibiting IGF action by preventing binding to the IGF-1 receptor as well as promoting IGF action possibly through aiding in delivery to the receptor and increasing IGF half-life. Currently, there are 6 characterized IGF Binding Proteins (IGFBP1-6). There is currently significant data suggesting that IGFBPs play important roles in addition to their ability to regulate IGFs.
Studies of recent interest show that the IGF axis play an important role in [[Senescence|aging]]. [[Nematode]]s, [[Drosophila melanogaster|fruit-flies]] and other organisms have an increased life span when the gene equivalent to the mammalian IGF is [[Gene knockout|knocked out]]. Clearly the IGF/Insulin axis has an ancient [[evolution|evolutionary]] origin. Other studies are beginning to uncover the important role the IGFs play in diseases such as [[cancer]] and [[diabetes]], showing for instance that IGF-1 stimulates growth of both prostate and breast cancer cells<sup>1-3</sup>. Researchers are not in complete agreement about the degree of cancer risk that IGF-1 poses.
Further work is required to determine the main [[receptor (biochemistry)|receptors]] used by these growth factors to elicit their effects. Currently the IGF's are known to bind the insulin receptor, IGF-1 receptor, IGF-2 receptor, the insulin-related receptor and possible other receptors. IGF-1 and IGF-2 strongly bind to and activate the IGF-1 receptor, with weaker binding and action occurring through insulin receptors. The IGF-2 receptor only binds IGF-2 and acts as a "clearance receptor" - it activates no intracellular signalling pathways, functioning only as an IGF-2 sequestering agent and preventing IGF-2 signalling.
IGF-1 is present in [[milk]], especially when the cow has been treated with [[Bovine somatotropin|bovine growth hormone]].
==See also==
*[[insulin-like growth factor 1]]<br/>
*[[insulin-like growth factor 2]]
*[[HGH quackery]]
==References==
# Cohen, Pinchas, et al. "[http://jcem.endojournals.org/cgi/content/abstract/73/2/401 Insulin-like growth factors (IGFs), IGF receptors, and IGF-binding proteins in primary cultures of prostate epithelial]". ''Journal of Clinical Endocrinology and Metabolism'', Vol. 73, No. 2, 1991, pp. 401-07
# Lippman, Marc E. "The development of biological therapies for breast cancer". ''Science'', Vol. 259, [[January 29]] [[1993]], pp. 631-32
# Papa, Vincenzo, et al. "Insulin-like growth factor-I receptors are overexpressed and predict a low risk in human breast cancer". ''Cancer Research'', Vol. 53, 1993, pp. 3736-40
[[Category:biochemistry]]
[[Category:endocrinology]]
[[he:פקטורים מעוררי צמיחה]]
[[ja:インスリン様成長因子]]
IGF
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2006-02-12T17:15:03Z
81.65.0.143
The [[TLA]] '''IGF''' can refer to:
* [[insulin-like growth factor]]
* [[Internet Governance Forum]]
* [[Independent Games Festival]]
* [[International Golf Federation]]
{{TLAdisambig}}
IGF-1
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Mental deficiency
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Sam Spade
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#REDIRECT [[Mental retardation]]
#REDIRECT [[Mental retardation]]
Idiot
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2006-03-03T22:23:52Z
RexNL
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Reverted edits by [[Special:Contributions/88.110.52.195|88.110.52.195]] ([[User talk:88.110.52.195|talk]]) to last version by Hansnesse
The word '''idiot''', is derived from the [[Greek language|Greek]] word ιδιωτης, ''idiôtès'', "a private citizen, individual", from ιδιος, ''idios'', "private". It was originally used in the ancient Greek [[city-state]]s to refer to people who were overly concerned with their own self-interest and ignored the needs of the community. These people were seen as having bad judgement in public and political matters. Over time, the term "idiot" shifted away from its original connotation of selfishness and came to refer to individuals with overall ''bad judgement'' - that is, individuals who are [[stupid]].
In modern [[English language|English]] usage, the terms '''idiot''' and '''idiocy''' describe an extreme folly or stupidity, its symptoms (foolish or stupid utterance or deed) or, in psychology, the state or condition of an idiot, i.e. profound mental retardation.
==Antiquity==
*In [[Athens]], an ''idiotès'' was a person who 'kept to himself' by declining to take part in public life, such as democratic city state government. Since such activities were considered honorable and could directly affect all citizens, "idiot" became a term of derision. See [[Athenian democracy]].
* In [[Hellenistic civilization|hellenistic]] [[Egypt]], ''idiotès'' was simply a term for soldier (and etymologically parallel to that word deriving from sold 'pay'), derived from the ''idios logos'', the royal treasury that paid them.
==Handicap==
In [[19th century|19th]] and early [[20th century]] [[medicine]] and [[psychology]], an "idiot" was a person with a very severe [[mental retardation]] or a very low [[IQ]] level. Idiots were defined as people whose IQ were below 20 (with a standard deviation of 16). In the current classification, these people are now said to have [[profound mental retardation]], but the word "idiot" is no longer used as a scientific term.
==Use as an abuse==
In modern [[English language|English]] and other languages, idiot is also a derogatory term used to [[insult]]. Its use usually means "You are [[Stupidity|stupid]]." It's socially acceptable, for example, to refer to a group of drunken folks 'acting up' in a bar as "idiots".
Paradoxically, however, 'idiot' cannot easily be used to describe someone who is genuinely mentally retarded. In the [[21st Century]] such use would be seen as insensitive, hurtful, or [[political correctness|politically incorrect]].
A select number of authors have used "idiot" characters in novels, plays and poetry. Often these characters are used to highlight or indicate something else, that is, often these characters are an allegorical technique. Examplars of such usage are [[William Faulkner]]'s ''[[The Sound and the Fury]]'' and [[William Wordsworth]]'s ''[[The Idiot Boy]]''. Idiot characters in literature are often confused with or subsumed within mad or lunatic characters. The most common imbrication between these two categories of mental impairment occurs in the polemic surrounding Edmund from [[Shakespeare]]'s ''[[King Lear]]''. In [[Dostoyevsky]]'s novel [[The Idiot]], the idiocy of the main character, Prince Myshkin, is attributed more to his honesty, trustfulness, kindness, and humility, than to his mental disability. This somewhat parallels the use of the word "idiot" in colloquial [[Russian language|Russian]] to characterize the naive optimist and the "do gooder".
==Other uses==
*[[The Idiot]] is a classic in world literature, in Russian, by Dostoyevsky; an online-edition (translated in English) is [http://www.online-literature.com/dostoevsky/idiot/]
* In June of [[2005]], New York State Assemblyman [[Will Stephens]] sent an e-mail to his constituents referring to them as 'pontificating idiots'.
* "Idiot box" is a slang term for [[television]], or for a [[dialog box]] on a computer.
* "Walk Idiot Walk" is a song performed by the rock music group [[The Hives]] and released on the band's [[2004]] album, ''Tyrannosaurus Hives''.
* "Idiot savant" was the original term for [[savant syndrome]], used to describe people who excel in one particular thing while being below-average in other mental or behavioral areas. Many of these people are also [[autistic savant]]s.
* In [[2004]], [[Red Sox]] [[outfielder]] [[Johnny Damon]] affectionately referred to his team as "The Idiots" to describe its eclectic roster and devil-may-care attitude toward "[[Curse of the Bambino|the curse]]".
* "[[Idiot light]]s" was a pejorative term used in the 1960's and 1970's referring to the low oil pressure and alternator fault lights on an automobile dashboard. The implication of the term was that knowledgeable drivers use real gauges and don't need warning lamps. The present and almost universal use of warning lamps in automobiles has caused the term to fall into disuse.
* The Idiot's Guide to Everything was released in 2003 as a methodological approach to describing literally everything imaginable. It was not a huge success.
==Quotes==
*"Reader, suppose you were an idiot. And suppose you were a member of [[Congress of the United States|Congress]]. But I repeat myself." ([[Mark Twain]], c.[[1882]]) [http://www.etymonline.com/index.php?term=idiot]
==External links and references==
*[http://dictionary.reference.com/search?q=idiot Dictionary.Reference.Com] "Middle English, ignorant person, from Old French ''idiote'' (modern French idiot), from Latin ''idiota'', from Greek ''idiotès'', private person, layman, from ''idios'', own, private."
*[http://www.etymonline.com/index.php?term=idiot Etymonline] "c.1300, "person so mentally deficient as to be incapable of ordinary reasoning," from Old French ''idiote'' "uneducated or ignorant person," from L. ''idiota'' "ordinary person, layman," in Late Latin "uneducated or ignorant person," from Greek ''idiotes'' "layman, person lacking professional skill," literally "private person," used patronizingly for "ignorant person," from ''idios'' "one's own."
*[[Pauly-Wissowa]] (in German)
[[Category:Disability]]
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Illuminati
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2006-03-04T02:44:32Z
69.104.142.200
{{Otheruses}}
The '''Illuminati''' is the name of many groups, modern and historical, real and fictitious, verified and alleged. Most commonly, however, ''The Illuminati'' refers specifically to the ''[[Bavaria|Bavarian]] Illuminati'', perhaps the least secret of all [[Secret society|secret societies]] in the world, described below. Most use refers to an alleged shadowy [[conspiracy theory|conspiratorial]] organization which controls world affairs behind the scenes, usually a modern incarnation or continuation of the Bavarian Illuminati. ''Illuminati'' is sometimes used synonymously with [[New World Order (conspiracy)|New World Order]].
== Origins ==
Since ''Illuminati'' literally means 'enlightened ones' in [[Latin]], it is natural that several unrelated historical groups have identified themselves as ''Illuminati''. Often, this was due to claims of possessing [[Gnosticism| gnostic]] texts or other arcane information not generally available.
The designation ''illuminati'' was in use from the [[14th century]] by the [[Brethren of the Free Spirit]]. In the [[15th century]] the name was adopted by other enthusiasts who claimed that the illuminating light came, not by communication from an authoritative or secret source, but from within, as the result of exalted consciousness, or "[[Enlightenment (concept)|enlightenment]]".
=== Alumbrados of Spain ===
To the gnostic class belong the ''alumbrados'' of Spain. The historian [[Marcelino Menéndez y Pelayo]] found the name as early as [[1492]] (in the form ''aluminados'', [[1498]]), and traced the group to a Gnostic origin. He thought their views were promoted in [[Spain]] through influences from [[Italy]]. One of their earliest leaders, born in [[Salamanca]], was a labourer's daughter known as [[La Beata de Piedrahita]]. She came to the notice of the [[Spanish inquisition|Inquisition]] in [[1511]], by claiming to hold colloquies with [[Jesus]] and the [[Mary, the mother of Jesus|Virgin Mary]]; some high patronage saved her from a rigorous denunciation. (Menéndez Pelayo, ''Los Heterodoxos Españoles'', [[1881]], vol. V.). [[Ignatius Loyola]], while studying at Salamanca in [[1527]], was brought before an ecclesiastical commission on a charge of sympathy with the ''alumbrados'', but escaped with an admonition.
Others were not so fortunate. In [[1529]] a congregation of naïve adherents at Toledo was subjected to whippings and imprisonment. Greater rigors followed, and for about a century alleged connection with the ''alumbrados'' sent many to the Inquisition, especially at [[Córdoba, Spain|Córdoba]].
===Illuminés of France===
The movement (under the name of ''Illuminés'') seems to have reached [[France]] from [[Seville]] in [[1623]], and attained some following in [[Picardy]] when joined ([[1634]]) by [[Pierce Guerin]], curé of Saint-Georges de Roye, whose followers, known as [[Gurinet]]s, were suppressed in [[1635]].
A century later, another, more obscure body of ''Illuminés'' came to light in the south of France in [[1722]], and appears to have lingered till [[1794]], having affinities with those known contemporaneously in [[Britain]] as 'French Prophets', an offshoot of the [[Camisards]]
=== Rosicrucians ===
Different from the lluminés were the [[Rosicrucians]], who claimed to have originated in [[1407]], but rose to notice in [[1614]] when their main text ''Fama Fraternitatis'' appeared. As a [[secret society]], they claimed to combine the possession of esoteric principles of [[religion]] with the mysteries of [[alchemy]]. Their positions are described in three anonymous treatises from [[1614]] (mentioned in Richard and Giraud, ''Dictionnaire universel des sciences ecclésiastiques'', Paris 1825), as well as in the ''Confessio Fraternitatis'' of 1615. Rosicrucians also claimed heritage from the [[Knights Templar]].
=== Martinists ===
Later, the title '''Illuminati''' was applied to the [[French Martinists]], which had been founded in [[1754]] by [[Martinez Pasqualis]], and to their imitators the [[Russian Martinists]], headed about [[1790]] by Professor Schwartz of [[Moscow]]; both were [[occultist]] [[Kabbalah|cabalists]] and [[allegorists]], absorbing eclectic ideas from [[Jakob Boehme]] and [[Emanuel Swedenborg]].
== The Bavarian Illuminati ==
=== History ===
A movement of [[freethought|freethinkers]] that were the most radical offshoot of [[The Enlightenment]] — whose adherents were given the name ''Illuminati'' (but who called themselves "Perfectibilists") — was founded on [[May 1]], [[1776]] by Jesuit-taught [[Adam Weishaupt]] (d. [[1830]]), who was the first lay professor of [[canon law]]. The group has also been called the ''Illuminati Order'', the ''Order of the Illuminati'', the ''Ancient Illuminated Seers of Bavaria'', and the ''Bavarian Illuminati''.
In the conservative state of [[Bavaria]], where the progressive and enlightened elector [[Maximilian III Joseph]] von [[Wittelsbach]] was succeeded (1777) by his conservative heir [[Karl Theodor]], and which was dominated by the [[Roman Catholic Church]] and the [[aristocracy]], such an organization did not last long before it was suppressed by the powers of the day. In [[1784]], the Bavarian government banned all [[secret societies]], including the Illuminati and the [[Freemason]]s. The structure of the Illuminati soon collapsed, but while it was in existence many influential intellectuals and progressive politicians counted themselves as members.
Its members were supposedly drawn primarily from [[Freemasonry|Masons]] and former Masons, and although some Masons were known to be members there is no evidence that it was supported by Freemasons. The members pledged obedience to their superiors, and were divided into three main classes: the first, known as the ''Nursery'', encompassed the ascending degrees or offices of ''Preparation'', ''Novice'', ''Minerval'' and ''Illuminatus Minor''; the second, known as the ''Masonry'', consisting of the ascending degrees of ''Illuminatus Major'' and ''Illuminatus dirigens'', the latter also sometimes called ''Scotch Knight''; the third, designated the ''Mysteries'', was subdivided into the degrees of the ''Lesser Mysteries'' (''Presbyter'' and ''Regent'') and those of the ''Greater Mysteries'' (''Magus'' and ''Rex''). Relations with Masonic lodges were established at [[Munich]] and [[Freising]] in [[1780]].
The order had its branches in most countries of the European continent; its members were reportedly around 3,000-4,000 members in the span of 10 years. The scheme had its attraction for literary men, such as [[Goethe]] and [[Johann Gottfried Herder|Herder]], and even for the reigning dukes of [[Gotha (district)|Gotha]] and [[Weimar]]. Internal rupture preceded its downfall, which was effected by an edict of the Bavarian government in [[1785]].
=== Cultural effect ===
The Bavarian Illuminati have cast a long shadow in popular history thanks to the writings of their opponents; the lurid allegations of [[conspiracy]] that have colored the image of the [[Freemasons]] have practically opaqued that of the Illuminati. In 1797, Abbé [[Augustin Barruél]] published ''Memoirs Illustrating the History of Jacobinism'' outlining a vivid [[conspiracy theory]] involving the [[Knights Templar]], the [[Rosicrucian]]s, the [[Jacobinism|Jacobins]] and the Illuminati. A [[Scotland|Scottish]] Mason and professor of natural history named [[John Robison]] started to publish ''Proofs of a Conspiracy Against all the Religions and Governments of Europe'' in 1798. Robison claimed to present evidence of an Illuminati conspiracy striving to replace all religions with [[humanism]] and all nations with a single world government.
More recently, [[Antony C. Sutton]] suggested that the secret society [[Skull and Bones]] was founded as the American branch of the Illuminati; others think [[Scroll and Key]] had Illuminati origins, as well. Writer [[Robert Gillette]] claimed that these Illuminati ultimately intend to establish a [[world government]] through [[assassination]], [[bribery]], [[blackmail]], the control of [[bank]]s and other financial powers, the [[infiltration]] of [[government]]s, [[mind control]], and by causing [[war]]s and [[revolution]] to move their own people into higher positions in the [[politics|political]] [[hierarchy]].
[[Thomas Jefferson]], on the other hand, claimed they intended to spread information and the principles of true [[morality]]. He attributed the secrecy of the Illuminati to what he called "the tyranny of a despot and priests".
Both seem to agree that the enemies of the Illuminati were the [[monarch]]s of [[Europe]] and the [[Church]]; Barruél claimed that the [[French revolution]] ([[1789]]) was engineered and controlled by the Illuminati through the [[Jacobinism|Jacobins]], and later conspiracy theorists have also claimed their responsibility for the [[Russian Revolution of 1917|Russian Revolution]] ([[1917]]), although the order was officially shut down in [[1790]]. Few historians give credence to these views; they regard such claims as the products of over-fertile imaginations.
Several sources suggest that the Bavarian Illuminati survived, and perhaps even exists today. Conspiracy theorists highlight the link between the Illuminati and Freemasonry. It is also suggested that the United States' founding fathers — some being Freemasons — were rife with corruption from the Illuminati. Often the symbol of the all-seeing pyramid in the [[Great Seal of the United States]] is cited as an example of the Illuminati's ever-present watchful eye over Americans.
Very little reliable evidence can be found to suggest that Weishaupt's group survived into the 19th century. However, several groups have since used the name ''Illuminati'' to found their own rites, claiming to be ''the'' Illuminati. Such groups include the Grand Lodge Rockefeller of David Goldman (USA), Orden Illuminati of Gabriel López de Rojas (Spain), and The Illuminati Order of Solomon Tulbure (USA).
In 1995, Gabriel López de Rojas founded Illuminati Order in Barcelona, Spain, elaborating the Operative Rite of The Illuminati of Bavaria. This Rite is based on the Rite of the Illuminati and high degrees of [[Scottish Rite]] of 33 degrees.
The System of its Illuminati Grand Master, Gabriel López de Rojas, is the Redism. This system is based on the [[lemma]] ''HOMO EST DEUS'', or "man is god".
Groups describing themselves as Illuminati say they have members and chapters (lodges) throughout the world.
About the time that the Illuminati were outlawed in Bavaria, the Roman Catholic Church prohibited its members from joining Masonic lodges, on pain of excommunication. This was done as a general edict, since the Church believed many lodges to have been infiltrated and subverted by the Illuminati, but was not able to accurately ascertain which ones. This rule was relaxed only in the late 20th century.
== See also ==
* [[Alex Jones (journalist)]] - claims that the governments of today are in collaboration to create a [[New World Order (conspiracy)|New World Order]]
* [[Conspiracy theory]]
* [[Council on Foreign Relations]]
* [[David Icke]] - maintains that the world is ruled by a secret group called "The Elite", or "Illuminati"
* [[Freemasonry]]
* [[Illuminati in popular culture]]
* [[Illuminus]]
* [[Jordan Maxwell]]
* [[New World Order (conspiracy)|New World Order]]
* [[Robert Anton Wilson]]
* [[Secret Society]]
== References ==
*[[1911 Encyclopædia Britannica]]:'' "Illuminati"''
*America's Secret Establishment: An Introduction to the Order of Skull & Bones — Antony C. Sutton (Trine Day, LLC, 2003)
*Behold a Pale Horse — Cooper, Milton William (Light Technology Publishing, 1991)
*The Cosmic Conspiracy — Deyo, Stan (Adventures Unlimited Press, Illinois, 1994)
*The Illuminati 666 — Sutton, Josiah William (Teach Services, Inc, New York, 1983).
*Proof of a Conspiracy Against all the Religions and Governments of Europe — Robison, John A.M. (New York, 1798)
*They Cast No Shadows: A Collection of essays on the Illuminati, revisionist history and suppressed technology — [[Brian Desborough|Desborough, Brian]](Writers Club Press/ iUniverse.com, 2002) ISBN 0595219578
*{{cite book | author=Barkun, Michael | title=A Culture of Conspiracy: Apocalyptic Visions in Contemporary America | publisher=University of California Press, Berkeley | year=2003 | editor= | id=ISBN 0520238052}}
==External links==
*[http://www.atheists.org/Atheism/roots/enlightenment/ ''The Enlightenment, Freemasonry, and The Illuminati'' by Conrad Goeringer]
*[http://thomasinechurch.org/ Thomasine Church]
* [http://100777.com/myron ''The Illuminati and the CFR by Myron Fagan]
* [http://s11.invisionfree.com/Novus_Ordo_Random An Illuminati-based RPG]
* [http://freemasonry.bcy.ca/texts/Illuminati.html ''A Bavarian Illuminati Primer'' by Trevor W. McKeown]
*[http://www.conspiracyarchive.com/ Illuminati Conspiracy Archive]
*[http://anti-masonry.info/alt.illuminati_FAQ.html alt.illuminati FAQ]
*[http://www.luisprada.com/Protected/the_illuminati_and_the_galactic_federation.htm The Illuminati and the Galactic Federation]
* [http://www.newadvent.org/cathen/07661b.htm The Catholic Encyclopedia entry on Illuminati]
*[http://novusordoseclorum-oai.org O.A.I.]
*[http://www.abovetopsecret.com/forum/thread38424/pg1 Origins of the Illuminati?] A Discussion
*[http://www.abovetopsecret.com/forum/thread70060/pg1 The Illuminati: Who Are They Now?]
*[http://www.rawilson.com/ The Robert Anton Wilson Website]
*[http://www.obeyyourfear.com/ Conspiracy Rock Liverpool music group]
===Groups identifying themselves as Illuminati===
* [http://www.luminist.org Church of Gnostic Luminism]
* [http://www.ordeniluminati.com Orden Illuminati]
* [http://illuminati-order.com The Illuminati Order]
* [http://www.illuminati13.org/ Illuminati Order]
* [http://www.illuminatiorder.net/pages/illuminati/ Illuminati Order USA]
* [http://www.geocities.com/radicalmagi Union of Radical Magi: Illuminism for the 21st Century]
[[Category:Secret societies]]
[[Category:Conspiracy theories]]
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Isma'ilis
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Minesweeper
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#REDIRECT [[Ismaili]]
Ismailis
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Indus
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'''Indus''' has several meanings:
*The '''Indus''' is a river; the [[Indus River]].
*The '''[[Indus Valley Civilization]]''' was an ancient civilization that grew from the Indus River valley.
*The '''[[Indus script]]''' is an ancient script used in [[India]] and [[Pakistan]].
*At the '''[[Battle of Indus]]''', [[Mingburnu]] of [[Persian Empire|Persia]] fought [[Genghis Khan]].
*The '''[[Indus (constellation)]]''', named after Indus (the Indian), is a southern [[constellation]].
*'''[[Indus Airways]]''' a domestic air carrier, based in India.
*The '''[[Talk:Nelms#The_barque_INDUS|Indus]]''' was a ship used to transport emigrants from England to Australia.
*'''IndUS''' is an Indian youth group.
*'''[[Indus programming language|Indus]]''' is a [[concurrent programming language]]
{{disambig}}
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Instant-runoff voting
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{{cleanup-date|December 2005}}
'''Instant-Runoff Voting''' (IRV), '''Alternative Vote''' (AV), '''Ranked Choice Voting''' (RCV), or the '''Hare system''' is a [[voting system]] normally used for single-winner elections utilizing a ranked ballot. In Australia and New Zealand it is referred to as '''Preferential Voting''' — although this term may be misleading because it is not the only [[preferential voting]] system.
The term ''instant-runoff'' refers to the way in which IRV ballots are tabulated, as the winner is determined similarly to holding a series of [[runoff election|runoff elections]] with vote choices implied from the alternative preferences listed on the ballot. Instant-runoff voting is mathematically equivalent to the [[Single Transferable Vote]] (STV) method when there is only a single winner, and is therefore sometimes referred to as STV.
IRV was first used in [[Australia]] by the [[self-governing colony]] of [[Queensland]], in [[1893]]. The system gradually spread to other parts of Australia and has been used to elect the [[Australian House of Representatives]] since [[1919]]. IRV is also used to elect the [[President of Ireland]], the [[Papua New Guinea]] National Parliament, and the [[Fiji|Fijian]] [[House of Representatives (Fiji)|House of Representatives]].
== History and usage ==
Instant-Runoff Voting was invented around 1870 by American architect [[William Robert Ware]]. Ware was not a mathematician, thus never subjected his election method to any rigorous analysis. He evidently based IRV on the single winner outcome of the [[Single Transferable Vote]] or STV developed in 1855 originally by [[Carl Andrae]] in [[Denmark]]. It was introduced into [[England]] in 1857 by the [[barrister]] [[Thomas Hare]], where it earned public praise from [[John Stuart Mill]], an English philosopher, member of parliament, and employee of the [[British East India Company|East India Company]].
{{sect-stub}}
=== Current usage ===
IRV is used in Australia for elections to the Federal [[Australian House of Representatives|House of Representatives]], for the Legislative Assemblies ("lower houses") of all states and territories except [[Tasmania]] and the [[Australian Capital Territory]], which use regional multi-member constituencies. It is also used for the Legislative Councils ("upper houses") of [[Tasmania]] and [[Victoria (Australia)|Victoria]], although the latter will switch to the multi-member variant from [[2006]].
In the [[Pacific]], IRV is used for the [[Fiji|Fijian]] [[House of Representatives (Fiji)|House of Representatives]]. [[Papua New Guinea]] has also decided to adopt it for future elections, starting in [[2007]]. [[Voting system of Fiji|The Fijian system]] has been modified to allow for both "default preferences", specified by the political party or candidate, and "custom preferences", specified by the voter. Each political party or candidate ranks all other candidates according to its own preference; voters who are happy with that need only to vote for their own preferred candidate, whose preferences will automatically be transferred according to the ranking specified by the candidate. Voters who disagree with the ranking, however, may opt to rank the candidates according to their own preferences. In the [[Fiji election of 2001|last election]], however, only about a tenth of all voters did so. The ballot paper is divided by a thick black line, with boxes above (for the default options) and below (for customized preferences).
The countries mentioned above all use IRV for some or all of their municipal elections. Starting in [[2004]], some municipal areas in [[New Zealand]] also adopted IRV to elect mayors and STV to elect councilors. Political parties, cooperatives and other private groups also use STV and/or IRV.
A voting method similar to IRV, known as [http://mathforum.org/dmpow/solutions/solution.ehtml?puzzle=46]plurality vote with elimination, is used to select the winning bid of both the Summer and Winter Olympics in the [[International Olympic Committee]].
See [[Table of voting systems by nation]]
=== Adoption in the United States ===
Suggested by a recent version of [[Robert's Rules of Order]], instant-runoff voting is used in the United States for some non-governmental elections, including student elections at some major universities, including most notably the [[ASUC]] at the [[University of California, Berkeley]].
Notable supporters include Republican U.S. Senator [[John McCain]], [[U.S. Democratic Party presidential nomination, 2004|2004 Democratic presidential primary]] election candidates [[Howard Dean]] and [[Dennis Kucinich]], and [[consumer advocacy|consumer advocate]] [[Ralph Nader]]. The system is favored by the [[United States Green Party]] and the [[United States Libertarian Party]], as a solution to the [[spoiler effect|"spoiler" effect]] third-party sympathizers suffer from under plurality voting (i.e., voters are forced to vote tactically to defeat the candidate they most dislike, rather than for their own preferred candidate).
IRV was adopted for mayoral races in [[Ann Arbor, Michigan]] in [[1975]] after a successful ballot initiative sponsored by the local, left-wing [[Human Rights Party]]; however, the process was used only for the [[1976]] mayoral election.
This issue rose to attention in the [[United States]] in the [[U.S. presidential election, 2000|2000 election]]. Supporters of [[Ralph Nader]] who nevertheless preferred [[United States Democratic Party|Democrat]] [[Al Gore]] to [[United States Republican Party|Republican]] [[George W. Bush]] found themselves caught in a dilemma. They could vote for Nader, and risk Gore losing to Bush, or, they could vote for Gore, just to make sure that Bush is defeated. It has been argued that Bush won solely due to the "spoiler effect" of Nader supporters in either [[Florida]] or in [[New Hampshire]].
In March [[2002]], an initiative backed by the [[Center for Voting and Democracy]] passed by referendum making instant runoff voting the means of electing local candidates in [[San Francisco]]. It was first used in that city in the October 2004 YouthVOTE, an election held throughout San Francisco’s public schools which elected the SF school board's student delegate, [http://www.scoop.co.nz/stories/HL0411/S00013.htm] after that it was used in the November 2004 supervisoral races. (Note: The [http://www.ci.sf.ca.us/site/election_page.asp?id=24269 San Francisco Department of Elections] prefers the term "Ranked Choice Voting" because "the word 'instant' might create an expectation that final results will be available immediately after the polls close on election night.") The new system did not work as well as was hoped due to software and logistical difficulties; the results took several days to produce definitive results.
Voters in [[Ferndale, Michigan]] amended the city charter in 2004 to allow for election of the mayor and city council by instant-runoff voting. On [[March 1]], [[2005]], voters in [[Burlington, Vermont]] voted to amend their city charter to use instant-runoff voting.
In September [[2003]], an amendment to the California State Constitution was proposed ([http://info.sen.ca.gov/pub/bill/sen/sb_0001-0050/sca_14_bill_20030912_introduced.html SCA 14]) with wide-ranging goals of [[election reform]], including ranked-choice voting for statewide offices.
In order to increase awareness of the voting method and to demonstrate it in a real-world situation, the [[Independence Party of Minnesota]] tested IRV by using it in a [[straw poll]] during the 2004 [[Minnesota]] [[caucus]]es (results favored [[John Edwards]]). Also, the [[Green Party of Minnesota]] conducts an annual poll of [[Minnesota State Fair]] attendees, where each person ranks their preferences for fair food to better understand how IRV works in a real-world situation.
Activists in the state of Washington have been urging adoption of instant-runoff voting there for several years. An initiative seeking ballot access in 2005 failed to garner enough signatures. The city of [[Vancouver, Washington]] has voted to adopt instant-runoff voting, but the state legislature has yet to enact enabling legislation.
In the November 8, 2005 election, the voters in [[Takoma Park, Maryland]] adopted IRV on a ballot item. It was voted for by 84% of the 1582 voters.
=== Adoption in Canada ===
====Historical use of IRV in British Columbia====
{{sectnpov}}
IRV, under the name preferential ballot or elimination ballot, was applied in British Columbia for the [[British Columbia general election, 1952|1952]] and [[British Columbia general election, 1953|1953]] elections. Brought in by the old guard parties ([[British Columbia Liberal Party|Liberals]] and [[British Columbia Conservative Party|Conservatives)]] to try to foil the possibility of a left-wing government under the [[Co-operative Commonwealth Federation]] or CCF, the predecessor to today's [[New Democratic Party]]. IRV backfired on those who had brought it in, with CCF voters marking an obscure also-ran party's outspoken but otherwise unknown leader, and the fringe Social Credit movement was coalesced into a governing caucus overnight in an uneasy coalition between the [[British Columbia Social Credit Party|Social Credit Party]] and the rumps of the old guard parties. The coalition dissolved within the year and new elections using the IRV system were held that secured Social Credit a comfortable majority. One of the now-secure new [[Premier of British Columbia|Premier]]'s acts after this second election was to return the province to first-past-the-post voting, so as to remove any future risk to his own governance by the unknown factors of the preferential choice ballot.
== How IRV works ==
=== Voting ===
Each voter ranks at least one candidate in [[Preferential_voting|order of preference]]. In most Australian elections, voters are required to rank all candidates. In other elections, votes may be "truncated", for example if the voter only ranks his first five choices. An example of truncated voting occurs in elections for the [[New South Wales Legislative Assembly]]. In these elections, a valid vote requires the voter to choose only one candidate but the voter also has the choice of indicating an order of preference for as many candidates as they like. If a voter's choices are eliminated from the count, the vote is said to be exhausted. This is commonly known as optional preferential voting.
=== Counting the votes ===
First choices are tallied. If no candidate has the support of a majority of voters, the candidate with the least support is eliminated. A second round of counting takes place, with the votes of supporters of the eliminated candidate now counting for their second choice candidate. After a candidate is eliminated, he or she may not receive any more votes.
This process of counting and eliminating is repeated until one candidate has over half the votes. This is equivalent to continuing until there is only one candidate left. However it is possible, with voter truncation, for the process to continue until there is only one candidate left, who does not end up with more than half the votes.
=== An example ===
{{Tenn_voting_example}}
<div class="floatright">
{| border=1
!City
!Round 1
!Round 2
!Round 3
|-
!bgcolor="#ffc0c0"|Memphis
|bgcolor="#ffc0c0"|42
|bgcolor="#ffc0c0"|42
|bgcolor="#ffc0c0"|42
|-
!bgcolor="#ffc0c0"|Nashville
|bgcolor="#ffc0c0"|26
|bgcolor="#ffc0c0"|26
|bgcolor="#e0e0ff"|<strike>26</strike> 0
|-
!bgcolor="#ffc0c0"|Chattanooga
|bgcolor="#ffc0c0"|15
|bgcolor="#e0e0ff"|<strike>15</strike> 0
|bgcolor="#e0e0ff"|0
|-
!bgcolor="#ffc0c0"|Knoxville
|bgcolor="#ffc0c0"|17
|bgcolor="#ffc0c0"|<strike>17</strike> 32
|bgcolor="#ffffc0"|<strike>32</strike> 58
|}
</div>
Chattanooga, having the smallest vote, is eliminated in the first round. All of the votes for Chattanooga have Knoxville as a second choice, so they are transferred to Knoxville. Nashville now has the smallest vote, so it is eliminated. The votes for Nashville have Chattanooga as a second choice, but as Chattanooga has been eliminated, they instead transfer to their third choice, Knoxville. Knoxville now has 58% of the vote, and it is the winner.
In a real election, of course, voters would show greater variation in the rankings they cast, which could influence the result. However, the result of Knoxville winning shows that in this case, '''a capital which is the last choice of 42% of the state's population can win'''; some would say that this is an undesirable result. The reason for this result is that the preferences of those who voted for Memphis are not counted beyond their first choice, because Memphis isn't eliminated until the last "round". In [[Schulze method]], another ranked choice voting method, all preferences are counted, and Nashville, a compromise city toward the geographic center of the state, would win. To voters, both methods are the same, as the ballot is identical in most ranked choice voting methods. The method of counting (and in this case, the outcome) of the votes differs.
=== Special cases of IRV eliminations ===
Instant Runoff Voting as an ideal does not explicitly define how to handle special cases such as ties and different rules can be considered. A good IRV election must define rules to handle these cases before the votes are cast. This is because there are cases where one set of rules will select a winner different from another set of rules and the set of rules used may affect how the voters cast their ballots.
Especially when performing IRV counts on smaller elections, there can be frequent last-place ties that prevent clear bottom elimination.
Here are some approaches to consider, individually and combined. The first class of rules allows many candidates to be eliminated at the first count regardless of actual ties. These are practical rules before the first round that reward stronger candidates among the full set of competition. Such rules won't likely affect the winner but they will reduce the number of elimination rounds and thus the number of opportunities for ties to develop. A second class of rules consider actual ties that can't be avoided.
* '''Consider multicandidate elimination of weak candidates as the first step:'''
** CANDIDATE COUNT: Define a maximum number of candidates that can survive the first round.
*** Example top-two
** VOTE MINIMUM: Define a minimum vote threshold (5 vote for example) and eliminate all weaker candidates together.
*** Requires limitations for rule to apply
** PERCENT MINIMUM: Define a minimum percent vote threshold (5% for example) and eliminate all weaker candidates together.
*** Again, requires limitations for application
** PERCENT RETENTION: Define a minimum percent of votes by top candidates to be retained.
*** Example - retain the top set of candidates who combined control 50% of the vote
* '''Tie-breaking rules:'''
** LOGIC: If the tied candidates combined have fewer votes than the next highest candidate, the entire tied set can be eliminated at once.
*** Logically deterministic, but may not apply
** FIRST ROUND: Eliminate the candidate in the tie with the lowest number of votes at the earliest stage in the count at which the candidates in question had an unequal number of votes (in effect this means the candidate with the lowest number of first-preference votes - except in the unlikely circumstance that the same candidates are tied both in the round when one has to be eliminated and in the first round).
*** Traditional rule; violates purity of one person, one vote principle
** ALL: Eliminate all tied candidates at once.
*** Good for weak candidates (with less than 5% of votes), but can lead to [[strategic nomination]]s, which cause IRV implementations using this method to not be [[Spoiler_effect|spoiler proof]]
** RANDOM: Eliminate one randomly to break the tie.
** ORDER: If the order of the candidates on the ballot paper has been determined by lot, then ties can be eliminated by choosing say the top candidate.
** [http://alumnus.caltech.edu/~seppley/MAM%20procedure%20definition.htm Random Voter Hierarchy (RVH)]: Randomly determine a strict ordering of the candidates and when selecting a candidate to eliminate, pick one based on this strict ordering.
*** Similar to random elimination, but with many nice properties not found with random elimination
== Assessing IRV ==
===Comparison of IRV to plurality voting===
There are two major differences between IRV and Plurality voting:
*Voters use [[preferential voting]] - a ranked ballot indicating numerically the order of their preference for candidates.
*The intent of IRV is for the winning candidate to be one that receives [[absolute majority]] support of voters, compared to the requirement for only [[simple majority]] support in a [[plurality ]] system.
===Comparison of IRV to normal runoff voting===
Advantages of instant runoff ballot (IRV):
; More positive
: Candidates are discouraged from negative campaigning. (A winning candidate will usually need first, second and lower ranked preferences to win, and can't safely afford to make enemies with no second chance vote)
; Avoids some fracturing of political interests
: In a runoff, a major political interest may fracture into a variety of parties, with its vote splitting in the first ballot such that all those parties' candidates are eliminated in the first ballot. (In the 2002 French Presidential election, for example, the minority Front National candidate won through to the final ballot because the more numerous Socialist vote was split among different parties. ''This can also be considered as a spoiler effect in the first round vote'')
; Saves money
: IRV spares the cost of having run-off elections.
Advantages of sequential balloting (runoff voting):
; Easier to vote
: A runoff allows voters and factions to refocus their attention on remaining candidates in each round. (In IRV, voters must make careful choices among a large set of candidates in one ballot and may not have enough information to make informed rankings among the competitive candidates.)
; Less confusion on voters' part
: Many voters don't follow races closely. They know who their first choice is, but examining the differences between all the other candidates, they believe, requires too much time and effort.
; Less critical examination of candidates by one another
: Candidates are discouraged from criticizing one another, as a candidate may need first, second and lower-ranked preferences to win, and therefore a candidate can't make enemies with another candidate by criticizing him or her.
; Chance for appeal
: Candidates that were eliminated are given another chance to endorse and remaining candidates have another chance to court voters supporting the eliminated candidates.
; Presentation of minor parties
: In a runoff, minor parties stand on their own merits in the first round of voting. Under the single event IRV, interest in the minor parties only focuses on how they recommend their supporters cast their preferences between the major parties: the electoral system configures minor parties as preference 'cows'. In a runoff, minor parties have the power to recommend second preferences in the final round.
=== Effect on parties and candidates ===
Unlike runoff voting, however, there are no chances to deal in between rounds, change voters' minds, or gain support of the other candidates.
Giving them only one chance to do so, instant runoff voting encourages candidates to balance earning core support through winning first choice support and earning broad support through winning the second and third preferences of other candidates' core supporters. As with first-past-the-post, however, any block of more than half the voters can elect a candidate regardless of the opinion of the rest of the voters.
This is considered a weakness by the advocates of a more [[deliberative democracy]], who point to the French system of presidential election where such between-round dealings are heavily exploited and useful (they say) to draw together a very factionalized electorate. However, critics of the French runoff system point to the dreaded "votez escroc, pas facho" (vote for the crook, not the fascist) phenomenon, which they believe awarded Chirac an undeserved landslide victory in 2002.
The Australian system also allows minority parties to have key planks of their platforms included in those of the major parties by means of so-called "preference deals". This is seen as legitimate political activity. If enough people care about (for instance) [[Green Party]] issues that that party's second preference can swing the vote, then it is fair enough that it have some limited say in policy.
Another advantage of runoff voting is that it usually allows a "protest vote" to be made without penalty. A person voting for a minority party does not "throw his vote away", as with first-past-the-post systems, so allowing the electorate to send clear signals to the major parties.
=== Criteria passed ===
There are several [[voting system criterion|voting system criteria]] that have been defined by political scientists for assessment of voting systems.
IRV meets the [[majority criterion]], the [[mutual majority criterion]], the [[Condorcet loser criterion]] and, depending on the used tie-breaker method, the [[independence of clones]] criterion.
IRV is invulnerable to the [[tactical voting|burying]] strategy.
=== Criteria failed ===
IRV does not pass the [[monotonicity criterion]], the [[consistency criterion]], the [[Condorcet criterion]], the [[summability criterion]], the [[participation criterion]], [[reversal symmetry]], or the [[Independence of irrelevant alternatives]] criterion.
According to [[Arrow's theorem]], no voting system meets all of a certain set of criteria when there are three or more choices.
These theoretical objections may correspond with practical failures of IRV, discussed below. The first two, '''compromise''' and '''push-over''', are types of [[tactical voting]], where voters vote insincerely to increase the likelihood of a favored outcome. Some argue that [[Condorcet methods]] and [[approval voting]] are better at selecting compromise candidates and at reducing the [[spoiler effect]]. Yet [[Condorcet methods]] may not yield a winner (see [[Condorcet paradox]]), in which case one must resort to another voting method (i.e. [[Borda count]], [[Instant-runoff]]), or restrict the field of candidates (see [[Condorcet_method#Resolving_circular_ambiguities]]).
==== Compromise ====
Assume the earlier Tennessee example. The voters from Memphis can get a better result by "compromising": They can rank Nashville over Memphis, and thus ensure that Nashville, their second choice, will win, rather than Knoxville, their last choice.
Alternatively, if the voters from Memphis do not vote tactically (perhaps because they think they have a chance of winning outright, perhaps because they dislike insincerity, etc.), voters from Nashville can improve their result by "compromising" and ranking Chattanooga over Nashville. This would allow Chattanooga to defeat Knoxville in the first round and go on to become eventual winner, a better result for Nashville voters than a Knoxville win.
Nearly all voting methods produce an incentive to use the compromising strategy in some scenarios, i.e. in scenarios where there is no [[Condorcet criterion|Condorcet winner]]. However, IRV clearly has more frequent compromising incentive than [[Condorcet method|Condorcet methods]], in that it sometimes produces a compromising incentive even when there is a [[Condorcet criterion|Condorcet winner]].
This problem is exacerbated in versions of IRV that do not allow equal rankings. If voters do choose to compromise in a version of IRV that does not allow equal rankings, they will have to so by ranking a more-preferred candidate ''below'' a less-preferred candidate, which is a more severe distortion of their sincere preferences than ranking them equally.
==== Push-over ====
IRV is unusual in that it fails the [[monotonicity criterion]]. The implication of this is that it is vulnerable to the "push-over" [[tactical voting|strategy]]. Tactical voters can benefit by raising "push-overs" (candidates unlikely to win) above their real favorite, causing a stronger opponent to their favorite to be eliminated early, leaving only the push-over to contend with their favorite in the last round.
This strategy typically requires a great deal of coordination, and typically entails a substantial risk of backfire. Thus, some argue that IRV's vulnerability to the strategy will rarely or never manifest in practice.
==== Failure to pick a compromise candidate ====
Imagine that candidates are located along a one dimensional ideological spectrum, and that the center of the spectrum is defined by the median voter. IRV does not reliably choose the option closest to the center of the spectrum. Thus it can be argued that IRV is less apt at choosing compromise candidates (than for example the [[Condorcet method|Condorcet methods]]), and more likely to choose an ideologically polar candidate.
For example, this failure can occur in a 3-choice election where parties A and C are bitterly opposed, and party B is first choice for a minority but tolerable for a large majority. For a real-life example, consider the 17th-century Europe struggle over "government-enforced [[Catholicism]]" versus "government-enforced [[Protestantism]]", with "freedom of private worship" as the compromise B.
Imagine that votes are cast as follows:
{| border=1
!38% of voters
!11% of voters
!13% of voters
!38% of voters
|-
|1. A
|1. B
|1. B
|1. C
|-
|2. B
|2. A
|2. C
|2. B
|-
|3. C
|3. C
|3. A
|3. A
|}
In IRV, the compromise (choice B) is eliminated immediately. Choice C is elected, arguably giving severely lower total satisfaction amongst voters than choice B, who is preferred by a large majority to A, and who is also preferred by a large majority to C.
===Logistical issues===
IRV fails the [[summability criterion]], which means that the results for a particular precinct cannot be conveniently summarized for transfer to the central tally location. Instead, the precincts must send a total record of every ordering of the candidates made by a voter, times the frequency of that ordering. The unwieldiness of this data may prolong the counting procedure, provide more opportunities for undetected tampering than in summable methods and make recounts more costly.
If counting takes place in several places for a single IRV election (as in Australia), these counting centers must be connected by a securely authenticated channel (historically the telegraph was used) to inform them which candidate has come last and should be dropped.
===Logistical issues in Australia===
==== House of Representatives ====
Initially, in Australia, ballots are counted at the booth level, with first preference results reported to the Divisional Returning officer and then to the National Tally Room. If it is clear who the two leading candidates will be, a notional distribution of the preferences of the minor candidates may be made. Postal and absentee ballots are of course yet to be processed - that takes another week or two.
Over the next few weeks, ballots and matching documentation are concentrated in the offices of the Divisional Returning Officer, where a actual distribution of preferences is made. This may be done by physically moving the ballots around, or by entering ballot data into a suitable computer.
If a candidate wins 51% of first preferences, a distribution of minor party preferences is strictly speaking not necessary, however the law now allows that such preferences be distributed to see what the "two-party preferred vote" actually is.
Federal elections are conducted by the Australian Electoral Commission, who employ all the workers at all the booths, to a common standard of neutrality and efficiency. Candidates may appoint scrutineers to watch (but not touch) what is going on.
==Other single-winner methods==
IRV is not the only alternative to the [[Plurality voting|plurality]] system. Other possible reforms include several different [[Condorcet method|Condorcet methods]] (e.g. [[ranked pairs]] and [[Schulze method|Schulze]]), [[approval voting]], [[range voting]], the [[Borda count]], [[Bucklin voting|Bucklin]], and many others. (See the [[voting systems]] article.)
==U.S. Legislation==
On May 26, 2005, Representative [[Cynthia McKinney]] introduced [http://www.govtrack.us/congress/bill.xpd?bill=h109-2690 H.R.2690], the "Voter Choice Act of 2005," which requires the use of Instant Runoff Voting for General Elections for Federal Office. The [[bill]] has no co-sponsors, and has sat without action in the [[U.S. House Committee on House Administration]] since the date of introduction.
==See also==
*[[Alternative vote top-up]]
*[[Single Transferable Vote]]
*[[List of democracy and elections-related topics]]
*[[Table of voting systems by nation]]
*[[Australian electoral system]]
*[[Electoral systems of the Australian states and territories]]
*[[Voting system]] - many other ways of voting
*[[Runoff voting]]
*[[First Past the Post electoral system]]
*[[Approval voting]]
*[[Condorcet method]]
*[[Borda count]]
*[[Politics of Papua New Guinea|Papua New Guinea]] uses an IRV variant known as ''Limited Preferential Vote''
==External links==
* Advocacy organizations
** [http://www.fairvote.org/irv Instant Runoff Voting] at the [[Center for Voting and Democracy]]
** [http://instantrunoff.com instantrunoff.com], by the Midwest Democracy Center [http://www.midwestdemocracy.org/]
** [http://www.firv.org FIRV] ([[Ferndale, Michigan]] for Instant Runoff Voting)
** [http://www.calirv.org/ California IRV Coalition]
** [http://cirv.org Coalition for Instant Runoff Voting in '''Florida''']
** [[Green Party (United States)]]
** [http://www.usalone.com/cgi-bin/petition.cgi?pnum=114 e-mail ] your [[U.S. Representative]] to Support H.R. 2690, "The Voter's Choice Act of 2005."
* Advocacy positions
** [http://www.isye.gatech.edu/~jjb/papers/stv.pdf "Single Transferable Vote Resists Strategic Voting"] ([[Portable Document Format|PDF]] file) by John J. Bartholdi, III and James B. Orlin.
** [http://thedemocraticagenda.blogspot.com/2005/01/what-is-instant-runoff-voting.html "What is Instant Runoff Voting?"] a [[weblog]] ''The Democratic Agenda'', [[January 1]], [[2005]]
* Con positions
** [http://www.tfproject.org/tfp/archive/index.php/t-73366.html "The Problem with Instant Runoff Voting"]
* Analysis positions
** [http://www.mcdougall.org.uk/VM/ISSUE15/P2.HTM Nonmonotonicity in AV] Article by Eivind Stensholt.
** [http://www.condorcet.org/rp/IRV.shtml Comparison] with [[Condorcet method|Condorcet Voting]] by Blake Cretney
** [http://fc.antioch.edu/~james_green-armytage/voting.htm Voting methods: tutorial and essays] by James Green-Armytage (for IRV, see e.g. [http://fc.antioch.edu/~james_green-armytage/vm/survey.htm#irv 1] [http://fc.antioch.edu/~james_green-armytage/vm/define.htm 2] [http://fc.antioch.edu/~james_green-armytage/vm/introduction.htm#irv 3] [http://fc.antioch.edu/~james_green-armytage/vm/cvdletter.htm 4] [http://fc.antioch.edu/~james_green-armytage/vm/value_of_first_choice.htm 5])
** [http://www.ijs.co.nz/irv-wrong-winners.htm Advocacy of the "Avy" method, opposition to IRV]
* Examples
** [http://www.demochoice.org/dcballot.php?poll=1984 IRV Poll For 2008 U.S. Democratic Party Nomitee] at demochoice.org
** [http://www.mnip.org/caucusresults.htm IRV poll for U.S. President, 2004] by the [[Independence Party of Minnesota]]
** [http://stv.sourceforge.net/ pSTV -- Open source software for computing IRV and STV]
** [[Australian Electoral Commission]] [http://www.aec.gov.au/]
** [http://www.demochoice.org/dcballot.php?poll=Futurama1 ''Favourite Futurama Character Poll'']
* Legislation
** U.S. [http://www.govtrack.us/congress/bill.xpd?bill=h109-2690 House Resolution 2690] the "Voter's Choice Act of 2005"
[[Category:Voting systems]]
[[de:Instant-Runoff-Voting]]
[[fr:Vote alternatif]]
Islamism
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'''Islamism''' refers to a set of political ideologies derived from various [[religion|religious views]] of [[Muslim fundamentalism|Muslim fundamentalists]], which hold that [[Islam]] is not only a religion, but also a political system that can govern the legal, economic and social imperatives of the [[state]]. Islamist movements seek to re-shape the state by implementing a conservative formulation of [[Sharia]]. [http://i-cias.com/e.o/islamism.htm] Islamists regard themselves as Muslims rather than Islamists, while moderate Muslims and [[liberal movements within Islam]] reject this notion. For some, Islamism exhibits [[triumphalism]].
==Definition==
In the aftermath of the [[September 11, 2001 attacks]], Islamist movements, along with other [[Islam as a political movement|political movements]] inspired by [[Islam]], gained increased attention in the Western [[media]]. Although the groups and individuals representing these are not mutually exclusive, within academia, each term does have a distinct definition. Some Islamist groups have been implicated in [[terrorism]] and have become targets in the [[War on Terrorism]]. However, it is important to keep in mind that this 'difference' between "Islam" and "Islamism" is not as sharp, clear or distinct for many followers of Islam as it has been made in recent years become for many English-speaking non-Muslims or western academics. For example, most followers of Islam would consider themselves "Fundamentalists", insofar as believing in Islam means believing in its Fundamentals. Similarly, Islam also promotes a vision of society influenced by the tenets of the religion, in much the same way that Christianity, Buddhism and other religions advocate not just personal but also social changes.
Most Islamist literature deals not with other [[religion]]s, but with political [[ideologies]], since Islamists were reacting against competing movements such as [[communism]]. Widespread poverty and consequent class tensions led to widespread [[socialist]] movements all over the Muslim world during the [[20th century]]. But the collapse of the [[Soviet Union]] ultimately reduced the influence of leftist ideologies. Islamism has emerged as the remaining revolutionary ideology in Muslim societies, gaining much support through rising anti-Western sentiment due to control of the [[West Bank]] and [[Gaza Strip]] by [[Israel]].
Governments based on secular [[Arab nationalism]] have found themselves facing economic stagnation and disorder. Some Muslims place the blame for these flaws in Muslim societies on the influx of "foreign" ideas; a return to the principles of Islam is seen as the natural cure. A persistent Islamist theme is that Muslims are persecuted by the West and other foreigners. In this context, Islamist ideas developed in several different settings.
Some, including [[Robert Spencer]] and [[Andrew Bostom]], specialists on Islam, reject the notion of "Islamist" as separate from Islam, arguing that the elements that are identified as "Islamist" are actually central to Islam.
Islam is not merely a religion. It is a way of life for all Muslims. Just as it gives laws what is forbidden to eat, it gives laws on crimes that are forbidden to do, and there are punishments for not following those. This is generally what Shari'ah (Islamic law) is.
Muslims do not find anything wrong in trying to establish an Islamic state that takes the Shari'ah as law if the majority of that country's population are themselves Muslim and so would find no objection to their state law being in accordance with their belief.
This seem to mirror what 'Islamists' would like, so Muslims do not disagree with them on this notion, rather, they agree with them.
==History==
Although Islamic states based on [[Shari'a]] law have existed since the earliest days of Islam, ''Islamism'' refers to modern movements that developed during the twentieth century in reaction to several forces. Following [[World War I]], the dissolution of the [[Ottoman Empire]], and the subsequent dissolution of the [[Caliphate]] by [[Mustafa Kemal Atatürk]] (founder of [[Turkey]]), some Muslims perceived that Islam was in retreat, and felt that Western ideas were spreading throughout Muslim society, along with the influence of Western nations. During the [[1960s]], the predominant ideology within the Arab world was [[pan-Arabism]] which deemphasized religion and emphasized the creation of a socialist, secular state based on [[Arab nationalism]] rather than [[Islam]].
===The Deobandi Movement===
In India, the [[Deobandi]] movement developed as a reaction to [[United Kingdom|British]] actions against Muslims and the influence of [[Sayed Ahmad Khan]], who advocated the reform and [[modernization]] of Islam. Named after the town of [[Deoband]], where it originated, the movement was built around Islamic schools (principally [[Darul Uloom Deoband| Darul Uloom]]) and taught an interpretation of Islam that encouraged the subservience of women, discouraged the use of many forms of technology and entertainment, and believed that only "revealed" or God-inspired knowledge (rather than human knowledge) should be followed.
These, however, were against many Muslim teachings (e.g. women were in fact to be held in high esteem and held rights over men, not vice versa).
Though the Deobandi philosophy is puritanical and wishes to remove non-Muslim (i.e., Hindu or Western) influence from Muslim societies, it was not especially violent or [[Proselytization|proselytising]], confining its activity mostly to the establishment of ''[[madrassa]]s'', or Muslim religious schools. They are a major sector of Muslims in the region (the followers of [[Sayed Ahmad Khan]] being a significant minority). The [[Taliban]] movement in Afghanistan was a product of the Deobandi philosophy and the ''madarassas''.
===Sayyid Abul Ala Maududi===
[[Sayyid Abul Ala Maududi]] was an important early twentieth-century figure in India, then, after independence from Britain, in [[Pakistan]]. Strongly influenced by Deobandi ideology, he advocated the creation of an Islamic state governed by [[sharia]], Islamic law, as interpreted by [[Shura]] councils. Maududi founded the [[Jamaat-e-Islami]] in 1941 and remained at its head until 1972. His extremely influential book, "[[Towards Understanding Islam]]" ([[Risalat Diniyat]] in [[Arabic language|Arabic]]), placed Islam in modern context and enabled not only conservative [[ulema]] but liberal modernizers such as [[al-Faruqi]], whose "[[Islamization of Knowledge]]" carried forward some of Maududi's key principles. Chief among these was the basic compatibility of Islam with an ethical scientific view. Quoting from Maududi's own work:
:''Everything in the universe is 'Muslim' for it obeys God by submission to His laws... For his entire life, from the embryonic stage to the body's dissolution into dust after death, every tissue of his muscles and every limb of his body follows the course prescribed by God's law. His very tongue which, on account of his ignorance advocates the denial of God or professes multiple deities, is in its very nature 'Muslim'... The man who denies God is called [[Kafir]] (concealer) because he conceals by his disbelief what is inherent in his nature and embalmed in his own soul. His whole body functions in obedience to that instinct… Reality becomes estranged from him and he gropes in the dark.''
===The Muslim Brotherhood===
Maududi's ideas were a strong influence on [[Sayyed Qutb]] in [[Egypt]]. Qutb was one of the key philosophers in the [[Muslim Brotherhood]] movement after the assassination of its founder in 1949. The Brotherhood was established in Ismailiyah, Egypt in 1928 and was banned (but still exists) following confrontations with Egyptian president [[Gamal Abdul Nasser]], who jailed Qutb and thousands of others for years. The [[Muslim Brotherhood]] (founded by [[Hassan al Banna|Hasan al-Banna]]) advocated a return to sharia because of what they perceived as the inability of Western values to secure harmony and prosperity for Muslims. Since only divine guidance could lead humans to peace, justice, and prosperity, it followed that Muslims should eschew man-made systems of governance and live according to divinely-inspired sharia ("The Qur'an is our constitution"). The Brotherhood also advocated [[jihad]] against the European colonial powers, particularly the British and the French, and their allies, who ruled over virtually all of the Muslim world during al-Banna's (and much of Qutb's) life time.
===Islamic Jihad movements===
While Qutb's ideas became increasingly radical during his imprisonment prior to his execution in 1966, the leadership of the Brotherhood, led by Hasan al-Hudaybi, remained moderate and interested in political negotiation and activism. Fringe or splinter movements, however, did develop and pursued a more radical direction, perhaps inspired by final writings of Qutb in the mid-1960s (e.g. "Milestones"). By the 1970s, the Brotherhood renounced violence as a means to their goals.
The path of violence and military struggle was however taken up by such movements as the [[Egyptian Islamic Jihad]] organisation, responsible for the assassination of [[Anwar Sadat]] in 1981. Unlike earlier anti-colonial movements, Egyptian Islamic Jihad focused its efforts on "apostate" leaders of Muslim states, or those leaders who held secular leanings or introduced or promoted Western/foreign ideas and practices into Islamic societies. Their views were outlined in a pamphlet written by Muhammad Abd al-Salaam Farag, in which he states: "…there is no doubt that the first battlefield for jihad is the extermination of these infidel leaders and to replace them by a complete Islamic Order…"
(It is important to note that 'jihad' means 'struggle' and comes in many forms- not just military. Eg, not giving in to temptation is a struggle, is a jihad).
Another [[Islamic Jihad]] group emerged in Palestine as an offshoot of the Egyptian group, and began militant activity against the state of [[Israel]], and consistently opposed itself to the policies of the secular [[Palestine Liberation Organization]] (PLO) and [[Yasser Arafat]].
===Wahhabism===
Another influential strain of Islamist thought came from the [[Wahhabi]] movement in Saudi Arabia. The Wahhabists, who emerged in the [[18th century]] led by Muhammad ibn Abd al-Wahhab, also believed that it was necessary to live according to the strict dictates of Islam, which they interpreted to mean living in the manner that the prophet [[Muhammad]] and his followers had lived in during the [[seventh century]] in [[Medina]]. Consequently they were opposed to many innovations developed since that time, including the [[minaret]], marked graves, and later television and radios. The Wahhabis also considered those Muslims who violated their strict interpretation to be heretics, and thus used violence against other Muslims. When King [[Ibn Saud|Abdul Aziz al-Saud]] founded [[Saudi Arabia]], he brought the Wahhabists into power with him. With Saud's rise to prominence, Wahhabism spread, especially following the [[1973 oil crisis|1973 oil embargo]] and the glut of oil wealth that resulted for Saudi Arabia. The Wahhabists were proselytizers, and made use of their wealth to spread their interpretation of Islam.
===Recent history===
Islamism went through its major political and philosophical developments in the early part of the twentieth century, but it was not until the [[1980s]] that it became active in an international arena and rose to great prominence in the [[1990s]].
The reasons for the rise of Islamism during this period are still disputed. The ideologies that had dominated the [[Middle East]] since [[decolonization]] such as [[Ba'athism]], [[Arab Socialism]], and [[Arab Nationalism]] had, by 1980, failed to attain the economic and political goals expected of them. By the late 1980s the distinct Shi'ite version of political Islam had been drained of its vigour in the [[Iran-Iraq War]]. During the conflict against the [[Soviet Union]] in [[Afghanistan]], many Islamists came together to fight what they saw as an atheist invading force and were heavily funded by the United States. In [[Pakistan]], military dictators brought into power through coups (especially [[Zia-ul-Haq]]) exploited Islamist sentiments to consolidate their power, bringing Islamist political parties into prominence and all but destroying the traditional secularism that stemmed from the secular stance of the [[Muslim League]] and its leader [[Mohammad Ali Jinnah]] (founder of Pakistan).
In his book ''Jihad: The Trail of Political Islam'' [[Gilles Kepel]] argues that the central importance of Islamism in the 1990s was a product of the [[Gulf War]]. Prior to 1990 organized political Islam had been mostly associated with [[Saudi Arabia]], a nation founded on Wahhabism and an ally of Islamist groups in Egypt and in Afghanistan. Saudi Arabia, as a close ally of the West and with a strong interest in regional stability, played an important restraining role on Islamist groups.
The Shi'ite clerics in Iran had long argued that Saudi Arabia was an apostate state, a puppet of the West that espoused a corrupted Islam. During the 1980s these accusations had little effect, largely because of their Shi'ite origin. However, Kepel argues that when [[Saddam Hussein]] turned on his former allies, he embraced this rhetoric, arguing that Saudi Arabia had betrayed its duty to protect the holiest sites of Islam. Kepel states that Saddam Hussein embraced Islamic rhetoric and trappings and tried to draw leading scholars and activists to his camp. Some of the main Islamist groups remained loyal to Saudi Arabia, but a number such as parts of the Muslim Brotherhood and Afghani [[mujahideen]] aligned themselves with Saddam. Far more groups declared themselves neutral in the struggle.
According to Kepel the rapid defeat of Saddam did not end this rift. As Saddam had likely predicted Saudi Arabia had found itself in a severe dilemma, the only way to counter the Iraqi threat was to seek help from the west, which would immediately confirm the Iraqi allegations of Saudi Arabia being a friend to the west. To ensure the regime's survival Saudi Arabia accepted a massive western presence in the country and de facto cooperation with [[Israel]] causing great offence to many in Islamist circles.
After the war Saudi Arabia launched a two pronged strategy to restore its security and leadership in Islamist circles. Those Islamist groups who refused to return under the Saudi umbrella were persecuted and any Islamists who had criticized Saudi regime were arrested or forced into exile, with most going to [[London]]. At the same time Saudi oil money began to flow freely to those Islamist groups who continued to work with the kingdom. Islamist [[madrassas]] around the world saw their funding greatly increased. More covertly Saudi money began to fund more violent Islamist groups in areas such as [[Bosnia and Herzegovina | Bosnia]] and the former [[Soviet Union]]. Saudi Arabia's western allies mostly looked the other way seeing the survival of their crucial ally as more important than the problem of more money and resources flowing to Islamist groups.
In the 1990s Islamist conflicts erupted around the world in areas such as [[Algeria]], the [[Palestinian territories]], [[Sudan]], and [[Nigeria]]. In [[1995]] a series of terrorist attacks were launched against [[France]]. The most important development was the rise to power of the Deobandi [[Taliban]] in [[Afghanistan]] in [[1996]]. In the Taliban-ruled Afghanistan a number of anti-Saudi and anti-Western Islamist groups found refuge. Significantly, [[Osama bin Laden]], a wealthy Saudi influenced by Wahhabism and the writings of Sayed Qutb, joined forces with the Egyptian Islamic Jihad under [[Ayman al-Zawahiri]] to form what is now called [[al-Qaeda]].
A considerable effort has been made to fight Western targets, especially the [[United States]]. The United States in particular was made a subject of Islamist ire because of its support for Israel, its presence on Saudi Arabian soil, what Islamists regard as its aggression against Muslims in Iraq, and its support of the regimes Islamists oppose. In addition some Islamists have concentrated their activity against Israel, and nearly all Islamists view Israel with hostility. Osama bin Laden, at least, believes that this is of necessity due to historical conflict between Muslims and Jews, and considers there to be a Jewish/American alliance against Islam.
There is some debate as to how influential Islamist movements remain. Some scholars assert that Islamism is a fringe movement that is dying, following the clear failures of Islamist regimes like the regime in Sudan, the Wahhabist Saudi regime and the Deobandi Taliban to improve the lot of Muslims. However, others (e.g. [[Ahmed Rashid]]) feel that the Islamists still command considerable support and cite the fact that Islamists in Pakistan and Egypt regularly poll 10 to 30 percent in electoral polls which many believe are rigged against them.
An alternative direction has been taken by many Islamists in [[Turkey]], where the Islamist movement split into reformist and traditionalist wings in [[2001]]. The reformists formed the moderate Islamist [[Justice and Development Party (Turkey)|Justice and Development Party]] (Ak Party), which gained an overall majority in the Turkish parliament in [[2002]], and has sought to balance Islamic values with the requirements of a secular and democratic political system. Some in the Justice and Development Party see the [[Christian Democrat]] parties of Western Europe as a model, which has led some to question whether it is a genuinely Islamist movement.
== Islamism and modern political theory ==
The foundation of modern Islamist thought is the many centuries of Islamic theology and political science, but the development of modern Islamism was also both a reaction to and influenced by the other ideologies of the modern world. Modern Islamism began in the colonial period, and it was overtly anti-imperialist. It was also opposed to the local elites who wanted independence, but who also supported adopting western liberal ideals. Writers like the Egyptian [[Sayyid Qutb]] and the Pakistani [[Sayyid Abul Ala Maududi]] saw western style individualism as counter to centuries of tradition, and also as inevitably leading to a debauched and licentious society.
In the years after independence the most important ideological current in the Muslim world was socialism and communism. This influenced Islamism in two ways. Much Islamist thought and writing during this era was directly addressed to countering Marxism. For instance [[Muhammad Baqir al-Sadr]]'s main works are detailed critiques of Marxism, paying much less attention to capitalism and liberalism. Another option was to try and integrate socialism and Islamism. This was most notably done by [[Ali Shariati]]. At several points Islamist and leftist groups found common cause, such as during the early stages of the [[Iranian Revolution]], and several organizations, such as the [[Islamic Socialist Front]] in Syria, were both overtly Marxist and overtly Islamist. While most Islamists reject Marxism, the influence of socialist ideologies during the formative period of modern Islamism means that Islamist works continue to be infused with Marxist language and concepts. For instance Qutb's view of an elite vanguard to lead an Islamic revolution is borrowed directly from [[Lenin]]'s [[Vanguard of the Proletariat]].
During the 1930s a number of [[fascism|fascistic]] groups arose in the Middle East. Some such as the [[Syrian Social Nationalist Party|SSNP]] and the [[Kataeb Party]] were mostly supported by Christians and other minority groups, others like the Egyptian [[Misr al-Fatat]] were mainly Sunni Arab. The fascist method of seizing power did inspire Islamist [[Hassan al-Banna]], who founded organizations directly based on the [[Brownshirts]] and [[Blackshirts]] to try and seize power. This method proved ineffective, and since then most Islamists have used the cell based structure commonly used by leftist groups. Ideologically there is little evidence that fascism had much influence on the development of Islamism. The far-right French doctor [[Alexis Carrel]] had an important influence on Qutb's thought, and the well-read Qutb also seems to have had a passing knowledge of ''[[Mein Kampf]]''. Several Islamist groups have embraced [[Nazi]] like [[anti-Semitism]], as an outgrowth of Islamist [[anti-Zionism]].
Several authors, among which [[Daniel Pipes]] [http://danielpipes.org/article/81] and [[Michael Ledeen]] [http://www.nationalreview.com/ledeen/ledeen200310170840.asp] have prominently equated Islamism to [[fascism]] and coined the word "''[[Islamofascism]]''". Cavelos and Laidi state in [ISBN 0415167175] ''A World without Meaning'' that Islamism shares more characteristics with fascism than with communism, in that it does not have a definite progress belief, which communism has, and that three characteristics are shared by Islamism, communism and fascism: a totalitarian political claim, a global discourse about society in which the theme of exclusion is central and a political and social apparatus which respond to the demands of disadvantageous groups. The most direct western parallel to Islamism is, however, not fascism, but [[Dominionism]] (put in place in the past such as during [[The Protectorate]] of [[Oliver Cromwell]]).
== Islamist movements ==
* International — [[Al-Qaida]], the [[Muslim Brotherhood]], and [[Hizb ut-Tahrir]]
* [[Afghanistan]] — [[Taliban]]
* [[Algeria]] — [[Armed Islamic Group|Groupe Islamique Armé]], [[Islamic Salvation Front]], [[Salafist Group for Preaching and Combat|Groupe Salafiste pour la Prédication et le Combat]]
* [[Egypt]] — [[Gama'at Islamiya]]
* [[Lebanon]] — [[Hizballah]]
* [[Iraq]]i [[Kurdistan]] — [[Islamic Movement in Kurdistan]], [[Islamic Group Kurdistan|Islamic Group of Kurdistan]], [[Kurdistan Islamic Union|Islamic Union of Kurdistan]]
* [[Iran]] [[Kurdistan]] — [[Khabat]]
* [[Palestinian territories|Palestine]] — [[Hamas]]
* [[Central Asia]] — [[Hizb ut-Tahrir]]
* [[South Asia]] — [[Jamaat-e-Islami]] (there are Jamaats in India, Pakistan and Wahhabism), [[Jamaat-ul-Mujahideen]]
* [[Turkey]] — [[Justice and Development Party (Turkey)|Justice and Development Party]] (disputed), [[Felicity Party (Turkey)|Felicity Party]]
* [[Bahrain]] — [[Al Wefaq]] [[Asalat]]
== See also ==
* [[Kafir]]
* [[Dhimmi]]
* [[Hadith]]
* [[Islamist terrorism]]
* [[Islamofascism]]
* [[Jihad]]
* [[Mujahedeen]]
* [[Mutaween]] ("religious police")
* [[Neofascism and religion]]
* [[Sharia]]
* [[Theocracy]]
* [[Wahhabism]]
==External links==
*[http://memri.org/bin/articles.cgi?Page=archives&Area=sr&ID=SR3104 List of Islamist websites] as of July 16, 2004
*[http://www.icapi.org International Coalition Against Political Islam]
*[http://www.marxists.de/religion/harman/index.htm The Prophet and the Proletariat] - critique and history of religion and rebellion in the Middle East
*[http://www.meforum.org/article/447 ''Is Islamism a Threat?''] - a panel discussion hosted by Middle East Quarterly, December 1999
*[http://www.washington-report.org/backissues/0994/9409021.htm ''Evaluating the Islamist Movement''] - written by Greg Noakes, an American Muslim who works at the Washington Report
*[http://www.washington-report.org/backissues/0695/9506017.htm ''Muslim Scholars Face Down Fanaticism''] - written by Aicha Lemsine, an Algerian journalist and author.
*[http://jihadwatch.org/ Discussion and Opinion regarding Terrorism and Islamic Reform ]
*[http://www.geocities.com/martinkramerorg/Terms.htm Coming to Terms: Fundamentalists or Islamists?] on terminology, by [[Martin Kramer]]
*[http://www.danielpipes.org/article/304 Daniel Pipes - ''Is Islamism Dead?: The Future of Islamism in the Muslim World'']
*[http://www.civitas.org.uk/pdf/cs29.pdf The Institute for the Study of Civil Society report - The ‘West’, Islam and Islamism]
==Further reading==
* ''[[Onward Muslim Soldiers|Onward Muslim Soldiers: How Jihad Still Threatens America and the West]]'', [[Robert Spencer]], Regnery Publishing, [[2003]]
* ''Children of Abraham: An Introduction to Islam for Jews'', Khalid Duran with Abdelwahab Hechiche, The American Jewish Committee and Ktav, [[2001]]
* ''Islamic Fundamentalism.'', Youssef M. Choueiri. Boston: Twayne Publishers, 1990.
* ''The Islamism Debate'', [[Martin Kramer]], University Press, [[1997]]
* ''Liberal Islam: A Sourcebook'', Charles Kurzman, Oxford University Press, [[1998]]
* ''The Vanguard of the Islamic Revolution: The Jama'at-i Islami of Pakistan'', Vali Nasr, Univ. of California Press, [[1994]]
* ''The Failure of Political Islam'', Olivier Roy, Harvard Univ. Press, [[1994]]
* ''The Challenge of Fundamentalism: Political Islam and the New World Disorder'', [[Bassam Tibi]], Univ. of California Press, [[1998]]
* ''Pioneers of Islamic Revival.'' ed. Ali Rahnema. London: Zed Books, 1994.
[[Category:Islam]]
[[Category:Political theories]]
[[Category:Religion and politics]]
[[ar:إسلام سياسي]]
[[br:Islamouriezh]]
[[da:Islamisme]]
[[de:Islamischer Fundamentalismus]]
[[es:Islamismo]]
[[fr:Islamisme]]
[[he:אסלאמיזם]]
[[nl:Islamisme]]
[[ja:イスラム主義]]
[[no:Islamisme]]
[[nn:Islamisme]]
[[pl:Islamista]]
[[pt:Fundamentalismo islâmico]]
[[sv:Islamism]]
[[tr:İslamcılık]]
Instructional theory
15014
38833559
2006-02-08T23:07:21Z
Cmdrjameson
101935
Remove refs from Amazon URL
'''Instructional theory''' is a discipline that focuses on how to structure material for promoting the education of humans, particularly youth. Originating in the United States in the late 1970s, ''instructional theory'' is typically divided into two categories: the cognitive and behaviorist schools of thought. Instructional theory was spawned off the 1956 work of [[Benjamin Bloom]], a University of Chicago professor, and the results of his [[Taxonomy of Education Objectives]] — one of the first modern codifications of the learning process.
One of the first instructional theorists was [[Robert M. Gagne]], who in 1965 published ''[[Conditions of Learning]]'' for the Florida State University's Department of Educational Research.
Renowned psychologist [[B. F. Skinner]]'s theories of behavior were highly influential on instructional theorists because their hypotheses can be tested fairly easily with the [[scientific process]]. It is more difficult to demonstrate cognitive learning results. [[Paulo Freire]]'s [http://www.amazon.com/exec/obidos/tg/detail/-/0826412769 Pedagogy of the Oppressed] — first published in English in 1968 — had a broad influence over a generation of American educators with his critique of various "banking" models of education and analysis of the teacher-student relationship.
In the context of [[e-learning]], a major discussion in instructional theory is the potential of [[learning object]]s to structure and deliver content. A stand-alone [[educational animation]] is an example of a learning object that can be re-used as the basis for different learning experiences. There are currently many groups trying to set standards for the development and implementation of [[learning object]]s. At the forefront of the standards groups is the [[Department of Defense]]'s [[Advanced Distributed Learning]] initiative with its [[SCORM]] standards. SCORM stands for ''Shareable Content Object Reference Model.''
==See also==
* [[Learning theory (education)|Learning theory]]
* [[Instructional design]]
* [[Instructional technology]]
* [[Educational technology]]
==External links==
* [http://www.edu-cyberpg.com Educational CyberPlayGround Online Curriculum]
* [http://www.adlnet.org Advanced Distributed Learning]
* [http://www.fsu.edu/~edres Department of Educational Research]
[[Category:Alternative education]]
[[Category:Educational psychology]]
[[Category:Pedagogy]]
IRA
15015
41839907
2006-03-02T02:06:08Z
211.28.195.66
/* Other uses */ fix typo
<!--
Please do not add links in the text on this page. The Manual of Style says that disambiguation pages should link only to the pages which are being disambiguated.
Please do not include any more text than is sufficient to achieve disambiguation - if you want to add material, use the relevant main article.
-->
The acronym '''IRA''' may refer to:
==Irish Republican Army==
;:''See also [[List of IRAs]]''
;* [[Irish Republican Army]], the self-proclaimed Army of the "Irish Republic" that fought the Irish War of Independence against British rule, 1916 - 1921
;* [[Irish Republican Army (1922-1969)]]: Originally the Anti-Treaty or Republican side in the Irish Civil War of 1922 - 1923. It split again in 1969 :–
;* [[Official Irish Republican Army ]]: in 1969, the movement split between a Marxist and a more militant traditionalist wing. The former became known as the "Official" IRA;
;* [[Provisional Irish Republican Army ]]: the traditionalist side in the 1969 split, today the largest republican paramilitary group. '''''It is to this group that the term "IRA" nearly always refers today.'''''
;* [[Continuity Irish Republican Army]]: a small breakaway from the Provisional IRA, formed in 1986 by those opposed to Sinn Féin taking seats in Dáil Éireann, the lower house of the Irish parliament.
;* [[Real Irish Republican Army]]: another small breakaway from the Provisional IRA formed after the 1997 ceasefire.
==Other uses==
;* [[Individual Retirement Account]], a private retirement account in the United States
;* [[Indian Rights Association]], an advocacy and lobbyist group for the rights of Native Americans
;* [[I.R.A. (band)]], "Ideas de Revolución Adolescente", a Colombian punk band
;* [[International Reading Association]], a membership organisation of literacy professionals
;* [[Inverness Royal Academy]], a secondary school in Scotland
;* [[Intercollegiate Rowing Association]], the national championship for USA men's collegiate rowing
;* [[International Racquetball Association]], an organisation regulating the sport of [[Racquetball]]
;* [[Inventory Record Accuracy]], a verification protocol for stores.
;* [[Indian Rationalist Association]], a member of the [[Federation of Indian Rationalist Associations]]
==See also==
* [[Ira]] (disambiguation), for non-acronyms
{{TLAdisambig}}
Infusoria
15018
38198365
2006-02-04T21:36:56Z
Siva1979
755590
added myonemes
'''Infusoria''' is a collective term for minute aquatic creatures like [[Ciliate|ciliate]], [[Euglena|euglena]], [[Paramecium|paramecium]], [[Protozoa|protozoa]] and unicellular [[algae|algae]] that exist in freshwater [[pond]] water. However, in formal classification [[microorganism]] called infusoria belongs to Kingdom [[Animal]]ia, Phylum [[Protozoa|Protozoa]], Class [[Ciliates|Ciliates]] (Infusoria).
==Aquarium use==
Infusoria is used by owners of [[aquarium]]s to feed fish [[fry]], [[gourami]] fry and [[tadpoles]] being just two examples which will require this food to survive the first few days. However there is usually not enough infusoria in the average aquarium tank to feed the newly hatched animals. To make infusoria, you take a handful of [[hay]] or dry leaves and place it into a jar, fill the jar with water from your tank or a pool of water. Leave in the [[sun]] for a few days. When the water just starts to get cloudy the infusoria has sufficient [[bacteria]] to feed upon. Once the water begins to clear again, an appropriate culture is available. You can then extract these creatures, with a [[turkey (bird)|turkey]] baster, for example, for feeding to your fry.
==Myonemes==
In Infusoria and some [[Flagellates]], the differentiated threads of ectosarc, which are contractile and doubly refractive, perform the function of muscular fibres in the [[Metazoa]].
===External links===
* [http://www.microscopyu.com/moviegallery/pondscum/ Types of Protozoans and video]
[[Category:Protista]]
ISO/IEC 8859-1
15019
41960120
2006-03-02T22:12:15Z
216.57.209.250
/* ISO-8859-1 */
'''ISO 8859-1''', more formally cited as '''ISO/IEC 8859-1''' or less formally as '''Latin-1''', is part 1 of [[ISO 8859|ISO/IEC 8859]], a standard [[character encoding]] of the [[Latin alphabet]]. It was originally developed by the [[International Organization for Standardization|ISO]], but later jointly maintained by the ISO and the [[International Electrotechnical Commission|IEC]]. The standard, when supplemented with additional character assignments, is the basis of two widely-used character maps known as '''ISO-8859-1''' (''note the extra hyphen'') and [[Windows-1252]].
In June [[2004]], the ISO/IEC working group responsible for maintaining eight-[[bit]] coded character sets disbanded and ceased all maintenance of ISO 8859, including ISO 8859-1, in order to concentrate on the [[Universal Character Set]] and [[Unicode]]. In computing applications, encodings that provide full UCS support (such as [[UTF-8]] and [[UTF-16]]) are finding increasing favor over encodings based on ISO 8859-1.
== Coverage ==
ISO 8859-1 encodes what it refers to as "[[Latin alphabet]] no. 1," consisting of 191 [[character (computing)|characters]] from the Latin [[writing system|script]]. Each character is encoded as a single eight-bit code value. These code values can be used in almost any data interchange system to communicate in the following European languages (with a few exceptions due to missing characters, as noted):
* [[Albanian language|Albanian]],
* [[Basque language|Basque]],
* [[Catalan language|Catalan]],
* [[Danish language|Danish]],
* [[Dutch language|Dutch]] (missing ''[[IJ (letter)|IJ]], ij''),
* [[English language|English]],
* [[Estonian language|Estonian]] (missing ''[[Š]], š, [[Ž]], ž'' for loan words),
** Note that Windows-1252 and ISO-8859-15 do contain these
* [[Faroese language|Faroese]],
* [[French language|French]] (missing ''[[OE ligature|Œ]], œ'' and rare ''[[Ÿ]]''),
** Note that Windows-1252 and ISO-8859-15 do contain these
* [[Finnish language|Finnish]] (missing ''[[Š]], š, [[Ž]], ž'' for loan words),
** Note that Windows-1252 and ISO-8859-15 do contain these
* [[German language|German]],
* [[Icelandic language|Icelandic]],
* [[Irish language|Irish]] (new orthography),
* [[Italian language|Italian]],
* [[Latin]],
* [[Norwegian language|Norwegian]] (Bokmål and Nynorsk),
* [[Portuguese language|Portuguese]],
* [[Romansh|Rhaeto-Romanic]],
* [[Scottish Gaelic|Scottish]],
* [[Spanish language|Spanish]],
* [[Swedish language|Swedish]].
Other languages covered include
* [[Afrikaans language|Afrikaans]] and
* [[Swahili language|Swahili]].
Thus, this character encoding is used throughout [[The Americas]], [[Western Europe]], [[Oceania]], and much of [[Africa]]. For some languages the correct typographical [[Quotation mark#Table|quotation mark]]s are missing, for only ''«'' and ''»'' are included.
''See also:'' [[Alphabets derived from the Latin]]
== History ==
ISO 8859-1 was based on the [[Multinational Character Set]] used by [[Digital Equipment Corporation]] in the popular [[VT220]] terminal. It was developed within ECMA, the
[[European Computer Manufacturers Association]], and published along with [[ISO 8859-2]],
[[ISO 8859-3]], and [[ISO 8859-4]] as part of the specification
[http://www.ecma-international.org/publications/files/ECMA-ST/Ecma-094.pdf ECMA-94], by which name it is still sometimes known.
{{sectstub}}<!--revision history, anyone?-->
== Relationship to ISO/IEC 8859-15 ==
Although ISO/IEC 8859-1 has enough characters for most French text, it is missing a few less-common letters. It is also missing a single-glyph representation for the letter ''IJ'', two Finnish letters used for transcription of some foreign names and in a few loanwords, typographic [[quotation mark]]s and [[dash]]es, and common symbols such as the [[euro]] symbol (€) and dagger (†).
In order to provide some of these characters, [[ISO 8859-15|ISO/IEC 8859-15]] was developed as an update of ISO/IEC 8859-1. This required, however, the removal of some infrequently-used characters from ISO/IEC 8859-1, including fraction symbols and letter-free diacritics: ¤, ¦, ¨, ´, ¸, ¼, ½, and ¾.
== Code table ==
Since all 191 characters encoded by ISO/IEC 8859-1 are 'graphic' (ISO's term for characters that are not control codes) and are compatible with most web browsers, they can be shown as [[glyph]]s in the following table. Since the space, no-break space, and soft hyphen characters would not normally be visible, they are represented by abbreviations for their names. All other characters are represented literally. Row and column headings indicate the [[hexadecimal]] digit combinations to produce the eight-bit code value; e.g., the letter ''L'' is at code value 4C.
{| class="wikitable" style="text-align: center"
!colspan=17|ISO/IEC 8859-1
|-
!!!x0!!x1!!x2!!x3!!x4!!x5!!x6!!x7!!x8!!x9!!xA!!xB!!xC!!xD!!xE!!xF
|-
!0x
|rowspan="2" colspan="16" style="background-color:#CFC"|''unused''
|-
!1x
|-
!2x
|style="text-decoration: underline"|''[[space (punctuation)|SP]]''||[[exclamation mark|!]]||[[double quote|"]]||[[number sign|#]]||[[dollar sign|$]]||[[percent|%]]||[[ampersand|&]]||[[']]||[[bracket|(]]||[[bracket|)]]||[[asterisk|*]]||[[plus sign|+]]||[[comma (punctuation)|,]]||[[hyphen|-]]||[[full stop|.]]||[[slash (punctuation)|/]]
|-
!3x
|[[0 (number)| 0 ]]||[[1 (number)|1]]||[[2 (number)|2]]||[[3 (number)|3]]||[[4 (number)|4]]||[[5 (number)|5]]||[[6 (number)|6]]||[[7 (number)|7]]||[[8 (number)|8]]||[[9 (number)|9]]||[[colon (punctuation)|:]]||[[semicolon|;]]||[[angle bracket|<]]||[[equal sign|=]]||[[angle bracket|>]]||[[question mark|?]]
|-
!4x
|[[@]]||[[A]]||[[B]]||[[C]]||[[D]]||[[E]]||[[F]]||[[G]]||[[H]]||[[I]]||[[J]]||[[K]]||[[L]]||[[M]]||[[N]]||[[O]]
|-
!5x
|[[P]]||[[Q]]||[[R]]||[[S]]||[[T]]||[[U]]||[[V]]||[[W]]||[[X]]||[[Y]]||[[Z]]||[[square brackets|<nowiki>[</nowiki>]]||[[Backslash|\]]||[[square brackets|]]]||[[circumflex|^]]||[[underscore|_]]
|-
!6x
|[[Grave accent|`]]||[[a]]||[[b]]||[[c]]||[[d]]||[[e]]||[[f]]||[[g]]||[[h]]||[[i]]||[[j]]||[[k]]||[[l]]||[[m]]||[[n]]||[[o]]
|-
!7x
|[[p]]||[[q]]||[[r]]||[[s]]||[[t]]||[[u]]||[[v]]||[[w]]||[[x]]||[[y]]||[[z]]||[[braces (punctuation)|{]]||[[pipe (computing)||]]||[[braces (punctuation)|<nowiki>}</nowiki>]]||[[tilde|~]]<td style="background-color:#CFC">
|-
!8x
|rowspan="2" colspan="16" style="background-color:#CFC"|''unused''
|-
!9x
|-
!Ax
|style="text-decoration: underline"|''[[Non-breaking space|NBSP]]''
|[[exclamation mark|¡]]
|[[cent (currency)|¢]]
|[[Pound (currency)|£]]
|[[currency|¤]]
|[[yen|¥]]
|[[pipe (computing)|¦]]
|[[section sign|§]]
|[[diaeresis|¨]]
|[[copyright|©]]
|[[ª]]
|[[angle quotes|«]]
|[[logical not|¬]]
|style="text-decoration: underline"|''[[soft hyphen|SHY]]''
|[[trademark|®]]
|[[macron|¯]]
|-
!Bx
|[[degree (symbol)|°]]
|[[plus-minus sign|±]]
|[[square (algebra)|²]]
|[[cube_(arithmetic)|³]]
|[[acute accent|´]]
|[[micro sign|µ]]
|[[pilcrow|¶]]
|[[middle dot|·]]
|[[cedilla|¸]]
|[[¹]]
|[[º]]
|[[angle quotes|»]]
|[[¼]]
|[[½]]
|[[¾]]
|[[question mark|¿]]
|-
!Cx
|[[À]]||[[Á]]||[[Â]]||[[Ã]]||[[Ä]]||[[Å]]||[[Æ]]||[[cedilla|Ç]]||[[È]]||[[É]]||[[Ê]]||[[Ë]]||[[Ì]]||[[Í]]||[[Î]]||[[Ï]]
|-
!Dx
|[[Ð]]||[[Ñ]]||[[Ò]]||[[Ó]]||[[Ô]]||[[Õ]]||[[Ö]]||[[×]]||[[Ø]]||[[Ù]]||[[Ú]]||[[Û]]||[[Ü]]||[[Ý]]||[[Þ]]||[[ß]]
|-
!Ex
|[[à]]||[[á]]||[[â]]||[[ã]]||[[ä]]||[[å]]||[[æ]]||[[ç]]||[[è]]||[[é]]||[[ê]]||[[ë]]||[[ì]]||[[í]]||[[î]]||[[ï]]
|-
!Fx
|[[ð]]||[[ñ]]||[[ò]]||[[ó]]||[[ô]]||[[õ]]||[[ö]]||[[÷]]||[[ø]]||[[ù]]||[[ú]]||[[û]]||[[ü]]||[[ý]]||[[þ]]||[[ÿ]]
|}
Code values 00–1F, 7F, and 80–9F are not assigned to characters by ISO/IEC 8859-1.
== Related character maps ==
The ISO/IEC 8859-1 standard has long been the basis of a number of ''character maps'', also known as ''character sets'', ''charsets'', or ''code pages'', the most popular being '''ISO-8859-1''' (note the extra hyphen) and [[Windows-1252]]. Both of these maps are a superset of ISO/IEC 8859-1; they supplement the standard's 191 character assignments by mapping additional characters to at least some portion of the code value ranges 00–1F, 7F, and 80–9F.
=== ISO-8859-1 ===
In [[1992]], the [[IANA]] registered the character map '''ISO_8859-1:1987''', more commonly known by its preferred [[MIME]] name of ISO-8859-1 (note the extra hyphen over ISO 8859-1), a superset of ISO 8859-1, for use on the [[Internet]]. This map assigns the [[C0 and C1 control character]]s to the code values 00–1F, 7F, and 80–9F. It thus provides for 256 characters via every possible 8-bit value.
ISO-8859-1 is (according to the standards at least) the default encoding of documents delivered via [[HTTP]] with a [[MIME type]] beginning with "text/". It is the default encoding of the values of certain descriptive HTTP headers, and is the standard encoding used by the [[X Window System]] on most [[Unix]] machines. It was also the basis of the repertoire of characters allowed in [[HTML]] 3.2 documents (HTML 4.0, however, is based on [[unicode]]).
Escape sequences (from ISO/IEC 6429 or [[ISO/IEC 2022]]) are not to be interpreted in documents labeled as ISO-8859-1 encoded. As well as the canonical name and preferred MIME name mentioned above, the following other aliases are registered for ISO-8859-1: '''ISO_8859-1''', '''ISO-8859-1''', '''iso-ir-100''', '''csISOLatin1''', '''latin1''', '''l1''', '''IBM819''', '''CP819'''. ISO-8859-1 was also incorporated as the first 256 code points of [[unicode]].
In the table below only the rows affected by the IANA's additions are shown; for the rest please refer to the main table at the start of the article.
{| class="wikitable" style="text-align:center"
! !!-0!!-1!!-2!!-3!!-4!!-5!!-6!!-7!!-8!!-9!!-A!!-B!!-C!!-D!!-E!!-F
|-
!0-
|[[Null character|NUL]]||[[Start of Heading|SOH]]||[[Start of Text|STX]]||[[End of Text|ETX]]||[[End of Transmission|EOT]]||[[Enquiry|ENQ]]||[[Acknowledge|ACK]]||[[Bell character|BEL]]||[[Backspace|BS]]||[[Tab|TAB]]||[[Line Feed|LF]]||[[Vertical Tab|VT]]||[[Form Feed|FF]]||[[Carriage Return|CR]]||[[Shift Out|SO]]||[[Shift In|SI]]
|-
!1-
|[[Data Link Escape|DLE]]||[[Device Control 1|DC1]]||[[Device Control 2|DC2]]||[[Device Control 3|DC3]]||[[Device Control 4|DC4]]||[[Negative-acknowledge character|NAK]]||[[Synchronous Idle|SYN]]||[[End of Transmission Block|ETB]]||[[Cancel character|CAN]]||[[End of Medium|EM]]||[[Substitute (character)|SUB]]||[[Escape character|ESC]]||[[File Separator|FS]]||[[Group Separator|GS]]||[[Record Separator|RS]]||[[Unit Separator|US]]
|-
!7-
|p||q||r||s||t||u||v||w||x||y||z||{|||||}||~||[[Delete|DEL]]
|-
!8-
|[[Padding Character|PAD]]||[[High Octet Preset|HOP]]||[[Break Permitted Here|BPH]]||[[No Break Here|NBH]]||[[Index|IND]]||[[Next Line|NEL]]||[[Start of Selected Area|SSA]]||[[End of Selected Area|ESA]]||[[Character Tabulation Set|HTS]]||[[Character Tabulation with Justification|HTJ]]||[[Line Tabulation Set|VTS]]||[[Partial Line Forward|PLD]]||[[Partial Line Backward|PLU]]||[[Reverse Line Feed|RI]]||[[Single Shift 2|SS2]]||[[Single Shift 3|SS3]]
|-
!9-
|[[Device Control String|DCS]]||[[Private Use 1|PU1]]||[[Private Use 2|PU2]]||[[Set Transmit State|STS]]||[[Cancel Character|CCH]]||[[Message Waiting|MW]]||[[Start of Guarded Area|SPA]]||[[End of Guarded Area|EPA]]||[[Start of String|SOS]]||[[Single Graphic Character Introducer|SGCI]]||[[Single Character Introducer|SCI]]||[[Control Sequence Introducer|CSI]]||[[String Terminator|ST]]||[[Operating System Command|OSC]]||[[Privacy Message|PM]]||[[Application Program Command|APC]]
|}
===The ISO-8859-1/Windows-1252 mixup===
It is very common to mislabel text data with the charset label ISO-8859-1, even though the data is really [[Windows-1252]] encoded. In Windows-1252, codes between 0x80 and 0x9F are used for letters and punctuation, whereas they are control codes as in ISO-8859-1. Many web browsers and e-mail clients will interpret ISO-8859-1 control codes as Windows-1252 characters in order to accommodate such mislabeling.
== Similar character sets ==
{{main|Western Latin character sets (computing)}}
The [[Apple Macintosh]] computer introduced a character encoding called Mac Roman, or [[Mac-Roman]], in [[1984]]. It was meant to be suitable for Western European [[desktop publishing]]. It is a superset of ASCII, like ISO-8859-1, and has most of the characters that are in IS0-8859-1 but in a totally different arrangement. A later version, registered with IANA as "Macintosh", replaced the generic currency symbol with the [[euro symbol]]. The few printable characters that are in ISO 8859-1 but not in this set are often a source of trouble when editing text on websites using older Macintosh browsers (including the last version of [[Internet Explorer for Mac]]).
DOS had [[code page 850]], which had all printable characters that ISO-8859-1 had (albeit in a totally different arrangement) plus the most widely used [[graphics character]]s from [[code page 437]].
== External links ==
* [http://anubis.dkuug.dk/JTC1/SC2/WG3/docs/n411.pdf ISO/IEC 8859-1:1998] final draft of the standard (PDF)
* [http://www.microsoft.com/globaldev/reference/WinCP.asp Windows Codepages]
* [http://www.alanwood.net/demos/charsetdiffs.html Differences between ANSI, ISO-8859-1 and MacRoman Character Sets]
* [http://www.eki.ee/letter/ The Letter Database]
* [http://www.bbsinc.com/iso8859.html ASCII - ISO 8859-1 Table with HTML Entity Names]
* [http://czyborra.com/charsets/iso8859.html The ISO 8859 Alphabet Soup] - Roman Czyborra's history of ISO character sets
[[Category:ISO 8859|ISO 8859-01]]
[[Category:IEC standards]]
[[da:ISO 8859-1]]
[[de:ISO 8859-1]]
[[es:ISO 8859-1]]
[[eo:ISO 8859-1]]
[[fr:ISO 8859-1]]
[[nl:ISO 8859-1]]
[[no:ISO-8859-1]]
[[pl:ISO 8859-1]]
[[ru:ISO 8859-1]]
[[fi:ISO 8859-1]]
[[sv:ISO/IEC 8859-1]]
[[tt:ISO 8859-1]]
[[zh:ISO 8859-1]]
ISO/IEC 8859
15020
40759681
2006-02-22T21:09:25Z
84.135.199.3
added /IEC to ISO links, avoiding redirection
'''ISO 8859''', more formally '''ISO/IEC 8859''', is a joint [[International Organization for Standardization|ISO]] and [[International Electrotechnical Commission|IEC]] standard for 8-bit [[character encoding]]s for use by computers. The standard is divided into numbered, separately published parts, such as ISO/IEC 8859-1, ISO/IEC 8859-2, etc., each of which may be informally referred to as a standard in and of itself. There are currently 15 parts.
== Introduction ==
While the bit patterns of the 95 printable [[ASCII]] characters are sufficient to exchange information in modern [[English language|English]], most other languages that use the [[Roman alphabet]] need additional symbols not covered by ASCII, such as ''[[ß]]'' ([[German language|German]]), ''[[ñ]]'' ([[Spanish language|Spanish]]) and ''[[å]]'' ([[Swedish (language)|Swedish]] and other [[Nordic language]]s). ISO 8859 sought to remedy this problem by utilizing the eighth bit in an 8-bit [[byte]] in order to allow positions for another 128 characters. (This bit was previously used for data transmission protocol information, or was left unused.) However, more characters were needed than could fit in a single 8-bit character encoding, so several mappings were developed, including at least 10 just to cover the Latin script.
The ISO 8859-''n'' encodings only contain printable characters, and were designed to be used in conjunction with [[control characters]] mapped to the unassigned bytes. To this end a series of encodings registered with the [[IANA]] add the [[C0 and C1 control codes|C0]] control set (control characters mapped to bytes 0 to 31) from [[ISO/IEC 646|ISO 646]] and the [[C0 and C1 control codes|C1]] control set (control characters mapped to bytes 127 to 159) from [[ISO 6429]], resulting in full 8-bit character maps with most, if not all, bytes assigned. These sets have ISO-8859-''n'' as their preferred [[MIME]] name or, in cases where a preferred MIME name isn't specified, their canonical name. Many people use the terms ISO 8859-''n'' and ISO-8859-''n'' interchangeably. [[ISO/IEC 8859-11|ISO 8859-11]] did not get such a charset assigned presumablly because it was almost identical to [[TIS 620]].
== Characters ==
The ISO 8859 standard is designed for reliable information exchange, not [[typography]]; the standard omits symbols needed for high-quality typography, such as optional ligatures, curly quotation marks, dashes, etc. As a result, high-quality typesetting systems often use proprietary or idiosyncratic extensions on top of the [[ASCII]] and ISO 8859 standards, or use [[Unicode]] instead.
As a rule of thumb, if a character or symbol was not already part of a widely used data-processing character set and was also not usually provided on typewriter keyboards for a national language, it didn't get in. Hence the directional double quotation marks ''«'' and ''»'' used for some European languages were included, but not the directional double quotation marks ''“'' and ''”'' used for English and some other languages. French didn't get its ''œ'' and ''Œ'' ligatures because they could be typed as 'oe'. Ÿ, needed for all-caps text, was left out as well. These characters were, however, included later with [[ISO/IEC 8859-15|ISO 8859-15]], which also introduced the new [[Euro]] character €. Likewise Dutch did not get the 'ij' and 'IJ' letters, because Dutch speakers had gotten used to typing these as two letters instead. Romanian did not initially get its '{{unicode|Ș/ș}}' and '{{unicode|Ț/ț}}' ([[Comma (punctuation)|with comma]]) letters, because these letters were initially unified with 'Ş/ş' and 'Ţ/ţ' ([[Cedilla|with cedilla]]) by the [[Unicode Consortium]], considering the shapes with comma beneath to be [[glyph]] variants of the shapes with cedilla. However, the letters with explicit comma below were later added to the Unicode standard and are also in [[ISO/IEC 8859-16|ISO 8859-16]].
Most of the ISO 8859 encodings provide diacritic marks required for various European languages. Others provide non-Roman alphabets: [[Greek alphabet|Greek]], [[Cyrillic alphabet|Cyrillic]], [[Hebrew alphabet|Hebrew]], [[Arabic alphabet|Arabic]] and [[Thai alphabet|Thai]]. Most of the encodings contain only [[spacing characters]] although the Hebrew and Arabic ones do also contain [[combining characters]]. However, the standard makes no provision for the scripts of East Asian languages (''[[CJK]]''), as their ideographic [[writing system]]s require many thousands of code points. Although it uses Latin based characters, [[Vietnamese language|Vietnamese]] does not fit into 96 positions (without using combining diacritics) either; Japanese syllabic [[Kana]] scripts, on the other hand, might, but like several other alphabets of the world isn't encoded in the ISO 8859 system.
== The Parts of ISO 8859 ==
ISO 8859 is divided into the following parts:
{| class="wikitable"
![[ISO/IEC 8859-1|Part 1]]
|''Latin-1'' <br />''Western European''
|Perhaps the most widely used part of ISO 8859, covering most Western European languages: [[Danish language|Danish]], [[Dutch language|Dutch]] (partial{{ref 1}}), [[English language|English]], [[Faroese language|Faeroese]], [[Finnish language|Finnish]] (partial²), [[French language|French]] (partial{{ref 2}}), [[German language|German]], [[Icelandic language|Icelandic]], [[Irish language|Irish]], [[Italian language|Italian]], [[Norwegian language|Norwegian]], [[Portuguese language|Portuguese]], [[Romansh language|Rhaeto-Romanic]], [[Scottish Gaelic language|Scottish Gaelic]], [[Spanish language|Spanish]], and [[Swedish (language)|Swedish]], Eastern European [[Albanian language|Albanian]], as well as the African languages [[Afrikaans language|Afrikaans]] and [[Swahili language|Swahili]]. The missing [[Euro]] symbol and capital ''Ÿ'' are in the revised version ISO 8859-15. The corresponding IANA-approved character set ISO-8859-1 is the default encoding for legacy [[HTML]] documents and for documents transmitted via MIME messages, such as [[HTTP]] responses when the document's media type is "text" (as in "text/html").
|-
![[ISO/IEC 8859-2|Part 2]]
|''Latin-2'' <br />''Central European''
|Supports those Central and Eastern European languages that use a Roman alphabet, including [[Bosnian language|Bosnian]], [[Polish language|Polish]], [[Croatian language|Croatian]], [[Czech language|Czech]], [[Slovak language|Slovak]], [[Slovenian language|Slovenian]], and [[Hungarian language|Hungarian]]. The missing [[Euro]] symbol can be found in version ISO 8859-16.
|-
![[ISO/IEC 8859-3|Part 3]]
|''Latin-3'' <br />''South European''
|[[Turkish language|Turkish]], [[Maltese language|Maltese]], and [[Esperanto]]. Largely superseded by [[ISO/IEC 8859-9|ISO 8859-9]] for Turkish and [[Unicode]] for Esperanto.
|-
![[ISO/IEC 8859-4|Part 4]]
|''Latin-4'' <br />''North European''
|[[Estonian language|Estonian]], [[Latvian language|Latvian]], [[Lithuanian language|Lithuanian]], [[Greenlandic language|Greenlandic]], and [[Sami languages|Sami]].
|-
![[ISO/IEC 8859-5|Part 5]]
|''Latin/Cyrillic''
|Covers mostly Slavic languages that use a [[Cyrillic]] alphabet, including [[Belarusian language|Belarusian]], [[Bulgarian language|Bulgarian]], [[Macedonian language|Macedonian]], [[Russian language|Russian]], [[Serbian language|Serbian]], and [[Ukrainian language|Ukrainian]] (partial{{ref 3}}).
|-
![[ISO/IEC 8859-6|Part 6]]
|''Latin/Arabic''
|Covers the most common [[Arabic language]] characters. Doesn't support other languages using the [[Arabic script]]. Needs to be [[bidi]] and [[cursive joining]] processed for display.
|-
![[ISO/IEC 8859-7|Part 7]]
|''Latin/Greek''
|Covers the modern [[Greek language]] ([[monotonic orthography]]). Can also be used for Ancient [[Greek language|Greek]] written without accents or in monotonic orthography, but lacks the diacritics for [[polytonic orthography]]. These were introduced with Unicode.
|-
![[ISO/IEC 8859-8|Part 8]]
|''Latin/Hebrew''
|Covers the modern [[Hebrew alphabet]] as used in Israel. In practice two different encodings exist, logical order (needs to be [[bidi]] processed for display) and visual (left-to-right) order (in effect, after bidi processing and line breaking).
|-
![[ISO/IEC 8859-9|Part 9]]
|''Latin-5'' <br />''Turkish''
|Largely the same as ISO 8859-1, replacing the rarely used [[Icelandic language|Icelandic]] letters with [[Turkish language|Turkish]] ones. It is also used for [[Kurdish language|Kurdish]].
|-
![[ISO/IEC 8859-10|Part 10]]
|''Latin-6'' <br />''Nordic''
|a rearrangement of Latin-4. Considered more useful for Nordic languages. Baltic languages use Latin-4 more.
|-
![[ISO/IEC 8859-11|Part 11]]
|''Latin/Thai''
|Contains most glyphs needed for the [[Thai language]]. Same as [[TIS 620]].
|-
!non-existent <br/>[[ISO/IEC 8859-12|Part 12]]
|''Latin/Devanagari''
|The work in making a part of 8859 for [[Devanagari]] was officially abandoned in 1997. [[ISCII]] and [[Unicode]]/[[ISO/IEC 10646]] cover Devanagari.
|-
![[ISO/IEC 8859-13|Part 13]]
|''Latin-7'' <br />''Baltic Rim''
|Added some characters for Baltic languages which were missing from Latin-4 and Latin-6.
|-
![[ISO/IEC 8859-14|Part 14]]
|''Latin-8'' <br />''Celtic''
|Covers Celtic languages such as [[Scottish Gaelic language|Gaelic]] and the [[Breton language]].
|-
![[ISO/IEC 8859-15|Part 15]]
|''Latin-9''
|A revision of 8859-1 that removes some little-used symbols, replacing them with the [[Euro]] symbol ''€'' and the letters ''Š'', ''š'', ''Ž'', ''ž'', ''Œ'', ''œ'', and ''Ÿ'', which completes the coverage of [[French language|French]], [[Finnish language|Finnish]] and [[Estonian language|Estonian]].
|-
![[ISO/IEC 8859-16|Part 16]]
|''Latin-10'' <br />''South-Eastern European''
|Intended for [[Albanian language|Albanian]], [[Croatian language|Croatian]], [[Hungarian language|Hungarian]], [[Italian language|Italian]], [[Polish language|Polish]], [[Romanian language|Romanian]] and [[Slovenian language|Slovenian]], but also Finnish, French, German and [[Irish language|Irish Gaelic]] (new orthography). The focus lies more on letters than symbols. The currency sign is replaced with the [[Euro]] symbol.
|}
{{ref 1}}—only the [[IJ (letter)|IJ/ij (letter IJ)]] is missing, which is usually represented as IJ.<br>
{{ref 2}}—missing characters are in ISO 8859-15.<br>
{{ref 3}}—missing Ґ/ґ characters were reintroduced into Ukrainian in 1991.
Each part of ISO 8859 is designed to support languages that often borrow from each other, so the characters needed by each language are usually accommodated by a single part. However, there are some characters and language combinations that are not accommodated without transcriptions. Efforts were made to make conversions as smooth as possible. For example, German has all its seven special chars at the same positions in all Latin variants (1-4, 9-10, 13-16), and in many positions the characters only differ in the diacritics between the sets. In particular, variants 1-4 were designed jointly, and have the property that every encoded character appears either at a given position or not at all.
=== Table ===
{| class="wikitable" style="text-align:center;"
|+Comparison of the various parts of ISO 8859
![[Binary numeral system|Binary]]!![[Octal|Oct]]!![[Decimal|Dec]]!![[Hexadecimal|Hex]]
!1!!2!!3!!4!!5!!6!!7!!8!!9!!10!!11!!13!!14!!15!!16
|-
!10100000!!240!!160!!A0
|colspan="16" |[[Non-breaking space]] (NBSP)
|-
!10100001!!241!!161!!A1
|[[¡]]||[[Ą]]||[[Ħ]]||[[Ą]]||[[Ё]]||style="background-color:#ccffcc;"| ||[[‘]]||style="background-color:#ccffcc;"| ||[[¡]]||[[Ą]]||[[ก]]||[[”]]||[[Ḃ]]||[[¡]]||[[Ą]]
|-
!10100010!!242!!162!!A2
|[[¢]]||colspan="2"|[[˘]]||[[ĸ]]||[[Ђ]]||style="background-color:#ccffcc;"| ||[[’]]||[[¢]]||[[¢]]||[[Ē]]||[[ข]]||[[¢]]||[[ḃ]]||[[¢]]||[[ą]]
|-
!10100011!!243!!163!!A3
|[[£]]||[[Ł]]||[[£]]||[[Ŗ]]||[[Ѓ]]||style="background-color:#ccffcc;"| ||colspan="3"|[[£]]||[[Ģ]]||[[ฃ]]||colspan="3"|[[£]]||[[Ł]]
|-
!10100100!!244!!164!!A4
|colspan="4"|[[¤]]||[[Є]]||[[¤]]||style="background-color:#ffff99;"|[[€]]||colspan="2"|[[¤]]||[[Ī]]||[[ค]]||[[¤]]||[[Ċ]]||colspan="2"|[[€]]
|-
!10100101!!245!!165!!A5
|[[¥]]||[[Ľ]]||style="background-color:#ccffcc;"| ||[[Ĩ]]||[[Ѕ]]||style="background-color:#ccffcc;"| ||style="background-color:#ffff99;"|[[₯]]||colspan="2"|[[¥]]||[[Ĩ]]||[[ฅ]]||[[„]]||[[ċ]]||[[¥]]||[[„]]
|-
!10100110!!246!!166!!A6
|[[¦]]||[[Ś]]||[[Ĥ]]||[[Ļ]]||[[І]]||style="background-color:#ccffcc;"| ||colspan="3"|[[¦]]||[[Ķ]]||[[ฆ]]||[[¦]]||[[Ḋ]]||colspan="2"|[[Š]]
|-
!10100111!!247!!167!!A7
|colspan="4"|[[§]]||[[Ї]]||style="background-color:#ccffcc;"| ||colspan="4"|[[§]]||[[ง]]||colspan="4"|[[§]]
|-
!10101000!!250!!168!!A8
|colspan="4"|[[¨]]||[[Ј]]||style="background-color:#ccffcc;"| ||colspan="3"|[[¨]]||[[Ļ]]||[[จ]]||[[Ø]]||[[Ẁ]]||colspan="2"|[[š]]
|-
!10101001!!251!!169!!A9
|[[©]]||[[Š]]||[[İ]]||[[Š]]||[[Љ]]||style="background-color:#ccffcc;"| ||colspan="3"|[[©]]||[[Đ]]||[[ฉ]]||colspan="4"|[[©]]
|-
!10101010!!252!!170!!AA
|[[ª]]||colspan="2"|[[Ş]]||[[Ē]]||[[Њ]]||style="background-color:#ccffcc;"| ||style="background-color:#ffff99;"|[[ͺ]]||[[×]]||[[ª]]||[[Š]]||[[ช]]||[[Ŗ]]||[[Ẃ]]||[[ª]]||[[Ș]]
|-
!10101011!!253!!171!!AB
|[[«]]||[[Ť]]||[[Ğ]]||[[Ģ]]||[[Ћ]]||style="background-color:#ccffcc;"| ||colspan="3"|[[«]]||[[Ŧ]]||[[ซ]]||[[«]]||[[ḋ]]||colspan="2"|[[«]]
|-
!10101100!!254!!172!!AC
|[[¬]]||[[Ź]]||[[Ĵ]]||[[Ŧ]]||[[Ќ]]||[[،]]||colspan="3"|[[¬]]||[[Ž]]||[[ฌ]]||[[¬]]||[[Ỳ]]||[[¬]]||[[Ź]]
|-
!10101101!!255!!173!!AD
|colspan=10 align=center|[[soft hyphen]] (SHY)||[[ญ]]||colspan=4 align=center|[[soft hyphen|SHY]]
|-
!10101110!!256!!174!!AE
|[[®]]||[[Ž]]||style="background-color:#ccffcc;"| ||[[Ž]]||[[Ў]]||style="background-color:#ccffcc;"| ||style="background-color:#ccffcc;"| ||colspan="2"|[[®]]||[[Ū]]||[[ฎ]]||colspan="3"|[[®]]||[[ź]]
|-
!10101111!!257!!175!!AF
|[[¯]]||colspan="2"|[[Ż]]||[[¯]]||[[Џ]]||style="background-color:#ccffcc;"| ||[[―]]||colspan="2"|[[¯]]||[[Ŋ]]||[[ฏ]]||[[Æ]]||[[Ÿ]]||[[¯]]||[[Ż]]
|-
!10110000!!260!!176!!B0
|colspan="4"|[[°]]||[[А]]||style="background-color:#ccffcc;"| ||colspan="4"|[[°]]||[[ฐ]]||[[°]]||[[Ḟ]]||colspan="2"|[[°]]
|-
!10110001!!261!!177!!B1
|[[±]]||[[ą]]||[[ħ]]||[[ą]]||[[Б]]||style="background-color:#ccffcc;"| ||colspan="3"|[[±]]||[[ą]]||[[ฑ]]||[[±]]||[[ḟ]]||colspan="2"|[[±]]
|-
!10110010!!262!!178!!B2
|[[²]]||[[˛]]||[[²]]||[[˛]]||[[В]]||style="background-color:#ccffcc;"| ||colspan="3"|[[²]]||[[ē]]||[[ฒ]]||[[²]]||[[Ġ]]||[[²]]||[[Č]]
|-
!10110011!!263!!179!!B3
|[[³]]||[[ł]]||[[³]]||[[ŗ]]||[[Г]]||style="background-color:#ccffcc;"| ||colspan="3"|[[³]]||[[ģ]]||[[ณ]]||[[³]]||[[ġ]]||[[³]]||[[ł]]
|-
!10110100!!264!!180!!B4
|colspan="4"|[[´]]||[[Д]]||style="background-color:#ccffcc;"| ||[[΄]]||colspan="2"|[[´]]||[[ī]]||[[ด]]||[[“]]||[[Ṁ]]||colspan="2"|[[Ž]]
|-
!10110101!!265!!181!!B5
|[[µ]]||[[ľ]]||[[µ]]||[[ĩ]]||[[Е]]||style="background-color:#ccffcc;"| ||[[΅]]||colspan="2"|[[µ]]||[[ĩ]]||[[ต]]||[[µ]]||[[ṁ]]||[[µ]]||[[”]]
|-
!10110110!!266!!182!!B6
|[[¶]]||[[ś]]||[[ĥ]]||[[ļ]]||[[Ж]]||style="background-color:#ccffcc;"| ||[[Ά]]||colspan="2"|[[¶]]||[[ķ]]||[[ถ]]||colspan="4"|[[¶]]
|-
!10110111!!267!!183!!B7
|[[·]]||[[ˇ]]||[[·]]||[[ˇ]]||[[З]]||style="background-color:#ccffcc;"| ||colspan="4"|[[·]]||[[ท]]||[[·]]||[[Ṗ]]||colspan="2"|[[·]]
|-
!10111000!!270!!184!!B8
|colspan="4"|[[¸]]||[[И]]||style="background-color:#ccffcc;"| ||[[Έ]]||colspan="2"|[[¸]]||[[ļ]]||[[ธ]]||[[ø]]||[[ẁ]]||colspan="2"|[[ž]]
|-
!10111001!!271!!185!!B9
|[[¹]]||[[š]]||[[ı]]||[[š]]||[[Й]]||style="background-color:#ccffcc;"| ||[[Ή]]||colspan="2"|[[¹]]||[[đ]]||[[น]]||[[¹]]||[[ṗ]]||[[¹]]||[[č]]
|-
!10111010!!272!!186!!BA
|[[º]]||colspan="2"|[[ş]]||[[ē]]||[[К]]||style="background-color:#ccffcc;"| ||[[Ί]]||[[÷]]||[[º]]||[[š]]||[[บ]]||[[ŗ]]||[[ẃ]]||[[º]]||[[ș]]
|-
!10111011!!273!!187!!BB
|[[»]]||[[ť]]||[[ğ]]||[[ģ]]||[[Л]]||[[؛]]||colspan="3"|[[»]]||[[ŧ]]||[[ป]]||[[»]]||[[Ṡ]]||colspan="2"|[[»]]
|-
!10111100!!274!!188!!BC
|[[¼]]||[[ź]]||[[ĵ]]||[[ŧ]]||[[М]]||style="background-color:#ccffcc;"| ||[[Ό]]||colspan="2"|[[¼]]||[[ž]]||[[ผ]]||[[¼]]||[[ỳ]]||colspan="2"|[[Œ]]
|-
!10111101!!275!!189!!BD
|[[½]]||[[˝]]||[[½]]||[[Ŋ]]||[[Н]]||style="background-color:#ccffcc;"| ||colspan="3"|[[½]]||[[―]]||[[ฝ]]||[[½]]||[[Ẅ]]||colspan="2"|[[œ]]
|-
!10111110!!276!!190!!BE
|[[¾]]||[[ž]]||style="background-color:#ccffcc;"| ||[[ž]]||[[О]]||style="background-color:#ccffcc;"| ||[[Ύ]]||colspan="2"|[[¾]]||[[ū]]||[[พ]]||[[¾]]||[[ẅ]]||colspan="2"|[[Ÿ]]
|-
!10111111!!277!!191!!BF
|[[¿]]||colspan="2"|[[ż]]||[[ŋ]]||[[П]]||[[؟]]||[[Ώ]]||style="background-color:#ccffcc;"| ||[[¿]]||[[ŋ]]||[[ฟ]]||[[æ]]||[[ṡ]]||[[¿]]||[[ż]]
|-
!11000000!!300!!192!!C0
|[[À]]||[[Ŕ]]||[[À]]||[[Ā]]||[[Р]]||style="background-color:#ccffcc;"| ||[[ΐ]]||style="background-color:#ccffcc;"| ||[[À]]||[[Ā]]||[[ภ]]||[[Ą]]||colspan="3"|[[À]]
|-
!11000001!!301!!193!!C1
|colspan="4"|[[Á]]||[[С]]||[[ء]]||[[Α]]||style="background-color:#ccffcc;"| ||colspan="2"|[[Á]]||[[ม]]||[[Į]]||colspan="3"|[[Á]]
|-
!11000010!!302!!194!!C2
|colspan="4"|[[Â]]||[[Т]]||[[آ]]||[[Β]]||style="background-color:#ccffcc;"| ||colspan="2"|[[Â]]||[[ย]]||[[Ā]]||colspan="3"|[[Â]]
|-
!11000011!!303!!195!!C3
|[[Ã]]||[[Ă]]||style="background-color:#ccffcc;"| ||[[Ã]]||[[У]]||[[أ]]||[[Γ]]||style="background-color:#ccffcc;"| ||colspan="2"|[[Ã]]||[[ร]]||[[Ć]]||colspan="2"|[[Ã]]||[[Ă]]
|-
!11000100!!304!!196!!C4
|colspan="4"|[[Ä]]||[[Ф]]||[[ؤ]]||[[Δ]]||style="background-color:#ccffcc;"| ||colspan="2"|[[Ä]]||[[ฤ]]||colspan="4"|[[Ä]]
|-
!11000101!!305!!197!!C5
|[[Å]]||[[Ĺ]]||[[Ċ]]||[[Å]]||[[Х]]||[[إ]]||[[Ε]]||style="background-color:#ccffcc;"| ||colspan="2"|[[Å]]||[[ล]]||colspan="3"|[[Å]]||[[Ć]]
|-
!11000110!!306!!198!!C6
|[[Æ]]||[[Ć]]||[[Ĉ]]||[[Æ]]||[[Ц]]||[[ئ]]||[[Ζ]]||style="background-color:#ccffcc;"| ||colspan="2"|[[Æ]]||[[ฦ]]||[[Ę]]||colspan="3"|[[Æ]]
|-
!11000111!!307!!199!!C7
|colspan="3"|[[Ç]]||[[Į]]||[[Ч]]||[[ا]]||[[Η]]||style="background-color:#ccffcc;"| ||[[Ç]]||[[Į]]||[[ว]]||[[Ē]]||colspan="3"|[[Ç]]
|-
!11001000!!310!!200!!C8
|[[È]]||[[Č]]||[[È]]||[[Č]]||[[Ш]]||[[ب]]||[[Θ]]||style="background-color:#ccffcc;"| ||[[È]]||[[Č]]||[[ศ]]||[[Č]]||colspan="3"|[[È]]
|-
!11001001!!311!!201!!C9
|colspan="4"|[[É]]||[[Щ]]||[[ة]]||[[Ι]]||style="background-color:#ccffcc;"| ||colspan="2"|[[É]]||[[ษ]]||colspan="4"|[[É]]
|-
!11001010!!312!!202!!CA
|[[Ê]]||[[Ę]]||[[Ê]]||[[Ę]]||[[Ъ]]||[[ت]]||[[Κ]]||style="background-color:#ccffcc;"| ||[[Ê]]||[[Ę]]||[[ส]]||[[Ź]]||colspan="3"|[[Ê]]
|-
!11001011!!313!!203!!CB
|colspan="4"|[[Ë]]||[[Ы]]||[[ث]]||[[Λ]]||style="background-color:#ccffcc;"| ||colspan="2"|[[Ë]]||[[ห]]||[[Ė]]||colspan="3"|[[Ë]]
|-
!11001100!!314!!204!!CC
|[[Ì]]||[[Ě]]||[[Ì]]||[[Ė]]||[[Ь]]||[[ج]]||[[Μ]]||style="background-color:#ccffcc;"| ||[[Ì]]||[[Ė]]||[[ฬ]]||[[Ģ]]||colspan="3"|[[Ì]]
|-
!11001101!!315!!205!!CD
|colspan="4"|[[Í]]||[[Э]]||[[ح]]||[[Ν]]||style="background-color:#ccffcc;"| ||colspan="2"|[[Í]]||[[อ]]||[[Ķ]]||colspan="3"|[[Í]]
|-
!11001110!!316!!206!!CE
|colspan="4"|Î||[[Ю]]||[[خ]]||[[Ξ]]||style="background-color:#ccffcc;"| ||colspan="2"|Î||[[ฮ]]||[[Ī]]||colspan="3"|Î
|-
!11001111!!317!!207!!CF
|Ï||[[Ď]]||Ï||[[Ī]]||[[Я]]||[[د]]||[[Ο]]||style="background-color:#ccffcc;"| ||colspan="2"|Ï||[[ฯ]]||[[Ļ]]||colspan="3"|Ï
|-
!11010000!!320!!208!!D0
|Ð||[[Đ]]||style="background-color:#ccffcc;"| ||[[Đ]]||[[а]]||[[ذ]]||[[Π]]||style="background-color:#ccffcc;"| ||[[Ğ]]||Ð||[[ะ]]||[[Š]]||[[Ŵ]]||colspan="2"|Ð
|-
!11010001!!321!!209!!D1
|Ñ||[[Ń]]||Ñ||[[Ņ]]||[[б]]||[[ر]]||[[Ρ]]||style="background-color:#ccffcc;"| ||Ñ||[[Ņ]]||[[ั]]||[[Ń]]||colspan="2"|Ñ||[[Ń]]
|-
!11010010!!322!!210!!D2
|Ò||[[Ň]]||Ò||[[Ō]]||[[в]]||[[ز]]||style="background-color:#ccffcc;"| ||style="background-color:#ccffcc;"| ||Ò||[[Ō]]||[[า]]||[[Ņ]]||colspan="3"|Ò
|-
!11010011!!323!!211!!D3
|colspan="3"|Ó||[[Ķ]]||[[г]]||[[س]]||[[Σ]]||style="background-color:#ccffcc;"| ||colspan="2"|Ó||[[ำ]]||colspan="4"|Ó
|-
!11010100!!324!!212!!D4
|colspan="4"|Ô||[[д]]||[[ش]]||[[Τ]]||style="background-color:#ccffcc;"| ||colspan="2"|Ô||[[ิ]]||[[Ō]]||colspan="3"|Ô
|-
!11010101!!325!!213!!D5
|colspan="2"|[[Ő]]||[[Ġ]]||Õ||[[е]]||[[ص]]||[[Υ]]||style="background-color:#ccffcc;"| ||colspan="2"|Õ||[[ี]]||colspan="4"|[[Ő]]
|-
!11010110!!326!!214!!D6
|colspan="4"|Ö||[[ж]]||[[ض]]||[[Φ]]||style="background-color:#ccffcc;"| ||colspan="2"|Ö||[[ึ]]||colspan="4"|Ö
|-
!11010111!!327!!215!!D7
|colspan="4"|×||[[з]]||[[ط]]||[[Χ]]||style="background-color:#ccffcc;"| ||×||[[Ũ]]||[[ื]]||×||[[Ṫ]]||×||[[Ś]]
|-
!11011000!!330!!216!!D8
|Ø||[[Ř]]||[[Ĝ]]||Ø||[[и]]||[[ظ]]||[[Ψ]]||style="background-color:#ccffcc;"| ||colspan="2"|Ø||[[ุ]]||[[Ų]]||colspan="2"|Ø||[[Ű]]
|-
!11011001!!331!!217!!D9
|Ù||[[Ů]]||Ù||[[Ų]]||[[й]]||[[ع]]||[[Ω]]||style="background-color:#ccffcc;"| ||Ù||[[Ų]]||[[ู]]||[[Ł]]||colspan="3"|Ù
|-
!11011010!!332!!218!!DA
|colspan="4"|Ú||[[к]]||[[غ]]||[[Ϊ]]||style="background-color:#ccffcc;"| ||colspan="2"|Ú||[[ฺ]]||[[Ś]]||colspan="3"|Ú
|-
!11011011!!333!!219!!DB
|Û||[[Ű]]||colspan="2"|Û||[[л]]||style="background-color:#ccffcc;"| ||[[Ϋ]]||style="background-color:#ccffcc;"| ||colspan="2"|Û||style="background-color:#ccffcc;"| ||[[Ū]]||colspan="3"|Û
|-
!11011100!!334!!220!!DC
|colspan="4"|Ü||[[м]]||style="background-color:#ccffcc;"| ||[[ά]]||style="background-color:#ccffcc;"| ||colspan="2"|Ü||style="background-color:#ccffcc;"| ||colspan="4"|Ü
|-
!11011101!!335!!221!!DD
|colspan="2"|Ý||[[Ŭ]]||[[Ũ]]||[[н]]||style="background-color:#ccffcc;"| ||[[έ]]||style="background-color:#ccffcc;"| ||[[İ]]||Ý||style="background-color:#ccffcc;"| ||[[Ż]]||colspan="2"|Ý||[[Ę]]
|-
!11011110!!336!!222!!DE
|Þ||[[Ţ]]||[[Ŝ]]||[[Ū]]||[[о]]||style="background-color:#ccffcc;"| ||[[ή]]||style="background-color:#ccffcc;"| ||[[Ş]]||Þ||style="background-color:#ccffcc;"| ||[[Ž]]||[[Ŷ]]||Þ||[[Ț]]
|-
!11011111!!337!!223!!DF
|colspan="4"|ß||[[п]]||style="background-color:#ccffcc;"| ||[[ί]]||[[‗]]||colspan="2"|ß||[[฿]]||colspan="4"|ß
|-
!11100000!!340!!224!!E0
|à||[[ŕ]]||à||[[ā]]||[[р]]||[[ـ]]||[[ΰ]]||[[א]]||à||[[ā]]||[[เ]]||[[ą]]||colspan="3"|à
|-
!11100001!!341!!225!!E1
|colspan="4"|á||[[с]]||[[ف]]||[[α]]||[[ב]]||colspan="2"|á||[[แ]]||[[į]]||colspan="3"|á
|-
!11100010!!342!!226!!E2
|colspan="4"|â||[[т]]||[[ق]]||[[β]]||[[ג]]||colspan="2"|â||[[โ]]||[[ā]]||colspan="3"|â
|-
!11100011!!343!!227!!E3
|ã||[[ă]]||style="background-color:#ccffcc;"| ||ã||[[у]]||[[ك]]||[[γ]]||[[ד]]||colspan="2"|ã||[[ใ]]||[[ć]]||colspan="2"|ã||[[ă]]
|-
!11100100!!344!!228!!E4
|colspan="4"|ä||[[ф]]||[[ل]]||[[δ]]||[[ה]]||colspan="2"|ä||[[ไ]]||colspan="4"|ä
|-
!11100101!!345!!229!!E5
|å||[[ĺ]]||[[ċ]]||å||[[х]]||[[م]]||[[ε]]||[[ו]]||colspan="2"|å||[[ๅ]]||colspan="3"|å||[[ć]]
|-
!11100110!!346!!230!!E6
|æ||[[ć]]||[[ĉ]]||æ||[[ц]]||[[ن]]||[[ζ]]||[[ז]]||colspan="2"|æ||[[ๆ]]||[[ę]]||colspan="3"|æ
|-
!11100111!!347!!231!!E7
|colspan="3"|[[Ç]]||[[į]]||[[ч]]||[[ه]]||[[η]]||[[ח]]||[[Ç]]||[[į]]||[[็]]||[[ē]]||colspan="3"|[[Ç]]
|-
!11101000!!350!!232!!E8
|[[È]]||[[č]]||[[È]]||[[č]]||[[ш]]||[[و]]||[[θ]]||[[ט]]||[[È]]||[[č]]||[[่]]||[[č]]||colspan="3"|[[È]]
|-
!11101001!!351!!233!!E9
|colspan="4"|[[É]]||[[щ]]||[[ى]]||[[ι]]||[[י]]||colspan="2"|[[É]]||[[้]]||colspan="4"|[[É]]
|-
!11101010!!352!!234!!EA
|[[Ê]]||[[ę]]||[[Ê]]||[[ę]]||[[ъ]]||[[ي]]||[[κ]]||[[ך]]||[[Ê]]||[[ę]]||[[๊]]||[[ź]]||colspan="3"|[[Ê]]
|-
!11101011!!353!!235!!EB
|colspan="4"|[[Ë]]||[[ы]]||[[ً]]||[[λ]]||[[כ]]||colspan="2"|[[Ë]]||[[๋]]||[[ė]]||colspan="3"|[[Ë]]
|-
!11101100!!354!!236!!EC
|[[Ì]]||[[ě]]||[[Ì]]||[[ė]]||[[ь]]||[[ٌ]]||[[μ]]||[[ל]]||[[Ì]]||[[ė]]||[[์]]||[[ģ]]||colspan="3"|[[Ì]]
|-
!11101101!!355!!237!!ED
|colspan="4"|[[Í]]||[[э]]||[[ٍ]]||[[ν]]||[[ם]]||colspan="2"|[[Í]]||[[ํ]]||[[ķ]]||colspan="3"|[[Í]]
|-
!11101110!!356!!238!!EE
|colspan="4"|î||[[ю]]||[[َ]]||[[ξ]]||[[מ]]||colspan="2"|î||[[๎]]||[[ī]]||colspan="3"|î
|-
!11101111!!357!!239!!EF
|ï||[[ď]]||ï||[[ī]]||[[я]]||[[ُ]]||[[ο]]||[[ן]]||colspan="2"|ï||[[๏]]||[[ļ]]||colspan="3"|ï
|-
!11110000!!360!!240!!F0
|ð||[[đ]]||style="background-color:#ccffcc;"| ||[[đ]]||[[ȑ]]||[[ِ]]||[[π]]||[[נ]]||[[ğ]]||ð||[[๐]]||[[š]]||[[ŵ]]||ð||[[đ]]
|-
!11110001!!361!!241!!F1
|ñ||[[ń]]||ñ||[[ņ]]||[[ё]]||[[ّ]]||[[ρ]]||[[ס]]||ñ||[[ņ]]||[[๑]]||[[ń]]||colspan="2"|ñ||[[ń]]
|-
!11110010!!362!!242!!F2
|ò||[[ň]]||ò||[[ō]]||[[ђ]]||[[ْ]]||[[ς]]||[[ע]]||ò||[[ō]]||[[๒]]||[[ņ]]||colspan="3"|ò
|-
!11110011!!363!!243!!F3
|colspan="3"|ó||[[ķ]]||[[ѓ]]||style="background-color:#ccffcc;"| ||[[σ]]||[[ף]]||colspan="2"|ó||[[๓]]||colspan="4"|ó
|-
!11110100!!364!!244!!F4
|colspan="4"|ô||[[є]]||style="background-color:#ccffcc;"| ||[[τ]]||[[פ]]||colspan="2"|ô||[[๔]]||[[ō]]||colspan="3"|ô
|-
!11110101!!365!!245!!F5
|colspan="2"|[[ő]]||[[ġ]]||õ||[[ѕ]]||style="background-color:#ccffcc;"| ||[[υ]]||[[ץ]]||colspan="2"|õ||[[๕]]||colspan="4"|[[ő]]
|-
!11110110!!366!!246!!F6
|colspan="4"|ö||[[і]]||style="background-color:#ccffcc;"| ||[[φ]]||[[צ]]||colspan="2"|ö||[[๖]]||colspan="4"|ö
|-
!11110111!!367!!247!!F7
|colspan="4"|÷||[[ї]]||style="background-color:#ccffcc;"| ||[[χ]]||[[ק]]||÷||[[ũ]]||[[๗]]||÷||[[ṫ]]||÷||[[ś]]
|-
!11111000!!370!!248!!F8
|ø||[[ř]]||[[ĝ]]||ø||[[ј]]||style="background-color:#ccffcc;"| ||[[ψ]]||[[ר]]||colspan="2"|ø||[[๘]]||[[ų]]||colspan="2"|ø||[[ű]]
|-
!11111001!!371!!249!!F9
|ù||[[ů]]||ù||[[ų]]||[[љ]]||style="background-color:#ccffcc;"| ||[[ω]]||[[ש]]||ù||[[ų]]||[[๙]]||[[ł]]||colspan="3"|ù
|-
!11111010!!372!!250!!FA
|colspan="4"|ú||[[њ]]||style="background-color:#ccffcc;"| ||[[ϊ]]||[[ת]]||colspan="2"|ú||[[๚]]||[[ś]]||colspan="3"|ú
|-
!11111011!!373!!251!!FB
|û||[[ű]]||colspan="2"|û||[[ћ]]||style="background-color:#ccffcc;"| ||[[ϋ]]||style="background-color:#ccffcc;"| ||colspan="2"|û||[[๛]]||[[ū]]||colspan="3"|û
|-
!11111100!!374!!252!!FC
|colspan="4"|ü||[[ќ]]||style="background-color:#ccffcc;"| ||[[ό]]||style="background-color:#ccffcc;"| ||colspan="2"|ü||style="background-color:#ccffcc;"| ||colspan="4"|ü
|-
!11111101!!375!!253!!FD
|colspan="2"|ý||[[ŭ]]||[[ũ]]||§||style="background-color:#ccffcc;"| ||[[ύ]]||style="background-color:#ffff99;"|''LRM''||[[ı]]||ý||style="background-color:#ccffcc;"| ||[[ż]]||colspan="2"|ý||[[ę]]
|-
!11111110!!376!!254!!FE
|þ||[[ţ]]||[[ŝ]]||[[ū]]||[[ў]]||style="background-color:#ccffcc;"| ||[[ώ]]||style="background-color:#ffff99;"|''RLM''||[[ş]]||þ||style="background-color:#ccffcc;"| ||[[ž]]||[[ŷ]]||þ||[[ț]]
|-
!11111111!!377!!255!!FF
|ÿ||colspan="3"|[[˙]]||[[џ]]||style="background-color:#ccffcc;"| ||style="background-color:#ccffcc;"| ||style="background-color:#ccffcc;"| ||ÿ||[[ĸ]]||style="background-color:#ccffcc;"| ||[[’]]||colspan="3"|ÿ
|}
At position 0xA0 there's always the non breaking space and 0xAD is mostly the soft hyphen, which only shows at line breaks. Other empty fields are either <font style="background:#ccffcc; font-style: italic;">unassigned</font> or the system used isn't able to display them.
There are <font style="background-color:#ffff99; font-style: italic;">new additions</font> as ISO/IEC 8859-7:2003 and ISO/IEC 8859-8:1999 versions. LRM stands for left-to-right mark (U+200E) and RLM stands for right-to-left mark (U+200F).
== Relationship to Unicode and the UCS ==
<!-- this could do with some trimming a lot of whats in here isn't really relavent to this article [[User:Plugwash|Plugwash]] 11:55, [[21 June]] [[2005]] (UTC)-->
Since 1991, the Unicode Consortium has been working with ISO to develop the [[Unicode|Unicode Standard]] and [[Universal Character Set|ISO/IEC 10646: the Universal Character Set]] (UCS) in tandem. This pair of standards was created to unify the ISO 8859 character repertoire, among others, by assigning each character, initially, to a 16-bit code value, with some code values left unassigned. Over time, their models adapted to map characters to abstract numeric code points rather than fixed bit-width values, so that more code points and encoding methods could be supported.
Unicode and ISO/IEC 10646 currently assign about 100,000 characters to a code space consisting of over a million code points, and they define several standard encodings that are capable of representing every available code point. The standard encodings of Unicode and the UCS use sequences of one to four 8-bit code values ([[UTF-8]]), sequences of one or two 16-bit code values ([[UTF-16]]), or one 32-bit code value ([[UTF-32]] or [[UCS-4]]). There is also an older encoding that uses one 16-bit code value ([[UCS-2]]), capable of representing one-seventeenth of the available code points. Of these encoding forms, only UTF-8's byte sequences are in a fixed order; the others are subject to platform-dependent [[Endianness|byte ordering]] issues that may be addressed via special codes or indicated via [[out-of-band]] means.
Newer editions of ISO 8859 express characters in terms of their Unicode/UCS names and the ''U+nnnn'' notation, effectively causing each part of ISO 8859 to be a Unicode/UCS character encoding scheme that maps a very small subset of the UCS to single 8-bit bytes. The first 256 characters in Unicode and the UCS are identical to those in ISO-8859-1.
Single byte character sets including the parts of ISO 8859 and derivatives of them were favored throughout the 1990s, having the advantages of being well-established and more easily implemented in software: the equation of one byte to one character is simple and adequate for most single-language applications, and there are no combining characters or variant forms.
As the relative cost, in computing resources, of using more than one byte per character began to diminish, programming languages and operating systems added native support for Unicode alongside their system of [[code page]]s. [[Windows NT]] was quite an early adopter of Unicode. However Unicode support in [[Windows 9x]] required linking with a special compatibility layer or restricting your design to a very small subset of the Windows API discouraging its use. As Unicode-enabled operating systems became more widespread, ISO 8859 and other legacy encodings became less popular. While remnants of ISO 8859 and single-byte character models remain entrenched in many operating systems, programming languages, data storage systems, networking applications, display hardware, and end-user application software, most modern computing applications use Unicode internally, and rely on conversion tables to map to and from other encodings, when necessary.
== Development status ==
The ISO/IEC 8859 standard was maintained by ISO/IEC Joint Technical Committee 1, Subcommittee 2, Working Group 3 (ISO/IEC JTC 1/SC 2/WG 3). In June 2004, WG 3 disbanded, and maintenance duties were transferred to SC 2. The standard is not currently being updated, as the Subcommittee's only remaining [[working group]], WG 2, is concentrating on development of [[Universal character set|ISO/IEC 10646]].
== References ==
* Published versions of each part of ISO/IEC 8859 are available, for a fee, from the [http://www.iso.ch/iso/en/stdsdevelopment/tc/tclist/TechnicalCommitteeStandardsListPage.TechnicalCommitteeStandardsList?COMMID=23 ISO catalogue site] and from the [http://webstore.ansi.org/ansidocstore/find.asp?find_spec=8859 ANSI eStandards Store].
* PDF versions of the final drafts of some parts of ISO/IEC 8859 as submitted for review & publication by ISO/IEC JTC 1/SC 2/WG 3 are available at the [http://anubis.dkuug.dk/JTC1/SC2/WG3/ WG 3 web site]:
** [http://anubis.dkuug.dk/JTC1/SC2/WG3/docs/n411.pdf ISO/IEC 8859-1:1998] - 8-bit single-byte coded graphic character sets, Part 1: Latin alphabet No. 1 ''(draft dated [[February 12]] [[1998]], published [[April 15]] [[1998]])''
** [http://anubis.dkuug.dk/JTC1/SC2/WG3/docs/n413.pdf ISO/IEC 8859-4:1998] - 8-bit single-byte coded graphic character sets, Part 4: Latin alphabet No. 4 ''(draft dated [[February 12]] [[1998]], published [[July 1]] [[1998]])''
** [http://anubis.dkuug.dk/jtc1/sc2/open/02n3329.pdf ISO/IEC 8859-7:1999] - 8-bit single-byte coded graphic character sets, Part 7: Latin/Greek alphabet ''(draft dated [[June 10]] [[1999]]; superseded by ISO/IEC 8859-7:2003, published [[October 10]] [[2003]])''
** [http://anubis.dkuug.dk/JTC1/SC2/WG3/docs/n415.pdf ISO/IEC 8859-10:1998] - 8-bit single-byte coded graphic character sets, Part 10: Latin alphabet No. 6 ''(draft dated [[February 12]] [[1998]], published [[July 15]] [[1998]])''
** [http://anubis.dkuug.dk/jtc1/sc2/open/02n3333.pdf ISO/IEC 8859-11:1999] - 8-bit single-byte coded graphic character sets, Part 11: Latin/Thai character set ''(draft dated [[June 22]] [[1999]]; superseded by ISO/IEC 8859-11:2001, published [[15 December]] [[2001]])''
** [http://anubis.dkuug.dk/JTC1/SC2/WG3/docs/n451.pdf ISO/IEC 8859-13:1998] - 8-bit single-byte coded graphic character sets, Part 13: Latin alphabet No. 7 ''(draft dated [[April 15]] [[1998]], published [[October 15]] [[1998]])''
** [http://anubis.dkuug.dk/JTC1/SC2/WG3/docs/n404.pdf ISO/IEC 8859-15:1998] - 8-bit single-byte coded graphic character sets, Part 15: Latin alphabet No. 9 ''(draft dated [[August 1]] [[1997]]; superseded by ISO/IEC 8859-15:1999, published [[March 15]] [[1999]])''
** [http://anubis.dkuug.dk/jtc1/sc2/open/02n3389.pdf ISO/IEC 8859-16:2000] - 8-bit single-byte coded graphic character sets, Part 16: Latin alphabet No. 10 ''(draft dated [[November 15]] [[1999]]; superseded by ISO/IEC 8859-16:2001, published [[July 15]] [[2001]])''
* [[European Computer Manufacturers Association|ECMA]] standards, which in intent correspond exactly to the ISO/IEC 8859 character set standards, can be found at:
** [http://www.ecma-international.org/publications/standards/Ecma-094.htm Standard ECMA-94]: 8-Bit Single Byte Coded Graphic Character Sets - Latin Alphabets No. 1 to No. 4 ''2nd edition (June 1986)''
** [http://www.ecma-international.org/publications/standards/Ecma-113.htm Standard ECMA-113]: 8-Bit Single-Byte Coded Graphic Character Sets - Latin/Cyrillic Alphabet ''3rd edition (December 1999)''
** [http://www.ecma-international.org/publications/standards/Ecma-114.htm Standard ECMA-114]: 8-Bit Single-Byte Coded Graphic Character Sets - Latin/Arabic Alphabet ''2nd edition (December 2000)''
** [http://www.ecma-international.org/publications/standards/Ecma-118.htm Standard ECMA-118]: 8-Bit Single-Byte Coded Graphic Character Sets - Latin/Greek Alphabet ''(December 1986)''
** [http://www.ecma-international.org/publications/standards/Ecma-121.htm Standard ECMA-121]: 8-Bit Single-Byte Coded Graphic Character Sets - Latin/Hebrew Alphabet ''2nd edition (December 2000)''
** [http://www.ecma-international.org/publications/standards/Ecma-128.htm Standard ECMA-128]: 8-Bit Single-Byte Coded Graphic Character Sets - Latin Alphabet No. 5 ''2nd edition (December 1999)''
** [http://www.ecma-international.org/publications/standards/Ecma-144.htm Standard ECMA-144]: 8-Bit Single-Byte Coded Character Sets - Latin Alphabet No. 6 ''3rd edition (December 2000)''
* ISO/IEC 8859-1 to Unicode [ftp://ftp.unicode.org/Public/MAPPINGS/ISO8859 mapping tables] as plain text files are at the Unicode FTP site.
* Informal descriptions and code charts for most ISO 8859 standards are available in [http://czyborra.com/charsets/iso8859.html ISO 8859 Alphabet Soup] [http://www.lysator.liu.se/~jmo/czyborra_index.html (Mirror)]
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#REDIRECT [[Imad Mugniyah]]
Infrared
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Reverted edits by [[Special:Contributions/216.254.149.154|216.254.149.154]] to last version by Heron
[[Image:Infrared_dog.jpg|thumb|right|332px|Image of a small dog taken in mid-infrared ("thermal") light (false color)]]
'''Infrared''' ('''IR''') radiation is [[electromagnetic radiation]] of a [[wavelength]] longer than that of visible [[light]], but shorter than that of [[microwave]] radiation. The name means "below [[red]]" (from the [[Latin]] ''infra'', "below"), red being the [[color]] of visible light of longest wavelength. Infrared radiation spans three orders of magnitude and has wavelengths between approximately [[1 E-7 m|750]] [[Nanometre|nm]] and 1 [[millimetre|mm]].
===Different regions in the infrared===
IR is often subdivided into:
* near infrared '''NIR''', IR-A ''[[DIN]]'', 0.75–1.4 [[micrometre|µm]] in wavelength, defined by the water absorption, and commonly used in [[fiber optic]] telecommunication because of low attenuation losses in the SiO<sub>2</sub> glass ([[silica]]) medium.
* short wavelength (shortwave) IR '''SWIR''', IR-B ''[[DIN]]'', 1.4–3 µm, water absorption increases significantly at 1450 nm
* mid wavelength IR '''MWIR''', IR-C ''[[DIN]]'', also intermediate-IR (IIR), 3–8 µm
* long wavelength IR '''LWIR''', IR-C ''[[DIN]]'', 8–15 µm)
* far infrared '''FIR''', 15–1000 µm
However, these terms are not precise, and are used differently in various studies i.e. near (0.75–5 µm) / mid (5–30 µm) / long (30–1000 µm). Especially at the telecom-wavelengths the spectrum is further subdivided into individual bands, due to limitations of detectors, amplifiers and sources. Infrared radiation is often linked to [[heat]], since objects at room [[temperature]] or above will [[spontaneous emission|emit radiation]] mostly concentrated in the mid-infrared band (see [[black body]]).
[[Image:Atmospheric transmittance infrared.gif|right|thumb|332px|Plot of atmospheric transmittance in part of the infrared region.]]
The common nomenclature is justified by the different human response to this radiation (near infrared = the red you just cannot see, far IR = thermal radiation), other definitions follow different physical mechanisms (emission peaks, vs. bands, water absorption) and the newest follow technical reasons (The common [[silicon]] detectors are sensitive to about 1050 nm, while [[indium gallium arsenide|InGaAs]] sensitivity starts around 950 nm and ends between 1700 and 2200 nm, depending on the specific configuration). Unfortunately the international standards for these specifications are not currently available.
The boundary between visible and infrared light is not precisely defined. The human [[eye]] is markedly less sensitive to red light above 700 nm wavelength, but particularly intense light (e.g., from [[laser]]s) can be detected up to approximately 780 nm. The onset of infrared is defined (according to different standards) at various values between these two wavelengths, typically at 750 nm.
===Telecommunication bands in the infrared===
Optical telecommunication in the near infrared is technically often separated to different frequency bands because of availability of light sources, transmitting /absorbing materials (fibers) and detectors.
* '''O-band''' 1260–1360 nm
* '''E-band''' 1360–1460 nm
* '''S-band''' 1460–1530 nm
* '''C-band''' 1530–1565 nm
* '''L-band''' 1565–1625 nm
* '''U-band''' 1625–1675 nm
==The Earth as an infrared emitter==
The [[Earth]]'s surface [[absorb]]s visible radiation from the [[sun]] and re-emits much of the energy as infrared back to the [[Earth's atmosphere|atmosphere]]. Certain gases in the atmosphere, chiefly [[water]] vapor, but also [[carbon dioxide]], [[methane]], [[nitrous oxide]], [[sulfur hexafluoride]], and [[chlorofluorocarbons]], absorb this infrared, and re-radiate it in all directions including back to Earth. Thus the [[greenhouse effect]] keeps the atmosphere and surface much warmer than if the infrared absorbers were absent from the atmosphere.
== Applications ==
===Night vision===
Infrared is used in [[night-vision]] equipment, when there is insufficient [[visible light]] to see an object. The radiation is detected and turned into an image on a screen, hotter objects showing up in different shades than cooler objects, enabling the [[police]] and military to acquire thermally significant targets, such as [[human being]]s and [[automobile]]s. ''Also see [[Forward looking infrared]]''. IR radiation is a secondary effect of heat; it is not heat itself. Heat itself is a measure of the translational energy of an amount of matter. "Thermal" detectors do not actually detect heat directly but the difference in IR radiation from objects. Military gunnery ranges sometimes use special materials that reflect IR radiation to simulate enemy vehicles with running engines. The targets can be the exact same temperature as the surrounding terrain, but they emit (reflect) much more IR radiation. Different materials emit more or less IR radiation as temperature increases or decreases, depending on the composition of the material.
[[Smoke]] is more transparent to infrared than to visible light, so [[firefighter]]s use infrared imaging equipment when working in smoke-filled areas.
===Other imaging===
In [[infrared photography]], [[infrared filter|infrared filters]] are used to capture only the infrared spectrum. [[Digital camera]]s often use infrared [[blocker|blockers]]. Cheaper [[digital camera]]s and some [[camera phones]] which do not have appropriate filters can "see" infrared, appearing as a bright white colour (try pointing a TV remote at your digital camera). This is especially pronounced when taking pictures of subjects near bright areas (such as near a lamp), where the resulting infrared interference can wash out the image. It is also worth mentioning 'T-ray' imaging, which is imaging using far infrared or [[terahertz]] radiation. Technically more challenging than most other infrared imaging techniques, T-ray imaging has been of considerable interest recently due to a number of new developments such as [[terahertz time-domain spectroscopy]].
===Thermography===
Infrared radiation can be used to remotely determine the temperature of objects (if the emissivity is known). This is termed [[thermography]], or in the case of very hot objects in the NIR or visible it is termed [[pyrometry]]. Thermography (thermal imaging) is mainly used in military and industrial applications but the technology is reaching the public market in the form of infrared cameras on cars due to the massively reduced production costs.
===Heating===
Infrared radiation is used in [[infrared sauna]]s to heat the sauna's occupants, and to remove ice from the wings of [[aircraft]] (de-icing). It is also gaining popularity as a method of heating asphalt pavements in place during new construction or in repair of damaged asphalt.
===Communications===
IR data transmission is also employed in short-range communication among computer peripherals and [[personal digital assistant]]s. These devices usually conform to standards published by [[Infrared Data Association|IrDA]], the Infrared Data Association. Remote controls and IrDA devices use infrared [[light-emitting diode]]s (LEDs) to emit infrared radiation which is focused by a plastic [[Lens (optics)|lens]] into a narrow beam. The beam is [[modulation|modulated]], i.e. switched on and off, to encode the [[data]]. The receiver uses a [[silicon]] [[photodiode]] to convert the infrared radiation to an electric [[Current (electricity)|current]]. It responds only to the rapidly pulsing signal created by the transmitter, and filters out slowly changing infrared radiation from ambient light. Infrared communications are useful for indoor use in areas of high population density. IR does not penetrate walls and so does not interfere with other devices in adjoining rooms.
[[Free space optics|Free space optical]] communication using [[infrared laser]]s can be a relatively inexpensive way to install a Gigabit/s communications link in urban areas, compared to the cost of burying [[fibre optic]] cable.
Infrared lasers are used to provide the light for optical fibre communications systems. Infrared light with a wavelength around 1330 nm (least dispersion) or 1550 nm (best transmission) are the best choices for standard [[silica]] fibres.
Infrared is the most common way for [[remote control|remote controls]] to command appliances.
===Spectroscopy===
Infrared radiation [[spectroscopy]] is the study of the composition of (usually) [[organic compound]]s, finding out a compound's structure and composition based on the percentage transmittance of IR radiation through a sample. Different frequencies are absorbed by different stretches and bends in the [[molecular bond]]s occurring inside the sample. [[Carbon dioxide]], for example, has a strong absorption band at 4.2µm.
== History ==
===Biological systems===
The [[pit viper]] is known to have two infrared sensory pits on its head. There is controversy over the exact thermal sensitivity of this biological infrared detection system.
*Thermal Modeling of Snake Infrared Reception: Evidence for Limited Detection Range, B. S. Jones, W. F. Lynn and M. O. Stone, Journal of Theoretical Biology Vol. 209, Iss. 2, 201-211 (2001) {{doi|10.1006/jtbi.2000.2256}}
*Biological Thermal Detection: Micromechanical and Microthermal Properties of Biological Infrared Receptors, V. Gorbunov, N. Fuchigami, M. Stone, M. Grace, and V. V. Tsukruk, Biomacromolecules vol. 3 Iss. 1, 106-115 (2002). {{doi|10.1021/bm015591f}}
===Human history===
The discovery of infrared radiation is commonly ascribed to [[William Herschel]], the [[astronomer]], in the early [[19th century]]. Herschel used a [[Prism (optics)|prism]] to [[refract]] light from the [[sun]] and detected the infrared, beyond the [[red]] part of the spectrum, through an increase in the temperature recorded on a [[thermometer]].
Simple infrared sensors were used by British, American and German forces in the [[Second World War]] as night vision aids for [[sniper]]s.
==See also==
*[[Night vision]]
*[[Infrared astronomy]]
*[[Infrared filter]]
*[[Infrared photography]]
*[[Infrared spectroscopy]]
*[[Thermography]]
*[[terahertz]] radiation
*[[Thermographic camera]]
*[[Infrared homing]]
==External links==
===Journals===
*[http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/journal/13504495 Infrared Physics and Technology] (Elsevier) (last access June 2005).
===Web sites===
*[http://scienceofspectroscopy.info/wiki/index.php?title=Infrared_Spectroscopy Infrared Spectroscopy] NASA ''Open Spectrum'' wiki site.
*[http://www.irda.org/ IrDA]Organization that creates low cost infrared data interconnection standards.
*[http://www.ocinside.de/html/modding/usb_ir_receiver/usb_ir_receiver.html How to build an USB infrared receiver to remote control PCs]
*[http://imagers.gsfc.nasa.gov/ems/infrared.html Infrared Waves]Detailed explanation of infrared light.
{{wiktionary}}
{{EMSpectrum}}
[[Category:Electromagnetic spectrum]]
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Icosidodecahedron
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/* See also */ * [[Great truncated icosidodecahedron]]
{| border="1" bgcolor="#ffffff" cellpadding="5" align="right" style="margin-left:10px" width="250"
!bgcolor=#e7dcc3 colspan=2|Icosidodecahedron
|-
|align=center colspan=2|[[image:icosidodecahedron.jpg|240px|Icosidodecahedron]]<br>''Click on picture for large version.''<br>''Click ''[[:image:icosidodecahedron.gif|here]]'' for spinning version.''
|-
|bgcolor=#e7dcc3|Type||[[Archimedean solid|Archimedean]]
|-
|bgcolor=#e7dcc3|Faces||20 [[triangle]]s<br>12 [[pentagon]]s
|-
|bgcolor=#e7dcc3|Edges||60
|-
|bgcolor=#e7dcc3|Vertices||30
|-
|bgcolor=#e7dcc3|[[Vertex configuration]]||3.5.3.5
|-
|bgcolor=#e7dcc3|[[Symmetry group]]||[[Icosahedral symmetry|icosahedral]] (''I''<sub>''h''</sub>)
|-
|bgcolor=#e7dcc3|[[Dual polyhedron]]||[[rhombic triacontahedron]]
|-
|bgcolor=#e7dcc3|Properties||convex, quasi-regular (vertex/edge uniform)
|-
|align=center colspan=2|[[image:Icosidodecahedron_vertfig.png|240px|Icosidodecahedron]]<BR>Vertex Figure
|}
An '''icosidodecahedron ''' is a [[polyhedron]] with twenty triangular faces and twelve pentagonal faces. An icosidodecahedron has 30 identical vertices, with two triangles and two pentagons meeting at each, and 60 identical edges, each separating a triangle from a pentagon. As such it is one of the [[Archimedean solid]]s and more particularly, one of the quasi-regular polyhedra.
[[image:icosidodecahedron flat.png]]
An icosidodecahedron has icosahedral symmetry, and its first [[stellation]] is the compound of a [[dodecahedron]] and its dual [[icosahedron]], with the vertices of the icosahedron located at the midpoints of the edges of either. Canonical coordinates for the vertices of an icosidodecahedron are the [[cyclic permutation]]s of (0,0,±τ), (±1/2, ±τ/2, ±(1+τ)/2), where τ is the [[golden ratio]], (1+√5)/2. Its [[dual polyhedron]] is the [[rhombic triacontahedron]]. An icosidodecahedron can be split along several planes to form [[pentagonal rotunda]]e, which belong among the [[Johnson solid]]s.
In the standard nomenclature used for the [[Johnson solid]]s, an icosidodecahedron would be called a ''pentagonal gyrobirotunda''.
==Related polyhedra==
The icosidodecahedron is a [[Rectification (geometry)|rectified]] [[dodecahedron]] and also a rectified [[icosahedron]].
Compare:
[[image:dodecahedron.jpg|thumb|left|100px|[[Dodecahedron]]]][[image:truncateddodecahedron.jpg|thumb|left|100px|[[Truncated dodecahedron]]]][[image:icosidodecahedron.jpg|thumb|left|100px|Icosidodecahedron]][[image:truncatedicosahedron.jpg|thumb|100px|left|[[Truncated icosahedron]]]]
[[image:icosahedron.jpg|thumb|100px|left|[[Icosahedron]]]]
{{-}}
== See also ==
* [[Cuboctahedron]]
* [[Dodecahedron]]
* [[Great truncated icosidodecahedron]]
* [[Icosahedron]]
* [[Rhombicosidodecahedron]]
* [[Truncated icosidodecahedron]]
== External links ==
* [http://www.mathconsult.ch/showroom/unipoly/ The Uniform Polyhedra]
* [http://www.georgehart.com/virtual-polyhedra/vp.html Virtual Reality Polyhedra] The Encyclopedia of Polyhedra
[[Category:Archimedean solids]]
[[Category:Quasiregular polyhedra]]
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ISO 8601
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'''[[International Organization for Standardization|ISO]] 8601''', "[[Data element]]s and interchange formats – Information interchange – Representation of dates and times" is an [[international standard]] for [[calendar date|date]] and [[time]] representations. The signature feature of the [[ISO 8601]] format is that all values are organized from most to least significant. This leads to the increasingly familiar '''YYYY-MM-DD hh:mm:ss''' format seen in international forums.
{|table class="messagebox"
| The current time in ''ISO 8601'' format is: '''{{CURRENTYEAR}}-{{CURRENTMONTH}}-{{CURRENTDAY2}} {{CURRENTTIME}}Z'''
|}
==History of the standard==
The current version is the third edition, [http://www.iso.org/iso/en/CatalogueDetailPage.CatalogueDetail?CSNUMBER=40874&ICS1=1&ICS2=140&ICS3=30&showrevision=y&scopelist=CATALOGUE ISO 8601:2004], published [[2004-12-03]]. This replaces the second edition, ISO 8601:2000. The first edition was ISO 8601:1988.
==General principles==
Dates and times are self-contained, and do not rely on any external context for their values. They are ''entirely numerical'' in representation, although certain specialized formats use roman letters to label fields. Every ISO date has exactly one possible unambiguous interpretation. These properties allow them to be truly international, without reliance on regional conventions, such as the names of the days of the week.
Dates and times are organized ''from most to least significant'' digits. Each value (eg, year, month, day, time) has a ''fixed number of digits'' which must be padded with leading zeros. For instance, the American notation "4:30 am" would be written '''04:30'''.
Representation can be done in one of two formats: A ''basic format'' with a minimal number of characters, or an ''extended format'' with separators to enhance human readability.[http://www.iso.org/iso/en/prods-services/popstds/datesandtime.html] The standard permits a ''dash'' separator between date elements, and a ''colon'' between hours, minutes, and seconds. For example, '''2006-01-06''' may be written '''20060106''' without ambiguity. An optional "'''T'''" is suggested to separate date and time when those values will be stored in a single field, though another separator may be chosen with discretion. A space is a popular allowed human readable alternative.
Any number of fields may be dropped from any of the date and time formats, but the least significant fields must be dropped first. For example, '''2004-05''' is a valid ISO 8601 date, which indicates the 5th month of the year 2004. This date will never represent the 5th day of some unknown month in 2004.
Finally, the standard supports the addition of a ''decimal fraction'' to the smallest time unit, where higher precision is needed.
==Dates==
The standard uses the [[Gregorian calendar]], already the [[De facto|de facto standard]] of international trade, with the year numbering following [[astronomical year numbering]]. The standard acknowledges that other calendars may be used, such as the [[Julian calendar]]. It suggests that senders and receivers should explicitly agree when another calendar is used with the standard's notation. Dates are otherwise assumed to be Gregorian. In principle, dates should usually be converted to the [[Proleptic Gregorian calendar|proleptic Gregorian calendar]] to avoid possible confusion.
Years are always integers. Year '''0001''' corresponds to '''1 AD''' (1 CE). The year before that is '''0000''', which corresponds to '''1 BC''' (1 BCE). The year before that is '''-0001''', which corresponds to '''2 BC'''. This pattern continues. This system had already been used by [[astronomer]]s, and may clarify the dispute about when a new century begins (see [[20th century]]).
In some cases, years may be relaxed to fewer than four digits. However, the rules for this vary depending on what other information is being carried and if it will make the interpretation ambiguous. For instance, the date 2006-01-09 could be written 060109, but the month 2006-01 could only be shortened as -0601 (note the hyphen). Years can also be expanded to greater than four digits, though this is practically domain specific—such as archeological and astronomical events.
[[ISO 8601]] describes three date formats of general interest. These can be quickly distinguished by a ''one, two, or three digit day field''.
===Calendar date===
{|table class="infobox" style="text-align: center; width: 15em"
| '''YYYY–MM–DD'''
|}
Calendar dates are the form familiar to most people. As represented above, '''YYYY''' indicates a year with century, and a negative sign for years before 1 BCE. '''MM''' indicates the month of the year, 01 through 12. '''DD''' indicates the day of that month, from 01 through 31. For example, "April 5th, 1981" may be represented as '''1981-04-05''' in the ''extended format'', or '''19810405''' in the ''basic format''.
The standard allows for dates to be written with less precision. For example, you may write '''1981-04''' to mean "April, 1981". You may simply write '''1981''' to refer to that year.
The standard also allows for dates which include an implied element, such as an implied century. It is careful to emphasize the importance of clear communication between sender and receiver when implied elements are being used. It is a lack of such clarity that led to the [[year 2000 problem]].
===Week dates===
{|table class="infobox" style=" text-align: center; width: 15em"
| '''YYYY–Www–D'''
|}
Week dates are a form more popular in manufacturing. As represented above, '''YYYY''' indicates a ISO year. The "'''W'''" is a literal roman character followed by '''ww''' which represents the week number from 01 through 52 or 53. The "'''D'''" represents the ''day of the week'' from 1 through 7, beginning with Monday and ending with Sunday. For example, 1981-04-05 is the 7th day of the 14th week of 1981, and would be written '''1981-W14-7''', or in its most compact form '''81W147'''.
Week 01 is the week with the year's first Thursday in it. Or in other words, the first week with the majority (four or more) of its days in the new year. If 1 January is on a Monday, Tuesday, Wednesday or Thursday, it is in week 01. If 1 January is on a Friday, Saturday or Sunday, it is in week 52 or 53 of the previous year. Weeks 01, 52 and 53 can thus include days from more than one year and, in most years, do so. For example, 2008-12-28 is written '''2009-W01-1''' and 2010-01-01 is written '''2009-W53-7'''. The year given by the Week format is often called the ISO year (opposed to the gregorian year used in Calendar dates).
===Ordinal dates===
{|table class="infobox" style="text-align: center; width: 15em"
| '''YYYY–DDD'''
|}
''Ordinal dates'' are a simple form for times when the arbitrary nature of week and month definitions are more of an impediment than an aid—for instance, when comparing dates from different calendars. As represented above, '''YYYY''' indicates a year. '''DDD''' is the day of that year, from 001 through 366 in leap years. For example, "1981-04-05" is also '''1981-095'''.
This format has particular use for simple hardware systems that have need of a date system, but where including full calendar calculation software may be a significant nuisance.
=== Further details about dates ===
<!-- This section is somewhat redundant ATM: 2006-01-07 11:43-0500 -->
The standard allows for expansion and truncation of the year, by agreement between sender and receiver.
Truncation means the year may be written with two digits (optionally preceded by a hyphen) to represent a year in an ''implied'' century. Unfortunately, common practice is to use two digits for either a year in an implied modern century or in the first century ('''89''' might be 89 or 1989).
Expansion means that the year may be written with more than four digits, which addresses the [[year 10,000 problem]], by allowing the standard to specify dates later than [[10th millennium|AD 10000]] or earlier than [[Younger Dryas|10001 BC]].
Note however that expansion and truncation introduce ambiguities if separators are not used. For instance '''200406''' could either mean the year 200406 or month 06 in year 2004. The ISO standard suggests that "provisions be made" to prevent such confusions.
For purposes of reference ISO 8601 assigns the number [[1875]] to the year in which the ''[[Convention du Mètre]]'' was signed in [[Paris]].
==Times==
{|table class="infobox" style="text-align: center; width: 15em"
| '''hh:mm:ss'''
|}
ISO 8601 uses the [[24-hour clock]] system that is used by much of the world. The ''basic format'' is '''hhmmss''' and the ''extended format'' is '''hh:mm:ss'''. '''hh''' refers to an [[hour]] between 00 and 24, where 24 is only used to notate the midnight at the end of a calendar date. '''mm''' refers to a [[minute]] between 00 and 59. '''ss''' refers to a [[second]] between 00 and 59 (or 60 in the exceptional case of an added [[leap second]]). So a time might appear as '''13:47:30''', or '''134730'''.
It is also acceptable to omit elements to reduce precision. '''hh:mm''', '''hhmm''', and '''hh''' are all used.
Fractions may also be used with all three of the time elements. These are indicated by using the [[decimal point]] (either a [[comma (punctuation)|comma]] or [[full stop|dot]]). A fraction may only refer to the most precise component of a time representation — that is, to denote "14 hours, 30 and one half minutes", do not include a seconds figure. Represent it as '''14:30.5''' or '''1430.5'''. The "." may be replaced with a "," depending on the local custom.
''[[Midnight]]'' is a special case and can be referred to as both '''00:00''' and '''24:00'''. The notation '''00:00''' is used at the beginning of the day, and is the most frequently used one. At the end of a day use '''24:00'''. Note that '''1981-04-05 24:00''' is the same instant as '''1981-04-06 00:00'''.
===Time zones===
{|table class="infobox" style="width: 15em"
| '''<time>Z'''<br />
'''<time>±hh:mm:ss'''<br />
'''<time>±hh:mm'''<br />
'''<time>±hhmm'''<br />
'''<time>±hh'''
|}
If no [[time zone]] information is given with a time, the time zone is assumed to be in some conventional local timezone. While it may be safe to assume a local zone when used between two people in the same area, it is ambiguous when used in communication between multiple timezones. It is usually preferable to indicate a time zone using the standard's notation.
====UTC====
If the time is in [[Coordinated Universal Time|UTC]], it is very easy to show this. Simply add a '''Z''' directly after the time, without a space. "09:30 UTC" is therefore represented as '''09:30Z''' or '''0930Z'''. "14:45:15 UTC" would be '''14:45:15Z''' or '''144515Z'''.
====Other time zones====
Other time zones are specified by their ''offset'' from UTC, in the format '''±hh:mm''', '''±hhmm''', or '''±hh'''. So if the time being described is one hour ahead of UTC (such as the time in [[Berlin]] during the winter) the offset would be '''+01:00''', '''+0100''', or simply '''+01'''. This is appended to the time in the same way that "'''Z'''" was above. Note that the offset is the actual offset from UTC, and doesn't include any information on [[daylight saving time]]. Times expressed in local time for a user in [[Chicago, Illinois]] would be '''-06:00''' for the winter ([[Central Standard Time Zone|Central Standard Time]]) and '''-05:00''' for the summer ([[Central Daylight Time Zone|Central Daylight Time]]). The following times all refer to the same moment: '''18:30Z''', '''22:30+04''', '''1130-0700''', and '''15:00-03:30'''. (It could also be expressed using a fraction of the hour, as '''18.5Z'''.)
==Combined representations==
{|table class="infobox" style="width: 15em"
| '''<date><tt> </tt><time>'''<br />'''YYYY-MM-DD<tt> </tt>hh:mm:ss'''<br />'''<date>T<time>'''<br />'''YYYY-MM-DDThh:mm:ss'''<br />'''YYYYMMDDThhmmss'''
|}
Combining ''date'' and ''time'' representations is quite simple. It is in the format of '''<date>T<time>'''. The ''<date>'' and ''<time>'' sections are any proper representation of the date and time created by following the standard. A common use could be '''YYYY-MM-DDThh:mm:ss±hh:mm'''. '''1981-04-05T14:30:30-05:00''', for example.
The standard allows the replacement of T with a space if no misunderstanding arises. This is commonly done for human communications. A date/time with timezone like '''1981-04-05T14:30-05''' would then be written as '''1981-04-05 14:30-05'''.
==Duration==
{|table class="infobox" style="text-align: center; width: 15em"
| '''PnYnMnDTnHnMnS'''
|}
Durations are represented by the format '''PnYnMnDTnHnMnS''' (nM may be replaced with nW to use the ''week format''.) In this representation replace '''n''' with the appropriate number for the element that follows it (leading zeros are optional but may clarify ambiguous durations) The capital letters ('''P''', '''Y''', '''M''', '''W''', '''D''', '''T''', '''H''', '''M''', and '''S''') are used as they are and not replaced. Thus '''P3Y6M4DT12H30M0S''' defines "a period of three years, six months, four days, twelve hours, thirty minutes, and zero seconds". Elements may be omitted if their value is zero.
Alternately, a format more similar to the ''combined representation'' may be used: '''PYYYY-MM-DDThh:mm:ss'''. To represent the same interval as above in this format, use '''P0003-06-04T12:30:00'''.
==Time interval==
{|table class="infobox" style="width: 15em"
| '''<begin>/<end>'''<br />'''<begin>/<duration>'''<br />'''<duration>/<end>'''<br />'''<duration>'''
|}
Time intervals specify an amount of time. They may be specified in four ways:
#Start and end, such as '''2002-03-01T13:00:00Z/2003-05-11T15:30:00Z'''
#Start and duration, such as '''2002-03-01T13:00:00Z/P1Y2M10DT2H30M'''
#Duration and end, such as '''P1Y2M10DT2H30M/2003-05-11T15:30:00Z'''
#Duration only, such as '''P1Y2M10DT2H30M'''
Of these, the first three require two separate values, separated by the ''interval designator'', which is usually a [[slash (punctuation)|forward slash]] "'''/'''". (The double [[hyphen]] (--) is permissible in some applications but is not preferred.) An example using the format from item #1 is '''1981-04-05T14:30:30-05:00/2004-07-14T15:30:30-05:00'''. If any elements are missing from the second value, they are assumed to be the same as the first value, including time zone elements.
===Repeating intervals===
Repeating intervals are formed by adding '''Rn/''' to the beginning of an interval expression, where '''R''' is used as the letter itself and '''n''' is replaced by the number of repetitions. Leaving out the value for '''n''' means an unbounded number of repetitions. So, to repeat the interval of '''P1Y2M10DT2H30M''' five times starting at '''2002-03-01T13:00:00Z''', use '''R5/2002-03-01T13:00:00Z/P1Y2M10DT2H30M'''.
==Usage==
On the [[Internet]], ISO 8601 is used by the [[World Wide Web Consortium|W3C]], defining a profile of the standard that restricts the supported formats to reduce the chance of error and the complexity of software. See also W3C link in ''External links'', below.
ISO 8601 is referenced by several specifications, but not always is the full range of options of ISO 8601 used. E.g. the different EPG standards for TV, Digital Radio, etc. do use several formats to describe points in time and durations.
The ISO 8601 week date, as of 2006-01, already appears in its basic form on major brand commercial packaging in the US. Its appearance depends on the particular packaging, canning, or bottling plant more than any particular brand. The format is particularly useful for quality assurance, so that production errors can be readily traced to work weeks, and products can be correctly targeted for recall.
==External links==
*[http://www.hermetic.ch/cal_stud/formats.htm The ISO 8601 Date Format]
*[http://www.cl.cam.ac.uk/~mgk25/iso-time.html ISO 8601 summary by Markus Kuhn]
*[http://www.saqqara.demon.co.uk/datefmt.htm International Date Format Campaign]
*[http://www.qsl.net/g1smd/isoimp.htm ISO 8601 Implementation Around The World]
*[http://groups.yahoo.com/group/iso8601/ ISO 8601 discussion group at Yahoo!]
*[http://dmoz.org/Science/Reference/Standards/Individual_Standards/ISO_8601/ ISO 8601 section of Open Directory Project]
*W3C
**Non-endorsed information
***[http://www.w3.org/TR/NOTE-datetime Note about Date and Time Formats to W3C from Reuters]
***[http://www.w3.org/Submission/1997/14/Comment Comment by W3C on Reuters submission]
**Recommendations
***[http://www.w3.org/TR/xmlschema-2/#dateTime dateTime data type in XML Schema], which is based on a subset of ISO 8601
*RFC 3339, Date and Time on the Internet, 2002-July
*[http://www.iso.ch/iso/en/CatalogueDetailPage.CatalogueDetail?CSNUMBER=40874 Purchase the ISO 8601:2004 standard] ([[English language|English]], 33 pages, [[Portable Document Format|PDF]], [[Franc#Swiss_franc|CHF]] 122)
*[http://dmoz.org/Bookmarks/G/g1smd/Links_to_PDF_Copies_of_ISO_8601_Standard/ ISO 8601 draft copies in PDF format]
*[http://www.personal.ecu.edu/mccartyr/isowdcal.html Current date in '''week date''' and '''ordinal date''' format]
*[http://www.phys.uu.nl/~vgent/calendar/isocalendar.htm The Mathematics of the ISO 8601 Calendar]
*[http://www.probabilityof.com/ISO8601.shtml ISO 8601 - Converting and implementing]
[[Category:Calendars]]
[[Category:Specific calendars]]
[[Category:ISO standards|#08601]]
[[ca:ISO 8601]]
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[[fr:ISO 8601]]
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Inertial mass
15026
35105730
2006-01-14T03:55:01Z
Forbsey
86762
Fixed common spelling error. see [[WP:LCM]]
'''Inertial [[mass]]''' is a measure of the resistance of an entity to a change in its [[velocity]] relative to an [[inertial frame]]. The [[inertial frame]] does not have to be that of the [[mass]] in question; either before or after the measurement.</br>
This 'resistance' is also sometimes called ''inertia''.
Within [[classical physics]] the inertial mass of [[point particle]]s is defined by means of the following equation for the subsequently described Machian [[thought experiment]] where particle 1 is taken as a unit (''m''<sub>1</sub> =1):
:''m''<sub>i</sub> ''a''<sub>''i''1</sub> = ''m''<sub>1</sub> ''a''<sub>1''i''</sub>,
where ''m''<sub>''i''</sub> is the inertial mass of particle ''i'', and ''a''<sub>''i''1</sub> is the initial acceleration of particle ''i'', in the direction from particle ''i'' to particle 1, in a volume occupied only by particles ''i'' and 1, where both particles are initially at rest one distance unit apart. There are no external forces, but the particles exert a force on each other.
The equation defines inertial mass of particle ''i'' in terms of the assumed measurable mutually induced accelerations ''a''<sub>''i''1</sub> and a<sub>1i</sub>. The remaining constraints on the accelerations, that the above defining equation still holds at different initial distances and when generated by the pairing of particles with other than particle 1, can be taken as requirements for the experimental validity of the theory's dynamics, cf. [[conservation law|momentum conservation]]. In addition, the requirement that the paired accelerations used are colinear, irrelevant of the direction chosen for the alignment of the particles, verifies that they are measured relative to an inertial frame in a force-free volume.
[[Category:Mass]]
[[de:Träge Masse und schwere Masse]]
[[es:Masa inercial]]
[[ru:Инертная масса]]
ISA
15027
42075480
2006-03-03T17:31:35Z
Tiki God
821605
added [[International Sign Association]] (trade association), external link to site
As an acronymn, '''ISA''' stands for
* [[Independent Schools Association]], a group of schools in New South Wales, Australia.
* [[Infectious salmon anemia]], a viral disease of salmon.
* [[Individual Savings Account]] (in the UK)
* [[Industry Standard Architecture]] (a computer bus standard for IBM compatible PCs)
* [[Institut de Sélection Animale]], a poultry breeding company based in Saint–Brieuc, France.
* [[Instruction set|Instruction Set Architecture]]
* [[Instrumentation, Systems, and Automation Society]] (formerly Instrument Society of America, a professional organization for instrument engineers)
* [[Internal Security Act]] (implemented in Malaysia and Singapore)
* [[International Seabed Authority]]
* [[Patent Cooperation Treaty|International Searching Authority]] (in patent law)
* [[International Security Alliance]] a fictional spy agency on the television soap opera ''[[Days of our Lives]]''
* [[International Sign Association]] ([http://www.signs.org/ web page])
* [[International Society of Arboriculture]] (non-profit organization)
* [[International Sociological Association]]
* [[International Space Agency]]
* [[International Standard Atmosphere]]
* [[International School Amsterdam]] an international school in the Netherlands
* [[International Symbol of Accessibility]]
* [[Microsoft Internet Security and Acceleration Server|Internet Security and Acceleration Server]], a Microsoft server product
* [[Israel Space Agency]]
* [[Irish Sailing Association]] (National governing body for sailing in Ireland)
* [[Italian Space Agency]]
See also:
* [[Isa]] Jesus in Islam.
* [[Mount Isa, Queensland]]
* [[Isa (album)]] (2004), an album by [[Enslaved (band)|Enslaved]]
{{TLAdisambig}}
[[de:Isa]]
[[es:ISA]]
[[fr:ISA]]
[[nl:ISA]]
[[ja:ISA]]
[[pl:ISA]]
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International Seabed Authority
15028
26973970
2005-10-31T13:40:27Z
Pharos
111996
Category:Mining law and governance
[[Image:isalogo.gif|right]]
The '''International Seabed Authority''' is an intergovernmental body established to organize and control all mineral-related activities in the international seabed area beyond the limits of national jurisdiction, an area underlying most of the world’s [[ocean]]s. It is an autonomous organization having a relationship agreement with the [[United Nations]].
The Authority, in existence since 1994, was established and its tasks were defined by the 1982 [[United Nations Convention on the Law of the Sea]], as refined by the 1994 Agreement relating to the Implementation of Part XI (seabed provisions) of the Convention. The Convention defines this deep seabed area and its resources as “the common heritage of mankind”. The Authority has 138 member states, its membership consisting of all parties to the Law of the [[Sea]] Convention.
Two principal organs establish the policies and govern the work of the Authority: the Assembly, in which all members are represented, and a 36-member Council elected by the Assembly. Council members are chosen according to a formula designed to ensure equitable representation of countries from various groups, including those engaged in seabed mineral exploration and the land-based producers of minerals found on the seabed. The Authority holds one annual session, usually of two weeks duration. Its eighth session was held in August 2002; its ninth session is scheduled for July/August 2003.
The Authority operates by contracting with private and public corporations and other entities authorizing them to explore, and eventually exploit, specified areas on the deep seabed for mineral resources. The Convention also established a body called the Enterprise which is to serve as the Authority’s own mining operator, but no concrete steps have been taken to bring this into being.
The Authority’s sole substantive accomplishment to date has been the adoption in 2000 of regulations governing exploration for polymetallic nodules. These resources, also called [[manganese nodule]]s, contain varying amounts of [[manganese]], [[cobalt]], [[copper]] and [[nickel]]. They occur as potato-sized lumps scattered about on the surface of the ocean floor, mainly in the central [[Pacific Ocean]] but with some deposits in the [[Indian Ocean]]. During the first half of 2001, the Authority signed exploration contracts with seven entities, giving them exclusive rights to explore for nodules in specific areas, under terms spelled out in the regulations. These contractors submitted their first set of annual reports to the Authority in 2002; none indicated any serious interest in commercial exploitation.
The Authority began work in August 2002 on another set of regulations, covering polymetallic sulphides and cobalt-rich crusts--rich sources of such minerals as copper, iron, zinc, silver and gold, as well as cobalt. The sulphides are found around volcanic hot springs, especially in the western Pacific Ocean, while the crusts occur on oceanic ridges and elsewhere at several locations around the world. This task is likely to take several years.
In addition to its legislative work, the Authority organizes annual workshops on various aspects of seabed exploration, with emphasis on measures to protect the marine environment from any harmful consequences. It disseminates the results of these meetings through publications.
The Authority has a budget of slightly more than $5 million a year and a staff of nearly 40 people. Contrary to early hopes that seabed mining would generate extensive revenues for both the exploiting countries and the Authority, no technology has been developed for gathering deep-sea minerals at costs that can compete with land-based mines. The general consensus is that economic mining of the ocean depths is decades away. In addition, the United States, with some of the most advanced ocean technology in the world, has not yet ratified the Law of the Sea Convention and is thus not a member of the Authority.
==External links==
* [http://www.isa.org.jm ISA]
* [http://www.un.org/Depts/los/convention_agreements/convention_overview_convention.htm United Nations Convention on the Law of the Sea (1982)]
[[Category:International organizations]]
[[Category:Law of the sea]]
[[Category:Mining law and governance]]
[[de:Meeresbodenbehörde]]
Industry Standard Architecture
15029
41757828
2006-03-01T15:04:35Z
216.110.76.98
'''Industry Standard Architecture''' (in practice almost always shortened to '''ISA''') is a [[computer bus]] standard for [[IBM compatible]]s.
bus architecture]]. The modern 16-bit standard was introduced in [[1984]]. Designed to connect peripheral cards to the [[motherboard]], the protocol also allows for [[bus mastering]] although only the first 16 [[megabyte|MB]] of main memory is available for direct access. The 8-bit bus ran at 4.77 MHz, while the 16-bit bus operated at 8 MHz. In reference to the XT bus, it is sometimes referred to as the '''AT bus architecture'''. It was also available on some non-IBM compatible machines such as the short-lived [[AT&T]] Hobbit and later [[PowerPC]] based [[BeBox]].
[[Image:Isa1.jpg|300px|thumb|right|Five [[16-bit]] and one [[8-bit]] ISA slots on a [[motherboard]]]]
In [[1987]], IBM moved to replace the ISA bus with their proprietary [[Micro Channel Architecture]] (MCA) in an effort to regain control of the PC architecture, and the PC market. The system was far more advanced than ISA, and computer manufacturers responded with the [[Extended Industry Standard Architecture]] (EISA) and later, the [[VESA Local Bus]] (VLB). In fact, VLB used some parts originally intended for MCA due to the fact that component manufacturers already had the ability to manufacture it. Both were compatible expansions of the ISA standard. Neither became extraordinarily popular, however, and were soon succeeded by [[Intel]]'s 32-bit [[Peripheral Component Interconnect]] (PCI).
Users of ISA-based machines had to know special information about the hardware they were adding to the system. While a handful of devices were essentially "[[plug-n-play]]," this was rare. Users frequently had to configure two or three things when adding a new device, such as the [[IRQ]] line, [[I/O address]], or [[Direct memory access|DMA]] channel. MCA had done away with this complication, and PCI actually incorporated many of the ideas first explored with MCA (though it was more directly descended from EISA).
This trouble with configuration eventually led to the creation of '''ISA PnP''', a [[plug-n-play]] system that used a combination of modifications to hardware, the system [[BIOS]], and [[operating system]] software to automatically manage the nitty-gritty details. In reality, ISA PnP turned out to be a major headache much of the time, and didn't become well-supported until the architecture was in its final days. This was a major contributor to the use of the phrase "plug-n-pray."
PCI slots were the first physically-incompatible expansion ports to directly squeeze ISA off of the [[motherboard]]. At first, motherboards were largely ISA, including a few PCI slots. By the mid-[[1990s]], the two slot types were roughly balanced, and ISA slots soon were in the minority on consumer systems. [[Microsoft]]'s [[PC 98]] specification recommended that ISA slots be removed entirely, though the system architecture still required ISA to be present in some vestigial way internally to handle the [[floppy drive]], [[serial port]]s, etc. ISA slots remained for a few more years, and it was even possible to see systems with an [[Accelerated Graphics Port]] (AGP) sitting near the [[central processing unit]], an array of PCI slots, and one or two ISA slots near the end.
It is also notable that PCI slots are "rotated" compared to their ISA counterparts—PCI cards were essentially inserted "upside-down," allowing ISA and PCI connectors to squeeze together on the motherboard. Only one of the two connectors can be used in each slot at a time, but this allowed for greater flexibility.
==8-bit ISA (XT bus architecture)==
The '''XT bus architecture''' is an eight-[[bit]] [[Industry Standard Architecture|ISA]] [[Computer bus|bus architecture]] used by [[Intel]] [[Intel 8086|8086]] and Intel [[Intel 8088|8088]] systems in the [[IBM PC]] and [[IBM PC XT]] in the [[1980s]]. It predates the 16-bit ISA architecture used on [[IBM PC AT]] machines.
The XT bus has four [[Direct memory access|DMA]] channels, of which three are brought out to the expansion slots. Of these three, two are normally allocated to machine functions:
{| class="toccolours" border="1" cellpadding="4" style="border-collapse:collapse; text-align:center"
! DMA channel !! Expansion !! Standard function
|-
| 0 || No || dynamic [[Random Access Memory|RAM]] refresh
|-
| 1 || Yes ||align="left"| add-on cards
|-
| 2 || Yes ||align="left"| [[floppy disk]] controller
|-
| 3 || Yes ||align="left"| [[hard disk]] controller
|}
== Technical data ==
''' 8 bit ISA or XT bus architecture'''
[[Image:XT_Bus_pins.png|right|300px]]
{| class="wikitable"
| bus width || 8 Bit
|-----
| compatible with || 8 bit ISA
|-----
|[[pin]]s || 62
|-----
| Vcc || +5 V, -5 V, +12 V, -12 V
|-----
| clock || 4.77 MHz
|}
{{clear}}
'''16 bit ISA'''
[[Image:ISA_Bus_pins.png|right|300px]]
{| class="wikitable"
| bus width || 16 Bit
|-----
| compatible with || 8 bit ISA, 16 bit ISA
|-----
|[[pin]]s || 98
|-----
| Vcc || +5 V, -5 V, +12 V, -12 V
|-----
| clock || 8.33 MHz
|}
==Current use==
Apart from specialized industrial use, ISA is all but gone today. Even where present, system manufacturers often shield customers from the term "ISA bus," referring to it instead as the "legacy bus" (see [[legacy system]]). The [[PC/104]] bus, used in industrial and embedded applications, is a derivative of the ISA bus, utilizing the same signal lines with different connectors. The [[LPC bus]] has replaced the ISA bus as the connection to the legacy I/O devices on recent motherboards.
== See also ==
* [[Extended Industry Standard Architecture]] (EISA)
* [[Micro Channel architecture]] (MCA)
* [[NuBus]]
* [[VESA Local Bus]] (VESA)
* [[Peripheral Component Interconnect]] (PCI)
* [[Accelerated Graphics Port]] (AGP)
* [[PCI Express]] (PCIe)
* [[PC/104]]
* [[LPC bus]]
== References ==
{{FOLDOC}}
[[Category:Computer buses]]
[[Category:IBM hardware]]
[[Category:IBM PC compatibles]]
[[Category:Motherboard]]
[[de:Industry Standard Architecture]]
[[es:Bus ISA]]
[[eo:ISA]]
[[fr:Industry Standard Architecture]]
[[gl:ISA]]
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[[nl:Industry Standard Architecture]]
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[[pl:ISA (komputery)]]
[[pt:ISA]]
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[[fi:ISA]]
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Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change
15030
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2006-03-03T15:47:55Z
Jensbn
90579
added SAR, TAR, AR4 links (they have had separate articles for a while now, content should be migrated)
:''IPCC directs here. For other uses see [[IPCC (disambiguation)]]''.
[[Image:UNFCC Logo.gif|right|frame|IPCC is science authority for the [[United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change|UNFCCC]] ]]
The '''Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change''' (IPCC) was established in [[1988]] by two [[United Nations]] organizations, the [[World Meteorological Organization]] (WMO) and the [[United Nations Environment Programme]] (UNEP) to assess the "risk of human-induced [[climate change]]". The Panel is open to all members of the WMO and UNEP.
IPCC reports are widely cited [http://books.nap.edu/html/climatechange/summary.html] [http://www.ametsoc.org/policy/climatechangeresearch_2003.html] in almost any debate related to climate change [http://www.royalsoc.ac.uk/downloaddoc.asp?id=1630] [http://www.royalsoc.ac.uk/displaypagedoc.asp?id=11509]. The reports have been influential in forming national and international responses to climate change. A small but vocal minority (less than 1.5%) of the scientists involved with the report have accused the IPCC of bias.
==Aims==
The principles of the IPCC operation [http://www.ipcc.ch/about/princ.pdf] are assigned by the relevant [[WMO]] Executive Council and [[UNEP]] Governing Council resolutions and decisions as well as on actions in support of the UN [[Framework Convention on Climate Change]] process.
:"The role of the IPCC is to assess on a comprehensive, objective, open and transparent basis the scientific, technical and socio-economic information relevant to understanding the scientific basis of risk of human-induced climate change, its potential impacts and options for adaptation and mitigation. IPCC reports should be neutral with respect to policy, although they may need to deal objectively with scientific, technical and socio-economic factors relevant to the application of particular policies.
:Review is an essential part of the IPCC process. Since the IPCC is an intergovernmental body, review of IPCC documents should involve both peer review by experts and review by governments" [http://www.ipcc.ch/about/princ.pdf].
<!-- The template generating the following text has been listed for deletion. Please see http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Templates_for_deletion#Template:Editnote for discussion and voting -->
<!-- Editors Note: The "human-induced" phrase has been challenged several times. It is in the IPCC "About" page and the IPCC Principles, and indeed in the quote just above. -->
The stated aims of the IPCC are to assess scientific information relevant to:
# human-induced climate change,
# the impacts of human-induced climate change,
# options for adaptation and mitigation.
The history of the IPCC is described [http://www.ipcc.ch/about/anniversarybrochure.pdf here].
==Operations==
The current Chair of the IPCC is [[Rajendra K. Pachauri]], elected in May 2002; previously [[Robert Watson (scientist)|Robert Watson]] headed the IPCC.
The IPCC Panel is composed of representatives appointed by governments and organizations. Participation of delegates with appropriate expertise is encouraged. Plenary sessions of the IPCC and IPCC [[Working group|Working Groups]] are held at the level of government representatives. Non Governmental and Intergovernmental Organisations may be allowed to attend as observers. Sessions of the IPCC Bureau, workshops, expert and lead authors meetings are by invitation only [http://www.ipcc.ch/meet/meet.htm]. Attendance at the [[2003]] meeting was 350 government officials and climate change experts. After the opening ceremonies, plenary sessions are closed meetings [http://www.ipcc.ch/press/pr14022003.html]. The meeting report [http://www.ipcc.ch/meet/session20/finalreport20.pdf] states there were 322 persons in attendance at Sessions and with about seven-eighths of participants being from governmental organizations [http://www.ipcc.ch/meet/drepipcc20att-a.pdf].
The IPCC is led by government scientists, but also involves several hundred academic scientists and researchers. It synthesises the available information about [[climate change]] and [[global warming]], has published four major reports reviewing the latest climate science, as well as more specialized reports.
The IPCC does not carry out research nor does it monitor climate related data or other relevant parameters. It bases its assessment mainly on peer reviewed and published scientific/technical literature [http://www.ipcc.ch/about/about.htm].
There are several major groups:
* IPCC Panel: Meets in plenary session about once a year and controls the organization's structure and procedures. The Panel is the IPCC corporate entity.
* Chair: Elected by the Panel.
* Secretariat: Oversees and manages all activities. Supported by [[UNEP]] and [[WMO]].
* Bureau: Elected by the Panel. Chaired by the Chair. 30 members include IPCC Vice-Chairs, Co-Chairs and Vice-Chairs of Working Groups and Task Force.
* Working Groups: Each has two Co-Chairs, one from the developed and one from developing world, and a technical support unit.
** Working Group I: Assesses scientific aspects of the climate system and climate change.
** Working Group II: Assesses vulnerability of socio-economic and natural systems to climate change, consequences, and adaptation options.
** Working Group III: Assesses options for limiting greenhouse gas emissions and otherwise mitigating climate change.
* Task Force on National Greenhouse Gas Inventories
The IPCC receives funding from UNEP, WMO, and its own Trust Fund for which it solicits contributions from governments.
== Activities ==
The IPCC concentrates its activities on the tasks allotted to it by the relevant [[WMO]] Executive Council and [[UNEP]] Governing Council resolutions and decisions as well as on actions in support of the [[United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change|UN Framework Convention on Climate Change]] process [http://www.ipcc.ch/about/princ.pdf].
The IPCC is currently (April 2006) in the process of preparing the ''[[IPCC Fourth Assessment Report]]'' or AR4 [http://www.ipcc.ch/activity/ar.htm#ar4]; reports of the workshops held so far are available [http://www.ipcc.ch/activity/workshops.htm].
* Working Group I [http://ipcc-wg1.ucar.edu/wg1/wg1_home.html]:
** Report is due to be finalised during the first quarter of [[2007]].
** As of [[May 2005]], there have been 3 AR4 meetings, with only public information being meeting locations, an author list, one invitation, one agenda, and one list of presentation titles.
* Working Group II [http://www.gtp89.dial.pipex.com/index.htm]:
** Report is due to be finalised in mid-[[2007]].
** As of [[May 2005]], there have been 2 AR4 meetings, with no public information released.
** One shared meeting with WG III has taken place, with a published summary.
* Working Group III [http://www.rivm.nl/mnp/ieweb/ipcc/index.html]:
** Report is due to be finalized in mid-[[2007]].
** As of [[May 2005]], there has been 1 AR4 meeting, with no public information released.
If it is decided to prepare one the AR4 Synthesis Report (SYR) would be finalised during the last quarter of 2007. Documentation on the scoping meetings for the AR4 are available [http://www.ipcc.ch/meet/ar4scope.htm] as are the outlines for the WG I report [http://www.ipcc.ch/activity/wg1outlines.pdf] and a provisional author list [http://www.ipcc.ch/activity/wg1authors.pdf].
While the preparation of the assessment reports is a major IPCC function, it also supports other activities, such as the Data Distribution Centre [http://ipcc-ddc.cru.uea.ac.uk/] and the National Greenhouse Gas Inventories Programme [http://www.ipcc-nggip.iges.or.jp/], required under the [[UNFCCC]]. This involves publishing default [[emission factor]]s, which are factors used to derive emissions estimates based on the levels of fuel consumption, industrial production and so on.
The IPCC also often answers inquiries from the UNFCCC '''Subsidiary Body for Scientific and Technological Advice (SBSTA)'''.
== Publications ==
The IPCC reports are a compendium of [[peer review]]ed and published science. Each subsequent IPCC report notes areas where the science has improved since the previous report and also notes areas where further research is required.
Authors for the IPCC reports are chosen from a list of researchers prepared by governments, and participating organisations and the Working Group/Task Force Bureaux, and other experts as appropriate, known through their publications and works ([http://www.ipcc.ch/about/app-a.pdf], 4.2.1,2). The composition of the group of Coordinating Lead Authors and Lead Authors for a section or chapter of a Report is intended to reflect the need to aim for a range of views, expertise and geographical representation (ensuring appropriate representation of experts from developing and developed countries and countries with economies in transition).
There are generally three stages in the review process [http://www.ipcc.ch/about/app-a.pdf]:
* Expert review (6-8 weeks)
* Government/expert review
* Government review of:
** Summaries for Policymakers
** Overview Chapters
** Synthesis Report
Review comments are in an open archive for at least five years.
There are several types of endorsement which documents receive [http://www.ipcc.ch/about/app-a.pdf]:
* '''approval''': Material has been subjected to detailed, line by line discussion and agreement.
** Working Group Summaries for Policymakers are ''approved'' by their Working Groups.
** Synthesis Report Summary for Policymakers is ''approved'' by Panel.
* '''adoption''': Endorsed section by section (and not line by line).
** Panel ''adopts'' Overview Chapters of Methodology Reports.
** Panel ''adopts'' IPCC Synthesis Report.
* '''acceptance''': Not been subject to line by line discussion and agreement, but presents a comprehensive, objective, and balanced view of the subject matter.
** Working Groups ''accepts'' their reports.
** Task Force Reports are ''accepted'' by the Panel.
** Working Group Summaries for Policymakers are ''accepted'' by the Panel after group ''approval''.
The Panel is responsible for the IPCC and its endorsement of Reports allows it to ensure they meet IPCC standards. The Panel's ''approval'' process has been criticized for changing the product of the experts who create the Reports. On the other hand, not requiring Panel re-endorsement of Reports has also been criticized, after changes required by the approval process were made to Reports.
== IPCC Reports ==
The IPCC published a [[IPCC First Assessment Report|first assessment report]] in 1990, a supplementary report in 1992, a [[IPCC Second Assessment Report|second assessment report (SAR)]] in 1995, and a [[IPCC Third Assessment Report|third assessment report (TAR)]] in 2001. A [[IPCC Fourth Assessment Report|fourth assessment report (AR4)]] is currently underway. Each of the assessment reports is in three volumes from the working groups I, II and III. Unqualified, "the IPCC report" is often used to mean the WG I report.
=== Consensus in reports ===
IPCC Reports attempt to present a scientific consensus view. The general approach of identifying consensus among a group of climate scientists means that areas where there remains considerable uncertainty tend to be automatically deemphasized or simply omitted [http://www.ipcc.ch/activity/cct1.pdf]. Another means of handling consensus problems was used in the SRES scenarios, where due to a lack of consensus there were many variations included with no indication of which are more probable {{doi|10.1038/35075167}}.
"Firstly, the Panel as a whole must always respect and consider the specific perspectives of each member. But, more importantly, each member must respect and consider the perspectives of the entire Panel. Consensus is not something that happens by itself. It is an outcome that has to be shaped, and the only basis for shaping it is to follow the two cardinal rules that I have just mentioned" — Dr Rajendra K. Pachauri, Chairman of the IPCC[http://www.ipcc.ch/press/sp-09112004.htm].
=== IPCC Fourth Assessment Report: AR4 ===
:''Main article: [[IPCC Fourth Assessment Report]]''
Work on the fourth assessment report (AR4) is well underway [http://ipcc-wg1.ucar.edu/wg1/wg1_home.html]. Author lists and a chapter outline of the WGI report are available [http://ipcc-wg1.ucar.edu/wg1/wg1_ar4.html], as is a poster of the basic contents and new foci of AR4 [http://ipcc-wg1.ucar.edu/wg1/WG1AR4_Poster.pdf]. The report's publication is planned for early 2007 .
=== IPCC Third Assessment Report: Climate Change 2001===
:''Main article: [[IPCC Third Assessment Report]]''
The most recent IPCC report is ''Climate Change 2001'', the Third Assessment Report (TAR).
The TAR consists of four reports, three of them from the Working Groups:
* Working Group I: The Scientific Basis [http://www.grida.no/climate/ipcc_tar/wg1/index.htm]
* Working Group II: Impacts, Adaptation and Vulnerability [http://www.grida.no/climate/ipcc_tar/wg2/index.htm]
* Working Group III: Mitigation [http://www.grida.no/climate/ipcc_tar/wg3/index.htm]
* Synthesis Report [http://www.grida.no/climate/ipcc_tar/vol4/index.htm]
The "headlines" from the summary for policymakers [http://www.grida.no/climate/ipcc_tar/wg1/005.htm] in ''The Scientific Basis'' were:
#An increasing body of observations gives a collective picture of a warming world and other changes in the climate system (The global average surface temperature has increased over the 20th century by about 0.6°C; Temperatures have risen during the past four decades in the lowest 8 kilometres of the atmosphere; Snow cover and ice extent have decreased)
#Emissions of greenhouse gases and aerosols due to human activities continue to alter the atmosphere in ways that are expected to affect the climate (Anthropogenic aerosols are short-lived and mostly produce negative radiative forcing; Natural factors have made small contributions to radiative forcing over the past century)
#Confidence in the ability of models to project future climate has increased (Complex physically-based climate models are required to provide detailed estimates of feedbacks and of regional features. Such models cannot yet simulate all aspects of climate (e.g., they still cannot account fully for the observed trend in the surface-troposphere temperature difference since 1979) and there are particular uncertainties associated with clouds and their interaction with radiation and aerosols. Nevertheless, confidence in the ability of these models to provide useful projections of future climate has improved due to their demonstrated performance on a range of space and time-scales [http://www.grida.no/climate/ipcc_tar/wg1/007.htm].)
#There is new and stronger evidence that most of the warming observed over the last 50 years is attributable to human activities
#Human influences will continue to change atmospheric composition throughout the 21st century
#Global average temperature and sea level are projected to rise under all IPCC SRES scenarios
The TAR estimate for the [[climate sensitivity]] is 1.5 to 4.5 °C; and the average surface temperature is projected to increase by 1.4 to 5.8 Celsius degrees over the period 1990 to 2100, and the sea level is projected to rise by 0.1 to 0.9 metres over the same period. The wide range in predictions is based upon several different scenarios that assume different levels of future CO<sub>2</sub> emissions. Each scenario then has a range of possible outcomes associated with it. The most optimistic outcome assumes an aggressive campaign to reduce CO<sub>2</sub> emissions, while the most pessimistic is a "business as usual" scenario. The more realistic scenarios fall in between.
IPCC predictions are based on the same models used to establish the importance of the different factors in global warming.
These models need data about anthropogenic emissions of greenhouse gases and aerosols.
These data are predicted from [[economic model]]s based on 35 different scenarios.
Scenarios go from pessimistic to optimistic, and predictions of global warming depend on the kind of scenario considered.
IPCC uses the best available predictions and their reports are under strong scientific scrutiny.
The IPCC concedes that there is a need for better models and better scientific understanding of some climate phenomena, as well as the uncertainties involved.
Critics assert that the available data is not sufficient to determine the real importance of [[greenhouse gas]]es in climate change.
Sensitivity of climate to greenhouse gases may be overestimated or underestimated because of some flaws in the models and because the importance of some external factors may be misestimated. The predictions are based on scenarios, and the IPCC did not assign any probability to the 35 scenarios used.
==== Debate over Climate Change 2001 ====
===== Economic growth estimates =====
Castles and Henderson asserted that the IPCC has been using inflated economic growth rates, which result in increased emission estimates [http://www.co2andclimate.org/climate/previous_issues/vol8/v8n13/assess.htm]. This was incorrect because IPCC growth and emissions rates were based upon several factors and not only [[Gross domestic product|GDP]], as rebutted by [http://www.multi-science.co.uk/ee.htm Nebojsa Nakicenovic et al.]
===== Physical modeling =====
:''See also: [[global climate model]]''
A few participants in IPCC Working Group I (Science) do not agree with the IPCC reports (of the 120 lead authors, 2 have complained [http://www.warwickhughes.com/climate/consensus.htm]).
A particularly active critic, [[Massachusetts Institute of Technology|MIT]] physicist [[Richard Lindzen]], expressed his unhappiness about those portions in the Executive Summary based on his contributions in [[May 2001]] before the [[U.S. Senate Committee on Commerce, Science and Transportation]]:
:"The summary does not reflect the full document... For example, I worked on Chapter 7, Physical Processes. This chapter dealt with the nature of the basic processes which determine the response of climate, and found numerous problems with model treatments – including those of clouds and water vapor. The chapter was summarized with the following sentence: 'Understanding of climate processes and their incorporation in climate models have improved, including water vapour, sea-ice dynamics, and ocean heat transport.'"
The "Summary for Policymakers" of the WG1 reports ''does'' include caveats on model treatments: ''Such models cannot yet simulate all aspects of climate (e.g., they still cannot account fully for the observed trend in the surface-troposphere temperature difference since 1979) and there are particular uncertainties associated with clouds and their interaction with radiation and aerosols. Nevertheless, confidence in the ability of these models to provide useful projections of future climate has improved due to their demonstrated performance on a range of space and time-scales.'' [http://www.grida.no/climate/ipcc_tar/wg1/007.htm].
These statements are in turn supported by the executive summary of chapter 8 of the report, which includes:
* ''Coupled models can provide credible simulations of both the present annual mean climate and the climatological seasonal cycle over broad continental scales for most variables of interest for climate change. Clouds and humidity remain sources of significant uncertainty but there have been incremental improvements in simulations of these quantities''.
* ''Confidence in the ability of models to project future climates is increased by the ability of several models to reproduce the warming trend in 20th century surface air temperature when driven by radiative forcing due to increasing greenhouse gases and sulphate aerosols. However, only idealised scenarios of only sulphate aerosols have been used''.
=== IPCC Second Assessment Report: Climate Change 1995 ===
:''Main article: [[IPCC Second Assessment Report]]''
''Climate Change 1995'', the IPCC Second Assessment Report (SAR) was finished in [[1996]]. It is split into four parts:
* A synthesis to help interpret [[UNFCCC]] article 2.
* ''The Science of Climate Change'' (WG I)
* ''Impacts, Adaptations and Mitigation of Climate Change'' (WG II)
* ''Economic and Social Dimensions of Climate Change'' (WG III)
Each of the last three parts was completed by a separate working group, and each has a Summary for Policymakers (SfP) that represents a consensus of national representatives. The SfP of the WG I report contains headings:
# Greenhouse gas concentrations have continued to increase
# Anthropogenic aerosols tend to produce negative radiative forcings
# Climate has changed over the past century (air temperature has increased by between 0.3 and 0.6 °C since the late 19th century; this estimate has not significantly changed since the 1990 report).
# The balance of evidence suggests a discernible human influence on global climate (considerable progress since the 1990 report in distinguishing between natural and anthropogenic influences on climate, because of: including aerosols; coupled models; pattern-based studies)
# Climate is expected to continue to change in the future (increasing realism of simulations increases confidence; important uncertainties remain but are taken into account in the range of model projections)
# There are still many uncertainties (estimates of future emissions and biogeochemical cycling; models; instrument data for model testing, assessment of variability, and detection studies)
==== Debate over Climate Change 1995 ====
Most scientists involved in climate research believe that the IPCC reports accurately summarise the state of knowledge. Few scientists have objected and made public comments to that effect.
The report formed the basis of negotiations over the [[Kyoto Protocol]].
A [[December 20]], [[1995]], Reuters report quoted British scientist [[Keith Shine]], one of IPCC's lead authors, discussing the Policymakers' Summary. He said: "We produce a draft, and then the policymakers go through it line by line and change the way it is presented.... It's peculiar that they have the final say in what goes into a scientists' report". It is not clear, in this case, whether Shine was complaining that the report had been changed to be more skeptical, or less, or something else entirely.
Dr. [[Frederick Seitz]], president emeritus of Rockefeller University and past president of the National Academy of Sciences, has publicly denounced the IPCC report, writing "I have never witnessed a more disturbing corruption of the peer-review process than the events that led to this IPCC report". He opposed it in the [[Leipzig Declaration]] of his [[Science and Environmental Policy Project]].
In turn, Seitz's comments were vigorously opposed by the presidents of the [[American Meteorological Society]] and [[University Corporation for Atmospheric Research]], who wrote about a ''systematic effort by some individuals to undermine and discredit the scientific process that has led many scientists working on understanding climate to conclude that there is a very real possibility that humans are modifying Earth's climate on a global scale. Rather than carrying out a legitimate scientific debate... they are waging in the public media a vocal campaign against scientific results with which they disagree'' [http://www.ucar.edu/communications/quarterly/summer96/insert.html].
[[S. Fred Singer]] disseminated a letter about what he learned about changes to Chapter 8, interpretations of the IPCC Summary's key conclusion, and some policy implications [http://www.sepp.org/ipcccont/ipccflap.htm]:
# Chapter 8 was altered substantially in order to make it conform to the Summary;
# Three key clauses-- expressing the consensus of authors, contributors, and reviewers-- should have been placed into the Summary instead of being deleted from the approved draft chapter;
# The ambiguous phrase "the balance of evidence suggests a discernible human influence on global climate" has been (mis)interpreted by policymakers to mean that a major global warming catastrophe will soon be upon us;
# The IPCC report and its authors are being (mis)used by politicians and others to push an ideologically based agenda.
Dr. [[Benjamin D. Santer]], Convening Lead Author of Chapter 8 of 1995 IPCC Working Group I Report, replied [http://www.sepp.org/ipcccont/Item08.htm]:
# All revisions were made with the sole purpose of producing the best-possible and most clearly-explained assessment of the science, and were under the full scientific control of the Convening Lead Author of Chapter 8.
#* Changes were made in direct response to:
#** Written comments made by governments and non-governmental organizations (NGOs) during October and November 1995.
#** Comments made by governments and NGOs during the plenary sessions of the IPCC meeting that was held in [[Madrid]] from [[November 27]]-29th, [[1995]].
#* Post-Madrid changes to Chapter 8 were made solely in response to review comments and/or in order to clarify scientific points.
# After receiving much criticism of the redundancy of a concluding summary (Section 8.7) in October and November 1995, the Convening Lead Author of Chapter 8 decided to remove it. About half of the information in the concluding summary was integrated with material in Section 8.6.
# The bottom-line assessment of the science in the [[October 9]]th draft of Chapter 8 was "Taken together, these results point towards a human influence on climate".
#* The final assessment in the now-published Summary for Policymakers is that "the balance of evidence suggests that there is a discernible human influence on global climate".
#** The latter sentence, which is entirely consistent with the earlier Oct. 9th sentence, was unanimously approved at the Madrid meeting by delegates from nearly 100 countries.
# None of the changes were politically motivated.
=== IPCC supplementary report, 1992 ===
The 1992 supplementary report was an update, requested in the context of the negotiations on the [[Framework Convention on Climate Change]] at the [[Earth Summit]] (United Nations Conference on Environment and Development) in [[Rio de Janeiro]] in [[1992]].
The major conclusion was that research since [[1990]] did "not affect our fundamental understanding of the science of the greenhouse effect and either confirm or do not justify alteration of the major conclusions of the first IPCC scientific assessment". It noted that transient (time-dependent) simulations, which had been very preliminary in the FAR, were now improved, but did not include aerosol or ozone changes.
=== IPCC First Assessment Report: 1990 ===
The IPCC first assessment report was completed in 1990, and served as the basis of the [[United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change]] (UNFCCC).
The executive summary of the policymakers summary of the WG I report includes:
*We are certain of the following: there is a natural greenhouse effect...; emissions resulting from human activities are substantially increasing the atmospheric concentrations of the greenhouse gases: CO<sub>2</sub>, methane, CFCs and nitrous oxide. These increases will enhance the greenhouse effect, resulting on average in an additional warming of the Earth's surface. The main greenhouse gas, water vapour, will increase in response to global warming and further enhance it.
*We calculate with confidence that: ...CO<sub>2</sub> has been responsible for over half the enhanced greenhouse effect; long-lived gases would require immeadiate reductions in emissions from human activities of over 60% to stabilise their concentrations at today's levels...
*Based on current models, we predict: under [BAU] increase of global mean temperature during the [21st] century of about 0.3 <sup>o</sup>C per decade (with an uncertainty range of 0.2 to 0.5 <sup>o</sup>C per decade); this is greater than that seen over the past 10,000 years; under other ... scenarios which assume progressively increasing levels of controls, rates of increase in global mean temperature of about 0.2 <sup>o</sup>C [to] about 0.1 <sup>o</sup>C per decade.
*There are many uncertainties in our predictions particularly with regard to the timing, magnitude and regional patterns of climate change, due to our incomplete understanding of: sources and sinks of GHGs; clouds; oceans; polar ice sheets.
*Our judgement is that: global mean surface air temperature has increased by 0.3 to 0.6 <sup>o</sup>C over the last 100 years...; The size of this warming is broadly consistent with predicion of climate models, but it is also of the same magnitude as natural climate variability. Thus the observed increase could be largely due to this natural variability; alternatively this variability and other human factors could have offset a still larger human-induced greenhouse warming. The unequivocal detection of the enhanced greenhouse effect is not likely for a decade or more.
==== Debate over IPCC First Assessment Report: 1990 ====
In 1991, the [[SEPP]] (The Science & Environmental Policy Project) surveyed IPCC contributors and researchers, along with a comparison group of global warming skeptics who had not contributed [http://www.sepp.org/glwarm/noscicons.html]. The responses showed that 40% of the IPCC group did not agree with the IPCC FAR summary, and felt that it might convey a misleading message to the public with its emphasis on the certainty about the natural greenhouse effect. The responses also showed that the majority of respondents thought that models had not been adequately validated with observational data, and that attribution of observed warming to an enhanced greenhouse effect had not been shown using only observational data. 60% of respondents also thought that the climate models used did not accurately represent the physical atmosphere-ocean system.
== Criticism of IPCC ==
=== Landsea ===
In January of 2005 Christopher Landsea resigned from work on the [[IPCC fourth Assessment Report|IPCC AR4]], saying:
:"I personally cannot in good faith continue to contribute to a process that I view as both being motivated by pre-conceived agendas and being scientifically unsound. As the IPCC leadership has seen no wrong in [[Kevin E. Trenberth|Dr. Trenberth]]'s actions and have retained him as a Lead Author for the AR4, I have decided to no longer participate in the IPCC AR4" [http://sciencepolicy.colorado.edu/prometheus/archives/science_policy_general/000318chris_landsea_leaves.html].
=== IPCC processes ===
* "The IPCC is monolithic and complacent, and it is conceivable that they are exaggerating the speed of change" ([[John Maddox]], a former editor of the journal ''[[Nature (journal)|Nature]]'', quoted by David Adam in The Guardian, [[28 January]] [[2005]]).
* UK House of Lords Science and Economic Analysis and Report on IPCC for the G-8 Summit, July 2005: "We have some concerns about the objectivity of the IPCC process, with some of its emissions scenarios and summary documentation apparently influenced by political considerations. There are significant doubts about some aspects of the IPCC’s emissions scenario exercise, in particular, the high emissions scenarios. The Government should press the IPCC to change their approach. There are some positive aspects to global warming and these appear to have been played down in the IPCC reports; the Government should press the IPCC to reflect in a more balanced way the costs and benefits of climate change. The Government should press the IPCC for better estimates of the monetary costs of global warming damage and for explicit monetary comparisons between the costs of measures to control warming and their benefits. Since warming will continue, regardless of action now, due to the lengthy time lags." [http://www.publications.parliament.uk/pa/ld200506/ldselect/ldeconaf/12/12i.pdf]
== See also ==
* [[Global warming]]
== External links ==
* [http://www.ipcc.ch/ The IPCC web site]
** [http://www.ipcc.ch/about/bureau.htm IPCC organisation]
** [http://www.ipcc.ch/about/princ.pdf IPCC Principles]
** [http://www.ipcc.ch/pub/sa(E).pdf Second Assessment Synthesis Report (pdf)]
** [http://www.ipcc.ch/pub/sarsum1.htm Second Assessment Summary for Policymakers] from the Working Group 1 (Science) Report.
** [http://www.grida.no/climate/ipcc_tar/wg1/index.htm Third Assessment Report]
* [http://www.sepp.org/ipcccont/ipcccont.html The IPCC Controversy] - from the [[SEPP]]
* [http://www.manicore.com/anglais/documentation_a/greenhouse/IPCC.html climate change - What is the IPCC] by Jean-Marc Jancovici
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/* Electronics */
[[image:IBM PC 5150.jpg|right|thumb|300px|IBM PC (IBM 5150) with keyboard and green screen monochrome monitor (IBM 5151).]]
The '''IBM PC™''' ('''''P'''ersonal '''C'''omputer''), was the original version and progenitor of the [[IBM PC compatible]] hardware [[platform (computing)|platform]]. It was introduced on [[August 11]], [[1981]]. The original model was designated the '''IBM 5150'''. It was created by a team of 12 engineers and designers under the direction of [[Don Estridge]] of the IBM Entry Systems Division in [[Boca Raton, Florida]].
The phrase "personal computer" was common currency before 1981, and was used as early as 1972 to characterize [[Xerox PARC]]'s [[Xerox Alto|Alto]]. However, due to the success of the IBM PC, what had been a generic term came to mean specifically a [[microcomputer]] compatible with IBM's specification.
During the second quarter of [[2005]], the [[China|Chinese]] [[Lenovo Group]] secured the rights to produce IBM branded personal computers. This move reflects IBM's present lack of interest in the personal computer in favor of the [[server]]/[[IBM mainframe|mainframe]] markets, as well as providing [[business consulting]] and [[IT services]] markets.
''Note the following distinctions within the general subject of personal computers'' :
*For details on "PC compatible" computers (aka "PC clones" or just "PC"s, and making up the majority of today's computers), see ''[[IBM PC compatible]]''
*For a discussion of generic "personal computers", see ''[[personal computer]]''
*For details of the second generation of microcomputers, which largely died out with the Personal Computer revolution, see ''[[home computer]]''
== The IBM PC concept ==
The original ''PC'' was an [[IBM]] attempt to get into the home computer market then dominated by the [[Apple II]] and a host of [[CP/M]] machines.
Rather than going through the usual IBM design process, which had already failed to design an affordable microcomputer (for example the failed [[IBM 5100]]), a special team was assembled with authorization to bypass normal company restrictions and get something to market rapidly. This project was given the code name ''Project Chess''.
The team consisted of just 12 people headed by [[William Lowe]]. They succeeded — development of the PC took about a year. To achieve this they first decided to build the machine with "off-the-shelf" parts from a variety of different [[original equipment manufacturer]]s (OEMs) and countries. Previously IBM had developed their own components. Second they decided on an open [[Computer architecture|architecture]] so that other manufacturers could produce and sell compatible machines — the [[IBM PC compatible]]s, so the specification of the [[Read-only memory|ROM]] [[BIOS]] was published. IBM hoped to maintain their position in the market by royalties from licensing the BIOS, and by keeping ahead of the competition.
Unfortunately for IBM, other manufacturers rapidly [[reverse engineering|reverse engineered]] the BIOS to produce their own royalty-free versions. [[Compaq |Compaq Computer Corporation]] announced the first cloned [[IBM PC compatible]] in November [[1982]] (it did not ship until March [[1983]]) — the ''[[Compaq Portable]]''. Not only was it the first ''[[IBM-PC compatible]]'' computer not manufactured by [[IBM]], it was also the first ever ''[[IBM-PC compatible]]'' [[portable computer]].
<!-- According to [[IBM_PC_compatible#Origins]], Columbia Data Products produced an earlier PC compatible computer - the ''MPC'' (Multi Personal Computer). Could someone please check if this came before the ''Compaq portable''? -->
Once the ''IBM PC'' became a commercial success the ''PC'' came back under the usual IBM management control, with the result that competitors had little trouble taking the lead from them. (In this regard, IBM's tradition of "rationalizing" their product lines—deliberately restricting the performance of lower-priced models in order to prevent them from "cannibalizing" profits from higher-priced models—worked against them).
== Commercial success ==
The first ''IBM PC'' was released on [[August 11]] [[1981]]. Although not cheap, at a base price of $1,565 it was affordable for businesses — and it was business that purchased the PC. However it was not the corporate "computer department" that was responsible for this, for the PC was not seen as a 'proper' computer. It was generally well educated middle managers that saw the potential — once the revolutionary [[VisiCalc]] spreadsheet, the "[[killer app]]", had been ported to the PC. Reassured by the IBM name, they began buying the machines on their own budgets to help do the calculations they had learned at business school.
== IBM PC models ==
The models of IBM's first-generation Personal Computer (PC) series have names:
* The original PC had a version of [[Microsoft BASIC]] —[[IBM Cassette BASIC]]— in [[read-only memory|ROM]]. The [[Color Graphics Adapter|CGA]] (Color Graphics Adapter) video card could use a standard [[Television|TV]] for display. The standard storage device was [[compact audio cassette|cassette tape]]. A [[floppy disk]] drive was an optional extra; no [[hard disk]] was available. It had only five expansion slots; maximum memory using IBM parts was 256 [[kilobyte|kB]], 64 kB on the main board and three 64 kB expansion cards. The processor was an [[Intel 8088]] (second-sourced [[AMD]]s were used after [[1983]]) running at 4.77 [[megahertz|MHz]]. IBM sold it in configurations with 16 kB and 64 kB of [[random-access memory|RAM]] preinstalled.
* The original PC failed miserably in the home market, but was widely used in business. The "[[IBM Personal Computer XT]]" was an enhanced machine designed for business use. It had 8 expansion slots and a 10 [[megabyte]] hard disk. It could take 256 kB of memory on the main board; later models were expandable to 640 kB, which combined with the ROM made up the full megabyte of memory that the 8088 could address. It was usually sold with a [[Monochrome Display Adapter]] (MDA) video card. The processor was still a 4.77 MHz [[Intel 8088]] and the expansion [[computer bus|bus]] still 8-bit [[Industry Standard Architecture|ISA]] with [[XT bus architecture]].
* The "[[IBM Personal Computer/AT]]", announced August [[1984]], used an [[Intel 80286]] processor, originally at 6 MHz. It had a 16-bit ISA bus and 20 MB harddrive. A faster model, running at 8 MHz, was introduced in [[1986]]. IBM made some attempt at marketing it as a multi-user machine, but it sold mainly as a faster PC for power users. Early PC/ATs were plagued with reliability problems, in part because of some software and hardware incompatibilities, but mostly related to the internal 20 MB hard drive. While some people blamed IBM's controller card and others blamed the hard drive manufacturer (''Computer Memories International'', or ''CMI''), the IBM controller card worked fine with other drives, including CMI's 33-megabyte model. The problems introduced doubt about the computer and, for a while, even about the 286 architecture in general, but after IBM replaced the 20 MB CMI drives, the PC/AT proved reliable and became a lasting industry standard. CMI quickly went out of business.
* [[IBM Convertible]]
* [[IBM Portable]]
* [[IBM PCjr]]
The models of its second generation, the [[IBM Personal System/2]] (PS/2), are known by model number: [[PS/2 Model 25|Model 25]], [[PS/2 Model 30|Model 30]]. Within each series, the models are also commonly referenced by their [[CPU clock rate]].
All IBM personal computers are [[software]] compatible with each other in general, but not every program will work in every machine. Some programs are time sensitive to a particular speed class. Older programs will not take advantage of newer higher-resolution display standards.
== Technology ==
=== Electronics ===
The main circuit board in an IBM PC is called the [[PC motherboard|motherboard]]. This carries the [[Central processing unit|CPU]] and [[computer memory|memory]], and has a [[computer bus|bus]] with slots for expansion cards.
The bus used in the original PC became very popular, and was subsequently named [[Industry Standard Architecture|ISA]]. It is in use to this day in computers for industrial use. Later, requirements for higher speed and more capacity forced the development of new versions. The [[VESA Local Bus]] allowed for up to three, much faster 32-bit cards, and the [[EISA]] architecture was developed as a backward compatible standard including 32-bit card slots, but it only sold well in high-end server systems. The lower-cost and more general [[Peripheral Component Interconnect|PCI]] bus was introduced in [[1994]] and has now become ubiquitous.
The motherboard is connected by cables to internal storage devices such as [[hard disk]]s, [[floppy disk]]s and [[CD-ROM]] drives. These tend to be made in standard sizes, such as 3.5" (90 mm) and 5.25" (133.4 mm) widths, with standard fixing holes. The case also contains a standard [[electronic power supply|power supply]] unit (PSU) which is either an AT or ATX standard size.
[[Intel]] [[Intel 8086|8086]] and [[Intel 8088|8088]]-based PCs require [[Expanded Memory Specification|EMS]] (expanded memory) boards to work with more than one [[megabyte]] of memory. The original IBM PC AT used an Intel [[Intel 80286|80286]] processor which can access up to 16 megabytes of memory (though standard [[DOS]] applications cannot use more than one megabyte without using additional APIs. Intel 80286-based computers running under [[OS/2]] can work with the maximum memory.
=== Keyboard ===
The original [[1981]] IBM PC's [[computer keyboard|keyboard]] was severely criticised by typists for its non-standard placement of the return and left shift keys. In [[1984]], IBM corrected this on its AT keyboard, but shortened the backspace key, making it harder to reach. In [[1987]], it introduced the [[enhanced keyboard]], which relocated all the function keys and the <TT>Ctrl</TT> keys. The <TT>Esc</TT> key was also relocated to the opposite side of the keyboard.
An "IBM PC compatible" may have a keyboard which does not recognize every key combination a true IBM PC does, e.g. shifted cursor keys. In addition, the "compatible" vendors sometimes used proprietary keyboard interfaces, preventing you from replacing the keyboard.
''See also'': [[Keyboard layout]]
=== Character set ===
The original IBM PC used the 7-bit [[ASCII]] alphabet as its basis, but extended it to 8 bits with nonstandard character codes. This character set was not suitable for some international applications, and soon a veritable cottage industry emerged providing variants of the original character set in various national variants. In IBM tradition, these variants were called [[code page]]s. These codings are now obsolete, having been replaced by more systematic and standardized forms of character coding, such as [[ISO 8859-1]], [[Windows-1251]] and [[Unicode]].
This was the original IBM PC character set:
{|
|- align="center"
| || ||<code>-0 </code>||<code>-1 </code>||<code>-2 </code>||<code>-3 </code>||<code>-4 </code>||<code>-5 </code>||<code>-6 </code>||<code>-7 </code>||<code>-8 </code>||<code>-9 </code>||<code>-A </code>||<code>-B </code>||<code>-C </code>||<code>-D </code>||<code>-E </code>||<code>-F </code>|| ||
|- align="center"
|<code>0-</code>|| || ||☺||☻||♥||♦||♣||♠||•||◘||○||◙||♂||♀||♪||♫||☼|| ||<code>0-</code>
|- align="center"
|<code>1-</code>|| ||►||◄||↕||‼||¶||§||▬||↨||↑||↓||→||←||∟||↔||▲||▼|| ||<code>1-</code>
|- align="center"
|<code>2-</code>|| || ||!||"||#||$||%||&||'||(||)||*||+||,||-||.||/|| ||<code>2-</code>
|- align="center"
|<code>3-</code>|| ||0||1||2||3||4||5||6||7||8||9||:||;||<||=||>||?|| ||<code>3-</code>
|- align="center"
|<code>4-</code>|| ||@||A||B||C||D||E||F||G||H||I||J||K||L||M||N||O|| ||<code>4-</code>
|- align="center"
|<code>5-</code>|| ||P||Q||R||S||T||U||V||W||X||Y||Z||[||\||]||^||_|| ||<code>5-</code>
|- align="center"
|<code>6-</code>|| ||`||a||b||c||d||e||f||g||h||i||j||k||l||m||n||o|| ||<code>6-</code>
|- align="center"
|<code>7-</code>|| ||p||q||r||s||t||u||v||w||x||y||z||{|||||}||~||⌂|| ||<code>7-</code>
|- align="center"
|<code>8-</code>|| ||Ç||ü||é||â||ä||à||å||ç||ê||ë||è||ï||î||ì||Ä||Å|| ||<code>8-</code>
|- align="center"
|<code>9-</code>|| ||É||æ||Æ||ô||ö||ò||û||ù||ÿ||Ö||Ü||¢||£||¥||₧||ƒ|| ||<code>9-</code>
|- align="center"
|<code>A-</code>|| ||á||í||ó||ú||ñ||Ñ||ª||º||¿||⌐||¬||½||¼||¡||«||»|| ||<code>A-</code>
|- align="center"
|<code>B-</code>|| ||░||▒||▓||│||┤||╡||╢||╖||╕||╣||║||╗||╝||╜||╛||┐|| ||<code>B-</code>
|- align="center"
|<code>C-</code>|| ||└||┴||┬||├||─||┼||╞||╟||╚||╔||╩||╦||╠||═||╬||╧|| ||<code>C-</code>
|- align="center"
|<code>D-</code>|| ||╨||╤||╥||╙||╘||╒||╓||╫||╪||┘||┌||█||▄||▌||▐||▀|| ||<code>D-</code>
|- align="center"
|<code>E-</code>|| ||α||ß||Γ||π||Σ||σ||µ||τ||Φ||Θ||Ω||δ||∞||φ||ε||∩|| ||<code>E-</code>
|- align="center"
|<code>F-</code>|| ||≡||±||≥||≤||⌠||⌡||÷||≈||°||∙||·||√||ⁿ||²||■|| || ||<code>F-</code>
|- align="center"
| || ||<code>-0 </code>||<code>-1 </code>||<code>-2 </code>||<code>-3 </code>||<code>-4 </code>||<code>-5 </code>||<code>-6 </code>||<code>-7 </code>||<code>-8 </code>||<code>-9 </code>||<code>-A </code>||<code>-B </code>||<code>-C </code>||<code>-D </code>||<code>-E </code>||<code>-F </code>|| ||
|}
{{details|Code page 437}}
=== Storage media ===
Officially, the standard storage medium for the original IBM PC model 5150 was a [[Compact cassette#Data recording|cassette]] drive. Technologically obsolete even by [[1981]] standards, it was seldom used, and few (if any) IBM PCs left the factory without a floppy disk drive installed. The 1981 PC had one or two 180 [[kilobyte]] 5 1/4 inch single sided double density [[floppy disk]] drives; XT's generally had one double sided 360 kB drive (next to their [[hard disk]]).
The first IBM PC that included a fixed, non-removable, hard disk was the XT. Hard disks for IBM compatibles soon became available with very large storage capacities. If a hard disk was added that was not compatible with the existing [[disk controller]], a new controller board had to be plugged in; some disks were integrated with their controller in a single expansion board.
In 1984, IBM introduced the 1.2 megabyte dual sided floppy disk along with its AT model. Although often used as backup storage, the high density floppy was not often used for interchangeability. In 1986, IBM introduced the 720 kB [[double density]] 3.5" microfloppy disk on its Convertible laptop computer. It introduced the 1.44 MB [[high density]] version with the PS/2 line. These disk drives could be added to existing older model PCs. In 1988 IBM introduced a drive for 2.88 MB "DSED" diskettes in its top-of-the-line models; it was an instant failure and is all but forgotten today (but survives as a possible "size" choice in [[Disk_format|disk-formatting]] utilities).
=== Software ===
All IBM PCs includes a relatively small piece of software stored in [[read-only memory|ROM]]. The original IBM PC 40 kB ROM included 8 kB for [[power-on self-test]] (POST) and basic input/output system ([[BIOS]]) functions plus 32 kB [[BASIC programming language|BASIC]] in ROM ([[IBM Cassette BASIC|Cassette BASIC]]). The ROM BASIC interpreter was the default user interface if no [[DOS]] [[boot disk]] was present. [[Microsoft BASICA interpreter|BASICA]] was distributed on floppy disk and provided a way to run the ROM BASIC under [[PC-DOS]] control.
== IBM PC and PS/2 models ==
<table border=1>
<caption>''The IBM PC range'' :</caption>
<tr><th>Model name</th><th>Introduced</th><th>CPU</th><th>Features</th></tr>
<!------------------------------------------------------------------------->
<tr><td>[[IBM PC|PC]]</td><td>Aug 1981</td><td>8088</td><td>Floppy disk system</td></tr>
<tr><td>[[IBM Personal Computer XT|XT]]</td><td>Mar 1983</td><td>8088</td><td>Slow [[hard disk]]</td></tr>
<tr><td>XT/370</td><td>Oct 1983</td><td>8088</td><td>[[System/370]] [[IBM mainframe|mainframe]] [[emulation]]</td></tr>
<tr><td>3270 PC</td><td>Oct 1983</td><td>8088</td><td>With [[3270 terminal]] emulation</td></tr>
<tr><td>[[IBM PCjr|PCjr]]</td><td>Nov 1983</td><td>8088</td><td>Floppy-based home computer</td></tr>
<tr><td>[[IBM Portable|PC Portable]]</td><td>Feb 1984</td><td>8088</td><td>Floppy-based portable</td></tr>
<tr><td>[[IBM Personal Computer/AT|AT]]</td><td>Aug 1984</td><td>286</td><td>Medium-speed hard disk</td></tr>
<tr><td>[[IBM Convertible|Convertible]]</td><td>Apr 1986</td><td>8088</td><td>Microfloppy laptop portable</td></tr>
<tr><td>XT 286</td><td>Sep 1986</td><td>286</td><td>Slow hard disk, but zero [[wait state]] memory on the motherboard. This 6 MHz machine was actually faster than the 8 MHz ATs (when using planar memory) because of the zero wait states</td></tr>
</table>
<table border=1>
<caption>''The [[IBM Personal System/2|PS/2]] series'' :</caption>
<tr><th>Model</th><th>Introduced</th><th>CPU</th><th>Features</th></tr>
<!-------------------------------------------------------------------->
<tr><td>25</td><td>August 1987</td><td>8086</td><td>PC bus (limited expansion)</td></tr>
<tr><td>30</td><td>April 1987</td><td>8086</td><td>PC bus</td></tr>
<tr><td>30</td><td>August 1987</td><td>286</td><td>PC bus</td></tr>
<tr><td>50</td><td>April 1987</td><td>286</td><td>[[Micro Channel Architecture]] [[computer bus|bus]]</td></tr>
<tr><td>50Z</td><td>June 1988</td><td>286</td><td>Faster Model 50</td></tr>
<tr><td>55 SX</td><td>May 1989</td><td>386SX</td><td>MCA bus</td></tr>
<tr><td>60</td><td>April 1987</td><td>286</td><td>MCA bus</td></tr>
<tr><td>70</td><td>June 1988</td><td>386</td><td>Desktop, MCA bus</td></tr>
<tr><td>P70</td><td>May 1989</td><td>386</td><td>Portable, MCA bus</td></tr>
<tr><td>80</td><td>April 1987</td><td>386</td><td>Tower, MCA bus</td></tr>
</table>
<table border=1>
<caption>''IBM PC compatible specifications'' :</caption>
<tr><th>CPU</th><th>Clock<br/> speed<br/> (MHz)</th><th>CPU <br/>bus <br/> width ([[bit|bits]])</th><th>System <br/>Bus <br/>width (bits)</th><th>RAM <br/>([[megabyte|megabytes]])</th><th>[[Floppy disk|Floppy<br/>disk drive]]</th><th>[[Hard disk|Hard drive]] <br/>([[megabyte|megabytes]])</th><th>[[Operating system|Operating<br/>system]]</th></tr>
<!--------------------------------------------------------------------------------->
<tr><td>8088</td><td>4.77–9.5</td><td rowspan=3>16</td><td>8</td><td rowspan=2>1 <sup>(1)</sup></td><td rowspan=2>5.25", 360 KB<br/>3.5", 720 KB<br/>3.5", 1.44 MB</td><td>10–40</td><td rowspan=2>[[PC-DOS]]</td></tr>
<tr><td>8086</td><td>6–12</td><td rowspan=2>16</td><td>20–60</td></tr>
<tr><td>286</td><td>6–25</td><td>1–8 <sup>(1)</sup></td><td>5.25", 360 KB<br/>5.25", 1.2 MB </td><td>20–300</td><td>[[PC-DOS]], [[OS/2]]</td></tr>
<tr><td>386</td><td rowspan=2>16–33</td><td rowspan=2>32</td><td>32</td><td rowspan=2>1–16 <sup>(2)</sup></td><td rowspan=2>3.5", 720 KB<br/>3.5", 1.44 MB </td><td rowspan=2>40–600</td><td rowspan=2>[[Unix|UNIX]]</td></tr>
<tr><td>386SX</td><td>16</td></tr>
</table>
# Under DOS, RAM is expanded beyond 1 MB with [[Expanded memory|EMS]] memory boards
# Under DOS, RAM is expanded beyond 1 MB with normal "[[Extended memory |extended]]" memory and a memory management program.
== See also ==
*[[IBM PC compatible]] (aka IBM PC clone)
*[[List of IBM products]]
== References ==
*Norton, Peter (1986). ''Inside the IBM PC. Revised and enlarged''. New York. Brady. ISBN 0-89303-583-1.
*IBM Corporation ([[August 12]], [[1981]]). [http://www-1.ibm.com/ibm/history/documents/pdf/pcpress.pdf Personal Computer Announced By IBM] (PDF format). Press Release in the historical archives of IBM.
*Mueller, Scott (1992) ''Upgrading and Repairing the PCs, Second Edition'', Que Books, ISBN 0-88022-856-3
== External links ==
*[http://www.old-computers.com/museum/computer.asp?c=274 IBM PC] The beginning of the PC: the IBM PC - model 5150.
*[http://oldcomputers.net/ibm5150.html IBM 5150 listing]
*[http://world.std.com/~swmcd/steven/rants/pc.html Limitations of the IBM PC Architecture] History of the IBM PC Architecture
*[http://groups.google.com/groups?selm=anews.Aucbvax.2735 ''"IBM Personal Computer"''] — The first [[USENET]] post to review the ''IBM PC''.
*[http://www.google.com/groups?q=ibm+group:net.micro.pc&hl=en&lr=&ie=UTF-8&scoring=d&as_drrb=b&as_mind=1&as_minm=1&as_miny=1981&as_maxd=1&as_maxm=1&as_maxy=1983&selm=bnews.mhuxh.1069&rnum=28 Google Groups] thread from 1982 indicating that IBM PCs with 16K RAM were actually manufactured and sold. (The statement that 16K machines were sold is hard to believe and hence frequently challenged).
*[http://www.uncreativelabs.org Uncreative Labs] Dedicated to the IBM PC/XT
{{FOLDOC}}
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[[th:ไอบีเอ็มพีซี]]
Counties of Ireland
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rv - [[County Londonderry]]
The [[island]] of '''[[Ireland]]''' has 32 '''[[county|counties]]''', the [[Republic of Ireland]] made up of 26 of these; [[Northern Ireland]] comprises the remaining 6. The counties are subdivisions of the ancient [[Provinces of Ireland]], made up, in general, from smaller territories. While the provinces have existed in some form for many centuries, the counties developed under the Anglo-Norman and British administrations, with the first counties formed in the century after Strongbow's arrival and the last, Wicklow, finally formalised in 1606.
The counties were subsequently adopted by sporting and cultural organisations such as the [[Gaelic Athletic Association]], which organises its activities on county lines and today they attract strong loyalties, particularly in the sporting field.
The strict definition of what constitutes a county in Ireland has been slightly blurred by a growing association of some of the population to their respective [[administrative county]], most prominently noticeable (due to historical influences) in the counties of [[North Tipperary]], [[South Tipperary]] and in more recent times the divisions of County Dublin, [[Dun Laoghaire-Rathdown]], [[Fingal]] and [[South Dublin]]. Currently the "traditional" 32 counties remain in use as the basis of local identity and sporting loyalties.
==Map==
{| align="center" cellpadding="10"
|[[Image:IrelandNumbered.png|250px|Map of Ireland with numbered counties]]
| style="font-size: 90%;" |'''[[Republic of Ireland]]'''
#[[County Dublin|Dublin]]
#[[County Wicklow|Wicklow]]
#[[County Wexford|Wexford]]
#[[County Carlow|Carlow]]
#[[County Kildare|Kildare]]
#[[County Meath|Meath]]
#[[County Louth|Louth]]
#[[County Monaghan|Monaghan]]
#[[County Cavan|Cavan]]
#[[County Longford|Longford]]
#[[County Westmeath|Westmeath]]
#[[County Offaly|Offaly]]
#[[County Laois|Laois]]
#[[County Kilkenny|Kilkenny]]
#[[County Waterford|Waterford]]
#[[County Cork|Cork]]
| style="font-size: 90%;" |
<ol start=17>
<li>[[County Kerry|Kerry]]
<li>[[County Limerick|Limerick]]
<li>[[County Tipperary|Tipperary]]
<li>[[County Clare|Clare]]
<li>[[County Galway|Galway]]
<li>[[County Mayo|Mayo]]
<li>[[County Roscommon|Roscommon]]
<li>[[County Sligo|Sligo]]
<li>[[County Leitrim|Leitrim]]
<li>[[County Donegal|Donegal]]
</ol>
'''[[Northern Ireland]]'''
#[[County Fermanagh|Fermanagh]]
#[[County Tyrone|Tyrone]]
#[[County Londonderry|Londonderry]]
#[[County Antrim|Antrim]]
#[[County Down|Down]]
#[[County Armagh|Armagh]]
|}
==Background==
The political [[geography of Ireland]] can be traced with some accuracy from the seventh century. At that time Ireland was divided into about 150 different units of government, each one called a ''[[tuath]]'' (pl. ''tuatha''). A ''tuath'' was a autonomous group of people of independent political jurisdiction under a chief called ''sub-rege'' (''Rí Tuaithe'', tribal king. often the Chief of a Clan).
In the sixth century, Ireland was divided into ''cúigí'' or fifths (sing. ''cúige''). The four current [[provinces of Ireland]] were named after four of these ''cúigí'', ''Uladh'' ([[Ulster]]), ''Laighean'' ([[Leinster]], ''Connachta'' ([[Connacht]]) and ''Mumha'' ([[Munster]]). The fifth ''cúige'', ''Mídh'' ([[Meath]]), corresponded to the present-day counties of [[Meath]], [[Westmeath]], [[County Longford|Longford]] and [[Offaly]] in present-day Leinster ([[Louth]] was considered to be part of Ulster). In [[bard|bardic lore]], the “fifths of Ireland” corresponded to the five provinces: learning was in the west, war in the north, wealth in the east, music or art in the south and kinship in the centre (Meath).
In the 12th century, the [[Kings of England]] began their first of many invasions (commonly referred to in Ireland as the ''Norman Invasion''). The English governed Ireland in a like structure as they did themselves, by dividing the country into shires or counties in the late 12th and early 13th centuries. To correspond with the subdivisions of the English shires into honors or [[barony|baronies]], Irish counties were granted out to the Angle-Norman noblemen in ''cantreds'', later known as [[barony (Ireland)|baronies]], which in turn were subdivided, as in England, into manors or [[townland|townlands]]. (However, in many cases, both baronies and townlands correspond to earlier, pre-Norman, divisions.) While there are 331 baronies in Ireland, divided first into [[civil parish|civil parishes]], there are around 60,000 townlands that range in size from one to several thousand [[acre|acres]]. Townlands were often traditionally divided into smaller units called ''quarters'', but these subdivisions are not legally defined.
==Local government==
:''Main articles: [[Districts of Northern Ireland]], [[Local government in the Republic of Ireland]]''
The original pattern of 32 counties evolved over many years from the original [[Normans|Norman]] conquest of Ireland.
The [[Local Government (Ireland) Act 1898]] was a significant milestone in the framing of the counties and their status. Some of the 32 counties are no longer the main basis for local government, planning and community development purposes, although unlike the [[Traditional counties of the British Isles|counties in Great Britain]], the Republic's traditional county boundaries are still respected for other purposes (counties on occasion being sub-divided).
In the Republic of Ireland, six of the original 26 counties have more than one local authority area, producing a total of 34 "county-level" authorities. [[County Tipperary]] has been split into [[North Tipperary]] and [[South Tipperary]] since [[1898]] and the formal adoption of the county system for local government. In 1994 [[County Dublin]] was split into [[Dun Laoghaire-Rathdown]], [[Fingal]], and [[South Dublin]]. By 2002 however, upon the establishment of County Development Boards, the definition of "local government" expanded to include the need for a proper identity in each of the new counties; the development of which is ongoing. Of the administrative structures established under the 1898 Local Government Act, the only type to have been completely abolished were the [[Rural District]]s, which were rendered void in the early years of the [[Irish Free State]] amidst widespread allegations of corruption. On the other hand, administrative structures such as Town Councils and Regional Authorities (created to comply with requirements of the EU) exist in parallel with the county system.
In Northern Ireland, a major re-organisation of local government in 1973 replaced the six traditional counties and two [[county borough]]s ([[Belfast]] and [[Londonderry]]) by 26 "single-tier" [[Districts of Northern Ireland|districts]] for local government purposes, and these cross the traditional county boundaries. The six counties and two county-boroughs remain in use for purposes such as [[Lord-Lieutenant|Lieutenancy]], they are also used for the [[Royal Mail]] [[Postcode Address File]].
===Administration===
Generally administration follows the 34 "county-level" counties and cities of Ireland. The counties are referred to as "[[county council]]s" and 29 fall into this category. The cities of [[Dublin]], [[Cork]], [[Limerick]], [[Galway]] and [[Waterford]] have "[[city council]]s", previously as "[[corporation]]s", and are administered separately from the counties bearing those names. The [[City of Kilkenny]] is the only city in the republic which does not have a "city council"; it is still a [[borough]] but not a [[county borough]] and is administered as part of [[County Kilkenny]]. The most recent local government legislation states that Kilkenny may retain the title of "city" for ornament only.
===Education===
The [[Vocational Education Committee]] system is based on the traditional counties of the Republic of Ireland except that [[County Tipperary]] is separated into [[North Tipperary]] and [[South Tipperary]]. Also each of the cities of [[Dublin]], [[Cork]], [[Limerick]], [[Galway]] and [[Waterford]] have their own committee separate from the county. [[Dún Laoghaire]] is unique in that it is the only town with a committee.
The [[Regional Technical College|Institute of Technology]] system was organised on the committee areas or "functional areas", these still remain legal but are not as important as originally envisioned as the institutes are now more national in character and are only really applied today when selecting governing councils, similarly [[Dublin Institute of Technology]] was originally a group of several colleges of the [[City of Dublin]] committee.
===Elections===
[[Irish general elections|General election]] areas in the Republic of Ireland also mostly follow county boundaries - called "[[constituency|constituencies]]" in accordance with [[Law of the Republic of Ireland|Irish law]] - maintaining links to the county system is a mandatory consideration in the re-organisation of constituency boundaries. This system usually results in more populated counties having several constituencies - while others, such as Sligo and Leitrim, constitute a single constituency of two counties - Dublin city and county is subdivded into twelve constituencies. [[Local councillor]]s, elected to local government, are based on similar boundaries to the general election areas, however councillors generally run in a particular [[town council]] or [[borough council]] area which may often encompasses several smaller towns and villages.
==Alphabetical list==
{| align=center border=1 cellspacing="0" cellpadding="2" style="font-size:90%"
|-
! align=left |County
! align=left |Former name
! align=left |Province
! align=left |State
! align=left |Additional local government
|-
|[[County Antrim|Antrim]]
|
|[[Ulster]]
|[[Northern Ireland]]
|-
|[[County Armagh|Armagh]]
|
|[[Ulster]]
|[[Northern Ireland]]
|-
|[[County Carlow|Carlow]]
|[[Caterlaugh]]
|[[Leinster]]
|[[Republic of Ireland]]
|-
|[[County Cavan|Cavan]]
|
|[[Ulster]]
|[[Republic of Ireland]]
|-
|[[County Clare|Clare]]
|[[County Thomond|Thomond]]
|[[Munster]]
|[[Republic of Ireland]]
|-
|[[County Cork|Cork]]
|(see [[County Desmond|Desmond]])
|[[Munster]]
|[[Republic of Ireland]]
|''[[Cork|City of Cork]]''
|-
|[[County Donegal|Donegal]]
|[[County Tyrconnel|Tyrconnel]]
|[[Ulster]]
|[[Republic of Ireland]]
|-
|[[County Down|Down]]
|
|[[Ulster]]
|[[Northern Ireland]]
|-
|[[County Dublin|Dublin]]
|
|[[Leinster]]
|[[Republic of Ireland]]
|''[[City of Dublin]],<br/>[[Dun Laoghaire-Rathdown]],<br/>[[Fingal]],<br/>[[South Dublin]]''
|-
|[[County Fermanagh|Fermanagh]]
|
|[[Ulster]]
|[[Northern Ireland]]
|-
|[[County Galway|Galway]]
|
|[[Connacht]]
|[[Republic of Ireland]]
|''[[City of Galway]]''
|-
|[[County Kerry|Kerry]]
|(see [[County Desmond|Desmond]])
|[[Munster]]
|[[Republic of Ireland]]
|-
|[[County Kildare|Kildare]]
|
|[[Leinster]]
|[[Republic of Ireland]]
|-
|[[County Kilkenny|Kilkenny]]
|
|[[Leinster]]
|[[Republic of Ireland]]
|-
|[[County Laois|Laois]]
|[[Queen's County, Ireland|Queen's County]], [[County Leix|Leix]]
|[[Leinster]]
|[[Republic of Ireland]]
|-
|[[County Leitrim|Leitrim]]
|
|[[Connacht]]
|[[Republic of Ireland]]
|-
|[[County Limerick|Limerick]]
|
|[[Munster]]
|[[Republic of Ireland]]
|''[[City of Limerick]]''
|-
|[[County Londonderry|Londonderry]]
|(see [[County Coleraine|Coleraine]])
|[[Ulster]]
|[[Northern Ireland]]
|-
|[[County Longford|Longford]]
|
|[[Leinster]]
|[[Republic of Ireland]]
|-
|[[County Louth|Louth]]
|
|[[Leinster]]
|[[Republic of Ireland]]
|-
|[[County Mayo|Mayo]]
|
|[[Connacht]]
|[[Republic of Ireland]]
|-
|[[County Meath|Meath]]
|
|[[Leinster]]
|[[Republic of Ireland]]
|-
|[[County Monaghan|Monaghan]]
|
|[[Ulster]]
|[[Republic of Ireland]]
|-
|[[County Offaly|Offaly]]
|[[King's County, Ireland|King's County]]
|[[Leinster]]
|[[Republic of Ireland]]
|-
|[[County Roscommon|Roscommon]]
|
|[[Connacht]]
|[[Republic of Ireland]]
|-
|[[County Sligo|Sligo]]
|
|[[Connacht]]
|[[Republic of Ireland]]
|-
|[[County Tipperary|Tipperary]]
|
|[[Munster]]
|[[Republic of Ireland]]
|[[North Tipperary]],<br/>[[South Tipperary]]
|-
|[[County Tyrone|Tyrone]]
|
|[[Ulster]]
|[[Northern Ireland]]
|-
|[[County Waterford|Waterford]]
|
|[[Munster]]
|[[Republic of Ireland]]
|''[[City of Waterford]]''
|-
|[[County Westmeath|Westmeath]]
|
|[[Leinster]]
|[[Republic of Ireland]]
|-
|[[County Wexford|Wexford]]
|
|[[Leinster]]
|[[Republic of Ireland]]
|-
|[[County Wicklow|Wicklow]]
|
|[[Leinster]]
|[[Republic of Ireland]]
|}
==Former counties==
Former counties include: [[County Coleraine]] which formed the basis of County Londonderry, and [[Nether Tyrone|Nether]] and [[Upper Tyrone]] which were merged, and [[Desmond]] which was split between Counties Cork and Kerry. Other names seen on old maps include [[Caterlaugh]] or [[Caterlagh]], archaic designations of County Carlow, in the days before much of the north of that county was taken into Wicklow. In 1777, the ancient norman town of Carrickfergus lost its status of county town, there was formerly a county of Carrickfergus which extend further than the modern borough of Carrickfergus,
==See also==
*[[List of Irish counties by population]]
*[[List of Irish counties by area]]
*[[County_Town#Traditional_counties_of_the_Republic_of_Ireland|List of Irish County Towns]]
*[[Provinces of Ireland]]
*[[Districts of Northern Ireland]]
*[[Irish Vehicle Registration Plates]]
*[[Irish topics]]
*[[ISO 3166-2:IE]]
==External links==
*[http://www.cso.ie/census/Census2002Results.htm Central Statistics Office - 2002 census results]
*[http://www.genuki.org.uk/big/irl/ Family history links to traditional counties of Ireland]
Flags
*[http://www.geocities.com/Athens/Sparta/1648/flags.htm Flags of Ireland - includes county flags]
*[http://www.crwflags.com/fotw/flags/ie.html Flags of the World - Ireland - includes more flags]
Baronies, Civil Parishes and Townlands
*[http://www.rootsweb.com/~irlkik/ihm/baronies.htm The Baronies of Ireland -Clans and Baronies]
*[http://www.rootsweb.com/~irlkik/ihm/barony-map-connacht.htm Connacht Baronies -Map]
*[http://www.rootsweb.com/~irlkik/ihm/barony-map-leinster.htm Leinster Baronies -Map]
*[http://www.rootsweb.com/~irlkik/ihm/barony-map-munster.htm Munster Baronies -Map]
*[http://www.rootsweb.com/~irlkik/ihm/barony-map-ulster.htm Ulster Baronies -Map]
*[http://www.seanruad.com/ IreAtlas Townland Search]
Representatives of local government
*[http://www.amai.ie Association of Municipal Authorities of Ireland]
*[http://www.councillors.ie General Council of County Councils]
*[http://www.lama.ie Local Authority Members Association]
[[Category:Lists of subnational entities|Ireland, Counties of]]
[[Category:Counties of Ireland|!]]
[[Category:Ireland]]
[[Category:Local government in the Republic of Ireland]]
[[ast:Condaos d'Irlanda]]
[[de:Gliederung Irlands]]
[[es:Condados de Irlanda]]
[[fr:Comtés d'Irlande]]
[[it:Contee d'Irlanda]]
[[nl:Graafschappen van Ierland]]
[[ja:アイルランドの地方行政区画]]
[[no:Grevskap i Irland]]
[[pt:Subdivisões da Irlanda]]
[[ro:Comitatele Irlandei]]
[[sv:Irlands grevskap]]
Information Sciences Institute
15034
37251202
2006-01-29T20:15:03Z
68.7.50.54
/* Division 7: Computer Networks */
The '''Information Sciences Institute''' ('''ISI''') of the [[University of Southern California]] (USC) is a prominent research organization in the field of [[information science]]; it is part of the [[Viterbi School of Engineering]] at USC. It is involved in a broad spectrum of [[information]] processing research, and in the development of advanced computer and communication technologies.
The Institute was founded in 1972 by [[Keith Uncapher]]. ISI is currently headed by [[Herbert Schorr]] who came to ISI in 1988 after a career as both executive and scientist at [[IBM]].
It is not located on campus as USC, but at a separate facility in [[Marina del Rey, California]]; it also has a branch facility in [[Arlington, Virginia]].
==Divisions==
ISI is divided into ten "divisions", each of which contains research groups focused on a particular aspect of information science:
===Division 1: Computational Sciences===
Conducts research in the areas of [[applied mathematics]], [[compiler]]s, [[cluster]]s, and other large-scale applications with emphasis of maximizing [[throughput]].
===Division 2: Distributed Scalable Systems===
Conducts research in areas that deal with groups of computers, particularly those that are involved in mobile or distributed applications. Topics include [[information space analysis]] and [[e-commerce]].
===Division 3: Intelligent Systems===
Conducts research in the area of [[artificial intelligence]] and related fields such as [[data mining]], [[robotics]], and [[machine learning]].
===Division 4: Silicon Systems / [[MOSIS]]===
Conducts research in low-cost low-volume [[semiconductor]] and [[MEMS]] manufacturing.
===Division 5: Business Office===
Contracts and Grants administration. [[Human Resources]] functions.
===Division 6: Action===
[[Hardware]] and [[Software]] Support.
===Division 7: Computer Networks===
Conducts research into all forms of [[computer networking]] including networking [[protocol (computing)|protocols]], [[Distributed computing|distributed networking]], [[embedded]] networking, [[sensor network]]s, and [[middleware]]. The division has built or collaborated on building several key elements of modern networks that are in wide use throughout today's [[Internet]], including: [[Internet protocol suite|TCP/IP]], [[Domain Name System|DNS]], [[Simple Mail Transfer Protocol|SMTP]], and [[IPv6]].
Division 7 was directed by [[Jon Postel]] until his passing.
===Division 8: Advanced Systems===
Conducts research into unconventional and cutting-edge systems in a range of areas such as compilers, [[Very-large-scale integration|VLSI]], [[grid computing]], [[wireless]] systems, and [[computer-aided design]].
===Division 9: Integration Sciences===
Conducts research into distributed [[database]]s, [[pattern recognition]] and their applications.
===Division 10: Dynamic Systems===
Conducts research into standard and [[Embedded system|embedded systems]] that adapt to changes in [[Electric power|power]], [[configuration]], or [[natural environment|environment]].
==External links==
*[http://www.isi.edu ISI homepage]
{{org-stub}}
[[Category:Scientific institutions]]
[[Category:University of Southern California]]
[[ja:情報科学研究所]]
Internet Corporation for Assigned Names and Numbers
15035
15912550
2002-02-25T15:51:15Z
Conversion script
Automated conversion
#REDIRECT [[ICANN]]
Information security
15036
40745519
2006-02-22T19:15:34Z
Awillcox
363018
/* See also */ (added SoGP/ISF)
'''Information security''' deals with several different "[[trust]]" aspects of [[information]]. Another common term is '''information assurance'''. Information security is not confined to [[computer]] systems, nor to information in an electronic or [[machine-readable]] form. It applies to all aspects of safeguarding or protecting information or data, in whatever form.
The [[United States|U.S.]] [[National Information Systems Security Glossary]] defines '''Information systems security''' ('''INFOSEC''') as:
:''the protection of [[information]] systems against unauthorized [[access]] to or modification of information, whether in [[Computer storage|storage]], processing or transit, and against the denial of service to authorized users or the provision of service to unauthorized users, including those measures necessary to detect, document, and counter such threats.''
Most definitions of information security tend to focus, sometimes exclusively, on specific usages and, or, particular media; e.g., "protect electronic data from unauthorized use". In fact it is a common misconception, or misunderstanding, that information security is synonymous with [[computer security]]—in any of its guises: computer and network security, [[information technology]] (IT) security, [[information systems security]], information and communications technology (ICT) security. Each of these has a different emphasis, but the common concern is the security of information in some form (electronic in these cases): hence, all are subsets of information security. Conversely, information security covers not just information but all infrastructures that facilitate its use—processes, systems, services, technology, etc., including computers, voice and data networks, etc.
It is an important point that information security is, inherently and necessarily, neither hermetic nor watertight nor perfectible. No one can ever eradicate all risk of improper or capricious use of any information. The level of information security sought in any particular situation should be commensurate with the value of the information and the loss, financial or otherwise, that might accrue from improper use—disclosure, degradation, denial, or whatever. [[Bruce Schneier]] makes this point in ''Secrets and Lies'': information security is about ''[[risk management]]''.
Three widely accepted elements (aims, principles, qualities, characteristics, attributes ...) of information security are:
* [[confidentiality]]
* [[data integrity|integrity]]
* [[availability]]
These can be remembered by the [[mnemonic]] “CIA”, and is often referred to as the [[CIA triad]] [http://www.infosecpedia.org/pedia/index.php/CIA_triad].
A simple way to express this is "the right information to the right people at the right time".
A further, generally accepted element is:
* [[accountability]]
Historically, up to about 1990, confidentiality was the most important element of information security, followed by integrity, and then availability. By 2001, changing use and expectation patterns had moved availability to the top of most versions of this priority list. The first goal of modern information security has, in effect, become to ensure that systems are predictably dependable in the face of all sorts of malice, and particularly in the face of [[denial of service]] attacks.
''NIST Special Publication 800-33 Underlying Technical Models for Information Technology Security'' added '''assurance''' as essential. "Without it the other objectives are not met." Assurance is the basis for confidence that the security measures, both technical and operational, work as intended to protect the system and the information in processes and that the other four security objectives (integrity, availability, confidentiality, and accountability) have been adequately met by a specific implementation.
Some other facets of information security are:
*[[governance]]
*[[access control]]
*[[risk assessment]]
*[[classification]]
*[[compliance]]
*[[identification]] and [[authentication]]
*[[Information Technology Infrastructure Library]]
*[[non-repudiation]]
*[[authorization]]
*[[administration]] and [[user provisioning|provisioning]]
*[[auditing]]
*[[alerting]]
*[[assurance services|assurance]] and [[reliability]]
*[[Business Continuity Planning]]
*[[COMSEC]]
[[Cryptography]] and [[Cryptanalysis]] are important tools in assuring confidentiality (in transmission or storage of information), integrity (no change can be made undetectably), and source identification (the sender can be identified and all other than that sender can be excluded). Always assuming, necessarily, that the key(s) involved have not been misused or compromised, and that the crypto systems employed have been well chosen and properly used.
==See also==
''See [[:Category:Computer security]] for a list of all computing and information-security related articles''.
* [[Business continuity planning]]
* [[Common Criteria]]
* [[Computer insecurity]]
* [[Computer security]]
* [[Electronic underground community]]
* [[ISO/IEC 17799]]
* [[Risk aversion]]
* [[Security engineering]]
* [[Computer fraud case studies]]
* [[Hacker#Intruders_and_criminals|Notable hackers]]
* [[Infamous Hacks]]
* [[Infamous Phreaks]]
* The [[Standard of Good Practice]] published by the [[Information Security Forum]]
==External links==
* [https://www.isc2.org ISC2]
*[http://www.securestandard.com/ SecureStandard Information Security Whitepapers]
*[http://www.xml-dev.com/blog/?action=viewtopic&id=141 InfoSec Training Media Archive- Videos and Poster]
*[http://blogs.ittoolbox.com/security/investigator/ Information Security Investigations]
*[http://www.cnss.gov/Assets/pdf/cnssi_4009.pdf National Information Assurance (IA) Glossary]
*[http://www.ietf.org/rfc/rfc2828.txt?number=2828 RFC-2828: Internet Security Glossary]
[[Category:Security|Security]]
[[Category:Computer security]]
[[da:Informationssikkerhed]]
[[de:Informationssicherheit]]
[[he:אבטחת מערכות מידע]]
[[nl:Informatiebeveiliging]]
[[no:Datasikkerhet]]
[[pt:Segurança da informação]]
[[ru:Информационная безопасность]]
[[th:การรักษาความปลอดภัยทางข้อมูล]]
[[vi:An ninh thông tin]]
[[zh:信息安全]]
Income
15037
41448712
2006-02-27T11:12:35Z
Dismas
152983
US -> U.S. per MoS
{{mergefrom|Unearned income}}
{{mergefrom|Passive income}}
'''Income''', generally defined, is the money that is received as a result of the normal business activities of an individual or a business. For example, for individuals income usually means the gross amount on their [[payslip]]s before any [[tax]] and other deductions has been made by their employer.
==Meaning within U.S. accountancy==
In [[United States|U.S.]] business and [[accounting]], however, '''income''' most often means the amount of money that a company earns after paying for all its costs. Outside the U.S., the term is usually '''[[profit]]''' or '''earnings'''. To calculate a company's income, it starts with its amount of [[revenue]], deducts all costs, including such things as employees' salaries and [[depreciation]], and the number that results is its income, which may be a negative number. This money is typically reinvested in the business, paid in [[corporate tax]] and used to pay the owners (the shareholders) a [[dividend]].
All [[public company|public companies]] are required to provide [[financial statements]] on a quarterly basis. The statement of income is an important part of this. Some companies also provide a more rosy financial report of their income, with ''[[pro forma]]'' reporting, or, [[EBITDA]] reporting. ''Pro forma'' income is an estimate of how much the company would have earned without including the negative effect of exceptional "one-time events", supposedly in order to show investors how much money the company would have made under normal circumstances if these exceptional, one-time events had not occurred. Critics charge that, in most cases, the "one-time events" are normal business events, such as an acquisition of another company or a [[write off]] of a cancelled project or division, and that ''pro forma'' reporting is an attempt to mislead investors by painting a rosy financial picture. Besides that, when discussing results with analysts and shareholders, CEOs and CFOs have a tendency to do even more "hypothetical accounting". [[EBITDA]] stands for "earnings before interest, taxes, depreciation, and amortisation", and is also criticised for being an attempt to mislead investors. [[Warren Buffett]] has criticised EBITDA reporting, famously asking, "Does management think the tooth fairy pays for capital expenditures?"
It is common for some other companies, such as [[real estate investment trusts]], to present reports using a standard called [[FFO]], or funds from operations. Like EBITDA reporting, FFO ignores depreciation and amortization. This is widely accepted in the industry, as [[real estate]] values tend to increase rather than decrease over time, and many data sites report [[earnings per share]] data using FFO.
==Meaning within economic science==
In [[Economics]], income is the constraint to unlimited [[consumer]] purchases. Consumers can purchase a limited number of goods represented by their "budget constraint". The basic equation for this is <tt>Y = Px × x + Py × y</tt>, where <tt>Px</tt> is the price of good x, <tt>x</tt> is the quantity of good x, and Y is the income (Py and y are similar to Px and x). If you need to examine more than two goods, you can add more on. This equation tells us two things. First, if you buy one more of good x, you get <tt>Px/Py</tt> less of good y. Here, <tt>Px/Py</tt> is known as the rate of substitution. Secondly, if the price of x changes, then the rate of substitution changes. This causes demand curves to slope down.
The distribution of income within a society can be measured by the [[Lorenz curve]] and the [[Gini coefficient]].
'''National income''', measured by statistics such as the [[Net National Income]] (NNI), measures the total income of all individuals in the economy. For more information see [[measures of national income and output]].
== See also ==
*[[Income statement]]
*[[Income tax]]
*[[Income trust]]
*[[Poverty line]]
*[[Profit]]
*[[Per capita income]]
*[[Remuneration]]
== External links ==
*[http://money.cnn.com/markets/IRC/warnings.html Markets & Stocks: Investor Research Center - Earnings Warnings]
[[category:Income]]
[[de:Einkommen]]
[[fr:Revenu]]
[[nl:Inkomen]]
[[pl:Dochód]]
[[pt:Renda]]
Iona
15039
41589946
2006-02-28T09:42:46Z
Batmanand
131948
tidying up lead
:''Alternative uses: see [[Iona (disambiguation)]].''
[[Image:Iona Village from seawards.jpg|thumb|250px|Iona village viewed from a short distance offshore.]]
'''Iona''' is a small island, 1 mile wide (1.6 km) and 3.5 miles (5.6 km) long, in the [[Inner Hebrides]], [[Scotland]]. Its [[Scottish Gaelic|Gaelic]] name is ''I Chaluim Cille'' (Saint [[Columba]]'s Island), or sometimes just ''Ì'' or ''Idhe''. It is approximately one mile (1 600 m) from the coast of [[Isle of Mull|Mull]]. It has a resident [[population]] of 175.
In [[563]] Saint [[Columba]], exiled from his native [[Ireland]], founded a [[monastery]] here with 12 companions. From here they set about the conversion of [[Paganism|pagan]] Scotland and much of northern [[England]] to [[Christianity]]. Iona's fame as a place of learning and Christian mission spread throughout [[Europe]] and it became a major site of [[pilgrimage]]. Iona became a holy island where several kings of [[Scotland]], [[Ireland]] and [[Norway]] came to be buried.
[[Image:St-martins-cross.jpg|left|frame|Eighth century St Martin's Cross]]
Many believe that the [[Book of Kells]] was produced on Iona towards the end of the [[8th century]]. In the year [[806]] the monastery on Iona was targeted by [[Viking]] raiders and its treasures plundered. A [[convent]] for the Order of [[Benedictine]] Nuns was established in [[1203]], with Beathag, daughter of [[Somerled]], as first prioress. The present [[Benedictine]] [[abbey]] was built in the same period. The monastery itself flourished until the [[Reformation]].
Iona became the burial site for the kings of [[Dál Riata]] and their successors, the early [[Scotland/Monarchs|kings of Scotland]]. Notable burials there include:
*King [[Donald II of Scotland]]
*King [[Malcolm I of Scotland]]
*King [[Duncan I of Scotland]]
*King [[Macbeth of Scotland]]
*King [[Donald III of Scotland]]
*[[John Smith (UK politician)|John Smith]]
The ancient burial ground, called the Reilig Odhráin, contains the [[12th century]] chapel of St Odhrán (said to be [[Columba]]'s uncle), restored at the same time as the Abbey itself. It contains a number of medieval grave monuments. Other early Christian and medieval monuments have been removed for preservation to the cloister arcade of the Abbey, and the Abbey museum (in the medieval informary). The ancient buildings of Iona Abbey are now cared for by [[Historic Scotland]] (entrance charge).
In [[1938]] [[George MacLeod]] founded the [[Iona Community]],
an ecumenical Christian community of men and women from different walks of life and different traditions in the Christian church committed to seeking new ways of living the [[gospel]] of [[Jesus]] in today's world. This community is a leading force in the present [[Celtic Christianity]] revival.
The Iona Community runs 3 residential centres on the Isle of Iona and on [[Mull]]. These are places of welcome and engagement giving a unique opportunity to live together in community with people of every background from all over the world. Weeks at the centres often follow a programme related to the concerns of the Iona Community.
[[Image:St Mary's Abbey, Iona.jpg|thumb|right|300px|St Mary's Abbey, Iona]]
[[Iona Abbey]], now an ecumenical church, is of particular historical and religious interest to pilgrims and visitors alike. It is the most elaborate and best-preserved ecclesiastical building surviving from the Middle Ages in the [[Western Isles]] of [[Scotland]]. In front of the Abbey stands the [[9th century]] [[St Martin's Cross]], one of the best-preserved Celtic crosses in the [[British Isles]], and a replica of the [[8th century]] [[St John's Cross]] (original fragments in the Abbey museum).
[[Image:TyIonaNunnery20030825r19f31.jpg|thumb|left|140px|[[Iona Nunnery]], Iona]]
Also of note, [[Iona Nunnery]] is a site of beautiful 12th-13th century ruins of the church and cloister, and a colourful and peaceful garden. Iona's is the most complete survival of a medieval nunnery in [[Scotland]]. Iona is popular among visitors for its tranquility and natural beauty. Its geographical features include the [[Bay at the Back of the Ocean]] and the [[Hill with His Back to Ireland]], said to be adjacent to the beach where Saint Columba landed.
==External links==
*[http://www.isle-of-iona.com/ Isle of Iona, Scotland] (produced on behalf of the Iona Community Council)
*[http://www.iona.org.uk/ The Iona Community]
* Computer-generated virtual panorama [http://www.viewfinderpanoramas.org/panoramas/ISL/Iona.gif Summit of Iona] [http://www.viewfinderpanoramas.org/panoramas.html Index]
*{{gbmapping|NM2724}}
[[Category:Inner Hebrides]]
[[Category:Celtic art]]
[[Category:National Trust for Scotland properties]]
{{commonscat}}
{{Hebrides}}
[[de:Iona (Schottland)]]
[[fr:Iona]]
[[nl:Iona (eiland)]]
[[nds:Iona]]
[[no:Iona]]
[[nn:Iona]]
[[pl:Iona (wyspa)]]
[[sv:Iona]]
Ido
15040
41143123
2006-02-25T08:38:48Z
212.176.42.51
/* Vocabulary */
{{Infobox Language
|name=Ido
|caption=Seal
|image=[[Image:ido.jpg|Ido seal]]
|creator=A group of reformist [[Esperanto]] speakers
|date=[[1907]]
|setting=[[International auxiliary language]]
|speakers=est. 1000–2500 (all as a second language; very broad estimate)
|agency=[[Uniono por la Linguo Internaciona Ido]]
|fam2=[[International auxiliary language]]
|posteriori=based on [[Esperanto]]
|iso1=io|iso2=ido|iso3=ido}}
'''Ido''' (pronounced /{{IPA|idɔ}}/), a [[constructed language]], was created to become a universal second language for speakers of different linguistic backgrounds, easier to learn than any ethnic language. This intended usage parallels the actual use of [[English language|English]] as a [[lingua franca]]. Unlike English, which is a natural and sometimes irregular language, Ido is specifically designed for [[Grammar|grammatical]], [[Orthography|orthographic]], and [[lexicography|lexicographical]] regularity, and to favour no one who might otherwise be advantaged due to native fluency. In this sense, Ido is classified as an [[auxiliary language|International Auxiliary Language]]. It may be the second most widely used of these after [[Esperanto]], its predecessor.
Ido was developed in the early [[1900s]], and retains a small following today, primarily in [[Europe]]. It is largely based on Esperanto, created by [[L. L. Zamenhof|L. L. Zamenhof]]. Ido first appeared in 1907 as a result of a desire to reform perceived flaws in Esperanto that its supporters believed to be a hindrance in its propagation as an easy-to-learn second language. Many other reform projects appeared after Ido: examples such as [[Occidental]] and [[Novial]] appeared afterwards but have since faded into obscurity. At present, Ido along with Esperanto and [[Interlingua]] are the only auxiliary languages with a large body of literature and a relatively large speaker base. The name of the language likely traces its origin to the Ido pronunciation of "I.D." (from "International Delegation", see below) or the word ''[[esperantido]]'', "descendant (of Esperanto)".
Ido uses the twenty-six Latin letters used in the [[English alphabet]] with no [[diacritics]]. While still being completely morphologically regular, Ido resembles the [[Romance language]]s in appearance and is sometimes mistaken for [[Italian language|Italian]] or [[Spanish language|Spanish]] at first glance. Ido is largely intelligible to those who have studied Esperanto, though there are certain differences in word formation, grammar and grammatical-function words that make it more than a simple reform project. Ido is a stand-alone language.
After its inception, Ido gained support (estimates generally range around 20% {{ref|ido-movado}}) from some in the Esperanto community at the time, but following the sudden death in 1914 of one of its most influential proponents, [[Louis Couturat]], it declined in popularity. There were two reasons for this: first, the emergence of further schisms arising from competing reform projects; and second, a general lack of awareness of Ido as a candidate for an international language. These obstacles weakened the movement and it was not until the rise of the Internet that it began to regain its former momentum.
== History ==
[[Image:Ido Kongreso en Desau 1922.jpg|thumb|350px|Photograph of the International Ido Congress in [[Dessau]], [[Germany]], in [[1922]].]]
The idea of a universal second language is not a new one, and constructed languages are not a recent phenomenon. The first known constructed language was created in the 12th century by St [[Hildegard of Bingen]] under the name [[Lingua Ignota]]. It was not until the 19th century, however, that the idea caught on in large numbers with the language [[Volapük]], created in [[1879]] by a [[Germany|German]] Catholic priest named [[Johann Martin Schleyer]]. Volapük, though popular for some time and apparently with users numbering in the thousands, was later eclipsed by the popularity of Esperanto, which arose from Zamenhof's book [[Unua Libro]] in [[1887]]. The simpler grammar of Esperanto appealed to many, and its popularity quickly rose. The world's first [[World Congress of Esperanto|Congress of Esperanto]] was held in [[1905]]. However, some within the Esperanto community itself felt that the language should undergo further reform before being officially selected as a universal second language. It was at this time that Couturat formed the ''[[Delegation for the Adoption of an International Auxiliary Language]].''
This delegation made a formal request to the [[International Association of Academies]] in [[Vienna]] to select an international language; the request was rejected in May 1907. The Delegation thereupon decided to meet as a Committee in Paris in October [[1907]] to discuss the adoption of a standard international language among the various competitors that had been devised up to that time. According to the minutes of the Committee, it was decided that no language was completely acceptable, but that [[Esperanto]] could be accepted "on condition of several modifications to be realized by the permanent Commission in the direction defined by the conclusions of the Report of the Secretaries (Couturat and [[Leopold Leau]]) and by the Ido project." This (anonymous) "Ido project" was later suggested to have been primarily devised by Couturat with some help from Esperanto's representative before the Committee, [[Louis de Beaufront]]. Beaufront had himself argued for reforming Esperanto prior to having been selected to the Delegation. His eventual "conversion" to the Ido camp, upon the presentation of that language, was thus consistent with his earlier positions.
Early supporters of [[Esperanto]] tended to resist reforms, and the language's inventor, [[L. L. Zamenhof]], deferred to their judgment. Ironically, several of the reforms adopted by Ido were themselves proposed at various times by Zamenhof, especially in [[1894]] when he proposed eliminating the accented letters and the accusative case (referring to it as "superfluous ballast" [http://web.archive.org/web/20021228070110/http://www.geocities.com/Paris/Rue/8009/idolinguo/054_074.html]), changing the plural to an Italianesque ''-i'', and replacing the table of correlatives with more Latinate words (see [[History of Esperanto#Esperanto history from publication until the first world congress|History of Esperanto]]). The custom of keeping the basic rules of Esperanto fixed remains today. Couturat, who was the leading proponent of Ido, was killed in an automobile accident in [[1914]], which, along with [[World War I]], dealt a serious blow to the Ido movement. Although that movement recovered to some degree in the immediate postwar period, the whole movement of international languages became [[balkanization|balkanized]]. With the publication of an even more Europeanized planned language, [[Occidental language|Occidental]], in 1922, Ido went into decline. The Ido movement lost a majority of its published periodicals in the subsequent year or so, and the defection of its major intellectual supporter, the Danish linguist [[Otto Jespersen]], in 1928 on the occasion of the publication of his own planned language [[Novial]], seemed at the time to provide a quietus.
Some observers trace the eclipse of Ido to its hybrid character – part Esperanto reform project, part [[Sapir-Whorf hypothesis|Standard Average European]]. In this view, once it was clear that Ido would neither displace Esperanto nor be adopted by the Esperanto community, many viewed its Esperanto-like features as unnecessary baggage and moved on to more naturalistic projects. Those who approved of them tended to return to the larger Esperanto community.
Ido's decline had slowed by the 1930s, and the movement was still a significant force in [[interlinguistics]] during the long gestation of the [[International Auxiliary Language Association]]'s project. Like the [[Occidental | Occidentalists]], many Idists hoped that IALA would produce a language relatively close to their own preferences. In the end, the radically naturalistic [[Interlingua]] was even farther from Ido than Occidental, and (in contrast to Occidental) there was no major migration of Ido supporters to the new language.
Ido's survival during this period was assisted by financial resources accumulated during its heyday (e.g., the chemist [[Wilhelm Ostwald]] had donated the proceeds of his 1909 [[Nobel Prize]] to an Ido foundation).
The language still has active speakers today, and the Internet has sparked a renewal of interest in the language in recent years. The estimates of the number of speakers range from 250 to 5000. In comparison, [[Esperanto]] has at least 100,000 ([[Sidney S. Culbert|Culbert's]] widely cited estimate of [[Esperanto#Geography_and_demography | 1.6 million speakers]] is controversial).
Jespersen, who was present during the ten days of Committee deliberations in Paris and later served as part of the permanent Commission, wrote a history of Ido. {{ref|Jesperson}}
A number of Esperanto supporters have attacked Ido over the years. The Esperantist [[Don Harlow]] has characterized Ido's founders as underhanded and conspiratorial{{ref|Harlow}}. However, most Ido partisans argue that Harlow's history is polemical and does not jibe with all the eyewitness accounts, such as those reported by Jespersen. Harlow claims to base his account on material from some other eyewitnesses such as [[Emile Boirac]] and [[Gaston Moch]] and with other source documentation (such as Zamenhof's correspondence with Couturat and others during the period), to which Jespersen (he says) did not have access.
== Comparison with Esperanto ==
:''Main article: [[Esperanto and Ido compared]]''
In spite of the fact that Ido technically ranks among the three largest constructed languages in the world, its user base is much smaller than that of Esperanto to the extent that the average person has never heard of the language. In contrast to this, many people who have never bothered to learn Esperanto still have an idea of its existence, its goals as a language and perhaps even a general idea of how the language itself works. Because of this, often the easiest way to explain Ido is to first show in what way it differs from Esperanto.
Ido inherits many features of [[Esperanto grammar|the grammar of Esperanto]], and in many cases the vocabulary is similar. Ido shares with Esperanto the goals of grammatical simplicity and consistency, ease of learning, and the use of [[loanword]]s from various European languages. The two languages, to a great extent, are mutually intelligible. However, certain changes were introduced to address some of the concerns that had arisen about Esperanto. These include:
* Esperanto's [[alphabet]] uses six non-Latin letters, three of which are not found in any other existing language; as a result, Esperanto in typing and in Internet e-mail and newsgroups frequently resorts to any of several schemes to represent these special letters. This leads to the situation where the same word may be displayed any of several different ways. Ido addresses this issue by using the 26-letter [[Latin alphabet]] with two [[Digraph (orthography)|digraphs]], ''ch'' ({{IPA|/ʧ/}}) and ''sh'' ({{IPA|/ʃ/}}) instead of Esperanto's ''ĉ'' and ''ŝ''. The digraph ''qu'', representing {{IPA|/kʷ/}}, as in English "quick", is used instead of Esperanto ''kv'', and likewise ''gu'' is used instead of ''gv''. Ido orthography is phonetic in the sense that each written word has an unambiguous pronunciation, but it does not have the one-to-one correspondence between letters and [[phoneme]]s that Esperanto has.
* Ido generally does not impose rules of grammatical [[agreement (linguistics)|agreement]] between grammatical categories within a sentence, believing them to be grammatically complex and redundant in a potential universal second language. For example, in Esperanto, the verb in a sentence is invariable regardless of the number and person of the subject. This principle was not extended in Esperanto to adjectives and nouns, however; as a result, in Esperanto an adjective must agree in number and case with the noun it modifies as with the French ''grands livres'' (large books), where the adjective must be pluralized as well as the noun. There is no such requirement in English, for example, where number is emphasized by variation of the verb, and Ido eliminates this feature from its grammar.
* Esperanto requires the use of the ''-n'' ending to signify the use of the [[accusative case]]. Ido allows the use of this feature in ambiguous situations where the object of a sentence does not follow the subject, but in all other situations the accusative case was eliminated as redundant.
* Ido imposes consistent rules on the use of endings to transform a word from one meaning or part of speech to another, thus simplifying the amount of vocabulary memorization that is necessary.
* Ido, unlike Esperanto, does not assume the male sex as the default for family relationship words, and thus does not, for example, derive the word for "sister" by adding a feminine suffix to the word for "brother", as standard Esperanto does. Instead, some relationship root words are defined as sex neutral, and two different suffixes derive masculine- and feminine-specific words from the root—frato (sibling) > fratulo (brother), fratino (sister). In other cases, Ido has two or three root words where Esperanto has one—genitoro (parent), patro (father), matro (mother).
* Ido's vocabulary attempts to use [[cognate]]s that are shared in common by as many of its six source languages as possible.
Nevertheless, modern Esperanto has received some influence from Ido in areas such as a clarification of the rules for word derivation and suffixes like ''-oz-'' ("abundant in") and ''-end-'' ("required to").
== Phonology ==
Ido has the same typical five-vowel system (a, e, i, o, u have their [[International Phonetic Alphabet|IPA]] values) as Esperanto, and most of the same consonants, omitting two consonant [[phoneme]]s used by Esperanto, IPA {{IPA|/x/}} and {{IPA|/ʤ/}}. (The distinctions between {{IPA|/x/ : /h/}} and between {{IPA|/ʤ/ : /ʒ/}} carry a very low functional load in Esperanto, and so were deemed to be unnecessary in Ido.) Without those two consonant phonemes, the consonants in the language are as follows:
{| border=1 align=center cellspacing=0 cellpadding=3 style="text-align:center; font-size: larger; border-collapse: collapse;"
|- style="font-size: x-small;vertical-align:top;"
!
! colspan="2" | [[Bilabial consonant|Bilabial]]
! colspan="2" | [[Labiodental consonant|Labio-<br/>dental]]
! colspan="2" | [[Alveolar consonant|Alveolar]]
! colspan="2" | [[Postalveolar consonant|Post-<br/>alveolar]]
! colspan="2" | [[Palatal consonant|Palatal]]
! colspan="2" | [[Velar consonant|Velar]]
! colspan="2" | [[Glottal consonant|Glottal]]
|-
! style="font-size: x-small" | [[Plosive consonant|Plosive]]
| {{IPA|p}} || {{IPA|b}}
| colspan="2" |
| {{IPA|t}} || {{IPA|d}}
| colspan="2" |
| colspan="2" |
| {{IPA|k}} || {{IPA|g}}
| colspan="2" |
|-
! style="font-size: x-small" | [[Nasal consonant|Nasal]]
| || {{IPA|m}}
| colspan="2" |
| || {{IPA|n}}
| colspan="2" |
| colspan="2" |
| colspan="2" |
| colspan="2" |
|-
! style="font-size: x-small" | [[Flap consonant|Tap]]
| colspan="2" |
| colspan="2" |
| || {{IPA|ɾ}}
| colspan="2" |
| colspan="2" |
| colspan="2" |
| colspan="2" |
|-
! style="font-size: x-small" | [[Fricative consonant|Fricative]]
| colspan="2" |
| {{IPA|f}} || {{IPA|v}}
| {{IPA|s}} || {{IPA|z}}
| {{IPA|ʃ}} || {{IPA|ʒ}}
| colspan="2" |
| colspan="2" |
| {{IPA|h}} ||
|-
! style="font-size: x-small" | [[Affricate consonant|Affricate]]
| colspan="2" |
| colspan="2" |
| {{IPA|ʦ}} ||
| {{IPA|ʧ}} ||
| colspan="2" |
| colspan="2" |
| colspan="2" |
|-
! style="font-size: x-small" | [[Lateral consonant|Lateral approximant]]
| colspan="2" |
| colspan="2" |
| || {{IPA|l}}
| colspan="2" |
| colspan="2" |
| colspan="2" |
| colspan="2" |
|-
! style="font-size: x-small" | [[Approximant]]
| colspan="2" |
| colspan="2" |
| colspan="2" |
| colspan="2" |
| || {{IPA|j}}
| colspan="2" |
| colspan="2" |
|-
|}
The accent rule in Ido is regular, but slightly more complex than that of Esperanto: all polysyllables are stressed on the penultimate (second from last) syllable except for verb [[infinitive]]s, which are stressed on the ultimate syllable—'''sko'''lo, ka'''fe'''o and '''ler'''nas for "school", "coffee" and "learn", but i'''rar''', sa'''var''', and drin'''kar''' for "to go", "to know", and "to drink".
== Grammar ==
Each word in the Ido vocabulary is built from a root word. A root word consists of a root and a grammatical ending. Other words can be formed from that word by removing the grammatical ending and adding a new one, or by inserting certain [[affix]]es between the root and the grammatical ending. As with Esperanto, Ido is grammatically invariable; there are no exceptions in Ido, unlike in natural languages.
Some of the grammatical endings are defined as follows:
{| class="wikitable"
! bgcolor="#CCCCCC" | Grammatical form || Ido || Esperanto || English
|-
| bgcolor="#CCCCCC" | [[Noun|Singular noun]] || ''' -o''' (libro)|| '''-o''' libro || book
|-
| bgcolor="#CCCCCC" | [[Noun|Plural noun]] || '''-i''' (libri) || '''-oj''' (libroj) || books
|-
| bgcolor="#CCCCCC" | [[Adjective]] || '''-a''' (varma) || '''-a''' (varma) || warm
|-
| bgcolor="#CCCCCC" | [[Adverb]] || '''-e''' (varme) || '''-e''' (varme) || warmly
|-
| bgcolor="#CCCCCC" | [[Infinitive|Present tense infinitive]] || '''-ar''' (irar) || '''-i''' (iri) || to go
|-
| bgcolor="#CCCCCC" | [[Infinitive|Past tense infinitive]] || '''-ir''' (irir) || N/A || to have gone
|-
| bgcolor="#CCCCCC" | [[Infinitive|Future tense infinitive]] || '''-or''' (iror) || N/A || to be going to go
|-
| bgcolor="#CCCCCC" | [[Present tense|Present]] || '''-as''' (iras) || '''-as''' (iras) || go, goes
|-
| bgcolor="#CCCCCC" | [[Past tense|Past]] || '''-is''' (iris) || '''-is''' (iris) || went
|-
| bgcolor="#CCCCCC" | [[Future tense|Future]] || '''-os''' (iros) || '''-os''' (iros) || will go
|-
| bgcolor="#CCCCCC" | [[Imperative]] || '''-ez''' (irez) || '''-u''' (iru) || go!
|-
| bgcolor="#CCCCCC" | [[Conditional mood|Conditional]] || '''-us''' (irus) || '''-us''' (irus) || would go
|}
These are the same as in Esperanto except for ''-i'', ''-ir''/''-ar''/''-or'' and ''-ez''. Esperanto marks noun plurals by an ''agglutinative'' ending ''-j'' (so plural nouns end in ''-oj''), uses ''-i'' for verb infinitives (Esperanto infinitives are tenseless), and uses ''-u'' for the imperative. Verbs in Ido do not conjugate depending on person, number or gender; the -'''as''', -'''is''', and -'''os''' endings suffice whether the subject is I, you, he, she, they, or anything else.
===Syntax===
Ido word order is generally the same as English ([[subject verb object]]), so the sentence ''Me havas la blua libro'' is the same as the English "I have the blue book", both in meaning and word order. There are a few differences, however:
*Adjectives can be written either before the noun as in English, or after the noun as in [[French language|French]]. Thus, ''Me havas la libro blua'' is also permissible.
*Ido has the optional -n accusative ending that is used when the object of the sentence is not clear, or it may be used to alter word order when desired. ''La blua libron me havas'' is another acceptable way of saying the same thing.
Negation occurs in Ido by simply affixing '''ne''' to the front of a verb: '''Me ne havas libro''' means "I do not have a book". This as well does not vary, and thus the "I do not", "He does not", "They do not" before a verb are simply '''Me ne''', '''Il ne''', and '''Li ne'''. In the same way, past tense and future tense negatives are formed by '''ne''' in front of the conjugated verb. "I will not go" and "I did not go" become '''Me ne iros''' and '''Me ne iris''' respectively.
Yes/no questions are formed by the particle '''ka''' in front of the question. "I have a book" (me havas libro) becomes '''Ka me havas libro?''' (do I have a book?). '''Ka''' can also be placed in front of a noun without a verb to make a simple question, corresponding to the English "is it?" '''Ka Mark?''' can mean "Are you Mark?", "Is it Mark?", "Do you mean Mark?" depending on the context.
===Pronouns===
The [[pronoun]]s of Ido were revised to make them more acoustically distinct than those of Esperanto, which all end in ''i''. Especially the singular and plural first-person pronouns ''mi'' and ''ni'' may be difficult to distinguish in a noisy environment, so Ido has ''me'' and ''ni'' instead. Ido also distinguishes between [[T-V distinction|intimate (''tu'') and formal (''vu'')]] second-person singular pronouns as well as plural second-person pronouns (''vi'') not marked for intimacy. Furthermore, Ido has a pan-gender third-person pronoun ''lu'' (it can mean "he", "she", or "it", depending on the context) in addition to its masculine (''il''), feminine (''el''), and neuter (''ol'') third-person pronouns.
{|class="wikitable"
|+'''Pronouns'''
!rowspan="3"|
!colspan="7" valign="top"|singular
!colspan="6" valign="top"|plural
!rowspan="3" valign="top"|indefinite
|-
!rowspan="2" valign="top"|first
!colspan="2" valign="top"|second
!colspan="4" valign="top"|third
!rowspan="2" valign="top"|first
!rowspan="2" valign="top"|second
!colspan="4" valign="top"|third
|-
!''familiar''
!''formal''
!''masculine''
!''feminine''
!''neuter''
!''pan-gender''
!''masculine''
!''feminine''
!''neuter''
!''pan-gender''
|-
!English
|align="center"|I
|align="center"|thou¹
|align="center"|you¹
|align="center"|he
|align="center"|she
|align="center"|it
|align="center"|he/it
|align="center"|we
|align="center"|you
|align="center"|
|align="center"|
|align="center"|
|align="center"|they
|align="center"|one
|-
!Esperanto
|align="center"|mi
|align="center"|ci¹
|align="center"|vi¹
|align="center"|li
|align="center"|ŝi
|align="center"|ĝi
|align="center"|ĝi²
|align="center"|ni
|align="center"|vi
|align="center"|
|align="center"|
|align="center"|
|align="center"|ili
|align="center"|oni
|-
!Ido
|align="center"|me
|align="center"|tu
|align="center"|vu
|align="center"|il(u)
|align="center"|el(u)
|align="center"|ol(u)
|align="center"|lu
|align="center"|ni
|align="center"|vi
|align="center"|ili
|align="center"|eli
|align="center"|oli
|align="center"|li
|align="center"|on(u)
|}
<small>¹ ''ci'' and ''thou'', while technically the familiar form of the word "you" in Esperanto and English, respectively, are almost never used. Results on Google have shown that while ''tu'' is only slightly less common than ''vu'' in Ido, ''ci'' is used less than half of one percent of the amount ''vi'' is in Esperanto. Esperanto's inventor himself did not include the pronoun in the first book on Esperanto and only later reluctantly; later he recommended against using ''ci'' on the grounds that different cultures have conflicting traditions regarding the use of the familiar and formal forms of "you", and that a universal language should avoid the problem by simply using the formal form in all situations. Unlike some other languages that use a formal second person pronoun, ''vi'' is not capitalized. {{ref|eventoj}}</small>
<small>² ''tiu'', though not a pronoun, is usually used in this circumstance, because many people have a hard time applying "it" to humans.</small>
It should be noted that ''ol'', like English ''it'' and Esperanto ''ĝi'', is not limited to inanimate objects, but can be used "for entities whose sex is indeterminate: ''babies, children, humans, youths, elders, people, individuals, horses, cows, cats,'' etc."
''Lu'' is often mistakenly labeled an [[epicene]] pronoun, that is, one that refers to both masculine and feminine beings, but in fact ''lu'' is more properly a "pan-gender" pronoun, as it is also used for referring to inanimate objects. From ''Kompleta Gramatiko Detaloza di la Linguo Internaciona Ido'' by Beaufront:
<small>''Lu'' (like ''li'') is used ''for all three genders.'' That ''lu'' does duty for the three genders at will in the singular is not in itself any more astonishing than seeing ''li'' serve the three genders at will in the plural ... By a decision (1558) the Idist Academy rejected every restriction concerning the use of ''lu.'' One may thus use that pronoun in exactly the same way for a thing and a person of obvious sex as for animals of unknown sex and a person that has a genderless name, like ''baby, child, human,'' etc., these being as truly masculine as feminine.</small>
<small>The motives for this decision were given in "Mondo", XI, 68: ''Lu'' for the singular is exactly the same as ''li'' for the plural. Logic, symmetry and ease demand this. Consequently, just as ''li'' may be used for people, animals, and things whenever nothing obliges one to express the gender, so ''lu'' may be used for people, animals, and things under the same condition. The proposed distinction would be a bothersome subtlety...</small>
===Vocabulary===
Vocabulary in Ido is based on words that give the greatest facility to the most number of speakers. During its inception the first 5000+ roots were analyzed compared to the vocabulary of English, French, Spanish, German, Russian and Italian, and the following result was found {{ref|dyer}}:
*2024 roots (38%) belong to 6 languages
*942 roots (17%) belong to 5 languages
*1111 roots (21%) belong to 4 languages
*585 roots (11%) belong to 3 languages
*454 roots (8%) belong to 2 languages
*255 roots (5%) belong to 1 language
**Total 5371 100%
In addition, a comparison of Ido vocabulary to the six shows the following for the similarities of Ido to the six languages above:
*French 4880: 91%
*Italian 4454: 83%
*Spanish 4237: 79%
*English 4219: 79%
*German 3302: 61%
*Russian 2821: 52%
This is consistent with the fact that Ido is sometimes mistaken for French, Italian or Spanish at first sight.
Comparison of vocabulary with the six languages:
{| class="wikitable"
!Ido!!English!!Italian!!French!!German!!Russian!!Spanish
|-
|'''bona'''||good ("bonus")||buono||bon||gut ("Bonus")||khoroshiy (dobriy)||bueno
|-
|'''donar'''||give ("donor")||dare ("donare")||donner||geben||darit||dar, donar
|-
|'''filtrar'''||filter||filtrare||filtrer||filtern||filtrovat||filtrar
|-
|'''gardeno'''||garden||giardino||jardin||Garten||ogorod||jardín
|-
|'''kavalo'''||horse ("cavalry")||cavallo||cheval||Pferd ("Kavallerie")||kon||caballo
|-
|'''maro'''||sea ("marine")||mare||mer||Meer||more||mar
|-
|'''naciono'''||nation||nazione||nation||Nation||natsia||nación
|-
|'''studiar'''||study||studiare||étudier||studieren||izuchat||estudiar
|-
|'''yuna'''||young||giovane ("junior")||jeune||jung||molodoy (yuniy)||joven
|-
|}
Vocabulary in Ido is often created through a number of official prefixes and suffixes that alter the meaning of the word. This allows a user to take existing words and modify them to create [[neologism|neologisms]] when necessary, and allows for a wide range of expression without the need to learn new vocabulary each time. Though their number is too large to be included in one article, some examples include:
*The diminutive suffix '''-et-'''. '''Domo''' (house) becomes '''dometo''' (cottage), and '''libro''' (book) becomes '''libreto''' (novelette or short story).
*The pejorative suffix '''-ach-'''. '''Domo''' becomes '''domacho''' (hovel), and '''libro''' becomes '''libracho''' (a shoddy piece of work, pulp fiction, etc.)
*The prefix '''retro-''', which implies a reversal. '''Irar''' (to go) becomes '''retroirar''' (to go back, backward) and '''venar''' becomes '''retrovenar''' (to return).
New vocabulary is generally created through an analysis of the word, its [[etymology]], and reference to the six source languages. If a word can be created through vocabulary already existing in the language then it will usually be adopted without need for a new radical (such as '''wikipedio''' for ''wikipedia'', which consists of '''wiki''' + '''enciklopedio''' for ''encyclopedia''), and if not an entirely new word will be created. The word '''alternatoro''' for example was adopted in [[1926]], likely because five of the six source languages used largely the same [[orthography]] for the word, and because it was long enough to avoid being mistaken for other words in the existing vocabulary. {{ref|neologismo}} Adoption of a word is done through consensus, after which the word will be made official by the [[Uniono por la Linguo Internaciona Ido|union]]. Care must also be taken to avoid [[homonym]]s if possible, and usually a new word undergoes some discussion before being adopted. Foreign words that have a restricted sense and are not likely to be used in everyday life (such as the word ''[[intifada]]'' to refer to the conflict between [[Israel]] and [[Palestinian territories|Palestine]]) are left untouched, and often written in italics.
==Ido-speaking community==
The vast majority of Ido speakers find out about the language after learning about Esperanto, and so the percentage of Idists who know Esperanto is much higher than vice versa. The largest number of Ido speakers are found in [[Germany]], [[France]], and [[Spain]].
As with all constructed languages, gauging the number of speakers of Ido is an extremely difficult task. Moreover, it is also necessary to distinguish between the number of Ido ''speakers'' and Ido ''supporters''. Ido resembles Esperanto, and many Esperantists have learned Ido out of curiosity while still not using it, preferring to support the more well-known Esperanto movement instead. On one Esperanto bulletin board was written the following which sums this up well:
<blockquote>Mi provis Idon antaŭ Esperanto, kaj alvenis konklude: la diferoj estas efike trivialaj, komparite al pli gravaj koncernaĵoj (kiujn mi ne detalos ĉi tie). Pro tio mi elektis subteni Esperanton, kaj ne subteni Idon, kvankam eble mi lernos Idon por hobio. Tamen via id-vortoj estas bone komprenebla al mi, kaj mi uzus Idon, se ne ekzistis tre pli subtenita lingvo<br>
<br>I tried Ido before Esperanto, and came to conclude that the differences are in fact trivial, compared to larger concerns (that I will not go into detail about here). For that <i>[the larger speaker community and volume of material]</i> I chose to support Esperanto and not to support Ido, though I will be able to learn Ido as a hobby. However, your writing in Ido <i>[responding to an Ido speaker]</i> is comprehensible to me, and I would use Ido, if there did not exist a much more supported language. [http://gxangalo.com/modules/newbb/viewtopic.php?topic_id=112&viewmode=flat&order=ASC&start=19] </blockquote>
It is possible to find trilingual discussions of this nature on the Internet in English, Esperanto and Ido, each understanding the other with little problem.
A number of Esperantists viewed the schism of Ido as a mixed blessing, and a number of writings show that some were inversely glad to see those who were interested only in creating a perfect language by constantly reforming it leave the fold so that those remaining could work on using and promoting the language itself. However, these "constant reformers" eventually moved on to other reform projects, few of which survived much beyond the deaths of the authors themselves, and Ido has remained constant since then—it is safe to say that were Ido a community of language reformers during its early days, that this is not the case anymore. {{ref|changes}}
A small sample of 24 Idists during late 2005 showed that 57% had begun their studies of the language during the past three years, 32% from the mid-1990s to 2002, and 8% had known the language from before.
==Language examples==
===La Princeto (The Little Prince)===
:Chapter 17 of [[The Little Prince]]; the conversation between the Little Prince and the snake upon his arrival on Earth. The title of the Ido-language version is '''La Princeto'''.
'''CHAPITRO XVII'''
:(...)
:–Bona nokto ! –dicis la surprizata princeto.
:–Bona nokto ! –dicis la serpento.
:–Adsur qua planeto me falis ? –questionis la princeto.
:–Adsur Tero, sur Afrika. –respondis la serpento.
:–Ha !... Kad esas nulu sur Tero ?
:–To esas la dezerto, e nulu esas sur la dezerti. Tero esas tre granda –dicis la serpento.
:La princeto sideskis sur stono e levis lua okuli a la cielo.
:–Me questionas a me –lu dicis- ka la steli intence brilas por ke uladie singlu povez trovar sua stelo. Videz mea planeto, olu esas exakte super ni... ma tre fore !
:–Olu esas bela planeto –dicis la serpento-. Por quo vu venis adhike ?
:–Esas chagreneto inter floro e me –dicis la princeto.
:–Ha ! –dicis la serpento.
:E la du permanis silence.
:–Ube esas la personi ? –klamis fine la princeto-. Onu esas kelke sola sur la dezerto...
:–Inter la personi onu anke esas sola –dicis la serpento.
:La princeto regardis la serpento longatempe.
:–Vu esas stranja animalo ! –dicis la princeto-. Vu esas tam tenua kam fingro...
:–Yes, ma me esas plu potenta kam fingro di rejo –dicis la serpento.
:La princeto ridetis.
:–Me ne kredas ke vu esas tre potenta, mem vu ne havas pedi... nek vu povas voyajar...
:–Me povas transportar vu plu fore kam navo -dicis la serpento.
:Ed olu spulis la maleolo di la princeto, same kam ora braceleto.
:–Ta quan me tushas retroiras a la tero deube lu venis. Ma vu esas pura e vu venas de stelo...
:La princeto nulon respondis.
:–Me kompatas vu, qua esas tante sola sur ta harda granita Tero. Me povas helpar vu se vu sentas nostalgio a vua planeto. Me povas...
:–Ho ! –dicis la princeto-. Me bone komprenis, ma pro quo vu sempre parolas enigmatoze ?
:–Me solvas omna enigmati –dicis la serpento.
:E la du permanis silence.
:'''Averto lektenda'''
:La verko '''La princeto''' licencesas sub '''Creative Commons License''', http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc/2.0/legalcode
:Autoro.- Fernando Tejón, krayono@yahoo.es
:Ret-pagino.- http://es.geocities.com/idohispania/laprinceto/laprinceto.html
=== The Lord's Prayer ===
([[Media:Padrenuestro.ogg|listen]])
:Patro nia, qua esas en la cielo,
:tua nomo santigesez;
:tua regno advenez;
:tua volo facesez quale en la cielo
:tale anke sur la tero.
:Donez a ni cadie l'omnadiala pano,
:e pardonez a ni nia ofensi,
:quale anke ni pardonas a nia ofensanti,
:e ne duktez ni aden la tento,
:ma liberigez ni del malajo.
== Literature and publications ==
[[Image:Anne Frank in Ido.PNG|right|thumb|280px|Extract from [[The Diary of Anne Frank]] in Ido from the journal ''Adavane!'', published by the Spanish Ido Society.]]
Ido has a number of publications that can be subscribed to or downloaded for free in most cases. The majority of Ido publications are composed mostly of material on various subjects, with a few pages within on the status of the movement and news on upcoming gatherings. ''Kuriero Internaciona'' is a magazine produced in France every few months with a range of topics. ''Adavane!'' is a magazine produced by the Spanish Ido Society every two months that has a range of topics, as well as a few dozen pages of work translated from other languages. ''Progreso'' is the official organ of the Ido movement and has been around since the inception of the movement in 1908. Other sites can be found with various stories, fables or proverbs along with a few books of the Bible translated into Ido on a smaller scale. The site ''publikaji'' has a few podcasts in Ido along with various songs and other recorded material.
The online encyclopedia [[Wikipedia]] includes an [http://io.wikipedia.org Ido-language edition] (known in Ido as ''Wikipedio''); [[as of January 2006]], it has over 13,000 articles.
== Recent International Ido Conventions ==
*'''2005:''' [[Toulouse]], [[France]], 13 participants from 4 countries ([http://www.europa.idolinguo.com/Francia/Idorenkontro2005/ Raporto])
*'''2004:''' [[Kiev]], [[Ukraine]], 17 participants from 9 countries ([http://www.europa.idolinguo.com/Ukrainia/Idorenkontro2004/ Raporto])
*'''2003:''' Grossbothen, [[Germany]], Participants from 6 countries ([http://www.europa.idolinguo.com/Germania/Idokonfero2003/ido.htm Raporto])
*'''2002:''' [[Kraków]], [[Poland]], 14 participants from 6 countries ([http://www.europa.idolinguo.com/Polonia/krakow2002.htm Raporto])
*'''2001:''' [[Nürnberg]], Germany, 14 participants from 5 countries ([http://www.nefkom.net/frank.kasper/konf2001.htm Raporto])
*'''1998:''' Białobrzegi, Poland, 15 participants from 6 countries
*'''1997:''' Bakkum (mun. [[Castricum]]), [[Netherlands]], 19 participants from 7 countries<br>
*'''1995:''' Elsnigk, Germany
*'''1991:''' [[Ostend]], [[Belgium]], 21 participants
*'''1980:''' [[Namur (city)|Namur]], Belgium, 35 participants
*'''1960:''' [[Zürich]], [[Switzerland]], ca. 50 participants
== References and notes ==
#L. Couturat, L. Leau. ''Delegation pour l'adoption d'une Langue auxiliare internationale'' (15-[[24 October]] [[1907]]). Coulommiers: Imprimerie Paul Brodard, 1907
#{{note|Harlow}}Harlow, Don. ''How to Build a Language'', chapter 3.
#{{note|dyer}}L. H. Dyer. "The Problem of an International Auxiliary Language and its Solution in Ido", pp. 101-124 [http://www.geocities.com/Paris/Rue/8009/idolinguo/101_121.htm], 1923.
#{{note|ido-movado}} ''Ido-movado''. (2005, novembro 15). Vikipedio, La Libera Enciklopedio. Retrieved 19:04, novembro 28, 2005 from http://eo.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Ido-movado&oldid=321224.
#{{note|changes}} Chandler, James. ''Changes in Ido since 1922'', from http://www.geocities.com/Athens/Forum/5037/changes.html
#{{note|Jesperson}} Jespersen, Otto. ''History of our Language (Ido)'' from http://www.geocities.com/Athens/Forum/5037/Hist.html - 1912. Translated from the original Ido available at http://www.geocities.com/Athens/Forum/5037/OJhist.html
#{{note|eventoj}} Eventoj, no. 103, ISSN 01215-959 X. ''Ci'' estas senvalora balasto'' (Ci is useless ballast). 1996. Available at http://www.eventoj.hu/arkivo/eve-103.htm
#{{note|neologismo}} ''Lexiko di nova vorti'' (lexicon of new words), available at http://www.geocities.com/Athens/Forum/5037/nova.html
==External links==
{{Interwiki|code=io}}
{{Wikibookspar||Ido}}
===Overview and answers to common questions===
* [http://idolinguo.org.uk/ International Language Ido]
===History and opinions on Ido===
* [http://www.langmaker.com/outpost/ido.htm Langmaker.com about Ido]
* [http://www.geocities.com/Athens/Forum/5037/Hist.html Otto Jespersen's history of Ido]
* [http://www.geocities.com/Athens/Forum/5037/PALih.html Another history of Ido]
* [http://donh.best.vwh.net/Esperanto/Historio/raporto.LK.1908.html Emile Boirac's "Report to the World Esperanto Congress, 1908"] about his experiences as part of the Delegation's Committee
* [http://www.geocities.com/Athens/Forum/5037/truth.html Léopold Leau's "The Truth About the Delegation in 1907"], a rebuttal of criticisms made about the events of the Delegation, based on his own experiences as a member of the Delegation
* [http://donh.best.vwh.net/Esperanto/EBook/chap03.html#ido "How to Build a Language", the section about Ido], and [http://donh.best.vwh.net/Esperanto/EBook/conlang1a.html "Ido: The Beginning"] by Don Harlow
* [http://www.kafejo.com/lingvoj/auxlangs/ido Ido-Pagino da Ailanto] - Discussion about Ido, links to websites, organizations, mailing lists, courses, dictionaries, grammars, etc.
* [http://www.homunculus.com/babel/aido.html Blueprints for Babel: Ido] - Commentary and grammatical summary of Ido, with glossary and links
===Pages in Ido and places to learn the language===
* [http://groups.yahoo.com/group/idolisto/ 'Idolisto' on Yahoo! Groups] and a [[:io:Ido en la reto#Diskuto|list of forums]] in other languages and for more specialized themes
* [http://io.wiktionary.org Ido Wiktionary]
* [http://es.geocities.com/krayono/kgd.pdf Kompleta Gramatiko Detaloza di la Linguo Internaciona Ido] (PDF), [http://ido.view.net.au/kgd/ in HTML], [http://ido.narod.ru/linguo/kgd/tabelo-di-kontenajo.htm again in HTML]
* "Ido for All", a course for English speakers, can be found [http://www.geocities.com/bebsonido/ here] and [http://www.geocities.com/Athens/Sparta/6367/ here]. A partial translation into French can be found [http://www.ido-vivo.info/Francaidokurso/ here]. MP3 files for lessons 1 - 7 can be found [http://www.iolairweb.co.uk/ido/idoforall.htm here].
* MP3 files can also be found at [http://es.geocities.com/krayono/radioidia.html Radio Idia Internaciona]. Many podcasts feature content from the magazine [http://es.geocities.com/krayono/adavane.html Adavane!].
* A much larger list of sites in Ido and about Ido in 33 other languages can be found on the [[:io:Ido en la reto|Ido Wikipedia]].
* [http://ekofin.blogspot.com Ekofin], a blog in Ido dealing with economics and finance. Also a fourth-year disertation on the [http://www2.vo.lu/homepages/spw/ido/bankala_relati.pdf influence of relationship banking on competition in the banking sector] in Ido by the same author
* [http://www.davidmann.us/idoforumi/viewtopic.php?t=65 Dyer Dictionary Transcription Project] - a project to transcribe the entire Dyer Ido-English/English-Ido Dictionary online, with 470 of 800 pages completed
{{Ido}}
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[[Category:International auxiliary languages]]
[[Category:Esperantido]]
{{Link FA|it}}
{{featured article}}
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[[de:Ido]]
[[et:Ido]]
[[es:Ido]]
[[eo:Ido (lingvo)]]
[[eu:Ido]]
[[fa:ایدو]]
[[fr:Ido]]
[[fy:Ido]]
[[ga:Ido]]
[[gl:Ido]]
[[ko:이도]]
[[hr:Ido]]
[[io:Ido]]
[[id:Bahasa Ido]]
[[ia:Ido]]
[[is:Ido]]
[[it:Ido]]
[[sw:Kiido]]
[[ku:Ido]]
[[la:Ido]]
[[lt:Ido]]
[[lb:Ido]]
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[[hu:Ido nyelv]]
[[mt:Lingwa Ido]]
[[ms:Bahasa Ido]]
[[nl:Ido (kunsttaal)]]
[[nds:Ido]]
[[ja:イド語]]
[[no:Ido]]
[[nn:Ido]]
[[oc:Ido]]
[[pl:Ido]]
[[pt:Ido]]
[[ro:Ido]]
[[ru:Идо]]
[[sco:Ido]]
[[sq:Gjuha Ido]]
[[simple:Ido]]
[[sk:Ido]]
[[sl:Ido]]
[[sr:Идо]]
[[fi:Ido]]
[[sv:Ido]]
[[tr:İdo dili]]
[[zh:伊多语]]
Improvisational theatre
15041
39136447
2006-02-10T23:11:34Z
82.234.14.4
/* External links */
'''Improvisational Theatre''' (also known as '''improv''' or '''impro''') is a form of [[theatre]] in which the [[actor]]s perform spontaneously, without a [[script (performing arts)|script]]. Modern improvisation began in the classroom with the theatre games of [[Viola Spolin]] and [[Keith Johnstone]] in the 1950s, then evolved quickly to become an independent artform worthy of presentation before a paying audience.
In all forms of improvisation, the actors invent/discover the [[dialogue]] and action as they perform. The unpredictable nature of such a performance lends itself naturally to [[comedy]], which might go somewhat towards explaining why the overwhelming majority of improvisational theatre is comedic, not dramatic. Dramatic improv is used by many companies and artists as a means of generating text and content for later performance. This is sometimes referred to as ''"organic"'' theatre, and is especially favored by creators of [[political theatre]], [[experimental theatre]], and practitioners of [[drama therapy]]. Improvisation is often found used in actor training as well. Modern [[improvisational comedy]], as it is practiced in the West, falls generally into two categories: [[Shortform improvisation|shortform]] and [[longform improvisation|longform]].
==Improv process==
Improvisational theatre allows an active relationship with the audience often absent from scripted theatre. Frequently improv groups will solicit suggestions from the audience as a source of inspiration, a way of getting the audience excited and involved, and as a means of proving that the performance is not scripted, a charge often aimed at the masters of the art, whose performances seem so effortless and detailed that those new to improv are convinced it must have been planned. Much of this success can be attributed to the level of cooperation and ''agreement'' these improvisers bring to the stage.
In order for an improvised [[scene]] to be successful, the actors involved must work together responsively to define the parameters and action of the scene. With each spoken word or action in the scene, an actor makes an ''offer'', meaning that he or she defines some element of the reality of the scene. This might include giving another character a name, identifying a relationship, location, or using [[mime]] to define the physical environment. These activities are also known as ''endowment''. It is the responsibility of the other actors to accept the offers that their fellow performers make; to not do so is known as [[blocking (improv)|blocking]], which usually prevents the scene from developing. Some performers may deliberately block (or otherwise break out of character) for comedic effect -- this is known as ''gagging'' -- but this generally prevents the scene from advancing and is frowned upon by many improvisers. Accepting an offer is usually accompanied by adding a new offer, often building on the earlier one; this is a process improvisers refer to as ''"Yes, And..."'' and is considered the cornerstone of improvisational technique. For example, an improv scene might begin with these lines.
'''Adam''': I'm proud of all the work you've done here on the farm, Junior.
'''Bill''': Yes, and I'm proud of you for giving up the moonshine, Pa.
The unscripted nature of improv also implies no predetermined knowledge about the [[prop]]s that might be useful in a scene. Improv companies may have at their disposal some number of readily accessible props that can be called upon at a moment's notice, but many improvisers eschew props in favor of the infinite possibilities available through [[mime]]. As with all improv ''offers'', actors are encouraged to respect the validity and continuity of the imaginary environment defined by themselves and their fellow performers; this means, for example, taking care not to walk through the table or "miraculously" survive multiple bullet wounds from another improviser's gun.
Because improv actors may be required to play a variety of roles without preparation, they need to be able to construct characters quickly with physicality, [[gesture]]s, [[Accent (language)|accent]]s, [[human voice|voice]] changes, or other techniques as demanded by the situation. The actor may be called upon to play a character of a different age or sex. Character motivations are an important part of successful improv scenes, and improv actors must therefore attempt to act according to the objectives that they believe their character seeks.
Many improvisational actors also work as scripted actors, and "improv" techniques are often taught in standard acting classes. The basic skills of listening, clarity, confidence, and performing without thinking are considered important skills for actors to develop.
==Improv troupes==
See [[List of improvisational theatre companies]]
==Well-known improv actors==
Some key figures in the development of improvisational theatre are [[Viola Spolin]] and her son [[Paul Sills]], founder of Chicago's famed [[The Second City|Second City]] troupe and inventor of [[Story Theater]], and [[Del Close]], founder of [[ImprovOlympic]] (along with [[Charna Halpern]]) and creator of the [[longform]] improv known as [[The Harold]].
[[Keith Johnstone]] authored [[Impro]] and [[Impro for Storytellers]] and developed the international formats [[Theatresports]], Micetro Impro, Gorilla Theatre and the Life Game.
[[Dick Chudnow]] founded [[ComedySportz]] dealing specifically with competitive [[shortform]] improvisational theatre.
[[Jonathan Fox]] founded [[Playback Theatre]], a community based form with links to oral storytelling and [[psychodrama]].
[[David Shepherd]], with Paul Sills, founded the [[Compass Theatre]] in Chicago. Shepherd was intent on developing a true "people's Theatre", and hoped to bring political drama to the stockyards. The Compass went on to play in numerous forms and companies, in a number of cities including NY and Hyannis, after the founding of The Second City. A number of Compass members were also founding members of [[The Second City]]. In the 1970's, Shepherd began experimenting with group-creatied videos. He is the author of "That Movie In Your Head", about these efforts.
[[Robert Wells]] founded [[Chicken Lips]] Comedy Company and the [[World Humor Organization]] (WHO) which provides top class shortform improv. Based in Denver at the [[Avenue Theater]].
==See also==
* [[Improvisation]]
* [[improvisational comedy]]
* [[Commedia dell'arte]]
* ''[[Whose Line Is It Anyway?]]''
* [[ad-lib]]
* [[:fr:Match_d'improvisation|Quebec Improvisational competition]]
* [[Friday Nite Improvs]]
* [[Chicken Lips]] / [[World Humor Organization]]
==External links==
*[http://wiki.chicagoimprov.org/index.php/Main_Page The CIN Wiki] A Wiki dedicated to improvisational theater, hosted by [http://www.chicagoimprov.org The Chicago Improv Network] message boards.
*[http://davehitt.com/improv.html The ISFP Players Handbook] A 140+ page Improv Handbook. Includes Hundreds of games, Advice for directors and performers, and long lists of ask-fors, emotions, film & theater styles, etc.
* [http://www.dangoldstein.com/howtoimprovise.html How to Be a Better Improviser]: an excellent primer on some of the basic precepts ("ground rules") of improv, by improviser and professor [[Daniel_Goldstein | Dan Goldstein]].
* [http://www.humanpingpongball.com Improv Encyclopedia] encyclopedia of over 500 improv games, techniques and terminology.
* [http://greenlightwiki.com/improv The Improv Wiki] discusses techniques for performing and learning improv.
* [http://improvland.com Improvland] webpage about improvisational theatre, with articles, resources, message boards and an international links section to the groups around the world.
* [http://www.yesand.com YesAnd.com] features improv news, resources and message boards.
* The [http://www.improvresourcecenter.com Improv Resource Center] is a community site for dedicated improvisers in Chicago, New York and other parts of the United States.
* [http://www.improstival.com Improstival France] International Improvisation Festival in Paris
* [http://www.improvisades.org Les Improvisades France] Students and workers meet in improsessions in France
* [http://www.impromania.com Impromania France] Dance Music and Theater Improvisation Festival in Paris
* [http://www.impro.infini.fr Brest France]
* [http://home.cwru.edu/improv IMPROVment - CWRU improv troupe]
[[Category:Theatrical genres]]
[[Category:Improvisation]]
[[de:Improvisationstheater]]
[[fr:Improvisation théâtrale]]
[[it:Improvvisazione teatrale]]
[[ja:インプロ]]
[[sl:Improvizacijsko gledališče]]
International Space Station
15043
42151836
2006-03-04T04:01:19Z
Kavanagh
971440
COTS link
{| align=right border=1 cellpadding=4 cellspacing=0 width="260" style="margin: 0 0 1em 1em; background: #ffffff; border: 1px #aaaaaa solid; border-collapse: collapse; font-size: 95%;"
!colspan="3" cellspacing="0" cellpadding="2" bgcolor="#FFDEAD"|'''International Space Station'''
|-
|colspan="3" align="center"|
{|
|[[Image:ISS_Aug2005.jpg|none|250px|]]
<small>International Space Station photographed following<br>separation from the [[Space Shuttle Discovery|Space Shuttle ''Discovery'']], [[August 7]], [[2005]]</small>
|}
{|
<small>International Space Station insignia</small>
|}
|-
!colspan="3" cellspacing="0" cellpadding="2" bgcolor="#FFDEAD"|ISS Statistics
|-
|width="40%"|'''Crew:'''||width="30%"| 2 || width="30%"| As of<br />[[August 21]], [[2005]]
|-
|''' [[Perigee]]: '''|| 352.8 km || "
|-
|'''Apogee:'''|| 354.2 km || "
|-
|'''[[Orbital period]]:'''|| 91.61 minutes || "
|-
|'''Inclination:'''|| 51.64 degrees || "
|-
|'''Orbits per day:'''|| 15.72 || "
|-
|'''Days in orbit:''' || 2,473 || [[August 28]], [[2005]]
|-
|''' Days occupied:''' || 1,759 || "
|-
|'''Total orbits:''' || 38,694 || "
|-
|'''Distance traveled:''' || ≈1,400,000,000 km || [[June 17]], [[2005]]
|-
|''' Average speed:''' || 27,685.7 km/h || "
|-
|'''Mass:'''|| 183,283 kg || [[August 28]], [[2005]]
|-
|'''Living volume:'''|| 425 m³ || "
|-
!colspan="3" cellspacing="0" cellpadding="2" bgcolor="#FFDEAD"|'''International Space Station '''
|-
|colspan="3" align="center"|
{|
| [[Image:ISS-elements-23-Jul-2004-pt.png|250px|right|ISS elements (NASA)]]
<small>International Space Station elements as of 23-July-2004.<br>Click to enlarge.</small>
|}
|-
!colspan="3" cellspacing="0" cellpadding="2" bgcolor="#FFDEAD"|ISS Diagram
|-
|}
[[image:NASA-Krikalev-inside-ISS.jpg|thumb|300px|right|Cosmonaut [[Sergei Krikalev]] inside the Zvezda Service Module, November 2000]]
The '''International Space Station''' ('''ISS''') is a joint project of five space agencies:
*[[National Aeronautics and Space Administration]] ([[United States]])
*[[Russian Federal Space Agency]] ([[Russia|Russian Federation]])
*[[Japan Aerospace Exploration Agency]] ([[Japan]])
*[[Canadian Space Agency]] ([[Canada]])
*[[European Space Agency]] (15 of its member states are currently participating; [[Austria]], [[United Kingdom]], [[Ireland]], [[Portugal]], and [[Finland]] chose not to participate; [[Greece]] and [[Luxembourg]] joined ESA later).
The [[Brazilian Space Agency]] ([[Brazil]]) participates through separate contract with [[National Aeronautics and Space Administration|NASA]].The [[Italian Space Agency]] similary has separate contracts for various activities, that are not done in the framework of [[European Space Agency|ESA]] ISS works (where [[Italy]] also fully participates).
The [[space station]] is located in [[orbit]] around the [[Earth]] at an altitude of approximately [[1 E5 m|360]] [[kilometre|km]] (220 miles), a type of orbit usually termed [[low Earth orbit]] (The actual height varies over time by several kilometres due to [[atmospheric drag]] and reboosts {{ref|altitude}}). It orbits Earth in a [[Orbital period|period]] of about 92 minutes; by June [[2005]] it had completed more than 37,500 orbits since launch of the [[Zarya|Zarya module]] on [[November 20]], [[1998]].
In many ways the ISS represents a merger of previously planned independent space stations: [[Russian Federal Space Agency|Russia]]'s [[ISS Zvezda|Mir 2]], [[NASA|United States]]' [[Space Station Freedom]] and the planned [[ESA|European]] [[Columbus (ISS module)|Columbus]] and [[JAXA|Japanese]] [[Japanese Experiment Module|Experiment Module]]. Today it represents a permanent human presence in space, as it has been manned with a crew of at least two since [[November 2]], [[2000]] (see [[#ISS Expeditions]]).
It is serviced primarily by the [[Space Shuttle]], [[Soyuz spacecraft|Soyuz]] and [[Progress spacecraft]] units. It is still being built, but is home to some experimentation already. At present, the station has a capacity for a crew of three. So far, all members of the expedition crews have come from the Russian or United States space programs. The ISS has however been visited by many more astronauts, a number of them from other countries (and by three [[space tourist]]s).
==History==
Initially planned as a [[NASA]] "[[Space Station Freedom]]" and promoted by [[Ronald Reagan|President Reagan]], it was found to be too expensive. After the end of the [[Cold War]], it was taken up again as a joint project of NASA and [[Russia]]'s [[Rosaviakosmos]]. On [[December 1]], [[1987]], [[NASA]] announced the names of four U.S. companies who were awarded contracts to help manufacture the US-built parts of the Space Station: [[Boeing|Boeing Aerospace]], [[General Electric]]'s Astro-Space Division, [[McDonnell Douglas]], and the [[Rocketdyne]] Division of [[Rockwell International|Rockwell]].
The first section, the [[Zarya|Zarya Functional Cargo Block]], was put in orbit in November [[1998]]. Two further pieces (the [[Unity Module]] and [[ISS Zvezda|Zvezda service module]]) were added before the first crew, [[Expedition 1]], was sent. [[Expedition 1]] docked to the ISS on [[November 2]], [[2000]] and consisted of US [[astronaut]] [[William Shepherd]] and two Russian cosmonauts, [[Yuri Gidzenko]] and [[Sergei Krikalev]].
To construct the station, the large components are almost entirely completed on
Earth, so that when they are launched into orbit the amount of installation required by the astronauts on the ISS is minimal. The components are usually launched in the large cargo bay of the [[NASA]] [[Space Shuttle]]. Currently the [[ISS assembly sequence|assembly sequence]] is just under half complete. [[As of 2006]] the station is only able to accommodate three permanent crew members, compared to the expected seven that the completed station will hold.
The ISS has been far more expensive than originally anticipated by [[NASA]]. Its construction is also behind schedule, largely due to the halting of all NASA Shuttle flights following the [[Space Shuttle Columbia disaster|Columbia disaster]] in early [[2003]]. For the two and a half years that the NASA [[Space Shuttle]] fleet was grounded, crew rotation continued on the station through the use of the Russian [[Soyuz spacecraft]]s, although the science conducted aboard was very limited.
Construction of the station was scheduled to resume in [[2006]], following a few 'Return to Flight' missions, like [[STS-114]]. Unfortunately, the reappearance of the [[STS-114#Launch sequence anomalies|foam debris problem]] on the [[STS-114]] mission in July [[2005]], (the same that doomed [[Space Shuttle Columbia|Columbia]]) has again delayed the launch sequence, and has even called into question the future of the space station. Further aggravating the construction of the ISS, the plant where the space shuttle's external fuel tank is made, is located near [[New Orleans]], [[Louisiana]], and was damaged by [[Hurricane Katrina]].
==Building the ISS==
*[[ISS assembly sequence]]
Building the ISS requires more than 50 assembly and utilization flights. Of these flights, 39 are planned to be [[Space Shuttle]] flights. In addition to the assembly and utilization flights, approximately 30 [[Progress spacecraft]] flights are required to provide logistics. When assembly is complete, the ISS will have a pressurized volume of 1,200 cubic meters, a mass of 419,000 kilograms, 110 kilowatts of power output, a truss 108.4 meters long, modules 74 meters long, and a crew of six.
As of the end of 2005 many changes have been made to the originally planned ISS, modules and other structures have been cancelled or replaced and the number of remaining Shuttle flights to the ISS has been reduced to now 18 during the years 2006-2010.
The station consists of several modules and elements:
{| class="wikitable"
|-
! Element
! Flight
! Launch Vehicle
! Launch date
! Length<br>(m)
! Diameter<br>(m)
! Mass<br>(kg)
|-
| '''[[Zarya]] FGB'''
| 1A/R
| [[Proton rocket]]
| [[November 20]],[[1998]]
| style="text-align: right"|12.6
| style="text-align: right"|4.1
| style="text-align: right"|19,323
|-
| '''[[Unity Module|Unity]] Node 1'''
| 2A - [[STS-88]]
| [[Space Shuttle Endeavour|Endeavour]]
| [[December 4]],[[1998]]
| style="text-align: right"|5.49
| style="text-align: right"|4.57
| style="text-align: right"|11,612
|-
| '''[[ISS Zvezda|Zvezda]] Service Module'''
| 1R
| [[Proton rocket]]
| [[July 12]],[[2000]]
| style="text-align: right"|13.1
| style="text-align: right"|4.15
| style="text-align: right"|19,050
|-
| '''[[ISS Truss|Z1 Truss]]'''
| 3A - [[STS-92]]
| [[Space Shuttle Discovery|Discovery]]
| [[October 11]],[[2000]]
| style="text-align: right"|4.9
| style="text-align: right"|4.2
| style="text-align: right"|8,755
|-
| '''[[ISS Solar Arrays|P6 Truss - Solar Array]]'''
| 4A - [[STS-97]]
| [[Space Shuttle Endeavour|Endeavour]]
| [[November 30]],[[2000]]
| style="text-align: right"|73.2
| style="text-align: right"|10.7
| style="text-align: right"|15,900
|-
| '''[[Destiny Laboratory Module|Destiny]]'''
| 5A - [[STS-98]]
| [[Space Shuttle Atlantis|Atlantis]]
| [[February 7]],[[2001]]
| style="text-align: right"|8.53
| style="text-align: right"|4.27
| style="text-align: right"|14,515
|-
| '''[[Mobile Servicing System|Canadarm2]]'''
| 6A - [[STS-100]]
| [[Space Shuttle Endeavour|Endeavour]]
| [[April 19]],[[2001]]
| style="text-align: right"|17.6
| style="text-align: right"|0.35
| style="text-align: right"|4,899
|-
| '''[[Joint Airlock]] - Quest Airlock'''
| 7A - [[STS-104]]
| [[Space Shuttle Atlantis|Atlantis]]
| [[July 12]],[[2001]]
| style="text-align: right"|5.5
| style="text-align: right"|4.0
| style="text-align: right"|6,064
|-
| '''[[Docking Compartment]] - Pirs Airlock'''
| 4R
| [[Progress spacecraft|Progress M]]
| [[August 14]],[[2001]]
| style="text-align: right"|4.1
| style="text-align: right"|2.6
| style="text-align: right"|3,900
|-
| '''[[ISS Truss|S0 Truss]]'''
| 8A - [[STS-110]]
| [[Space Shuttle Atlantis|Atlantis]]
| [[April 8]],[[2002]]
| style="text-align: right"|13.4
| style="text-align: right"|4.6
| style="text-align: right"|13,970
|-
| '''[[Mobile Servicing System|Mobile Base System]]''' for Canadarm2
| UF-2 - [[STS-111]]
| [[Space Shuttle Endeavour|Endeavour]]
| [[June 5]],[[2002]]
| style="text-align: right"|5.7
| style="text-align: right"|2.9
| style="text-align: right"|1,450
|-
| '''[[ISS Truss|S1 Truss]]'''
| 9A - [[STS-112]]
| [[Space Shuttle Atlantis|Atlantis]]
| [[October 7]],[[2002]]
| style="text-align: right"|13.7
| style="text-align: right"|3.9
| style="text-align: right"|12,598
|-
| '''[[ISS Truss|P1 Truss]]'''
| 11A - [[STS-113]]
| [[Space Shuttle Endeavour|Endeavour]]
| [[November 24]],[[2002]]
| style="text-align: right"|13.7
| style="text-align: right"|3.9
| style="text-align: right"|12,598
|-
| '''[[External Stowage Platform|External Stowage Platform (ESP-2)]]'''
| LF1 - [[STS-114]]
| [[Space Shuttle Discovery|Discovery]]
| [[July 26]],[[2005]]
| style="text-align: right"|?
| style="text-align: right"|?
| style="text-align: right"|?
|}
'''Launched on periodic resupply missions'''
* [[Multi-Purpose Logistics Module]] (MPLM)
'''Scheduled for launch by [[Space Shuttle|Shuttle]] after return to flight'''
<br>(listed in order of planned launch sequence)
* 4 Truss segments (two port and two starboard)
* [[Node 2]] (launch ~2007)
* [[Columbus (ISS module)|Columbus Laboratory]] (launch ~2007/08)
* [[Japanese Experiment Module]] (JEM), aka KIBO (launch ~2007/08)
* [[Cupola (ISS)|Cupola]] - (launch ~2009)
'''Scheduled for launch by [[Proton rocket]]'''
* [[Multipurpose Laboratory Module]] FGB-2 based - (launch ~2007)
* [[European Robotic Arm]] (ERA) (launch ~2007 together with MLM)
* [[Russian Research Module]] reduced to 1 (launch ~2009)
'''Cancelled elements'''
* [[Node 3]] - cancelled
* [[Centrifuge Accommodations Module]] cancelled (would have been attached to Node 2)
* [[Universal Docking Module]] - cancelled, replaced by (MLM - FGB2)
* [[Docking and Stowage Module]] - cancelled
* [[Habitation Module]] - cancelled
* [[Crew Return Vehicle (CRV)]] - cancelled
* [[Interim Control Module]] - cancelled, no need to replace [[ISS Zvezda|Zvezda]]
* [[ISS Propulsion Module]] - cancelled, no need to replace [[ISS Zvezda|Zvezda]]
'''Uncertain elements'''
* [[Science Power Platform]] planned to be launched by a Shuttle flight, now more likely to be launched by a Proton
'''Visiting spacecrafts'''
* [[Soyuz spacecraft]] for crew rotation and emergency evacuation, replaced every 6 months
* [[Progress spacecraft]] - resupply vehicle
* European (ESA) [[Automated Transfer Vehicle]] (ATV) ISS resupply spacecraft
* Japanese (JAXA) [[H-II Transfer Vehicle]] (HTV) resupply vehicle for KIBO module
* Commercial cargo resupply spacecraft, under the NASA COTS ([[Commercial orbital transportation services]]) program
There is also a large unpressurized [[ISS Truss|truss]] system partially in place that will eventually support the prominent [[ISS Solar Arrays|solar arrays]].
{{ISS modules}}
==Criticism of the ISS==
There are many critics of NASA who view the project as a waste of time and money, inhibiting progress on more useful projects: for instance, the estimated $100 billion USD lifetime cost could pay for dozens of [[unmanned space mission|unmanned scientific missions]] or could be used for space exploration in general or be better spent on problems on Earth. Critics complain that very little high-quality scientific research has been done on the ISS, and that if the station's scientific program had had to compete with other scientific research in the normal process of peer review and grant applications, it would have never been funded. The recent problems of the shuttle program have put the ISS in a precarious position, in which its inhabitants spend most of their time trying to survive, rather than doing scientific research.
So far the costs have been $26 billion, of which the US' share consists mainly of costs related to the Space Shuttle, not expenses NASA incurred by building elements or maintaining the ISS. However, critics say that the main justification for the shuttle program is to service the ISS, while the main justification for the ISS is to give the shuttle somewhere to go. With the cancellation of parts of the ISS, such as the [[Centrifuge Accommodations Module]] or [[Node 3]] and the shift of the [[European Robotic Arm]] and the [[Science Power Platform]] to a launch by a Russian [[Proton rocket]] NASA's ISS expenses excluding Shuttle assembly flight costs are expected to be much lower than the $100 billion figure that is often used in the media.
Advocates of space exploration say that criticism of the ISS project is short-sighted, and that manned space research and exploration have produced billions of dollars of tangible benefits to people on Earth. By some estimates, the indirect economic benefits made from commercialization of technologies developed during [[human spaceflight|manned space exploration]] have returned many times the initial investment to the economy. However, there is no consensus among economists on how to make such an estimate, since it requires speculation as to what the tax money would have accomplished had it remained in the economy. Whether the ISS, as distinct from the wider space program, will be a major contributor in this sense is, thus a subject of debate. More cynical advocates have pointed out that even if its scientific value is nil, it would have still served to force international cooperation at a time of tough [[international politics]].
Two technical aspects of the ISS's design have been heavily criticized: (1) it requires too much maintenance, and in particular too much maintence through risky, expensive EVAs; (2) its orbit is too highly inclined, making it difficult to reach from the Earth's surface in an economical way. The latter decision arose from the political realities of the US's desire to keep Russia involved in the program.
== Space Tourism, weddings and the ISS ==
The ISS has seen the first [[space tourist]], [[Dennis Tito]], who spent 20 million USD to fly aboard a Russian supply mission and the first space wedding when [[Yuri Malenchenko]] on the station married Ekaterina Dmitriev who was in Texas.
==Present status of the ISS==
[[Image:Shuttle_approaching_ISS.jpg|left|thumb|250px|The Space Shuttle ''Discovery'' is seen here approaching the ''International Space Station'']]
After the [[Space Shuttle Columbia disaster|breakup]] of [[Space Shuttle Columbia|''Columbia'']] on [[February 1]], [[2003]], and the subsequent two and a half year suspension of the US [[Space program]], followed by problems with resuming flight operations in 2005, there remains some uncertainty over the future of the ISS.
Due to weight restrictions and design constraints, payloads intended for the Shuttle - even if ready to fly - cannot be launched to the station on any other available launcher. In addition, assembly work is manpower-intensive, making it difficult to do without the assistance of EVA teams brought up by the Shuttle.
In the meantime, crew exchange has been carried out using the Russian Soyuz spacecraft. Starting with [[Expedition 7]], two-astronaut caretaker crews have been launched, instead of the previous crews of three. However, Soyuz lacks the raw cargo space of the shuttle, and cannot carry a significant amount of material back to earth; because the ISS had not been visited by a shuttle for an extended period, a large amount of waste accumulated which temporarily hindered station operations.
The Space Shuttle Program resumed flight on [[26 July]] [[2005]] with [[STS-114]], the Return to Flight mission of [[Space Shuttle Discovery|''Discovery'']]. This mission to the ISS was intended to both test new safety measures implemented since the Columbia disaster, and to deliver supplies to the station. Although the mission succeeded safely, it was not without risk; foam was shed by the external tank, leading NASA to announce future missions would be grounded until this issue was resolved.
[[image:NASA-Foale-Spacewalk.jpg|thumb|right|Astronaut Michael Foale on a construction EVA outside the ISS in February 2004]]
The second Return to Flight mission, [[STS-121]] was planned for September 2005, but has been delayed until at least May 2006.
==ISS Expeditions==
<!--
!width="125"|Expedition
!width="350"|Crew
!width="175"|Launch<br>date
!width="125"|Flight up
!width="175"|Landing<br>date
!width="125"|Flight down
!width="65"|Duration<br>(Days)
-->
{| class="wikitable"
|- style="background-color: #efefef"
!Expedition
!Crew<br><small>(commander in ''italics'')
!Launch date
!Flight up
!Landing date
!Flight down
!Duration<br><small>(days)</small>
|-
![[Expedition 1]]
|''[[William Shepherd]] - U.S.A.''<br>[[Yuri Gidzenko]] - Russia<br>[[Sergei Krikalev]] - Russia
|[[October 31]], [[2000]]<br>07:52:47 UTC
|[[Soyuz TM-31]]
|[[March 21]], [[2001]]<br>07:33:06 UTC
|[[STS-102]]
|style="text-align: right"|140.98
|-
![[Expedition 2]]
|''[[Yuri Usachev]] - Russia''<br>[[Susan Helms]] - U.S.A.<br>[[James Voss]] - U.S.A.
|[[March 8]], [[2001]]<br>11:42:09 UTC
|[[STS-102]]
|[[August 22]], [[2001]]<br>19:24:06 UTC
|[[STS-105]]
|style="text-align: right"|167.28
|-
![[Expedition 3]]
|''[[Frank L. Culbertson]] - U.S.A.''<br>[[Vladimir N. Dezhurov]] - Russia<br>[[Mikhail Tyurin]] - Russia
|[[August 10]], [[2001]]<br>21:10:15 UTC
|[[STS-105]]
|[[December 17]], [[2001]]<br>17:56:13 UTC
|[[STS-108]]
|style="text-align: right"|128.86
|-
![[Expedition 4]]
|''[[Yury Onufrienko]] - Russia''<br>[[Dan Bursch]] - U.S.A.<br>[[Carl Walz]] - U.S.A.
|[[December 5]], [[2001]]<br>22:19:28 UTC
|[[STS-108]]
|[[June 19]], [[2002]]<br>09:57:41 UTC
|[[STS-111]]
|style="text-align: right"|195.82
|-
![[Expedition 5]]
|''[[Valery Korzun]] - Russia''<br>[[Sergei Treschev]] - Russia<br>[[Peggy Whitson]] - U.S.A.
|[[June 5]], [[2002]]<br>21:22:49 UTC
|[[STS-111]]
|[[December 7]], [[2002]]<br>19:37:12 UTC
|[[STS-113]]
|style="text-align: right"|184.93
|-
![[Expedition 6]]
|''[[Kenneth Bowersox]] - U.S.A.''<br>[[Nikolai Budarin]] - Russia<br>[[Donald Pettit]] - U.S.A.
|[[November 24]], [[2002]]<br>00:49:47 UTC
|[[STS-113]]
|[[May 4]], [[2003]]<br>02:04:25 UTC
|[[Soyuz TMA-1]]
|style="text-align: right"|161.05
|-
![[Expedition 7]]
|''[[Yuri Malenchenko]] - Russia''<br>[[Edward Lu]] - U.S.A.
|[[April 26]], [[2003]]<br>03:53:52 UTC
|[[Soyuz TMA-2]]
|[[October 28]], [[2003]]<br>02:40:20 UTC
|[[Soyuz TMA-2]]
|style="text-align: right"|184.93
|-
![[Expedition 8]]
|''[[Michael Foale]] - U.S.A.''<br>[[Alexander Kaleri]] - Russia
|[[October 18]], [[2003]]<br>05:38:03 UTC
|[[Soyuz TMA-3]]
|[[April 30]], [[2004]]<br>00:11:15 UTC
|[[Soyuz TMA-3]]
|style="text-align: right"|194.77
|-
![[Expedition 9]]
|''[[Gennady Padalka]] - Russia''<br>[[Michael Fincke]] - U.S.A.
|[[April 19]], [[2004]]<br>03:19:00 UTC
|[[Soyuz TMA-4]]
|[[October 24]], [[2004]]<br>00:32:00 UTC
|[[Soyuz TMA-4]]
|style="text-align: right"|185.66
|-
![[Expedition 10]]
|''[[Leroy Chiao]] - U.S.A.''<br>[[Salizhan Sharipov]] - Russia
|[[October 14]], [[2004]]<br> 03:06 UTC
|[[Soyuz TMA-5]]
|[[April 24]], [[2005]]<br>22:08:00 UTC
|[[Soyuz TMA-5]]
|style="text-align: right"|192.79
|-
![[Expedition 11]]
|''[[Sergei Krikalev]] - Russia''<br>[[John L. Phillips]] - U.S.A.
|[[April 15]], [[2005]]<br> 00:46:00 UTC
|[[Soyuz TMA-6]]<br>
|[[October 11]], [[2005]] <br> 01:09:00 UTC
|[[Soyuz TMA-6]]
|style="text-align: right"|179.02
|-
![[Expedition 12]]
|''[[William McArthur]] - U.S.A.''<br>[[Valery Tokarev]] - Russia
|[[October 1]], [[2005]]<br> 03:54:00 UTC
|[[Soyuz TMA-7]]<br>
|Planned: [[April 8]] [[2006]]
|[[Soyuz TMA-7]]
|style="text-align: right"|~189
|-
![[Expedition 13]]
|''[[Pavel Vinogradov]] - Russia''<br>[[Jeffrey Williams]] - U.S.A.<br>[[Thomas Reiter]] - Germany
|colspan="5" style="text-align: center"|Scheduled [[March 30]]–[[September 23]], [[2006]]
|-
![[Expedition 14]]
|''[[Michael Lopez-Alegria ]] - U.S.A.''<br>[[Mikhail Tyurin]] - Russia<br>[[Sunita Williams]] - U.S.A.
|colspan="5" style="text-align: center"|Scheduled for [[september 13]], [[2006]]–March [[2007]]
|-
![[Expedition 15]]
|''[[Olag Kotov]] - Russia''<br>[[Clayton Anderson]] - U.S.A.<br>[[Fyodor Yurchikhin]] - Russia<br>
|colspan="5" style="text-align: center"|Scheduled for [[March 9]]–September [[2007]]
|}
The International Space Station is the most-visited spacecraft in the history of space flight. As of [[August 28]], [[2005]], it has had 141 (non-distinct) visitors. [[Mir]] had 137 (non-distinct) visitors (See [[Space station#List of occupied space stations, with statistics|Space station]]).
{{International Space Station}}
==See also==
===ISS-related articles===
{{commons|International Space Station}}
*[[List of International Space Station visitors]]
*[[List of ISS spacewalks]] performed from the ISS or visiting spacecraft
*[[List of manned spaceflights to the ISS]] for a comprehensive chronological list of all manned spacecraft that have visited the ISS, including the spacecraft's respective crews
*[[List of unmanned spaceflights to the ISS]] — Progress supply flights and unmanned automatic docking space station modules <!-- Maybe someone can add (make) a list of respective unmanned craft as well? -->
===Other===
*[[Space station]] for statistics of occupied space stations
*[[Salyut]]
*[[Skylab]]
*[[Mir]]
*[[Soyuz spacecraft]]
*[[Progress spacecraft]]
*[[Kliper]]
*[[Transhab]]
*[[International Space Station (Orbiter sim) | Rendering]] of ISS in [[Orbiter (sim)| Orbiter]] [[space flight]] [[flight_simulator|simulator]]
*[[Herman Potočnik]]
==References==
[[Image:ISS altitude.gif|thumb|right|200px|{{Note|altitude}} A graph of the altitude of the ISS since launch]]
*[http://www.spaceref.com/iss/ SpaceRef] - Regularly updated detailed status reports of the station.
*[http://vesuvius.jsc.nasa.gov/er/seh/td9702.pdf ISS Familiarization and Training Manual - NASA July 1998 (PDF format)]
*[http://www.spaceflight.nasa.gov/station/isstodate.html Current ISS Vital Statistics]
==External links==
* [http://science.nasa.gov/Realtime/JTrack/3D/JTrack3D.html NASA 3D Java Tracker for ISS and other Satellites]
* [http://www.space.gc.ca/asc/eng/iss/default.asp International Space Station — CSA Site]
* [http://www.energia.ru/english/energia/iss/iss.html International Space Station — Energia site]
* [http://www.esa.int/esaHS/iss.html International Space Station — ESA site]
* [http://www.jaxa.jp/missions/projects/iss_human/index_e.html International Space Station — JAXA site]
* [http://www.aeb.gov.br/conteudo.php?ida=28&idc=118 International Space Station — AEB site]
* [http://www.nasa.gov/mission_pages/station/main/index.html International Space Station — NASA site]
* [http://stream1.euronews.net:8080/ramgen/mag/space-issquovadis-en.rm?usehostname International Space Station — EuroNews report (Real player video stream)]
* [http://www.astronautix.com/craft/intation.htm International Space Station] from [[Encyclopedia Astronautica]]
* [http://spd.nasa.gov/ NASA Space Partnership Development]
* [http://procurement.jsc.nasa.gov/cots/ NASA Commercial Orbital Transportation Services program]
* [http://spacelink.nasa.gov/NASA.Projects/Human.Exploration.and.Development.of.Space/Space.Product.Development/.index.html Spacelink — Space Product Development]
* [http://www.planetary.org/ The Planetary Society]
* http://www.seds.org/pub/seds/National/misc/why-space
* [http://http://www.perseus.gr/Astro-Sat-Trans-2005-07-28.htm Solar Transit: ISS with Discovery] — The ISS with STS-114 transit the sun.
* [http://esa.heavens-above.com/esa/iss_step1.asp See the ISS from your home town]
* [http://www.heavens-above.com/ Heavens Above] — locate ISS, and find when to view it, from any location.
* [http://spaceflight.nasa.gov/shuttle/future/index.html NASA Human Spaceflight - ISS Assembly Sequence webpage] and [http://spaceflight.nasa.gov/realdata/sightings/cities/index.cgi ISS sighting by city]
* [http://www.sworld.com.au/steven/space/shuttle/manifest.txt Unofficial Shuttle Launch Manifest]
* [http://gmaps.tommangan.us/spacecraft_tracking.html Track the ISS] with Google Maps
* http://www.issfanclub.com
{{International Space Station}}
{{ISS modules}}
{{US manned space programs}}
{{Russian manned space programs}}
[[Category:International Space Station]]
[[Category:Space stations]]
[[Category:Manned spacecraft]]
[[Category:Big Science]]
{{Link FA|bg}}
{{Link FA|fr}}
{{Link FA|pt}}
[[bg:Международна космическа станция]]
[[ca:Estació Espacial Internacional]]
[[cs:Mezinárodní vesmírná stanice]]
[[da:Den Internationale Rumstation]]
[[de:Internationale Raumstation]]
[[es:Estación Espacial Internacional]]
[[eo:Internacia Kosmostacio]]
[[fr:Station spatiale internationale]]
[[gl:Estación Espacial Internacional]]
[[id:Stasiun Luar Angkasa Internasional]]
[[is:Alþjóðlega geimstöðin]]
[[it:Stazione Spaziale Internazionale]]
[[he:תחנת החלל הבינלאומית]]
[[hu:Nemzetközi Űrállomás]]
[[nl:Internationaal ruimtestation ISS]]
[[ja:国際宇宙ステーション]]
[[nn:Den internasjonale romstasjonen]]
[[no:Den internasjonale romstasjonen]]
[[pl:Międzynarodowa Stacja Kosmiczna]]
[[pt:Estação Espacial Internacional]]
[[ru:Международная космическая станция]]
[[sk:Medzinárodná vesmírna stanica]]
[[sr:Међународна свемирска станица]]
[[fi:Kansainvälinen avaruusasema]]
[[sv:ISS]]
[[vi:Trạm Vũ trụ Quốc tế]]
[[zh:国际空间站]]
Irish
15044
41888675
2006-03-02T11:09:40Z
Reinoutr
158685
reverted vandalism by 193.112.136.21
'''Irish''' may refer to:
* [[Irish people]], people of Irish ethnicity, originating from Ireland
* [[Irish language]], a Goidelic language spoken on the island of Ireland and by small diaspora communities worldwide
* [[Irish whiskey]], a famous type of whiskey of Irish origin
* "Fighting Irish", the athletic teams of the [[University of Notre Dame]], sometimes referred simply as the Irish
[[Category:Ireland]]
{{disambig}}
[[de:Irisch]]
Cosmicomics
15045
34366742
2006-01-08T14:09:17Z
81.68.228.49
Interwiki Persian
'''Cosmicomics''' is a series of short stories by [[Italo Calvino]]. Each story takes a scientific fact, and builds a wonderfully imaginative story around it. An always extant being called Qfwfq narrates the stories, each of which is a memory of an event in the history of the universe.
The most well known is probably the first one, '''"The distance of the moon"''', which takes the fact that the moon used to be much closer to the earth, and builds it into a romantic story about two men and one woman in a tribe of people who used to jump up onto the moon when it passed overhead.
Some other stories:
*'''"The aquatic uncle"''' — A tale on the fact that at one stage in evolution animals left the sea and came to live on land. The story is about a family living on land that is a bit ashamed of their old uncle who still lives in the sea, refusing to come ashore like "civilized" people.
*"'''The Light Years'''" is one story is about Qfwfq looking at other galaxies, and spotting one with a sign pointed right at him saying "I saw you." Given that there's a gulf of 100,000,000 light years, he checks his diary to find out what he had been doing that day, and finds out that it was something he wished to hide. Then he starts to worry.
*'''"All at one point"''' — The fact that all matter and creation used to exist in a single point. ''"Naturally, we were all there, - old Qfwfq said, - where else could we have been? Nobody knew then that there could be space. Or time either: what use did we have for time, packed in there like sardines?"''
*'''"A sign in space"''' — The idea that the galaxy slowly revolves becomes a story about a being who is desperate to leave behind some unique sign of his existence.
*'''"The Spiral"''' — A beautiful story about life as a mollusk, and the nature of love.
*'''"The Dinosaurs"''' — How some dinosaurs lived after most of them had become extinct, and how it felt to be that last existing dinosaur in an age where all the current mammals feared your kind as demons.
*"'''Games Without End'''" — A galactic game of marbles back before the universe had formed much more than particles.
*'''"How Much Shall We Bet"''' — A story about betting on the long term evolution of mankind.
All of the stories feature non-human characters with very human qualities.
[[Category: 1965 books]]
[[fa:کمدیهای کیهانی]]
IA-32
15046
40322149
2006-02-19T20:32:34Z
Guy Harris
122189
IA-32 is a comptuer architecture in the "more specific sense" of an instruction set architecture.
{{merge|X86 assembly language}}
'''IA-32''', sometimes generically called x86-32, is the [[instruction set architecture]] of [[Intel]]'s most successful [[microprocessor]]s. Within various [[programming language]] directives it is also referred to as "[[i386]]". The term may be used to refer to the 32-bit extensions to the original [[x86]] architecture, or to the architecture as a whole.
This architecture defines the [[instruction set]] for the family of microprocessors installed in the vast majority of [[personal computer]]s in the world.
The term means '''Intel Architecture, 32-bit''', which distinguishes it from the 16-bit versions of the architecture that preceded it, and the 64-bit architecture [[IA-64]] (which is very different, although it has an IA-32 compatibility mode). The more generic name for all 16 and 32-bit versions of this [[computer architecture|architecture]] is [[x86]].
Intel was the inventor and is the biggest supplier of processors compatible with this instruction set, but it is not the only supplier of such processors. The second biggest supplier is [[AMD]]. And then there are numerous even smaller more specialized suppliers of these processors.
This instruction set was introduced in the [[Intel 80386]] microprocessor in [[1985]]. This instruction set is still the basis of most PC microprocessors twenty years later in 2005. Even though the instruction set has remained intact, the successive generations of microprocessors that run it have become much faster at running it.
The IA-32 instruction set is usually described as CISC ([[Complex Instruction Set Computer]]) architecture, though such classifications have become less meaningful with advances in microprocessor design.
==Two memory management models==
There are two memory access models that IA-32 supports. One is called [[Real mode]], and the other is called [[Protected mode]]. In Real Mode, the processor is limited to accessing a total of just over 1MB of memory, while in Protected mode it can access all of its memory.
===Real mode===
The old [[DOS]] operating system required the '''[[real mode]]''' to work, while newer Windows, Linux and other operating systems usually require the '''[[protected mode]]'''. Upon power-on (aka [[booting]]), the processor initiates itself into Real mode, and then it begins loading programs automatically into RAM from ROM and disk. A program inserted somewhere along the boot sequence may be used to put the processor into the Protected mode.
===Protected mode===
In Protected mode, a number of other advantages beyond just the additional memory addressability beyond the DOS 1MB limit get activated. One of them is [[protected memory]], which prevents programs from corrupting one another. Another one is [[virtual memory]], which lets programs use more memory than is physically installed on the machine. And the third feature is task-switching, aka [[computer multitasking|multitasking]], which lets a computer juggle multiple programs all at once to look like they are all running at the same time.
The size of memory in Protected mode is usually limited to 4GB. However, this isn't the ultimate limit of the size of memory in IA-32 processors. Through tricks in the processor's page and segment memory management systems, IA-32 operating systems may be able to access more than 32-bits of address space, even without the switchover to the 64-bit paradigm. One such trick is known as [[PAE]] (Physical Address Extensions).
====Virtual 8086 mode====
There was also a sub-mode of operation in Protected mode, called ''[[virtual 8086 mode]]''. This is basically a special hybrid operating mode which allowed old [[DOS]] programs and operating systems to run while under the control of a Protected mode supervisor operating system. This allowed for a great deal of flexibility in running both Protected mode programs and DOS programs simultaneously. This mode was added only with the IA-32 version of Protected mode, it did not exist previously in the 80286 16-bit version of Protected mode.
==Registers==
The [[Intel 80386| 386]] has eight 32-bit ''general purpose'' registers for application use. There are 8 floating point stack registers. Later processors added new registers with their various [[SIMD]] instruction sets too, such as [[MMX]], [[3DNow!]], and [[Streaming SIMD Extensions|SSE]].
There are also system registers that are used mostly by operating systems but not by applications usually. They are known as ''segment'', ''control'', ''debug'', and ''test'' registers. There are six segment registers, used mainly for memory management. The number of ''control'', ''debug'' or ''test'' registers varies from model to model.
===General Purpose registers===
The x86 general purpose registers are not really as general purpose as their name implies. That is because these general purpose registers have some highly specialized tasks that can often only be done by using only one or two specific registers. In other architectures, any general purpose register can be used for any purpose. The x86 general purpose registers further subdivide into registers specializing in data and others specializing in addressing.
Also a lot of operations can be done either inside a register or directly inside RAM without requiring the data to be loaded into a register first. The 1970s heritage of this architecture shows through by this behaviour.
'''Note:''' with the advent of the 64-bit extensions to [[x86]] in [[AMD64]], this odd behaviour has now been cleaned up (at least in 64-bit mode). General purpose registers are now truly general purpose and they can be used interchangeably. This does not affect the 32-bit architecture, however.
====8-bit and 16-bit register subsets====
8-bit and 16-bit subsets of these registers are also accessible. For example, the lower 16-bits of the 32-bit '''EAX''' registers can be accessed by calling it the '''AX''' register. Some of the 16-bit registers can be further subdivided into 8-bit subsets too; for example, the upper 8-bit half of '''AX''' is called '''AH''', and the lower half is called '''AL'''. Similarly, '''EBX''' is subdivided into '''BX''' (16-bit), which in turn is divided into '''BH''' and '''BL''' (8-bit).
====General data registers====
All of the four following registers may be used as general purpose registers. However each has some specialized purpose as well. Each of these registers also have 16-bit or 8-bit subset names.
* EAX Accumulator (with a special interpretation for arithmetic instructions; a for ''accumulator'')
* EBX base register (used for addressing data in the data segment)
* ECX counter (with a special interpretation for loops, c for ''counter'')
* EDX data register
====General address registers====
Used only for address pointing. They have 16-bit subset names, but no 8-bit subsets.
* EBP base pointer (holds the address of the current [[stack frame]])
* ESI source index (for [[string (computer science)|string]] operations)
* EDI destination index (for string operations)
* ESP stack pointer (holds the top address of the stack)
* EIP instruction pointer (holds the current instruction address)
===Floating point stack registers===
Initially, IA-32 included floating-point capabilities only on add-on processors (8087, 80287 and 80387.) With the
introduction of the 80486, these 8 80x87 floating point registers, known as ST(0) through ST(7) are built in to the CPU. Each register is 80 bits wide and stores numbers in the extended precision format of the [[IEEE floating-point standard]].
These registers are not accessible directly, but are accessible like a [[LIFO]] stack. The register numbers are not fixed, but are relative to the top of the stack; '''ST(0)''' is the top of the stack, '''ST(1)''' is the next register below the top of the stack, '''ST(2)''' is two below the top of the stack, etc. That means that data is always pushed down from the top of the stack, and operations are always done against the top of the stack. So you couldn't just access any register randomly, it has to be done in the stack order.
===SIMD registers===
[[MMX]], [[3DNow!]], and [[Streaming SIMD Extensions|SSE]] also added new registers of their own to the IA-32 instruction set.
====MMX registers====
'''MMX''' added 8 new "registers" to the architecture, known as MM0 through MM7 (henceforth referred to as ''MMn''). In reality, these new "registers" were just aliases for the existing x87 FPU stack registers. Hence, anything that was done to the floating point stack would also affect the MMX registers. Unlike the FP stack, these MMn registers were fixed not relative, and therefore they were randomly accessible.
Each of the MMn registers are 64-bit integers. However, one of the main concepts of the MMX instruction set is the concept of ''packed data types'', which means instead of using the whole register for a single 64-bit integer ([[quadword]]), two 32-bit integers ([[Integer (computer science)|doubleword]]), four 16-bit integers ([[Integer (computer science)|word]]) or eight 8-bit integers ([[Integer (computer science)|byte]]) may be used.
Also because the MMX's 64-bit MMn registers are aliased to the FPU stack, and each of the stack registers are 80-bit wide, the upper 16-bits of the stack registers go unused in MMX, and these bits are set to all ones, which makes it look like NaN's or infinities in the floating point view. This makes it easier to tell whether you are working on a floating point data or MMX data.
====3DNow! registers====
'''3DNow!''' was designed to be the natural evolution of MMX from integers to floating point. As such, it uses the exact same register naming convention as MMX, that is MM0 through MM7. The only difference is that instead of packing byte to quadword integers into these registers, one would pack [[single precision]] floating points into these registers.
The advantage of aliasing registers with the FPU registers is that the same instruction and data structures used to save the state of the FPU registers can also be used to save 3DNow! register states. Thus no special modifications are required to be made to operating systems which would otherwise not know about.
====SSE registers====
'''SSE''' discarded all legacy connections to the FPU stack. This also meant that this instruction set discarded all legacy connections to previous generations of SIMD instruction sets like MMX. But it freed the designers up, allowing them to use larger registers, not limited by the size of the FPU registers. The designers created eight 128-bit registers, named XMM0 through XMM7. (''Note'': in [[AMD64]], the number of SSE XMM registers has been increased from 8 to 16.)
But the downside is that operating systems had to have an awareness of this new set of instructions in order to be able to save their register states. So Intel created a slightly modified version of Protected mode, called Enhanced mode which enables the usage of SSE instructions, whereas they stay disabled in regular Protected mode. An OS that is aware of SSE will activate Enhanced mode, whereas an unaware OS will only enter into traditional Protected mode.
SSE is a SIMD instruction set that works only on floating point values, like 3DNow!. However, unlike 3DNow! it severs all legacy connection to the FPU stack. Because it has larger registers than 3DNow!, SSE can pack twice the number of [[single precision]] floats into its registers. The original SSE was limited to only single-precision numbers, like 3DNow!. The SSE2 introduced the capability to pack [[double precision]] numbers too, which 3DNow! had no possibility of doing since a double precision number is 64-bit in size which would be the full size of a single 3DNow! MMn register. At 128-bit, the SSE XMMn registers could pack two double precision floats into one register. Thus SSE2 is much more suitable for scientific calculations than either SSE1 or 3DNow!, which were limited to only single precision.
==Instructions==
The full listing of the x86 machine language [[mnemonic]]s including integer, floating point, and SIMD instructions can be found in the [[X86 instruction listings]] link. They are categorized into a chronological and hierarchal format showing when the instructions first became available, and what category of instructions they are.
The original IA-32 instruction set has been evolved over time with the addition of the multimedia instruction updates. However, the ultimate evolution of IA-32 was when it was extended again to 64-bits, but of course at that point it cannot be called IA-32 anymore; the 64-bit extension is called [[x86-64]]. It could not be called [[IA-64]] as Intel had already used this label for the [[Itanium]] design (a design which is not really an evolution of the IA-32 architecture). AMD's [[AMD64]] was the first x86-64 instruction set designed. Later, Intel followed by imitating AMD's design with what they call [[EM64T]].
===SIMD Multimedia Instruction Set updates===
Various generations of IA-32 CPUs since have added several extensions to the original instruction set. They were known technically as ''SIMD'' instruction sets. However, more colloquially they were known as ''Multimedia'' instruction sets, because they were mainly used in multimedia entertainment software applications.
* The [[MMX]] extensions were the first major upgrade. This was a set of integer-only [[SIMD]] instructions. This was co-introduced by Intel and AMD in their [[Pentium MMX]] and [[AMD K6|K6]] processors, in 1997. It shared its registers with the '''x87''' FPU; therefore operating systems did not have to be modified to accept these instructions, they automatically worked if the OS also supported x87 state-saving.
* MMX was further upgraded with the addition of floating-point SIMD capabilities, with the introduction of [[3dnow!|3DNow!]] in early 1999. Like '''MMX''', this set shared its registers with the '''x87''' FPU too. This extension was introduced by AMD in the [[K6-2]] processor, but it was never picked up by Intel.
* [[Streaming SIMD Extensions|SSE]] was single precision floating point SIMD introduced by Intel in late 1999, with the introduction of the [[Pentium III]] processor. Unlike '''3DNow!''', it was not an extension to the '''MMX''' extension, nor did it share its registers with the '''x87''' FPU. It required some modifications to operating systems for them to work. This added programming inconvenience was made up for by the fact that SSE worked unencumbered by any of the old limitations of the '''x87''' FPU. This instruction set was adopted eventually by AMD starting with its [[Athlon]] XP processor; all further extensions to SSE will likely be adopted by AMD from now on, as it will no longer make any extensions to its own '''3DNow!''' instructions.
* [[SSE2]] was introduced in early 2001 with the introduction of the [[Pentium 4]] processor. This was a further upgrade to the original '''SSE''', adding double precision operations to its bag of tricks.
* [[SSE3]] was introduced in early 2004, in an upgraded version of the Pentium 4, codenamed Prescott. It featured some minor tweaks to the '''SSE2''' extensions.
===Next-generation 64-bit Instruction Sets===
Two new instruction sets can claim to be the 64-bit successor to IA-32. One of them builds on top of IA-32 but has a different name, while the other one discards IA-32 completely but has a similar name.
====IA-64====
Intel's [[IA-64]] architecture is not directly compatible with the IA-32 instruction set. It completely discards all IA-32 instructions, and starts from scratch with a completely different instruction set as well as using a [[Very long instruction word|VLIW]] design instead of [[out-of-order execution]]. IA-64 is the architecture used by their [[Itanium]] line of processors. The Itanium has hardware-support for IA-32, though very slow because of the different approach. IA-32 execution mode is set by the [[Extensible Firmware Interface|EFI]] program loaded on boot-up. The nomenclature "IA-64" means "Intel Architecture, 64-bit", but the connection with IA-32 is only in the name.
====AMD64====
[[AMD]]'s [[AMD64]] instruction set, aka [[x86-64]], is largely built on top of IA-32, and thus maintains the [[x86]] family heritage. While extending the instruction set, AMD took the opportunity to clean up some of the odd behaviour of this instruction set that has existed (plagued?) since its earliest 16-bit days, while the processor is operating in 64-bit mode. They also doubled the number of general purpose registers from 8 to 16; and the general purpose registers are now much more truly general-purpose registers. They also doubled the number of SSE registers from 8 to 16 as well. They have also deprecated most of the functionality of the segment registers, since their usage has steadily declined even during the IA-32 days.
=====EM64T=====
By February 2004, Intel implicitly acknowledged the logic of the AMD64 instruction set, deriving from it the [[EM64T]] instruction set, which is very similar to AMD64. This extension is compatible with code written for the AMD64. Intel started using the set starting with the [[Xeon]] Nocona core in 2004, introducing it to the desktop market with the [[Pentium 4]] Prescott 2M in early 2005.
==See also==
* [[x86]]
* [[Wintel]]
* [[IA-64]]
* [[AMD64]] (a/k/a "x86-64" or "x86")
* [[EM64T]]
* [[List of AMD microprocessors]]
* [[List of Intel microprocessors]]
* [[IA-4]]
* [[IA-8]]
* [[IA-16]]
* [[Intel P6]]
* [[NetBurst]]
* [[Intel Next Generation Microarchitecture]]
==External links==
* [http://www.intel.com/design/pentium4/manuals/index_new.htm Free IA-32 documentation], provided by INTEL
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Internalism and externalism
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Recently '''internalism''' and '''externalism''' have become part of the standard jargon of [[philosophy|philosophical]] discourse, and have become central to certain important debates.
== Moral philosophy ==
In contemporary moral philosophy, internalism is the view that moral beliefs function as a motivating factor. That is, the internalist believes that there is an internal connection between her belief that "X ought to be done" and her motivation to do X. In the same way, an externalist would argue that there is no essential internal connection between moral beliefs and motives, i.e. there's no essential reason that the belief "X is wrong" leads to a desire not to do X. It is likely that this use of these terms comes from W.D. Falk's paper ''Ought and motivation'' (1948).
== Epistemology ==
In contemporary epistemology internalism about justification is the idea that everything necessary to provide justification for a belief is immediately available in consciousness. Externalism in this context is the view that there are factors other than those which are internal to the believer which can affect the justificatory status of a belief. One strand of externalism is loosely called the [[causal theory of knowledge]], and [[reliabilism]] is sometimes considered to be another strand. It is important to distinguish internalism about justification from internalism about knowledge. An internalist about knowledge will likely hold that the conditions that distinguish mere true belief from knowledge are similarly internal to the individual's perspective or grounded in the subject's mental states. Whereas internalism about justification is a widely endorsed view, there are few defenders of internalism about knowledge thanks in no small part to Gettier and Gettier-like examples (http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gettier_problem) that suggest that there is more to knowledge than just justified true belief. In a short but widely discussed paper published in 1963, Gettier produced examples that seemed to show that owing to an accidental connection between an individual's evidence or reasons and the truth of her belief, someone could be justified in believing something true but nevertheless be ignorant.
One line of argument in favor of externalism begins with the observation that if what justified our beliefs failed to significantly eliminate the risk of error, then it does not seem that knowledge would be attainable as it would appear that when our beliefs did happen to be correct, this would really be a matter of good fortune. While many will agree with this last claim, the argument seems inconclusive. Setting aside sceptical concerns about the possession of knowledge, Gettier cases have suggested the need to distinguish justification from warrant where warrant is understood as that which distinguishes justified true belief from knowledge by eliminating the kind of accidentality often present in Gettier-type cases. Even if something must significantly reduce the risk of error, it is not clear why justification is what must fill the bill.
One of the more popular arguments from internalism begins with the observation, perhaps first due to Stewart Cohen, that when we imagine subjects completely cut off from their surroundings (thanks to a malicious Cartesian demon, perhaps) we do not think that in cutting these individuals off from their surroundings, these subjects cease to be rational in taking things to be as they appear. The 'new evil demon' argument for internalism (and against externalism) begins with the observation that individuals like us on the inside will be as justified as we are in believing what we believe. As it is part of the story that these individual's beliefs are not produced by reliable mechanisms or backed by veridical perceptual experiences, the claim that the justification of our beliefs depends upon such things appears to be seriously challenged. Externalists have offered a variety of responses but none appear to have won the hearts and minds of the epistemological community.
== Semantics ==
[[Semantic externalism]] comes in two flavours, depending on whether meaning is construed cognitively or linguistically. On a cognitive construal, externalism is the thesis that what concepts (or contents) are available to a thinker is determined by her environment, or her relation to her environment. On a linguistic construal, externalism is the thesis that the meaning of a word is environmentally determined. Likewise, one can construe semantic internalism in two ways, as a denial of either of these two theses.
See also:
*[[Linguistic turn]] and [[cognitive turn]] for more about the two construals of meaning.
*[[Twin Earth thought experiment]]
*[[Swamp man]] thought experiment
== Philosophy of mind ==
Within the context of the philosophy of mind, externalism is the theory that the contents of mental states are dependent on their relationship to the external world. Some mental states, such as believing that water is wet, and fearing that the Queen has been insulted, have contents which we can capture using 'that' clauses. The content externalist often appeals to observations which are found as early as [[Hilary Putnam]]'s seminal 'The Meaning of 'Meaning'' that we can easily imagine pairs of individuals that are microphysical duplicates embedded in different surroundings who use the same words but mean different things when using them. For example, suppose that Ike and Tina's mothers are identical twins and that Ike and Tina are raised in isolation from one another in indistinguishable environments. When Ike says 'I want my mommy', he expresses a want that is satisfied only if he is brought to his mommy. If we brought Tina's mommy, Ike might not notice the difference, but he doesn't get what he wants. It seems that what he wants and what he says when he says 'I want my mommy' will be different from what Tina wants and what she says she wants when she says 'I want my mommy'. Externalists say that if we assume that competent speakers know what they think and say what they think, the difference in what these two speakers mean will correspond to a difference in the minds of the two speakers that is not (necessarily) reflected by an internal difference in the internal make up of the speakers or thinkers. They urge us to move from externalism about meaning of the sort Putnam defended to externalism about contentful states of mind. The example offered pertains to singular terms but it has been extended to cover kind terms as well such as terms for kinds of substances (e.g., 'water') and for kinds of artifacts (e.g., 'espresso maker'). There is no general agreement amongst content externalists as to the scope of the thesis.
Critics of the view have questioned the original thought experiments saying that the lessons that Putnam and later writers such as [[Tyler Burge]] have urged us to draw can be resisted. [[Frank Jackson]] and [[John Searle]], for example, have defended internalist accounts of thought content according to which the contents of our thoughts are fixed by descriptions that pick out the individuals and kinds that our thoughts intuitively pertain to the sorts of things that we take them to. In the Ike/Tina example, one might agree that Ike's thoughts pertain to Ike's mother and that Tina's thoughts pertain to Tina's but insist that this is because Ike thinks of that woman as his mother and we can capture this by saying that he thinks of her as 'the mother of the speaker'. This descriptive phrase will pick out one unique woman. Externalists have claimed that this is implausible as we would have to ascribe Ike knowledge he wouldn't seem to need in order to successfully refer to his mother or think about his mother.
Critics have also claimed that content externalists are committed to epistemological absurdities. Suppose that a speaker can have the concept of water we do only if the speaker lives in a world that contains H2O. It seems this speaker could know apriori that she thinks that water is wet. This is the thesis of privileged access. It also seems that she could know on the basis of simple thought experiments that she can only think that water is wet if she lives in a world that contains water. What would prevent her from putting these together and coming to know apriori that the world contains water? If we should say that no one could possibly know whether water exists apriori, it seems either we cannot know content externalism to be true on the basis of thought experiments or we cannot know what we are thinking without first looking into the world to see what it is like.
{{Philosophy navigation}}
[[Category:Epistemology]]
[[Category:Ethics]]
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==External links==
* [http://plato.stanford.edu/entries/justep-intext/ Internalist vs. Externalist Conceptions of Epistemic Justification]
Isolationism
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{{IRTheory}}
'''Isolationism''' is a foreign policy which combines a [[non-interventionism|non-interventionist]] military and political policy with a policy of [[economic nationalism]] ([[protectionism]]). In other words, it asserts both of the following:
# Political rulers should avoid [[entangling alliances]] with other nations and avoid all wars not related to direct territorial [[self-defense]].
# There should be legal barriers to prevent trade and cultural exchange with people in other states.
The term "isolationism" was coined by military interventionists as a pejorative term during [[World War I]] to refer to people who opposed the [[United States]]' entry into that war. Later, the term "isolationism" was used 1939-41 to refer to opponents of [[United States]]' entry into [[World War II]]. The two most prominent leaders were [[Charles Lindbergh]] and historian [[Charles A. Beard]]. See [[America First Committee]].
"Isolationism" is often misused to refer to non-interventionism in general, rather than non-intervention conjoined with economic nationalism.
==See also==
* [[Autarky]]
* [[Sakoku]] - Japanese isolationism lasting over 200 years
* [[Unilateralism]]
==References==
* [http://www.questia.com/PM.qst?a=o&d=98186825 Cole, Wayne S. ''Charles A. Lindbergh and the Battle against American Intervention in World War II'' (1974)]
* [http://www.questia.com/PM.qst?a=o&d=85979197 Cole, Wayne S. ''America First: The Battle against Intervention, 1940-41'' (1953)]
* [http://www.questia.com/PM.qst?a=o&d=14522811 Kennedy, Thomas C. ''Charles A. Beard and American Foreign Policy'' (1975)]
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Indianapolis Colts
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/* 2005 season */
{{NFL team | name = Indianapolis Colts
| logo = IndianapolisColts_100.png
| founded = 1953
| city = Indianapolis, Indiana
| colors = Royal Blue and White
| coach = [[Tony Dungy]]
| owner = [[Jim Irsay]]
| general manager = [[Bill Polian]]
| mascot = Spike and Spirit
| stations = [[WFBQ]] (94.7 FM)
| announcers = Bob Lamey and [[Ted Marchibroda]]
| hist_yr = 1984
| hist_misc =
* [[Baltimore, Maryland|Baltimore]] Colts (1953-1983)
| NFL_start_yr = 1953
| division_hist =
*Western Conference (1953-1969)
**Coastal Division (1967-1969)
*'''[[American Football Conference]] (1970-present)'''
**[[AFC East]] (1970-2001)
**'''[[AFC South]] (2002-present)'''|
| no_league_champs = 4
| no_sb_champs = 1
| no_conf_champs = 5
| no_div_champs = 10
| league_champs =
*'''[[List of NFL champions|NFL Championships]] (3)'''<br>1958, 1959, 1968
| sb_champs = 1970 ([[Super Bowl V|V]])
| conf_champs =
*'''NFL Western:''' 1958, 1959, 1964, 1968
*'''AFC:''' 1970
| div_champs =
*'''NFL Coastal:''' 1968
*'''AFC East:''' 1970, 1975, 1976, 1977, 1987, 1999
*'''AFC South:''' 2003, 2004, 2005
| stadium_years =
*[[Memorial Stadium (Baltimore)]] (1953-1983)
*'''[[RCA Dome]] (1984-present)'''
**a.k.a. Hoosier Dome (1984-1993)
*[[Lucas Oil Stadium]] (scheduled to open in 2008)
}}
The '''Indianapolis Colts''' are a professional [[American football]] team based in [[Indianapolis, Indiana]]. They currently belong to the [[AFC South|Southern Division]] of the [[American Football Conference]] (AFC) in the [[National Football League]] (NFL).
The team began play in 1953 as a second incarnation of the previous '''[[Baltimore Colts (1947-50)|Baltimore Colts]]''' team in the NFL. The original Colts team began play in [[1946 in sports|1946]] as a charter member of the [[All-America Football Conference]] and joined the NFL in [[1950 NFL season|1950]] after the AAFC merged into the older league, but folded after the season. After fans in [[Baltimore, Maryland]] protested, the NFL formed this newer Colts team. While in Baltimore, the club won three [[List of NFL champions|NFL Championships]] and one [[Super Bowl]].
Prior to the [[1984 NFL season|1984 season]], the Colts moved from Baltimore to Indianapolis, highlighted by an infamous incident in which they packed all of their belongings into [[Mayflower Transit]] trucks in the middle of a snowy night on [[March 28]]. The move angered many Baltimore fans and former players so much that they completely disassociated themselves from the relocated Indianapolis team. Meanwhile, the Colts have not returned to the Super Bowl since then.
:'''Uniform colors:''' royal blue and white
:'''Helmet design:''' white background, blue horseshoe
== Franchise history ==
===The AAFC Baltimore Colts===
{{details|Baltimore Colts (1947-50)}}
There have been two unrelated NFL teams called the Baltimore Colts. The first Colts team started in the [[All-America Football Conference]] in 1946 as the '''Miami Seahawks'''. They moved to Baltimore in 1947. In 1950, they joined the [[National Football League]] and finished the season with a record of 1-11. They folded after the 1950 season; however, supporting groups such as a [[fan club]] and a [[marching band]] remained in operation and worked for the team's revival.
===The NFL Baltimore Colts===
The team that is currently the '''Indianapolis Colts''' has taken a long trip to get to where they are today. Officially the NFL considers the Colts to have begun play in [[1953 NFL season|1953]] in Baltimore, but it was created from the nucleus that had previously been the [[Boston Yanks]] 1944-1948, [[New York Bulldogs]] 1949, [[New York Yanks]] 1950-1951 and the [[Dallas Texans (NFL)|Dallas Texans]] 1952.
In 1953, [[Carroll Rosenbloom]] became the principal owner of the new NFL Baltimore Colts. In [[1958 NFL season|1958]], coached by Hall of Famer [[Weeb Ewbank]] and led by [[Hall of Fame]] quarterback [[Johnny Unitas]], the Colts defeated the [[New York Giants]] at [[Yankee Stadium]] 23-17 in the NFL championship game, an overtime contest sometimes called "The Greatest Game Ever Played." The Colts repeated as NFL champions in [[1959 NFL season|1959]], beating the Giants again, 31-16. In the early 1960s, the Colts continued as an elite NFL team although they lost the [[professional football championship games|NFL championship game]] in [[1964 NFL season|1964]] to the Cleveland Browns, 27-0.
The [[1967 NFL season|1967]] Colts entered the final week of the regular season undefeated, but then a 34-10 loss to the [[St. Louis Rams|Rams]] at [[Los Angeles]] kept them out of the playoffs as the result gave both teams a final record of 11-1-2, with the Rams being awarded first place in the Western Conference's Coastal Division because they won the head-to-head series (the first meeting between the two teams, at Baltimore, ended in a 24-24 tie).
In [[1968 NFL season|1968]], after a 13-1 season, they gained a measure of revenge against the Browns, defeating them 34-0 in the [[professional football championship games|NFL championship game]]. The 13-1 regular season and the trouncing of the Browns led NFL-based media to call the Colts ''"the greatest pro football team of all time"''. The Colts went into [[Super Bowl III]] (the first in the series to officially be called the ''Super Bowl'') against the [[American Football League]]'s [[New York Jets]] as 17-point favorites, with NFL icons like [[Pro Bowl]]ers Bobby Boyd (db), Mike Curtis (lb), [[John Mackey (athlete)|John Mackey]] (te), Tom Matte (rb), Fred Miller (dl), [[Earl Morrall]] (qb), Willie Richardson (wr), and Bob Vogel (ol).
The result of the game was one of the greatest upsets in sports history as [[Joe Namath]] and [[Matt Snell]] led the [[American Football League]] champion [[New York Jets|Jets]] to a [[professional football championship games|World Championship]] over the NFL's Colts, 16-7. Ironically, the Jets were coached by [[Weeb Ewbank]], who had previously led the Colts to two NFL titles.
Rosenbloom, [[Art Modell]] (Browns), and [[Art Rooney]] (Steelers) facilitated the NFL merger with the [[American Football League]], by joining the ten AFL teams in the AFC. After the NFL merged with the AFL in [[1970 NFL season|1970]], the Colts moved to the American Football Conference (AFC) and won the AFC championship against the [[Oakland Raiders]] 27-17. Baltimore went on to win the first post-merger Super Bowl ([[Super Bowl V]]) against the NFC's [[Dallas Cowboys]] 16-13, on a Jim O'Brien field goal. Since there was only one league after 1969, the Colts' [[Super Bowl V|1970 Super Bowl win]] was the NFL championship, as were all Super Bowls thereafter. In [[1971 NFL Season|1971]], the Colts made it back to the NFL Playoffs, they defeated the Cleveland Browns in the first round, but lost to the [[Miami Dolphins]] in the AFC Championship on [[January 2]] [[1972]] 21-0.
On [[July 13]], [[1972]], Rosenbloom traded the Colts to [[Robert Irsay]] for the [[Los Angeles Rams]], but the players remained in their same respective cities. The Colts made the playoffs four more times in the 1970s - a wild card in [[1971 NFL season|1971]] and three consecutive AFC East titles in [[1975 NFL season|1975]] [[1976 NFL season|through]] [[1977 NFL season|1977]] (led in these latter years by the NFL's best defensive line, known colloquially as the "Sack Pack"), but then endured nine consecutive losing seasons beginning in [[1978 NFL season|1978]]. In [[1981 NFL season|1981]], the defense was the main problem: The Colts allowed an NFL-record 533 points, and also set an all-time record for fewest sacks (13) and a modern record for fewest punt returns (12). The following year the offense collapsed: On [[November 28]], [[1982]], the Colts' offense did not cross mid-field in an entire game, played [[Ralph Wilson Stadium|at Buffalo]] against the [[Buffalo Bills|Bills]]; this would not happen again in an NFL game until [[2000 NFL season|2000]]. The Colts also finished 0-8-1 in 1982, only nine games having been played that year due to a 57-day players' strike.
===Relocation to Indianapolis===
By early 1984, team owner Robert Irsay threatened to move the team unless Baltimore city officials helped pay for a new stadium and other concessions. Despite numerous public announcements that he would not move the Colts out of Baltimore, and the [[Maryland]] legislature threatening to give the city of Baltimore the right to seize the team by [[eminent domain]], Irsay secretly negotiated with Indianapolis to move the team. The Indiana capital agreed to give the team a $12.5 million loan, a $4 million training complex, and the use of the [[RCA Dome|Hoosier Dome]] {{fn|1}}. After signing the agreement, [[Mayflower Transit]] trucks rolled into the team's training complex in the wee hours of [[March 28]]. Workers then packed and shipped the team's offices and equipment to Indianapolis.
The moved triggered a flurry of legal activity that ended when representatives of Baltimore and the Colts organization reached a settlement on [[March 1986]] in which all lawsuits regarding the relocation would be dismissed, and the Colts would endorse a new NFL team for Baltimore. {{fn|2}}
Several years later on [[November 6]], [[1995]], then-[[Cleveland Browns]] owner Art Modell announced his intention to move his Browns team to Baltimore. The decision also triggered a flurry of legal activity that ended when representatives of both cities and the NFL reached a settlement on [[February 9]], [[1996]]. It stipulated that the Browns' name, colors, and history of the franchise were to remain in Cleveland. A reactivated Cleveland Browns team would then begin play in 1999, while the relocated club would technically be a new expansion team. However, the Irsay family refused to turn over the Baltimore Colts name, colors, and history. Therefore the new team was named the [[Baltimore Ravens]] after a fan vote.
When the Ravens began play in [[1996 NFL season|1996]], the NFL continued to regard the pre-1984 Baltimore Colts organization and Indianapolis Colts as one continuous entity, and the Ravens as a 1996 [[expansion team]]. However, almost all of the prominent former old-time Baltimore Colts players, who had disassociated themselves from the relocated Indianapolis team, started to attend the new Baltimore team's games and events. They, and most Baltimore fans who are still disgusted about the Colts' relocation, view the pre-1984 Colts organization and the Ravens as one continuous entity. In fact, the old Baltimore Colts [[marching band]] and [[fan club]] became part of the Ravens organization.
===The years in Indianapolis===
Since 1984, the Colts have had mixed success at best. They have appeared in the playoffs seven seasons since then, with their best advance to the AFC championship game in [[1995 NFL season|1995]], when they lost to the [[Pittsburgh Steelers]] 20-16, and in [[2003 NFL season|2003]], when they won the AFC South Division title, defeated the [[Denver Broncos]] in the wild-card playoff (41-10), and advanced to play the [[Kansas City Chiefs]] in a divisional playoff, winning 38-31. In the AFC Championship game, they were decisively defeated 24-14 by the eventual Super Bowl champions, the [[New England Patriots]], with quarterback [[Peyton Manning]] throwing four interceptions, in a game which was widely criticized for its minimal officiating (only seven penalties were called during the entire game, six of them were pre-snap fouls).
===2004 season===
In the [[2004 NFL season|2004 season]], the Colts hoped to make another trip to the postseason. After losing in Week 1 to the defending champion [[New England Patriots]] 27-24 in Foxboro, they won four straight games before their week 6 bye. During that streak, they beat the [[Tennessee Titans]] in Nashville 31-17, won in the week 3 home opener against the [[Green Bay Packers]] 45-31, and then tied for the AFC South with a victory over the [[Jacksonville Jaguars]] at Alltel Stadium 24-17. They won at home against the [[Oakland Raiders]] 35-14 but coming off of their bye week, the Colts lost the next 2 games. They lost the rematch against the Jaguars at home, 27-24, and lost to the revenge-hungry [[Kansas City Chiefs]], 45-35. Following these back-to-back defeats, the Colts began an 8-game winning streak. They won their next 2 home games, beating the [[Minnesota Vikings]] 31-28 & the [[Houston Texans]] 49-14. Then, they won their next 2 road games, beating the [[Chicago Bears]] 41-10 & the [[Detroit Lions]] 41-9. They returned home and got a series sweep over the Titans 51-24, which also marked the 4th game in a row in which the Colts won with 40+ points. It also marked the 5th game in a row in which they won with 30+ points. On a trip to Houston with a win, they achieved another series sweep. This time, over the Texans 23-14. With that victory, the Colts locked up the AFC South title for the second year in a row.
In their week 16 home game against the playoff-bound [[San Diego Chargers]], [[Peyton Manning]] was only a few touchdown passes away from breaking [[Dan Marino]]'s record of 48 TD passes in a single season. Trailing 31-16, [[Dominic Rhodes]] returned a kickoff 88 yards for a TD. With 4:47 left in regulation, Peyton Manning waived the punting team off, despite the fact that it was 4th & 4 on the Colts 25 yard-line. His gamble worked with a complete pass to [[Reggie Wayne]] for a first down. He then completed two more passes to tight end [[Dallas Clark]] & an 18-yard throw to Marvin Harrison. He finally broke Marino's record with TD Pass #49 to wide receiver [[Brandon Stokley]]. He completed a 2-point conversion to tie the game up at 31-31 and send it into overtime. Eventually, the Colts won 34-31 with a [[Mike Vanderjagt]] field goal and secured the #3 AFC seed in the playoffs.
Despite losing their last regular season game on the road to the Broncos, 33-14, the Colts managed to get payback in the AFC Wildcard round with their 49-24 victory at home. During that game, Manning threw 27 completed passes out of 33 tries for an astounding 457 yards, with 4 TDs and only 1 interception. [[Edgerrin James]] ran 18 times for 63 yards and a single touchdown (with his longest run being 11 yards).
Despite their big victory, the Colts lost to the eventual Super Bowl Champion Patriots for the second year in a row the next week in the divisional round, 20-3. This was the worst loss of the Colts' season, as one of the most prolific offenses during the season was consistently stopped by New England's defense. It was the first time all season that the Colts were unable to score a touchdown. In addition, the Colts defense struggled to stop the Patriots offense from executing 3 time-consuming drives that each lasted over 7 minutes and lead to 17 total points.
===2005 season===
Despite going 0-5 in the preseason, the Colts began the [[2005 NFL season|2005 Season]] with a 13-0 start. They were only the fourth team to do so, in the process became the season's last-remaining undefeated team in the NFL. Though their opponents had worked out how to defend against a Peyton Manning pass offense, which had been responsible for consistently high scores in 2004 and prior years, the Colts offense proved its versatility, more heavily emphasizing rushing. Though this has resulted in much lower scores in 2005, their improved defense has allowed the team to keep winning: It performed the remarkable feat of holding each of their first three opponents to under 10 points, and in their October 9 game against the [[San Francisco 49ers]], the Colts made up for a sub-par offensive performance with four interceptions, including one that resulted in a defensive touchdown.
Another factor that has contributed to the Colts' success is their use of the [[no-huddle offense]]. Instead of calling plays in a conventional huddle, quarterback Manning calls them at the line of scrimmage. The offense moves at a much quicker pace as a result and doesn't allow the opposing defense to substitute in fresh defenders. On November 7 the Colts got their eighth-straight victory, beating the two-time defending champion Patriots 40-21 on [[Monday Night Football]]. This marked the end of the Patriots' six-game win streak against the Colts, and Peyton Manning's first victory at New England against the [[Tom Brady]]-led Patriots. It was also the second time this year the Colts offense scored 40 or more points; the first was back on week 6 against the Rams.
On November 20, the Colts faced their first real challenge against the [[Carson Palmer]]-led [[Cincinnati Bengals|Bengals]], in which the Colts won 45-37 and became the first team to go 10-0 since the [[1998 Denver Broncos]]. It also marked the third time this year they won with 40-plus points. The Colts then defeated the [[Pittsburgh Steelers]], 26-7, on a [[Monday Night Football]] game on November 28, spoiling [[Ben Roethlisberger]]'s return from knee surgery and giving him his first road loss.
On Sunday, December 3, the Colts swept division rival [[Tennessee Titans]] at home 35-3 to remain undefeated, becoming the first team to qualify for the playoffs. The next week they swept the [[Jacksonville Jaguars]], another division rival, to clinch the division and the No. 1 playoff seed in the AFC, which ensured the Colts' home-field advantage. This also marked the first time since the 1998 [[Denver Broncos]] and the fourth time in NFL history a team went 13-0.
On Sunday, December 18, the [[San Diego Chargers]] defeated the Colts 26-17, ending their bid to replace the [[1972 in sports|1972]] [[Miami Dolphins]] as the most recent team in the NFL to play an undefeated season.
In week 16, the Colts were forced to play without their coach, Tony Dungy, who took the week off to mourn the death of his son James, presumed to have commited suicide earlier in the week. With the team resting most of their key and injured players, the Colts lost their second-straight game 28-13 to the surging [[Seattle Seahawks]].
In their last regular season home game of the year, the Colts again played mostly with their back-ups and won against the [[Arizona Cardinals]] 17-13. More importantly, this game marked the return of Coach Dungy. The team's final record of 14-2 marks the best 16-game season in the franchise's history.
On [[January 15]], [[2006]], the Colts were eliminated from the playoffs in a divisional playoff matchup against the year's Super Bowl champion [[Pittsburgh Steelers]]. They were down 21-3 and staged a comeback, but came up short 21-18, as [[Mike Vanderjagt]]'s 46-yard field goal attempt sailed wide-right. This makes the Colts only the 2nd team to start 10-0 and not make it to the Super Bowl. The other being the 1990 San Fransisco 49ers.
After the upset loss, Tony Dungy had several people wondering if he would be back for the 2006 season. A few days later, he stated that he would return, saying he forgot to mention that in the conference. The Colts then secured [[Reggie Wayne]] with a 6-year, $40 Million dollar contract. However, it is doubtful to see [[Edgerrin James]] returning to Indianapolis for the 2006 season.
===Season-by-season records===
{{Start NFL SBS}}
|-
| colspan="6" align="center" | '''Baltimore Colts'''
|-
|1953 || 3 || 9 || 0 || 5th NFL West || --
|-
|1954 || 3 || 9 || 0 || 6th NFL West || --
|-
|1955 || 5 || 6 || 1 || 4th NFL West || --
|-
|1956 || 5 || 7 || 0 || 4th NFL West || --
|-
|1957 || 7 || 5 || 0 || 3rd NFL West || --
|-
|1958 || 9 || 3 || 0 || 1st NFL West || '''Won NFL Championship'''
|-
|1959 || 9 || 3 || 0 || 1st NFL West || '''Won NFL Championship'''
|-
|1960 || 6 || 6 || 0 || 4th NFL West || --
|-
|1961 || 8 || 8 || 0 || T-3rd NFL West || --
|-
|1962 || 7 || 7 || 0 || 4th NFL West || --
|-
|1963 || 8 || 6 || 0 || 3rd NFL West || --
|-
|1964 || 12 || 2 || 0 || 1st NFL West || Lost NFL Championship ([[Cleveland Browns|Browns]])
|-
|1965 || 10 || 3 || 1 || 2nd NFL West || Lost [[NFL playoffs, 1965|Western Conference Playoff]] ([[Green Bay Packers|Packers]])
|-
|1966 || 9 || 5 || 0 || 2nd NFL West || --
|-
|1967 || 11 || 1 || 2 || 2nd NFL Coastal || --
|-
|1968 || 13 || 1 || 0 || 1st NFL Coastal || '''Won NFL Championship''' <br>Lost [[Super Bowl III]] ([[New York Jets|Jets]])
|-
|1969 || 8 || 5 || 1 || 2nd NFL Coastal || --
|-
|1970 || 11 || 2 || 1 || 1st AFC East || '''Won NFL Championship''' <br>'''Won [[Super Bowl V]]'''
|-
|1971 || 10 || 4 || 0 || 2nd AFC East || Lost [[NFL playoffs, 1971-72|Conference Championship]] ([[Miami Dolphins|Dolphins]])
|-
|1972 || 5 || 9 || 0 || 3rd AFC East || --
|-
|1973 || 4 || 10 || 0 || 5th AFC East || --
|-
|1974 || 2 || 12 || 0 || 5th AFC East || --
|-
|1975 || 10 || 4 || 0 || 1st AFC East || Lost [[NFL playoffs, 1975-76|Divisional Playoffs]] ([[Pittsburgh Steelers|Steelers]])
|-
|1976 || 11 || 3 || 0 || 1st AFC East || Lost [[NFL playoffs, 1976-77|Divisional Playoffs]] ([[Pittsburgh Steelers|Steelers]])
|-
|1977 || 10 || 4 || 0 || 1st AFC East || Lost [[NFL playoffs, 1977-78|Divisional Playoffs]] ([[Oakland Raiders|Raiders]])
|-
|1978 || 5 || 11 || 0 || 5th AFC East || --
|-
|1979 || 5 || 11 || 0 || 5th AFC East || --
|-
|1980 || 7 || 9 || 0 || 4th AFC East || --
|-
|1981 || 2 || 14 || 0 || 4th AFC East || --
|-
|1982 || 0 || 8 || 1 || 14th AFC Conf. || --
|-
|1983 || 7 || 9 || 0 || 4th AFC East || --
|-
| colspan="6" align="center" | '''Indianapolis Colts'''
|-
|1984 || 4 || 12 || 0 || 4th AFC East || --
|-
|1985 || 5 || 11 || 0 || 4th AFC East || --
|-
|1986 || 3 || 13 || 0 || 5th AFC East || -
|-
|1987 || 9 || 6 || 0 || 1st AFC East || Lost [[NFL playoffs, 1987-88|Divisional Playoffs]] ([[Cleveland Browns|Browns]])
|-
|1988 || 9 || 7 || 0 || 2nd AFC East || --
|-
|1989 || 8 || 8 || 0 || 2nd AFC East || --
|-
|1990 || 7 || 9 || 0 || 3rd AFC East || --
|-
|1991 || 1 || 15 || 0 || 5th AFC East || --
|-
|1992 || 9 || 7 || 0 || 3rd AFC East || --
|-
|1993 || 4 || 12 || 0 || 5th AFC East || --
|-
|1994 || 8 || 8 || 0 || 3rd AFC East || --
|-
|1995 || 9 || 7 || 0 || 2nd AFC East || Lost [[NFL playoffs, 1995-96|Conference Championship]] ([[Pittsburgh Steelers|Steelers]])
|-
|1996 || 9 || 7 || 0 || 3rd AFC East || Lost [[NFL playoffs, 1996-97|Wild Card Playoffs]] ([[Pittsburgh Steelers|Steelers]])
|-
|1997 || 3 || 13 || 0 || 5th AFC East || --
|-
|1998 || 3 || 13 || 0 || 5th AFC East || --
|-
|1999 || 13 || 3 || 0 || 1st AFC East || Lost [[NFL playoffs, 1999-2000|Divisional Playoffs]] ([[Tennessee Titans|Titans]])
|-
|2000 || 10 || 6 || 0 || 2nd AFC East || Lost [[NFL playoffs, 2000-01|Wild Card Playoffs]] ([[Miami Dolphins|Dolphins]])
|-
|2001 || 6 || 10 || 0 || 4th AFC East || --
|-
|2002 || 10 || 6 || 0 || 2nd AFC South || Lost [[NFL playoffs, 2002-03|Wild Card Playoffs]] ([[New York Jets|Jets]])
|-
|2003 || 12 || 4 || 0 || 1st AFC South || Lost [[NFL playoffs, 2003-04|Conference Championship]] ([[New England Patriots|Patriots]])
|-
|2004 || 12 || 4 || 0 || 1st AFC South || Lost [[NFL playoffs, 2004-05|Divisional Playoffs]] ([[New England Patriots|Patriots]])
|-
|2005 || 14 || 2 || 0 || 1st AFC South || Lost [[NFL playoffs, 2005-06|Divisional Playoffs]] ([[Pittsburgh Steelers|Steelers]])
{{end box}}
^At the end of the [[2005 NFL season]], the Colts All-Time Record is 403-393-7 (including playoffs).
== Players of note ==
===Current players===
{{Indianapolis Colts roster}}
===[[Pro Football Hall of Fame]]rs===
====Baltimore Colts====
* 82 [[Raymond Berry]]
* 70 [[Art Donovan]]
* 83 [[Ted Hendricks]]
* 88 [[John Mackey (athlete)|John Mackey]]
* 89 [[Gino Marchetti]]
* 24 [[Lenny Moore]]
* 77 [[Jim Parker]]
* 19 [[Johnny Unitas]]
* [[Weeb Ewbank]], the only head coach to win championships in both the NFL and the AFL
* [[Don Shula]]
====Indianapolis Colts====
* 29 [[Eric Dickerson]]
===Retired numbers===
====Baltimore Colts====
*19 [[Johnny Unitas]]
*22 [[Buddy Young]]
*24 [[Lenny Moore]]
*70 [[Art Donovan]]
*77 [[Jim Parker]]
*82 [[Raymond Berry]]
*89 [[Gino Marchetti]]
====Indianapolis Colts====
None as of the 2005 season. The Colts do, however, have a Ring of Honor at the RCA Dome, which includes the following:
* 4 Jim Harbaugh, QB
* 75 Chris Hinton, OT
* 80 Bill Brooks, WR
* [[Bob Irsay]], owner who moved the team from Baltimore to Indianapolis
===Not to be forgotten===
====Baltimore Colts====
*[[Alan Ameche]]
*[[Norm Bulaich]]
*[[Mike Curtis (football player)|Mike Curtis]]
*[[Bert Jones]]
*[[Bruce Laird (football player)|Bruce Laird]]
*[[Lenny Lyles]]
*[[Tom Matte]]
*[[Don McCauley]]
*[[Lou Michaels]]
*[[Lydell Mitchell]]
*[[Earl Morrall]]
*[[Steve Myhra]]
*[[Buzz Nutter]]
*[[R.C. Owens]]
*[[Bill Pellington]]
*[[Bert Rechichar]]
*[[Bubba Smith]]
*[[Joe Washington]]
*[[Ted Marchibroda]], head coach
*[[Carroll Rosenbloom]], owner
====Indianapolis Colts====
*[[Raul Allegre]]
*[[Chip Banks]]
*[[Dean Biasucci]]
*[[Duane Bickett]]
*[[Eugene Daniel]]
*[[Marshall Faulk]]
*[[Jeff George]]
*[[Jim Harbaugh]]
*[[Robert Irsay]], owner
*[[Ted Marchibroda]], head coach and (later) radio analyst
*[[Marcus Pollard]]
*[[Tony Siragusa]]
==Head Coaches==
*[[Keith Molesworth]] (1953)
*[[Weeb Ewbank]] (1954-1962)
*[[Don Shula]] (1963-1969)
*[[Don McCafferty]] (1970-1972)
*[[John Sandusky]] (interim) (1972)
*[[Howard Schnellenberger]] (1973-1974)
*[[Joe Thomas (football coach)|Joe Thomas]] (interim) (1974)
*[[Ted Marchibroda]] (1975-1979)
*[[Mike McCormack]] (1980-1981)
*[[Frank Kush]] (1982-1984)
*[[Rod Dowhower]] (1985-1986)
*[[Ron Meyer]] (1986-1991)
*[[Rick Venturi]] (interim) (1991)
*[[Ted Marchibroda]] (1992-1995)
*[[Lindy Infante]] (1996-1997)
*[[Jim E. Mora|Jim Mora]] (1998-2001)
*[[Tony Dungy]] (2002-present)
===Current Staff===
*Head Coach - [[Tony Dungy]]
*Offensive Coordinator - [[Tom Moore (football coach)|Tom Moore]]
*Defensive Coordinator - [[Ron Meeks]]
*Special Teams Coach - [[Russ Purnell]]
*Quarterbacks Coach - [[Jim Caldwell (football coach)|Jim Caldwell]]
*Running Backs Coach - [[Gene Huey]]
*Wide Receivers Coach - [[Clyde Christiansen]]
*Tight Ends Coach - [[Ricky Thomas]]
*Offensive Line Coach - [[Howard Mudd]]
*Defensive Line Coach - [[John Teerlinck]]
*Linebackers Coach - [[Mike Murphy (football coach)|Mike Murphy]]
*Defensive Backs Coach - [[Alan Williams (football coach)|Alan Williams]]
*Defensive Assistant - [[Leslie Frazier]]
*Strength and Conditioning - [[Jon Torine]]
==Notes==
*{{fnb|1}} Nash, Bruce, and Allen Zullo (1986). ''The Football Hall of Shame'', 92, Pocket Books. ISBN 0671745514.
*{{fnb|2}} [http://www2.indystar.com/library/factfiles/sports/football-pro/indpls_colts/history/colts.html History of the Indianapolis Colts] from indystar.com (Last Accessed January 17, 2006)
==External links==
*[http://www.colts.com/ Indianapolis Colts official web site]
*[http://www.sportsecyclopedia.com/nfl/indy/icolts.html Sports E-Cyclopedia.com]
*[http://members.aol.com/rich953908/colts.html Most frequently updated Baltimore Colts Site]
{{NFL}}
[[Category:Indianapolis Colts| ]]
[[Category:National Football League teams]]
[[Category:1953 establishments]]
[[de:Indianapolis Colts]]
[[es:Indianapolis Colts]]
[[fr:Colts d'Indianapolis]]
[[it:Indianapolis Colts]]
[[ja:インディアナポリス・コルツ]]
[[pt:Indianapolis Colts]]
[[sv:Indianapolis Colts]]
Immigration to the United States
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[[Image:Statue-de-la-liberte-new-york.jpg|160px|thumb|right|The [[Statue of Liberty]] has been a symbol of freedom to many immigrants who entered the United States through [[Ellis Island]]]]
'''Immigration to the United States''' is the act of [[immigration|immigrating]], or moving, to the [[United States]] from another nation. The United States has a long history of [[immigration]], from 1600 to the present. Millions came from Europe in the 19th century, from Asia, Africa, and Latin America in the present day. Throughout American history, immigration has caused controversy regarding the political loyalties and values of people who have moved from one nation to another. The British settlers of the colonial era moved from one part of the British Empire to another (as did the Dutch), and did not change their nation, but the Germans did and nearly everyone else did so. (For statistical purposes in this article everyone who arrived in the colonial period is called an immigrant.) (The Puerto Ricans who moved to the mainland after 1945 are not considered immigrants, since they were US citizens.) Given the geography, most immigrants came long distances. However the French Canadians who came down from Quebec after 1860, and the Mexicans who came north after 1911, found it easy to move back and forth. Indeed with cheap jet travel after 1965, a return to the country of origin became fast and fairly inexpensive.
==Historical immigration==
===Colonial-era immigration to North America===
According to the source, ''The Source: A Guidebook of American Genealogy'' by Kory L. Meyerink and Loretto Dennis Szucs, the following were the countries of origin for new arrivals coming to the United States before 1790. The regions marked * were part of Great Britain:
<center>
{| align="center" class=wikitable
|-
! style="background:#efefef;" | Group !! style="background:#efefef;" | Immigrants before 1790
|-
| [[Africa]]
| 360,000 (most as slaves)
|-
|[[England]]*
| 230,000
|-
|[[Ulster]]*
| 135,000
|-
|[[Germany]]
| 103,000
|-
|[[Scotland]]*
| 48,500
|-
|[[Ireland]]
| 8,000
|-
|[[Netherlands]]
| 6,000
|-
|[[Wales]]*
| 4,000
|-
|[[France]]
| 3,000
|-
|[[Jew]]s
| 2,000
|-
|[[Sweden]]
| 500
|}
</center>
Early immigration laws prevented Asians and Africans from entering the USA legally (except as [[slavery|chattel]]s in the latter case). For most Europeans, however, immigration was relatively free and unrestricted until the 1800s and the onset of the [[Industrial Revolution]].
====Voluntary migration from Europe====
The population of the colonies that later became the United States grew from zero Europeans in the mid-[[1500s]] to 4.6 million Europeans and 900,000 African [[Slavery|slave]]s in 1790. At that time, it is estimated that 3/4 of the population were of British descent with Germans forming the second-largest ''free'' ethnic group and making up some 7% of the population.
Between 1629 and 1640, some 20,000 [[Puritan]]s emigrated from [[England]], most settling in the [[New England]] area of North America. In an event known as the [[Great Migration]], these people became the [[Yankee]]s of New England, who later spread out to [[New York]] and the [[Upper Midwest]].
From 1609 to 1664, some 8,000 [[Netherlands|Dutch]] settlers peopled the New Netherlands, which later became [[New York]] and [[New Jersey]].
Between 1645 and 1670, some 45,000 [[Cavaliers|Royalist]]s and/or [[indentured servants]] left England to work in the [[Middle Colonies]] and [[Virginia]].
From about 1675 to 1715, the [[Religious Society of Friends|Quakers]] made their move, leaving the Midlands and North England behind for [[Pennsylvania]], [[New Jersey]] and [[Delaware]]. The Quaker movement became one of the largest religious presences in early colonial America.
[[German people|Germans]] migrated early into several colonies but mostly to Pennsylvania, where they made up a third of the population by the time of the Revolution.
Between about 1710 and 1775, around 135,000 [[Irish people]] left [[Ulster]], (the northern [[Provinces of Ireland|province of Ireland)]], and settled in western [[Pennsylvania]], [[Appalachia]] and the western frontier: these places later would become [[Kentucky]] and [[Tennessee]].
====[[Unfree labour|Unfree labor]]: [[Atlantic slave trade|Slave trade]], [[indentured servant | indentured servitude]] and convict shipments====
The majority of African [[slavery|slaves]] came to the future United States before it gained independence. The numbers remain less than clear, but it is believed that some 300,000 slaves arrived in the British North American colonies before 1776, and some 100,000 were imported in the period between then and 1860. The international slave trade was made illegal in 1808.
A large number of [[indentured servant]]s, from the [[British Isles]], [[Ireland]] and Continental [[Europe]] (especially [[Germany]]), came to the future United States during the seventeenth and eighteenth centuries, with the bulk arriving in the half-century before 1776. Most were teenagers who served terms of four to fourteen years and arrived in the colonies of [[Pennsylvania]], [[New York]] and [[Virginia]]. About 50,000 British convicts also crossed the seas to North America in an [[penal transportation]] system between 1700 and 1770.
===Immigration 1790 to 1849===
Germans made up almost one-tenth of the population of the country by the end of the 18th century. At least 500,000 Germans immigrated in the first half of the 19th century. 20,000 came in the years 1816-1817, fleeing a famine. Some 61,000 fled to America after the failed [[Revolutions of 1848]].
[[Image:Stamp-us-irish-immigration.jpg|thumb|[[United States Postal Service|U.S. postage stamp]] commemorating the vast [[Irish people|Irish]] immigration to North America during the [[Irish Potato Famine (1845-1849)|Great Potato Famine]]]]
===Immigration 1850 to 1930===
*see table 4 at end
====Immigration in Detail====
Between 1850 and 1930 about 5 million [[Germany|Germans]] immigrated to the United States with a peak in the years between 1881 and 1885, when a million Germans left Germany and settled mostly in the [[U.S. Midwest|Midwest]]. Between 1820 and 1930, 3.5 [[British]] (mostly Protestant) and 4.5 million [[Irish]] (mostly Catholic) entered America. Before the 1840's most Irish immigrants were Irish Presbyterians or [[Scotch-Irish]]. After 1840, the Catholics arrived in large numbers, in part because of the famines of the 1840s. .
Between [[1840]] and [[1930]], about 900,000 [[French Canadian]]s left [[Quebec]] to emigrate to the United States and settled mainly in [[New England]]. Given the Quebec population at the time, this was a massive exodus. 13.6 million Americans claimed to have French ancestry in the 1980 census. A large proportion of them have ancestors who emigrated from [[French Canada]].
The years [[1910]] to [[1920]] were the highpoint of [[Italian American|Italian]] immigration to the United States. Over 2 million Italians immigrated in those years, with a total of 5.3 million immigrating between 1820 and 1980. About a third of them returned to Italy, after working an average of 5 years in the US.
About 1.5 million Swedes and Norwegians immigrated to the United States within this period, due to opportunity in America and poverty and religious oppression in united [[Sweden-Norway]]. This accounted for around 20% of the total population of the kingdom at that time. They settled mainly in the Midwest after their arrival in America; Minnesota in particular has a large proportion of people with Swedish and Norwegian ancestry. Danes, however, had comparably low immigration rates due to a better government and economy; most Danish immigrants were [[Mormon]] converts who moved to [[Utah]].
Over 2 million Eastern Europeans, mainly Catholics, immigrated during the years of 1880 to 1924. People of [[Poles|Polish]] ancestry are the largest Eastern European ancestry group in the United States. Immigration of Eastern Orthodox ethnic groups was much lower.
From 1880 to 1924, around 2 million Jews moved to the United States, mostly seeking better opportunity in America and fleeing the [[pogroms]] of Eastern Europe. After 1933 Jews who tried to flee [[Nazi Germany]] were often denied access to the United States, highlighted by the event of the [[S.S. St. Louis]].
==Laws concerning immigration and naturalization==
The first naturalization law in the United States was the 1795 [[Naturalization Act]] which restricted citizenship to "free white persons" who had resided in the country for five years. The next significant change in the law came in 1870, when the law was broadened to allow both [[whites]] and [[African-Americans]], though [[Asia]]ns were still excluded from citizenship. Immigration was otherwise unlimited.
In 1882 the [[Chinese Exclusion Act (United States)|Chinese Exclusion Act]] specifically forbade [[China|Chinese]] immigration, overturning the 1868 [[Burlingame Treaty]] that had encouraged it. The "temporary" ban was extended repeatedly and made permanent in 1904. It was the culmination of decades of agitation, particularly by [[California]]ns, who had passed their own [[Anti-Coolie Act]] in 1862. The ban was deeply resented in Asia, but was not repealed until 1943, and only then to reward a [[World War II]] wartime ally.
In order to avoid the same humiliation, the [[Japan|Empire of Japan]] negotiated the [[Gentlemen's Agreement]] in 1907, a protocol that required Japan to prevent her citizens from emigrating to the U.S. in exchange for better treatment of those already living there.
Congress also banned persons because of their health, beliefs, or lack of education. An 1882 law banned entry of "lunatics" and infectious disease carriers, and the 1901 [[Anarchist Exclusion Act]] kept people out because of their political beliefs. A literacy requirement was added in [[Immigration Act of 1917]].
In 1921, the United States Congress passed the [[Emergency Quota Act]] establishing national quotas on immigration. The quotas were based on the number of foreign-born residents of each nationality who were living in the United States as of the 1910 census. A more complex quota plan replaced this "emergency" system under the [[Immigration Act of 1924]]. One major change was that the reference census used was changed to that of 1890, which greatly reduced the number of Southern and Eastern European immigrants. Immigrants from most of the [[Western Hemisphere]], however, were admitted outside the quota system.
The [[McCarran-Walter Act|Immigration and Nationality Act of 1952]] (the McCarran-Walter Act) revised the quotas again, basing them on the 1920 census. For the first time in American history, racial distinctions were omitted from the U.S. Code. Nevertheless, most of the quota allocation still went to immigrants from [[Ireland]], the [[United Kingdom]] and [[Germany]]. The anti-subversive features of this law are still in force and have been used to bar the entry of countless individuals based upon their political expressions.
The [[Immigration and Nationality Act Amendments of 1965]] (the Hart-Cellar Act) abolished the system of national-origin quotas. There was, for the first time, a limitation on Western Hemisphere immigration (120,000 per year), with the Eastern Hemisphere limited to 170,000. Most of these numbers were allocated to immigrants who were relatives of United States citizens.
In 1986, the [[Immigration Reform and Control Act of 1986 | Immigration Reform and Control Act]] was passed, creating for the first time penalties for employers who hire illegal immigrants. IRCA also contained an amnesty for illegal immigrants already in the United States, and mandated the intensification of the activities of the [[United States Border Patrol]], increasing the militarization of the [[US-Mexico border]].
By one account, the actual number of annual legal immigrants was estimated at 500,000 to 600,000 in 1989. This subsequently increased and is now well over 1 million annually, not including illegal migration or temporary work visas.
Several pieces of legislation signed into law in 1996 marked a turn towards harsher policies for both legal and illegal immigrants. The [[Anti-Terrorism and Effective Death Penalty Act]] (AEDPA) and [[Illegal Immigration Reform and Immigrant Responsibility Act]] (IIRIRA) vastly increased the categories of criminal activity for which immigrants, including [[United States Permanent Resident Card|green card]] holders, can be deported and imposed [[mandatory detention]] for certain types of deportation cases. As a result, well over 1,000,000 individuals have been deported since 1996.
See also: [[List of United States Immigration Acts]]
==Contemporary immigration==
Contemporary immigrants settle very predominantly in seven states: [[California]], [[New York]], [[Florida]], [[Texas]], [[Pennsylvania]], [[New Jersey]] and [[Illinois]]. The combined total immigrant population of these seven states formed 70% of the total foreign-born population as of 2000.
There are a number of discernable categories of immigrants to the United States, each with unique and shared issues.
===Nonimmigrant visas (mostly work visas)===
There are a number of employment-based temporary visas (defined as "nonimmigrant" visas under the immigration law), including the following popular ones, among others:
====H-1B====
The H-1B classification is for professional-level jobs that require a minimum of a bachelor’s degree in a specific academic field. In addition, the employee must have the degree or the equivalence of such a degree through education and experience. Before the H-1B petition can be filed with [[U.S. Citizenship and Immigration Services|USCIS]] the employer must file a “Labor Condition Application (LCA) with the Department of Labor demonstrating that it is paying the required wage for this position in the geographic region where the job is located. The required wage for the position is the higher of the “actual wage” that is paid to other employees in this position or the “prevailing wage” which is determined by government surveys and the state labor office offices.
As a general rule, a person who is in one nonimmigrant status may not change status or change employers in that status until he or she applies with USCIS for such a change, and such change is granted. However, a provision called “H-1B portability” permits certain individuals already in the United States in H-1B status to commence employment for a new employer once a new employer’s H-1B petition is filed with USCIS.
At the dawn of the 21st century, the controversy revived when many high-tech and software-engineering workers started to arrive from abroad on "H-1B" [[visa (document) | visa]]s. [[H-1B visa|H-1B]] expansion was widely unpopular, but was supported by a number of different groups, including campaign donations from corporate interests and from persons who support the arrival of persons from abroad who are highly skilled. Critics claimed that these visas decreased the wages of American citizens, displaced American citizens, enabled corporations to enforce extreme workplace discipline and get around laws concerning working conditions, created national security problems and increased the risk of transmitting new diseases to the United States. However, except for isolated cases of abuse, these fears are mostly unwarranted. In order to obtain an H-1B visa, the employer must show that it will pay the higher of the prevailing local wage or the wage it pays other U.S. who have similar education and experience. The employer is not required to prove there are no American workers available to perform the work unless the employer has a high percentage of current workers in H-1B status ("H-1B dependent"). However, some economists saw H-1B expansion as an assault on the American middle class that benefited the wealthy and made it impossible to maintain traditional American standards of living, or provide incentives to improve productivity as rapidly as nations like Japan with more restrictive immigration policies.
The companies who imported the workers usually argued that the U.S. lacked enough American citizens to do the work. A few economists argued that, whatever the truth of that assertion, importing the workers provided more benefits to the U.S., and otherwise the recruiting companies would simply offshore the entire operation. It was claimed this would likely prove worse for the U.S. economy as a whole, because in the first scenario foreign national workers living in the United States would at least spend money in the United States, while the multi-national corporations that would purportedly export the jobs to overseas locations would probably not pass down as much of the savings to the U.S. consumer who purchased for them.
====L-1 intracompany transferee====
The L-1 classification is for international transferees who have worked for a related organization abroad for at least one year in the past three years that will be coming to the United States to work in an executive or managerial (L-1A) or specialized knowledge capacity (L-1B).
To qualify as an international executive, the employee must meet the following requirements:
*Direct the management of the organization or a major component or function;
*Establish the goals and policies of the organization, component, or function;
*Exercise wide latitude in discretionary decision-making; and
*Receive only general supervision or direction from higher-level executives, the board of directors, or stockholders of the organization.
To qualify as an international manager, the employee must meet the following requirements:
*Manage the organization or department, subdivision, function or component of the organization;
*Supervise and control the work of other supervisory, professional or managerial employees, or manage an essential function within the organization, or a department or subdivision of the organization;
*The authority to hire and fire, or recommend hire/fire and other personnel actions (such as promotion and leave authorization), or if no employees are directly supervised, functions at a senior level within the organizational hierarchy or with respect to the function managed; and
**Exercises discretion over the day-to-day operations of the activity or function for which the employee has authority.
To qualify as a specialized knowledge transferee, the employee must meet the following requirements:
*Possess knowledge of the company product and its application in international markets; or
*An advanced level of knowledge of processes and procedures of the company.
An employee has specialized knowledge if the knowledge is different from that generally found in the particular industry. Possible characteristics of an employee who possesses specialized knowledge including knowledge that is valuable to the employers competitiveness in the market place; knowledge of foreign operating conditions as a result of special knowledge not generally found in the industry; has worked abroad in a capacity involving significant assignments which have enhanced the employer’s productivity, competitiveness, image or financial position; possesses knowledge which normally can be gained only through prior experience with that employer; or possesses knowledge of a product or process which cannot be easily transferred or taught to another individual.
====TN Visa (TN-1) for Canadians/Mexicans to work in the United States====
'''General Information about TN Status'''
Since the effective date of January 1, 1994, (NAFTA) facilitates travel to and employment in the United States (U.S.) of certain Canadian and Mexican workers. NAFTA created TN classification for eligible Canadian and Mexican professional workers and affected terms of Canadians’ admissions to the U.S. under other classifications.
A TN position must require services of a NAFTA professional whose profession is noted in Appendix 1603.D.1 (see attached Appendix 1603.D.1); the TN employee must possess the credentials required as well as proof of qualifying citizenship. TN status allows unlimited multiple entries to the U.S. for the period of service required by the U.S. employer (includes foreign employers), up to a maximum of one year, extendible indefinitely as long as the temporary purpose of the employment continues.
There is no annual limit on Canadians granted TN status.
'''Self-Employment in the U.S. Not Permitted'''
TN: Members of Appendix 1603.D.1 professions who are self-employed outside the U.S. may pursue business relationships from outside the U.S. (e.g. contracts for services) with U.S.-based companies and obtain TN status to engage in these prearranged activities in the U.S. However, under TN classification an alien is not permitted to come to the United States to engage in self-employment in the United States, nor to render services to a corporation or other entity in which he/she is a controlling owner or shareholder.
Other NAFTA Admissions Categories
Nationals Canada and Mexico may also seek admission as B-1 (business visitor), E-1 (treaty trader), E-2 (treaty investor), or L-1 (intra-company transferee) nonimmigrants under NAFTA. This bulletin does not address those alternatives.
'''TN Processing and Admissions Procedure'''
Canadians may apply for TN-1 classification directly at a U.S. Class “A” port-of-entry, at a U.S. airport handling international traffic, or at a U.S. pre-flight/pre-clearance station in Canada1. Documentation must include:
*Proof of Canadian citizenship,
*$50 filing fee,
*Proof of required Appendix 1603.D credentials; and
*Letter from U.S. employer (or a sending employer in Canada) describing nature and duration of professional employment and salary/wages in the U.S2.
Canadian citizens are visa exempt and do not need consular visas to travel or apply for admission to the U.S. TN-1 applicants at land ports-of-entry must also pay a modest I-94 fee.
TN-2 non-immigrants from Mexico must be approved beneficiaries of I-129 petitions filed by prospective US employers and approved by the Department of Homeland Security, U.S. Citizenship and Immigration Services’ Nebraska Service Center. Documentation must include:
*Proof of Mexican citizenship,
*Form ETA-90353 Labor Condition Attestation (LCA) certified by the US Labor Department,
*$130 filing fee,
*Proof of the purpose for entry, and proof of participation in a permitted NAFTA professional activity.
Mexicans applying for admission to the US under TN-2 classification must obtain visas at US consulates. Note that the above requirements will sunset on December 31, 2003. On and after January 1, 2004, Mexican TNs will file the necessary paperwork with a Department of State Consulate in Mexico in order to receive a TN visa. Visit the Department of State web site for more information on the procedures Mexican citizens must follow in order to obtain a TN visa.
'''Family Members'''
Spouses and unmarried children under 21 of Canadian and Mexican professionals obtain TD status. They can be included on the application of the TN principal (no separate filing fees) and admitted for the same duration of stay. TD nonimmigrants may study in the US under this classification, but are not authorized for employment. Canadian dependents’ eligibility may be adjudicated at a US port-of-entry. Although Mexican family members are automatically included in TN petitions filed at the Nebraska Service Center, they must file separate application for TD visas at US consulates.
Note: Dependents are not required to be Canadian or Mexican citizens.
====K Visas for immediate relatives====
Even though these visas are issued to people who have the intent to immigrate permanently to the United States, they are still technically classified as nonimmigrant visas (temporary). U.S. [[citizens]] may petition the [[U.S. Citizenship and Immigration Services|USCIS]] for a K temporary visa for fiancé(e)s, spouses and unmarried dependent children of said fiancé(e)s and spouses. In the case of fiancé(e)s, the K-1 visa will allow them to stay in the U.S. for 90 days to marry the petitioning citizen and apply for adjustment of status to legal permanent resident. If the marriage is not concluded within that time, the fiancé(e) will be subjected to [[removal proceedings]]. In the case of spouses, the K-3 visa is valid for two years and may be extended indefinitely as long as the marriage on which it is based is not dissolved. The holders of K-3 and K-4 status are eligible for work authorization and may leave and re-enter the United States as long as their visas are still valid.
====V Visas and LIFE act for Spouses of Legal Permanent Residents (Green Card Holders)====
Unification of Legal Permanent Residents, (LPRs, a.k.a. Green Card Holders) with their spouses continues to stay under the Radar Screens of policy makers. The issue of Lawful Permanent Residents torn from their families for years is not a new problem. A mechanism to unite families of LPRs was created by the Legal Immigration Family Equity Act of 2000 (the LIFE Act) by the introduction of a 'V Visa,' signed into law by President Bush. Unfortunately, it effectively expired and is no longer available.
Legal Permanent Residents who have opted to get married to foreigners are unable to be united with their spouses and young families. The foreign spouse of a US Green Card holder must wait for approval of an 'immigrant visa' from the State Department before entering the US. Due to a backlog in processing, such visas can take a upwards of five years to be approved. In the interim, the spouse cannot enter the US on any other visas, or as visitors. LPRs are in a uniquely disadvantaged situation:
* Visitors and non-immigrants coming to the US on temporary visas for work, business or studies (including on H1, L1, B, and F1 visas) can sponsor their dependant spouses to travel along with them.
* American Citizens can sponsor their spouses to come to the US in non-immigrant status and then convert to an immigrant status under the Legal Immigration and Family Equity Act (the "LIFE Act")
===Adjustment of Status===
'''Adjustment of status''' is the final step of what is commonly called the [[United States Permanent Resident Card|green card]] process, i.e. that of becoming a legal permanent resident. It requires that the foreign national in question file an I-485 Application for Adjustment of Status, most often based on a preexisting and approved or approvable I-140 Immigrant Petition for Alien Worker or I-130 Petition for Alien Relative. Due to comprehensive immigration reform in 2002, I-485 applications and I-130 or I-140 petitions may be filed concurrently given the immediate availability of an immigrant visa number. The application must be filed with an I-693 Medical Examination of Alien issued by a licensed Civil Surgeon and a G-325A Biographic Information form, which documents provide a complete medical and immunological history as well as a record of the foreign national's places of employment and residence for the last five years. The USCIS then sets a date for the foreign national to have their fingerprints, picture and signature recorded for their FBI background check and entry in the USCIS database. An interview with an USCIS officer is required in the vast majority of cases.
A pending adjustment of status application entitles the applicant to work and travel authorization in the forms of an Employment Authorization Document (EAD) card and Advance Parole documents that must be renewed on a yearly basis. The application may be considered abandoned if the applicant does not attend a biometrics appointment or interview. Applications may also be denied for any of the following reasons:
# The underlying immigrant petition is denied or withdrawn
# The applicant is found to have entered or resided in the United States illegally (although this is waived for one who originally entered with a valid visa and is an immediate relative of the US citizen-petitioner)
# The applicant is judged as undesirable on the grounds of prior criminal convictions, affiliation with unsuitable political parties or organizations (e.g. former members of the [[Communist Party]]), poor character or debilitating health problems, as well as other grounds.
If an adjustment application is approved, a permanent residency card ([[United States Permanent Resident Card|green card]]) valid for ten years is issued to the applicant. Legal permanent residents (LPRs) are free to work and reside in the United States and may leave and re-enter without a visa although they are required to present the green card at the port-of-entry to an immigration officer. After five years LPRs are eligible to apply for [[naturalization]], except that an LPR who obtained the green card through marriage may apply for naturalization after three years if he or she is still living with the same spouse who originally filed the petition for the LPR.
===Political asylum===
In contrast to economic refugees, who generally do not gain legal admission, other classes of refugees can gain legal status through a process of seeking and receiving [[refugee|political asylum]], either by being designated a refugee while abroad or by physically entering the United States and requesting asylee status thereafter.
Asylum is offered as part of the United States' obligation under the 1951 Convention Relating to the Status of Refugees and the 1967 Protocol Relating to the Status of Refugees. Under these agreements, a refugee is a person who is outside his or her country of nationality (or place of habitual residence if stateless) who, owing to a fear of persecution on account of a protected ground, is unable or unwilling to avail himself of the protection of the state. Protected grounds include race, nationality, religion, political opinion and membership of a particular social group. The signatories to these agreements are obliged not to return or "refoul" refugees to the place where they would face persecution.
Advocates of refugee protection claim that for the most part, such persons are fleeing warfare; escaping persecution based on political or religious beliefs; or are victims of torture in their countries of origin. Critics claim the process has been widely abused and large numbers of people claim persecution simply to obtain the benefits of living in the United States. The primary benefit for such an asylum applicant is the eligibility for a work permit (employment authorization) by simply filing an application for asylum with [[U.S. Citizenship and Immigration Services|USCIS]] (former [[Immigration and Naturalization Service|INS]]). To the later dismay of a large number of these applicants, however, if their claims of persecution are not backed up by genuine evidence or proofs, the claims are eventually denied and they are placed in removal (deportation) proceedings in the Immigration Court. Since the effective date of the [[Illegal Immigration Reform and Immigrant Responsibility Act|1996 IIRIRA legislation]], an applicant must apply for asylum within one year of entry or be barred from doing so unless there were certain exceptional circumstances. Some asylum cases have been also granted based on [[sexual orientation]] or [[gender role|gender]], where cultural norms of the home country create and sustain conditions that make life unsafe or unbearable for the individual.
As of 2004, recipients of political asylum faced a wait of approximately 14 years to receive permanent resident status after receiving their initial asylee status, because of an annual cap of 10,000 green cards for this class of individuals. However, in May 2005, under the terms of a proposed settlement of a class-action lawsuit, Ngwanyia v. Gonzales, brought on behalf of asylees against [[USCIS]], the government agreed to make available an additional 31,000 green cards for asylees during the period ending on September 30, 2007. This is ''in addition'' to the 10,000 green cards allocated for each year until then. This should speed up the green card waiting time considerably for asylees. However, the issue is rendered somewhat moot, since the enactment of the [[REAL ID Act of 2005]] (Division B of United States Public Law 109-13 (H.R. 1268)) eliminated the cap on annual asylee green cards and currently an asylee who has continuously resided in the US for more than one year in that status has an immediately available visa number.
===Miscellaneous legal immigration===
In [[removal proceedings]] ([[deportation]]) in front of an [[immigration judge]], [[cancellation of removal]] is a form of relief that is available for certain long-time residents of the United States. It allows a person being faced with the threat of removal to obtain permanent residence if that person: (1) has been physically present in the U.S. for at least ten years, (2) has had good moral character during that period, (3) has not been convicted of certain crimes, and (4) can show that removal would result in exceptional and extremely unusual hardship to his or her US citizen/permanent resident spouse, children, or parent. Unfortunately, this form of relief is only available when a person is served with a Notice to Appear (like a civil summons) to appear in the proceedings in the [[Immigration Court]]. Many persons have received their green cards in this way even though removal or deportation was looming.
Member of Congress may submit [[private bill]]s granting residency to specific named individuals. A special committee vets the requests, which require extensive documentation. Congress has bestowed the title of "[[Honorary Citizen of the United States]]" to six people. The only two living recipients were [[Winston Churchill]] and [[Agnes Gonxha Bojaxhiu]] (Mother Teresa), the other instances were posthumous honors.
The [[Central Intelligence Agency]] has the statutory authority to admit up to one hundred people a year outside of normal immigration procedures, and to provide for their settlement and support. The program is called "PL110" after the legislation that created the agency, [[Public Law 110]], the [[Central Intelligence Agency Act]].
===Illegal immigration===
One consequence of laws restricting the number and ethnicity of persons entering the USA is a phenomenon referred to as [[illegal immigration]], in which persons enter a country and obtain work without legal sanction. In some cases, this is accomplished by entering the country legally with a [[Visa (document)|visa]], and then simply choosing not to leave upon expiration of the visa. In other cases people enter the country surreptitiously without ever obtaining a visa. Often, people entering in this fashion are economic refugees—a class of refugee not recognized by the [[U.S. Citizenship and Immigration Services]] (formerly the [[Immigration and Naturalization Service]]); these persons have left their home country in a desperate bid to provide financial support for themselves and/or their families. This is particularly true in cases where "minimum wage" in the U.S. is several times what the average laborer earns in a given country; such immigrants often send large portions of their income to their countries and families of origin.
Much of the controversy today with immigration to the U.S. involves an increasing number of activists calling for a [[immigration reduction|reduction in illegal immigration]]. Critics of these activists say that those who call for an end to "illegal immigration" really advocate an end to all immigration, but do not realize it. Two claims made against immigration reduction activists by those opposed to restrictions on immigration are:
# All the problems associated with illegal immigration ([[race to the bottom]] in wages, etc.) also apply almost equally to legal immigrants.
# They allegedly misunderstand the immigration process and do not realize that many immigrant workers who they see as replacing American citizens in jobs they can do have immigrated completely legally, albeit without citizenship (this number exceeds the number of illegal immigrants on a per-country basis).
On the other hand, those who would reduce immigration make the point that illegal immigrants do not pay income taxes, social security taxes, or other taxes collected only from citizens with social security numbers, yet those illegal immigrants do utilize the services and structures paid for by public money. Much of this argument is based on false information. All employers are required by law to withhold income and payroll taxes. Illegals usually use a false Social Security number--knowing that they will never receive benefits. Of course, they all pay sales taxes, property taxes (directly or through landlords), gasoline taxes, hunting licenses, and so on. In terms of benefits, the illegals are quite young (so few receive Social Security or Medicare) and seldom receive any welfare payments. The main cost to local government is the cost of public schools, which by law must be open to all children. Most of the children of illegals are in fact American citizens because they were born in the US. Congress in early 2006 was debating provision to strip babies born in the US of their American citizenship if their parents were undocumented.
==Political issues surrounding immigration==
===Debates over immigration numbers===
In recent years a debate has arisen over the effect of high immigration levels into the United States on such issues as [[labour (economics)|labor]], [[wages]], and [[ecology]]. A movement has emerged which supports lower levels of legal and illegal immigration into the U.S. The most important of these groups is the [[Federation for American Immigration Reform]]. See: [[immigration reduction]].
There is also the issue of illegal immigrants coming to the US and giving birth, thus having children who are American citizens.
==Immigration in popular culture==
The history of immigration to the United States of America is, according to the claims of some, the history of the United States itself and the journey from beyond the sea is an element found in the [[American folklore|American myth]], appearing over and over again in everything from ''[[The Godfather]]'' to ''[[Gangs of New York]]'' to "[[Song of Myself|The Song of Myself]]" to [[Neil Diamond]]'s "America" to the [[animation|animated feature]] ''[[An American Tail]]''.
==Media==
{{multi-video start}}
{{multi-video item |
filename = Ellis Island immigration footage.ogg |
title = Ellis Island immigration footage, 1906 |
description = Depicts scenes at the Immigration Depot and a nearby dock on Ellis Island. (3:37, 16.6 [[Megabyte|MB]], [[ogg]]/[[Theora]] format). |
format = [[Theora]]
}}
{{multi-video end}}
==See also==
* [[European colonization of the Americas]]
* [[Demographics of the United States]]
* [[Ellis Island]]
* [[Citizenship]]
* [[Emigration]]
* [[Immigration]]
* [[Nationality]]
* [[Naturalization]]
* [[List of United States Immigration Acts]]
* [[Chinese American]] (includes lengthy history of Chinese immigration to the United states)
* [[Thai immigration to the United States]]
* [[Finnish immigration to North America]]
==References==
===Secondary sources===
* Archdeacon, Thomas J. ''Becoming American: An Ethnic History'' (1984)
* Berthoff. Rowland Tappan. ''British Immigrants in Industrial America, 1790-1950'' (1953).
* Bodnar, John. ''The Transplanted: A History of Immigrants in Urban America'' Indiana University Press, (1985)
* Briggs, John. ''An Italian Passage: Immigrants to Three American Cities, 1890-1930'' Yale University Press, (1978)
* Daniels, Roger. ''Asian America: Chinese and Japanese in the United States since 1850'' University of Washington Press, (1988)
* Daniels, Roger. ''Coming to America'' 2nd ed. (2002)
* Daniels, Roger. ''Guarding the Golden Door : American Immigration Policy and Immigrants since 1882'' (2005)
* Diner, Hasia. ''The Jews of the United States, 1654 to 2000'' (2004)
* Diner, Hasia. ''Hungering for America : Italian, Irish, and Jewish Foodways in the Age of Migration'' (2003)
* Eltis, David; ''Coerced and Free Migration: Global Perspectives'' (2002) emphasis on migration to Americas before 1800
* Gjerde, Jon, ed. ''Major Problems in American Immigration and Ethnic History'' (1998) primary sources and excerpts from scholars.
* Glazier, Michael, ed. ''The Encyclopedia of the Irish in America'' (1999), articles by over 200 experts, covering both Catholics and Protestants.
* Greene, Victor R. ''A Singing Ambivalence: American Immigrants Between Old World and New, 1830-1930'' (2004), coving musical traditions
* Joseph, Samuel; ''Jewish Immigration to the United States from 1881 to 1910'' Columbia University Press, (1914)
* Kulikoff, Allan; ''From British Peasants to Colonial American Farmers'' (2000), details on colonial immigration
* Meagher, Timothy J. ''The Columbia Guide to Irish American History''. (2005)
* Miller, Kerby M. ''Emigrants and Exiles'' (1985), influential scholarly interpretation of Irish immigration
* Henry A. Pochmann, and Arthur R. Schultz; ''German Culture in America, 1600-1900: Philosophical and Literary Influences'' (1957)
* Sowell, Thomas. ''Ethnic America: A History'' (1981), by a conservative economist
* Thernstrom, Stephan, ed. ''Harvard Encyclopedia of American Ethnic Groups'' (1980) (ISBN: 0674375122), the standard reference, covering all major groups and most minor groups
* U.S. Immigration Commission, ''Abstracts of Reports,'' 2 vols. (1911),
* Carl Wittke, ''We Who Built America: The Saga of the Immigrant'' (1939), covers all major groups
* Yans-McLaughlin, Virginia ed. ''Immigration Reconsidered: History, Sociology, and Politics'' Oxford University Press. (1990)
===Recent: post 1965===
* Bogen, Elizabeth. ''Immigration in New York'' (1987)
* Bommes, Michael and Andrew Geddes. ''Immigration and Welfare: Challenging the Borders of the Welfare State'' (2000)
* Borjas, George. ''Friends or Strangers'' (1990)
* Briggs, Vernon M., Jr. ''Immigration Policy and the America Labor Force'' John Hopkins University Press, 1984.
* Briggs, Vernon M., Jr. ''Mass Immigration and the National Interest'' (1992)
* Fawcett, James T., and Benjamin V. Carino. ''Pacific Bridges: The New Immigration from Asia and the Pacific Islands'' . New York: Center for Migration Studies, 1987.
* Foner, Nancy. ''In A New Land: A Comparative View Of Immigration'' (2005)
* Levinson, David and Melvin Ember, eds. ''American Immigrant Cultures'' 2 vol (1997) covers all major and minor groups
* Meier, Matt S. and Gutierrez, Margo, eds. ''The Mexican American Experience : An Encyclopedia'' (2003) (ISBN: 0313316430)
* Portes, Alejandro, and Robert L. Bach. ''Latin Journey: Cuban and Mexican Immigrants in the United States.'' Berkeley: University of California Press, 1985.
* Portes, Alejandro, and Jozsef Borocz. "Contemporary Immigration: Theoretical Perspectives on Its Determinants and Modes of Incorporation." ''International Migration Review'' 23 (1989): 606-30.
* Portes, Alejandro, and Ruben Rumbaut. ''Immigrant America''. Berkeley: University of California Press, 1990.
* Reimers, David. ''Still the Golden Door: The Third World Comes to America'' Columbia University Press, (1985).
* Smith, James P, and Barry Edmonston, eds. ''The Immigration Debate: Studies on the Economic, Demographic, and Fiscal Effects of Immigration'' (1998), [http://www.nap.edu online version]
* Yang, Philip Q. ''Immigration to the United States: Structural Determinants'' (1995), statistical
==External links==
===History===
* [http://www.asian-nation.org/first.shtml Asian-Nation: Early Asian Immigration to the U.S.]
* [http://www.spartacus.schoolnet.co.uk/USAMproject.htm European Immigration to the United States]
* [http://www.cyndislist.com/immigrat.htm Cyndi's List - Immigration & Naturalization]
* [http://home.att.net/~wee-monster/passengers.html U.S Immigration Records & Passenger Lists Research Guide 1820-1940s]
* [http://www.amerikanetz.de/index.php?id=14&L=1 Network for German (Westphalian) Emigration to America since the 19th Century]
* [http://www.ericdigests.org/1997-3/nyc.html The Education of Immigrant Children in New York City]
* [http://www.paperson.com One Chinese American Family's Story about coming to American under the Chinese Exclusion Act of 1882]
*[http://memory.loc.gov/learn/features/immig/irish2.html Irish Catholic Immigration to America]
*[http://memory.loc.gov/learn/features/immig/irish.html Scotch-Irish Immigration to Colonial America]
===Immigration policy===
* [http://www.ailf.org/ipc/ipc_index.asp American Immigration Law Foundation - Immigration Policy Center]
* [http://www.brookings.edu/gs/projects/immigration.htm/ Brookings Institute: Immigration Policy webpage]
* [http://www.carryingcapacity.org/ Carrying Capacity Network]
*[http://digital.library.unt.edu/govdocs/crs/search.tkl?type=subject&q=immigration&q2=liv Read Congressonal Research Service (CRS) Reports regarding Immigration]
* [http://www.freetrade.org/issues/immigration.html Cato Institute's Center for Trade Policy Studies - Immigration webpage]
* [http://www.cis.org/ Center for Immigration Studies]
* [http://www.derechoshumanosaz.net Coalición de Derechos Humanos]
* [http://www.diversityalliance.org/ Diversity Alliance for a Sustainable America]
* [http://www.fairimmigration.org/ Fair Immigration Reform Movement]
* [http://www.fairus.org/ Federation for American Immigration Reform]
* [http://www.iwfr.org/ Immigrant Workers Freedom Ride Coalition]
* [http://legalizationusa.org/ The Legalization Site]
* [http://lonewacko.com/blog/archives/cat_immigration.html Lonewacko: Immigration category]
* [http://www.migrationpolicy.org/ Migration Policy Institute]
* [http://www.immigrationforum.org/ National Immigration Forum]
* [http://www.nilc.org/ National Immigration Law Center]
* [http://www.nnirr.org/ National Network for Immigrant and Refugee Rights]
* [http://www.newamericanopportunitycampaign.org/ New American Opportunity Campaign]
* [http://www.numbersusa.com/ NumbersUSA]
* [http://www.balance.org/ Population-Environment-Balance]
* [http://www.projectusa.org/ Project USA]
* [http://www.rightsworkinggroup.org/ Rights Working Group]
* [http://www.visa2003.com/ U.S. Immigration.]
* [http://www.urban.org/content/IssuesInFocus/immigrationstudies/immigration.htm/ Urban Institute: Immigration Studies webpage]
* [http://www.vdare.com/ VDARE]
* [http://www.zazona.com/ ZaZona]
* [http://unitefamilies.org/ unitefamilies.org] Lobby group working towards introduction of a 'V Visa'
===Current immigration===
* [http://uscis.gov/graphics/index.htm U.S. Citizenship and Immigration Services]
* [http://www.law.cornell.edu/topics/immigration.html Cornell University's Legal Information Institute: Immigration]
The [[U.S. Census, 1850|1850 United States census]] was the first federal U.S. census to query about the "nativity" of citizens—where they were born, either in the United States or outside of it—and is thus the first point at which solid statistics become available. From the [[U.S. Census]] [http://www.census.gov/population/www/documentation/twps0029/twps0029.html], this chart shows the place of birth of the non-native population. Note that the same immigrant will be counted in each census during which they lived, so the numbers are of the cumulative number of living non-native citizens.
<TABLE CELLPADDING="5" BORDER="0">
<TR ALIGN="left" VALIGN="top">
<TH>Table 4.</TH>
<TH>Region and Country or Area of Birth of the Foreign-Born<BR>
Population, With Geographic Detail Shown in Decennial Census<BR>
Publications of [[U.S. Census, 1930|1930]] or Earlier: [[U.S. Census, 1850|1850]] to [[U.S. Census, 1930|1930]] and [[U.S. Census, 1960|1960]] to [[U.S. Census, 1990|1990]]</TH>
</TR>
<TR>
<TD> </TD>
<TD>Source: U.S. Bureau of the Census<BR>
Internet Release date: March 9, 1999
<P>
(See text for sources, definitions, and explanations)</TD>
</TR>
</TABLE>
<TABLE CELLPADDING="5" BORDER="1">
<TR ALIGN="right" VALIGN="bottom">
<TD><FONT SIZE="1">Line<BR>
number</TD>
</TD><TD>
<TD ALIGN="left" NOWRAP><FONT SIZE="1">Region and country or area</TD>
<TD><FONT SIZE="1">[[U.S. Census, 1990|1990]]*</TD>
<TD><FONT SIZE="1">[[U.S. Census, 1980|1980]]*</TD>
<TD><FONT SIZE="1">[[U.S. Census, 1970|1970]]*</TD>
<TD><FONT SIZE="1">[[U.S. Census, 1960|1960]]*</TD>
</TR>
<TR></TR>
<TR ALIGN="right">
<TD><FONT SIZE="1"><STRONG>1</STRONG></TD>
<TD></TD>
<TD ALIGN="left" NOWRAP><FONT SIZE="1"> <STRONG>Total</STRONG></TD>
<TD><FONT SIZE="1"><STRONG>19,767,316</STRONG></TD>
<TD><FONT SIZE="1"><STRONG>14,079,906</STRONG></TD>
<TD><FONT SIZE="1"><STRONG>9,619,302</STRONG></TD>
<TD><FONT SIZE="1"><STRONG>9,738,091</STRONG></TD>
</TR>
<TR ALIGN="right">
<TD><FONT SIZE="1">2</TD>
<TD></TD>
<TD ALIGN="left" NOWRAP><FONT SIZE="1">Reported by region and/or country</TD>
<TD><FONT SIZE="1">18,959,158</TD>
<TD><FONT SIZE="1">13,192,563</TD>
<TD><FONT SIZE="1">9,303,570</TD>
<TD><FONT SIZE="1">9,678,201</TD>
</TR>
<TR ALIGN="right">
<TD><FONT SIZE="1">3</TD>
<TD></TD>
<TD ALIGN="left" NOWRAP><FONT SIZE="1"> Europe</TD>
<TD><FONT SIZE="1">4,350,403</TD>
<TD><FONT SIZE="1">5,149,572</TD>
<TD><FONT SIZE="1">5,740,891</TD>
<TD><FONT SIZE="1">7,256,311</TD>
</TR>
<TR ALIGN="right">
<TD><FONT SIZE="1">4</TD>
<TD></TD>
<TD ALIGN="left" NOWRAP><FONT SIZE="1"> Northern and Western Europe</TD>
<TD><FONT SIZE="1">2,058,853</TD>
<TD><FONT SIZE="1">2,384,257</TD>
<TD><FONT SIZE="1">2,629,200</TD>
<TD><FONT SIZE="1">3,334,971</TD>
</TR>
<TR ALIGN="right">
<TD><FONT SIZE="1">5</TD>
<TD></TD>
<TD ALIGN="left" NOWRAP><FONT SIZE="1"> Northern Europe</TD>
<TD><FONT SIZE="1">968,271</TD>
<TD><FONT SIZE="1">1,083,499</TD>
<TD><FONT SIZE="1">1,271,591</TD>
<TD><FONT SIZE="1">1,694,430</TD>
</TR>
<TR ALIGN="right">
<TD><FONT SIZE="1">6</TD>
<TD></TD>
<TD ALIGN="left" NOWRAP><FONT SIZE="1"> British Isles</TD>
<TD><FONT SIZE="1">809,972</TD>
<TD><FONT SIZE="1">866,966</TD>
<TD><FONT SIZE="1">937,474</TD>
<TD><FONT SIZE="1">1,171,777</TD>
</TR>
<TR ALIGN="right">
<TD><FONT SIZE="1">7</TD>
<TD></TD>
<TD ALIGN="left" NOWRAP><FONT SIZE="1"> United Kingdom</TD>
<TD><FONT SIZE="1">640,145</TD>
<TD><FONT SIZE="1">669,149</TD>
<TD><FONT SIZE="1">686,099</TD>
<TD><FONT SIZE="1">833,055</TD>
</TR>
<TR ALIGN="right">
<TD><FONT SIZE="1">8</TD>
<TD></TD>
<TD ALIGN="left" NOWRAP><FONT SIZE="1"> Great Britain</TD>
<TD><FONT SIZE="1">623,614</TD>
<TD><FONT SIZE="1">649,318</TD>
<TD><FONT SIZE="1">645,262</TD>
<TD><FONT SIZE="1">764,893</TD>
</TR>
<TR ALIGN="right">
<TD><FONT SIZE="1">9</TD>
<TD></TD>
<TD ALIGN="left" NOWRAP><FONT SIZE="1"> England</TD>
<TD><FONT SIZE="1">405,588</TD>
<TD><FONT SIZE="1">442,499</TD>
<TD><FONT SIZE="1">458,114</TD>
<TD><FONT SIZE="1">528,205</TD>
</TR>
<TR ALIGN="right">
<TD><FONT SIZE="1">10</TD>
<TD></TD>
<TD ALIGN="left" NOWRAP><FONT SIZE="1"> Scotland</TD>
<TD><FONT SIZE="1">104,168</TD>
<TD><FONT SIZE="1">142,001</TD>
<TD><FONT SIZE="1">170,134</TD>
<TD><FONT SIZE="1">213,219</TD>
</TR>
<TR ALIGN="right">
<TD><FONT SIZE="1">11</TD>
<TD></TD>
<TD ALIGN="left" NOWRAP><FONT SIZE="1"> Wales</TD>
<TD><FONT SIZE="1">10,638</TD>
<TD><FONT SIZE="1">13,528</TD>
<TD><FONT SIZE="1">17,014</TD>
<TD><FONT SIZE="1">23,469</TD>
</TR>
<TR ALIGN="right">
<TD><FONT SIZE="1">12</TD>
<TD></TD>
<TD ALIGN="left" NOWRAP><FONT SIZE="1"> Great Britain n.e.c.</TD>
<TD><FONT SIZE="1">103,220</TD>
<TD><FONT SIZE="1">51,290</TD>
<TD><FONT SIZE="1">(NA)</TD>
<TD><FONT SIZE="1">(NA)</TD>
</TR>
<TR ALIGN="right">
<TD><FONT SIZE="1">13</TD>
<TD></TD>
<TD ALIGN="left" NOWRAP><FONT SIZE="1"> Northern Ireland</TD>
<TD><FONT SIZE="1">16,531</TD>
<TD><FONT SIZE="1">19,831</TD>
<TD><FONT SIZE="1">40,837</TD>
<TD><FONT SIZE="1">68,162</TD>
</TR>
<TR ALIGN="right">
<TD><FONT SIZE="1">14</TD>
<TD></TD>
<TD ALIGN="left" NOWRAP><FONT SIZE="1"> Ireland</TD>
<TD><FONT SIZE="1">169,827</TD>
<TD><FONT SIZE="1">197,817</TD>
<TD><FONT SIZE="1">251,375</TD>
<TD><FONT SIZE="1">338,722</TD>
</TR>
<TR></TR>
<TR ALIGN="right">
<TD><FONT SIZE="1">15</TD>
<TD></TD>
<TD ALIGN="left" NOWRAP><FONT SIZE="1"> Scandinavia</TD>
<TD><FONT SIZE="1">158,299</TD>
<TD><FONT SIZE="1">216,533</TD>
<TD><FONT SIZE="1">334,117</TD>
<TD><FONT SIZE="1">522,653</TD>
</TR>
<TR ALIGN="right">
<TD><FONT SIZE="1">16</TD>
<TD></TD>
<TD ALIGN="left" NOWRAP><FONT SIZE="1"> Denmark</TD>
<TD><FONT SIZE="1">34,999</TD>
<TD><FONT SIZE="1">42,732</TD>
<TD><FONT SIZE="1">61,410</TD>
<TD><FONT SIZE="1">85,060</TD>
</TR>
<TR ALIGN="right">
<TD><FONT SIZE="1">17</TD>
<TD></TD>
<TD ALIGN="left" NOWRAP><FONT SIZE="1"> Finland</TD>
<TD><FONT SIZE="1">22,313</TD>
<TD><FONT SIZE="1">29,172</TD>
<TD><FONT SIZE="1">45,499</TD>
<TD><FONT SIZE="1">67,624</TD>
</TR>
<TR ALIGN="right">
<TD><FONT SIZE="1">18</TD>
<TD></TD>
<TD ALIGN="left" NOWRAP><FONT SIZE="1"> Iceland</TD>
<TD><FONT SIZE="1">5,071</TD>
<TD><FONT SIZE="1">4,156</TD>
<TD><FONT SIZE="1">2,895</TD>
<TD><FONT SIZE="1">2,780</TD>
</TR>
<TR ALIGN="right">
<TD><FONT SIZE="1">19</TD>
<TD></TD>
<TD ALIGN="left" NOWRAP><FONT SIZE="1"> Norway</TD>
<TD><FONT SIZE="1">42,240</TD>
<TD><FONT SIZE="1">63,316</TD>
<TD><FONT SIZE="1">97,243</TD>
<TD><FONT SIZE="1">152,698</TD>
</TR>
<TR ALIGN="right">
<TD><FONT SIZE="1">20</TD>
<TD></TD>
<TD ALIGN="left" NOWRAP><FONT SIZE="1"> Sweden</TD>
<TD><FONT SIZE="1">53,676</TD>
<TD><FONT SIZE="1">77,157</TD>
<TD><FONT SIZE="1">127,070</TD>
<TD><FONT SIZE="1">214,491</TD>
</TR>
<TR></TR>
<TR ALIGN="right">
<TD><FONT SIZE="1">21</TD>
<TD></TD>
<TD ALIGN="left" NOWRAP><FONT SIZE="1"> Western Europe</TD>
<TD><FONT SIZE="1">1,090,582</TD>
<TD><FONT SIZE="1">1,300,758</TD>
<TD><FONT SIZE="1">1,357,609</TD>
<TD><FONT SIZE="1">1,640,541</TD>
</TR>
<TR ALIGN="right">
<TD><FONT SIZE="1">22</TD>
<TD></TD>
<TD ALIGN="left" NOWRAP><FONT SIZE="1"> Low countries</TD>
<TD><FONT SIZE="1">132,617</TD>
<TD><FONT SIZE="1">142,748</TD>
<TD><FONT SIZE="1">155,513</TD>
<TD><FONT SIZE="1">173,069</TD>
</TR>
<TR ALIGN="right">
<TD><FONT SIZE="1">23</TD>
<TD></TD>
<TD ALIGN="left" NOWRAP><FONT SIZE="1"> Belgium</TD>
<TD><FONT SIZE="1">34,366</TD>
<TD><FONT SIZE="1">36,487</TD>
<TD><FONT SIZE="1">41,412</TD>
<TD><FONT SIZE="1">50,294</TD>
</TR>
<TR ALIGN="right">
<TD><FONT SIZE="1">24</TD>
<TD></TD>
<TD ALIGN="left" NOWRAP><FONT SIZE="1"> Luxembourg</TD>
<TD><FONT SIZE="1">2,053</TD>
<TD><FONT SIZE="1">3,125</TD>
<TD><FONT SIZE="1">3,531</TD>
<TD><FONT SIZE="1">4,360</TD>
</TR>
<TR ALIGN="right">
<TD><FONT SIZE="1">25</TD>
<TD></TD>
<TD ALIGN="left" NOWRAP><FONT SIZE="1"> Netherlands</TD>
<TD><FONT SIZE="1">96,198</TD>
<TD><FONT SIZE="1">103,136</TD>
<TD><FONT SIZE="1">110,570</TD>
<TD><FONT SIZE="1">118,415</TD>
</TR>
<TR ALIGN="right">
<TD><FONT SIZE="1">26</TD>
<TD></TD>
<TD ALIGN="left" NOWRAP><FONT SIZE="1"> Austria</TD>
<TD><FONT SIZE="1">87,673</TD>
<TD><FONT SIZE="1">145,607</TD>
<TD><FONT SIZE="1">214,014</TD>
<TD><FONT SIZE="1">304,507</TD>
</TR>
<TR ALIGN="right">
<TD><FONT SIZE="1">27</TD>
<TD></TD>
<TD ALIGN="left" NOWRAP><FONT SIZE="1"> France</TD>
<TD><FONT SIZE="1">119,233</TD>
<TD><FONT SIZE="1">120,215</TD>
<TD><FONT SIZE="1">105,385</TD>
<TD><FONT SIZE="1">111,582</TD>
</TR>
<TR ALIGN="right">
<TD><FONT SIZE="1">28</TD>
<TD></TD>
<TD ALIGN="left" NOWRAP><FONT SIZE="1"> Germany</TD>
<TD><FONT SIZE="1">711,929</TD>
<TD><FONT SIZE="1">849,384</TD>
<TD><FONT SIZE="1">832,965</TD>
<TD><FONT SIZE="1">989,815</TD>
</TR>
<TR ALIGN="right">
<TD><FONT SIZE="1">29</TD>
<TD></TD>
<TD ALIGN="left" NOWRAP><FONT SIZE="1"> Switzerland</TD>
<TD><FONT SIZE="1">39,130</TD>
<TD><FONT SIZE="1">42,804</TD>
<TD><FONT SIZE="1">49,732</TD>
<TD><FONT SIZE="1">61,568</TD>
</TR>
<TR ALIGN="right">
<TD><FONT SIZE="1">30</TD>
<TD></TD>
<TD ALIGN="left" NOWRAP><FONT SIZE="1"> Other Western Europe</TD>
<TD><FONT SIZE="1">(NA)</TD>
<TD><FONT SIZE="1">(NA)</TD>
<TD><FONT SIZE="1">(NA)</TD>
<TD><FONT SIZE="1">(NA)</TD>
</TR>
<TR></TR>
<TR ALIGN="right">
<TD><FONT SIZE="1">31</TD>
<TD></TD>
<TD ALIGN="left" NOWRAP><FONT SIZE="1"> Southern and Eastern Europe</TD>
<TD><FONT SIZE="1">2,285,513</TD>
<TD><FONT SIZE="1">2,748,547</TD>
<TD><FONT SIZE="1">3,090,991</TD>
<TD><FONT SIZE="1">3,907,020</TD>
</TR>
<TR ALIGN="right">
<TD><FONT SIZE="1">32</TD>
<TD></TD>
<TD ALIGN="left" NOWRAP><FONT SIZE="1"> Southern Europe</TD>
<TD><FONT SIZE="1">1,054,141</TD>
<TD><FONT SIZE="1">1,336,805</TD>
<TD><FONT SIZE="1">1,363,195</TD>
<TD><FONT SIZE="1">1,541,441</TD>
</TR>
<TR ALIGN="right">
<TD><FONT SIZE="1">33</TD>
<TD></TD>
<TD ALIGN="left" NOWRAP><FONT SIZE="1"> Greece</TD>
<TD><FONT SIZE="1">177,398</TD>
<TD><FONT SIZE="1">210,998</TD>
<TD><FONT SIZE="1">177,275</TD>
<TD><FONT SIZE="1">159,167</TD>
</TR>
<TR ALIGN="right">
<TD><FONT SIZE="1">34</TD>
<TD></TD>
<TD ALIGN="left" NOWRAP><FONT SIZE="1"> Italy</TD>
<TD><FONT SIZE="1">580,592</TD>
<TD><FONT SIZE="1">831,922</TD>
<TD><FONT SIZE="1">1,008,533</TD>
<TD><FONT SIZE="1">1,256,999</TD>
</TR>
<TR ALIGN="right">
<TD><FONT SIZE="1">35</TD>
<TD></TD>
<TD ALIGN="left" NOWRAP><FONT SIZE="1"> Portugal</TD>
<TD><FONT SIZE="1">210,122</TD>
<TD><FONT SIZE="1">209,968</TD>
<TD><FONT SIZE="1">119,899</TD>
<TD><FONT SIZE="1">80,276</TD>
</TR>
<TR ALIGN="right">
<TD><FONT SIZE="1">36</TD>
<TD></TD>
<TD ALIGN="left" NOWRAP><FONT SIZE="1"> Azores</TD>
<TD><FONT SIZE="1">29,656</TD>
<TD><FONT SIZE="1">32,531</TD>
<TD><FONT SIZE="1">28,865</TD>
<TD><FONT SIZE="1">22,586</TD>
</TR>
<TR ALIGN="right">
<TD><FONT SIZE="1">37</TD>
<TD></TD>
<TD ALIGN="left" NOWRAP><FONT SIZE="1"> Portugal</TD>
<TD><FONT SIZE="1">180,466</TD>
<TD><FONT SIZE="1">177,437</TD>
<TD><FONT SIZE="1">91,034</TD>
<TD><FONT SIZE="1">57,690</TD>
</TR>
<TR ALIGN="right">
<TD><FONT SIZE="1">38</TD>
<TD></TD>
<TD ALIGN="left" NOWRAP><FONT SIZE="1"> Spain</TD>
<TD><FONT SIZE="1">76,415</TD>
<TD><FONT SIZE="1">73,735</TD>
<TD><FONT SIZE="1">57,488</TD>
<TD><FONT SIZE="1">44,999</TD>
</TR>
<TR ALIGN="right">
<TD><FONT SIZE="1">39</TD>
<TD></TD>
<TD ALIGN="left" NOWRAP><FONT SIZE="1"> Other Southern Europe</TD>
<TD><FONT SIZE="1">9,614</TD>
<TD><FONT SIZE="1">10,182</TD>
<TD><FONT SIZE="1">(NA)</TD>
<TD><FONT SIZE="1">(NA)</TD>
</TR>
<TR></TR>
<TR ALIGN="right">
<TD><FONT SIZE="1">40</TD>
<TD></TD>
<TD ALIGN="left" NOWRAP><FONT SIZE="1"> Eastern Europe</TD>
<TD><FONT SIZE="1">1,231,372</TD>
<TD><FONT SIZE="1">1,411,742</TD>
<TD><FONT SIZE="1">1,727,796</TD>
<TD><FONT SIZE="1">2,365,579</TD>
</TR>
<TR ALIGN="right">
<TD><FONT SIZE="1">41</TD>
<TD></TD>
<TD ALIGN="left" NOWRAP><FONT SIZE="1"> Albania</TD>
<TD><FONT SIZE="1">5,627</TD>
<TD><FONT SIZE="1">7,381</TD>
<TD><FONT SIZE="1">9,180</TD>
<TD><FONT SIZE="1">9,618</TD>
</TR>
<TR ALIGN="right">
<TD><FONT SIZE="1">42</TD>
<TD></TD>
<TD ALIGN="left" NOWRAP><FONT SIZE="1"> Bulgaria</TD>
<TD><FONT SIZE="1">8,579</TD>
<TD><FONT SIZE="1">8,463</TD>
<TD><FONT SIZE="1">8,609</TD>
<TD><FONT SIZE="1">8,223</TD>
</TR>
<TR ALIGN="right">
<TD><FONT SIZE="1">43</TD>
<TD></TD>
<TD ALIGN="left" NOWRAP><FONT SIZE="1"> Czechoslovakia</TD>
<TD><FONT SIZE="1">87,020</TD>
<TD><FONT SIZE="1">112,707</TD>
<TD><FONT SIZE="1">160,899</TD>
<TD><FONT SIZE="1">227,618</TD>
</TR>
<TR ALIGN="right">
<TD><FONT SIZE="1">44</TD>
<TD></TD>
<TD ALIGN="left" NOWRAP><FONT SIZE="1"> Estonia</TD>
<TD><FONT SIZE="1">9,210</TD>
<TD><FONT SIZE="1">12,169</TD>
<TD><FONT SIZE="1">12,163</TD>
<TD><FONT SIZE="1">13,991</TD>
</TR>
<TR ALIGN="right">
<TD><FONT SIZE="1">45</TD>
<TD></TD>
<TD ALIGN="left" NOWRAP><FONT SIZE="1"> Hungary</TD>
<TD><FONT SIZE="1">110,337</TD>
<TD><FONT SIZE="1">144,368</TD>
<TD><FONT SIZE="1">183,236</TD>
<TD><FONT SIZE="1">245,252</TD>
</TR>
<TR ALIGN="right">
<TD><FONT SIZE="1">46</TD>
<TD></TD>
<TD ALIGN="left" NOWRAP><FONT SIZE="1"> Latvia</TD>
<TD><FONT SIZE="1">26,179</TD>
<TD><FONT SIZE="1">34,349</TD>
<TD><FONT SIZE="1">41,707</TD>
<TD><FONT SIZE="1">50,681</TD>
</TR>
<TR ALIGN="right">
<TD><FONT SIZE="1">47</TD>
<TD></TD>
<TD ALIGN="left" NOWRAP><FONT SIZE="1"> Lithuania</TD>
<TD><FONT SIZE="1">29,745</TD>
<TD><FONT SIZE="1">48,194</TD>
<TD><FONT SIZE="1">76,001</TD>
<TD><FONT SIZE="1">121,475</TD>
</TR>
<TR ALIGN="right">
<TD><FONT SIZE="1">48</TD>
<TD></TD>
<TD ALIGN="left" NOWRAP><FONT SIZE="1"> Poland</TD>
<TD><FONT SIZE="1">388,328</TD>
<TD><FONT SIZE="1">418,128</TD>
<TD><FONT SIZE="1">548,107</TD>
<TD><FONT SIZE="1">747,750</TD>
</TR>
<TR ALIGN="right">
<TD><FONT SIZE="1">49</TD>
<TD></TD>
<TD ALIGN="left" NOWRAP><FONT SIZE="1"> Romania</TD>
<TD><FONT SIZE="1">91,106</TD>
<TD><FONT SIZE="1">66,994</TD>
<TD><FONT SIZE="1">70,687</TD>
<TD><FONT SIZE="1">84,575</TD>
</TR>
<TR ALIGN="right">
<TD><FONT SIZE="1">50</TD>
<TD></TD>
<TD ALIGN="left" NOWRAP><FONT SIZE="1"> Soviet Union</TD>
<TD><FONT SIZE="1">333,725</TD>
<TD><FONT SIZE="1">406,022</TD>
<TD><FONT SIZE="1">463,462</TD>
<TD><FONT SIZE="1">690,598</TD>
</TR>
<TR ALIGN="right">
<TD><FONT SIZE="1">51</TD>
<TD></TD>
<TD ALIGN="left" NOWRAP><FONT SIZE="1"> Turkey in Europe</TD>
<TD><FONT SIZE="1">(NA)</TD>
<TD><FONT SIZE="1">(NA)</TD>
<TD><FONT SIZE="1">(NA)</TD>
<TD><FONT SIZE="1">(NA)</TD>
</TR>
<TR ALIGN="right">
<TD><FONT SIZE="1">52</TD>
<TD></TD>
<TD ALIGN="left" NOWRAP><FONT SIZE="1"> Yugoslavia</TD>
<TD><FONT SIZE="1">141,516</TD>
<TD><FONT SIZE="1">152,967</TD>
<TD><FONT SIZE="1">153,745</TD>
<TD><FONT SIZE="1">165,798</TD>
</TR>
<TR ALIGN="right">
<TD><FONT SIZE="1">53</TD>
<TD></TD>
<TD ALIGN="left" NOWRAP><FONT SIZE="1"> Other Eastern Europe</TD>
<TD><FONT SIZE="1">(NA)</TD>
<TD><FONT SIZE="1">(NA)</TD>
<TD><FONT SIZE="1">(NA)</TD>
<TD><FONT SIZE="1">(NA)</TD>
</TR>
<TR ALIGN="right">
<TD><FONT SIZE="1">54</TD>
<TD></TD>
<TD ALIGN="left" NOWRAP><FONT SIZE="1"> Europe n.e.c.</TD>
<TD><FONT SIZE="1">6,037</TD>
<TD><FONT SIZE="1">16,768</TD>
<TD><FONT SIZE="1">20,700</TD>
<TD><FONT SIZE="1">14,320</TD>
</TR>
<TR></TR>
<TR ALIGN="right">
<TD><FONT SIZE="1">55</TD>
<TD></TD>
<TD ALIGN="left" NOWRAP><FONT SIZE="1"> Asia</TD>
<TD><FONT SIZE="1">4,979,037</TD>
<TD><FONT SIZE="1">2,539,777</TD>
<TD><FONT SIZE="1">824,887</TD>
<TD><FONT SIZE="1">490,996</TD>
</TR>
<TR ALIGN="right">
<TD><FONT SIZE="1">56</TD>
<TD></TD>
<TD ALIGN="left" NOWRAP><FONT SIZE="1"> Armenia</TD>
<TD><FONT SIZE="1">(X)</TD>
<TD><FONT SIZE="1">(X)</TD>
<TD><FONT SIZE="1">(X)</TD>
<TD><FONT SIZE="1">(X)</TD>
</TR>
<TR ALIGN="right">
<TD><FONT SIZE="1">57</TD>
<TD></TD>
<TD ALIGN="left" NOWRAP><FONT SIZE="1"> China 1/</TD>
<TD><FONT SIZE="1">529,837</TD>
<TD><FONT SIZE="1">286,120</TD>
<TD><FONT SIZE="1">172,132</TD>
<TD><FONT SIZE="1">99,735</TD>
</TR>
<TR ALIGN="right">
<TD><FONT SIZE="1">58</TD>
<TD></TD>
<TD ALIGN="left" NOWRAP><FONT SIZE="1"> India</TD>
<TD><FONT SIZE="1">450,406</TD>
<TD><FONT SIZE="1">206,087</TD>
<TD><FONT SIZE="1">51,000</TD>
<TD><FONT SIZE="1">12,296</TD>
</TR>
<TR ALIGN="right">
<TD><FONT SIZE="1">59</TD>
<TD></TD>
<TD ALIGN="left" NOWRAP><FONT SIZE="1"> Japan</TD>
<TD><FONT SIZE="1">290,128</TD>
<TD><FONT SIZE="1">221,794</TD>
<TD><FONT SIZE="1">120,235</TD>
<TD><FONT SIZE="1">109,175</TD>
</TR>
<TR ALIGN="right">
<TD><FONT SIZE="1">60</TD>
<TD></TD>
<TD ALIGN="left" NOWRAP><FONT SIZE="1"> Palestine</TD>
<TD><FONT SIZE="1">21,070</TD>
<TD><FONT SIZE="1">(NA)</TD>
<TD><FONT SIZE="1">(NA)</TD>
<TD><FONT SIZE="1">(NA)</TD>
</TR>
<TR ALIGN="right">
<TD><FONT SIZE="1">61</TD>
<TD></TD>
<TD ALIGN="left" NOWRAP><FONT SIZE="1"> Syria</TD>
<TD><FONT SIZE="1">36,782</TD>
<TD><FONT SIZE="1">22,081</TD>
<TD><FONT SIZE="1">14,962</TD>
<TD><FONT SIZE="1">16,717</TD>
</TR>
<TR ALIGN="right">
<TD><FONT SIZE="1">62</TD>
<TD></TD>
<TD ALIGN="left" NOWRAP><FONT SIZE="1"> Turkey in Asia</TD>
<TD><FONT SIZE="1">55,087</TD>
<TD><FONT SIZE="1">51,915</TD>
<TD><FONT SIZE="1">48,085</TD>
<TD><FONT SIZE="1">52,228</TD>
</TR>
<TR ALIGN="right">
<TD><FONT SIZE="1">63</TD>
<TD></TD>
<TD ALIGN="left" NOWRAP><FONT SIZE="1"> Other Asia</TD>
<TD><FONT SIZE="1">3,595,727</TD>
<TD><FONT SIZE="1">1,751,780</TD>
<TD><FONT SIZE="1">418,473</TD>
<TD><FONT SIZE="1">200,845</TD>
</TR>
<TR></TR>
<TR ALIGN="right">
<TD><FONT SIZE="1">64</TD>
<TD></TD>
<TD ALIGN="left" NOWRAP><FONT SIZE="1"> Africa</TD>
<TD><FONT SIZE="1">363,819</TD>
<TD><FONT SIZE="1">199,723</TD>
<TD><FONT SIZE="1">80,143</TD>
<TD><FONT SIZE="1">35,355</TD>
</TR>
<TR ALIGN="right">
<TD><FONT SIZE="1">65</TD>
<TD></TD>
<TD ALIGN="left" NOWRAP><FONT SIZE="1"> Africa excl. Atlantic Islands</TD>
<TD><FONT SIZE="1">349,451</TD>
<TD><FONT SIZE="1">189,266</TD>
<TD><FONT SIZE="1">61,463</TD>
<TD><FONT SIZE="1">27,053</TD>
</TR>
<TR ALIGN="right">
<TD><FONT SIZE="1">66</TD>
<TD></TD>
<TD ALIGN="left" NOWRAP><FONT SIZE="1"> Atlantic Islands</TD>
<TD><FONT SIZE="1">14,368</TD>
<TD><FONT SIZE="1">10,457</TD>
<TD><FONT SIZE="1">18,680</TD>
<TD><FONT SIZE="1">8,302</TD>
</TR>
<TR></TR>
<TR ALIGN="right">
<TD><FONT SIZE="1">67</TD>
<TD></TD>
<TD ALIGN="left" NOWRAP><FONT SIZE="1"> Oceania</TD>
<TD><FONT SIZE="1">104,145</TD>
<TD><FONT SIZE="1">77,577</TD>
<TD><FONT SIZE="1">41,258</TD>
<TD><FONT SIZE="1">34,730</TD>
</TR>
<TR ALIGN="right">
<TD><FONT SIZE="1">68</TD>
<TD></TD>
<TD ALIGN="left" NOWRAP><FONT SIZE="1"> Australia</TD>
<TD><FONT SIZE="1">42,267</TD>
<TD><FONT SIZE="1">36,120</TD>
<TD><FONT SIZE="1">24,271</TD>
<TD><FONT SIZE="1">22,209</TD>
</TR>
<TR ALIGN="right">
<TD><FONT SIZE="1">69</TD>
<TD></TD>
<TD ALIGN="left" NOWRAP><FONT SIZE="1"> Sandwich Islands (Hawaii)</TD>
<TD><FONT SIZE="1">(X)</TD>
<TD><FONT SIZE="1">(X)</TD>
<TD><FONT SIZE="1">(X)</TD>
<TD><FONT SIZE="1">(X)</TD>
</TR>
<TR ALIGN="right">
<TD><FONT SIZE="1">70</TD>
<TD></TD>
<TD ALIGN="left" NOWRAP><FONT SIZE="1"> Other Oceania</TD>
<TD><FONT SIZE="1">61,878</TD>
<TD><FONT SIZE="1">41,457</TD>
<TD><FONT SIZE="1">16,987</TD>
<TD><FONT SIZE="1">12,521</TD>
</TR>
<TR></TR>
<TR ALIGN="right">
<TD><FONT SIZE="1">71</TD>
<TD></TD>
<TD ALIGN="left" NOWRAP><FONT SIZE="1"> Latin America</TD>
<TD><FONT SIZE="1">8,407,837</TD>
<TD><FONT SIZE="1">4,372,487</TD>
<TD><FONT SIZE="1">1,803,970</TD>
<TD><FONT SIZE="1">908,309</TD>
</TR>
<TR ALIGN="right">
<TD><FONT SIZE="1">72</TD>
<TD></TD>
<TD ALIGN="left" NOWRAP><FONT SIZE="1"> Caribbean</TD>
<TD><FONT SIZE="1">1,938,348</TD>
<TD><FONT SIZE="1">1,258,363</TD>
<TD><FONT SIZE="1">675,108</TD>
<TD><FONT SIZE="1">193,922</TD>
</TR>
<TR ALIGN="right">
<TD><FONT SIZE="1">73</TD>
<TD></TD>
<TD ALIGN="left" NOWRAP><FONT SIZE="1"> Cuba</TD>
<TD><FONT SIZE="1">736,971</TD>
<TD><FONT SIZE="1">607,814</TD>
<TD><FONT SIZE="1">439,048</TD>
<TD><FONT SIZE="1">79,150</TD>
</TR>
<TR ALIGN="right">
<TD><FONT SIZE="1">74</TD>
<TD></TD>
<TD ALIGN="left" NOWRAP><FONT SIZE="1"> Other Caribbean</TD>
<TD><FONT SIZE="1">1,201,377</TD>
<TD><FONT SIZE="1">650,549</TD>
<TD><FONT SIZE="1">236,060</TD>
<TD><FONT SIZE="1">114,772</TD>
</TR>
<TR ALIGN="right">
<TD><FONT SIZE="1">75</TD>
<TD></TD>
<TD ALIGN="left" NOWRAP><FONT SIZE="1"> Central America</TD>
<TD><FONT SIZE="1">5,431,992</TD>
<TD><FONT SIZE="1">2,553,113</TD>
<TD><FONT SIZE="1">873,624</TD>
<TD><FONT SIZE="1">624,851</TD>
</TR>
<TR ALIGN="right">
<TD><FONT SIZE="1">76</TD>
<TD></TD>
<TD ALIGN="left" NOWRAP><FONT SIZE="1"> Mexico</TD>
<TD><FONT SIZE="1">4,298,014</TD>
<TD><FONT SIZE="1">2,199,221</TD>
<TD><FONT SIZE="1">759,711</TD>
<TD><FONT SIZE="1">575,902</TD>
</TR>
<TR ALIGN="right">
<TD><FONT SIZE="1">77</TD>
<TD></TD>
<TD ALIGN="left" NOWRAP><FONT SIZE="1"> Other Central America</TD>
<TD><FONT SIZE="1">1,133,978</TD>
<TD><FONT SIZE="1">353,892</TD>
<TD><FONT SIZE="1">113,913</TD>
<TD><FONT SIZE="1">48,949</TD>
</TR>
<TR ALIGN="right">
<TD><FONT SIZE="1">78</TD>
<TD></TD>
<TD ALIGN="left" NOWRAP><FONT SIZE="1"> South America</TD>
<TD><FONT SIZE="1">1,037,497</TD>
<TD><FONT SIZE="1">561,011</TD>
<TD><FONT SIZE="1">255,238</TD>
<TD><FONT SIZE="1">89,536</TD>
</TR>
<TR></TR>
<TR ALIGN="right">
<TD><FONT SIZE="1">79</TD>
<TD></TD>
<TD ALIGN="left" NOWRAP><FONT SIZE="1"> Northern America</TD>
<TD><FONT SIZE="1">753,917</TD>
<TD><FONT SIZE="1">853,427</TD>
<TD><FONT SIZE="1">812,421</TD>
<TD><FONT SIZE="1">952,500</TD>
</TR>
<TR ALIGN="right">
<TD><FONT SIZE="1">80</TD>
<TD></TD>
<TD ALIGN="left" NOWRAP><FONT SIZE="1"> Canada</TD>
<TD><FONT SIZE="1">744,830</TD>
<TD><FONT SIZE="1">842,859</TD>
<TD><FONT SIZE="1">812,421</TD>
<TD><FONT SIZE="1">952,500</TD>
</TR>
<TR ALIGN="right">
<TD><FONT SIZE="1">81</TD>
<TD></TD>
<TD ALIGN="left" NOWRAP><FONT SIZE="1"> Canada-French</TD>
<TD><FONT SIZE="1">(NA)</TD>
<TD><FONT SIZE="1">(NA)</TD>
<TD><FONT SIZE="1">(NA)</TD>
<TD><FONT SIZE="1">(NA)</TD>
</TR>
<TR ALIGN="right">
<TD><FONT SIZE="1">82</TD>
<TD></TD>
<TD ALIGN="left" NOWRAP><FONT SIZE="1"> Canada-Other</TD>
<TD><FONT SIZE="1">(NA)</TD>
<TD><FONT SIZE="1">(NA)</TD>
<TD><FONT SIZE="1">(NA)</TD>
<TD><FONT SIZE="1">(NA)</TD>
</TR>
<TR ALIGN="right">
<TD><FONT SIZE="1">83</TD>
<TD></TD>
<TD ALIGN="left" NOWRAP><FONT SIZE="1"> Newfoundland</TD>
<TD><FONT SIZE="1">(NA)</TD>
<TD><FONT SIZE="1">(NA)</TD>
<TD><FONT SIZE="1">(NA)</TD>
<TD><FONT SIZE="1">(NA)</TD>
</TR>
<TR ALIGN="right">
<TD><FONT SIZE="1">84</TD>
<TD></TD>
<TD ALIGN="left" NOWRAP><FONT SIZE="1"> Other Northern America</TD>
<TD><FONT SIZE="1">9,087</TD>
<TD><FONT SIZE="1">10,568</TD>
<TD><FONT SIZE="1">(NA)</TD>
<TD><FONT SIZE="1">(NA)</TD>
</TR>
<TR></TR>
<TR ALIGN="right">
<TD><FONT SIZE="1">85</TD>
<TD></TD>
<TD ALIGN="left" NOWRAP><FONT SIZE="1">Region or country not reported</TD>
<TD><FONT SIZE="1">808,158</TD>
<TD><FONT SIZE="1">887,343</TD>
<TD><FONT SIZE="1">315,732</TD>
<TD><FONT SIZE="1">59,890</TD>
</TR>
<TR ALIGN="right">
<TD><FONT SIZE="1">86</TD>
<TD></TD>
<TD ALIGN="left" NOWRAP><FONT SIZE="1"> Born at sea</TD>
<TD><FONT SIZE="1">(NA)</TD>
<TD><FONT SIZE="1">(NA)</TD>
<TD><FONT SIZE="1">(NA)</TD>
<TD><FONT SIZE="1">(NA)</TD>
</TR>
<TR ALIGN="right">
<TD><FONT SIZE="1">87</TD>
<TD></TD>
<TD ALIGN="left" NOWRAP><FONT SIZE="1"> Not reported</TD>
<TD><FONT SIZE="1">(NA)</TD>
<TD><FONT SIZE="1">(NA)</TD>
<TD><FONT SIZE="1">(NA)</TD>
<TD><FONT SIZE="1">(NA)</TD>
</TR>
</TABLE>
<P>
<TABLE CELLPADDING="5" BORDER="1">
<TR ALIGN="right" VALIGN="bottom">
<TD><FONT SIZE="1">Line<BR>
number</TD>
</TD><TD>
<TD ALIGN="left" NOWRAP><FONT SIZE="1">Region and country or area</TD>
<TD><FONT SIZE="1">1930</TD>
<TD><FONT SIZE="1">1920</TD>
<TD><FONT SIZE="1">1910</TD>
<TD><FONT SIZE="1">1900</TD>
<TD><FONT SIZE="1">1890</TD>
<TD><FONT SIZE="1">1880</TD>
<TD><FONT SIZE="1">1870</TD>
<TD><FONT SIZE="1">1860</TD>
<TD><FONT SIZE="1">1850</TD>
</TD><TD>
<TD><FONT SIZE="1">Line<BR>
number</TD>
</TR>
<TR></TR>
<TR ALIGN="right">
<TD><FONT SIZE="1"><STRONG>1</STRONG></TD>
<TD></TD>
<TD ALIGN="left" NOWRAP><FONT SIZE="1"> <STRONG>Total</STRONG></TD>
<TD><FONT SIZE="1"><STRONG>14,204,149</STRONG></TD>
<TD><FONT SIZE="1"><STRONG>13,920,692</STRONG></TD>
<TD><FONT SIZE="1"><STRONG>13,515,886</STRONG></TD>
<TD><FONT SIZE="1"><STRONG>10,341,276</STRONG></TD>
<TD><FONT SIZE="1"><STRONG>9,249,547</STRONG></TD>
<TD><FONT SIZE="1"><STRONG>6,679,943</STRONG></TD>
<TD><FONT SIZE="1"><STRONG>5,567,229</STRONG></TD>
<TD><FONT SIZE="1"><STRONG>4,138,697</STRONG></TD>
<TD><FONT SIZE="1"><STRONG>2,244,602</STRONG></TD>
<TD></TD>
<TD><FONT SIZE="1"><STRONG>1</STRONG></TD>
</TR>
<TR ALIGN="right">
<TD><FONT SIZE="1">2</TD>
<TD></TD>
<TD ALIGN="left" NOWRAP><FONT SIZE="1">Reported by region and/or country</TD>
<TD><FONT SIZE="1">14,197,553</TD>
<TD><FONT SIZE="1">13,911,767</TD>
<TD><FONT SIZE="1">13,506,272</TD>
<TD><FONT SIZE="1">10,330,534</TD>
<TD><FONT SIZE="1">9,243,535</TD>
<TD><FONT SIZE="1">6,675,875</TD>
<TD><FONT SIZE="1">5,563,637</TD>
<TD><FONT SIZE="1">4,134,809</TD>
<TD><FONT SIZE="1">2,202,625</TD>
<TD></TD>
<TD><FONT SIZE="1">2</TD>
</TR>
<TR ALIGN="right">
<TD><FONT SIZE="1">3</TD>
<TD></TD>
<TD ALIGN="left" NOWRAP><FONT SIZE="1"> Europe</TD>
<TD><FONT SIZE="1">11,784,010</TD>
<TD><FONT SIZE="1">11,916,048</TD>
<TD><FONT SIZE="1">11,810,115</TD>
<TD><FONT SIZE="1">8,881,548</TD>
<TD><FONT SIZE="1">8,030,347</TD>
<TD><FONT SIZE="1">5,751,823</TD>
<TD><FONT SIZE="1">4,941,049</TD>
<TD><FONT SIZE="1">3,807,062</TD>
<TD><FONT SIZE="1">2,031,867</TD>
<TD></TD>
<TD><FONT SIZE="1">3</TD>
</TR>
<TR ALIGN="right">
<TD><FONT SIZE="1">4</TD>
<TD></TD>
<TD ALIGN="left" NOWRAP><FONT SIZE="1"> Northern and Western Europe</TD>
<TD><FONT SIZE="1">5,850,256</TD>
<TD><FONT SIZE="1">6,241,916</TD>
<TD><FONT SIZE="1">7,306,325</TD>
<TD><FONT SIZE="1">7,204,649</TD>
<TD><FONT SIZE="1">7,288,917</TD>
<TD><FONT SIZE="1">5,499,889</TD>
<TD><FONT SIZE="1">4,845,679</TD>
<TD><FONT SIZE="1">3,773,347</TD>
<TD><FONT SIZE="1">2,022,195</TD>
<TD></TD>
<TD><FONT SIZE="1">4</TD>
</TR>
<TR ALIGN="right">
<TD><FONT SIZE="1">5</TD>
<TD></TD>
<TD ALIGN="left" NOWRAP><FONT SIZE="1"> Northern Europe</TD>
<TD><FONT SIZE="1">3,415,551</TD>
<TD><FONT SIZE="1">3,501,149</TD>
<TD><FONT SIZE="1">3,953,947</TD>
<TD><FONT SIZE="1">3,917,815</TD>
<TD><FONT SIZE="1">4,056,160</TD>
<TD><FONT SIZE="1">3,212,431</TD>
<TD><FONT SIZE="1">2,867,926</TD>
<TD><FONT SIZE="1">2,271,661</TD>
<TD><FONT SIZE="1">1,358,887</TD>
<TD></TD>
<TD><FONT SIZE="1">5</TD>
</TR>
<TR ALIGN="right">
<TD><FONT SIZE="1">6</TD>
<TD></TD>
<TD ALIGN="left" NOWRAP><FONT SIZE="1"> British Isles</TD>
<TD><FONT SIZE="1">2,147,733</TD>
<TD><FONT SIZE="1">2,172,723</TD>
<TD><FONT SIZE="1">2,573,534</TD>
<TD><FONT SIZE="1">2,783,082</TD>
<TD><FONT SIZE="1">3,122,911</TD>
<TD><FONT SIZE="1">2,772,169</TD>
<TD><FONT SIZE="1">2,626,241</TD>
<TD><FONT SIZE="1">2,199,079</TD>
<TD><FONT SIZE="1">1,340,812</TD>
<TD></TD>
<TD><FONT SIZE="1">6</TD>
</TR>
<TR ALIGN="right">
<TD><FONT SIZE="1">7</TD>
<TD></TD>
<TD ALIGN="left" NOWRAP><FONT SIZE="1"> United Kingdom</TD>
<TD><FONT SIZE="1">1,402,923</TD>
<TD><FONT SIZE="1">(X)</TD>
<TD><FONT SIZE="1">(X)</TD>
<TD><FONT SIZE="1">(X)</TD>
<TD><FONT SIZE="1">(X)</TD>
<TD><FONT SIZE="1">(X)</TD>
<TD><FONT SIZE="1">(X)</TD>
<TD><FONT SIZE="1">(X)</TD>
<TD><FONT SIZE="1">(X)</TD>
<TD></TD>
<TD><FONT SIZE="1">7</TD>
</TR>
<TR ALIGN="right">
<TD><FONT SIZE="1">8</TD>
<TD></TD>
<TD ALIGN="left" NOWRAP><FONT SIZE="1"> Great
Britain</TD>
<TD><FONT SIZE="1">1,224,091</TD>
<TD><FONT SIZE="1">1,135,489</TD>
<TD><FONT SIZE="1">1,221,283</TD>
<TD><FONT SIZE="1">1,167,623</TD>
<TD><FONT SIZE="1">1,251,402</TD>
<TD><FONT SIZE="1">917,598</TD>
<TD><FONT SIZE="1">770,414</TD>
<TD><FONT SIZE="1">587,775</TD>
<TD><FONT SIZE="1">379,093</TD>
<TD></TD>
<TD><FONT SIZE="1">8</TD>
</TR>
<TR ALIGN="right">
<TD><FONT SIZE="1">9</TD>
<TD></TD>
<TD ALIGN="left" NOWRAP><FONT
SIZE="1"> England</TD>
<TD><FONT SIZE="1">809,563</TD>
<TD><FONT SIZE="1">813,853</TD>
<TD><FONT SIZE="1">877,719</TD>
<TD><FONT SIZE="1">840,513</TD>
<TD><FONT SIZE="1">908,141</TD>
<TD><FONT SIZE="1">662,676</TD>
<TD><FONT SIZE="1">550,924</TD>
<TD><FONT SIZE="1">431,692</TD>
<TD><FONT SIZE="1">278,675</TD>
<TD></TD>
<TD><FONT SIZE="1">9</TD>
</TR>
<TR ALIGN="right">
<TD><FONT SIZE="1">10</TD>
<TD></TD>
<TD ALIGN="left" NOWRAP><FONT
SIZE="1"> Scotland</TD>
<TD><FONT SIZE="1">354,323</TD>
<TD><FONT SIZE="1">254,570</TD>
<TD><FONT SIZE="1">261,076</TD>
<TD><FONT SIZE="1">233,524</TD>
<TD><FONT SIZE="1">242,231</TD>
<TD><FONT SIZE="1">170,136</TD>
<TD><FONT SIZE="1">140,835</TD>
<TD><FONT SIZE="1">108,518</TD>
<TD><FONT SIZE="1">70,550</TD>
<TD></TD>
<TD><FONT SIZE="1">10</TD>
</TR>
<TR ALIGN="right">
<TD><FONT SIZE="1">11</TD>
<TD></TD>
<TD ALIGN="left" NOWRAP><FONT
SIZE="1"> Wales</TD>
<TD><FONT SIZE="1">60,205</TD>
<TD><FONT SIZE="1">67,066</TD>
<TD><FONT SIZE="1">82,488</TD>
<TD><FONT SIZE="1">93,586</TD>
<TD><FONT SIZE="1">100,079</TD>
<TD><FONT SIZE="1">83,302</TD>
<TD><FONT SIZE="1">74,533</TD>
<TD><FONT SIZE="1">45,763</TD>
<TD><FONT SIZE="1">29,868</TD>
<TD></TD>
<TD><FONT SIZE="1">11</TD>
</TR>
<TR ALIGN="right">
<TD><FONT SIZE="1">12</TD>
<TD></TD>
<TD ALIGN="left" NOWRAP><FONT
SIZE="1"> Great Britain n.e.c.</TD>
<TD><FONT SIZE="1">(NA)</TD>
<TD><FONT SIZE="1">(NA)</TD>
<TD><FONT SIZE="1">(NA)</TD>
<TD><FONT SIZE="1">(NA)</TD>
<TD><FONT SIZE="1">951</TD>
<TD><FONT SIZE="1">1,484</TD>
<TD><FONT SIZE="1">4,122</TD>
<TD><FONT SIZE="1">1,802</TD>
<TD><FONT SIZE="1">(NA)</TD>
<TD></TD>
<TD><FONT SIZE="1">12</TD>
</TR>
<TR ALIGN="right">
<TD><FONT SIZE="1">13</TD>
<TD></TD>
<TD ALIGN="left" NOWRAP><FONT SIZE="1"> Northern
Ireland</TD>
<TD><FONT SIZE="1">178,832</TD>
<TD><FONT SIZE="1">(X)</TD>
<TD><FONT SIZE="1">(X)</TD>
<TD><FONT SIZE="1">(X)</TD>
<TD><FONT SIZE="1">(X)</TD>
<TD><FONT SIZE="1">(X)</TD>
<TD><FONT SIZE="1">(X)</TD>
<TD><FONT SIZE="1">(X)</TD>
<TD><FONT SIZE="1">(X)</TD>
<TD></TD>
<TD><FONT SIZE="1">13</TD>
</TR>
<TR ALIGN="right">
<TD><FONT SIZE="1">14</TD>
<TD></TD>
<TD ALIGN="left" NOWRAP><FONT SIZE="1"> Ireland</TD>
<TD><FONT SIZE="1">744,810</TD>
<TD><FONT SIZE="1">1,037,234</TD>
<TD><FONT SIZE="1">1,352,251</TD>
<TD><FONT SIZE="1">1,615,459</TD>
<TD><FONT SIZE="1">1,871,509</TD>
<TD><FONT SIZE="1">1,854,571</TD>
<TD><FONT SIZE="1">1,855,827</TD>
<TD><FONT SIZE="1">1,611,304</TD>
<TD><FONT SIZE="1">961,719</TD>
<TD></TD>
<TD><FONT SIZE="1">14</TD>
</TR>
<TR></TR>
<TR ALIGN="right">
<TD><FONT SIZE="1">15</TD>
<TD></TD>
<TD ALIGN="left" NOWRAP><FONT SIZE="1"> Scandinavia</TD>
<TD><FONT SIZE="1">1,267,818</TD>
<TD><FONT SIZE="1">1,328,426</TD>
<TD><FONT SIZE="1">1,380,413</TD>
<TD><FONT SIZE="1">1,134,733</TD>
<TD><FONT SIZE="1">933,249</TD>
<TD><FONT SIZE="1">440,262</TD>
<TD><FONT SIZE="1">241,685</TD>
<TD><FONT SIZE="1">72,582</TD>
<TD><FONT SIZE="1">18,075</TD>
<TD></TD>
<TD><FONT SIZE="1">15</TD>
</TR>
<TR ALIGN="right">
<TD><FONT SIZE="1">16</TD>
<TD></TD>
<TD ALIGN="left" NOWRAP><FONT SIZE="1"> Denmark</TD>
<TD><FONT SIZE="1">179,474</TD>
<TD><FONT SIZE="1">189,154</TD>
<TD><FONT SIZE="1">181,649</TD>
<TD><FONT SIZE="1">153,690</TD>
<TD><FONT SIZE="1">132,543</TD>
<TD><FONT SIZE="1">64,196</TD>
<TD><FONT SIZE="1">30,107</TD>
<TD><FONT SIZE="1">9,962</TD>
<TD><FONT SIZE="1">1,838</TD>
<TD></TD>
<TD><FONT SIZE="1">16</TD>
</TR>
<TR ALIGN="right">
<TD><FONT SIZE="1">17</TD>
<TD></TD>
<TD ALIGN="left" NOWRAP><FONT SIZE="1"> Finland</TD>
<TD><FONT SIZE="1">142,478</TD>
<TD><FONT SIZE="1">149,824</TD>
<TD><FONT SIZE="1">129,680</TD>
<TD><FONT SIZE="1">62,641</TD>
<TD><FONT SIZE="1">(NA)</TD>
<TD><FONT SIZE="1">(NA)</TD>
<TD><FONT SIZE="1">(NA)</TD>
<TD><FONT SIZE="1">(NA)</TD>
<TD><FONT SIZE="1">(NA)</TD>
<TD></TD>
<TD><FONT SIZE="1">17</TD>
</TR>
<TR ALIGN="right">
<TD><FONT SIZE="1">18</TD>
<TD></TD>
<TD ALIGN="left" NOWRAP><FONT SIZE="1"> Iceland</TD>
<TD><FONT SIZE="1">2,764</TD>
<TD><FONT SIZE="1">(NA)</TD>
<TD><FONT SIZE="1">(NA)</TD>
<TD><FONT SIZE="1">(NA)</TD>
<TD><FONT SIZE="1">(NA)</TD>
<TD><FONT SIZE="1">(NA)</TD>
<TD><FONT SIZE="1">(NA)</TD>
<TD><FONT SIZE="1">(NA)</TD>
<TD><FONT SIZE="1">(NA)</TD>
<TD></TD>
<TD><FONT SIZE="1">18</TD>
</TR>
<TR ALIGN="right">
<TD><FONT SIZE="1">19</TD>
<TD></TD>
<TD ALIGN="left" NOWRAP><FONT SIZE="1"> Norway</TD>
<TD><FONT SIZE="1">347,852</TD>
<TD><FONT SIZE="1">363,863</TD>
<TD><FONT SIZE="1">403,877</TD>
<TD><FONT SIZE="1">336,388</TD>
<TD><FONT SIZE="1">322,665</TD>
<TD><FONT SIZE="1">181,729</TD>
<TD><FONT SIZE="1">114,246</TD>
<TD><FONT SIZE="1">43,995</TD>
<TD><FONT SIZE="1">12,678</TD>
<TD></TD>
<TD><FONT SIZE="1">19</TD>
</TR>
<TR ALIGN="right">
<TD><FONT SIZE="1">20</TD>
<TD></TD>
<TD ALIGN="left" NOWRAP><FONT SIZE="1"> Sweden</TD>
<TD><FONT SIZE="1">595,250</TD>
<TD><FONT SIZE="1">625,585</TD>
<TD><FONT SIZE="1">665,207</TD>
<TD><FONT SIZE="1">582,014</TD>
<TD><FONT SIZE="1">478,041</TD>
<TD><FONT SIZE="1">194,337</TD>
<TD><FONT SIZE="1">97,332</TD>
<TD><FONT SIZE="1">18,625</TD>
<TD><FONT SIZE="1">3,559</TD>
<TD></TD>
<TD><FONT SIZE="1">20</TD>
</TR>
<TR></TR>
<TR ALIGN="right">
<TD><FONT SIZE="1">21</TD>
<TD></TD>
<TD ALIGN="left" NOWRAP><FONT SIZE="1"> Western Europe</TD>
<TD><FONT SIZE="1">2,434,705</TD>
<TD><FONT SIZE="1">2,740,767</TD>
<TD><FONT SIZE="1">3,352,378</TD>
<TD><FONT SIZE="1">3,286,834</TD>
<TD><FONT SIZE="1">3,232,757</TD>
<TD><FONT SIZE="1">2,287,458</TD>
<TD><FONT SIZE="1">1,977,753</TD>
<TD><FONT SIZE="1">1,501,686</TD>
<TD><FONT SIZE="1">663,308</TD>
<TD></TD>
<TD><FONT SIZE="1">21</TD>
</TR>
<TR ALIGN="right">
<TD><FONT SIZE="1">22</TD>
<TD></TD>
<TD ALIGN="left" NOWRAP><FONT SIZE="1"> Low countries</TD>
<TD><FONT SIZE="1">206,375</TD>
<TD><FONT SIZE="1">207,038</TD>
<TD><FONT SIZE="1">172,534</TD>
<TD><FONT SIZE="1">127,719</TD>
<TD><FONT SIZE="1">107,349</TD>
<TD><FONT SIZE="1">86,461</TD>
<TD><FONT SIZE="1">65,157</TD>
<TD><FONT SIZE="1">37,353</TD>
<TD><FONT SIZE="1">11,161</TD>
<TD></TD>
<TD><FONT SIZE="1">22</TD>
</TR>
<TR ALIGN="right">
<TD><FONT SIZE="1">23</TD>
<TD></TD>
<TD ALIGN="left" NOWRAP><FONT SIZE="1"> Belgium</TD>
<TD><FONT SIZE="1">64,194</TD>
<TD><FONT SIZE="1">62,687</TD>
<TD><FONT SIZE="1">49,400</TD>
<TD><FONT SIZE="1">29,757</TD>
<TD><FONT SIZE="1">22,639</TD>
<TD><FONT SIZE="1">15,535</TD>
<TD><FONT SIZE="1">12,553</TD>
<TD><FONT SIZE="1">9,072</TD>
<TD><FONT SIZE="1">1,313</TD>
<TD></TD>
<TD><FONT SIZE="1">23</TD>
</TR>
<TR ALIGN="right">
<TD><FONT SIZE="1">24</TD>
<TD></TD>
<TD ALIGN="left" NOWRAP><FONT SIZE="1"> Luxembourg</TD>
<TD><FONT SIZE="1">9,048</TD>
<TD><FONT SIZE="1">12,585</TD>
<TD><FONT SIZE="1">3,071</TD>
<TD><FONT SIZE="1">3,031</TD>
<TD><FONT SIZE="1">2,882</TD>
<TD><FONT SIZE="1">12,836</TD>
<TD><FONT SIZE="1">5,802</TD>
<TD><FONT SIZE="1">(NA)</TD>
<TD><FONT SIZE="1">(NA)</TD>
<TD></TD>
<TD><FONT SIZE="1">24</TD>
</TR>
<TR ALIGN="right">
<TD><FONT SIZE="1">25</TD>
<TD></TD>
<TD ALIGN="left" NOWRAP><FONT SIZE="1"> Netherlands</TD>
<TD><FONT SIZE="1">133,133</TD>
<TD><FONT SIZE="1">131,766</TD>
<TD><FONT SIZE="1">120,063</TD>
<TD><FONT SIZE="1">94,931</TD>
<TD><FONT SIZE="1">81,828</TD>
<TD><FONT SIZE="1">58,090</TD>
<TD><FONT SIZE="1">46,802</TD>
<TD><FONT SIZE="1">28,281</TD>
<TD><FONT SIZE="1">9,848</TD>
<TD></TD>
<TD><FONT SIZE="1">25</TD>
</TR>
<TR ALIGN="right">
<TD><FONT SIZE="1">26</TD>
<TD></TD>
<TD ALIGN="left" NOWRAP><FONT SIZE="1"> Austria</TD>
<TD><FONT SIZE="1">370,914</TD>
<TD><FONT SIZE="1">575,627</TD>
<TD><FONT SIZE="1">626,341</TD>
<TD><FONT SIZE="1">275,907</TD>
<TD><FONT SIZE="1">123,271</TD>
<TD><FONT SIZE="1">38,663</TD>
<TD><FONT SIZE="1">30,508</TD>
<TD><FONT SIZE="1">25,061</TD>
<TD><FONT SIZE="1">946</TD>
<TD></TD>
<TD><FONT SIZE="1">26</TD>
</TR>
<TR ALIGN="right">
<TD><FONT SIZE="1">27</TD>
<TD></TD>
<TD ALIGN="left" NOWRAP><FONT SIZE="1"> France</TD>
<TD><FONT SIZE="1">135,592</TD>
<TD><FONT SIZE="1">153,072</TD>
<TD><FONT SIZE="1">117,418</TD>
<TD><FONT SIZE="1">104,197</TD>
<TD><FONT SIZE="1">113,174</TD>
<TD><FONT SIZE="1">106,971</TD>
<TD><FONT SIZE="1">116,402</TD>
<TD><FONT SIZE="1">109,870</TD>
<TD><FONT SIZE="1">54,069</TD>
<TD></TD>
<TD><FONT SIZE="1">27</TD>
</TR>
<TR ALIGN="right">
<TD><FONT SIZE="1">28</TD>
<TD></TD>
<TD ALIGN="left" NOWRAP><FONT SIZE="1"> Germany</TD>
<TD><FONT SIZE="1">1,608,814</TD>
<TD><FONT SIZE="1">1,686,108</TD>
<TD><FONT SIZE="1">2,311,237</TD>
<TD><FONT SIZE="1">2,663,418</TD>
<TD><FONT SIZE="1">2,784,894</TD>
<TD><FONT SIZE="1">1,966,742</TD>
<TD><FONT SIZE="1">1,690,533</TD>
<TD><FONT SIZE="1">1,276,075</TD>
<TD><FONT SIZE="1">583,774</TD>
<TD></TD>
<TD><FONT SIZE="1">28</TD>
</TR>
<TR ALIGN="right">
<TD><FONT SIZE="1">29</TD>
<TD></TD>
<TD ALIGN="left" NOWRAP><FONT SIZE="1"> Switzerland</TD>
<TD><FONT SIZE="1">113,010</TD>
<TD><FONT SIZE="1">118,659</TD>
<TD><FONT SIZE="1">124,848</TD>
<TD><FONT SIZE="1">115,593</TD>
<TD><FONT SIZE="1">104,069</TD>
<TD><FONT SIZE="1">88,621</TD>
<TD><FONT SIZE="1">75,153</TD>
<TD><FONT SIZE="1">53,327</TD>
<TD><FONT SIZE="1">13,358</TD>
<TD></TD>
<TD><FONT SIZE="1">29</TD>
</TR>
<TR ALIGN="right">
<TD><FONT SIZE="1">30</TD>
<TD></TD>
<TD ALIGN="left" NOWRAP><FONT SIZE="1"> Other Western Europe</TD>
<TD><FONT SIZE="1">(NA)</TD>
<TD><FONT SIZE="1">263</TD>
<TD><FONT SIZE="1">(NA)</TD>
<TD><FONT SIZE="1">(NA)</TD>
<TD><FONT SIZE="1">(NA)</TD>
<TD><FONT SIZE="1">(NA)</TD>
<TD><FONT SIZE="1">(NA)</TD>
<TD><FONT SIZE="1">(NA)</TD>
<TD><FONT SIZE="1">(NA)</TD>
<TD></TD>
<TD><FONT SIZE="1">30</TD>
</TR>
<TR></TR>
<TR ALIGN="right">
<TD><FONT SIZE="1">31</TD>
<TD></TD>
<TD ALIGN="left" NOWRAP><FONT SIZE="1"> Southern and Eastern Europe</TD>
<TD><FONT SIZE="1">5,918,982</TD>
<TD><FONT SIZE="1">5,670,927</TD>
<TD><FONT SIZE="1">4,500,932</TD>
<TD><FONT SIZE="1">1,674,648</TD>
<TD><FONT SIZE="1">728,851</TD>
<TD><FONT SIZE="1">248,620</TD>
<TD><FONT SIZE="1">93,824</TD>
<TD><FONT SIZE="1">32,312</TD>
<TD><FONT SIZE="1">9,672</TD>
<TD></TD>
<TD><FONT SIZE="1">31</TD>
</TR>
<TR ALIGN="right">
<TD><FONT SIZE="1">32</TD>
<TD></TD>
<TD ALIGN="left" NOWRAP><FONT SIZE="1"> Southern Europe</TD>
<TD><FONT SIZE="1">2,133,092</TD>
<TD><FONT SIZE="1">1,939,600</TD>
<TD><FONT SIZE="1">1,544,149</TD>
<TD><FONT SIZE="1">539,968</TD>
<TD><FONT SIZE="1">216,387</TD>
<TD><FONT SIZE="1">66,249</TD>
<TD><FONT SIZE="1">30,416</TD>
<TD><FONT SIZE="1">21,726</TD>
<TD><FONT SIZE="1">8,152</TD>
<TD></TD>
<TD><FONT SIZE="1">32</TD>
</TR>
<TR ALIGN="right">
<TD><FONT SIZE="1">33</TD>
<TD></TD>
<TD ALIGN="left" NOWRAP><FONT SIZE="1"> Greece</TD>
<TD><FONT SIZE="1">174,526</TD>
<TD><FONT SIZE="1">175,976</TD>
<TD><FONT SIZE="1">101,282</TD>
<TD><FONT SIZE="1">8,515</TD>
<TD><FONT SIZE="1">1,887</TD>
<TD><FONT SIZE="1">776</TD>
<TD><FONT SIZE="1">390</TD>
<TD><FONT SIZE="1">328</TD>
<TD><FONT SIZE="1">86</TD>
<TD></TD>
<TD><FONT SIZE="1">33</TD>
</TR>
<TR ALIGN="right">
<TD><FONT SIZE="1">34</TD>
<TD></TD>
<TD ALIGN="left" NOWRAP><FONT SIZE="1"> Italy</TD>
<TD><FONT SIZE="1">1,790,429</TD>
<TD><FONT SIZE="1">1,610,113</TD>
<TD><FONT SIZE="1">1,343,125</TD>
<TD><FONT SIZE="1">484,027</TD>
<TD><FONT SIZE="1">182,580</TD>
<TD><FONT SIZE="1">44,230</TD>
<TD><FONT SIZE="1">17,157</TD>
<TD><FONT SIZE="1">11,677</TD>
<TD><FONT SIZE="1">3,679</TD>
<TD></TD>
<TD><FONT SIZE="1">34</TD>
</TR>
<TR ALIGN="right">
<TD><FONT SIZE="1">35</TD>
<TD></TD>
<TD ALIGN="left" NOWRAP><FONT SIZE="1"> Portugal</TD>
<TD><FONT SIZE="1">108,775</TD>
<TD><FONT SIZE="1">103,976</TD>
<TD><FONT SIZE="1">77,634</TD>
<TD><FONT SIZE="1">40,376</TD>
<TD><FONT SIZE="1">25,735</TD>
<TD><FONT SIZE="1">15,650</TD>
<TD><FONT SIZE="1">8,973</TD>
<TD><FONT SIZE="1">5,477</TD>
<TD><FONT SIZE="1">1,274</TD>
<TD></TD>
<TD><FONT SIZE="1">35</TD>
</TR>
<TR ALIGN="right">
<TD><FONT SIZE="1">36</TD>
<TD></TD>
<TD ALIGN="left" NOWRAP><FONT SIZE="1"> Azores</TD>
<TD><FONT SIZE="1">35,611</TD>
<TD><FONT SIZE="1">33,995</TD>
<TD><FONT SIZE="1">18,274</TD>
<TD><FONT SIZE="1">9,768</TD>
<TD><FONT SIZE="1">9,739</TD>
<TD><FONT SIZE="1">7,512</TD>
<TD><FONT SIZE="1">4,431</TD>
<TD><FONT SIZE="1">1,361</TD>
<TD><FONT SIZE="1">(NA)</TD>
<TD></TD>
<TD><FONT SIZE="1">36</TD>
</TR>
<TR ALIGN="right">
<TD><FONT SIZE="1">37</TD>
<TD></TD>
<TD ALIGN="left" NOWRAP><FONT SIZE="1"> Portugal</TD>
<TD><FONT SIZE="1">73,164</TD>
<TD><FONT SIZE="1">69,981</TD>
<TD><FONT SIZE="1">59,360</TD>
<TD><FONT SIZE="1">30,608</TD>
<TD><FONT SIZE="1">15,996</TD>
<TD><FONT SIZE="1">8,138</TD>
<TD><FONT SIZE="1">4,542</TD>
<TD><FONT SIZE="1">4,116</TD>
<TD><FONT SIZE="1">1,274</TD>
<TD></TD>
<TD><FONT SIZE="1">37</TD>
</TR>
<TR ALIGN="right">
<TD><FONT SIZE="1">38</TD>
<TD></TD>
<TD ALIGN="left" NOWRAP><FONT SIZE="1"> Spain</TD>
<TD><FONT SIZE="1">59,362</TD>
<TD><FONT SIZE="1">49,535</TD>
<TD><FONT SIZE="1">22,108</TD>
<TD><FONT SIZE="1">7,050</TD>
<TD><FONT SIZE="1">6,185</TD>
<TD><FONT SIZE="1">5,121</TD>
<TD><FONT SIZE="1">3,764</TD>
<TD><FONT SIZE="1">4,244</TD>
<TD><FONT SIZE="1">3,113</TD>
<TD></TD>
<TD><FONT SIZE="1">38</TD>
</TR>
<TR ALIGN="right">
<TD><FONT SIZE="1">39</TD>
<TD></TD>
<TD ALIGN="left" NOWRAP><FONT SIZE="1"> Other Southern Europe</TD>
<TD><FONT SIZE="1">(NA)</TD>
<TD><FONT SIZE="1">(NA)</TD>
<TD><FONT SIZE="1">(NA)</TD>
<TD><FONT SIZE="1">(NA)</TD>
<TD><FONT SIZE="1">(NA)</TD>
<TD><FONT SIZE="1">472</TD>
<TD><FONT SIZE="1">132</TD>
<TD><FONT SIZE="1">(NA)</TD>
<TD><FONT SIZE="1">(NA)</TD>
<TD></TD>
<TD><FONT SIZE="1">39</TD>
</TR>
<TR></TR>
<TR ALIGN="right">
<TD><FONT SIZE="1">40</TD>
<TD></TD>
<TD ALIGN="left" NOWRAP><FONT SIZE="1"> Eastern Europe</TD>
<TD><FONT SIZE="1">3,785,890</TD>
<TD><FONT SIZE="1">3,731,327</TD>
<TD><FONT SIZE="1">2,956,783</TD>
<TD><FONT SIZE="1">1,134,680</TD>
<TD><FONT SIZE="1">512,464</TD>
<TD><FONT SIZE="1">182,371</TD>
<TD><FONT SIZE="1">63,408</TD>
<TD><FONT SIZE="1">10,586</TD>
<TD><FONT SIZE="1">1,520</TD>
<TD></TD>
<TD><FONT SIZE="1">40</TD>
</TR>
<TR ALIGN="right">
<TD><FONT SIZE="1">41</TD>
<TD></TD>
<TD ALIGN="left" NOWRAP><FONT SIZE="1"> Albania</TD>
<TD><FONT SIZE="1">8,814</TD>
<TD><FONT SIZE="1">5,608</TD>
<TD><FONT SIZE="1">(NA)</TD>
<TD><FONT SIZE="1">(NA)</TD>
<TD><FONT SIZE="1">(NA)</TD>
<TD><FONT SIZE="1">(NA)</TD>
<TD><FONT SIZE="1">(NA)</TD>
<TD><FONT SIZE="1">(NA)</TD>
<TD><FONT SIZE="1">(NA)</TD>
<TD></TD>
<TD><FONT SIZE="1">41</TD>
</TR>
<TR ALIGN="right">
<TD><FONT SIZE="1">42</TD>
<TD></TD>
<TD ALIGN="left" NOWRAP><FONT SIZE="1"> Bulgaria</TD>
<TD><FONT SIZE="1">9,399</TD>
<TD><FONT SIZE="1">10,477</TD>
<TD><FONT SIZE="1">11,498</TD>
<TD><FONT SIZE="1">(NA)</TD>
<TD><FONT SIZE="1">(NA)</TD>
<TD><FONT SIZE="1">(NA)</TD>
<TD><FONT SIZE="1">(NA)</TD>
<TD><FONT SIZE="1">(NA)</TD>
<TD><FONT SIZE="1">(NA)</TD>
<TD></TD>
<TD><FONT SIZE="1">42</TD>
</TR>
<TR ALIGN="right">
<TD><FONT SIZE="1">43</TD>
<TD></TD>
<TD ALIGN="left" NOWRAP><FONT SIZE="1"> Czechoslovakia</TD>
<TD><FONT SIZE="1">491,638</TD>
<TD><FONT SIZE="1">362,438</TD>
<TD><FONT SIZE="1">219,214</TD>
<TD><FONT SIZE="1">156,891</TD>
<TD><FONT SIZE="1">118,106</TD>
<TD><FONT SIZE="1">85,361</TD>
<TD><FONT SIZE="1">40,289</TD>
<TD><FONT SIZE="1">(NA)</TD>
<TD><FONT SIZE="1">(NA)</TD>
<TD></TD>
<TD><FONT SIZE="1">43</TD>
</TR>
<TR ALIGN="right">
<TD><FONT SIZE="1">44</TD>
<TD></TD>
<TD ALIGN="left" NOWRAP><FONT SIZE="1"> Estonia</TD>
<TD><FONT SIZE="1">3,550</TD>
<TD><FONT SIZE="1">(NA)</TD>
<TD><FONT SIZE="1">(NA)</TD>
<TD><FONT SIZE="1">(NA)</TD>
<TD><FONT SIZE="1">(NA)</TD>
<TD><FONT SIZE="1">(NA)</TD>
<TD><FONT SIZE="1">(NA)</TD>
<TD><FONT SIZE="1">(NA)</TD>
<TD><FONT SIZE="1">(NA)</TD>
<TD></TD>
<TD><FONT SIZE="1">44</TD>
</TR>
<TR ALIGN="right">
<TD><FONT SIZE="1">45</TD>
<TD></TD>
<TD ALIGN="left" NOWRAP><FONT SIZE="1"> Hungary</TD>
<TD><FONT SIZE="1">274,450</TD>
<TD><FONT SIZE="1">397,283</TD>
<TD><FONT SIZE="1">495,609</TD>
<TD><FONT SIZE="1">145,714</TD>
<TD><FONT SIZE="1">62,435</TD>
<TD><FONT SIZE="1">11,526</TD>
<TD><FONT SIZE="1">3,737</TD>
<TD><FONT SIZE="1">(NA)</TD>
<TD><FONT SIZE="1">(NA)</TD>
<TD></TD>
<TD><FONT SIZE="1">45</TD>
</TR>
<TR ALIGN="right">
<TD><FONT SIZE="1">46</TD>
<TD></TD>
<TD ALIGN="left" NOWRAP><FONT SIZE="1"> Latvia</TD>
<TD><FONT SIZE="1">20,673</TD>
<TD><FONT SIZE="1">(NA)</TD>
<TD><FONT SIZE="1">(NA)</TD>
<TD><FONT SIZE="1">(NA)</TD>
<TD><FONT SIZE="1">(NA)</TD>
<TD><FONT SIZE="1">(NA)</TD>
<TD><FONT SIZE="1">(NA)</TD>
<TD><FONT SIZE="1">(NA)</TD>
<TD><FONT SIZE="1">(NA)</TD>
<TD></TD>
<TD><FONT SIZE="1">46</TD>
</TR>
<TR ALIGN="right">
<TD><FONT SIZE="1">47</TD>
<TD></TD>
<TD ALIGN="left" NOWRAP><FONT SIZE="1"> Lithuania</TD>
<TD><FONT SIZE="1">193,606</TD>
<TD><FONT SIZE="1">135,068</TD>
<TD><FONT SIZE="1">(NA)</TD>
<TD><FONT SIZE="1">(NA)</TD>
<TD><FONT SIZE="1">(NA)</TD>
<TD><FONT SIZE="1">(NA)</TD>
<TD><FONT SIZE="1">(NA)</TD>
<TD><FONT SIZE="1">(NA)</TD>
<TD><FONT SIZE="1">(NA)</TD>
<TD></TD>
<TD><FONT SIZE="1">47</TD>
</TR>
<TR ALIGN="right">
<TD><FONT SIZE="1">48</TD>
<TD></TD>
<TD ALIGN="left" NOWRAP><FONT SIZE="1"> Poland</TD>
<TD><FONT SIZE="1">1,268,583</TD>
<TD><FONT SIZE="1">1,139,979</TD>
<TD><FONT SIZE="1">937,884</TD>
<TD><FONT SIZE="1">383,407</TD>
<TD><FONT SIZE="1">147,440</TD>
<TD><FONT SIZE="1">48,557</TD>
<TD><FONT SIZE="1">14,436</TD>
<TD><FONT SIZE="1">7,298</TD>
<TD><FONT SIZE="1">(NA)</TD>
<TD></TD>
<TD><FONT SIZE="1">48</TD>
</TR>
<TR ALIGN="right">
<TD><FONT SIZE="1">49</TD>
<TD></TD>
<TD ALIGN="left" NOWRAP><FONT SIZE="1"> Romania</TD>
<TD><FONT SIZE="1">146,393</TD>
<TD><FONT SIZE="1">102,823</TD>
<TD><FONT SIZE="1">65,923</TD>
<TD><FONT SIZE="1">15,032</TD>
<TD><FONT SIZE="1">(NA)</TD>
<TD><FONT SIZE="1">(NA)</TD>
<TD><FONT SIZE="1">(NA)</TD>
<TD><FONT SIZE="1">(NA)</TD>
<TD><FONT SIZE="1">(NA)</TD>
<TD></TD>
<TD><FONT SIZE="1">49</TD>
</TR>
<TR ALIGN="right">
<TD><FONT SIZE="1">50</TD>
<TD></TD>
<TD ALIGN="left" NOWRAP><FONT SIZE="1"> Soviet Union</TD>
<TD><FONT SIZE="1">1,153,628</TD>
<TD><FONT SIZE="1">1,400,495</TD>
<TD><FONT SIZE="1">1,184,412</TD>
<TD><FONT SIZE="1">423,726</TD>
<TD><FONT SIZE="1">182,644</TD>
<TD><FONT SIZE="1">35,722</TD>
<TD><FONT SIZE="1">4,644</TD>
<TD><FONT SIZE="1">3,160</TD>
<TD><FONT SIZE="1">1,414</TD>
<TD></TD>
<TD><FONT SIZE="1">50</TD>
</TR>
<TR ALIGN="right">
<TD><FONT SIZE="1">51</TD>
<TD></TD>
<TD ALIGN="left" NOWRAP><FONT SIZE="1"> Turkey in Europe</TD>
<TD><FONT SIZE="1">2,257</TD>
<TD><FONT SIZE="1">5,284</TD>
<TD><FONT SIZE="1">32,230</TD>
<TD><FONT SIZE="1">9,910</TD>
<TD><FONT SIZE="1">1,839</TD>
<TD><FONT SIZE="1">1,205</TD>
<TD><FONT SIZE="1">302</TD>
<TD><FONT SIZE="1">128</TD>
<TD><FONT SIZE="1">106</TD>
<TD></TD>
<TD><FONT SIZE="1">51</TD>
</TR>
<TR ALIGN="right">
<TD><FONT SIZE="1">52</TD>
<TD></TD>
<TD ALIGN="left" NOWRAP><FONT SIZE="1"> Yugoslavia</TD>
<TD><FONT SIZE="1">211,416</TD>
<TD><FONT SIZE="1">169,439</TD>
<TD><FONT SIZE="1">(NA)</TD>
<TD><FONT SIZE="1">(NA)</TD>
<TD><FONT SIZE="1">(NA)</TD>
<TD><FONT SIZE="1">(NA)</TD>
<TD><FONT SIZE="1">(NA)</TD>
<TD><FONT SIZE="1">(NA)</TD>
<TD><FONT SIZE="1">(NA)</TD>
<TD></TD>
<TD><FONT SIZE="1">52</TD>
</TR>
<TR ALIGN="right">
<TD><FONT SIZE="1">53</TD>
<TD></TD>
<TD ALIGN="left" NOWRAP><FONT SIZE="1"> Other Eastern Europe</TD>
<TD><FONT SIZE="1">1,483</TD>
<TD><FONT SIZE="1">2,433</TD>
<TD><FONT SIZE="1">10,013</TD>
<TD><FONT SIZE="1">(NA)</TD>
<TD><FONT SIZE="1">(NA)</TD>
<TD><FONT SIZE="1">(NA)</TD>
<TD><FONT SIZE="1">(NA)</TD>
<TD><FONT SIZE="1">(NA)</TD>
<TD><FONT SIZE="1">(NA)</TD>
<TD></TD>
<TD><FONT SIZE="1">53</TD>
</TR>
<TR ALIGN="right">
<TD><FONT SIZE="1">54</TD>
<TD></TD>
<TD ALIGN="left" NOWRAP><FONT SIZE="1"> Europe n.e.c.</TD>
<TD><FONT SIZE="1">14,772</TD>
<TD><FONT SIZE="1">3,205</TD>
<TD><FONT SIZE="1">2,858</TD>
<TD><FONT SIZE="1">2,251</TD>
<TD><FONT SIZE="1">12,579</TD>
<TD><FONT SIZE="1">3,314</TD>
<TD><FONT SIZE="1">1,546</TD>
<TD><FONT SIZE="1">1,403</TD>
<TD><FONT SIZE="1">(NA)</TD>
<TD></TD>
<TD><FONT SIZE="1">54</TD>
</TR>
<TR></TR>
<TR ALIGN="right">
<TD><FONT SIZE="1">55</TD>
<TD></TD>
<TD ALIGN="left" NOWRAP><FONT SIZE="1"> Asia</TD>
<TD><FONT SIZE="1">275,665</TD>
<TD><FONT SIZE="1">237,950</TD>
<TD><FONT SIZE="1">191,484</TD>
<TD><FONT SIZE="1">120,248</TD>
<TD><FONT SIZE="1">113,383</TD>
<TD><FONT SIZE="1">107,630</TD>
<TD><FONT SIZE="1">64,565</TD>
<TD><FONT SIZE="1">36,796</TD>
<TD><FONT SIZE="1">1,135</TD>
<TD></TD>
<TD><FONT SIZE="1">55</TD>
</TR>
<TR ALIGN="right">
<TD><FONT SIZE="1">56</TD>
<TD></TD>
<TD ALIGN="left" NOWRAP><FONT SIZE="1"> Armenia</TD>
<TD><FONT SIZE="1">32,166</TD>
<TD><FONT SIZE="1">36,628</TD>
<TD><FONT SIZE="1">(NA)</TD>
<TD><FONT SIZE="1">(NA)</TD>
<TD><FONT SIZE="1">(NA)</TD>
<TD><FONT SIZE="1">(NA)</TD>
<TD><FONT SIZE="1">(NA)</TD>
<TD><FONT SIZE="1">(NA)</TD>
<TD><FONT SIZE="1">(NA)</TD>
<TD></TD>
<TD><FONT SIZE="1">56</TD>
</TR>
<TR ALIGN="right">
<TD><FONT SIZE="1">57</TD>
<TD></TD>
<TD ALIGN="left" NOWRAP><FONT SIZE="1"> China 1/</TD>
<TD><FONT SIZE="1">46,129</TD>
<TD><FONT SIZE="1">43,560</TD>
<TD><FONT SIZE="1">56,756</TD>
<TD><FONT SIZE="1">81,534</TD>
<TD><FONT SIZE="1">106,688</TD>
<TD><FONT SIZE="1">104,468</TD>
<TD><FONT SIZE="1">63,042</TD>
<TD><FONT SIZE="1">35,565</TD>
<TD><FONT SIZE="1">758</TD>
<TD></TD>
<TD><FONT SIZE="1">57</TD>
</TR>
<TR ALIGN="right">
<TD><FONT SIZE="1">58</TD>
<TD></TD>
<TD ALIGN="left" NOWRAP><FONT SIZE="1"> India</TD>
<TD><FONT SIZE="1">5,850</TD>
<TD><FONT SIZE="1">4,901</TD>
<TD><FONT SIZE="1">4,664</TD>
<TD><FONT SIZE="1">2,031</TD>
<TD><FONT SIZE="1">2,143</TD>
<TD><FONT SIZE="1">1,707</TD>
<TD><FONT SIZE="1">586</TD>
<TD><FONT SIZE="1">(NA)</TD>
<TD><FONT SIZE="1">(NA)</TD>
<TD></TD>
<TD><FONT SIZE="1">58</TD>
</TR>
<TR ALIGN="right">
<TD><FONT SIZE="1">59</TD>
<TD></TD>
<TD ALIGN="left" NOWRAP><FONT SIZE="1"> Japan</TD>
<TD><FONT SIZE="1">70,993</TD>
<TD><FONT SIZE="1">81,502</TD>
<TD><FONT SIZE="1">67,744</TD>
<TD><FONT SIZE="1">24,788</TD>
<TD><FONT SIZE="1">2,292</TD>
<TD><FONT SIZE="1">401</TD>
<TD><FONT SIZE="1">73</TD>
<TD><FONT SIZE="1">(NA)</TD>
<TD><FONT SIZE="1">(NA)</TD>
<TD></TD>
<TD><FONT SIZE="1">59</TD>
</TR>
<TR ALIGN="right">
<TD><FONT SIZE="1">60</TD>
<TD></TD>
<TD ALIGN="left" NOWRAP><FONT SIZE="1"> Palestine</TD>
<TD><FONT SIZE="1">6,137</TD>
<TD><FONT SIZE="1">3,203</TD>
<TD><FONT SIZE="1">(NA)</TD>
<TD><FONT SIZE="1">(NA)</TD>
<TD><FONT SIZE="1">(NA)</TD>
<TD><FONT SIZE="1">(NA)</TD>
<TD><FONT SIZE="1">(NA)</TD>
<TD><FONT SIZE="1">(NA)</TD>
<TD><FONT SIZE="1">(NA)</TD>
<TD></TD>
<TD><FONT SIZE="1">60</TD>
</TR>
<TR ALIGN="right">
<TD><FONT SIZE="1">61</TD>
<TD></TD>
<TD ALIGN="left" NOWRAP><FONT SIZE="1"> Syria</TD>
<TD><FONT SIZE="1">57,227</TD>
<TD><FONT SIZE="1">51,901</TD>
<TD><FONT SIZE="1">(NA)</TD>
<TD><FONT SIZE="1">(NA)</TD>
<TD><FONT SIZE="1">(NA)</TD>
<TD><FONT SIZE="1">(NA)</TD>
<TD><FONT SIZE="1">(NA)</TD>
<TD><FONT SIZE="1">(NA)</TD>
<TD><FONT SIZE="1">(NA)</TD>
<TD></TD>
<TD><FONT SIZE="1">61</TD>
</TR>
<TR ALIGN="right">
<TD><FONT SIZE="1">62</TD>
<TD></TD>
<TD ALIGN="left" NOWRAP><FONT SIZE="1"> Turkey in Asia</TD>
<TD><FONT SIZE="1">46,654</TD>
<TD><FONT SIZE="1">11,019</TD>
<TD><FONT SIZE="1">59,729</TD>
<TD><FONT SIZE="1">(NA)</TD>
<TD><FONT SIZE="1">(NA)</TD>
<TD><FONT SIZE="1">(NA)</TD>
<TD><FONT SIZE="1">(NA)</TD>
<TD><FONT SIZE="1">(NA)</TD>
<TD><FONT SIZE="1">(NA)</TD>
<TD></TD>
<TD><FONT SIZE="1">62</TD>
</TR>
<TR ALIGN="right">
<TD><FONT SIZE="1">63</TD>
<TD></TD>
<TD ALIGN="left" NOWRAP><FONT SIZE="1"> Other Asia</TD>
<TD><FONT SIZE="1">10,509</TD>
<TD><FONT SIZE="1">5,236</TD>
<TD><FONT SIZE="1">2,591</TD>
<TD><FONT SIZE="1">11,895</TD>
<TD><FONT SIZE="1">2,260</TD>
<TD><FONT SIZE="1">1,054</TD>
<TD><FONT SIZE="1">864</TD>
<TD><FONT SIZE="1">1,231</TD>
<TD><FONT SIZE="1">377</TD>
<TD></TD>
<TD><FONT SIZE="1">63</TD>
</TR>
<TR></TR>
<TR ALIGN="right">
<TD><FONT SIZE="1">64</TD>
<TD></TD>
<TD ALIGN="left" NOWRAP><FONT SIZE="1"> Africa</TD>
<TD><FONT SIZE="1">18,326</TD>
<TD><FONT SIZE="1">16,126</TD>
<TD><FONT SIZE="1">3,992</TD>
<TD><FONT SIZE="1">2,538</TD>
<TD><FONT SIZE="1">2,207</TD>
<TD><FONT SIZE="1">2,204</TD>
<TD><FONT SIZE="1">2,657</TD>
<TD><FONT SIZE="1">526</TD>
<TD><FONT SIZE="1">551</TD>
<TD></TD>
<TD><FONT SIZE="1">64</TD>
</TR>
<TR ALIGN="right">
<TD><FONT SIZE="1">65</TD>
<TD></TD>
<TD ALIGN="left" NOWRAP><FONT SIZE="1"> Africa excl. Atlantic Islands</TD>
<TD><FONT SIZE="1">8,859</TD>
<TD><FONT SIZE="1">5,781</TD>
<TD><FONT SIZE="1">3,992</TD>
<TD><FONT SIZE="1">2,538</TD>
<TD><FONT SIZE="1">2,207</TD>
<TD><FONT SIZE="1">2,204</TD>
<TD><FONT SIZE="1">2,657</TD>
<TD><FONT SIZE="1">526</TD>
<TD><FONT SIZE="1">551</TD>
<TD></TD>
<TD><FONT SIZE="1">65</TD>
</TR>
<TR ALIGN="right">
<TD><FONT SIZE="1">66</TD>
<TD></TD>
<TD ALIGN="left" NOWRAP><FONT SIZE="1"> Atlantic Islands</TD>
<TD><FONT SIZE="1">9,467</TD>
<TD><FONT SIZE=";1">10,345</TD>
<TD><FONT SIZE="1">(NA)</TD>
<TD><FONT SIZE="1">(NA)</TD>
<TD><FONT SIZE="1">(NA)</TD>
<TD><FONT SIZE="1">(NA)</TD>
<TD><FONT SIZE="1">(NA)</TD>
<TD><FONT SIZE="1">(NA)</TD>
<TD><FONT SIZE="1">(NA)</TD>
<TD></TD>
<TD><FONT SIZE="1">66</TD>
</TR>
<TR></TR>
<TR ALIGN="right">
<TD><FONT SIZE="1">67</TD>
<TD></TD>
<TD ALIGN="left" NOWRAP><FONT SIZE="1"> Oceania</TD>
<TD><FONT SIZE="1">17,343</TD>
<TD><FONT SIZE="1">14,626</TD>
<TD><FONT SIZE="1">11,450</TD>
<TD><FONT SIZE="1">8,820</TD>
<TD><FONT SIZE="1">9,353</TD>
<TD><FONT SIZE="1">6,859</TD>
<TD><FONT SIZE="1">4,028</TD>
<TD><FONT SIZE="1">2,140</TD>
<TD><FONT SIZE="1">588</TD>
<TD></TD>
<TD><FONT SIZE="1">67</TD>
</TR>
<TR ALIGN="right">
<TD><FONT SIZE="1">68</TD>
<TD></TD>
<TD ALIGN="left" NOWRAP><FONT SIZE="1"> Australia</TD>
<TD><FONT SIZE="1">12,816</TD>
<TD><FONT SIZE="1">10,914</TD>
<TD><FONT SIZE="1">9,035</TD>
<TD><FONT SIZE="1">6,807</TD>
<TD><FONT SIZE="1">5,984</TD>
<TD><FONT SIZE="1">4,906</TD>
<TD><FONT SIZE="1">3,118</TD>
<TD><FONT SIZE="1">1,419</TD>
<TD><FONT SIZE="1">(NA)</TD>
<TD></TD>
<TD><FONT SIZE="1">68</TD>
</TR>
<TR ALIGN="right">
<TD><FONT SIZE="1">69</TD>
<TD></TD>
<TD ALIGN="left" NOWRAP><FONT SIZE="1"> Sandwich Islands (Hawaii)</TD>
<TD><FONT SIZE="1">(X)</TD>
<TD><FONT SIZE="1">(X)</TD>
<TD><FONT SIZE="1">(X)</TD>
<TD><FONT SIZE="1">(X)</TD>
<TD><FONT SIZE="1">1,304</TD>
<TD><FONT SIZE="1">1,147</TD>
<TD><FONT SIZE="1">584</TD>
<TD><FONT SIZE="1">435</TD>
<TD><FONT SIZE="1">588</TD>
<TD></TD>
<TD><FONT SIZE="1">69</TD>
</TR>
<TR ALIGN="right">
<TD><FONT SIZE="1">70</TD>
<TD></TD>
<TD ALIGN="left" NOWRAP><FONT SIZE="1"> Other Oceania</TD>
<TD><FONT SIZE="1">4,527</TD>
<TD><FONT SIZE="1">3,712</TD>
<TD><FONT SIZE="1">2,415</TD>
<TD><FONT SIZE="1">2,013</TD>
<TD><FONT SIZE="1">2,065</TD>
<TD><FONT SIZE="1">806</TD>
<TD><FONT SIZE="1">326</TD>
<TD><FONT SIZE="1">286</TD>
<TD><FONT SIZE="1">(NA)</TD>
<TD></TD>
<TD><FONT SIZE="1">70</TD>
</TR>
<TR></TR>
<TR ALIGN="right">
<TD><FONT SIZE="1">71</TD>
<TD></TD>
<TD ALIGN="left" NOWRAP><FONT SIZE="1"> Latin America</TD>
<TD><FONT SIZE="1">791,840</TD>
<TD><FONT SIZE="1">588,843</TD>
<TD><FONT SIZE="1">279,514</TD>
<TD><FONT SIZE="1">137,458</TD>
<TD><FONT SIZE="1">107,307</TD>
<TD><FONT SIZE="1">90,073</TD>
<TD><FONT SIZE="1">57,871</TD>
<TD><FONT SIZE="1">38,315</TD>
<TD><FONT SIZE="1">20,773</TD>
<TD></TD>
<TD><FONT SIZE="1">71</TD>
</TR>
<TR ALIGN="right">
<TD><FONT SIZE="1">72</TD>
<TD></TD>
<TD ALIGN="left" NOWRAP><FONT SIZE="1"> Caribbean</TD>
<TD><FONT SIZE="1">106,241</TD>
<TD><FONT SIZE="1">78,962</TD>
<TD><FONT SIZE="1">47,635</TD>
<TD><FONT SIZE="1">25,435</TD>
<TD><FONT SIZE="1">23,256</TD>
<TD><FONT SIZE="1">16,401</TD>
<TD><FONT SIZE="1">11,570</TD>
<TD><FONT SIZE="1">7,353</TD>
<TD><FONT SIZE="1">5,772</TD>
<TD></TD>
<TD><FONT SIZE="1">72</TD>
</TR>
<TR ALIGN="right">
<TD><FONT SIZE="1">73</TD>
<TD></TD>
<TD ALIGN="left" NOWRAP><FONT SIZE="1"> Cuba</TD>
<TD><FONT SIZE="1">18,493</TD>
<TD><FONT SIZE="1">14,872</TD>
<TD><FONT SIZE="1">15,133</TD>
<TD><FONT SIZE="1">11,081</TD>
<TD><FONT SIZE="1">(NA)</TD>
<TD><FONT SIZE="1">6,917</TD>
<TD><FONT SIZE="1">5,319</TD>
<TD><FONT SIZE="1">(NA)</TD>
<TD><FONT SIZE="1">(NA)</TD>
<TD></TD>
<TD><FONT SIZE="1">73</TD>
</TR>
<TR ALIGN="right">
<TD><FONT SIZE="1">74</TD>
<TD></TD>
<TD ALIGN="left" NOWRAP><FONT SIZE="1"> Other Caribbean</TD>
<TD><FONT SIZE="1">87,748</TD>
<TD><FONT SIZE="1">64,090</TD>
<TD><FONT SIZE="1">32,502</TD>
<TD><FONT SIZE="1">14,354</TD>
<TD><FONT SIZE="1">(NA)</TD>
<TD><FONT SIZE="1">9,484</TD>
<TD><FONT SIZE="1">6,251</TD>
<TD><FONT SIZE="1">(NA)</TD>
<TD><FONT SIZE="1">(NA)</TD>
<TD></TD>
<TD><FONT SIZE="1">74</TD>
</TR>
<TR ALIGN="right">
<TD><FONT SIZE="1">75</TD>
<TD></TD>
<TD ALIGN="left" NOWRAP><FONT SIZE="1"> Central America</TD>
<TD><FONT SIZE="1">651,976</TD>
<TD><FONT SIZE="1">491,330</TD>
<TD><FONT SIZE="1">223,651</TD>
<TD><FONT SIZE="1">107,290</TD>
<TD><FONT SIZE="1">79,045</TD>
<TD><FONT SIZE="1">69,106</TD>
<TD><FONT SIZE="1">42,736</TD>
<TD><FONT SIZE="1">27,699</TD>
<TD><FONT SIZE="1">13,458</TD>
<TD></TD>
<TD><FONT SIZE="1">75</TD>
</TR>
<TR ALIGN="right">
<TD><FONT SIZE="1">76</TD>
<TD></TD>
<TD ALIGN="left" NOWRAP><FONT SIZE="1"> Mexico</TD>
<TD><FONT SIZE="1">641,462</TD>
<TD><FONT SIZE="1">486,418</TD>
<TD><FONT SIZE="1">221,915</TD>
<TD><FONT SIZE="1">103,393</TD>
<TD><FONT SIZE="1">77,853</TD>
<TD><FONT SIZE="1">68,399</TD>
<TD><FONT SIZE="1">42,435</TD>
<TD><FONT SIZE="1">27,466</TD>
<TD><FONT SIZE="1">13,317</TD>
<TD></TD>
<TD><FONT SIZE="1">76</TD>
</TR>
<TR ALIGN="right">
<TD><FONT SIZE="1">77</TD>
<TD></TD>
<TD ALIGN="left" NOWRAP><FONT SIZE="1"> Other Central America</TD>
<TD><FONT SIZE="1">10,514</TD>
<TD><FONT SIZE="1">4,912</TD>
<TD><FONT SIZE="1">1,736</TD>
<TD><FONT SIZE="1">3,897</TD>
<TD><FONT SIZE="1">1,192</TD>
<TD><FONT SIZE="1">707</TD>
<TD><FONT SIZE="1">301</TD>
<TD><FONT SIZE="1">233</TD>
<TD><FONT SIZE="1">141</TD>
<TD></TD>
<TD><FONT SIZE="1">77</TD>
</TR>
<TR ALIGN="right">
<TD><FONT SIZE="1">78</TD>
<TD></TD>
<TD ALIGN="left" NOWRAP><FONT SIZE="1"> South America</TD>
<TD><FONT SIZE="1">33,623</TD>
<TD><FONT SIZE="1">18,551</TD>
<TD><FONT SIZE="1">8,228</TD>
<TD><FONT SIZE="1">4,733</TD>
<TD><FONT SIZE="1">5,006</TD>
<TD><FONT SIZE="1">4,566</TD>
<TD><FONT SIZE="1">3,565</TD>
<TD><FONT SIZE="1">3,263</TD>
<TD><FONT SIZE="1">1,543</TD>
<TD></TD>
<TD><FONT SIZE="1">78</TD>
</TR>
<TR></TR>
<TR ALIGN="right">
<TD><FONT SIZE="1">79</TD>
<TD></TD>
<TD ALIGN="left" NOWRAP><FONT SIZE="1"> Northern America</TD>
<TD><FONT SIZE="1">1,310,369</TD>
<TD><FONT SIZE="1">1,138,174</TD>
<TD><FONT SIZE="1">1,209,717</TD>
<TD><FONT SIZE="1">1,179,922</TD>
<TD><FONT SIZE="1">980,938</TD>
<TD><FONT SIZE="1">717,286</TD>
<TD><FONT SIZE="1">493,467</TD>
<TD><FONT SIZE="1">249,970</TD>
<TD><FONT SIZE="1">147,711</TD>
<TD></TD>
<TD><FONT SIZE="1">79</TD>
</TR>
<TR ALIGN="right">
<TD><FONT SIZE="1">80</TD>
<TD></TD>
<TD ALIGN="left" NOWRAP><FONT SIZE="1"> Canada</TD>
<TD><FONT SIZE="1">1,310,369</TD>
<TD><FONT SIZE="1">1,138,174</TD>
<TD><FONT SIZE="1">1,209,717</TD>
<TD><FONT SIZE="1">1,179,922</TD>
<TD><FONT SIZE="1">980,938</TD>
<TD><FONT SIZE="1">717,157</TD>
<TD><FONT SIZE="1">493,464</TD>
<TD><FONT SIZE="1">249,970</TD>
<TD><FONT SIZE="1">147,711</TD>
<TD></TD>
<TD><FONT SIZE="1">80</TD>
</TR>
<TR ALIGN="right">
<TD><FONT SIZE="1">81</TD>
<TD></TD>
<TD ALIGN="left" NOWRAP><FONT SIZE="1"> Canada-French</TD>
<TD><FONT SIZE="1">370,852</TD>
<TD><FONT SIZE="1">307,786</TD>
<TD><FONT SIZE="1">385,083</TD>
<TD><FONT SIZE="1">395,126</TD>
<TD><FONT SIZE="1">302,496</TD>
<TD><FONT SIZE="1">(NA)</TD>
<TD><FONT SIZE="1">(NA)</TD>
<TD><FONT SIZE="1">(NA)</TD>
<TD><FONT SIZE="1">(NA)</TD>
<TD></TD>
<TD><FONT SIZE="1">81</TD>
</TR>
<TR ALIGN="right">
<TD><FONT SIZE="1">82</TD>
<TD></TD>
<TD ALIGN="left" NOWRAP><FONT SIZE="1"> Canada-Other</TD>
<TD><FONT SIZE="1">915,537</TD>
<TD><FONT SIZE="1">817,139</TD>
<TD><FONT SIZE="1">819,554</TD>
<TD><FONT SIZE="1">784,796</TD>
<TD><FONT SIZE="1">678,442</TD>
<TD><FONT SIZE="1">(NA)</TD>
<TD><FONT SIZE="1">(NA)</TD>
<TD><FONT SIZE="1">(NA)</TD>
<TD><FONT SIZE="1">(NA)</TD>
<TD></TD>
<TD><FONT SIZE="1">82</TD>
</TR>
<TR ALIGN="right">
<TD><FONT SIZE="1">83</TD>
<TD></TD>
<TD ALIGN="left" NOWRAP><FONT SIZE="1"> Newfoundland</TD>
<TD><FONT SIZE="1">23,980</TD>
<TD><FONT SIZE="1">13,249</TD>
<TD><FONT SIZE="1">5,080</TD>
<TD><FONT SIZE="1">(NA)</TD>
<TD><FONT SIZE="1">(NA)</TD>
<TD><FONT SIZE="1">(NA)</TD>
<TD><FONT SIZE="1">(NA)</TD>
<TD><FONT SIZE="1">(NA)</TD>
<TD><FONT SIZE="1">(NA)</TD>
<TD></TD>
<TD><FONT SIZE="1">83</TD>
</TR>
<TR ALIGN="right">
<TD><FONT SIZE="1">84</TD>
<TD></TD>
<TD ALIGN="left" NOWRAP><FONT SIZE="1"> Other Northern America</TD>
<TD><FONT SIZE="1">(NA)</TD>
<TD><FONT SIZE="1">(NA)</TD>
<TD><FONT SIZE="1">(NA)</TD>
<TD><FONT SIZE="1">(NA)</TD>
<TD><FONT SIZE="1">(NA)</TD>
<TD><FONT SIZE="1">129</TD>
<TD><FONT SIZE="1">3</TD>
<TD><FONT SIZE="1">(NA)</TD>
<TD><FONT SIZE="1">(NA)</TD>
<TD></TD>
<TD><FONT SIZE="1">84</TD>
</TR>
<TR></TR>
<TR ALIGN="right">
<TD><FONT SIZE="1">85</TD>
<TD></TD>
<TD ALIGN="left" NOWRAP><FONT SIZE="1">Region or country not reported</TD>
<TD><FONT SIZE="1">6,596</TD>
<TD><FONT SIZE="1">8,925</TD>
<TD><FONT SIZE="1">9,614</TD>
<TD><FONT SIZE="1">10,742</TD>
<TD><FONT SIZE="1">6,012</TD>
<TD><FONT SIZE="1">4,068</TD>
<TD><FONT SIZE="1">3,592</TD>
<TD><FONT SIZE="1">3,888</TD>
<TD><FONT SIZE="1">41,977</TD>
<TD></TD>
<TD><FONT SIZE="1">85</TD>
</TR>
<TR ALIGN="right">
<TD><FONT SIZE="1">86</TD>
<TD></TD>
<TD ALIGN="left" NOWRAP><FONT SIZE="1"> Born at sea</TD>
<TD><FONT SIZE="1">5,008</TD>
<TD><FONT SIZE="1">5,336</TD>
<TD><FONT SIZE="1">6,927</TD>
<TD><FONT SIZE="1">8,196</TD>
<TD><FONT SIZE="1">5,533</TD>
<TD><FONT SIZE="1">4,068</TD>
<TD><FONT SIZE="1">2,638</TD>
<TD><FONT SIZE="1">2,522</TD>
<TD><FONT SIZE="1">(NA)</TD>
<TD></TD>
<TD><FONT SIZE="1">86</TD>
</TR>
<TR ALIGN="right">
<TD><FONT SIZE="1">87</TD>
<TD></TD>
<TD ALIGN="left" NOWRAP><FONT SIZE="1"> Not reported</TD>
<TD><FONT SIZE="1">1,588</TD>
<TD><FONT SIZE="1">3,589</TD>
<TD><FONT SIZE="1">2,687</TD>
<TD><FONT SIZE="1">2,546</TD>
<TD><FONT SIZE="1">479</TD>
<TD><FONT SIZE="1">-</TD>
<TD><FONT SIZE="1">954</TD>
<TD><FONT SIZE="1">1,366</TD>
<TD><FONT SIZE="1">41,977</TD>
<TD></TD>
<TD><FONT SIZE="1">87</TD>
</TR>
</TABLE>
<P>
* Indicates sample data.<BR>
(NA) Not available.<BR>
n.e.c. Not elsewhere classified.<BR>
1/ Prior to 1980, Taiwan included with China. See Table 3.
'''Source: U.S. Census Bureau, Population Division [http://www.census.gov/population/www/documentation/twps0029/tab04.html]'''
[[Category:History of immigration to the United States]]
[[Category:Demographics of the United States]]
[[de:Einwanderung in die USA]]
ISIS
15052
40629311
2006-02-21T23:02:37Z
Deltazero
320081
:''This article is about the scanning technology. For other meanings see [[Isis (disambiguation)]].''
[[Image:emccaptiva.png|frame|EMC captiva logo]]
'''ISIS''' ('''''I'''mage and '''S'''canner '''I'''nterface '''S'''pecification'') is an industry standard interface for [[image scanner|image scanning]] technologies. It was developed by Pixel Translations in 1990 (today: [[EMC]] captiva), and they retain control over development and licensing.
ISIS can be considered as a "big brother" to the [[TWAIN]] standard, which tends to be used on small scanner hardware for home use.
ISIS compatible scanners typically use a [[SCSI]]-2 interface, while TWAIN hardware now mostly uses [[USB]].
ISIS has a wider feature set than TWAIN, can handle greater speeds, and also handles some aspects of image display and manipulation for the client application.
Most major scanner manufacturers, including [[Kodak]], [[Canon (company)|Canon]], [[Hewlett-Packard]], and [[Fujitsu]] use the ISIS interface for their departmental and high-capacity scanner hardware.
The ISIS architecture is a mutable architecture based on modules—software components that perform specific imaging functions (such as image acquisition, file conversion, data extraction, and file read/write commands). ISIS architecture allows for new modules to be added without making system-wide changes: one simply adds what is needed.
ISIS modules interact with each other through a system of tags (data storage areas) and choices (value sets). A combination of two or more ISIS modules put together to perform a specific imaging function is called an ISIS pipe. ISIS pipes can be constructed according to each developers specific imaging needs.
First and foremost in the benefits ISIS delivers to developers is compatibility: ISIS-compatible drivers are available for more than 300 scanner models, most of them certified by Pixel Translations to be compatible with any properly written ISIS application. ISIS' compatibility is further evidenced by its being the basis for the AIIM (The Association for Information and Image Management) MS61 standard since 1996, which is in the public domain.
==See also==
* [[TWAIN|TWAIN]]
* [[Windows Image Acquisition|Windows Image Acquisition (WIA)]]
* [[Scanner Access Now Easy|Scanner Access Now Easy (SANE)]]
==External links==
* [http://www.captivasoftware.com/products/pixtran.asp Homepage of EMC captiva]
* [http://www.captivasoftware.com/downloads/ds_isis_vs_twain.pdf Comparison ISIS vs. TWAIN by EMC captiva]
[[Category:Imaging]]
[[Category:Standards]]
Ivo Caprino
15053
40364443
2006-02-20T01:58:40Z
Rich Farmbrough
82835
External links per MoS.
'''Ivo Caprino''' ([[Oslo]], [[February 17]] [[1920]] – [[February 8]] [[2001]] in Oslo) was a [[Norway|Norwegian]] [[film director]] and [[writer]], best known for his [[puppet]] films. His most famous film is ''[[Flåklypa Grand Prix]]'' ("Pinchcliffe Grand Prix"), made in [[1975]].
Caprino was the son of furniture designer Mario Caprino and the artist Ingeborg Gude. In the mid forties, he helped his mother design puppets for a puppet theatre, which inspired him to try making a film using his mother's designs. The result of their collaboration was Tim og Tøffe, an 8 minute film released in [[1948]]. Several films followed in the next couple of years, including two 15 minute shorts that are still shown regularly in Norway today, Veslefrikk og Fela (Little Freddy and his Fiddle), based on a Norwegian folk tale, and Karius og Baktus, a story of two little trolls living in a boy's teeth. Ingeborg Gude made the puppets for these films as well, as she would continue to do up until her death in the mid sixties.
When making Tim og Tøffe, Caprino invented an ingenious method for controlling the puppet's movements in real time. The technique can be described as a primitive, mechanical version of [[Audio-animatronics|animatronics]].
Caprino's films received rave reviews, and he quickly became a celebrity in Norway. In particular, the public were fascinated with the secret technology used to make his films. When he switched to traditional stop motion, Caprino tried to maintain the impression that he was still using some kind of "magic" technology to make the puppets move, even though all his later films were made with traditional stop motion techniques.
In addition to the short films, Caprino produced dozens of advertising films with puppets. In 1959, he directed a live action feature film, Ugler i Mosen, which also contained stop motion sequences. He then embarked on his most ambitious project, a feature film about Peter Christen Asbjørnsen, who travelled around Norway in the 19th century collecting traditional folk tales. The plan was to use live action for the sequences showing Asbjørnsen, and then to realise the folk tales using stop motion. Unfortunately, Caprino was unable to secure funding for the project, so he ended up making the planned folk tale sequences as separate 16 minute puppet films, bookended by live action sequences showing Asbjørnsen.
In 1970, Caprino and his small team of collaborators, started work on a 25 minutes TV special, which would eventually become The Pinchcliffe Grand Prix. Based on a series of books by Norwegian cartoonist and author Kjell Aukrust, it featured a group of eccentric characters all living in the small village of Pinchcliffe. The TV special was a collection of sketches based on Aukrust's books, with no real story line. After 1.5 years of work, it was decided that it didn't really work as a whole, so production on the TV special was stopped (with the exception of some very short clips, no material from it has ever been seen by the public), and Caprino and Aukrust instead wrote a screenplay for a feature film using the characters and environments that had already been built.
The result was ThHe Pinchcliffe Grand Prix, which stars Theodore Rimspoke and his two assistants, Sonny Sonny Duckworth, a cheerful and optimistic bird, and Lambert, a nervous, pessimistic and melancholic hedgehog. Theodore works as a bicycle repairman, though he spends most of his time inventing weird Rube Golberg-like contraptions. One day, the trio discover that one of Theodore's former assistants, Rudolph Gore-Slimey, has stolen his design for a race car engine, and has become a world champion Formula 1 driver.
Sonny secures funding from an Arab oil sheik who happens to be vacationing in Pinchcliffe, and the trio then build a gigantic racing car, Il Tempo Gigante - a fabulous construction with two engines, radar and its own blood bank. Theodore then enters a race, and ends up winning, beating Gore-Slimey despite his attempts at sabotage.
The film was made in 3.5 years by a team of approximately 5 people. Caprino directed and animated, Bjarne Sandemose (Caprino's principal collaborator thoughout his career) built the sets and the cars, and was in charge of the technical side, Ingeborg Riiser modeled the puppets and Gerd Alvsen made the costumes and props.
When it came out in 1975, The Pinchcliffe Grand Prix was an enormous success in Norway, selling 1 million tickets in its first year of release. It remains the biggest box office hit of all time in Norway (Caprino Studios claim it has sold 5.5 million tickets to date, though this number appears a bit exaggarated) and was also released in many other countries.
To help promote the film abroad, Caprino and Sandemose built a full scale replica of Il Tempo Gigante. It is a fully working car that can reach speeds of 280 km/h.
Except for some TV work in the late seventies, Caprino made no more puppet films, focusing instead on creating attractions for a theme park outside Lillehammer based on his folk tale movies, and making tourist films using a custom built multi camera setup that shoots 280 degrees panorama movies.
Since Caprino's death, his son Remo has had great success developing a computer game based on The Pinchcliffe Grand Prix.
==External links==
* [http://www.caprino.no/en-UK/movies/ Caprino Studios - Official page]
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[[Category:1920 births|Caprino, Ivo]]
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Intel 80286
15054
41611847
2006-02-28T14:32:58Z
Ugur Basak Bot
735354
robot Adding: tr
[[image: Intel_80286.jpg|thumb|right|200px|An Intel 80286 Microprocessor]]
[[Image:Am80286-12.jpg|200px|thumb|AMD 80286 with 12 Mhz.]]
The '''Intel 80286''' (also called '''iAPX 286''', for example in the Intel programmer's manual for the 286) is an [[x86]]-family [[16-bit]] [[microprocessor]] that was introduced by [[Intel]] on [[February 1]], [[1982]]. Initially released in 6 and 8 MHz editions, it was subsequently scaled up to 12.5 MHz. (AMD and [[Harris Corporation|Harris]] later pushed the architecture to speeds as high as 20 MHz and 25 MHz, respectively.) It was widely used in [[IBM PC compatible]] [[computer]]s during the mid [[1980s]] to early [[1990s]].
The 80286 performs at twice the speed of its predecessor (the [[Intel 8086]]) per [[clock cycle]], and is able to address up to 16 [[mebibyte|MiB]] of [[Random access memory|RAM]], in contrast to the 1 MiB the 8086 can work with. While [[DOS]] machines were able to utilise this additional RAM capability via [[extended memory]] [[emulation]], few 286-based computers ever saw more than a megabyte of RAM.
The 286 was designed to run multitasking applications, including communications (such as automated [[PBX]]s), [[real-time process control]], and multi-user systems.
An interesting feature of this processor is that it was the first x86 processor capable of switching from [[real mode]] to [[protected mode]], enabling the use of up to 16 MiB of system memory, and allowing certain degree of protection of the memory zones used by applications. However, the 286 could not revert to real mode without resetting the processor, so protected mode was not widely used until the appearance of its successor, the [[32-bit]] [[Intel 80386]], which could go back and forth between modes easily.
== External links ==
* [http://tuxmobil.org/286_mobile.html Linux on 286 laptops and notebooks]
* [http://www.cpu-collection.de/?tn=1&l0=cl&l1=80286 Intel 80286 images and descriptions at cpu-collection.de]
* [http://www.cpu-info.com/index2.php?mainid=html/cpu/286.php CPU-INFO: 80286, indepth processor history]
{{Intel_processors}}
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[[Category:x86 microprocessors|Intel 286]]
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Ivanhoe
15055
41692213
2006-03-01T02:25:39Z
Ryanmcdaniel
121715
/* Adaptations */ Three movies -> two movies (moved 1982 listing to TV section)
{{otheruses}}
[[Image:ivanhoe.jpg|thumb|200px|Ivanhoe book cover]]
'''''Ivanhoe''''' is a [[novel]] by [[Sir Walter Scott]]. It was written in [[1819]] and set in [[12th century]] [[England]], an example of [[historical fiction]]. ''Ivanhoe'' is sometimes given credit for helping to increase popular interest in the [[middle ages]] in [[19th century]] [[Europe]].
It is the story of one of the remaining [[Anglo-Saxons|Saxon]] noble families, at a time when the nobility was overwhelmingly [[Normans|Norman]]. It follows the protagonist, Wilfred of Ivanhoe—a son of a Saxon family out of favor with his father due to his unsuitable courting of a Saxon Princess named Rowena and his allegiance to the Norman king [[Richard I of England]]—as he comes back from the [[Crusades]]. The legendary [[Robin Hood]], under the title of Locksley, is also a character in the story, and the character Scott gave him in ''Ivanhoe'' shaped the modern idea of Robin Hood, the cheery noble outlaw.
Ivanhoe himself spends much of the story out of action, having been seriously wounded in the opening chapters. He is nursed by Rebecca, daughter of Isaac the Jew, but there can never be a romance between them, partly because of her religion and partly because Ivanhoe is already committed to the beautiful Rowena, his childhood love. However, his great enemy, the [[Knights Templar|Templar]] Sir Brian de Bois-Guilbert, finds Rebecca so irresistible that he is prepared to sacrifice everything for her. Many of the book's critics prefer Rebecca as a heroine to the relatively colourless Rowena.
In 1850, the novelist [[William Makepeace Thackeray]] wrote a spoof sequel to ''Ivanhoe'' called ''[[Rebecca and Rowena]]''.
The location of the novel is centred upon [[South Yorkshire]] and North [[Nottinghamshire]] in [[England]]. Indeed the castle within the story is based upon [[Conisbrough Castle]] near [[Doncaster]] and still stands today as a popular tourist attraction. Reference is made within the story to the Bishop of [[Sheffield]]. These references within the story contribute to the notion that [[Robin Hood]] lived or travelled in and around this area.
The ancient town of [[Conisbrough]] is so dedicated to the story of Ivanhoe that many of the streets, schools and public buildings are named either after characters from the book or the 12th Century Castle.
==Characters==
* ''Ivanhoe''
* ''Rebecca''
* ''Rowena''
* ''Prince John''
* ''The Black Knight''
* ''Locksley''
* ''Brian De Bois-Guilbert''
* ''Isaac of York'', father of Rebecca
* ''Prior Aymer''
* ''Reginald Front-de-Boeuf''
* ''Cedric the Saxon''
* ''Maurice De Bracy''
* ''Waldemar Fitzurse''
* ''Athelstane''
* ''Albert Malvoisin''
* ''Gurth'', Cedric's swineherd
* ''Wamba'', Cedric's jester
==Historical Accuracy==
Although the general political events depicted in the novel are relatively accurate - it tells of the period of King Richard's imprisonment in Austria following the crusade and his return to England - the story is heavily fictionalized. Most notably, its depiction of an England in which Saxon and Norman nobles are at odds is highly anachronistic - by the late 12th century, there were no such distinctions among an upper class which generally had a common Norman French culture, with elements of English nobility, mainly due to inter-breeding between the different nationalities.
One inaccuracy in ''Ivanhoe'' created a new name in the English language: Cedric. The correct name is ''[[Cerdic]]'' but Sir Walter committed a [[Metathesis (linguistics)|metathesis]]. The satirist [[H. H. Munro]] , with his typical caustic wit, commented: "It is not a name but a misspelling."
==Adaptations==
The novel has been the basis for two movies, each also titled ''Ivanhoe'';
*The [[1913]] [[Ivanhoe (1913 film)|film]] production: Directed by [[Herbert Brenon]]. With [[King Baggot]], Leah Baird, Brenon.
*The [[1952]] [[Ivanhoe (1952 film)|film]] film starred [[Robert Taylor (actor)|Robert Taylor]] as Ivanhoe, [[Elizabeth Taylor]] as Rebecca, [[Joan Fontaine]] as Rowena, [[George Sanders (actor)|George Sanders]] as Bois-Guilbert, [[Finlay Currie]] as Cedric, and [[Sebastian Cabot (actor)|Sebastian Cabot]]. The film has a notable jousting scene as well as a well-choreographed battle sequence. These visualizations are given more attention than the dialogue and underlying story. The film was nominated for three [[Academy Award|Oscars]]:
**[[Academy Award for Best Picture|Best Picture]] - [[Pandro S. Berman]]
**[[Academy Award for Best Cinematography|Best Cinematography, Color]] - [[Freddie Young]]
**[[Academy Award for Original Music Score|Best Music Score]] - [[Miklós Rózsa]]
There have also been numerous television adaptations of the novel, including:
*Late [[1950s]]: A television series based on the character of Ivanhoe starred [[Roger Moore]] as Ivanhoe.
*[[1982]]: A [[television movie]] starring [[Anthony Andrews]] as Ivanhoe, [[Michael Hordern]] as his father Cedric, [[Sam Neill]] as Sir Brian, [[Olivia Hussey]] as Rebecca, [[James Mason]] as Rebecca's father, [[Lysette Anthony]] as Rowena, [[Julian Glover]] as King Richard, and [[David Robb]] as Robin Hood. In this version, Sir Brian is the true hero. Though he could easily have won the fight against the wounded and incapacitated Ivanhoe, Brian lowers his sword and allows himself to be slaughtered, thus saving the life of his beloved Rebecca.
*[[1997]]: This version of ''Ivanhoe'' was released as a 6-part, 5-hour series, a co-production of [[A&E Network|A&E]] and the [[BBC]]. It stars [[Steven Waddington]] as Ivanhoe, [[Ciarán Hinds]] as Bois-Guilbert, [[Susan Lynch]] as Rebecca, and [[Victoria Smurfit]] as Rowena.
There is one setting of Ivanhoe as an Opera, by Sir Arthur Sullivan. Though it ran for over 100 performances, it was never revived and has not been staged since.{{citeneeded}}
[[Category:Novels]]
==External links==
* {{gutenberg|no=82|name=Ivanhoe}}
* [http://etext.library.adelaide.edu.au/s/scott_walter/ivanhoe/ Online edition at eBooks@Adelaide]
{{Nuttall}}
[[Category:1820 books]]
[[Category:1952 films]]
[[Category:Best Picture Oscar Nominee]]
[[Category:British novels]]
[[Category:Historical novels]]
[[Category:Films based on fiction books]]
[[Category:Fictional knights]]
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Isoelectric point
15056
41375305
2006-02-26T22:52:13Z
Christopherlin
51957
cat mol bio
The '''isoelectric point''' (pI) is the [[pH]] at which a [[molecule]] carries no net [[electric charge|electrical charge]].
For an [[amino acid]] with only one [[amine]] and one [[carboxyl]] group, the pI can be calculated from the [[pKa]]'s of this molecule.
: <math> pI = {{\sum pK_a} \over 2} </math>
For amino acids with more than two ionizable groups such as [[lysine]] for example, the same formula is used but this time, the two pKa's used are those of the two groups that lose and gain a charge from the neutral form of the amino acid.
[[Proteins]] can be separated according to their isoelectric point in a process known as [[isoelectric focusing]].
At a [[pH]] below the pI, [[proteins]] carry a net positive charge. Above the pI they carry a net negative charge. This has implications for running electrophoretic gels (see [[Agarose gel electrophoresis]]). The [[pH]] of an electrophoretic gel is determined by the [[buffer]] used for that gel. If the [[pH]] of the [[buffer]] is above the pI of the protein being run, the [[protein]] will migrate to the positive pole (negative charge is attracted to a positive pole). If the [[pH]] of the buffer is below the pI of the [[protein]] being run, the [[protein]] will migrate to the negative pole of the gel (positive charge is attracted to the negative pole). If the [[protein]] is run with a [[buffer]] pH that is equal to the pI, it will not migrate at all. This is also true for individual amino acids.
[[Category:Ions]]
[[Category:Molecular biology]]
[[ca:Punt isoelèctric]]
[[he:נקודה איזואלקטרית]]
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[[uk:Ізоелектрична точка]]
[[zh:等电点]]
International reply coupon
15058
39599893
2006-02-14T15:54:44Z
58.147.63.1
An '''international reply coupon''' (IRC) is a coupon that can be used to post a standard 20 gram letter anywhere in the world. IRCs are accepted and available in all [[Universal Postal Union]] (UPU) member countries.
The purpose of the IRC is to be able to send someone (in ANOTHER country) a letter, along with the cost of postage for them to reply. If the addressee is within the same country, one simply sends them a self-addressed stamped envelop ("SASE"); but if you are sending a letter to another country, it can be difficult to acquire stamps for that country to send along with your letter. So you can purchase an IRC instead from your local post office, and send it to them; they can then take it to a post office in their own country, and use it to reply to your letter.
IRCs have many common and practical uses.
A parent may include one in a letter to a student or military son or daughter (in another country) who may be strapped for cash to cover postage for a reply letter.
Serious collectors often use IRCs. For example, suppose an autograph collector has found a famous person in another country willing to grant an autograph. Including an IRC with the request for the autograph would certainly improve the chances of receiving it. Or, suppose a lace collector in the U.S. has found a kind person in France willing to donate an interesting piece of lace. The collector would include an IRC so as not to inconvenience the kind person by making them pay postage, as the kind person is already granting the collector a great favor by giving him the lace, the object of his or her collecting passion.
One interesting example of IRCs the following: This is often requested when a [[Amateur radio|ham radio]] operator wishes to send a reception report in order to receive a [[QSL card]] - the IRC will cover postage. IRCs can also be used as international currency for small transactions, since they have at least a small nominal value in all UPU member countries.
As well as IRCs administered by the UPU, there are also reply coupons issued by other postal unions which are usable only in certain countries, e.g. those issued by the [[Arab Postal Union]].
==External links==
*http://www.n6hb.org/s-a/irc.htm
==See also==
*[[Charles Ponzi]]
[[Category:Postal system]]
[[de:Internationaler Antwortschein]]
[[ja:国際返信切手券]]
Isaac Bonewits
15059
41384001
2006-02-26T23:56:29Z
64.0.113.204
Fixed degree information & added coined phrase
Phillip Emmons '''Issac Bonewits''' (born [[October 1]], [[1949]]) is an influential [[Neopaganism|Neopagan]] leader and [[author]]. Born in [[Royal Oak, Michigan]], Bonewits has been heavily involved in [[occultism]] with an emphasis on [[Neo-druidism]] since the [[1960]]'s.
==Life==
In [[1966]], while enrolled at [[UC_Berkeley|UC Berkeley]], Bonewits was initiated into the [[Neo-Druidism#The_Mother_Grove_of_the_RDNA|Reformed Druids of North America RDNA]] or RDNA. Bonewits was ordained as a [[Druid]] [[priest]] in [[1969]]. During this time period, Bonewits joined the [[Church of Satan]], but left due to a personality conflict with [[Anton LaVey]].
Bonewits graduated in [[1970]] with a [[Bachelor_of_Arts|BA]], as the only person to have ever received any kind of [[Academic_degree|degree]] in [[Magic_%28paranormal%29|Magic]]. Gaining a bit of notoriety from this, Bonewits soon earned a book contract for his first book ''Real Magic'' which was published in [[1971]]. Between [[1973]]-[[1975]] Bonewits was employed as editor of ''Gnostica'' magazine in Minnesota. During this time period, Bonewits established an offshoot group of the RDNA called the ''Schismatic Druids of North America'' and was involved with a group called the ''Hasidic Druids of North America''. He also founded the short-lived ''Aquarian Anti-Defamation League (AADL)'' which was an early pagan civil-rights group.
In [[1976]], Bonewits moved back to Berkeley and rejoined the RDNA which was now known as the ''New Reformed Druids of North America'' or NRDNA. He was later elected ''ArchDruid'' of this organization.
In [[1983]], Bonewits founded [[Ar nDraiocht Fein]] or ADF, which was incorporated in [[1990]] in the state of [[Delaware]] as a U.S. 501(c)3 non-profit organization. Over the years, Bonewits has had varying degrees of involvement with [[Santeria]], the ''Caliphate Line'' of the [[Ordo Templi Orientis]], [[Gardnerian Wicca]], the [[New Reformed Orthodox Order of the Golden Dawn]] (a [[Wiccan]] organization not to be confused with the [[Hermetic Order of the Golden Dawn]]) as well as others.
Bonewits served as ArchDruid of the ADF until [[1996]], when he resigned due to the onset of symptoms of [[Eosinophilia-myalgia syndrome]]. Bonewits retains the lifelong title of ArchDruid Emeritus of the ADF. He currently lives in [[Nyack%2C_New_York|Nyack, NY]] and is a member of the [[Covenant of Unitarian Universalist Pagans]] or CUUPS, and is married to the co-founder of the organization, Phaedra Heyman Bonewits.
Bonewits is currently promoting a charity program to help Neopagan seniors,{{fn|1}} and in January [[2006]] was the key note speaker at the ''Conference On Current Pagan Studies'' at the [[Claremont Graduate University]] in [[Claremont%2C_California|Claremont, CA]].
==Contributions to Neopaganism==
Bonewits has coined much of the modern terminology used to define and articulate many of the conceptual themes and issues which affect the North American Neopagan community.
* Developed the [[Advanced_Bonewits_Cult_Danger_Evaluation_Frame#Isaac_Bonewits|Advanced Bonewits Cult Danger Evaluation Frame]] or ABCDEF
* Pioneered the modern usage of the term ''[[thealogy]]'', ''Paleo-Paganism'', ''Meso-Paganism'' and numerous other [[retronym]]s
* Is thought to have coined the term ''[[Polytheistic_reconstructionism|reconstructionism]]
* Coined the phrase "Never again the burning."
==Notes==
*{{fnb|1}}[http://www.neopagan.net/Adopt-an-Elder.html Adopt an Elder]
==Partial bibliography==
* ''Real Magic: An Introductory Treatise on the Basic Principles of Yellow Magic'', 1972, 1989 ISBN 0877286884
* ''Authentic Thaumaturgy'', 1978, 1998 ISBN 1556343604
* ''Rites of Worship: A Neopagan Approach'', 2003 ISBN 1594055017
* ''Witchcraft: A Concise Guide or Which Witch Is Which?'', 2003 ISBN 1594055009
* ''The Pagan Man: Priests, Warriors, Hunters, and Drummers'', 2005 ISBN 0806526971
* ''Bonewits' Essential Guide to Witchcraft and Wicca'', 2006 ISBN 0806527110
==See also==
*[[Ar nDraiocht Fein]]
*[[Neo-Paganism]]
*[[Thealogy]]
==External links==
*[http://orgs.carleton.edu/Druids/ARDA/ A Reformed Druid Anthology] includes ''The Druid Chronicles (Evolved)''.
*[http://www.neopagan.net Isaac Bonewits' Homepage]
<br>
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[[Category:1949 births|Bonewits, Isaac]]
[[Category:Living people|Bonewits, Isaac]]
[[Category:Druids|Bonewits, Isaac]]
[[Category:Wiccan people|Bonewits, Isaac]]
[[Category:American occultists|Bonewits, Isaac]]
Isaac Bonewits laws of magic
15060
21757119
2005-08-24T22:03:13Z
RJHall
91076
cat
A [[hypothesis]] on the '''Laws of [[magic (paranormal)|Magic]]''' that was first launched in its entirety by [[Isaac Bonewits]] in his popular book ''Real Magic'' (1971, revised edition 1989).
Bonewits' book claims the existence of magical laws relating to the following:
* Association
* Identification
* Personification
* Words of Power
* Names
* Invocation
* Evocation
* Contagion
* Unity
* Similarity
* Positive and negative attraction
* Cause and effect
* Knowledge
* Infinite data
* Infinite universes
* Personal universes
* Finite senses
* Self-knowledge
* Synchronicity
* Perversity
* Polarity
* Dynamic balance
* Synthesis
* True falsehoods
* Pragmatism
These "laws" are synthesized from a multitude of belief systems from around the world, and were collected in order to explain and categorize magical beliefs within a cohesive framework. Many interrelationships of these areas exist, and some are subsets of others.
''Examples of use:'' It is widely believed (by those subscribing to such beliefs) that in order to produce an effective [[voodoo doll]] one needs an object associated with the target of the magic. This would categorize this as a form of magic using the "association" rule. Also, the use of a doll to affect a human would be in accordance with the "similarity" rule.
In this way, practically all magical practice in many [[culture]]s can be put in relation, and behavioural patterns are easier to spot.
==See also==
* [[magic (paranormal)|Magic]] for a discussion of the validity of paranormal magic.
[[Category:Magic]]
Intel 8080
15062
42038414
2006-03-03T10:55:40Z
Ixfd64
6284
Disambiguate [[BASIC]] to [[BASIC programming language]] using [[:en:Wikipedia:Tools/Navigation_popups|popups]]
[[Image:Intel C8080A 9064 33001 N8384 top.jpg|thumb|200px|Intel C8080A processor. The first pin is marked with the key (black dot)]]
[[Image:AMD C8080A.jpg|thumb|150px|AMD clone]]
[[Image:NEC 8080AF cropped.png|thumb|150px|[[NEC Corporation|NEC]] 8080AF (2nd-source).]]
The '''Intel 8080''' was an early [[microprocessor]] designed and manufactured by [[Intel]]. The [[8-bit]] [[central processing unit|CPU]] was released in April 1974 running at 2 [[megahertz|MHz]], and is generally considered to be the first truly usable microprocessor CPU design.
==Description==
===Programming model===
The Intel 8080 was the successor to the [[Intel 8008]]; this was due to it being [[assembly language]] [[source-compatibility|source-compatible]] because it used the same [[instruction set]] developed by [[Computer Terminal Corporation]]. The 8080's large 40 pin [[dual in-line package|DIP]] packaging permitted it to provide a 16-bit [[address bus]] and an 8-bit [[data bus]], allowing easy access to 64 [[kilobyte]]s of memory.
====Registers====
The processor had seven 8-bit [[processor register|registers]], six of which could be combined into three 16-bit register pairs (BC, DE and HL). It also had the 8 bit accumulator, the 16-bit [[Stack-based memory allocation|stack pointer]] to memory (replacing the 8008's internal [[stack (data structure)|stack]]), and a 16-bit [[program counter]].
====Commands====
Most of the 8 bit operations were possible between the accumulator and either one of the registers or the memory cell, indexed by the 16 bit value of the register pair HL. Moving operations were supported between any two registers or between any register and the HL-indexed memory cell. The command system also had strange commands to move a byte from a given register into the same register (MOV A,A , for instance). These commands were seldom used, however, unless programmed delays were needed. The command to move from the HL-indexed memory cell into the same memory cell (i.e., MOV M, M) always halted the processor until the external reset or interrupt signals were received. Thus instead of MOV M, M this command was marked as HLT (halt) and used for this purpose, when required.
All processor commands were coded by one byte, but some of them were followed by one or two bytes of data, a memory address, or a port number. The register-to-register data-move commands were all coded by one byte, making up about a quarter of the commands in the processor-command system. The processor had 8 commands to call the subroutines located at the fixed addresses at the beginning or the address space (RST). These commands were frequently used in the interrupt-handling or system-library calls.
The most sophisticated (and the longest to execute) command was XTHL, which was used for exchanging the register pair HL with the value, stored at address, indicated by the stack pointer.
====16 bit operations====
Despite the fact that the 8080 was generally an 8 bit processor, it was also able to increment or decrement any register pair (INX, DCX), add the register pairs (DAD), switch HL with DE (XCHG) and perform the 16 bit arithmetical shift (DAD H) with one command. Hence some 16 bit operations were already possible.
===Input/output scheme===
====Input output port space====
The 8080 supported up to 256 [[input/output]] (I/O) ports, accessed from programs via dedicated I/O instructions—each instruction taking an I/O port address as its operand. This scheme—using a separate I/O address space—is now less commonly used than [[memory map]]ping of I/O ports/devices. At the time of the 8080's launch, this I/O mapping scheme was seen as an advantage, as it freed up the processor's limited number of address pins for the memory address space. In most other CPU architectures, however, the mapping of I/O ports in a common address space both for memory and I/O, gave a simpler instruction set; no need for separate I/O instructions. The 8080-style I/O port scheme continued into the Intel 8085, and x86 families of microprocessors.
====Stack space====
One of the bits in the processor state word (see below) was indicating that the processor is accessing data from the stack. Using this signal, it was possible to implement the separate stack memory space. However this feature was seldom used.
====Shared memory implementations====
The 8080 has the shared control signals for reading and writing both to/from memory and I/O ports and in basic computers was frequently connected using the shared memory map, accessing ports as the memory cells. The specialised I/O commands were either not used or (in the applications with less memory) were used knowning that the processor clones the 8 bit port address to the higher address byte (IN 0x05 would produce the 0x0505 on the 16 bit address bus).
===The internal state word===
For the more complicated system, during one phase of its working loop the processor was setting its "internal state byte" on the data bus. This byte contained flags, informing, if the memory or I/O port is accessed and also was necessary to handle the interrupts.
The interrupt system state (enabled or disabled) was also outputed into separate pin. For the simple systems, where the interrupts were not used, it is possible to find curiosic cases using this pin as an additional single-bit output port (the Russian popular Radio86RK computer, for instance).
===Pin usage===
The address bus had its own 16 pins, and the data bus had 8 pins that were possible to use without any multiplexing. Using the two additional pins (read and write signals), it was possible to assemble simple microprocessor devices very easily. Only the separate IO space, interrupts and DMA required additional chips to decode the processor pin signals. However the processor load capacity was limited, and even simple computers frequently contained the bus amplifiers.
The processor required three power sources (-5, +5 and +12 Volt(V)) and two non-interlacing high-amplitude synchronization signals. However at least the late Soviet version КР580ВМ80А was able to work with the single +5 V power source, +12 V pin being connected to the same +5 V and -5 V pin - to the ground. The processor consumed about 1.3 Watts(W) of power.
The pin usage table was described in the chip accompanying documentation as following:
<table border="1" >
<tr>
<th>Pin number</th>
<th>Signal</th>
<th>Type</th>
<th>Comment</th>
</tr>
<tr> <td>1</td><td>A10</td>
<td>Output</td><td>Address bus 10</td></tr>
<tr> <td>2</td><td>GND</td>
<td>-</td><td>Ground</td></tr>
<tr> <td>3</td><td>D4</td>
<td rowspan="8">Bidirectional</td>
<td rowspan="8">Bidirectional data bus. The processor also transiently sets here the "processor state", providing information that the processor is currently doing:
*D0 reading interrupt comand. In response to the interrupt signal, the processor was reading and executing a single arbitrary command with this flag raised. Normally the supporting chips provided the subroutine call command (CALL or RST), transferring control to the interrupt handling code.
*D1 reading (low level means writing)
*D2 acessing stack (probably the separate stack memory space was initially planned)
*D3 doing nothing, has been halted by the HLT command
*D4 writing data to the output port
*D5 reading the first byte of the executable command
*D6 reading data from the input port
*D7 reading data from memory
</td>
</tr><tr>
<td>4</td><td>D5</td></tr>
<tr> <td>5</td><td>D6</td></tr>
<tr> <td>6</td><td>D7</td></tr>
<tr> <td>7</td><td>D3</td></tr>
<tr> <td>8</td><td>D2</td></tr>
<tr> <td>9</td><td>D1</td></tr>
<tr> <td>10</td><td>D0</td></tr>
<tr> <td>11</td><td>-5 V</td>
<td>-</td><td>The -5 V power supply. This must be the first power source connected and the last disconnected, otherwise the processor will be damaged.</td></tr>
<tr> <td>12</td><td>R</td>
<td>Input</td><td>Reset. The signal forces execution of commands, located at address 0000. The content of other processor registers is not modified. This is an inverting input (the active level being logical 0)</td></tr>
<tr> <td>13</td><td>DMA</td>
<td>Input</td><td>Direct memory access request. The processor is requested to switch the data and address bus to the high impedance ("disconnected") state.</td></tr>
<tr> <td>14</td><td>INT</td>
<td>Input</td><td>Interrupt request</td></tr>
<tr> <td>15</td><td>CLC2
<td>Input</td><td>The second phase of the clock generator signal</td></tr>
<tr> <td>16</td><td>ACK INT</td>
<td>Output</td><td>The processor had two commands for setting the 0 or 1 level on this pin. The pin normally was supposed to be used for the interrupt control. However in the simple computers it was sometimes used just as the single bit output port for various purporses.</td></tr>
<tr> <td>17</td><td>RD</td>
<td>Output</td><td>Read (the processor reads from memory or input port)</td></tr>
<tr> <td>18</td><td>WR</td>
<td>Output</td><td>Write (the processor writes to memory or output port). This is the inverted output, the active level being logical zero.</td></tr>
<tr> <td>19</td><td>S</td>
<td>Output</td><td>The active level indicates that the processor has set the "state word" on the data bus. The various bits of this state word provided the additional information for supporting the separate address and memory spaces, interrupts and direct memory access. This signal required to pass through additional logic before it could be used to write the processor state word from the data bus into some register.</td></tr>
<tr> <td>20</td><td>5 V</td><td>-</td><td>The + 5 V power supply</td></tr>
<tr><td colspan="4"><hr></td></tr>
<tr> <td>21</td><td>ACK DMA</td>
<td>Output</td><td>Direct memory access confirmation. The processor switches data and address pins into the high impedance state, allowing other device to manipulate the bus</td></tr>
<tr> <td>22</td><td>CLC1</td>
<td>Input</td><td>The first phase of the clock generator signal</td></tr>
<tr> <td>23</td><td>RDY</td>
<td>Input</td><td>Wait. With this signal it was possible to suspend processor's work. It was also used to support the hardware-based step-by step debugging mode.</td></tr>
<tr> <td>24</td><td>WAIT</td>
<td>Output</td><td>Wait (indicates that the processor is in the waiting state)</td></tr>
<tr> <td>25</td><td>A0</td>
<td rowspan="3">Output</td>
<td rowspan="3">Address bus</td></tr>
<tr> <td>26</td><td>A1</td></tr>
<tr> <td>27</td><td>A2</td></tr>
<tr> <td>28</td><td>12 V</td>
<td>-</td><td>The +12 V power supply. This must be the ''last'' connected and first disconnected power source.</td></tr>
<tr> <td>29</td><td>A3</td>
<td rowspan="12">Output</td>
<td rowspan="12">The address bus, can switch into high impedance state on demand</td></tr>
<tr> <td>30</td><td>A4</td></tr>
<tr> <td>31</td><td>A5</td></tr>
<tr> <td>32</td><td>A6</td></tr>
<tr> <td>33</td><td>A7</td></tr>
<tr> <td>34</td><td>A8</td></tr>
<tr> <td>35</td><td>A9</td></tr>
<tr> <td>36</td><td>A15</td></tr>
<tr> <td>37</td><td>A12</td></tr>
<tr> <td>38</td><td>A13</td></tr>
<tr> <td>39</td><td>A14</td></tr>
<tr> <td>40</td><td>A11</td></tr>
</table>
Literature, used for this table:
* http://tehno-doc.nm.ru/mikroshem_rus/kr580/kr580vm80a.html
* http://www.radiomaster.ru/stati/radio/k580/14_k580.php
==The industrial impact==
===Applications and successors===
The 8080 was used in many early microcomputers, such as the [[Altair 8800|MITS Altair 8800]] and [[IMSAI 8080]], forming the basis for machines running the [[CP/M operating system]] (the later, fully compatible and more capable, [[Zilog Z80]] processor would capitalize on this, with Z80 & CP/M becoming the dominant CPU & OS combination of the period much like [[x86]] & [[MS-DOS]] for the PC a decade later). The first [[single-board computer|single-board microcomputer]] was based on the 8080.
Shortly after the launch of the 8080, the [[Motorola 6800]] competing design was introduced, and after that, the [[MOS Technology 6502]] variation of the 6800. [[Zilog]] introduced the [[Zilog Z80|Z80]], which had a compatible machine-language instruction set and initially used the same assembly language as the 8080, but for legal reasons, Zilog developed a syntactically-different alternative assembly language for the Z80. At Intel, the 8080 was followed by the compatible and electrically more elegant [[Intel 8085|8085]], and later by the assembly language compatible 16-bit [[Intel 8086|8086]] and then the 8/16-bit [[Intel 8088|8088]], which was selected by [[IBM]] for its new [[IBM PC|PC]] to be launched in 1981. The 8080, via its [[instruction set architecture|ISA]], thus made a lasting impact on computer history.
The Soviet Union manufactured the complete 8080 analog KP580ИK80 (later marked as KP580BM80), where even pins were placed identically. This processor was the base of the Radio86RK, probably the most popular amateur single-board computer in the Soviet Union. In some other sources is written that the Soviet analog has two undocumented its own specific commands, but these were not widely known.
===Industry change===
The 8080 also changed how computers were created. When the 8080 was introduced, computer systems were usually created by computer manufacturers such as [[Digital Equipment Corporation]], [[Hewlett Packard]], or [[IBM]]. A manufacturer would produce the entire computer, including processor, terminals, and system software such as compilers and operating system. The 8080 was actually designed for just about any application ''except'' a complete computer system. Hewlett Packard developed a terminal, the [[HP 2647]] which was a terminal which ran [[BASIC programming language|BASIC]] on the 8080.
[[Microsoft]] would create the first popular programming language for the 8080, and would later acquire [[DOS]] for the [[IBM-PC]].
As the 8080 evolved into the largely compatible x86 family, and PC's evolved into workstations and servers of 32 and 64 bits, the basic architecture of the 8080 and its successors has replaced many propriety midrange and mainframe computers, and withstood challenges of technologies such as RISC. Most computer manufacturers have abandoned producing their own processors below the highest performance points. Though x86 may not be the most elegant, or theoretically most efficient design, the sheer market force of so many dollars going into refining a design has made the x86 family today, and will remain for some time, the dominant processor architecture, even bypassing Intel's attempts to replace it with incompatible architectures such as the [[Intel iAPX 432|iAPX 432]] and [[Itanium]].
{{FOLDOC}}
{{Intel_processors}}
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Intel 8086
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Guy Harris
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[[Image:Intel 8086.jpg|thumb|right|250px|An Intel 8086 Microprocessor]]
The '''8086''' is a 16-[[bit]] [[microprocessor]] chip designed by [[Intel]] in [[1978]], which gave rise to the [[x86]] architecture. Shortly after, the [[Intel 8088]] was introduced with an external 8-bit bus, allowing the use of cheap chipsets. It was based on the design of the [[Intel 8080|8080]] and [[Intel 8085|8085]] (it was [[assembly language]] [[source-compatibility|source-compatible]] with the 8080) with a similar register set, but was expanded to 16 bits. The Bus Interface Unit fed the instruction stream to the Execution Unit through a 6 byte prefetch queue, so fetch and execution were concurrent – a primitive form of [[pipelining]] (8086 instructions varied from 1 to 4 bytes).
Buses:
* Address Bus - 20-bit address bus. Can access 2<sup>20</sup> memory locations i.e 1 MB of memory.
* Data Bus - 16 bit data bus. Can access 16 bit data in one operation. Hence called [[16-bit]] [[microprocessor]].
* Control buses - Carries the essential signals for various operations.
It featured four 16-bit general [[processor register|registers]], which could also be accessed as eight 8-bit registers, and four 16-bit index registers (including the [[Stack-based memory allocation|stack pointer]]). The data registers were often used implicitly by instructions, complicating register allocation for temporary values. It featured 64K 8-bit I/O (or 32K 16 bit) ports and fixed vectored interrupts. Most instructions could only access one memory location, so one operand had to be a register. The result was stored in one of the operands.
There were also four [[memory segment|segment]] registers that could be set from index registers. The segment registers allowed the [[Central processing unit|CPU]] to access one [[megabyte]] + 64 KB - 16 bytes of memory in an odd way. Rather than just supplying missing bytes, as in most segmented processors, the 8086 shifted the segment register left 4 bits and added it to the address. As a result segments overlapped, which most people consider to have been poor design. Although this was largely acceptable (and even useful) for [[assembly language]], where control of the segments was complete, it caused confusion in languages which make heavy use of pointers (such as [[C programming language|C]]). It made efficient representation of pointers difficult, and made it possible to have up to 4096 pointers with different values pointing to the same location. Worse, this scheme made expanding the address space to more than one megabyte + 64 KB - 16 bytes difficult. Effectively, it was expanded by changing the addressing scheme in the [[Intel 80286|80286]].
The processor runs at clock speeds between 4.77 (in the original IBM PC) and 10 MHz.
Typical execution times in cycles (estimates):
*addition: 3–4 (register), 9+EA–25+EA (memory access)
*multiplication: 70–118 (register), 76+EA–143+EA (memory access)
*move: 2 (register), 8+EA–14+EA (memory access)
*near jump: 11–15, 18+EA (memory access)
*far jump: 15, 24+EA (memory access)
EA: time to compute effective address, ranging from 5 to 12 cycles
The 8086 did not contain any [[floating point]] instructions, but could be connected to a mathematical coprocessors to add this capability. The [[Intel 8087]] was the standard version and used as a Math Co-processor operating on 80-bit numbers , but manufacturers like [[Weitek]] soon offered higher performance alternatives.
The 8086 was cloned by the [[NEC V20]], V25 and V30 processors.
[http://news.com.com/2061-10793_3-6025604.html] [http://techdirt.serverbox.net/articles/20060110/1818234_F.shtml]
== Microcomputers using the 8086 ==
The first commercial microcomputer built on the basis of the 8086 was the [[Mycron]] 2000.
The [[IBM Displaywriter]] word processing machine and Wang Professional Computer also used the 8086. The most influential microcomputer of all, the [[IBM PC]], used the [[Intel 8088]], a version of the 8086 with a narrower memory bus.
==External links==
*[http://www.cpu-collection.de/?tn=1&l0=cl&l1=8086/88 Intel 8086/8088 images and descriptions at cpu-collection.de]
*[http://www.emu8086.com 8086 visual microprocessor emulator]
{{Intel_processors}}
''Article based on [http://foldoc.doc.ic.ac.uk/foldoc/foldoc.cgi?query=Intel+8086 Intel 8086] at [http://www.foldoc.org FOLDOC], used with [[Wikipedia:Foldoc license|permission]].''
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Intel 8088
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Dmit
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[[Image:I8088.jpg|thumb|right|250px|An Intel 8088 microprocessor]]
The '''Intel 8088''' is an [[Intel]] [[microprocessor]] based on the [[Intel 8086|8086]], with 16-[[bit]] registers and an 8-bit external [[data bus]]. The processor was used in the original [[IBM PC]].
The 8088 was targeted at economical systems by allowing the use of 8-bit designs. Large bus width circuit boards were still fairly expensive when it was released. The prefetch queue of the 8088 is 4 bytes, as opposed to the 8086's 6 bytes. The descendants of the 8088 include the [[80188]], [[80288]] (obsolete), and [[80388]] [[microcontroller]]s which are still in use today.
The most influential microcomputer to use the 8088 was, by far, the [[IBM PC]]. The original PC processor ran at a [[clock frequency]] of 4.77 MHz.
Apparently IBM's own engineers wanted to use the [[Motorola 68000]], and it was used later in the forgotten IBM Instruments [[9000 Laboratory Computer]], but IBM already had rights to manufacture the 8086 family, in exchange for giving Intel the rights to its [[bubble memory]] designs. A factor for using the 8-bit Intel 8088 version was that it could use existing [[Intel 8085]]-type components, and allowed the computer to be based on a modified 8085 design. 68000 components were not widely available at the time, though it could use [[Motorola 6800]] components to an extent. Intel bubble memory was on the market for a while, but Intel left the market due to fierce competition from Japanese corporations who could undercut by cost, and left the memory market to focus on processors.
A compatible replacement chip, the [[NEC V20|V20]], was produced by [[Nippon Electric Corporation|NEC]] for an approximate 20 percent improvement in computing power.
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Electrical insulation
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Light current
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{{split}}
:''This page refers to electrical insulation. For thermal insulation see [[thermal insulation]], and for sound insulation see [[sound proofing]].
[[Image:Stripped wire.jpg|thumb|Conducting [[copper]] wire insulated by an outer layer of polyethylene]]
An '''insulator''' is a material or object that resists the flow of [[electric charge]].
The term ''electrical insulator'' has the same meaning as the term ''[[dielectric]]'', but the two terms are used in different contexts. The opposite of [[nonconductors|electrical insulators]] are [[Conductor (material)|conductor]]s and [[semiconductor]]s, which permit the flow of charge. [[Semiconductors]] are strictly speaking also insulators, since they prevent the flow of electric charge at low temperatures, unless [[Doping (Semiconductors)|doped]] with atoms that release extra charges to carry the current. However, some materials (such as [[silicon dioxide]]) are very nearly perfect electrical insulators, which allows flash memory technology. A much larger class of materials, for example rubber and many plastics, are "good enough" insulators to be used for home and office wiring, being able to act as insulators into the range of hundreds of [[volt]]s) without noticeable loss of safety or efficiency.
==High-voltage insulators==
[[image:pylon.detail.arp.750pix.jpg|thumb|right|250px|Detail of the [[insulators]] (the vertical string of discs) on a 275,000 volt suspension pylon near Thornbury, South Gloucestershire, England]]
High-voltage insulators used for high-voltage [[electric power transmission|power transmission]] are either [[porcelain]] insulators or [[composite material|composite]] insulators. Porcelain insulators are made from [[clay]], [[quartz]] or [[alumina]] and [[feldspar]]. [[Alumina]] insulators are used where high mechanical strength is a criterion. In recent times there is a shift towards composite insulators which have a central rod made of [[fibre reinforced plastic]] and outer weathersheds made of [[Silicone|silicone rubber]] or [[EPDM rubber|EPDM]]. Glass insulators were, and in some places are still used to mount electrical power lines.
Most insulator manufacturers stopped making glass insulators in the late 1960's, switching to ceramic materials. Composite insulators are less costly, light weight and have excellent hydrophobic capability and hence can be used in polluted areas.
The first glass insulators used en masse had an unthreaded pinhole. These pieces of glass were positioned on a wooden pin, vertically extending upwards from the pole's crossarm (commonly only two insulators to a pole and maybe one on top of the pole itself). Natural contraction and expansion of the wires wrapped around the "threadless insulator" resulted in an unseating of the insulator from its pin; hence a re-seating was required by a designated person. In 1870 a patent was granted for putting threads into insulator pinholes. To this day, pin-type insulators have threaded pinholes.
==Low-voltage insulators==
Insulating materials such as [[Polyvinyl chloride|PVC (polyvinyl chloride)]] are used to minimise the possibility of a person coming into contact with a 'live' wire. Some appliances such as electric shavers and hair dryers are [[Double insulated|doubly insulated]] to protect the user. They can be recognised because their leads have two pins, or on 3 pin plugs the third ([[Ground (electricity)|earth]]) pin is made of plastic rather than metal. In the [[European Union|EU]], double insulated appliances all are marked with a symbol of 2 squares, one inside the other.
Double insulation requires that cables have [[wiktionary:basic|basic]] and [[supplementary]] insulation, each of which is sufficient to prevent electric shock. Usually, the internal electrical components are totally enclosed in an insulated packaging which prevents any contact with live parts.
== Collecting insulators ==
In the late 1960's and early 1970's insulators were being removed from telephone poles as advances in technology made these pieces of glass obsolete. As linemen were taking down the old lines, they started to notice the multitude of bright colors, company names, variety of shapes, and important historical position held by insulators in the expansion of communication technology. Presently the insulator hobby is made up of thousands of people around the world with the majority of people being in the U.S. and Canada. Many websites exist which hold these items as the primary focus. Ebay even has a separate category for insulators.
To this date, collectors have introduced a classification system for the different styles, a price guide (last published in 2003), and a national organization (the [http://www.NIA.org National Insulator Association]). The main magazine in the hobby is a monthly publication, [http://www.crownjewelsofthewire.com Crown Jewels of the Wire], which has been published since 1969. Quite probably, the largest, and most informative private website in the hobby is [http://www.insulators.com www.insulators.com].
==See also==
*[[Arcing horns]]
*[[Electricity pylon|Pylon]]
*[[Electrical substation]]
==External links==
*http://teleramics.com/ - Specialising in UK telegraph insulators with a railway bias
*http://www.myinsulators.com/downtownseattle/ — one person's obsession with telephone pole insulators
*[http://CPRR.org/Museum/Ephemera/Brooks_Insulator.html Transcontinental Telegraph Insulators, 1867]
*[http://www.insulators.com www.insulators.com]
*[http://www.insulatorscanada.com www.insulatorscanada.com]
*http://www.nia.org — National Insulator Association
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Internetworking
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134.99.138.122
'''Internetworking''' involves connecting two or more distinct [[computer network]]s together into an '''internetwork''' (often shortened to '''internet'''), using [[devices]] called [[routers]] to connect them together, to allow traffic to flow back and forth between them. (Routers were originally called [[gateway (telecommunications)|gateways]], but that term was discarded <!-- NB: it was a concious decision to drop it, it didn't "fall[] into disuse" --> in this context, due to confusion with functionally different devices using the same name.) The routers guide traffic on the correct path (among several different ones usually available) across the complete internetwork to their destination.
(Some people inaccurately refer to the connecting together of networks with [[Network bridge|bridges]] as internetworking, but the resulting system mimics a single [[subnetwork]], and no internetworking [[Communications protocol|protocol]] (such as [[Internet Protocol|IP]]) is required to traverse it.)
Internetworking started as a way to connect disparate types of networking technology, but it became widespread through the developing need to connect two or more [[local area network]]s via some sort of [[wide area network]]. The definition now includes the connection of other types of computer networks such as [[personal area network]]s.
The most notable example of internetworking in practice is the [[Internet]], a network of networks running different low-level protocols, unified by an internetworking protocol, the [[Internet Protocol]] (IP).
IP only provides an unreliable [[packet]] service across an internet. To transfer data reliably, applications must utilize a [[Transport layer]] protocol, such as [[Transmission Control Protocol|TCP]], which provides a [[reliable stream]] (These terms do not mean that IP is actually unreliable but instead that it sends packets without contacting and establishing a connection with the destination router beforehand. The opposite applies for reliable). Since TCP is the most widely used transport protocol, people commonly refer to TCP and IP together, as "[[TCP/IP]]". Some applications occasionally use a simpler transport protocol (called [[User Datagram Protocol|UDP]]) for tasks which do not require absolutely reliable delivery of data, such as [[video streaming]].
==See also==
* [[History of the Internet]]
==External links==
*[http://discovery.bits-pilani.ac.in/rahul/PDFversions/Complete-InetBook-PHI-2003-Secure.pdf E-book] (''[[Portable Document Format|pdf format]]'') - Deals with the foundations of major internetworking architectures (chapters 4 to 9).
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Infantry
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66.130.41.189
/* Missions */
[[Image:Royal Irish Rifles ration party Somme July 1916.jpg|thumb|right|300px|Infantry of the [[Royal Irish Rifles]] during the [[Battle of the Somme (1916)|Battle of the Somme]] in [[World War I]].]]
'''Infantry''' are [[soldier]]s or [[marine|marines]] who fight primarily on foot with [[small arms]] in organized [[military unit]]s. "Infantry" also refers to the branch of the [[military]] in which these troops serve.
==History==
{{History of war}}
With few exceptions, most armies in history have been built around a core of infantry. While the specific weapons have varied, the common factor is that these soldiers have relied on their own two feet for transportation to the battlefield (especially in the pre-industrial era) and [[military tactic|tactical]] movement.
In earliest days, infantry were little more than armed mobs, fighting in opposing lines under the voice direction of individual commanders. However, the benefits of uniform equipment, weaponry and above all training led to the development of formations able to carry out pre-arranged maneuvers in the heat of battle.
As with any other area of conflict, the history of infantry is a story of balance between heavily-armed formations such as the [[Greece|Greek]] [[phalanx formation|phalanx]] fighting in rigid formations, and more lightly-armed but more mobile units like the [[Roman legion]] able to move relatively quickly around the battlefield and exploit opportunities as they arose. Mobility, weaponry, and protection are the competing yet complementary factors which must be balanced to create effective infantry.
=== Classical Period ===
Examples of infantry units of the Classical period are the [[phalanx formation|phalanx]]es of [[ancient Greece]] and the [[Roman legion|legion]]s of [[Imperial Rome]]. In contrast to the strictly organized phalanxes and legions, most armies of the ancient world also employed units of [[skirmisher]]s (often [[mercenaries]] or [[slaves]]) who wore minimal armor and carried an eclectic mix of weapons ranging from [[sword]]s and [[javelin throw|javelin]]s to slings and bows. Infantry was the primary combat arm of the period in open battles, as a result of multiple factors, including the cultural bias toward hand-to-hand combat and the relatively limited effectiveness of ranged weapons. Ranged weapons were primarily used as [[artillery]] and [[siege weapon]]s.
Large, well-disciplined units of infantry were common to the wars of the ancient world. However, as the [[Roman Empire]] declined and fell to the depredations of Germanic tribes such as the [[Vandal]]s, [[Goths]], and [[Visigoths]] in the 5th century AD, the political and military resources necessary for the maintenance of such units largely disappeared until the later Middle Ages with the appearance of the large bureaucratic systems associated with the [[monarchy|monarchical]] [[nation-state]]s.
=== Middle Ages ===
For most of the Middle Ages, warfare and society were dominated by the glamour of [[cavalry]], expressed at the time in the form of [[knight]]s. Knights were generally drawn from the aristocracy, while the infantry levies were raised from the common-folk or peasants. This led to a stagnation of the technologies and tactics that would improve the effectiveness of the infantry. However, some tactics were seen to be very effective. Infantry often took up long [[spear]]s or [[halberd]]s to counter the long reach of knights' [[lance]]s. It also became more and more common for infantry to carry ranged weapons, as these would also effectively nullify the cavalry's advantage of momentum, speed, height, and reach. By the late Middle Ages, these tactics were crystallizing.
[[Image:Relief infantry.jpg|right|thumb|300px|[[Relief]] of infantry at building of Museum of Art in [[Olomouc]], [[The Czech Republic]].]]
While bows remained in use long after the development of [[firearm]]s, technological fine-tuning (along with the development of the [[wheel-lock]]) allowed firearms to supersede even the feared [[English longbow]] as the ranged weapon of choice for infantry. The bow also declined in favor due to the ease with which musketeers could be trained (days or weeks to attain moderate proficiency, as opposed to many years for the longbow).
Many nations combined firearms with extremely long [[pike (weapon)|pike]]s into units that were virtually invincible against cavalry formations. Eventually, with the development of the [[bayonet]], the pikemen were dropped from the formation, resulting in the first examples of an infantry unit as recognizable today.
=== Modern ===
Before the development of [[railroad]]s in the 19th century, infantry armies got to the battlefield by walking, or sometimes by [[ship]]. The Marines were first conceived in the 17th century by the English Royal Navy. Due to Britain's island status, a large army was unnecessary, however infantry soldiers were still required for eventual landings. A typical Royal Navy warship carried 600 men. Of these men, 120-180 would be Royal Marines. These men usually had a deck to themselves and had little to do with sailing the vessel. The men were proficient in the use of metal-working, gunpowder and modern weapons of the day and would form landing parties when exploring. The Marines also defended the vessel if boarded and would repair damaged weapons and cannon after a battle.
In the 1890s and later, some countries used [[bicycle infantry]], but the real revolution in mobility started in the 1920s with the use of motor vehicles, resulting in [[motorized infantry]]. Action in [[World War II]] demonstrated the importance of protecting the soldiers while they are moving around, resulting in the development of [[mechanized infantry]], who use armored vehicles for transport. World War II also saw the first widespread use of [[paratroop]]s, which played key roles in several campaigns in the European theater. During the [[Vietnam War|Vietnam conflict]], the [[United States Army]] pioneered the use of [[helicopter]]s to deliver large numbers of infantry quickly to and from key locations on the battlefield.
Modern-day mechanized infantry is supported by [[armored fighting vehicle]]s, [[artillery]], and [[aircraft]], but along with [[light infantry]], which does not use armored fighting vehicles, is still the only kind of military force that can take and hold ground, and thus remains essential to fighting wars.
== Organization ==
[[Image:Military camp.jpg|right|thumb|300px|Historical [[military camp]] - infantry.]]
Infantry is notable by its reliance on organized formations to be employed in battle. These have been developed over time, but remain a key element to effective infantry development and deployment. Up until the 20th Century, infantry units were for the most part employed in close organized formations up until the last moment possible. This was necessary to allow commanders to retain control of the unit, especially while maneuvering, as well as allowing officers to retain discipline amongst the ranks.
With the development of weapons with increased firepower, it became necessary to disperse the infantry over a wider expanse of terrain. This made the unit less susceptible to high explosive and rapid fire weapons. From World War I, it was recognized that infantry were most successfully employed when using their ability to maneuver in constricted terrain and evade detection in ways not possible for other weapons such as vehicles. This decentralization of command was made possible by improved communications equipment and greater focus on small unit training.
== Missions ==
The most important role of the infantry has been as the primary force of an army. It is the infantry which ultimately decides whether ground was held or taken, and it is the presence of infantry that assures control of territory. While the tactics of employment in battle have changed, the basic missions of the infantry have not.
'''Attack''' operations are the most basic role of the infantry, and along with defense, form the two primary stances of the infantry on the battlefield. Traditionally, in an open battle, or [[meeting engagement]], two armies would maneuver to contact, at which point they would form up their infantry and other units opposite each other. Then one or both would advance and attempt to defeat the enemy force. The goal of an attack remains the same: to advance into an enemy-held objective and dislodge the enemy, thereby establishing control of the objective. Attacks are often feared by the infantry conducting them due to the high number of casualties suffered while advancing under enemy fire. Successful attacks rely on sufficient force, preparative reconnaissance and bombardment, and retention of unit cohesion throughout the attack.
'''Defense''' operations are the natural counter to attacks, in which the mission is to hold an objective and defeat enemy forces attempting to dislodge the defender. Defensive posture offers many advantages to the infantry, including the ability to use terrain and constructed fortifications to advantage and the reduced exposure to enemy fire compared with advancing forces. Effective defense relies on minimizing losses to enemy fire, breaking the enemy's cohesion before their advance is completed, and preventing enemy penetration of defensive positions.
'''Patrol''' is the most common infantry mission. Full scale attacks and defensive efforts are occasional, but patrols are constant. Patrols consist of small groups of infantry moving about in areas of possible enemy activity to discern enemy deployments and ambush enemy patrols. Patrols are used not only on the front-lines, but in rear areas where enemy infiltration or insurgencies are possible.
'''Pursuit''' is a role that the infantry often assumes. The objective of pursuit operations is the destruction of enemy forces which are not capable of effectively engaging friendly units before they can build their strength to the point where they are effective. Infantry traditionally have been the main force to overrun these units in the past, and in modern combat are used to pursue enemy forces in constricted terrain (urban areas in particular), where faster forces, such as armored vehicles are incapable of going or would be exposed to ambush.
'''Escort''' consists of protecting other units from ambush, particularly from other infantry. This is one of the most important roles for the modern infantry, in particular when operating along side armored vehicles. In this capacity, infantry essentially conducts patrol on the move, scouring terrain which may hide enemy infantry waiting to ambush friendly vehicles, and identifying enemy strong points for attack by the heavier units.
'''Maneuver''' operations consume much of an infantry unit's time. Infantry, like all combat units, are often maneuvered to meet battlefield needs, and often must do so under enemy attack. The infantry must maintain their cohesion and readiness during the move to ensure their usefulness when they reach their objective. Traditionally, infantry have relied on their own legs for mobility, but modern infantry often uses trucks and armored vehicles for transport.
'''Reserve''' assignments for infantry units involve deployment behind the front, although patrol and security operations are usually maintained in case of enemy infiltration. This is usually the best time for infantry units to integrate replacements into units and to maintain equipment. Additionally, soldiers can be rested and general readiness should improve. However, the unit must be ready for employment at any point.
'''Construction''' can be undertaken either in reserve or on the front, but consists of using infantry troops as labor for construction of field positions, roads, bridges, airfields, and all other manner of structures. The infantry is often given this assignment due the quantity of men within the unit, although it can lessen a unit's morale and limit the unit's ability to maintain readiness and perform other missions.
== Equipment ==
The equipment of infantry forces has evolved along with the development of military technology in general, but certain constants remain regarding the design and selection of this equipment. Primary types of equipment are weaponry, protective gear, survival gear, and special equipment.
[[Infantry weapon]]s include all types of personal weapons, i.e. anything that can be handled by individual troops, as well as some small crew-served weapons that can be carried and used by infantry. Modern infantry weaponry include [[rifle]]s, [[machine gun]]s, shoulder-fired [[rocket launcher]]s and [[missile]]s, and lighter [[mortar (weapon)|mortar]]s and [[grenade launcher]]s. Older examples of infantry weapons include all sorts of [[melee weapon]]s and some light ranged weapons such as [[spear]]s, [[Bow (weapon)|bows]], and [[sling]]s. During operations, especially in modern times, infantry have a tendency to scavenge and employ whatever weapons they can acquire in addition to those given them by their superiors.
[[Infantry protective gear]] includes all equipment designed to protect the soldier against enemy attack. Most protective gear comprises body armor of some type. Classical and Medieval infantry employed leather and metal armor as defense against both ranged and melee attacks, but with the advent of firearms, such armor could no longer defeat attacks and was discarded. The return to use of the helmet was prompted by the need to defend against high explosive [[fragmentation]], and further developments in materials led to effective bullet-defeating armor within the weight acceptable for infantry use. The use of body armor is again becoming widespread amongst infantry units, primarily using [[Kevlar]] technology. Infantry must also often carry protective measures against chemical and biological attack, including gas masks, counter-agents, and protective suits.
Infantry survival gear includes all of the items soldiers require for day-to-day survival in the combat environment. These include basic environmental protections, medical supplies, food, and sundries. Traditionally, infantry have suffered large casualty rates from disease, exposure, and privation--often in excess of those suffered from enemy attacks. Better equipment of troops in this area greatly reduce this rate of loss. One of the most valuable pieces of gear is the [[entrenching tool]]--basically a small shovel--which can be employed not only to dig important defenses, but also in a variety of other daily tasks and even as an effective weapon.
Specialized equipment consists of a variety of gear which may or may not be carried depending on the mission and the level of equipment of an army. Communications gear has become a necessity, as it allows effective command of infantry units over greater distances. In some units, individual communications are being used to allow the greatest level of flexibility. Engineering equipment, including demolitions, mines, and other gear, is also commonly carried by the infantry or attached specialists. A variety of other gear, often relating to a specific mission, or to the particular terrain in which the unit is employed, can be carried by infantry units.
There are some general rules to which all infantry equipment must adhere to be effective and widely adopted:
* Reliability: Equipment failure is fatal to the infantry, and if equipped with unreliable gear, morale will suffer greatly. Soldiers tend to prefer reliable proven technology to new, unproven gadgets. Additionally, the conditions in which infantry operate are often extreme and gear must be able to survive and operate in these condition without fail.
* Utility: Infantry have very limited weight capacity, and thus gear which doesn't help them do their job will be discarded.
* Availability: Since infantry units are often large, and must be able to be raised in quantity, a particular tool must be available in sufficient quantity to equip the units. This means that it must be inexpensive enough to afford in quantity during peacetime, and producible enough to meet wartime demands.
* Simplicity: Infantry relies on large numbers of troops, often conscripted and therefore of lesser quality than those available to other branches. An army must be able to train its troops uniformly in minimal time on the tools of the trade. Overly complex gear will often be useless in combat due to a lack of training or the difficulty of maintenance under field conditions.
== Quotations ==
* "I love the infantry because they are the underdogs. They are the mud-rain-frost-and-wind boys. They have no comforts, and they even learn to live without the necessities. And in the end they are the guys that wars can't be won without." [[Ernie Pyle]]
*"I'm convinced that the infantry is the group in the army which gives more and gets less than anybody else." [[Bill Mauldin]], ''Up Front'' (1945)
*"Infantry is the Queen of Battle." - slogan of the [[United States Army]]
*"The Air Force and Navy, no matter what they say, are and have always been, delegated to a support position. Bombers can't capture a city. Battleships can't knock out a tank 50 miles inland. These jobs are, and have always been, the role of the common grunt, the leatherneck, the infantryman." - [[Stephen Ambrose]]
*"But never think that war, no matter how necessary, nor how justified, is not a crime. Ask the infantry and ask the dead." [[Ernest Hemingway]]
*"To seek out and close with the enemy; to kill or capture him; to seize and hold ground; to repel attack, by day or night, regardless of season, weather or terrain" - The stated role of the Royal Australian Infantry Corps, an Arms Corps of the [[Australian Army]].
*"The infantry doesn't change. We're the only arm of the military where the weapon is the man himself." [[C.T. Shortis]]
==See also==
* [[Army]]
* [[Combat Infantryman Badge]]
* [[Marine]]
* [[Mechanized infantry]]
* [[Podhale rifles]]
* [[Light Infantry]]
* [[U.S. Army Rangers]]
* [[Military history]]
* [[Military camp]]
* [[Military science]]
* [[Mobile infantry]]
* The [[Military Revolution]]
* [[Zouave]]
* [[Evzones]]
* [[Roman infantry tactics,strategy and battle formations]]
* See [[List of Regiments of Foot]] for the numbered British Army infantry regiments of the [[18th Century|18th]] and early [[19th Century|19th]] centuries. For British infantry regiments by year, see: [[List of British Army regiments (1881)|1881]], [[List of British Army regiments (1962)|1962]], [[List of British Army regiments (1994)|1994]]
==External links==
* [http://www.army.mil/CMH-PG/books/Lineage/in/infantry.htm#2 Infantry, Part I: Regular Army ]
* [http://www.army.mil/CMH-pg/books/Lineage/arcav/arcav.htm Armor-Cavalry, Part I: Regular Army and Army Reserve]
* [http://www.army.mil/CMH-pg/books/Lineage/M-F/index.htm Maneuver and Firepower, The Evolution of Divisions and Separate Brigagdes]
* [http://www.infantrymen.net/ Infantrymen.net, Military reference focusing on the infantry (11b)]
* [http://www.goinfantry.com/ GoInfantry.Com, Military Grunts. An online military community]
*[http://www.isayeret.com isayeret.com - The Israeli Special Forces Database]
[[Category:Infantry| ]]
[[Category:Military occupations]]
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Identity function
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In [[mathematics]], an '''identity function''', also called '''identity map''' or '''identity transformation''', is a [[function (mathematics)|function]] which does not have any effect: it always returns the same value that was used as its argument. In other words, the identity function is the function ''f''(''x'') = ''x''.
==Definition==
Formally, if ''M'' is a [[set]], the identity function ''f'' on ''M'' is defined to be that function with [[domain (mathematics)|domain]] and [[codomain]] ''M'' which satisfies
:''f''(''x'') = ''x'' for all elements ''x'' in ''M''.
The identity function ''f'' on ''M'' is often denoted by id<sub>''M''</sub> or 1<sub>''M''</sub>.
==Algebraic property==
If ''f'' : ''M'' → ''N'' is any function, then we have ''f'' <small>o</small> id<sub>''M''</sub> = ''f'' = id<sub>''N''</sub> <small>o</small> ''f'' (where "<small>o</small>" denotes [[function composition]]). In particular, id<sub>''M''</sub> is the [[identity element]] of the [[monoid]] of all functions from ''M'' to ''M''.
Since the identity element of a monoid is [[unique]], one can alternately define the identity function on ''M'' to be this identity element. Such a definition generalizes to the concept of an [[identity morphism]] in [[category theory]], where the [[endomorphism]]s of ''M'' need not be functions.
==Examples==
*The identity function on the positive [[integer]]s is a [[completely multiplicative function]] (essentially multiplication by 1), considered in [[number theory]].
*In an ''n''-dimensional [[vector space]] the identity function is represented by the [[identity matrix]] ''I''<sub>''n''</sub>, regardless of the [[Basis (linear algebra)|basis]].
*In a [[metric space]] the identity is trivially an [[isometry]]. An object without any [[symmetry]] has as [[symmetry group]] the trivial group only containing this isometry (symmetry type ''C<sub>1</sub>).
== See also ==
*[[Inclusion map]]
[[Category:Elementary mathematics]]
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Intel 80386
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[[Image: Intel_i386.jpg|thumb|right|200px|An Intel 80386 Microprocessor.]]
The '''Intel 80386''' is a [[microprocessor]] which was used as the [[central processing unit|central processing unit (CPU)]] of many [[personal computer]]s from [[1986]] until [[1994]] and later. During its design phase the processor was code-named simply "P3", the third-generation processor in the [[x86]] line, but was and is frequently referred to as the '''i386'''. Designed and manufactured by [[Intel]], the i386 processor was [[tape-out|taped-out]] in October of 1985. Intel decided against producing the chip before then, as the cost of production would have been uneconomic. Full-function chips were first delivered to customers in 1986. [[Motherboard]]s for 386-based computer systems were highly elaborate and expensive to produce, but were rationalised upon the 386's mainstream adoption.
The processor was a significant evolution in a long line of processors that stretched back to the [[Intel 8008]]. The predecessor of the 80386 was the [[Intel 80286]], a [[16-bit]] processor with a [[memory segment|segment]]-based memory management and protection system. The 80386 added a [[32-bit]] architecture and a [[paging]] translation unit, which made it much easier to implement operating systems
which used [[virtual memory]].
The 80386 featured three operating modes: '''real''' mode, '''protected''' mode and '''virtual''' mode. In the real mode, the 80386 (like the 80286) would run just as a fast 80186. The protected mode allowed the use of all the possibilities of the 286 and the protected mode extension of the 386, especially addressing up to 4 GB of memory. Finally, the virtual 8086(or ''V86'') mode made it possible to run one or more virtual 8086 machines in a protected environment. <!--, such as [[UNIX]]. or OS/2, W2K.. -->
[[Image:80386DX_arch.png|300px|thumb|The 386DX architecture.]]
Though Intel would shortly introduce the [[Intel 80486|80486]] and eventually the [[Intel Pentium]] line of processors, the support in the 386 for the 32-bit [[flat memory]] model would be arguably the most important feature change until the release of [[EM64T]] in [[2004]]. (Other microprocessor architectures, such as the [[Motorola 68000]], had long since supported a "flat" 32-bit addressing model.) Most applications running on current Intel-based personal computers will still run on the older 80386, albeit very slowly; there were relatively few instructions added to the main instruction set in later generations, and in most cases their usage can be avoided. Building a program for the [[80286]] was often much harder.
Early 80386s had a bug in the 32-bit multiply instruction which would leave the high word in the result undefined. Once discovered, such processors were stamped '16-bit SW only'. This bug was checked for by programs such as [[Microsoft Windows]] which would issue a warning message.
Late in the 80386's production run, Intel introduced the 80386SX, which was meant to be a low cost version of the 386 line. The SX series of chips was 32-bit internally, but had a 16-bit external bus (in much the same way that the [[8088]] in the original IBM PC was a lower cost version of the [[8086]]) and so no 32-bit physical address space extension. The original 80386 was subsequently renamed the 80386DX to avoid confusion. Neither CPU included a math [[coprocessor]] (most motherboards included a socket for an [[Intel 80387|80387]]), though the naming would cause some head-scratching later when the 80486 came in a DX variant that did include [[floating-point]] capability (which was physically present but disabled in early 486SXs).
The 386SL was introduced as an alternative processor for [[laptop computer]]s. The processor offered several power management options (e.g. [[System Management Mode|SMM]]), as well as different "sleep" modes to conserve [[battery (electricity)|battery]] power. It also contained support for an external [[cache]] of 16 to 64 KB. The extra functions caused this variant to have over 3 times as many [[transistor]]s as the 386DX. The 386SL was only available in one clock speed, 25 MHz. [http://www.informit.com/articles/article.asp?p=130978&seqNum=27&rl=1]
An embedded version of the chip, the [[Intel 80386EX|386EX]], was produced later, and was successfully used in space applications.
[[Image:Am386DX40.jpg|200px|right|thumb|The AMD Am386DX-40]]
Because of the high degree of compatibility, the range of processors compatible with the 80386 is often collectively termed the ''i386 architecture''; the instruction set for the architecture is now known as [[IA-32]] or, informally, ''i386''.
From a business perspective, the i386 was significant because it was the first significant microprocessor to be [[single-sourced]] – it was available only from Intel Corp. Prior to this, the difficulty of making chips and the uncertainty of reliable supply required that any mass-market semiconductor be [[multi-sourced]], that is, made by two or more manufacturers, the second and subsequent ones manufacturing under license from the designer. Single-sourcing the i386 allowed Intel greater control over its development and substantially greater profits in later years. However, [[AMD]] introduced its compatible [[Am386]] processor in March 1991 after overcoming legal obstacles, thus breaking Intel's monopoly.
==Team==
*John Crawford, chief architect
*Jim Slager, chief engineer
*Patrick Gelsinger
*Riaz Haq
*Gene Hill
*Jan Wiliam L. Prak
*David Vannier
*Joseph "Chip" Krauskopf
*Ken Shoemaker
*Paul Ries
*Saurabha Radhika
== External links ==
* [http://www.cpu-collection.de/?tn=1&l0=cl&l1=386 Intel 80386 images and descriptions at cpu-collection.de]
* [http://www.online.ee/~andre/i80386/ Intel 80386 Programmer's Reference 1986]
* [http://www.inteltechnology.net/ Intel Technology]
* [http://www.cpu-info.com/index2.php?mainid=html/cpu/386.php CPU-INFO: 80386, indepth processor history]
{{Intel_processors}}
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Instruction register
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In [[computing]], an '''instruction register''' is the part of a [[Central processing unit|CPU]]'s [[control unit]] that stores the instruction currently being executed. In simple processors each instruction to be executed is loaded into the instruction register which holds it while it is decoded, prepared and ultimately executed, which can take several steps. More complicated processors use a [[instruction pipeline|pipeline of instruction registers]] where each stage of the pipeline does part of the decoding, preparation or execution and then passes it to the next stage for its step. Modern processors can even do some of the steps of out of order as decoding on several instructions is done in parallel.
Decoding the [[opcode]] in the instruction register includes determining the instruction, determining where its operands are in memory, retrieving the operands from memory, allocating processor resources to execute the command (in [[superscalar]] processors), etc.
[[Category:Digital electronics]]
[[Category:Computer hardware]]
[[Category:Computer architecture]]
{{compu-hardware-stub}}
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List of islands
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/* List of islands of Asia */
This is a list of [[island]]s in the world grouped by [[ocean]]s and by [[continent]]s.
== List of islands by continent ==
*[[List of islands of Africa]]
*[[List of islands of Antarctica and the Southern Ocean]]
*[[List of islands of Australia]]
*[[List of islands of Asia]]
*[[List of islands of Europe]]
*[[List of islands of North America]]
*[[List of islands of Central America]]
*[[List of islands of South America]]
== List of islands by ocean or sea ==
*[[List of islands in the Adriatic Sea]]
*[[List of islands in the Aegean Sea]]
*[[List of islands in the Arctic Ocean]]
*[[List of islands in the Atlantic Ocean]]
*[[List of islands in the Baltic Sea]]
*[[List of islands in the Black Sea]]
*[[List of islands in the Caribbean]]
*[[List of islands in the East China Sea]]
*[[List of islands in the Indian Ocean]]
*[[List of islands in the Ionean Sea]]
*[[List of islands in the Mediterranean Sea]]
*[[List of islands in the Pacific Ocean]]
*[[List of islands in the Persian Gulf]]
*[[List of islands in the Sea of Crete]]
*[[List of islands in the Sea of Marmara]]
*[[List of islands in the South China Sea]]
*[[List of islands in the Southern Ocean]]
*[[List of islands in the Tyrrhenian Sea]]
== List of islands of Asia ==
*[[List of islands of Cambodia]]
*[[List of islands of the People's Republic of China]]
**[[Islands of Hong Kong|List of islands of Hong Kong]]
**[[List of islands of Macau]]
*[[List of islands of the Republic of China|List of islands of the Republic of China (Taiwan)]]
*[[List of islands of India]]
*[[List of islands of Indonesia]], [[Islands of Indonesia]]
*[[List of islands of Iran]]
*[[List of islands of Japan]]
*[[List of islands of Kuwait]]
*[[List of islands of Malaysia]]
*[[Maldives]]
*[[List of islands of Myanmar]]
*[[List of islands of the Philippines]]
*[[List of islands of Russia]]
*[[List of islands of Singapore]]
*[[List of islands of South Korea]]
*[[List of islands of Sri Lanka]]
*[[List of islands of Thailand]]
*[[List of islands of Vietnam]]
*Disputed islands
**[[South China Sea Islands]]
***[[Paracel Islands]]
****[[Duncan Island]]
****[[Woody Island]]
***[[Spratly Islands]]
***[[Pratas Islands]]
***[[Macclesfield Bank]]
**[[Kuril Islands dispute|Northern territories (southern Kurile islands)]]
***[[Kunashir]]
***[[Iturup]]
***[[Shikotan]]
***[[Habomai]]
**[[Senkaku Islands|Senkaku Islands / Tiaoyutai Islands]]
**[[Liancourt Rocks]]
== List of islands of Europe ==
*[[List of islands of Albania]]
*[[List of islands of Bulgaria]]
*[[List of islands of Croatia]]
*[[List of islands of Cyprus]]
*[[List of islands of Denmark]]
*[[List of islands of the Faroe Islands]]
*[[List of islands of Estonia]]
*[[List of islands of Finland]]
*[[List of islands of France]]
*[[List of islands of Germany]]
*[[List of islands of Greece]]
*[[List of islands of Hungary]]
*[[List of islands of Iceland]]
*[[List of islands of Ireland]]
*[[List of islands of Italy]]
*[[List of islands of Malta]]
*[[List of islands of the Netherlands]]
*[[List of islands of Norway]]
*[[List of islands of Poland]]
*[[List of islands of Portugal]]
*[[List of islands of Romania]]
*[[List of islands of Spain]]
*[[List of islands of Sweden]]
*[[List of islands of Switzerland]]
*[[List of islands of Turkey]]
*[[List of islands of the United Kingdom]]
== List of islands of North and Central America ==
*[[List of islands of Belize]]
*[[List of islands of Canada]]
*[[List of islands of Honduras]]
*[[List of islands of Mexico]]
*[[List of islands of Panama]]
*[[List of islands of the United States]]
*[[Islands of the Great Lakes]]
== List of islands of Oceania ==
*[[List of islands in the Pacific Ocean]]
*[[List of islands of Australia]]
*[[Islands of New Zealand|List of islands of New Zealand]]
== See also ==
*[[List of islands by name]]
*[[List of islands by population]]
*[[List of islands by size]]
*[[List of uninhabited islands]]
*[[List of artificial islands]]
*[[Phantom island]]
[[Category:Islands| ]]
[[Category:Lists of islands| ]]
[[ang:Getalu īega]]
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[[de:Liste der Inseln]]
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[[ja:島の一覧]]
[[pl:Wyspy świata]]
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INTERCAL
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clarify commentary on IOCCC etc.
'''INTERCAL''', [[programming language]] [[parody]], is the [[canonical]] [[esoteric programming language]] created by [[Don Woods]] and [[James Lyon]], two [[Princeton University]] students, in [[1972]]. It satirizes aspects of the [[FORTRAN]] and [[COBOL]] [[programming language]]s, as well as the proliferation of proposed language constructs and notations in the 1960s. Consequently, the humour may appear rather dated to modern readers brought up with [[C programming language|C]] or [[Java programming language|Java]].
The current version, C-INTERCAL, is maintained by [[Eric S. Raymond]]. INTERCAL is said by the original authors to stand for "Compiler Language With No Pronounceable Acronym".
INTERCAL is purposely different from all other computer languages. Common operations in other languages have cryptic and redundant syntax in INTERCAL. From the INTERCAL Reference Manual:
:It is a well-known and oft-demonstrated fact that a person whose work is incomprehensible is held in high esteem. For example, if one were to state that the simplest way to store a value of 65536 in a 32-bit INTERCAL variable is:
::<pre>DO :1 <- #0¢#256</pre>
:any sensible programmer would say that that was absurd. Since this is indeed the simplest method, the programmer would be made to look foolish in front of his boss, who would of course have happened to turn up, as bosses are wont to do. The effect would be no less devastating for the programmer having been correct.
The INTERCAL manual also contains many paradoxical, nonsensical, or otherwise humorous instructions:
:Caution! Under no circumstances confuse the mesh with the interleave operator, except under confusing circumstances!
INTERCAL has many other features designed to make it even more aesthetically unpleasing to the programmer: it uses statements such as "READ OUT", "IGNORE", "FORGET" and "PLEASE". The INTERCAL manual gives unusual names for all non-alphanumeric [[ASCII]] characters: single and double quotes are "sparks" and "rabbit ears" respectively. The equivalent of a "half mesh" or equals sign in most programming languages is a "<-", referred to as "gets" and made up of an "angle" and a "worm".
The original Princeton implementation used [[punched card]]s and the [[EBCDIC]] character set. In order to allow INTERCAL to run on computers using [[ASCII]], substitutions for two characters had to be made: $ substituted for ¢ as the mingle operator to "represent the increasing cost of software in relation to hardware" and ? was substituted for ∀ as the unary exclusive-or operator to "correctly express the average person's reaction on first encountering exclusive-or".
The [[Usenet]] newsgroup [http://groups.google.com/groups?q=alt.lang.intercal alt.lang.intercal] is devoted to the study and appreciation of INTERCAL and other esoteric languages.
Despite the language's being intentionally obtuse and wordy, INTERCAL is nevertheless [[Turing-complete]]: given enough memory, INTERCAL can solve any problem that a universal [[Turing machine]] can solve. It does this very slowly, however. A [[Sieve of Eratosthenes]] benchmark, computing all prime numbers less than 65536, was tested on a [[Sun Microsystems|Sun]] SPARCStation-1. In C, it took less than 0.5 seconds; the same program in INTERCAL took over seventeen hours. (Stross, 1992)
It should be noted that almost any programming language allows [[notation]]al horrors as great as or greater than INTERCAL's, as demonstrated in contests such as the [[International Obfuscated C Code Contest]]. However, these are generally intentional efforts to create unreadable code, in contrast to INTERCAL's design forcing virtually all code to be unreadable.
According to the INTERCAL manual, "the aim in designing INTERCAL was to have no precedents", supposedly neither in flow control features, nor in data manipulation operators. The designers were partially successful; the only known precedent is a machine instruction in a Soviet mainframe computer [[BESM-6]], released in [[1967]], that is effectively equivalent to INTERCAL's "select" operator.
== Dialects ==
The original Woods-Lyon INTERCAL was very limited in its [[input/output]] capabilities: the only acceptable input was numbers with the digits spelled out, and the only output was an extended version of [[Roman numerals]].
The C-INTERCAL reimplementation, being available on the Internet, has made the language more popular with devotees of esoteric programming languages. The C-INTERCAL dialect has a few differences from original INTERCAL and introduced a few new features, such as a [[COMEFROM|COME FROM]] statement and a means of doing text I/O based on the [[Turing Text Model]].
The authors of C-INTERCAL also created the TriINTERCAL variant, based on the [[ternary]] system and generalising INTERCAL's set of operators.
A more recent variant is Threaded Intercal, which extends the functionality of COME FROM to support [[multithreading]].
== Hello, world ==
The traditional [[Hello world program|"Hello, world!" program]] demonstrates how different INTERCAL is from standard programming languages. In C, it reads as follows:
<pre>
#include <stdio.h>
int main(void) {
printf("hello, world\n");
return 0;
}
</pre>
The equivalent program in C-INTERCAL is longer and harder to read:
<pre>
DO ,1 <- #13
PLEASE DO ,1 SUB #1 <- #234
DO ,1 SUB #2 <- #112
DO ,1 SUB #3 <- #112
DO ,1 SUB #4 <- #0
DO ,1 SUB #5 <- #64
DO ,1 SUB #6 <- #194
DO ,1 SUB #7 <- #48
PLEASE DO ,1 SUB #8 <- #22
DO ,1 SUB #9 <- #248
DO ,1 SUB #10 <- #168
DO ,1 SUB #11 <- #24
DO ,1 SUB #12 <- #16
DO ,1 SUB #13 <- #214
PLEASE READ OUT ,1
PLEASE GIVE UP
</pre>
== External links ==
*[http://www.catb.org/~esr/intercal/ INTERCAL home page on the Web].
*[http://www.muppetlabs.com/~breadbox/intercal/ INTERCAL Resources on the Web], including several implementations
*[http://www.catb.org/~esr/intercal/stross.html INTERCAL — the Language from Hell] ([[Charles Stross]], ''Computer Shopper'' [UK], September 1992)
*[http://www.progsoc.uts.edu.au/~sbg/intercal/intercal.html INTERCAL reference manual]
*[http://www.progsoc.uts.edu.au/~sbg/intercal/ick.html C-INTERCAL supplemental reference manual]
*[http://www.cse.unsw.edu.au/~malcolmr/intercal/threaded.html Threaded Intercal]
----
Part of an earlier version of this article contains text from [http://www.catb.org/~esr/jargon/ The Jargon File 4.2.3 Mar 2001].
[[Category:Esoteric programming languages]]
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International Data Encryption Algorithm
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{{Infobox Block Ciphers|
fullName = IDEA |
image = International Data Encryption Algorithm InfoBox Diagram.png |
caption = An encryption round of IDEA |
yearPublished = [[1991]] |
derivedFrom = PES |
derivedTo = [[MESH]], [[Akelarre]], [[FOX (cipher)|FOX]] (IDEA NXT) |
designers = [[James Massey]], [[Xuejia Lai]] |
blockSize = 64 bits |
keySize = 128 bits |
cipherStructure = [[Substitution-permutation network]] |
rounds = 8.5 |
cryptanalysis = A collision attack requiring 2<sup>24</sup> [[chosen plaintext]]s breaks 5 rounds with a complexity of 2<sup>126</sup> (Demirci et al, 2003).
}}
In [[cryptography]], the '''International Data Encryption Algorithm''' ('''IDEA''') is a [[block cipher]] designed by Xuejia Lai(來學嘉) and [[James L. Massey]] of [[ETH-Zürich]] and was first described in [[1991]]. The algorithm was intended as a replacement for the [[Data Encryption Standard]]. IDEA is a minor revision of an earlier [[cipher]], '''PES (Proposed Encryption Standard)'''; IDEA was originally called '''IPES''' ('''Improved PES''').
The cipher was designed under a research contract with the Hasler Foundation, which became part of Ascom-Tech AG. The cipher is patented in a number of countries but is freely available for non-commercial use. The name "IDEA" is also a [[trademark]]. The [[patent]]s will expire in [[2010]]–[[2011]]. Today, IDEA is licensed worldwide by MediaCrypt.
IDEA was used in [[Pretty Good Privacy]] (PGP) V2.0, and was incorporated after the original cipher used in v1.0 ("Bass-O-Matic") was found to be insecure. It is an optional algorithm in [[OpenPGP]].
==Operation==
<!-- notation: would like to use the LaTeX symbols <math>\odot</math> and <math>\boxplus</math>, but these are not yet supported by the software -->
IDEA operates on 64-bit [[block size (cryptography)|blocks]] using a 128-bit [[key (cryptography)|key]], and consists of a series of eight identical transformations (a ''round'', see the illustration) and an output transformation (the ''half-round''). The processes for encryption and decryption are similar. IDEA derives much of its security by interleaving operations from different [[group (mathematics)|groups]] — [[modular arithmetic|modular]] addition and multiplication, and bitwise [[XOR|eXclusive OR (XOR)]] — which are algebraically "incompatible" in some sense. In more detail, these operators, which all deal with 16-bit quantities, are:
* Bitwise [[XOR|eXclusive OR]] (denoted with a blue ⊕).
* Addition modulo 2<sup>16</sup> (denoted with a green [[Image:Boxplus.png|boxplus]]).
* Multiplication modulo 2<sup>16</sup>+1, where the all-zero word (0x0000) is interpreted as 2<sup>16</sup> (denoted by a red [[Image:Odot.png|odot]]).
==Security==
The designers analysed IDEA to measure its strength against [[differential cryptanalysis]] and concluded that it is immune under certain assumptions. No successful [[linear cryptanalysis|linear]] or algebraic weaknesses have been reported. Some classes of [[weak key]]s have been found — E.g. (Daemen et al, 1994) — but these are of little concern in practice, being so rare as to be unnecessary to avoid explicitly. [[As of 2004]], the best attack which applies to all keys can break IDEA reduced to 5 rounds (the full IDEA cipher uses 8.5 rounds) (Demirci et al, 2003).
[[Bruce Schneier]] thought highly of IDEA in [[1996]], writing, "In my opinion, it is the best and most secure block algorithm available to the public at this time." (''Applied Cryptography'', 2nd ed.) However, by [[1999]] he was no longer recommending IDEA due to the availability of faster algorithms, some progress in its cryptanalysis, and the issue of patents [http://slashdot.org/interviews/99/10/29/0832246.shtml].
IDEA is patented in [[Austria]], [[France]], [[Germany]], [[Italy]], [[Netherlands]], [[Spain]], [[Sweden]], [[Switzerland]], [[United Kingdom]], (European patent EP-B-0482154), the [[United States]] ([http://patft.uspto.gov/netacgi/nph-Parser?u=/netahtml/srchnum.htm&Sect1=PTO1&Sect2=HITOFF&p=1&r=1&l=50&f=G&d=PALL&s1=5214703.WKU.&OS=PN/5214703&RS=PN/5214703 US patent #5,214,703]) and [[Japan]] (JP 3225440).
MediaCrypt is now also offering a successor to IDEA and focuses on its new cipher (official release on May 2005), IDEA NXT, which is in fact [[FOX (cipher)|FOX]].
==References==
* [[Joan Daemen|J. Daemen]], R. Govaerts, and J. Vandewalle, Weak keys for IDEA, Crypto '93. pp224–231.
* Hüseyin Demirci, Erkan Türe, Ali Aydin Selçuk, A New Meet in the Middle Attack on The IDEA Block Cipher, 10th Annual Workshop on Selected Areas in Cryptography, 2003.
* Xuejia Lai and James L. Massey, A Proposal for a New Block Encryption Standard, EUROCRYPT 1990, pp389–404
* Xuejia Lai and James L. Massey and S. Murphy, Markov ciphers and differential cryptanalysis, ''Advances in Cryptology — Eurocrypt <nowiki>'</nowiki>91'', Springer-Verlag (1992), pp17–38.
==External links==
* [http://www.rsasecurity.com/rsalabs/node.asp?id=2254 RSA FAQ on Block Ciphers]
* [http://www.mediacrypt.com/ Mediacrypt homepage] — IDEA licensor
* [http://www.users.zetnet.co.uk/hopwood/crypto/scan/cs.html#IDEA SCAN entry for IDEA]
* [http://home.ecn.ab.ca/~jsavard/crypto/co040302.htm John Savard's description of IDEA]
* [http://www.cs.ut.ee/~helger/crypto/link/block/idea.php Helger Lipmaa's links for IDEA]
{{Block_ciphers}}
[[Category:Block ciphers]]
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Indoor rower
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Johnteslade
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[[Image:Concept2_Indoor_Rowers.JPG|thumb|250px|A row of [[Concept2]] "Model C" indoor rowers]]
An '''indoor rower''' is a machine used to simulate the action of [[watercraft rowing]] for the purpose of exercise or training for rowing. Indoor Rowing has become established as a sport in its own right. The term also refers to a participant in this sport.
An indoor rower is also known as an '''ergometer''' (slang '''ergo''' or '''erg'''). An ergometer being a device which measures the amount of energy or work performed. The indoor rower is calibrated to measure the amount of energy the rower is generating. ''Ergometer'' comes from the [[Greek language|Greek]] word's ''ergon'', meaning ''work'' and ''metron'', meaning ''measure''. An ergometer therefore is a device that literally means "work measurer".
==Layout of the machine==
Although several simple machines exist for casual home use, there are three major models: [[RowPerfect]], [[WaterRower]] and [[Concept2]]. Of these the Concept2 is the most popular, and is generally considered the standard training option for world-class rowers. Each machine consists of a [[flywheel]] connected to a chain and handle. The rower pushes his body backwards with the legs and pulls on the handle, causing the flywheel to spin. The flywheel has a damping mechanism applied (using either air or water) that is intended to simulate the feel of an oar moving through water. Depending on the machine the rower either moves back and forth as part of the rowing action, or the rower remains stationary and the flywheel mechanism moves. The machines where the rower remains stationary are generally considered to better simulate the feel of a boat. The [[Rowbike]] is an outdoor rowing machine that is a hybrid of the Concept2 and a recumbent bicycle.
Concept2 machines features a digital performance monitor that can display the athlete's work output in watts, calories, or notional "meters" that are roughly calibrated to correspond to the speed of a four-man boat on the water. The standard measurement of speed on an ergometer is generally known as the "split," or the amount of time in minutes and seconds required to travel 500 meters at the current pace. For example, a 2:00 split would correspond to a 2:00 time for a 500 meter race, or an 8:00 time for a 2 kilometer race. The split does not necessarily correspond to how many strokes the rower takes (the "rating") since strokes can vary in power.
==Competitions==
Concept2 organizes a large number of indoor rowing competitions all over the world, including the world championships (a.k.a. [[CRASH-B Sprints]]) held in [[Boston, Massachusetts|Boston]], [[Massachusetts]], [[USA]] in February and the [[British Indoor Rowing Championships]] held in [[Birmingham]], [[England]] in November. The usual distance for competition is 2,000 m. The machines used are very consistent and although the resistance may be adjusted, a result on one machine can be fairly compared with results on other machines regardless of resistance level. The prevalence of Concept2 machines creates a standard which facilitates competition.
Indoor rowing is an inclusive sport, perhaps because indoor rowing has historically been used for fitness, training and self-improvement rather than as an independent form of competition. Despite increasing competitiveness in recent years, most major competitions include many categories based on age as well as weight. While the fastest times are generally achieved by rowers between 20 and 40 years old, teenagers and rowers over 90 are common at competitions. Inexperienced rowers as well as world class athletes are welcome.
The [[Rowing_World_Records#Indoor_Records|world records]] for 2,000 m are currently (as of [[December 2005]]) 5:37.0 for men and 6:28.4 for women. [http://www.concept2.co.uk/racing/records.php Full Records For All Distances]
==External links==
* [http://www.indoor-rowing.blogspot.com Indoor Rowing Blog by Xeno Muller Olympic Gold and Silver Medal Winner]
[[Category:Exercise equipment]]
[[Category:Rowing]]
[[de:Ergometer]]
IPX
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FlaBot
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'''Internetwork Packet Exchange''' ('''IPX''') is the [[OSI model|OSI-model]] [[Network layer|Network layer ]] [[Protocol_(computing)|protocol]] in the [[IPX/SPX]] [[protocol stack]].
The IPX/SPX protocol stack is supported by [[Novell, Inc.|Novell]]'s [[NetWare]] [[network operating system]]. Because of Netware's popularity through the late [[1980s]] into the mid [[1990s]], IPX became a popular [[internetworking]] protocol. Novell derived IPX from [[Xerox_Network_Services]]' IDP protocol.
IPX usage is in general decline as the boom of the [[Internet]] has made [[TCP/IP]] nearly universal. Computers and networks can run multiple [[network protocol]]s, so almost all IPX sites will be running TCP/IP as well to allow for Internet connectivity. It is also now possible to run Novell products without IPX, as they have supported both IPX and TCP/IP since NetWare reached version 5.
==IPX addressing==
* Logical networks are assigned a unique 32-bit [[hexadecimal]] address in the range of 0x1 - 0xFFFFFFFE.
* Hosts have a 48-bit node address which by default is set to the network interface card's [[MAC address]]. The node address is appended to the network address to create a unique identifier for the host on the network.
===Similarities with IP===
The IPX network address is conceptually identical to the network part of the [[IP address]] (the parts with [[netmask]] bits set to 1); the node address then has the same meaning as the bits of IP address with netmask bits set to 0. As the node address is usually identical to the MAC address of the network adapter, the [[Address Resolution Protocol]] is not needed.
For [[routing]], the entries in the IPX [[routing table]] are similar to IP routing tables; routing is done by network address, and for each network address a network:node of the next router is specified in a similar fashion an IP address/netmask is specified in IP routing tables.
===IPX over Ethernet===
IPX can be transmitted over Ethernet using one of the following 4 encapsulation types:
[[802.3]] (raw) is used in legacy systems and involves IPX data starting immediately after 802.3 frame header. The packet starts with Destination Ethernet Address (6 bytes), Source Ethernet Address (6 bytes), Frame Length (2 bytes) followed by IPX data. Latter always starts with two 0xFF bytes (Checksum field), and this can be used to differentiate this type of IPX encapsulation from next two types.
[[802.2]] (Novell) is comprised of 802.3 frame header (destination, source, length) followed by LLC header (3 bytes - 0xE0, 0xE0, 0x03) followed by IPX data. 0xE0 fields of LLC header stand for 'Novell' protocol.
[[802.2]] (SNAP) is comprised of 802.3 frame header, LLC header (3 bytes - 0xAA, 0xAA, 0x03), SNAP header (5 bytes - 0x00, 0x00, 0x00, 0x81, 0x37) and IPX data. 0xAA fields of LLC header stand for 'SNAP' protocol. First three bytes of SNAP header are [[Organizationally Unique Identifier|OUI]] followed by 2 bytes of IPX [[EtherType]].
[[Ethernet_II_framing|Ethernet II]] is comprised of Ethernet II frame header (Destination, Source, [[EtherType]]) followed by IPX data.
{{com-stub}}
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International human rights instruments
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'''International human rights instruments''' can be classified into two categories: '''declarations''', adopted by bodies such as the [[United Nations General Assembly]], which are not legally binding although they may be politically so; and '''conventions''', which are legally binding instruments concluded under international law.
International [[human rights]] instruments can be divided further into '''global instruments''', to which any state in the world can be a party, and '''regional instruments''', which are restricted to states in a particular region of the world.
Most conventions establish mechanisms to oversee their implementation.
In some cases these mechanisms have relatively little power, and are often ignored by member states; in other cases these mechanisms have great political and legal authority, and their decisions are almost always implemented.
Examples of the first case include the UN treaty committees, while the best exemplar of the second case is the [[European Court of Human Rights]].
Mechanisms also vary as to the degree of individual access to them.
Under some conventions – e.g. the [[European Convention on Human Rights]] (as it currently exists) – individuals are permitted automatically to take individual cases to the enforcement mechanisms; under most, however, (e.g. the UN conventions) individual access is contingent on the acceptance of that right by each state party, either by a declaration at the time of ratification or accession, or through ratification of or accession to a protocol to the convention.
== Declarations ==
*[[Universal Declaration of Human Rights]] ([[United Nations|UN]], [[1948]])
*[[American Declaration of the Rights and Duties of Man]] ([[Organization of American States|OAS]], [[1948]])
== Conventions ==
=== Global ===
*[[International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights]] (ICCPR)
*[[International Covenant on Economic, Social, and Cultural Rights]] (ICESCR)
*[[Convention on the Rights of the Child]] (CRC)
*[[United Nations Convention Against Torture|Convention Against Torture]] (CAT)
*[[Convention on the Elimination of All Forms of Racial Discrimination]] (ICERD)
*[[Convention on the Elimination of All Forms of Discrimination Against Women]] (CEDAW)
*[[International Convention on the Protection of the Rights of All Migrant Workers and Members of Their Families]] (MWC)
*[[Convention on the Prevention and Punishment of the Crime of Genocide]]
=== Regional: Africa ===
*[[African Charter on Human and Peoples' Rights]]
=== Regional: America ===
*[[American Convention on Human Rights]]
*[[Inter-American Convention to Prevent and Punish Torture]]
*[[Inter-American Convention on Forced Disappearance of Persons]]
*[[Inter-American Convention on the Prevention, Punishment, and Eradication of Violence against Women]]
*[[Inter-American Convention on the Elimination of All Forms of Discrimination against Persons with Disabilities]]
=== Regional: Europe ===
*[[European Convention on Human Rights]]
*[[European Convention on Torture]]
*[[European Social Charter]]
== See also ==
*[[Universal jurisdiction]]
*[[International Criminal Court]] (established in 2002)
[[Category:Human rights instruments]][[Category:International law]]
Indian Removal
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'''Indian Removal''' was a [[nineteenth century]] policy of the government of the [[United States]] that sought to relocate [[American Indians in the United States|American Indian]] (or "Native American") tribes living east of the [[Mississippi River]] to lands west of the river. In the decades following the [[American Revolution]], the desire for more land by the rapidly increasing population of the United States resulted in numerous treaties in which lands were purchased from Native Americans. Eventually, the U.S. government began encouraging Indian tribes to sell their land by offering them land in the [[Western United States|West]], outside the boundaries of the then-existing U.S. states, where the tribes could resettle. This process was accelerated with the passage of the [[Indian Removal Act]] of [[1830]], which provided funds for President [[Andrew Jackson]] to conduct land-exchange ("removal") treaties. An estimated 100,000 American Indians eventually relocated in the West as a result of this policy, most of them emigrating during the 1830s, settling in what was known as the "[[Indian territory]]."{{fn|1}}
Contrary to some modern misconceptions (and misrepresentations), the Removal Act did not order the forced removal of any Native Americans, nor did President Jackson ever publicly advocate forced removal. In theory, Indian Removal was supposed to be voluntary, and many American Indians did indeed remain in the East. In practice, however, the Jackson administration put great pressure on tribal leaders to sign removal treaties. This pressure created bitter divisions within American Indian nations, as different tribal leaders advocated different responses to the question of removal. Sometimes, U.S. government officials ignored tribal leaders who resisted signing removal treaties and dealt with those who favored removal. The [[Treaty of New Echota]], for example, was signed by a faction of prominent [[Cherokee]]s leaders, but not by the elected tribal leadership. The terms of the treaty were aggressively enforced by President [[Martin Van Buren]], which resulted in the unintentional deaths of an estimated 4,000 Cherokees (mostly from disease) on the [[Trail of Tears]]. The [[Choctaw]] tribe also suffered greatly from disease during removal.{{fn|2}}
The suffering which resulted from Indian Removal was aggravated by poor administration, inadequate measures taken to provide for the emigrants, and failure to protect Indian legal rights before and after emigration. Most American Indians reluctantly but peacefully complied with the terms of the removal treaties, often with bitter resignation. Some groups, however, went to war to resist the implementation of removal treaties. This resulted in two short wars (the [[Black Hawk War]] of 1832 and the [[Second Creek War]] of 1836), as well as the long and costly [[Second Seminole War]] (1835-1842).
==Background==
Since the presidency of [[Thomas Jefferson]], America's policy had been to allow Indians to remain east of the Mississippi as long as they became [[Assimilation (sociology)|assimilated]] or "civilized." They were to settle in one place, farm the land, divide communal land into private property, and adopt democracy.
==Indian Removal in the South==
In 1830, the so-called "[[Five Civilized Tribes]]" — the [[Chickasaw]], [[Choctaw]], [[Creek people|Creek]], [[Seminole]], and [[Cherokee]] — were still living east of the Mississippi. They were called "civilized" because many tribesmen had adopted various aspects of [[European-American]] culture, including [[Christianity]]. The Cherokees had a system of writing their own language, developed by [[Sequoyah]], and published a newspaper in Cherokee and English.
In spite of this [[acculturation]], the position of the tribes was not secure. Some felt the presence of the tribes was a threat to peace and security, since many Native Americans had fought against the United States in previous wars, often armed by foreign nations such as Great Britain and Spain. Other white settlers and land speculators simply desired the land that was occupied by the tribes.
Accordingly, governments of the various U.S. states desired that all tribal lands within their boundaries be placed under state jurisdiction. In [[1830]], [[Georgia (U.S. state)|Georgia]] passed a law which prohibited whites from living on Indian territory after March 31, 1831 without a license from the state. This law was written to justify removing white missionaries who were helping the Indians resist removal. Missionary organizer [[Jeremiah Evarts]] urged the Cherokee Nation to take their case to the [[Supreme Court of the United States|U.S. Supreme Court]]. The [[John Marshall|Marshall court]] ruled that while Indian tribes were not sovereign nations (''[[Cherokee Nation v. Georgia]]'', [[1831]]), state laws had no force on tribal lands (''[[Worcester v. Georgia]]'', [[1832]]). President Andrew Jackson is often quoted as having responded to the court by defiantly proclaiming, "John Marshall has made his decision. Now let him enforce it!" Jackson probably did not say this, although he was criticized (then and since) for making no effort to protect the tribes from state governments.{{fn|3}}
Andrew Jackson and other candidates of the new [[United States Democratic Party|Democratic Party]] had made Indian Removal a major goal in the campaign of [[1828]]. In 1830, Congress passed the [[Indian Removal Act]] and President Jackson signed it into law. The Removal Act provided for the government to negotiate removal treaties with the various tribes. The [[Treaty of Dancing Rabbit Creek]] with the Choctaw was the first such removal treaty implemented; while around 7,000 Choctaws ultimately stayed in Mississippi, about 14,000 moved along the [[Red River (Mississippi watershed)|Red River]]. Other treaties, like the dubious [[Treaty of New Echota]] with the Cherokee, followed, resulting in the [[Trail of Tears]].
As a result, the five tribes were resettled in the new [[Indian Territory]] in modern-day [[Oklahoma]] and parts of [[Kansas]]. Some Indians eluded removal, while those who lived on individually owned land (rather than tribal domains) were not subject to removal. Those who stayed behind eventually formed tribal groups including the Eastern Band Cherokee, based in [[North Carolina]].
In 1835, the Seminoles refused to leave [[Florida]], leading to the [[Second Seminole War]]. The most important leader in the war was [[Osceola]], who led the Seminoles in their fight against removal. Hiding in the [[Everglades]] of Florida, Osceola and his band used surprise attacks to defeat the U.S. Army in many battles. In 1837, Osceola was tricked into capture when he came to negotiate peace during a truce. He died in prison. The Seminoles continued to fight. Some traveled deeper into the Everglades, while others moved west. The Second Seminole War ended in 1842, when the United States won.
In [[1835]], almost 15,000 [[Creek people|Creeks]] were forcibly moved from [[Alabama]] and Georgia to the [[Canadian River]] Indian Territory.
The majority of the Chickasaw tribe was deported to Indian Territory in the 1830s.
<big>'''Southern Removals'''</font><br>
{| class="wikitable"
!bgcolor="#FFEBAD"|Nation
!bgcolor="#FFEBAD"|Population east of the Mississippi before removal treaty
!bgcolor="#FFEBAD"|Removal treaty<br>(year signed)
!bgcolor="#FFEBAD"|Years of major emigration
!bgcolor="#FFEBAD"|Total number emigrated or forcibly removed
!bgcolor="#FFEBAD"|Number stayed in Southeast
!bgcolor="#FFEBAD"|Deaths during removal
!bgcolor="#FFEBAD"|Deaths from warfare
|-
|[[Choctaw]]
|19,554 {{fn|(a)}}
|[[Treaty of Dancing Rabbit Creek|Dancing Rabbit Creek (1830)]]
|1831-1836
|12,500
|7,000 {{fn|(b)}}
|2,000-4,000+ ([[Cholera]])
|n/a
|-
|[[Creek (people)|Creek]]
|22,700 + 900 black slaves {{fn|(c)}}
|[[Treaty of Cusseta|Cusseta (1832)]]
|1834-1837
|19,600 {{fn|(d)}}
|?
|3,500 (disease after removal){{fn|(e)}}
|? ([[Second Creek War]])
|-
|[[Chickasaw]]
| 4,914 + 1,156 black slaves
|[[Treaty of Pontotoc Creek|Pontotoc Creek (1832)]]
|1837-1847
|over 4,000
|hundreds
|a few from disease
|n/a
|-
|[[Cherokee]]
|21,500 <br>+ 2,000 black slaves
|[[Treaty of New Echota|New Echota(1835)]]
|1836-1838
|20,000 + 2,000 slaves
|1,000
|2,000-8,000
|n/a
|-
|[[Seminole]]
|5,000 + fugitive slaves
|[[Treaty of Payne's Landing|Payne's Landing (1832)]]
|1832-1842
|2,833 {{fn|(f)}}
|250-500 {{fn|(g)}}
|
|700 ([[Second Seminole War]])
|}
<div style="font-size: 85%">
''Many figures have been rounded.''<br>
{{fnb|(a)}} Foreman, p. 47 n.10 (1830 census).<br>
{{fnb|(a)}} Several thousand more emigrated West from 1844-49; Foreman, pp. 103-4.<br>
{{fnb|(c)}} Foreman, p. 111 (1832 census).<br>
{{fnb|(d)}} Remini, p. 272.<br>
{{fnb|(e)}} Russell Thornton, "Demography of the Trail of Tears", p.85.<br>
{{fnb|(f)}} Prucha, p. 233.<br>
{{fnb|(g)}} Low figure from Prucha, p. 233; high from Wallace, p. 101.<br>
</div>
==Indian Removal in the North==
Some tribes north of the [[Ohio River]] also resisted relocation. The [[Shawnee]], [[Ottawa]], [[Potawatomi]], [[Sauk]], and [[Fox]] were removed to the [[Indian Territory]]. In 1832, a Sauk chief named [[Black Hawk (chief)|Black Hawk]] led a band of Sauk and Fox back to their lands in Illinois. In the [[Black Hawk War]], the U.S. Army and Illinois militia defeated Black Hawk and his army.
==See also==
* [[Population history of American indigenous peoples]]
* [[Ethnic cleansing]]
* [[Population transfer]]
==Notes==
* {{fnb|1}} 100,000 American Indians: Russell Thornton, "The Demography of the Trail of Tears Period", in Anderson, p. 75.
* {{fnb|2}} Jackson never publicly advocated forced removal: Wallace, p._. Ronald N. Satz in "Rhetoric Versus Reality: The Indian Policy of Andrew Jackson" lists some published works that "have erroneously argued or implied that emigration to the West was obligatory for all eastern Indians under the terms of the Removal Act itself", p. 31, p. 47n.13.
* {{fnb|3}} Remini, page 257.
==References==
*Anderson, William L., ed. ''Cherokee Removal: Before and After''. Athens, Georgia: University of Georgia Press, 1991. ISBN 0-8203-1482-X.
*Ehle, John. ''Trail of Tears: The Rise and Fall of the Cherokee Nation''. New York: Doubleday, 1988. ISBN 038523953X.
*Foreman, Grant. ''Indian Removal: The Emigration of the Five Civilized Tribes of Indians''. Norman, Oklahoma: University of Oklahoma Press, 1932, 11th printing 1989. ISBN 0806111720.
*Prucha, Francis Paul. ''The Great Father: The United States Government and the American Indians''. Volume I. Lincoln, Nebraska: University of Nebraska Press, 1984. ISBN 0803236689.
* [[Remini, Robert V.]] ''Andrew Jackson and his Indian Wars''. New York: Viking, 2001. ISBN 0670910252.
*Thornton, Russell. ''American Indian Holocaust and Survival: A Population History Since 1492''. Norman, Oklahoma: University of Oklahoma Press, 1987. ISBN 0806120746.
*Wallace, Anthony F.C. ''The Long, Bitter Trail: Andrew Jackson and the Indians''. New York: Hill and Wang, 1993. ISBN 0809015528 (paperback); ISBN 0809066319 (hardback).
==External links==
* [http://www.pbs.org/wgbh/aia/part4/4p2959.html PBS article on Indian Removal]
* [http://www.synaptic.bc.ca/ejournal/jackson.htm Critical Resources: Text of the Removal Act and other documents.]
* [http://www.digitalhistory.uh.edu/database/article_display.cfm?HHID=638 Indian Removal from ''Digital History'' by S. Mintz]
[[Category:Native American history]]
[[Category:Legal history of the United States]]
[[Category:Forced migration]]
[[Category:History of United States expansionism]]
[[Category:Cherokee tribe]]
Green Party (Ireland)
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{{Infobox_Irish_Political_Party |
party_name = Green Party|
party_articletitle = {{PAGENAME}}|
party_logo = [[Image:Irishgreenlogo.png|150px]] |
leader = [[Trevor Sargent]] |
foundation = [[1981]] |
ideology = [[Green politics|Green]] |
international = [[Global Greens]] |
european = [[European Green Party]] |
europarl = n/a |
colours = [[Green]] and [[Gold]]|
headquarters = 16-17 Suffolk Street,<br> [[Dublin]] 2 |
website = [http://www.greenparty.ie/ http://www.greenparty.ie/]
}}
The '''Green Party/Comhaontas Glas''' was founded as the Ecology Party of Ireland in [[1981]] by Dublin teacher Christopher Fettes. It became the Green Alliance in 1983 and in 1987 was renamed to its current title. It has succeeded in getting candidates elected to all levels of government; local, [[Dáil Éireann|Dáil]] and [[European Parliament]]. The [[Republic of Ireland]] has a system of [[proportional representation]] called the [[Single Transferable Vote]], which gives smaller parties, such as the Green Party, more opportunity to gain representation.
The parties first electoral outing was in November 1982, when they won 02.% of the vote in the [[Irish general election, 1982|general election of 1982]]. After changing their name, they contested the 1984 European Parliament, with their party founder winning 1.9% in the Dublin constituency. The following year they won their first election when Marcus Counihan was elected to Killarney Urban District Council during the 1985 Local Elections. The party nationally ran 34 candidates and won 0.6% of the vote. The party continued to struggle until the [[Irish general election, 1989|general election of 1989]] when the again renamed party win its first seat in the national parliament, the Dáil, when Roger Garland was elected in Dublin South.
However, it was not until the [[Irish general election, 2002|general election of 2002]] when it made a breakthrough, getting 6 [[Teachta Dála|TD]]s (Members of Parliament) elected to the Dáil. However, in the [[European Parliament election, 2004| election to the European Parliament of June 2004]], the party lost both of the European Parliament seats which it had won in [[European Parliament election, 1994|1994]] and retained in [[European Parliament election, 1999| 1999]]. It has had little success at local level, winning only 18 seats out of 878 in the local elections of 2004. Nonetheless, this was a doubling of its 9 won in 1999. Its new councillors include [[Niall Ó Brolcháin]], elected in Galway City and [[J.J. Power]], elected in Naas, representing a small breakout from its perceived Dublin base.
Arguably, the Green Party's best-known politicians are its leader [[Trevor Sargent]], party chairman [[John Gormley]], and [[Eamon Ryan]], who attempted in 2004 to gain a nomination for election as [[President of Ireland]]. The other Green Party TDs are [[Ciarán Cuffe]], [[Paul Gogarty]] and [[Dan Boyle (politician)|Dan Boyle]]. The Green Party's deputy leader is Councillor [[Mary White (Green Party politician|Mary White]].
The Green Party has strong links with its counterpart in [[Northern Ireland]], the [[Green Party in Northern Ireland]], which has had much more limited electoral success. Although it is a member of the [[European Federation of Green Parties]], the Irish Green Party has adopted a notably more [[eurosceptic]] stance than is usually articulated by the Federation.
{{Greens}}
The Green Party also has a youth wing, know as '''the Young Greens''', which has several hundred members in branches throughout the country. Founded in 2002, it campaigns for protection of the environment, human rights and more funding for education. It is closely associated with youth members of the Northern Ireland Green Party. In 2004 it became associated with the [[Federation of Young European Greens]].
At the 2005 National Convention, party delegates voted overwhelming not to enter a pre-election pact with the other main opposition parties [[Fine Gael]] and [[Irish Labour Party|Labour]]. Their reasoning for this was that participation in such an alliance would drown out their voice and deprive them of vital transfers from other left-wing parties, most notably [[Sinn Féin]]. Opinion polls typically put the Greens at between 4% and 7%.
As the 2007 General Election approaches, the party is targeting fifteen constituencies with the aim of winning at least seven seats, giving the status of a full political grouping in [[Dáil Eireann]]. However, few political commentators have predicted that the Greens are in line for electoral gains, with many suggesting that up to five of their current seats are at risk. More positively for the party, however, support remains clustered in certain geographical areas, principally urban constituencies, which could help the party retain and gain seats.
==External links==
*[http://www.greenparty.ie/ Green Party Official website]
*[http://www.younggreens.ie/ Young Greens Official website]
{{Political parties in Ireland}}
{{Green Parties}}
[[Category:Green political parties]]
[[Category:Republic of Ireland political parties]]
[[de:Green Party (Irland)]]
Information Science
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#REDIRECT [[Library and information science]]
Iconoclasm
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/* Reformation iconoclasm */
[[Image:Iconoclasm.jpg|thumb|Illustration of the ''Beeldenstorm'' during the [[History of religion in the Netherlands#Reformation and counter-reformation|Dutch reformation]]]]
Iconoclasm is the destruction of [[religion|religious]] [[icon]]s and other symbols or monuments, usually for [[religious]] or political motives. In Christian circles, iconoclasm has generally been motivated by a literal interpretation of the second of the [[ten commandments]], which forbids the making and worshipping of "graven images". It has sometimes been motivated by [[christological]] or even political concerns as well.
People who engage in such practices are called '''[[iconoclast]]s''', a term that has come to be applied to any person who breaks or disdains established dogmas or conventions. Conversely, people who revere or venerate religious images are called '''[[iconodules]]'''.
Iconoclasms can be carried out by people of a different religion, but are often the result of sectarian disputes between factions of the same religion.
Iconoclasm was a cultural product of the [[Russian Revolution of 1917]], and numerous (mainly peasant) revolts throughout history.
== Byzantine iconoclasm ==
A thorough understanding of the Iconoclastic Period in Byzantium is complicated by the circumstance that much of what exists as accounts and arguments of the time comes to us through the filter of the writings of the ultimate victor in the controversy: Pope Julius II, Warrior Pope, Keeper of Light. It is thus difficult to obtain a complete, objective, balanced, and reliably accurate account of events and various aspects of the controversy.
=== The first iconoclastic period: 730-787 ===
Sometime between 726-730 the Byzantine Emperor [[Leo III]] the Syrian or "Isaurian," (reigned 717-741; born in eastern Turkey) ordered the removal of an image of Jesus prominently placed over the palace gate of Constantinople. At least some of those assigned to the task were murdered by a band of iconodules (see Theophanes, ''Chronographia''). Writings suggest that at least part of the reason for the removal may have been military reversals against the muslims and the eruption of the volcanic island of [[Thera]], which Leo possibly viewed as evidence of the wrath of God brought on by image veneration in the Church (according to accounts by Patriarch Nikephoros and the chronicler Theophanes). Leo is said to have described image veneration as "a craft of idolatry." He apparently forbade the worship of religious images in a 730 edict, which did not apply to other forms of art, including the image of the emperor, or even religious symbols such as the cross. "He saw no need to consult the church, and he appears to have been surprised by the depth of the popular opposition he encountered" (Warren Treadgold, ''A History of the Byzantine State and Society'', Stanford University Press, 1997).
[[Germanus I of Constantinople]], the iconodule [[Patriarch of Constantinople]], either resigned or was deposed following the ban; letters Germanus wrote at the time say little of theology. "What worries Germanos is that the banning of images would only prove that the Church had been in error for a long time and so play into the hands of Jews and Muslims" (The Oxford History of Byzantium: Iconoclasm, Patricia Karlin-Hayter, Oxford University Press, 2002.) In the Western part of the Byzantine empire, [[Pope Gregory III]] held two synods at Rome and condemned Leo's actions, with the result that Leo seized some papal lands. During this initial period concern on both sides seems to have had little to do with theology and more with practical evidence and effects. Icon veneration was forbidden simply because Leo saw it as a violation of the biblical commandment forbidding making and venerating images. There was initially no church council or prominent patriarch or bishop calling for the removal or destruction of icons. During the destruction or obscuring of images, Leo "''confiscated valuable church plate, altar cloths, and reliquaries decorated with religious figures''" (''History of the Byzantine State and Society'', Warren Treadgold, Stanford University Press, 1997), but took no severe action against the former patriarch or iconophile bishops.
Leo died in 740, but his ban on icons was dogmatically confirmed under his son [[Constantine V]] (741-775) who summoned a council in Hieria in 754 ("the Iconoclast Council") in which some 330 to 340 bishops participated. This council became known as a Robber Council due to its uncanonical nature. Edward J. Martin writes (''A History of the Iconoclastic Controversy'' , p.46), "On the ecumenical character of the Council there are graver doubts. Its president was Theodosius, archbishop of Ephesus, son of the Emperor Apsimar. He was supported by Sisinnius, bishop of Perga, also known as Pastillas, and by Basil of Antioch in Pisidia, styled Tricaccabus. Not a single Patriarch was present. The see of Constantinople was vacant. Whether the Pope and the Patriarchs of Alexandria, Antioch, and Jerusalem were invited or not is unknown. They were not present either in person or by deputy. The Council of Nicaea [II] considered this was a serious flaw in the legitimacy of the Council. 'It had not the co-operation of the Roman Pope of the period nor of his clergy, either by representative or by encyclical letter, as the law of Councils requires.' [citing [[J. D. Mansi]], XIII, 207d] The -Life of Stephen- borrows this objection from the Acts and embroiders it to suit the spirit of the age of Theodore. It had not the approval of the Pope of Rome, although there is a canon that no ecclesiastical measures may be passed without the Pope.' [citing Vit Steph, 1144c] The absence of the other Patriarchs is then noticed [Mansi above]."
The Iconoclast Council of Hieria was not the end of the matter, however. In this period complex theological arguments appeared, both for and against the use of icons. The monasteries were strongholds of icon veneration, and an underground network of iconodules was organized among monks. One Syrian monk, [[John of Damascus]], was the major opponent of iconoclasm through his theological writings. Another, [[Theodore the Studite]], wrote a letter against the emperor to Pope Paschal, an act with strong political implications. In a response recalling the later Protestant Reformation, Constantine moved against the monasteries, had relics thrown into the sea, and stopped the invocation of saints. Constantine's son, Leo IV (775-80) was less rigorous, trying to conciliate factions until near the end of his life, when he took severe measures against images and would have banned his secretly icon-venerating Athenian wife, Irene. But before that happened he died, and Irene took power as regent for her son, Constantine VI (780-97). With Irene's ascension as regent, the first Iconoclastic Period came to an end.
Irene initiated a new ecumenical council, ultimately called the [[Second Council of Nicaea]], which first met in Constantinople in 786 but was disrupted by military units faithful to the iconoclast legacy; it convened again at Nicea in [[787]] and reversed the decrees of the previous iconoclast council held at Constantinope and Hieria, and appropriated its title as [[Seventh Ecumenical Council]]. So there were two councils called the "Seventh Ecumenical Council," the first supporting iconoclasm, the second supporting icon veneration and negating the first. The decrees of this council, unlike those of the iconoclast council, were approved by the papacy. Eastern Orthodoxy today considers it the last genuine ecumenical council. Icon veneration lasted through the reign of [[Byzantine Empress Irene | Empress Irene]]'s successor, [[Nicephorus I]] (reigned 802-811), and the two brief reigns after his.
=== The second iconoclastic period: 814-842 ===
Emperor [[Leo V]] (reigned 813–820) instituted a second period of Iconoclasm in [[813]], again possibly moved in part by military failures seen as indicative of divine displeasure. Leo was succeeded by [[Michael II]], who in an 824 letter to Louis the Pious lamented the appearance of image veneration in the church and such practices as making icons baptismal [[Godparent|godfather]]s to infants. He confirmed the decrees of the Iconoclast Council of 754.
Michael was succeeded by his son, [[Theophilus (emperor)|Theophilus]]. Theophilus died leaving his wife [[Theodora, wife of Theophilus | Theodora]] regent for his minor heir, [[Michael III]]. Like Irene 50 years before her, Theodora mobilized the iconodules and proclaimed the restoration of icons in 843. Since that time the first Sunday of [[Lent]] is celebrated in the churches of the Orthodox tradition as the feast of the "Triumph of Orthodoxy".
===Issues in Byzantine Iconoclasm=== [[Image:Khludov.gif|thumb|225px|In this page of the [[Chludov Psalter]], the anti-Iconoclast minuaturist illustrated the line "They gave me gall to eat; and when I was thirsty they gave me vinegar to drink" with a picture of a soldier offering Christ vinegar on a sponge attached to a pole. Below is a picture of an Iconoclast deleting the image of Christ with a similar sponge attached to a pole.]]
What accounts of iconoclast arguments remain are largely found in iconodule writings. To understand iconoclastic arguments, one must note the main points:
# Iconoclasm condemned the making of any lifeless image (e.g. painting or statue) that was intended to represent Jesus or one of the saints. The Epitome of the Definition of the Iconoclastic Conciliabulum held in 754 declared: "Supported by the Holy Scriptures and the Fathers, we declare unanimously, in the name of the Holy Trinity, that there shall be rejected and removed and cursed one of the Christian Church every likeness which is made out of any material and colour whatever by the evil art of painters.... If anyone ventures to represent the divine image (karakthr) of the Word after the Incarnation with material colours, let him be anathema! .... If anyone shall endeavour to represent the forms of the Saints in lifeless pictures with material colours which are of no value (for this notion is vain and introduced by the devil), and does not rather represent their virtues as living images in himself, let him be anathema!"
# For iconoclasts, the only real religious image must be an exact likeness of the prototype--of the same substance--which they considered impossible, seeing wood and paint as empty of spirit and life. Thus for iconoclasts the only true (and permitted) "icon" of Jesus was the Eucharist, which was believed to be his actual body and blood.
# Any true image of Jesus must be able to represent both his divine nature (which is impossible because it cannot be seen nor encompassed) and his human nature (which is possible). But by making an icon of Jesus, one is separating his human and divine natures, since only the human can be depicted (separating the natures was considered Nestorianism), or else confusing the human and divine natures, considering them one (union of the human and divine natures was considered Monophysitism).
# Icon use for religious purposes was viewed as an innovation in the Church, a Satanic misleading of Christians to return to pagan practice. "''Satan misled men, so that they worshipped the creature instead of the Creator. The Law of Moses and the Prophets cooperated to remove this ruin...But the previously mentioned demiurge of evil...gradually brought back idolatry under the appearance of Christianity.''" (''Epitome'', Iconoclast Council at Hieria, 754) It was also seen as a departure from ancient church tradition, of which there was a written record opposing religious images.
The chief theological opponents of iconoclasm were the monks Mansur ([[John of Damascus]]), who, living in Muslim territory as advisor to the Caliph of Damascus, was far enough away from the Byzantine emperor to evade retribution, and [[Theodore the Studite]], who lived within the Empire.
John declared that he did not venerate matter, "but rather the creator of matter." However he also declared, "But I also venerate the matter through which salvation came to me, as if filled with divine energy and grace." He includes in this latter category the ink in which the gospels were written as well as the paint of images, the wood of the Cross, and the body and blood of Jesus.
The iconodule response to iconoclasm included:
# Assertion that the biblical commandment forbidding images of God had been superseded by the incarnation of Jesus, who, being the second person of the Trinity, is God incarnate in visible matter. Therefore, they were not depicting the invisible God, but God as He appeared in the flesh. This became an attempt to shift the issue of the incarnation in their favor, whereas the iconoclasts had used the issue of the incarnation against them.
# Further, in their view idols depicted persons without substance or reality while icons depicted real persons. Essentially the argument was "all religious images not of our faith are idols; all images of our faith are icons to be venerated." This was considered comparable to the Old Testament practice of only offering burnt sacrifices to God, and not to any other gods.
# Regarding the written tradition opposing the making and veneration of images, they asserted that icons were part of unrecorded oral tradition (''parádosis'', sanctioned in Orthodoxy as authoritative in doctrine by reference to [[2 Thessalonians]] 2:15, [[Basil the Great]], etc.).
# Iconodules further argued that decisions such as whether icons ought to be venerated were properly made by the church assembled in council, not imposed on the church by an emperor. Thus the issue also involved the issue of the proper relationship between church and state. Related to this was the observation that it was foolish to deny to God the same honor that was freely given to the human emperor.
Emperors had always intervened in ecclesiastical matters since the time of Constantine I; as Cyril Mango writes, "The legacy of Nicaea, the first universal council of the Church, was to bind the emperor to something that was not his concern, namely the definition and imposition of orthodoxy, if need be by force" (Oxford History of Byzantium, 2002). That practice continued from beginning to end of the Iconoclastic controversy and beyond, with some emperors enforcing iconoclasm, and two empresses regent enforcing the re-establishment of icon veneration. One distinction between the iconoclastic emperors and Constantine I is that the latter did not dictate the conclusion of the First Council of Nicaea before summoning it, whereas Leo III began enforcing a policy of iconoclasm more than twenty years before the Council of Hieria would endorse it.
== Islamic and Buddhist iconoclasm ==
Because of the prohibition against figural decoration in mosques — not, as is often said, a total ban on the use of images — some Muslim groups have on occasion committed acts of iconoclasm against the devotional images of other religions. A recent example of this is the 2001 destruction of [[fresco]]es and the [[Taliban#Buddhas_of_Bamiyan | monumental statues of the Buddha]] at [[Bamiyan Province|Bamiyan]] by a radical sect and nationalist group, the [[Taliban]].
Historically, despite a religious prohibition on destroying or converting houses of worship, conquering Muslim armies would use local temples or houses of worship as mosques. An example is the [[Hagia Sophia]], Church of the Holy Wisdom, in [[Istanbul]], formerly [[Constantinople]] which was converted into a mosque in [[1453]], when its mosaics were covered with plaster instead of being destroyed. The [[Dome of the Rock]] in [[Jerusalem]] was built on top of the remains of the Jewish [[Temple in Jerusalem]].
Similar acts of iconoclasm occurred in parts of north Africa.
In [[India]], a number of former Buddhist monasteries and Hindu temples were conquered and rebuilt as mosques. In recent years, right-wing Hindu nationalists have torn down some of these mosques, such as the famous [[Babri Mosque | Babri Masjid]], and attempted to replace them with Hindu Temples.
== Reformation iconoclasm ==
Some of the [[Protestantism|Protestant]] reformers encouraged their followers to destroy [[Christian]] art works by insisting that they were idols. [[Huldrych Zwingli]] and [[John Calvin]] promoted this approach to the adaptation of earlier buildings for Protestant worship. In [[1562]], some Calvinists destroyed the tomb of St. [[Irenaeus]] and the relics inside, which are said to have been under the altar of a church since his martyrdom in [[202]], though iconoclastic riots took place in [[Zürich]] (in [[1523]]), [[Copenhagen]] ([[1530]]), [[Münster]] ([[1534]]), [[Geneva]] ([[1535]]), [[Augsburg]] ([[1537]]) and [[Scotland]] ([[1559]]).
The [[Seventeen Provinces]] (now the [[Netherlands]] and [[Belgium]]) were hit by a large wave of Protestant iconoclasm in the summer of [[1566]]. This is called the ''Beeldenstorm'' and included such acts as the destruction of the statuary of the Monastery of [[Saint Lawrence]] in [[Steenvoorde]] after a ''[[Hagenpreek]]'', or field sermon, by Sebastiaan Matte; and the sacking of the Monastery of [[Saint Anthony]] after a sermon by Jacob de Buysere. The ''Beeldenstorm'' marked the start of the [[Eighty Years' War|revolution]] against the Spanish forces and the Catholic church. See [[Flanders]] for more on its history.
In [[England]], Bishop Joseph Hall of [[Norwich]] described the events of [[1643]] when troops and citizens, encouraged by a Parliamentary ordinance against superstition and [[idolatry]], behaved thus:
:'Lord what work was here! What clattering of glasses! What beating down of walls! What tearing up of monuments! What pulling down of seats! What wresting out of irons and brass from the windows! What defacing of arms! What demolishing of curious stonework! What tooting and piping upon organ pipes! And what a hideous triumph in the market-place before all the country, when all the mangled organ pipes, vestments, both copes and surplices, together with the leaden cross which had newly been sawn down from the Green-yard pulpit and the service-books and singing books that could be carried to the fire in the public market-place were heaped together'.
==See also==
*[[aniconism]]
*[[Iconography]]
*[[Buddhas of Bamiyan]]
*[[Censorship by organized religion]]
==External links==
*[http://www.theandros.com/iconoclast.html What Was the Iconoclast Controversy About?]
*[http://www.helleniccomserve.com/victory_of_icons.html An Eastern Orthodox perspective]
[[Category:Christianity]]
[[Category:Byzantine Empire]]
[[Category:Eighty Years' War]]
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[[es:Iconoclasta]]
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[[ko:성상파괴운동]]
[[nl:Iconoclasme]]
[[ja:聖像破壊運動]]
[[pl:Ikonoklazm]]
[[pt:Iconoclastia]]
[[ru:Иконоборчество]]
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#REDIRECT [[Industrial Workers of the World]]
Imbolc
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'''Imbolc''' is one of the four principal festivals of the pre-Christian [[Celtic calendar]], associated with fertility ritual, was subsequently adopted as [[Brigid of Ireland|St Brigid's Day]] in the Christian period, and in more recent times has been celebrated as a fire festival, one of eight holidays, festivals (4 Solar and 4 Fire/lunar) or [[Sabbat (neopaganism)|sabbat]]s of the [[Neopaganism|Neopagan]] [[wheel of the year]]. Imbolc is arguably one of the predecessors of the Christian holiday of [[Candlemas]].
Imbolc is conventionally celebrated on [[1 February]] although the Celtic festival commenced on [[January 31]]. In more recent times the occasion has been generally celebrated by modern pagans on Feb. 1 or 2. Some neopagans relate this celebration to the midpoint between the [[winter solstice]] and spring [[equinox]], which actually falls on Feb. 4 or 5.
==Celtic origins==
Evidence of how Imbolc was celebrated in Ireland derives from folklore collected during the 19th and early 20th century in rural Ireland and Scotland, compared with studies of similar customs in Scandinavia. Like other festivals of the Celtic calendar in [[Irish mythology]], Imbolc was celebrated on the eve of [[1 February]], which marked the beginning of the day according to Celtic custom.
The festival was traditionally associated with the onset of lactation of ewes, soon to give birth to the spring lambs. This could vary by as much as two weeks before or after the start of February.
The name, in the Irish language, means "in the belly" (''i mbolg''), referring to the pregnancy of ewes, and is also a Celtic term for spring. Another name is '''Oimelc''', meaning "ewe's milk"; also [[Brigid]], referring to the Celtic [[goddess]] of [[smith]]craft, to whom the day is sacred.
That Imbolc was an important time to the ancient inhabitants of Ireland can be seen at the [[Mound of the Hostages]] in [[Tara, Ireland]]. Here, the inner chamber is perfecty aligned with the rising sun of both Imbolc and [[Samhain]].
The holiday is a festival of light, reflecting the lengthening of the day and the hope of spring. It is traditional to light all the lamps of the house for a few minutes on Imbolc, and rituals often involve a great deal of [[candle]]s.
==St. Brigid's day==
In the modern [[Irish Calendar]], Imbolc is variously known as the Feast of St. [[Brigid of Ireland|Brigid]] (Secondary Patron of Ireland) and Lá Feabhra - the first day of [[Spring (season)|Spring]].
One view is that Christianity in an attempt to reconcile the popularity of this festival with its own traditions, took over the feast of Imbolc and effectively redesignated it as St Brigid's day.
One folk tradition that continues in both Christian and Pagan home on St. Brigid's Day (or Imbolc) is that of the Brigid's Bed. The young girls of the household or village create a corn dolly, adorning it with ribbons and baubles. The older women then make a bed for Bridig to lay in. On St. Brigid's Eve (Jan. 31), the young women gather together in one house to stay up all night with the corn dolly, and are later visited by all the young men of the community who must treat them and the corn dolly with respect. Meanwhile, the older women of the community stay at home and perform other ceremonies.
Before going to bed, each household completely douses its hearth and rakes the ashes smooth. In the morning, they look for some kind of mark on the ashes, a sign that Brigid has passed that way in the night or morning.
On the following day, the Bride's Bed is brought from house to house, where she is welcomed with great honor. Since Brigid represents the Life Force that will bring people from the backside of winter into spring, her presence is very important at this time of year. People often will tap her effigy with an ash wand as well, perhaps an old remnant of more potent fertility rites that were once practiced.
==Modern Neopaganism==
Today, most modern neopagans celebrate it on the 1st or 2nd, the 2nd being more popular in [[ North America| America]], perhaps because of the holiday's later identification with [[Candlemas]]. In the southern hemisphere it is celebrated in August.
Some modern Pagans argue that the [[Christianity|Christian]] feast of [[Candlemas]], whose date depends upon [[Christmas]], was a [[Christianization]] of the feast of Imbolc. On the other hand, there is no evidence that Imbolc was celebrated in pre-Christian times anywhere other than in [[Ireland]] whereas the celebration of Candlemas began in the eastern [[Mediterranean]].
Imbolc is often defined as a [[cross-quarter day]] midway between the [[winter solstice]] ([[Yule]]) and the [[spring equinox]] ([[Ostara]]), and the precise midpoint is half way through [[Aquarius]] (in the northern hemisphere) or [[Leo]] (in the southern hemisphere). By this definition Imbolc in the northern hemisphere coincides with [[Lughnasadh]] in the southern hemisphere.
Fire is important for this festival as [[Brigid]] (also known as [[Bride]], [[Brigit]], [[Brid]]) is the [[Goddess]] of fire, healing and fertility. The lighting of fires represents the increasing power of the Sun over the coming months.
References to the festival of the growing light can even be traced to modern America in the [[Groundhog Day]] custom on February 2. If the groundhog sees his shadow on this morning and is frightened back into his burrow, it means there will be six more weeks of winter. The custom comes directly from [[Europe]], and [[Scotland]] in particular, where an old couplet goes:
''
If Candlemas Day is bright and clear, there'll be two winters in the year.''
During the Winter, the [[Maiden]] is with the [[Dark Lord]] and the land is bare.
Imbolc is also a German acronym for ''Internationale magische Bildungsstätte für okkulte Lebenskunst und Credo''.[http://www.magieausbildung.de]
==References==
Further reading:
*Nora Chadwick, ''The Celts'' (Penguin, 1970) p. 181.
*Séamas Ó Catháin, ''Festival of Brigit'' 1995.
See also:
*[[Ostara|spring equinox (Ostara)]],
*[[Bealtaine]],
*[[Litha|summer solstice (Litha)]],
*[[Lughnasadh]],
*[[Mabon|autumn equinox (Mabon)]],
*[[Samhain]]
*[[Yule|winter solstice (Yule)]].
[[Category:Neopagan holidays]]
==External links==
*[http://wiccaweb.com/sabbats.php] - The eight major Sabbats including Imbolc
*[http://wicca.timerift.net/sabbat.html] - The Sabbats including Imbolc
*[http://www.celticloreandmagic.com/holidays/imbolc.htm] - Celebrate Imbolc
*[http://www.celticloreandmagic.com/meditations/brigid-imbolc.htm] - An Imbolc Meditation
*[http://www.bbc.co.uk/religion/religions/paganism/festivals/imbolc.shtml BBC: Religion & Ethics: Imbolc]
*[http://www.applewarrior.com/celticwell/ejournal/imbolc/yesterdays.htm Francine Nicholson, 1999. "Imbolc in Yesterday's Ireland and Scotland"]
[[es:Imbolc]]
[[de:Imbolc]]
[[fr:Imbolc]]
[[it:Imbolc]]
[[pt:Imbolc]]
Isaiah
15088
41197134
2006-02-25T18:45:51Z
Ghirlandajo
147410
/* Critical Scholarship */
[[Image:Isaiah.jpg|thumb|right|300px|Isaiah the Prophet in Hebrew Scriptures was depicted on the Sistine Chapel ceiling by Michelangelo.]]
'''Isaiah''' or '''Yeshayáhu''' ('''יְשַׁעְיָהוּ''' "Salvation of/is [[Tetragrammaton|the Lord]]", [[Standard Hebrew]] '''Yəšaʿyáhu''', [[Tiberian Hebrew]] '''Yəšaʿăyāhû''', [[Greek language|Greek]] '''Esaias''') was the son of [[Amoz]], and commonly considered the author of the [[Book of Isaiah]]. His ease of access to the king and other leaders (ref. Isa. 7:3; 8:2), taken with traditional sources which tell us that Isaiah was the cousin of [[Uzziah]] and therefore of [[royal]] [[lineage]], suggests he was of a family of high rank.
Isaiah was married to a woman referred to as "the prophetess" (8:3). Why she is called this is disputed. Some believe she may have carried out a prophetic ministry in her own right, like [[Deborah]] ([[Judges]] 4:4) and [[Huldah]] ([[Books of Kings|2 Kings]] 22:14-20). Others maintain, however, that it was simply because she was the wife of "the prophet" (Isa. 38:1),and not because she was herself endowed with the prophetic gift. Isaiah had by her two sons, who bore symbolic names (Isa. 8:18) - [[Shear-jashub]], 'Remnant will return' (7:3) and [[Maher-shalal-hash-baz]], 'To speed the spoil he hasteneth the prey' or, 'Destruction is imminent'(8:1-4).
He exercised the functions of his office during the reigns of [[Uzziah]] (or Azariah), [[Jotham of Judah|Jotham]], [[Ahaz]], and [[Hezekiah]] (1:1), the kings of [[kingdom of Judah|Judah]]. Uzziah reigned fifty-two years in the middle of the [[8th century BC]], and Isaiah must have begun his career a few years before Uzziah's death, probably in the [[740s BC]]. He lived till the fourteenth year of Hezekiah, and in all likelihood outlived that monarch (who died [[690s BC|698 BC]]), and may have been contemporary for some years with [[Manasseh]]. Thus Isaiah may have prophesied for the long period of at least sixty-four years.
[[Image:Ugolino di Nerio 001.jpg|thumb|left|The Prophet Isaiah, by Ugolino di Nerio]]
His first call to the prophetical office is not recorded. A second call came to him "in the year that [[Uzziah|King Uzziah]] died" (Isa. 6:1). He exercised his ministry in a spirit of uncompromising firmness and boldness in regard to all that bore on the interests of religion. He conceals nothing and keeps nothing back from fear of man. He was also noted for his spirituality and for his deep-toned reverence toward "the holy One of Israel." Isaiah and [[Micah]] were contemporaries (see Isa. 1:1 and Micah 1:1). They concentrated their prophecies mainly on Judah and Jerusalem (Isa. 1:1). [[Amos]] and [[Hosea]] preceded Isaiah (Amos 1:1; Hosea 1:1) and they prophesied mainly against the Northern tribes of Israel.
In early youth Isaiah must have been moved by the invasion of [[kingdom of Israel|Israel]] by the [[Assyria]]n monarch [[Tiglath-Pileser III]] (2 Kings 15:19); and again, twenty years later, when he had already entered on his office, by the invasion of [[Tiglath-Pileser III|Tiglath-Pileser]] and his career of conquest. Ahaz, king of Judah, at this crisis refused to co-operate with the kings of [[kingdom of Israel|Israel]] and [[Syria]] in opposition to the Assyrians, and was on that account attacked and defeated by Rezin of [[Damascus]] and [[Pekah]] of Israel (2 Kings 16:5; [[Books of Chronicles|2 Chronicles]] 28:5, 6). Ahaz, thus humbled, sided with Assyria, and sought the aid of [[Tiglath-Pileser III|Tiglath-Pileser]] against Israel and Syria. The consequence was that Rezin and Pekah were conquered and many of the people carried captive to Assyria (2 Kings 15:29; 16:9; [[Books of Chronicles|1 Chronicles]] 5:26).
Soon after this [[Shalmaneser V]] determined wholly to subdue the kingdom of Israel, [[Samaria]] was taken and destroyed ([[720s BC|722 BC]]). So long as Ahaz reigned, the kingdom of Judah was unmolested by the Assyrian power; but on his accession to the throne, Hezekiah, who was encouraged by Isaiah to rebel "against the king of Assyria" (2 Kings 18:7), entered into an alliance with the king of [[Egypt]] (Isa. 30:2-4). This led the king of Assyria to threaten the king of Judah, and at length to invade the land. [[Sennacherib]] ([[700s BC|701 BC]]) led a powerful army into Judah. Hezekiah was reduced to despair, and submitted to the Assyrians (2 Kings 18:14-16). But after a brief interval war broke out again, and again Sennacherib led an army into Judah, one detachment of which threatened Jerusalem (Isa. 36:2-22; 37:8). Isaiah on that occasion encouraged Hezekiah to resist the Assyrians (37:1-7), whereupon Sennacherib sent a threatening letter to Hezekiah, which he "spread before the Lord" (37:14). According to the account in Kings (and its derivative account in Chronicles) the judgement of God now fell on the Assyrian army. "Like [[Xerxes I|Xerxes]] in Greece, Sennacherib never recovered from the shock of the disaster in Judah. He made no more expeditions against either southern Palestine or Egypt."
The remaining years of Hezekiah's reign were peaceful (2 Chr. 32:23, 27-29). Isaiah probably lived to its close, and possibly into the reign of Manasseh, but the time and manner of his death are not specified in either the [[Bible]] or recorded history. There is a tradition that he suffered martyrdom in the pagan reaction in the time of Manasseh. Both [[Judaism|Jewish]] and [[Christianity|Christian]] traditions state that he was killed by being sawed in half. Some interpreters believe that this is what is referred to by [[Epistle to the Hebrews|Hebrews]] 11:37 (in the [[New Testament]]), which states that some prophets were "sawn in two". It is also mentioned in the book of The Martyrdom of Isaiah that he lived into the days of Manasseh, and was also sawn in half with a wooden saw.
==Critical Scholarship== [[Image:Paris psalter.jpg|thumb|left|200px|''Prophet Isaiah Praying at Night'' (10th-century Byzantine miniature from the [[Paris Psalter]]).]]
The noticable break between the first part of Isaiah (Is. 1-39) versus the latter half of the book (Is. 40-66) caught the eye of eighteenth century critical scholars Doderlein (1789) and Eichhorn (1783), who advocated a source-critical reading of the book, seeing chapters 40-66 as later, post-exilic additions, or even totally separate works artificially appended to the earlier composition. The term "Deutero-Isaiah" described the anonymous later writer, to whom some ascribed some redactionary roles as well. Some more recent commentators have further divided 40-66 by adding a third Isaiah, Trito-Isaiah, who wrote 56-66. The provenance of the text in the latter half of the book seemed to support a post-exilic timeframe, with direct references to Cyrus, King of Persia 944:28; 45:1, 13), a lament for the ruined temple, and other details. Also, the tone of the two halves is different; the first seems to warn erring Judah of impending divine judgement through foreign conquest, while the second seems to provide comfort to a broken people.
Other scholars, such as Margalioth (1964) challenged the view of multiple authorship by pointing out the remarkable unity of the book Isaiah in terms of theme, message, and vocabulary. Even certain verbal formulas unique to Isaiah, such as "the mouth of the Lord has spoken," appears in both halves of Isaiah but in no other Hebrew prophetic literature. While clear differences between the two halves of the book were evident, thematically the two halves are remarkably similar, certainly more similar to each other than to any other existing prophetic literature.
Recent trends in critical scholarship have focused on synchronic approaches, which advocate a whole-text reading, rather than the traditional historical-critical diachronic approaches, which tend to be directed at taking the text apart, looking for sources, redactional seams, etc. Inspired by Hebrew Bible literary criticism done by Robert Alter, recent scholars have tended to circumscribe authorship and historical-critical questions and look at the final form of the book as a literary whole, a product of the post-exilic era which is characterized by literary and thematic unity.
==External links==
*[http://www.newadvent.org/cathen/08179b.htm Isaiah (Isaias)] at the [[Catholic Encyclopedia]]
*[http://www.isaiah13.com Isaiah] Metal Band, UK
{{eastons}}
[[Category:Tanakh prophets]]
[[Category:Christian prophets]]
[[cs:Izajáš]]
[[de:Jesaja (Prophet)]]
[[es:Isaías]]
[[fr:Ésaïe]]
[[he:ישעיהו]]
[[pl:Izajasz]]
[[pt:Isaías]]
[[ro:Isaia]]
[[ru:Исаия]]
[[fi:Jesaja]]
[[sv:Jesaja]]
Interpreted language
15089
40443549
2006-02-20T16:16:56Z
70.156.72.147
/* List of frequently interpreted languages */
In [[computer programming]], an '''interpreted language''' is a programming language whose programs may be executed from source form, by an [[interpreter (computer software)|interpreter]]. Any language may, in theory, be compiled ''or'' interpreted; therefore, this designation refers to languages' implementations rather than designs. In fact, many languages have both compilers and interpreters, including [[Lisp programming language|Lisp]], [[C programming language|C]], [[BASIC programming language|BASIC]], and [[Python programming language|Python]].
This term has no meaning in computer science, which strictly distinguishes between languages and implementations. However, people often use it as a useful shortcut to signify languages that are traditionally interpreted, or for which no compilers are written.
==Historical background==
In the early days of computing, language design was heavily influenced by the decision to use compilation or interpretation as a mode of execution. For example, some compiled languages require that programs must explicitly state the data-type of a [[variable]] at the time it is declared or first used. On the other hand, some languages take advantage of the dynamic aspects of interpretation to make such declarations unnecessary. For example, [[Smalltalk programming language|Smalltalk]]—which was designed to be interpreted at run-time—allows generic Objects to dynamically interact with each other.
Initially, interpreted languages were compiled line-by-line; that is, each line was compiled as it was about to be executed, and if a loop or subroutine caused certain lines to be executed multiple times, they would be recompiled every time. This has become much less common. Most so-called interpreted languages use an [[intermediate representation]], which combines both compilation and interpretation. In this case, a compiler may output some form of [[bytecode]], which is then executed by a bytecode interpreter. Examples include [[Python programming language|Python]], [[Java programming language|Java]], and [[Perl programming language|Perl]]. Similarly, [[Ruby language|Ruby]] uses an [[abstract syntax tree]] as intermediate representation. The intermediate representation can be compiled once and for all, like Java, each time before execution like Perl or Ruby, or each time a change in the source is detected before execution like Python.
==Language features suiting interpreters well==
Interpreted languages still give programs certain extra flexibility over compiled languages. Features that are easier to implement in interpreters than in compilers include (but are not limited to):
* [[platform (computing)|platform]] independence (Java's byte code, for example)
* reflective usage of the evaluator (e.g. a first-order [[eval]] function)
* [[dynamic typing]]
* ease of [[debugging]] (It is easier to get source code information in interpreted language)
* small program size (Since interpreted languages have flexibility to choose instruction code)
* [[polymorphism (computer science)|object polymorphism]]
* [[scope (programming)|dynamic scoping]]
==List of frequently interpreted languages==
* [[BASIC programming language|BASIC]] (although the original version, Dartmouth BASIC, was compiled, as are most modern BASICs)
* [[Ch interpreter|Ch]] (embeddable C/C++ interpreter)
* [[CINT]] (C/C++ interpreter)
* [[Euphoria programming language|Euphoria]]
* [[Forth programming language|Forth]] (traditionally threaded interpreted)
* [[Java programming language|Java]] (compiled to bytecode which is then interpreted)
* [[JavaScript]]
* [[Lisp programming language|Lisp]] (Depends on the implementation, some are compiled, some are bytcode)
* [[Logo programming language|Logo]] (interpretation makes interactivity easier)
* [[Maple computer algebra system|Maple]]
* [[MATLAB]]
* [[MUMPS]] (traditionally interpreted, modern versions compiled)
* [[Perl programming language|Perl]] (compiled to bytecode which is then interpreted)
* [[PHP]]
* [[Python programming language|Python]] (compiled to bytecode which is then interpreted)
* [[Ruby programming language|Ruby]]
* [[Tcl]]
==See also==
*[[compiled language]]
[[Category:computer languages]]
[[ca:Llenguatge interpretat]]
[[fr:Langage interprété]]
Id
15092
15912601
2003-11-06T19:42:36Z
Docu
8029
redir
#redirect [[ID]]
Intifada
15095
41792285
2006-03-01T20:03:24Z
Collounsbury
134655
Reverted to neutral language
'''Intifada''' (also '''Intefadah''' or '''Intifadah'''; from {{Ar|انتفاضة}} ''{{ArabDIN|intifāḍah}}'' "shaking off") is an [[Arabic language|Arabic]] term for "[[uprising]]".
*It came into common usage in English as the popularised name for two recent [[Palestinian]] campaigns directed at ending the Israeli military occupation. These two uprisings have been significant aspects of the [[Israeli-Palestinian conflict]] in recent years:
**The '''[[First Intifada]]''' began in [[1987]]. Violence declined in [[1991]] and came to an end with the signing of the [[Oslo accords]] (August [[1993]]) and the creation of the [[Palestinian National Authority]].
**The '''[[al-Aqsa Intifada]]''' (also known as the Second Palestinian Intifada or the Second Intifada) was the violent Palestinian-Israeli conflict that began in September of 2000.
*A wave of demonstrations and riots that broke out in May [[2005]] in the [[Morocco|Moroccan-]][[List of disputed or occupied territories|occupied territory]] of [[Western Sahara]] that has been styled the '''"[[Independence Intifada]]"''' or the "[[El Aaiún|El-Aaiun]] Intifada" by pro-independence [[Sahrawi]] demonstrators, a usage also applied by activists to earlier incidents in the territory in [[1999]] (the [[Smara]] Intifada), and [[1970]] (the [[Zemla Intifada]], against [[Spain |Spanish]] occupation), although the usage was not widely adopted outside seperatist activist circles.
*In [[1952]], citizens of [[Baghdad]] engaged in a series of large-scale protests against the [[Iraq]]i government, widely referred to as "the Intifada". Following the United States–led [[2003 invasion of Iraq|invasion of Iraq in 2003]] [[Muqtada al-Sadr]], a militant [[Shia]] cleric, launched an uprising which he also referred to as the '''"Iraqi Intifada"''' [http://www.asianews.it/view.php?l=en&art=585] aimed at ending the US-led foreign military presence in Iraq.
*'''"Intifada of Independence"''' is also the term used by the [[Lebanon|Lebanese]] media to refer to the events that occurred after [[Rafiq Hariri]]'s [[assassination]]. It is also known as the '''"[[Cedar Revolution]]"'''.
{{disambig}}
[[Category:Arabic words]]
[[Category:Arab-Israeli conflict]]
[[Category:Israeli-Palestinian conflict]]
[[ar:انتفاضة]]
[[bg:Интифада]]
[[de:Intifada]]
[[es:Intifada]]
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[[fr:Intifada]]
[[id:Intifadah]]
[[it:Intifada]]
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[[nl:Intifada]]
[[ja:インティファーダ]]
[[no:Intifada]]
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[[sv:Intifada]]
[[tr:Intifada]]
Iroquois
15096
42085271
2006-03-03T18:56:35Z
RexNL
241337
Reverted edits by [[Special:Contributions/24.249.25.169|24.249.25.169]] ([[User talk:24.249.25.169|talk]]) to last version by 213.42.2.23
{{otheruses}}
The '''Iroquois Confederacy''' ('''Haudenosaunee''', also known as the League of Peace and Power, Five Nations, or Six Nations) is a group of [[First Nations]]/[[Native Americans in the United States|Native Americans]]. The Confederacy was based, at the time of the [[European colonization of the Americas#Early State Sponsored Colonists|arrival of the Europeans]], in what is now [[History of New York#Upstate New York|upstate New York]], as well as parts of [[Pennsylvania#History|Pennsylvania]], [[Ontario#Pre-1867|Ontario]], and
[[Quebec#First Nations: Before 1500|Quebec]].
[[Image:1914 Panoramic View of Iroquois.jpg|thumb|400px|Iroquois, in [[Buffalo, New York|Buffalo]], [[New York]], 1914]]
== History ==
=== Prehistoric and Protohistoric period ===
This union of nations was established [[History of the Americas#Civilizations|prior to major European contact]], complete with a [[constitution]] known as the [[Gayanashagowa]] (or "Great Law of Peace") recorded with the help of a memory device in the form of special beads called [[wampum]] that have inherent spiritual value (wampum has been innacurately compared to money in other [[culture]]s). Most [[Western world|Western]] [[anthropologist]]s speculate that this constitution was created between the middle [[1400s]] and early [[1600s]], but other scholars who account for Iroquois [[oral tradition]] argue that the event took place as early as [[1100]], with many arguing for [[August 31]], [[1142]] based on a coinciding [[solar eclipse]] (see Fields and Mann, ''American Indian Culture and Research Journal'', vol. 21, #2). Some Westerners have also suggested that the Constitution was written with European help, although most dismiss this notion as [[racism]].
The two [[Prophet#Prophets of different cultures#Other prophets|prophets]], [[Hiawatha]] and "[[The Great Peacemaker]]", brought a message of [[peace]] to squabbling tribes. The tribes who joined the League were the [[Seneca tribe|Seneca]], [[Onondaga (tribe)|Onondaga]], [[Oneida tribe|Oneida]], [[Cayuga tribe|Cayuga]] and [[Mohawk nation|Mohawks]]. Once they ceased most infighting, they rapidly became one of the strongest forces in [[17th century|17th]] and [[18th century]] northeastern [[North America]].
The League engaged in a series of [[French and Iroquois Wars#History#Iroquois attacks in New France|wars against the French]] and their Iroquoian-speaking [[Wyandot|Wyandot ("Huron")]] allies. They also put great pressure on the [[Algonquian]] peoples of the [[Atlantic coast]] and what is now subarctic [[Canada]] and not infrequently [[History of the United States (1776-1789)#Independence and the American Revolution|fought the English colonies]] as well. During the 17th Century, they are also credited with having destroyed the [[Neutral Indian]]s and [[Eriez#Fur trade and Beaver Wars|Erie Tribe]] as a way of controlling the [[fur trade]], even though other reasons are often given for these wars. Some survivors of these tribes were absorbed into the Iroquois tribes.
[[Image:hauflag.png|thumb|Modern flag]]
According to [[Francis Parkman]], the Iroquois were at the height of their power in the 17th century with a population of around 12,000 people. League traditions allowed for the dead to be symbolically replaced through the "Mourning War", raids intended to seize captives and take vengeance on non-members. This tradition was common to native people of the northeast and was quite different from European settlers' notions of combat.
=== The 18th Century ===
In [[1720]], the [[Tuscarora#Subsequent History|Tuscarora fled north]] from the European colonization of [[North Carolina#History|North Carolina]] and petitioned to become the Sixth Nation. This is a non-voting position, but places them under the protection of the Confederacy.
During the [[French and Indian War]], the Iroquois sided with the British against the French and their Algonquin allies, both traditional enemies of the Iroquois. The Iroquois hoped that aiding the British would also bring favors after the war. Practically, few Iroquois joined the fighting and at the [[Battle of Lake George]] found a group of Mohawk and French ambush a Mohawk-led British column. The British government issued the [[Royal Proclamation of 1763]] after the war, which restricted white settlement beyond the Appalachians, but this was mainly ignored by the settlers and local governments.
During the [[American Revolution]], the many Tuscarora and Onondaga sided with the Americans, while the Mohawk, Seneca, and Cayuga remained loyal to Great Britain. This marked the first major split among the Six Nations. After a series of successful operations against frontier settlements, led by the Mohawk leader [[Joseph Brant]] and his [[United Kingdom|British]] allies, the [[United States]] reacted with vengeance. In [[1779]], [[George Washington]] ordered Col. [[Daniel Brodhead]] and General [[John Sullivan]] to lead expeditions against the Iroquois nations to "not merely overun, but destroy," the British-Indian alliance. The campaign successfully ended the ability of the British and Iroquois to mount any further significant attacks on American settlements.
In [[1794]], the Confederacy entered into the [[Treaty of Canandaigua]] with the United States. After the American Revolutionary War, Captain [[Joseph Brant]] and the Six Nations Indians left [[New York]] to settle in Canada. As a reward for their loyalty to the English Crown, they were given a large land grant on the Grand River. The original Mohawk settlement was on the south edge of the present-day city at a location favourable for landing canoes. Brant's crossing of the river gave the original name to the area: Brant's ford. By 1847, European settlers began to settle further up the river at a ford in the [[Grand River (Ontario)|Grand River]] and named the village [[Brantford, Ontario]].
==Beliefs==
These tribes, mostly members of the Iroquois nation, lived in the Northeastern territories of the U.S. and [[Canada]], from the [[St. Lawrence River]] down to the [[Delaware Bay]] and inland to the [[Great Lakes]]. Their close contact with Europeans makes investigation of their original mythology and religion extremely difficult, but core beliefs included a conception of life as a struggle between the forces of good and evil. The "All-Father," an all-embracing deity, was formless and had little contact with humans. Spirits animated all of nature and controlled the changing of the season. Key festivals coincided with the major events of the agricultural calendar.
[[Seventh Generation]] is a precept of the Great Law of the Haudenosaunee (Six Nations Iroquois Confederacy), which requires that chiefs consider the impact of their decisions on the seventh generation.
In [[1799]], Iroquois prophet [[Handsome Lake]], half-brother of Cornplanter, received a vision and introduced the [[Longhouse religion]] to the Seneca. Handsome Lake's religion fused elements of [[Christianity]], especially [[Quakerism]], with traditional Iroquois beliefs including seasonal festivals. About 5,000 people continue to follow the Longhouse religion today.[http://www.religion-encyclopedia.com/H/handsome_lake_religion.htm]
== The Haudenosaunee ==
The combined leadership of the Nations is known as the ''Haudenosaunee''. It should be noted that "Haudenosaunee" is the term that the people use to refer to themselves. The word "Iroquois" is reputed to come from a French version of a [[Huron]] (Wendat) name—considered an insult—meaning "Black Snakes." The Iroquois were enemies of the Huron and the [[Algonquin]], who were allied with the French, due to their rivalry in the fur trade. Haudenosaunee means "People Building a [[Native American long house|Long House]]." The term is said to have been introduced by [[The Great Peacemaker]] at the time of the formation of the Confederacy. It implies that the Nations of the confederacy should live together as families in the same longhouse. Symbolically, the Seneca were the guardians of the western door of the "tribal long house," and the Mohawk were the guardians of the eastern door.
There exists another, perhaps more compelling, version explaining the origin of the word "Iroquois," as the French combination of two distinct terms used in the language of the Haudenosaunee. The participants and writers developing the nascent US government compared the Haudenosaunee and their ways to a state of achievement in administrative self-governance that Rome itself never reached, and an ideal that they hoped the US would aspire to and achieve.
The Iroquois nations' political union and [[democracy|democratic]] [[government]] has been credited [http://www.ratical.org/many_worlds/6Nations/index.html by some] as one of the influences on the [[United States Constitution]]. However, that theory has fallen into disfavor among many historians, and is regarded by some as mythology. Historian [http://hnn.us/articles/12974.html Jack Rakove] writes: "The voluminous records we have for the constitutional debates of the late 1780s contain no significant references to the Iroquois."
==Member Nations==
{| border="1" cellpadding="4" cellspacing="0" align="center"
|+
|<center>'''English Name'''
|<center>'''Iroquoian Name'''
|<center>'''Meaning'''
|<center>'''Primarily 17th and 18th Century Location'''
|-
|[[Seneca tribe|Seneca]] (1)
|''Onondowahgah''
|''People of the Great Hill''
|[[Seneca Lake]] and [[Genesee River]]
|-
|[[Cayuga tribe|Cayuga]] (1)
|''Guyohkohnyoh''
|''People of the Great Swamp''
|[[Cayuga Lake]]
|-
|[[Onondaga (tribe)|Onondaga]] (1)
|''Onundagaono''
|''People of the Hills''
|[[Onondaga Lake]]
|-
|[[Oneida tribe|Oneida]] (1)
|''Onayotekaono''
|''People of the Upright Stone''
|[[Oneida Lake]]
|-
|[[Mohawk nation|Mohawk]] (1)
|''Kanien'kéhaka''
|''People of the Flint''
|[[Mohawk River]]
|-
|[[Tuscarora]] (2)
|''Ska-Ruh-Reh''
|''Shirt-Wearing People''
|From [[North Carolina]], settled between Oneidas and Onondagas
|}
:::'''Note 1:''' Member of Original [[Five Nations]] (listed from west to east)
:::'''Note 2:''' Sixth Nation (Joined in 1720)
<center>
{|
|[[Image:Iroquois 5 Nation Map c1650.png|320px|Iroquois Five Nations c.1650]]
|[[Image:Iroquois 6 Nations map c1720.png|320px|Iroquois Six Nations c.1720]]
|}
</center>
==Iroquois Clans==
Within each of the six nations, people are divided into a number of [[matrilineal]] [[clan|clans]]. The number of clans varies by nation, currently from three to seven, with a total of nine different clan names.
<center>
{| border="1" cellpadding="1" cellspacing="0"
|+'''Current Iroquois Clans'''
|-
! width="70"|Onondaga
! width="70"|Tuscarora
! width="70"|Oneida
! width="70"|Mohawk
|-
| [[Wolf]] || Wolf || Wolf || Wolf || Wolf || Wolf
|-
| [[Bear]] || Bear || Bear || Bear || Bear || Bear
|-
| [[Turtle]] || Turtle || Turtle || Turtle || Turtle || Turtle
|-
| [[Snipe]] || Snipe || — || Snipe || —|| —
|-
| [[Deer]] || —|| Deer || Deer || —|| —
|-
| [[Beaver]] || —|| Beaver || Beaver || —|| —
|-
| [[Heron]] || Heron || — || — || —|| —
|-
| [[Hawk]] || —|| Hawk || — || —|| —
|-
| — || —|| [[Eel]] || Eel || —|| —
|}</center>
== Government ==
The Iroquois have a representative government known as the Grand Council. Each tribe sends chiefs to act as respresentatives and make decisions for the whole nation. The number of chiefs has never changed.
* Onondaga 14
* Cayuga 10
* Oneida 9
* Mohawk 9
* Seneca 8
==References==
* "The Ordeal of the Longhouse", by Daniel K. Richter
* For a detailed account of Iroquois actions during the American Revolution, see: Williams, Glenn F. ''Year of the Hangman: George Washington's Campaign Against the Iroquois'' Yardley: Westholme Publishing, 2005.
*[http://sixnations.buffnet.net/Culture/?article=who_we_are Who Are the Haudenosaunee?]
*[http://www.ratical.org/many_worlds/6Nations/ Oldest Living Participatory Democracy]
*[http://www.iroquoismuseum.org Iroquois Indian Museum, Howes Cave, NY]
== See also ==
*[[Joseph Brant]]
*[[Red Jacket]]
*[[Sir William Johnson]]
*[[Smoke Johnson]]
*[[Cornplanter]]
*[[Ely S. Parker]]
*[[Sullivan Expedition]]
*[[History of New York]]
*[[Economy of the Iroquois]]
*[[Iroquoian languages]]
*[[Iroquois mythology]]
*[[Six Nations of the Grand River]]
*[[Covenant Chain]]
*[[Ganondagan State Historic Site]]
*[[False Face Society]]
*[[Mohawk Chapel]]
*[[David Cusick]]
== External links ==
*[http://www.sixnations.org/ Haudenosaunee Home Page] : the official source of news and information from the Haudenosaunee.
*[http://sixnations.buffnet.net/Great_Law_of_Peace/ Gayanashagowa]
*[http://www.upstate-citizens.org/Iroquois-origin.htm History and origin of the Five Nations]
*[http://ah.bfn.org/h/iroq/iroqlinks.html Long list of Iroquois links]
*[http://www.sullivanclinton.com The Sullivan-Clinton Campaign Hits Iroquoia, 1779]
*[http://digitalcommons.unl.edu/libraryscience/24/ David Cusick’s Sketches of Ancient History of the Six Nations (1828)]
*[http://www.iroquois.net/ Iroquois Home Page]
[[Category:First Nations in Ontario]]
[[Category:First Nations in Quebec]]
[[Category:Iroquois]]
[[Category:Historical legislatures]]
[[ca:Confederació Iroquesa]]
[[da:Irokeserføderationen]]
[[de:Irokesen]]
[[eo:Haudenosaunee]]
[[fr:Iroquois]]
[[ja:イロコイ連邦]]
[[nl:Iroquois (volk)]]
[[pl:Irokezi]]
[[pt:Iroqueses]]
[[ru:Ирокезы]]
[[sl:Irokezi]]
[[sv:Irokes]]
Ionosphere
15097
40409700
2006-02-20T09:35:09Z
QEDquid
525074
/* Scientific research on Ionspheric propagation */ +link
The '''ionosphere''' is the part of the [[Earth's atmosphere|atmosphere]] that is ionized by solar radiation. It forms the inner edge of the [[magnetosphere]] and has practical importance because it influences [[high-frequency]] (HF) (3–30 [[Megahertz|MHz]]) [[radio propagation]] to distant places on the Earth.
==Geophysics==
The lowest part of the [[Earth's atmosphere]] is called the [[troposphere]] and it extends from the surface up to about 10 [[Kilometre|km]] (6 miles). The atmosphere above 10 km is called the [[stratosphere]], followed by the [[mesosphere]]. It is in the stratosphere that incoming solar radiation creates the [[ozone layer]]. At heights of above 80 km (50 miles), in the [[thermosphere]], the atmosphere is so thin that free [[electrons]] can exist for short periods of time before they are captured by a nearby positive [[ion]]. The number of these free electrons is sufficient to affect [[radio propagation]]. This portion of the atmosphere is ''ionized'' and contains a [[Plasma physics|plasma]] which is referred to as the ionosphere. In a plasma, the negative free electrons and the positive ions are attracted to each other by the electromagnetic force, but they are too energetic to stay fixed together in an electrically neutral molecule.
<br style="clear:both" />
[[Image:atmosphere.gif|frame|left|Relationship of the atmosphere and ionosphere]]
<br style="clear:both" />
[[Solar radiation]] at [[ultraviolet]] (UV) and shorter [[X-Ray]] [[wavelength]]s is considered to be ''ionizing'' since [[photon]]s at these frequencies are capable of dislodging an [[electron]] from a neutral gas [[atom]] or [[molecule]] during a collision. At the same time, however, an opposing process called [[recombination]] begins to take place in which a free electron is "captured" by a positive ion if it moves close enough to it. As the gas density increases at lower altitudes, the recombination process accelerates since the gas molecules and ions are closer together. The point of balance between these two processes determines the degree of ionization present at any given time.
The ionization depends primarily on the [[Sun]] and its [[solar variation|activity]]. The amount of ionization in the ionosphere varies greatly with the amount of radiation received from the sun. Thus there is a [[diel|diurnal]] (time of day) effect and a seasonal effect. The local winter [[Earth|hemisphere]] is tipped away from the Sun, thus there is less received solar radiation. The activity of the sun is associated with the [[sunspot cycle]], with more radiation occurring with more sunspots. Radiation received also varies with geographical location (polar, auroral zones, mid-latitudes, and equatorial regions). There are also mechanisms that disturb the ionosphere and decrease the ionization. There are disturbances such as [[solar flare]]s and the associated release of charged particles into the [[solar wind]] which reaches the Earth and interacts with its [[geomagnetic]] field.
==The Ionospheric Layers==
Solar radiation, acting on the different compositions of the atmosphere with height, generates layers of ionization:
===D Layer===
The [[D region|D layer]] is the innermost layer, 50 km to 90 km above the surface of the Earth. Ionization here is due to [[Lyman series]]-alpha hydrogen radiation at a [[wavelength]] of 121.5 [[nanometre]] (nm) ionizing [[nitric oxide]] (NO). In addition, when the sun is active with 50 or more sunspots, hard [[X-ray]]s (wavelength < 1 nm) ionize the air (N<sub>2</sub>, O<sub>2</sub>). During the night [[cosmic rays]] produce a residual amount of ionization. Recombination is high in this layer, thus the net ionization effect is very low and as a result high-frequency (HF) [[radio wave]]s aren't reflected by the D layer. The frequency of collision between electrons and other particles in this region during the day is about 10 million collisions per second. The D layer is mainly responsible for absorption of HF radio waves, particularly at 10 MHz and below, with progressively smaller absorption as the frequency gets higher. The absorption is small at night and greatest about midday. The layer reduces greatly after sunset, but remains due to [[galactic cosmic ray]]s. A common example of the D layer in action is the disappearance of distant AM [[broadcast band]] stations in the daytime.
===E Layer===
The [[Kennelly-Heaviside Layer|E layer]] is the middle layer, 90km to 120km above the surface of the Earth. Ionization is due to soft X-ray (1-10 nm) and far ultraviolet (UV) solar radiation ionization of molecular [[oxygen]] (O<sub>2</sub>). This layer can only reflect radio waves having frequencies less than about 10 MHz. It has a negative effect on frequencies above 10 MHz due to its partial absorption of these waves. The vertical structure of the E layer is primarily determined by the competing effects of ionization and recombination. At night the E layer begins to disappear because the primary source of ionization is no longer present. This results in an increase in the height where the layer maximizes because recombination is faster in the lower layers. Diurnal changes in the high altitude neutral winds also plays a role. The increase in the height of the E layer maximum increases the range to which radio waves can travel by reflection from the layer.
===E<sub>S</sub>===
The E<sub>s</sub> layer or sporadic E-layer. [[Sporadic E propagation]] is characterized by small clouds of intense ionization, which can support radio wave reflections from 25 – 225 MHz. Sporadic-E events may last for just a few minutes to several hours. There are multiple causes of sporadic-E that are still being pursued by researchers. This propagation occurs most frequently during the summer months with major occurrences during the summer, and minor occurrences during the winter. During the summer, this mode is popular due to its high signal levels. The skip distances are generally around 1000km (620 miles).
===F Layer===
The [[F region|F layer]] or region, also known as the Appleton layer, is 120km to 400km above the surface of the Earth. Here extreme ultraviolet (UV) (10-100 nm) solar radiation ionizes atomic [[oxygen]] (O). The F region is the most important part of the ionosphere in terms of HF communications. The F layer combines into one layer at night, and in the presence of sunlight (during daytime), it divides into two layers, the F<sub>1</sub> and F<sub>2</sub>. The F layers are responsible for most [[skywave]] propagation of [[radio]] waves, and are thickest and most reflective of radio on the side of the Earth facing the sun.
==Anomalies to the Ideal Model==
The statements above assumed that each layer was smooth and uniform. In reality the ionosphere is a lumpy, cloudy layer with irregular patches of ionization.
===Winter Anomaly===
At mid-latitudes, the F<sub>2</sub> layer daytime ion production is higher in the summer, as expected, since the sun shines more directly on the earth. However, there are seasonal changes in the molecular-to-atomic ratio of the neutral atmosphere that cause the summer ion loss rate to be even higher. The result is that the increase in the summertime loss overwhelms the increase in summertime production, and total F<sub>2</sub> ionization is actually lower, not higher, in the local summer months. This effect is known as the winter anomaly. The anomaly is always present in the northern hemisphere, but is usually absent in the southern hemisphere during periods of low solar activity.
===Equatorial Anomaly===
<br style="clear:both" />
[[Image:Diurnal ionospheric current.jpg|frame|left|Electric currents created in sunward ionosphere.]]
<br style="clear:both" />
Within approximately ± 20 degrees of the ''magnetic equator'', is the '''[[Equator]]ial Anomaly'''. It is the occurrence of a trough of concentrated ionization in the F<sub>2</sub> layer. The Earth's [[magnetic field]] lines are horizontal at the equator. Solar heating and [[tidal]] oscillations in the lower ionosphere move plasma up and across the magnetic field lines. This sets up a sheet of electric current in the E region which, with the [[horizontal]] magnetic field, forces ionization up into the F layer, concentrating at ± 20 degrees from the magnetic equator. This phenomenon is known as the ''equatorial fountain''.
==Ionospheric Perturbations==
===X-rays: Sudden Ionospheric Disturbances (SID)===
When the sun is active, strong [[solar flare]]s can occur that will hit the Earth with hard X-rays on the sunlit side of the Earth. They will penetrate to the D-region, release electrons which will rapidly increase absorption causing a High Frequency (3-30 MHz) radio blackout. During this time Very Low Frequency (3 - 30 kHz) signals will become reflected by the D layer instead of the E layer, avoiding the signal loss through the D layer. As soon as the X-rays end, the sudden ionospheric disturbance (SID) or radio black-out ends as the electrons in the D-region recombine rapidly and signal strengths return to normal.
===Protons: Polar Cap Absorption (PCA)===
Associated with solar flares is a release of high-energy protons. These particles can hit the earth within 15 minutes to 2 hours of the solar flare. The protons spiral around and down the magnetic field lines of the Earth and penetrate into the atmosphere near the magnetic poles increasing the ionization of the D and E layers. PCA's typically last anywhere from about an hour to several days, with an average of around 24 to 36 hours.
===Geomagnetic Storms===
A [[geomagnetic storm]] is a temporary intense disturbance of the Earth's [[magnetosphere]].
* During a geomagnetic storm the F<sub>2</sub> layer will become unstable, fragment, and may even disappear completely.
* In the Northern and Southern pole regions of the Earth [[polar aurora|aurora]] will be observable in the sky.
==Radio Application==
[[DX communication]], popular among [[amateur radio]] enthusiasts, is a term given to communication over great distances. When using High-Frequency bands, the ionosphere is utilized to reflect the transmitted radio beam. The beam returns to the Earth's surface, and may then be reflected back into the ionosphere for a second bounce.
[[Radio]] waves "[[Hop (telecommunications)|hop]]" from the Earth to the ionosphere and back to the Earth. When a radio wave reaches the ionosphere, the [[electric field]] in the wave forces the electrons in the ionosphere into [[oscillation]] at the same frequency as the radio wave. Some of the radio wave energy is given up to this mechanical oscillation. The oscillating electron will then either be lost to recombination or will re-radiate the original wave energy back downward again. Total reflection can occur when the collision frequency of the ionosphere is less than the radio frequency, and if the electron density in the ionosphere is great enough.
The [[critical frequency]] is the limiting frequency at or below which a radio wave is reflected by an ionospheric layer at vertical [[angle of incidence|incidence]]. If the transmitted frequency is higher than the plasma frequency of the ionosphere, then the electrons cannot respond fast enough, and they are not able to re-radiate the signal. It is calculated as shown below:
: <math>f{critical} = 9 \times 10^{-3} \sqrt{N}</math>
where N = electron density per cm<sup>3</sup> and f<sub>critical</sub> is in MHz.
The Maximum Usable Frequency (MUF) is defined as the upper frequency limit that can be used for transmission between two points at a specified time.
: <math>f{muf} = \frac{f{critical}}{ \sin{(I)}} </math>
where I = [[angle of attack]], the angle of the wave relative to the [[horizon]], and sin is the [[sine]] function.
The [[cutoff frequency]] is the frequency below which a radio wave fails to penetrate a layer of the ionosphere at the incidence angle required for transmission between two specified points by reflection from the layer.
==Other Applications==
The [[open system]] [[space tether]], which uses the ionosphere, is being researched. The space tether uses plasma contactors and the ionosphere as parts of a circuit to extract energy from the Earth's magnetic field by [[electromagnetic induction]].
==Measurements==
=== Ionograms ===
Ionograms show the virtual heights and '''critical frequencies''' of the ionospheric layers and which are measured by an ionosonde. An ionosonde sweeps a range of frequencies, usually from 0.1 to 30 MHz, transmitting at vertical incidence to the ionosphere. As the frequency increases, each wave is refracted less by the ionization in the layer, and so each penetrates further before it is reflected. Eventually, a frequency is reached that enables the wave to penetrate the layer without being reflected. For ordinary mode waves, this occurs when the transmitted frequency just exceeds the peak plasma, or critical, frequency of the layer. Tracings of the reflected high frequency radio pulses are known as ionograms.
=== Solar Flux ===
Solar Flux is a measurement of the intensity of solar radio emissions at a frequency of 2800 MHz made using a [[radio telescope]] located in [[Ottawa]], Canada. Known also as the 10.7 cm flux (the wavelength of the radio signals at 2800 MHz), this solar radio emission has been shown to be proportional to sunspot activity. However, the level of the sun's ultraviolet and X-ray emissions is primarily responsible for causing ionization in the earth's upper atmosphere. We now have data from the [[GOES]] spacecraft that measures the background '''X-Ray flux''' from the sun, a parameter more closely related to the ionization levels in the ionosphere.
* The ''A and K indices'' are a measurement of the behavior of the horizontal component of the '''geomagnetic field'''. The K index uses a scale from 0 to 9 to measure the change in the horizontal component of the geomagnetic field. A new K index is determined at the [[Table Mountain]] Observatory, north of [[Boulder, Colorado]].
* The geomagnetic activity levels of the earth are measured by the fluctuation of the Earth's magnetic field in a unit called [[Gauss]]. The earth's magnetic field is measured around the planet by many observatories. The data retrieved is processed and turned into measurement indices. Daily measurements for the entire planet are made available through an estimate of the ''ap'' index, called the ''planetary A-index'' (PAI).
=== Scientific research on Ionspheric propagation ===
Scientists also are exploring the structure of the ionosphere by a wide variety of methods, including passive observations of optical and radio emissions generated in the ionosphere, bouncing radio waves of different frequencies from it, incoherent scatter radars such as the EISCAT, Sondre Stromfjord, Millstone Hill, Arecibo, and Jicamarca radars, coherent scatter radars such as the [[Super Dual Auroral Radar Network|Super Dual Auroral Radar Network (SuperDARN)]] radars, and using special receivers to detect how the reflected waves have changed from the transmitted waves.
A veriety of experiments, such as Project HAARP ([[High Frequency Active Auroral Research Program]]), involve high power radio transmitters to modify the properties of the ionosphere. These investigations focus on studying the properties and behavior of ionospheric plasma, with particular emphasis on being able to understand and use it to enhance communications and surveillance systems for both civilian and defense purposes. HAARP was started in 1993 for a proposed twenty year experiment.
The SuperDARN radar project researches the high- and mid-latitudes using coherent backscatter of radio waves in the 8 - 20 MHzrange. Coherent backscatter is similar to Bragg scattering in crystals and involves the constructive interference of scattering from ionospheric density irregularities. The project involves more than 11 different countries and multiple radars in both hemispheres.
Scientists are also examining the ionosphere by the changes to radio waves from satellites and stars passing through it. The [[Arecibo radio telescope]] located in [[Puerto Rico]], was originally intended to study Earth's ionosphere.
==History==
In [[1899]], [[Nikola Tesla]] researched ways to utilize the ionosphere to [[wireless energy transfer|transmit energy wirelessly]] over long distances. In his experiments, he transmitted extremely low frequencies between the earth and ionosphere, up to what is called the [[Kennelly-Heaviside Layer]] (Grotz, 1997). Tesla made mathematical calculations and computations based on his experiments. He predicted the resonant frequency of this area within 15% of modern accepted experimental value. (Corum, 1986) In the [[1950s]], researchers confirmed the resonant frequency was at the low range 6.8 Hz.
[[Guglielmo Marconi]] received the first trans-Atlantic radio signal on [[December 12]], [[1901]], in [[St. John's, Newfoundland]] (now in [[Canada]]) using a 400-foot kite-supported antenna for reception. The transmitting station in [[Poldhu]], Cornwall used a spark-gap transmitter to produce a signal with a frequency of approximately 500 [[Kilohertz|kHz]] and a power of 100 times more than any radio signal previously produced. The message received was three dots, the [[Morse code]] for the letter '''S'''. To reach Newfoundland the signal would have to bounce off the ionosphere twice. Dr. Jack Belrose has recently contested this, however, based on theoretical work as well as an actual experiments. However, Marconi did achieve transatlantic wireless communications beyond a shadow of doubt in Glace Bay one year later.
In [[1902]], [[Oliver Heaviside]] proposed the existence of the ''Kennelly-Heaviside Layer'' of the ionosphere which bears his name. Heaviside's proposal included means by which radio signals are transmitted around the Earth's curvature. Heaviside's proposal, coupled with Planck's law of black body radiation, may have hampered the growth of radio astronomy for the detection of electromagnetic waves from celestial bodies until [[1932]] (and the development of high frequency radio transceivers). Also in [[1902]], [[Arthur Edwin Kennelly]] discovered some of the ionosphere's radio-electrical properties.
In [[1912]], the [[U.S. Congress]] imposed the [[Radio Act of 1912]] on amateur radio operators, limiting their operations to frequencies above 1.5 MHz (wavelength 200 meters or smaller). The government thought those frequencies were useless. This led to the discovery of HF radio propagation via the ionosphere in [[1923]].
[[Edward V. Appleton]] was awarded in [[1947]] a [[Nobel Prize]] for his confirmation of the existence of the ionosphere in [[1927]]. [[Lloyd Berkner]] first measured the height and density of the ionosphere. This permitted the first complete theory of short wave radio propagation. [[Maurice V. Wilkes]] and [[J. A. Ratcliffe]] researched the topic of radio propagation of very long radio waves in the ionosphere. [[Vitaly Ginzburg]] has developed a theory of electromagnetic wave propagation in plasmas such as the ionosphere.
In [[1962]] the [[Canada|Canadian]] satellite [[Alouette 1]] was launched to study the ionosphere. Following its success were [[Alouette 2]] in [[1965]] and the two [[ISIS (satellite)|ISIS]] satellites in [[1969]] and [[1971]], all for measuring the ionosphere.
==References==
* Corum, J. F., and Corum, K. L., "''A Physical Interpertation of the Colorado Springs Data''". Proceedings of the Second International Tesla Symposium. Colorado Springs, Colorado, 1986.
* Grotz, Toby, "''The True Meaing of Wireless Transmission of power''". Tesla : A Journal of Modern Science, 1997.
* Hargreaves, J. K., "''The Upper Atmosphere and Solar-Terrestrial Relations''". Cambridge University Press, 1992,
* Kelley, M. C, and Heelis, R. A., "''The Earth's Ionosphere: Plasma Physics and Electrodynamics''". Academic Press, 1989.
* Leo F. McNamara. (1994) ISBN 0-89464-807-7 ''Radio Amateurs Guide to the Ionosphere''.
* Davies, K., 1990. Peter Peregrinus Ltd, London. ISBN 0-86341-186-X ''Ionospheric Radio''.
==See also==
* '''[[Geophysics]]'''
** [[Van Allen radiation belt]]
* '''[[Radio]]'''
** [[Fade (radio)]]
** [[Line-of-sight propagation]]
** [[List of telecommunications transmission terms]]
* '''Related'''
** [[Tether propulsion]]
** [[Pioneer Venus project]]
** [[Nozomi]]
** ''[[New Horizons]]''
** [[Nuclear explosion]]
** [[Nuclear weapon]]
** [[Soft gamma repeater]]
** [[TIMED (Thermosphere Ionosphere Mesosphere Energetics and Dynamics)]]
** [[International Geophysical Year]]
** [[Lightning#Sprites, Elves, Jets and other Upper Atmospheric Lightning|Upper Atmospheric Lightning]]
* '''Lists'''
** [[List of astronomical topics]]
** [[List of electronics topics]]
==External links==
* Gehred, Paul, and Norm Cohen, ''[http://www.sec.noaa.gov/radio/radio.html SEC's Radio User's Page]''.
*[http://geomag.usgs.gov USGS Geomagnetism Program]
*[http://www.sec.noaa.gov/SWN/ Current Space Weather Conditions]
*[http://www.sec.noaa.gov/rt_plots/xray_1m.html Current Solar X-Ray Flux]
*[http://superdarn.jhuapl.edu/ Super Dual Auroral Radar Network]
*[http://www.eiscat.se/ European Inchorent Scatter radar system]
*[http://www.haystack.mit.edu/mhrobs/introduction.html Millstone Hill radar]
{{earthsatmosphere}}
[[Category:Radio frequency propagation]]
[[Category:Nikola Tesla]]
[[Category:Atmosphere]]
[[Category:Space plasmas]]
[[Category:Plasma physics]]
[[bg:Йоносфера]]
[[cs:Ionosféra]]
[[de:Ionosphäre]]
[[es:Ionosfera]]
[[fr:Ionosphère]]
[[ko:전리층]]
[[nl:Ionosfeer]]
[[ja:電離層]]
[[pl:Jonosfera]]
[[pt:Ionosfera]]
[[sk:Ionosféra]]
[[sv:Jonosfär]]
[[uk:Іоносфера]]
Ido language
15099
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2004-12-27T09:29:10Z
Naive cynic
84472
Ido language moved to Ido
#redirect [[Ido]]
Interlingua
15100
41681460
2006-03-01T00:56:27Z
69.248.65.105
/* [[International Auxiliary Language Association]] */
{{dablink|This article describes the [[international auxiliary language]] created by the International Auxiliary Language Association. For the earlier Interlingua created by [[Giuseppe Peano]], see [[Latino Sine Flexione]]. For other usages of the term interlingua, see [[Interlingua (disambiguation)]].}}
{{Infobox Language
|name=Interlingua
|creator=[[International Auxiliary Language Association]] ([[1951]])
|setting=[[international auxiliary language]], most popular in [[Scandinavia]] and [[North America]]
|speakers=First language: none known<br>Second language: about 1500
|fam2=[[international auxiliary language]]
|posteriori=[[Romance languages|Romance]] and [[Neolatin]]–based
|agency=no regulating body
|iso1=ia|iso2=ina|iso3=ina}}
The [[constructed language]] '''Interlingua''' is an [[international auxiliary language]] (IAL) published in [[1951]] by the [[International Auxiliary Language Association]] (IALA). In appearance, Interlingua combines a Latin-Romance vocabulary with a simplified Romance grammar, and thus it is often referred to as a modernized and simplified [[Latin]]. It is sometimes called ''IALA Interlingua'' to distinguish it from the other uses of ''interlingua''.
== Rationale ==
The expansive movements of science, technology, trade, diplomacy, and the arts, combined with the historical dominance of the Greek and Latin languages, have resulted in a large common vocabulary among Western languages. Interlingua uses an [[algorithm]] to extract and standarize the most widespread word (or, occasionally, words) for a concept found in a set of ''control languages'' (English, French, Italian, and Spanish/Portuguese, with German and Russian as secondary references). The resulting vocabulary corresponds closely with the [[Neolatin]] element in the [[International Scientific Vocabulary]].
Interlingua combines this pre-existing vocabulary with a minimalist grammar based on the control languages. People with a good knowledge of a Romance language, or a smattering of a Romance language plus a good knowledge of the international scientific vocabulary can frequently read it at first sight. Because at-sight comprehensibility was a design criterion, Interlingua retains the traditional spelling and morphology of its Latinate source material. It is for this reason that Interlingua is frequently termed a ''naturalistic'' IAL (as opposed ''schematic'' IALs such as [[Esperanto]] and [[Ido]], which are less closely tied to their source languages).
== History ==
=== [[International Auxiliary Language Association]] ===
Ultimate credit for Interlingua must go to the American heiress Alice [[Vanderbilt]] Morris (1874–1950), who became interested in [[linguistics]] and the [[international auxiliary language]] movement in the early 1920s. In 1923, Morris and her husband, David Hennen Morris, founded the non-profit International Auxiliary Language Association in New York. Their aim was to place the study of IALs on a scientific basis. IALA became a major supporter of mainstream American linguistics, funding, for example, [[Edward Sapir]]'s cross-linguistic semantic studies of totality (1930) and grading phenomena (1944). Morris herself edited Sapir and [[Morris Swadesh]]'s 1932 cross-linguistic study of ending-point phenomena, and [[William Edward Collinson]]'s 1937 study of indication. Although the Morrises provided most of IALA's funding, it also received support from such prestigious groups as the [[Carnegie Corporation]], the [[Ford Foundation]] and the [[Rockefeller Foundation]].
In its early years, IALA concerned itself with three tasks: finding other organizations around the world with similar goals; building a library of books about [[language]]s and [[interlinguistics]]; and comparing extant IALs, including [[Esperanto]], [[Esperanto II]], [[Ido]], [[Latino Sine Flexione]], [[Novial]], and [[Occidental language|Occidental]]. In pursuit of this last goal it arranged conferences with proponents of these IALs, debating features and goals of their representative language. However, with a "concession rule" that required participants to make a certain number of concessions, the debates were forestalled from changing from heated to explosive.
During the Second International Interlanguage Congress in [[Geneva]] in [[1931]], the IALA began to break new ground, as its conference was attended (and its efforts legitimized) by eminent linguists who were <i>not</i> members of the IALA.
[[1933]] was a major year for the IALA. First, Professor [[Herbert H. Shenton]] of [[Syracuse University]] founded an intense study about the problems that had been encountered in interlanguages when used in international conferences. Later, Dr. [[Edward L. Thorndike]] published a paper about the relative learning speeds of "natural" and "modular" constructed languages. Although neither was a member of the IALA, both were major influences on its work from then on.
In [[1937]], the first steps towards the finalization of Interlingua were made, when a committee of 24 linguists from 19 universities around the world published <i>Some Criteria for an International Language and Commentary</i> (English title). However, the intended biannual meetings of the committee was cut short by the outbreak of [[World War II]] in 1939.
===Development of a new language===
From the beginning, the IALA had not set out to create its own language, but rather to identify which international language already extant would be the best suited to the task, and how best to promote it. However, after ten years of research, more and more members of the IALA came to the conclusion that none of the extant interlanguages were up to the task. By [[1937]], the decision to create a new language had been arrived at, a decision that surprised the world's interlanguage community.
Although much of the debate had been to that point evenly balanced over the decision to use naturalistic (e.g., [[Novial]] and [[Occidental]]) or systematic (e.g., [[Esperanto]] and [[Ido]]) words, during the war years, those supporting a naturalistic interlanguage won out. The first support was Dr. Thorndike's paper; the second was the concession by those supporting systematic languages that thousands of words were already extant in many (or even a majority) of the European languages. Their argument was that systematic derivation of words was a [[Procrustes|Procrustian bed]], forcing the learner to unlearn and re-memorize a new derivation scheme when there was already a usable corpus of vocabulary. This finally convinced those who supported systematic languages, and the IALA from that point assumed the position that a naturalistic language would be best.
At the outbreak of the Second World War, IALA's research activities were moved from Liverpool to New York, where E. Clark Stillman established a new research staff. Stillman, with the assistance of Dr. [[Alexander Gode]], developed a ''prototyping'' technique -- an objective methodology for selecting and standardizing vocabulary based on a comparison of ''control languages''.
In [[1943]] Stillman left for war work and Gode became Acting Director of Research. In [[1945]], IALA published a ''General Report'' (largely Morris's work), which presented three models for IALA's language:
* Model P was a naturalistic model that made no attempt to regularize the prototyped vocabulary.
* Model E was lightly schematicized along the lines of [[Occidental]].
* Model K was moderately schematicized along the lines of [[Ido]] (i.e., somewhat less schematicized than [[Esperanto]]).
From [[1946]]–[[1948|48]], the French linguist [[André Martinet]] was Director of Research. During this period IALA continued to develop models and conducted polling to determine the optimal form of the final language. An initial survey gauged reactions to the three models of 1945. In 1946 an extensive survey was sent to more than 3000 language teachers and related professionals on three continents.
Four models were canvassed: Model P and K, plus two new models similar to Model E of 1945.
{| border=0
|- valign=top
| || Model P || || highly naturalistic || || ''Jo habe nascite, o dea cum le oculos azure, de parentes barbare, inter le bone et virtuose Cimmerios''
|- valign=top
| || Model M || || moderately naturalistic || ||''Io have nascit, o dea con le ocules azur, de parentes barbar, inter le bon e virtuos Cimmerios ''
|- valign=top
| || Model C || || slightly schematic || ||''Yo ha nascet, o deessa con le ocules azur, de parentes barbar, inter le bon e virtuose Cimerios ''
|- valign=top
| || Model K || || moderately schematic || ||''Yo naskeba, o dea kon le okuli azure, de parenti barbare, inter le bone e virtuose Kimerii ''
|- valign=top
| || colspan=3 | (English) || ||'I was born, O goddess with the blue eyes, of barbarian relations, among the good and virtuous Cimmerians'
|- valign=top
| || colspan=3 | (modern Interlingua) || ||''Io ha nascite, o dea con le oculos azur, de parentes barbar, inter le bon e virtuose Cimmerios''
|}
Model P was unchanged from 1945; Model K was slightly modified in the direction of [[Ido]].
The survey results were surprising. The two more schematic models, C and K, were rejected (K overwhelmingly). Of the two naturalistic models, M attracted somewhat more support than P. Taking national biases into account (for example, the French who were polled disproportionately favored Model M), IALA decided on a compromise between models M and P, with certain elements of C.
===Finalization===
Upon Martinet's resignation in 1948 to take up a position at [[Columbia University]], Gode took on the last phase of Interlingua's development. His task was to combine elements of Model M and Model P, while taking the flaws seen in both by the polled community and repairing them with elements of Model C as necessary, while simultaneously developing a vocabulary.
The vocabulary and verb conjugations of Interlingua were initially published in [[1951]]. In 1951, the IALA published the finalized grammar, a 27,000-word dictionary (Interlingua to English only), and an introductory book entitled ''Interlingua a Prime Vista'' ("Interlingua at First Sight").
An early practical application of Interlingua was the scientific newsletter ''Spectroscopia Molecular'' (published 1952–1980). In 1954 Interlingua was employed at the Second World Cardiological Congress, in Washington DC, for both written summaries and oral interpretation. Within a few years it found similar use at nine further medical congresses. Between the mid-1950s and the late 1970s, some thirty scientific and especially medical journals provided article summaries in Interlingua. Science News Service, the publisher at the time of ''Science Newsletter'', published a monthly column in Interlingua from the early nineteen-fifties until Gode's death in 1970.
===Interlingua today===
Today, Interlingua is promoted primarily by the [[Union Mundial pro Interlingua]] (president: Barbara Rubinstein, Sweden; secretary-general: Petyo Angelov, Bulgaria). Periodicals and books are produced by various national organizations, including the [[Societate American pro Interlingua]] (president: Dr. Stanley Mulaik) and the Svenska Sällskapet för Interlingua (secretary: Ingvar Stenström).
Currently, [[Panorama In Interlingua]] is the most prominent Interlingua periodical. It is a 28-page newsletter published bimonthly that covers news, science, and editorials. Interlingua has seen a resurgence over the last decade thanks to the Internet, with the number of speakers jumping tenfold by some estimates.
== Vocabulary ==
The IALA set up a control group of five widely-known languages with much shared vocabulary, grouped into four units: [[French language|French]], [[Italian language|Italian]], [[Spanish language|Spanish]]/[[Portuguese language|Portuguese]] (treated as one unit), and [[English language|English]]. A word is eligible for Interlingua if it occurs with similar meanings in three of these four units. Secondary controls are originally [[German language|German]] and [[Russian language|Russian]]. Self-explanatory compounds can be included with support from at least one source language. Grammatical words, required to operate the language, are taken from [[Latin]] if this procedure fails.
The forms of Interlingua words are based on the historical or hypothetical forms from which the national forms evolved. Derivational series are also considered. Though French ''oeil'', Italian ''occhio'', Spanish ''ojo'' and Portuguese ''olho'' ("eye") are quite different, they descend from a historical form ''oculus''. This, and international derivatives like ''ocular'' and ''oculista'', determine the form ''oculo'' to be used in Interlingua.
New words can be created internally, through derivational affixes, or extracted from the control languages in the manner of the original vocabulary. Internal word-building, though freer than in the control languages, is more restricted than in schematic IALs such as [[Esperanto]] and [[Ido]]. Most Interlingua dictionaries include only words with support in the control languages.
Interlingua as now used tends to have less [[Classical Latin]] vocabulary than the IALA's original version, replaced in part by southern Romance vocabulary. For example ''emer'' ("to buy") has been mostly replaced by ''comprar''; ''sed'' ("but") with ''ma'' or ''mais''; and ''nimis'' ("too") with ''troppo''. However, other classical Latin words, such as "pro" ("for"), "contra" ("against"), "post" ("after") and "ergo" ("therefore") are retained because they are seen as more internationally understandable than their Romance counterparts.
== Phonology and spelling ==
The pronunciation is similar to ecclesiastical Latin. For the most part, the consonants are like English, while the vowels are like Spanish or Italian, {{IPA|[a, ɛ~e, i, ɔ~o, u]}}. Four vowel pairs (AI, AU, EU, OI) are pronounced as falling diphthongs ({{IPA|[aj, aw, ew, oj]}}). Notable exceptions are as follows:
*C is "soft" ({{IPA|[ts]}}) before ''e'', ''i'', or ''y''; otherwise "hard" {{IPA|[k]}}.
*CH is most often {{IPA|[k]}} and is used before ''e'', ''i'', or ''y'' or in words of Greek origin. In many words, especially of French origin, it has the sound of English ''sh'' (''choc, chenille, chef, chimpanze, chocolate, cheque''). {{IPA|[ʃ]}}. In a few loanwords it takes the English or Spanish ''ch'' sound {{IPA|[tʃ]}} (''microchip'').
*G is "hard" ({{IPA|[g]}}), except in the sequences ''-age'' and ''-agi-'' (preceding a vowel), where it has the sound of French ''j''.
*H is silent in the combinations ''rh'' and ''th'' ({{IPA|[r]}} and ({{IPA|[t]}}).
*I is like English ''y'' {{IPA|[j]}} before another vowel, unless stressed (''union'' {{IPA|[u'njon]}}, ''via'' {{IPA|['via]}}).
*J is French ''j'' {{IPA|[ʒ]}}.
*Q is {{IPA|[k]}} and occurs almost exclusively in the combination ''qu'' {{IPA|[kw]}}.
* PH is {{IPA|[f]}} in words of Greek origin.
* R is lightly rolled or trilled {{IPA|[ɾ], [r]}}, as in Italian or Spanish.
* TI becomes {{IPA|[tsj]}} before a vowel, except if the 'i'' is stressed or in the combination ''-sti-'' (''nation'' {{IPA|[na'tsjon]}}; but ''politia'' {{IPA|[poli'tia]}}, ''question'' {{IPA|[kwe'stjon]}}.
*U is {{IPA|[w]}} before another vowel, unless stressed (''continuar'' {{IPA|[konti'nwar]}}, ''duo'' {{IPA|['duo]}}.
*Y has the same value as I.
Double consonants are pronounced as single (''fila'' {{IPA|['fila]}}, ''illa'' {{IPA|['ila]}}).
=== Alternative pronunciations ===
Alternative pronunciations are permitted for some letters and combinations:
* Some speakers pronounce "soft" C as {{IPA|[s]}} rather than {{IPA|[ts]}}.
* Many speakers pronounce EU like English ''oy'' ({{IPA|[oj]}}).
* H is optionally silent in all positions.
* Many speakers pronounce J and "soft" G like English ''j'' {{IPA|[dʒ]}}.
*P is optionally silent in initial ''pn-, ps-,'' and ''pt-''.
* QU is pronounced ''qu'' as {{IPA|[k]}} before ''e'' or ''i'' by some speakers . Almost all speakers pronounce the particles ''que'' and ''qui'' as {{IPA|[ke, ki]}}.
* S may be pronounced {{IPA|[z]}} between two vowels. SS is always {{IPA|[s]}}.
* Some speakers pronounce the "soft" TI as {{IPA|[sj]}} rather than {{IPA|[tsj]}}. A few keep it "hard" ({{IPA|[tj]}}).
* X may be pronounced {{IPA|[gz]}} between two vowels.
=== Stress ===
The stress falls on one of the last three syllables of a word. It most often falls on the vowel before the last consonant of a word (e.g., '''''lin'''gua, es'''ser''', requiri'''men'''to''). The following rules account for most of exceptions:
* Verbs in the future tense are stressed on the final ''-a'' (''io scribe'''ra''''' 'I shall write').
* Verbs in the conditional tense are stressed on the final ''-ea'' (e.g. ''il esse'''re'''a sage'' 'it would be wise').
* Words (except verbs) ending in ''-le, -ne,'' or ''-re'' are stressed on the third-last syllable ('''''fra'''gile, '''mar'''gine, '''al'''tere;'' but ''illa im'''po'''ne'' 'she imposes').
*Words ending in ''-ica/-ico, -ide/-ido'' and ''-ula/-ulo,'' are stressed on the third-last syllable (''po'''li'''tica, scien'''ti'''fico, '''ra'''pide, '''stu'''pido, ca'''pi'''tula, '''se'''culo'').
*Words ending in ''-ic'' are stressed on the second-last syllable ('''''cu'''bic'').
Users may depart from the preferred stress for a word, provided this does not interfere with communication. For example, ''ki'''lo'''metro'' and ''kilo'''me'''tro'' are both acceptable, although ''ki'''lo'''metro'' is preferred for etymological reasons.
=== Alternative spellings ===
The original specifications for Interlingua (1951) provided for an alternative, simplified orthography. This differed from the "classic" orthography primarily by
* dropping double consonants(''application'' → ''aplication''), and
* simplifying the spelling of words derived from Greek:
** CH ({{IPA|[k]}}) becomes C except before E and I (''character'' → ''caracter''; but ''oligarchic'' is unchanged)
** PH becomes F (''telephono'' → ''telefono'')
** RH becomes R (''rhetorica'' → ''retorica'')
** TH becomes T (''theatro'' → ''teatro'')
** Y (vowel) becomes I (''mytho'' → ''mito'').
Some current users apply the simplified spelling of Greek-derived words, but almost all retain the double consonants.
== Grammar ==
{{seesubarticle|Interlingua grammar}}
The grammar of Interlingua is based on that of the Romance languages, but simplified, primarily under the influence of English. Grammatical features absent from any of the primary control languages were dropped. For example, there is neither adjectival [[agreement]] (Spanish ''gatos negros'' 'black cats'), since this feature is absent in English, nor progressive verb tenses (English ''I am reading''), since they are absent in French. The definite article ''le'' is invariable, as in English.
Nouns have no grammatical [[gender]] and are pluralised by adding ''-s'' (''-es'' after a final consonant, ''-hes'' after a final ''-c''). [[Pronoun]]s take [[nominative]], [[oblique case|oblique]], and [[genitive]] cases. Most [[adverb]]s are derived from [[adjective]]s by adding ''-(a)mente''.
The verb system is a simplified version of the systems found in English and the Romance languages. Except (optionally) for ''esser'' 'to be', there are no personal inflections, and the [[indicative]] also covers the [[subjunctive]] and [[imperative]] moods. Three common verbs usually take short forms in the present tense. A few other irregular verb forms are available though little used.
There are four simple tenses/moods (the present, past, and future tenses and the conditional mood) and four compound tenses/moods/voices (the past and future tenses, the conditional mood, and the passive voice). These compound structures employ an auxiliary plus the infinitive or the past participle. Simple and compound tenses can be combined in various ways to express more complex tenses (e.g., ''Nos haberea morite'' 'We would have died').
Word order is essentially Subject–Verb–Object, except that pronouns often follow the Romance pattern Subject–Object–Verb (''Io les vide'' 'I see them'). Adjectives may precede or follow the nouns they modify. The position of adverbs is flexible, though constrained by common sense.
== Community ==
Estimates of the number of speakers of Interlingua range from as few as 100 to as many as 10,000. The majority of conservative estimates, however, place the number of active users of Interlingua at between 1,000 and 1,500. There are no known native speakers.
Interlingua has active supporters in [[North America|North]] and [[South America]], [[Europe]] (particularly [[Scandinavia]]), and [[Russia]]. There are Interlingua web pages (including editions of Wikipedia and Wikitionary) and several periodicals, including ''Panorama in Interlingua'' from the [[Union Mundial pro Interlingua]] (UMI) and the magazines of the national societies allied with it. There are several active mailing lists, and Interlingua is also in use in certain [[Usenet]] newsgroups, particularly in the europa hierarchy. In recent years, samples of Interlingua have also been seen in music and animé.
Every two years, the UMI organizes an international conference in a different European country; the most recent conference ([[2005]]), in [[Sweden]], was attended by slightly over 250 people. In the year between, the Scandinavian Interlingua societies co-organize a conference in Sweden.
Interlingua may well be the most widely spoken [[international auxiliary language]] (IAL) after [[Esperanto]], although the estimated number of speakers overlaps with that of [[Ido]]. It is also claimed to be the most widely ''understood'' IAL by virtue of its naturalistic (as opposed to schematic) grammar and vocabulary, allowing those familiar with one of the primary control languages to read and understand it with little study.
== Criticisms and controversies ==
Like any project of such scope, Interlingua has generated some heated discussion, both among Interlingua users and among non-users (frequently proponents of other auxiliary languages). Some common criticisms (and their common responses) are noted below.
* Some say that Interlingua is too Romance in its grammar and vocabulary, and is not fair towards Germanic languages. Its defenders note that the Romance languages, being based on Latin, have the advantage in the linguistic impact of the old [[Roman Empire]], which is still seen today in that a Romance language is spoken on five out of seven continents; the only Germanic languages with an international scope are [[English language|English]] (which is already a primary language) and [[German language|German]] (which is already a secondary language). However, [[Spanish_language|Spanish]], which has a very regular grammar and inflectional system compared to other Romance languages, and is quite easy for English-speakers to learn, has threatened to obviate the need for not only Interlingua but Esperanto and Ido, especially in the [[United States]], where Spanish is the most common second language studied. (In fact, there is debate in the Interlingua community as to expanding the language's sources to other languages; see [[:ia:Creation_de_nove_parolas_in_Interlingua|Creation de nove parolas in Interlingua]] (in Interlingua) for an overview of the debate.)
* Others note that Interlingua, being [[Europe]]an in nature, is primarily of use to Europeans. Interlingua supporters point out that [[Esperanto]], despite being based on Slavic, Germanic, and Romance languages, has some of its strongest communities in [[China]] and [[Japan]], where the local languages are totally unrelated to the [[Indo-European languages]]. (See [[color argument]].)
* Finally, some argue that Esperantists outnumber Interlingua users to such a degree (estimates range from 50:1 to 1000:1) that anyone interested in promoting an auxiliary language should support [[Esperanto]] instead. Supporters counter that it is a lot easier to understand Interlingua without training than Esperanto, because Interlingua uses the most widespread words of the Romance languages, whereas Esperanto makes up many of its own words according to internal rules. For example, one can speak Interlingua with anyone who knows Italian or Spanish. One will even be understood by Portuguese speakers, but will have difficulty understanding them. Whereas if one tries to communicate in Esperanto to speakers of these other languages one will have very limited success.
== Samples ==
{|
|''Scientistas varia justo como nos alteros. Il ha sapientes e fatuos, sobrios e dissipatos, solitarios e gregarios, corteses e inciviles, puritanos e licentiosos, industriosos e pigros, et cetera. Como genere illes exhibi certe tendentias. Per exemplo, illes es totos de alte intelligentia. Le scientista pote esser stupide re certe cosas, ma ille debe haber le basic potentia mental que es requirite pro devenir scientista; ille non pote esser moron in le stricte senso psychometric.''
|Scientists vary just like the rest of us. There are the wise and the foolish, the sober and the dissipated, the solitary and the gregarious, the courteous and the rude, the puritanical and the licentious, the industrious and the lazy, and so on. As a type they exhibit certain tendencies. For example, they are all of high intelligence. The scientist may be stupid about certain things, but he must have the basic mental capacity that is required to become a scientist; he cannot be a moron in the strict psychometric sense.
|}
The [[Lord's Prayer]] (also available as an [http://www.wikipedia.com/upload/paternoster-ia.mp3 MP3 file]):
: ''Nostre Patre, qui es in le celos,''
: ''que tu nomine sia sanctificate;''
: ''que tu regno veni;''
: ''que tu voluntate sia facite''
: ''super le terra como etiam in le celo.''
: ''Da nos hodie nostre pan quotidian,''
: ''e pardona a nos nostre debitas''
: ''como nos pardona a nostre debitores,''
: ''e non duce nos in tentation,''
: ''sed libera nos del mal.''
== See also ==
{{InterWiki|code=ia}}
{{Wikibookspar||Interlingua}}
* [[Irregularities and exceptions in Interlingua]]
* [[International auxiliary language]]
* [[Esperanto and Interlingua compared]]
== References ==
* Falk, Julia S. ''Women, Language and Linguistics: Three American stories from the first half of the twentieth century.'' Routledge, London & New York: 1999.
* Gode, Alexander, et al. [http://www.interlingua.com/ied/ ''Interlingua-English: a dictionary of the international language'']. Storm Publishers, New York, 1951.
* Gode, Alexander, and Hugh E. Blair. [http://members.optus.net/~ado_hall/interlingua/gi/home/entry_page.html ''Interlingua: a grammar of the international language'']. Storm Publishers, New York, 1951.
* Gopsill, F.P. [http://www.geocities.com/hkyson/directorio/interlinguistica/html/lehistoriahtml.htm ''Le historia antenatal de Interlingua.'']. (In Interlingua.) Accessed [[28 May]] [[2005]].
* International Auxiliary Language Association (IALA). [http://www.interlingua.com/lectura/iala-general-report.htm ''General Report'']. IALA, New York: 1945.
* Pei, Mario. ''One Language for the World and How To Achieve It.'' Devin-Adair, New York; 1958.
* Union Mundial pro Interlingua (UMI). [http://www.interlingua.com/historia/ ''Interlingua 2001: communication sin frontieras durante 50 annos''] (in Interlingua). Accessed [[3 December]] [[2005]].
== External links ==
* [http://www.interlingua.com/ Union Mundial pro Interlingua], the official site of the UMI.
* [http://www.interlingua.com/ied/ ''Interlingua-English: a dictionary of the international language''].
* [http://members.optus.net/~ado_hall/interlingua/gi/home/entry_page.html ''Interlingua: a grammar of the international language''].
* [http://dmoz.org/World/Interlingua/ Directory of websites in Interlingua] at Open Directory Project
* [http://www.google.com/intl/ia/ Google in Interlingua]
* [http://www.europa.usenet.eu.org/ The europa.* Usenet hierarchy], which uses Interlingua for the denomination of its newsgroups and as one of the documentation languages
*[http://www.inlv.demon.nl/internodio/ Internodio] A website in Interlingua containing news items, of which some are also in audio (occasionally updated)
*[http://www.omniglot.com/writing/interlingua.htm Omniglot article on Interlingua]
*[http://en.wikibooks.org/wiki/Basic_Interlingua_English_Dictionary#P wikibooks English-Interlingua dictionary]
*[http://ia.wiktionary.org/wiki/Anglese-Interlingua English - Interlingua Dictionary]
[[Category:International auxiliary languages]]
[[Category:Interlingua|*]]
[[ca:Interlingua]]
[[cy:Interlingua]]
[[de:Interlingua (Plansprache)]]
[[es:Interlingua]]
[[eo:Interlingvao]]
[[fr:Interlingua]]
[[gl:Interlingua]]
[[ko:인테르링구아]]
[[ia:Interlingua]]
[[it:Interlingua]]
[[he:אינטרלינגואה]]
[[la:Interlingua]]
[[lt:Interlingua]]
[[hu:Interlingva nyelv]]
[[nl:Interlingua]]
[[ja:インターリングア]]
[[no:Interlingua]]
[[pl:Interlingua]]
[[pt:Interlíngua]]
[[ro:Interlingua]]
[[ru:Интерлингва]]
[[simple:Interlingua]]
[[sr:Интерлингва]]
[[fi:Interlingua]]
[[sv:Interlingua]]
[[zh:国际语]]
Isotactic
15101
27216231
2005-11-03T02:52:20Z
Nathaniel
435802
[[image:Isotacticpolymer.gif|right|Isotactic polymer chain]]'''Isotactic''' [[polymer]]s refer to those polymers formed by branched [[monomer]]s that have the characteristic of having all the branch groups on the same side of the [[polymeric chain]]. The monomers are all oriented in the same way: If we represent a monomer by AB then an isotactic polymer is AB-AB-AB-AB-AB-etc.
Besides Isotactism, there are other two types of stereoregularity or [[tacticity]] frequently found in the scientific literature:
[[Syndiotactic|Syndiotactism]]- The monomers have alternating orientations within the polymer chain:
AB-BA-AB-BA-AB-BA-etc.
and [[Atactic|Atactism]]- The monomers have random orientations within the chain:
e.g. AB-AB-BA-AB-BA-BA-BA-AB-etc.
[[Category:Polymer chemistry]][[category:stereochemistry]]
Isle of Wight
15102
41624068
2006-02-28T16:27:29Z
137.222.216.94
/* External links */
{{otheruses}}
{| class="infobox" style="width: 25em;"
|-
!colspan=2 align=center bgcolor="#ff9999"|Isle of Wight
|-
|colspan=2 align=center|[[Image:EnglandIsleWight.png]]
|-
!colspan=2 bgcolor="#ff9999"|Geography
|-
|width="45%"|Status:||[[Ceremonial counties of England|Ceremonial]] & [[Metropolitan and non-metropolitan counties of England|Non-metropolitan]]/[[Unitary authority|Unitary]] county
|-
|Region:||[[South East England]]
|-
|[[Surface area|Area]]:<br>- Total<br>- District||[[List of Ceremonial counties of England by Area|Ranked 46th]]<br>[[1 E8 m²|380]] [[square kilometre|km²]]<br>[[List of English districts by area|Ranked 122nd]]
|-
|Admin HQ:||[[Newport, Isle of Wight|Newport]]
|-
|[[ISO 3166-2:GB|ISO 3166-2]]:||GB-IOW
|-
|[[ONS coding system|ONS code]]:||00MW
|-
|[[Nomenclature of Territorial Units for Statistics|NUTS]] 3:||UKG11
|-
!colspan=2 bgcolor="#ff9999"|Demographics
|-
|[[Population]]<br />- Total ([[2004]] est.)<br />- [[Density]]<br />- District
|[[List of ceremonial counties of England by population|Ranked 46th]]<br />138,400<br />364 / km²<br />[[List of English districts by population|Ranked 125th]]
|-
|Ethnicity:||98.7% White
|-
!colspan=2 bgcolor="#ff9999"|Politics
|-
| align=center width=140px | [[Image:IOW_flag.png|150px]] || align=center width=140px | [[Image:IW_Arms.png|120px]]
|-
| align=center width=140px |'''Flag'''<br>[[Flag of the Isle of Wight|''(in detail)'']] || align=center width=140px |'''Arms'''<br>[[Isle of Wight Arms|''(in detail)'']]
|-
| align=center colspan=2 style=border-bottom:3px solid gray; | <font size=-1>''Motto: All this beauty is of God''</font>
|-
|colspan=2 align=center|Isle of Wight Council<br>http://www.iwight.gov.uk/
|-
|Executive:||[[Conservative Party (UK)|Conservative]]
|-
|[[MPs elected in the UK general election, 2005|MP]]:||[[Andrew Turner]]
|}
The '''Isle of Wight''' is an [[England|English]] [[island]], south of [[Southampton, England|Southampton]] off the southern English coast. It is part of the [[United Kingdom]].
Popularized from [[Victorian Era|Victorian times]] as a holiday resort, it is known for its natural beauty and as home to the [[Royal Yacht Squadron]] at [[Cowes]], a town that hosts a world famous annual [[Cowes Week|regatta]]. Colloquially, it is known as "The Island" by its residents. It possesses a rich history including its own brief status as a [[vassal]] kingdom in the [[fifteenth century]], home to poet [[Alfred Lord Tennyson]] and [[Victoria of the United Kingdom|Queen Victoria's]] much loved summer residence and final home [[Osborne House]]. Its maritime history encompasses boat building and sail making through to the manufacture of [[flying boat]]s and the world's first [[hovercraft]]. It is home to the [[Isle of Wight Festival]] which in [[1970]] was one of the largest [[rock music]] events ever held with estimates reaching 600,000 attendees, overtaking the record set at [[Woodstock]] a year earlier. The island is also one of the richest [[fossil]] locations for [[dinosaur]]s in [[Europe]]. In [[686|686AD]], it became the last part of [[Great Britain]] to convert to [[Christianity]] - almost a century after the mainland.
Until the revival of [[Rutland]] in [[1997]] it was the smallest [[county]] in England but it remains, with just one [[Member of Parliament]] and 132,731 permanent residents in the [[2001]] [[census]], the most populated [[List of Parliamentary constituencies in the United Kingdom|Parliamentary constituency]] in the [[United Kingdom]].
==Geography & Wildlife==
The Isle of Wight is approximately diamond in shape and covers an area of [[1 E8 m²|147 square miles (381 square km)]]. Nearly half this area, mainly in the west of the Island, is designated as the [[Isle of Wight AONB|Isle of Wight Area of Outstanding Natural Beauty]]. The landscape of the Island is remarkably diverse, leading to its oft-quoted description of "England in Miniature". The West Wight is predominantly rural, with dramatic coastlines dominated by the famous chalk [[downland]] ridge, running across the whole Island and ending in The Needles stacks - perhaps the most photographed aspect of the Isle of Wight. The highest point on the island is [[St Boniface Down]], at 241m/791ft, which is also a [[Marilyn (hill)|Marilyn]].
[[Image:Isle of Wight coastline.jpg|left|thumb|250px|The famous view at [[The Needles]] and [[Alum Bay]].]]
The rest of the Island landscape also has great diversity, with perhaps the most notable habitats being the soft cliffs and sea ledges, which are spectacular features as well as being very important for wildlife, and are internationally protected. The [[River Medina]] flows north into the [[Solent]], whilst the other main river, the [[Eastern Yar (river), Isle of Wight|River Yar]] flows roughly north-east, emerging at [[Bembridge]] Harbour on the eastern end of the Island. Confusingly, there is another entirely separate river at the western end also called the [[Western Yar (river), Isle of Wight|River Yar]] flowing the short distance from [[Freshwater, Isle of Wight|Freshwater]] Bay to a relatively large estuary at [[Yarmouth, Isle of Wight|Yarmouth]]. Where distinguishing the two becomes necessary, each may be referred to as the ''eastern'' or ''western'' Yar. The south coast of the island adjoins the [[English Channel]].
Island wildlife is remarkable, thought to be the only place in [[England]] where the [[red squirrel]] is flourishing, with a stable population. Unlike the rest of England, no [[grey squirrel]]s are to be found on the Island[http://www.iwight.com/living_here/environment/operation_squirrel.asp], nor are there any wild [[deer]], but instead rare and protected species such as the [[dormouse]], and many rare [[bat]]s can be found. The [[Glanville Fritillary]] butterfly, in the [[United Kingdom]] is largely restricted to the edges of the crumbling cliffs of the Isle of Wight.
[[Image:Wight.png|250px|right|thumb|'''Isle of Wight''' and the Solent]]
By far the main form of access is by [[boat]] from the mainland, regular [[ferry]] services being available from [[Lymington]] to [[Yarmouth, Isle of Wight|Yarmouth]], [[Southampton]] to East [[Cowes]], and [[Portsmouth]] to [[Fishbourne, Isle of Wight|Fishbourne]]. Foot passengers may also use the [[hovercraft]] service between [[Southsea]] and [[Ryde]] esplanade or two hi-speed [[catamaran]] services; from West Cowes to Southampton or Portsmouth Harbour Station to Ryde pier head. The latter provides a direct link between the rail systems of the Island and Mainland. The island is also served by airports for light [[aircraft]] at Bembridge and Sandown.
The island is the home of the smallest Train Operating Company in Britain's [[National Rail]] network, the [[Island Line, IOW | Island Line]], running some 8½ miles from [[Ryde]] Pier Head to [[Shanklin]] down the eastern side of the island. The island also has a steam operated heritage railway, the [[Isle of Wight Steam Railway]], which connects with the Island Line at Smallbrook Junction.
==History of the Isle of Wight==
''Main article: [[History of the Isle of Wight]].''
Much of the land now making up the Isle of Wight was deposited during the late [[Cretaceous]], at times part of a large river [[valley]] complex which consisted of much of the current southern coast of [[England]]. The swamps and ponds of the region at that time made the island excellent for the preservation of fossils, and means that it is now one of the richest locations for finding [[dinosaur]]s in [[Europe]] (for more information see the [[dinosaurs of the Isle of Wight]] article).
The Isle of Wight became an island sometime after the end of the last [[Ice Age]] when [[post-glacial rebound]] caused the land level to sink, the [[Solent]] flooding and separating the island from the mainland. The island was part of [[Celt]]ic Britain and known to the Romans as ''Vectis'', captured by [[Vespasian]] in the [[Roman invasion of Britain|Roman invasion]]. After the Roman era the Isle of Wight was settled by the [[Jutes]], a [[Germanic tribe]], in the early stages of the [[Anglo-Saxon]] invasions. The latter's corruption of ''Vectis'' into ''Wiht'' (the [[Latin]] ''v'' was pronounced [w]) is the root of the island's name.
[[Image:Charles I memorial.jpg|left|thumb|150px|Memorial to [[Charles I of England|Charles I]] at [[Carisbrooke Castle]]]]
The [[Norman Conquest]] created the position of [[Lord of the Isle of Wight]]. [[Carisbrooke Priory]] and the fort of [[Carisbrooke Castle]] were founded. The island did not come under full control of the crown until it was sold by the dying last Norman Lord, Lady Isabella de Fortebus, to [[Edward I of England|Edward I]] in [[1293]]. The Lordship thereafter became a Royal appointment with a brief interruption when [[Henry de Beauchamp, 1st Duke of Warwick]] was crowned King of the Isle of Wight, [[Henry VI of England|King Henry VI]] assisting in person at the ceremony, placing the crown on his head. He died in [[1445]], aged 22. With no male heir, his regal title expired with him.
[[Henry VIII of England|Henry VIII]], who developed the [[Royal Navy]] and its permanent base at [[Portsmouth]], fortified the island at Yarmouth, East & West Cowes and Sandown, sometimes re-using stone from dissolved monasteries as building material. Sir Richard Worsley, Captain of the Island at this time, successfully commanded the resistance to the last of the French attacks in [[1545]]. Much later on after the [[Spanish Armada]] in [[1588]] the threat of Spanish attacks remained, and the outer fortifications of Carisbrooke Castle were built between [[1597]] and [[1602]]. During the [[English Civil War]] [[Charles I of England|King Charles]] fled to the Isle of Wight believing he would receive sympathy from the governor Robert Hammond. Hammond was appalled, and incarcerated the king in Carisbrooke Castle.
[[Image:Osborne-house1.jpg|thumb|250px|[[Osborne House]] and its magnificent grounds are now open to the public]]
[[Victoria of the United Kingdom|Queen Victoria]] made [[Osborne House]] on the Isle of Wight her summer home for many years, and as a result it become a major holiday resort for members of European royalty, whose many houses could later claim descent from her through the widely flung marriages of her offspring. During her reign in [[1897]] the World's first [[radio]] station was set up by [[Guglielmo Marconi|Marconi]] at the Needles battery at the western tip of the Island.
In [[1904]] a mysterious illness began to kill [[honeybee]] colonies on the island, and had nearly wiped out all hives by [[1907]] when the [[disease]] jumped to the mainland, and decimated [[beekeeping]] in the [[British Isles]]. Called the Isle of Wight Disease, the cause of the mystery ailment was not identified until [[1921]] when it was traced to the [[mite]] ''[[Acarapis woodi]]''. The disease (now called [[Acarine Disease]]) frightened many other nations because of the importance of bees in [[pollination]] of many food plants. Laws against importation of honeybees were passed, but this merely delayed the eventual spread of the parasite to the rest of the world.
The [[Isle of Wight Festival]] could describe several events, but usually the term refers to one very large [[Isle of Wight Festival|rock festival]] that took place near [[Afton Down]], West Wight in [[1970]], following two smaller concerts in [[1968]] and [[1969]]. The [[1970]] show was notable for being the last public performance by [[Jimi Hendrix]] before his death and the number of attendees reaching, by many estimates 600,000[http://movies.msn.com/movies/movie.aspx?m=32552] despite only 50,000 tickets being sold and overtaking the attendance at [[Woodstock]] in the previous year. The festival was revived in [[2002]] and is now an annual event - with other, smaller musical events of many different genres across the Island becoming associated with it.
==Politics==
''Main article: [[Politics of the Isle of Wight]]''
The Isle of Wight is a [[Ceremonial counties of England|Ceremonial]] and [[Metropolitan and non-metropolitan county|Administrative]] county and as it has no district councils (only the county council) it is effectively a [[Unitary authority|Unitary]] county, though not officially. It is unique in England in this way - all other Unitary areas are single districts with no county council, while the Isle of Wight is the other way round. It also has a single [[Member of Parliament]], and is by far the most populous [[constituency]] in the UK (more than 50% above the average of English constituencies).
[[Image:iwclogo1.gif|thumb|100px|right|[[Isle of Wight Council]] logo]]
As a constituency of the [[House of Commons]] it is traditionally a battleground between the [[Conservative Party (UK)|Conservatives]] and the [[Liberal Democrats (UK)|Liberal Democrats]]. The current MP, [[Andrew Turner]] is a Conservative, and his predecessor Dr [[Peter Brand]] was a Liberal Democrat.
The [[Isle of Wight Council]] election of [[2005]] was a landslide victory for the [[Conservative Party (UK)|Conservative]] party, displacing the long serving "Island First" group; a coalition of [[Liberal Democrats (UK)|Liberal Democrats]] and independents.
==Language and dialect==
The distinctive Isle of Wight accent is a somewhat stronger version of the traditional Hampshire [[dialect]], featuring the dropping of some [[consonant]]s and an emphasis on longer [[vowel]]s. This is similar to the [[West Country]] drawl heard in south-western England, but less removed in sound from the [[Estuary English]] of the South East. The spread of the latter in general, together with continuing immigration, means the broader accent is more prevalent in the older population.
The island also has its own lexical style. Some words like ''grockel'' (visitor) and ''nipper/nips'' (addressing a younger person) are commonly used and are shared with neighbouring regions. Others are unique, for example ''overner'' (a mainlander who has settled on the island), Other words are more obscure, being little used outside some of the families long resident on the island, such as ''mallishag'' (meaning [[caterpillar]]) and ''nammit'' (meaning food).
==Industry and agriculture==
The largest industry on the Isle of Wight is tourism, but the Island has a strong agricultural heritage, including sheep, dairy farming and arable crops. Traditional agricultural commodities are more difficult to market off the Island because of transport costs, but Island farmers have managed to successfully exploit some specialist markets. The high price of these products overcomes the transport costs. One of the most successful agricultural sectors at present is crops grown undercover, particularly salad crops including tomatoes and cucumbers. The Isle of Wight has a longer growing season than much of [[Britain]], and this also favours such crops. [[Garlic]] has been successfully grown in [[Newchurch, Isle of Wight|Newchurch]] for many years, and is even exported to [[France]]. This has led to the establishment of an annual [[Garlic Festival]] at Newchurch, which is one of the largest events of the Island's annual calendar. The favourable climate has led to the success of [[vineyard]]s, including one of the oldest in the British Isles, at Adgestone near [[Sandown]] [http://www.english-wine.co.uk/]. [[Lavender]] is also grown for its oil [http://www.lavender.co.uk/].
The making of sailcloth, boats and other connected maritime industry has long been associated with the island, although somewhat diminished in recent years. Although they have reduced the extent of the plants and workforce, including the sale of the main site, [[GKN plc|GKN]] operate what was once the [[British Hovercraft Corporation]] a subsidiary of, and latterly when manufacturing focus changed known as, [[Westland Aircraft]]. Prior to its purchase by Westland, it was the independent [[Saunders-Roe]]. It remains one of the most notable historical firms; having produced many of the [[flying boats]], and the world's first [[hovercraft]]. The island's major manufacturing activity today is in composite materials including a large manufacturer of wind turbine blades, Vesta's.
Bembridge airfield on the island is the home of [[Britten-Norman]], manufacturers of the world famous [[Britten-Norman Islander | Islander]] and [[Britten-Norman Trislander|Trislander]] aircraft. This is shortly to become the site of the European assembly line for [[Cirrus Design | Cirrus]] light aircraft.
A major contribution to the local economy comes from the world-famous international [[sailing]] [[regatta]], [[Cowes Week]], which is held every August and attracts over a hundred thousand visitors to the island. Other major sailing events are held at Cowes, including the [[Admiral's Cup]] held biennially in July and the [[Commodores' Cup]] in August.
In [[2005]], [[Northern Petroleum]] began exploratory drilling for [[petroleum|oil]] with its Sandhills-2 borehole at Porchfield, but ceased operations in October that year after failing to find significant reserves.
===Tourism and heritage===
[[Image:Isle of Wight.jpg|250px|thumb|right|Compton Chine, looking east towards Blackgang]]
The heritage of the Island is a major asset which has for many years kept its economy going. Holidays focussed on natural heritage, including both wildlife and geology, are becoming a growing alternative to the traditional [[seaside resort]] holiday. The latter has been in decline in the UK domestic market due to the increased affordability of air travel to alternative destinations.
Tourism is still the largest industry on the Island, As well as more traditional tourist attractions, the island is often host to walking or cycling holidays through the attractive scenery. Almost every town and village on the Island plays host to hotels, hostels and camping sites. Out of the peak summer season, the island is still an important destination for coach tours from other parts of [[Britain]] and an annual walking festival has attracted considerable interest.
=== Transport and communications ===
[[Image:Wight map.png|right|thumb|300px|Ferry routes and main roads]]
There are three ferry companies which operate routes between the mainland and the Island:
* [[Red Funnel]] - operates a car and passenger service between [[Southampton]] and East [[Cowes]]. A high speed passenger only services operates from "West" [[Cowes]] under the name of "Red Jet".
* [[Wightlink]] - operates a car and passenger service between [[Portsmouth]] and [[Fishbourne, Isle of Wight|Fishbourne]] (near [[Ryde]]), and between [[Lymington]] and [[Yarmouth, Isle of Wight|Yarmouth]]. It also operates a passenger-only service between [[Portsmouth Harbour railway station|Portsmouth Harbour]] (train station) and [[Ryde Pier|Ryde Pier Head]] (train station) under the name "Fast Cat", so named because the boats used are [[Catamaran|catamarans]].
* [[Hovertravel]] - carries passengers between [[Southsea]] and [[Ryde]] aboard a [[hovercraft]].
There are regular proposals for further routes, and during [[Cowes Week]] additional services have been known to operate - notably a fast catamaran service between West Cowes and Lymington.
A [[Island Line, IOW|railway service]] operates from Ryde Pier Head to [[Shanklin]] using ex [[London Underground]] rolling stock.
A sign used to greet visitors to the Island disembarking from the car ferry at [[Fishbourne, Isle of Wight|Fishbourne]], stating 'Island roads are different, please drive carefully'. It is a joke amongst local residents that the reason Island roads are different is due to a lack of maintenance by the council. Nevertheless the lighter traffic, quieter roads and slower speeds are noticeable to the visitor and are one of the reasons the Island has remained attractive to tourists from the busier mainland.
There are two small airfields for General Aviation, at Sandown and Bembridge. These are busy with day-trippers in summer.
All of the Island telephone exchanges are broadband enabled and in addition, some urban areas such as [[Cowes]] and [[Newport]] are covered by cable lines.
The [[Isle of Wight County Press]] [http://www.iwcp.co.uk/] is the major local newspaper, published weekly each Friday or the last working day before a public holiday falls on that day. There is also a local radio station, [[Isle of Wight Radio]] [http://www.iwradio.co.uk], broadcasting on 107 and 102 FM (also available over the internet), and a regional television station which broadcasts from the Island, [[Solent TV]] [http://www.solent.tv].
==Prisons==
The island geography close to the densely populated south of England led to it gaining three prisons: [[Albany Prison UK|Albany]], [[Camphill Prison|Camphill]] and [[Parkhurst prison|Parkhurst]] located outside Newport on the main road to Cowes. Albany and Parkhurst were once among the few Category A prisons in the [[UK]] until they were downgraded in the 1990s. The downgrading of Parkhurst was precipitated by a major escape: three prisoners (known to be some of the most dangerous murderers in the prison system) made their way out of the prison on 3 January 1995 to enjoy four days of freedom before being recaptured. Parkhurst especially enjoyed notoriety as one of toughest jails in the British Isles and "hosted" many notable inmates, including the Yorkshire Ripper [[Peter Sutcliffe]] and the [[Kray twins]].
Camphill is located 1 mile (1.6Km) to the west of Albany and Parkhurst, on the very edge of [[Parkhurst Forest]]. Originally an army barracks with a small estate of tree-lined roads with well-proportioned officer's houses (with varying grandeur according to rank) to the South and East. Having been converted to a [[borstal]] and later a low category prison, it maintains its ties to the housing around it as although now most privately owned, clean water is still provided from the prison itself and residents pay only sewerage fees to the water authority (Southern Water). The estate is accessed by two, gated, private roads. These are closed for one day each year so as not to become a public right of way.
==Education==
{{Template:Main|Education on the Isle of Wight}}
==Settlements==
{{Main|List of places on the Isle of Wight}}
==Selected places of interest==
<div style="float:right;">
{{EngPlacesKey}}
</div>
*[[Alum Bay]]
*[[Appuldurcombe House]] [[Image:EH icon.png|English Heritage]]
*[[Blackgang Chine]]
*[[Carisbrooke Castle]] [[Image:EH icon.png|English Heritage]]
*[[Dinosaur Isle]] [[Image:Museum icon (red).png|Museum]]
*[[Golden Hill Fort]] [[Image:CP icon.png|Country Park]]
*[[Fort Victoria (Isle of Wight)|Fort Victoria]] [[Image:CP icon.png|Country Park]]
*[[Isle of Wight Steam Railway]] [[Image:HR icon.png|Heritage Railway]]
*[[Osborne House]] [[Image:EH icon.png|English Heritage]]
*[[The Needles]] [[Image:NTE icon.png|National Trust]]
*[[Yarmouth Castle]] [[Image:EH icon.png|English Heritage]]
*[[Quarr Abbey]]
==Notable literary and musical references==
*[[The Beatles]]' "When I'm Sixty-Four", written by [[Paul McCartney]], refers to a rented summer cottage on the Isle of Wight.
*[[Ticket to Ride]], the [[The Beatles|Beatles]] classic, is a pun on 'Ticket to Ryde', the ferry port to the North of the Island.
*Called ''The Island'' in some editions of [[Thomas Hardy]]'s novels in his fictional [[Wessex]].
*In a similar fashion the island, with fictionalized placenames, is the setting of [[Maxwell Gray]]'s [[1886]] novel, ''The Silence of Dean Maitland'' [http://www.sakoman.net/gutenberg/1/0/9/9/10993/10993.txt].
*The Isle of Wight is the setting of [[Julian Barnes|Julian Barnes's]] novel ''[[England, England]]''.
*The island also features in [[John Wyndham|John Wyndham's]] novel ''[[The Day of the Triffids]]'' and [[Simon Clark]]'s sequel to it, ''[[The Night of the Triffids]]''.
*[[Robert Rennick]] has written a series of detective thrillers set on the Island, including ''The Fallen''
*In radio series [[Nebulous]], the Isle of Wight has been accidently disintegrated by Professor Nebulous while he was trying to move it slightly to the left.
*In the game [http://www.warbirdart.demon.co.uk/treasure.html spirit of the stones] the talismans are hidden on the Isle of Wight. The computer game by commodore is also set on the Isle of Wight
*In the ''[[Doctor Who]]'' [[List of Doctor Who serials|episode]] [[Father's Day (Doctor Who)|Father's Day]], [[Doctor (Doctor Who)|the Doctor]] remarks ''The past is another country, 1987 is just the Isle of Wight''.
==References==
*[[Hansard]], Wednesday 14th November 2001 column 850
*[[Isle of Wight County Press]] [http://www.iwcp.co.uk/]
==External links==
{{commons|Category:Isle of Wight}}
* [http://www.iwight.com/ Isle of Wight Council]
* [http://www.wightindex.com/ Isle of Wight information & accommodation]
* [http://world.nycsubway.org/eu/uk/wight.html A page about Island Line]
* [http://www.iwcp.co.uk/ Isle Of Wight County Press]
* [http://www.wightphotos.co.uk/ The Island by local photographers]
* [http://www.aferry.co.uk/ukferry/ferry-to-isle-of-wight-uk.htm All Isle of Wight Ferries]
* [http://www.channel4.com/history/timeteam/archive/timeteamlive2001/feature_jutes.html The Jutes in Hampshire and the Isle of Wight]
* [http://www.channel4.com/history/timeteam/archive/timeteamlive2001/feature_ethnic.html Were the West Saxons guilty of ethnic cleansing?]
* [http://members.lycos.co.uk/bartie/ Old Isle of Wight Postcards and Pictures]
* [http://islandgamers.net Island Gamers Community]
* [http://members.lycos.co.uk/bartieshover/ Hovercraft of the 1960/1970s from the Isle of Wight area]
* [http://iw-paths.cjb.net/ Foot- and Cycle- Paths of the Isle of Wight, with other useful information]
{{Isle of Wight box}}
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[[Category:Islands in English Channel]]
[[Category:Unitary authorities in England]]
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[[ja:ワイト島]]
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Wikipedia:Intlwiki-L
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#redirect [[Wikipedia:Mailing lists]]
Irresistible Force (production identity)
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'''Irresistible Force''' is the production identity for UK [[ambient]] DJ [[Mixmaster Morris]].
The first release under this name was the single ''I Want To'' in 1988, but success came with the first album, ''[[Flying High (album)|Flying High]]'', released in 1992 on [[Rising High Records]]. 1994 saw the second album ''[[Global Chillage]]'' with its distinctive hologram sleeve, which got a US release on [[Astralwerks]]. There followed a period of legal [[limbo]] before the third album ''[[It's Tomorrow Already]]''.
A fourth album is expected to be released by Ninja Tune in 2004.
Irish language
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{{Infobox Language
|name=Irish
|nativename=Gaeilge
|pronunciation=ˈgeːlʲgʲə
|states=[[Ireland]], [[Canada]] (mainly in [[Newfoundland]]), and [[USA]].
|region=[[Gaeltacht|Gaeltachtaí]]
|speakers=est. 100,000 to 2 million (see [[#Irish language today|below]])
|script=[[Latin alphabet|Latin]] ([[Irish orthography|Irish variant]])
|familycolor=Indo-European
|fam2=[[Celtic languages|Celtic]]
|fam3=[[Insular Celtic languages|Insular Celtic]]
|fam4=[[Goidelic languages|Goidelic]]
|nation=[[Ireland]], [[Northern Ireland]] (as of [[May 23]], 1998), [[European Union]] (as of [[January 1]], 2007)
|agency=[[Foras na Gaeilge]]
|iso1=ga
|iso2=gle
|iso3=gle
}}
'''Irish''' (''Gaeilge''), a [[Goidelic languages|Goidelic language]] spoken in the [[Republic of Ireland]], the [[United Kingdom]], [[Canada]] and the [[United States]], is [[Constitution of Ireland|constitutionally]] recognized as the first official language of the Republic of Ireland. On [[13 June]], 2005, EU foreign ministers unanimously decided to make Irish an official [[Languages of the European Union|working language]] of the [[European Union]]. The new arrangements will come into effect on [[January 1]], 2007.
According to statistics released by the [[Government of Ireland]] in 2004, there are approximately 1.6 million speakers of Irish in the Republic. Of these, 350,000 use Irish every day, 155,000 weekly, 585,000 less often, 460,000 never, and 30,000 didn't state how often. However, these statistics are often disputed by Irish language activists and their opponents. 80,000 people has been quoted as the number of people in the [[Gaeltacht]] who use the language as their first, daily language<sup>[[#Notes|1]]</sup>. Other data state that 165,000 can speak Irish in [[Northern Ireland]] and 25,000 in the United States.
For Irish English, see [[Hiberno-English]].
==Names of the language==
===In English===
The language is sometimes referred to in [[English language|English]] as '''Gaelic''' ([[International Phonetic Alphabet|IPA]]: {{IPA|/ˈgeɪlɪk/}}), or '''Irish Gaelic.''' This has generally been the common name for the language in the Irish diaspora. Within Ireland proper, it has inevitably acquired political significance. Referring to the language as "Gaelic" suggests that the language is as distant and unrelated to modern Irish life as the civilization of the ancient Gaels. Calling it ''Irish,'' on the other hand, indicates that it is and should be the proper national language of the Irish people, and this is the generally accepted term among scholars and in the Irish Constitution. Some [[Unionists]] insist that Gaelic is the correct term as dialects of the language are also spoken in parts of Scotland and insist that the term ''Irish Language'' is an invention by Irish [[nationalists]] to justify [[separatist]] claims from the rest of the [[British Isles]]
Use of the term ''Irish'' also avoids confusion with [[Scottish Gaelic language|Scottish Gaelic]] (''Gàidhlig''), and [[Manx Gaelic]] (''Gaelg''), the closely related languages spoken in [[Scotland]] and the [[Isle of Man]] and often referred to in English as simply ''Gaelic'' (IPA: {{IPA|/ˈgeɪlɪk/}} or {{IPA|/ˈgæːlɪk/}}). The archaic term '''[[Erse]]''', originally a [[Scots language|Scots]] form of the word ''Irish'', is no longer used and in most contexts is also considered derogatory.
It is a fact, however, that as late as the early part of the 18th century, the Scottish Highlanders still referred to their native language as "Irish", as witnessed by a letter dated 21 July 1713 from a young Campbell, John, Lord Glenorchy at Christ Church, Oxford, to his grandfather, John, Earl of Breadalbane at Taymouth: "I still take care about my Irish and some times meet with Sir Donald Macdonald's son, who is here, and another gentleman, when we talk nothing but Irish." -- quoted in "A Bit of Breadalbane", by Alastair Duncan Millar, The Pentland Press Ltd, 1995.
===In Irish===
In the ''Caighdeán Oifigiúil'' (the official written standard) the name of the language is '''Gaeilge''', which reflects the southern [[Connacht]] pronunciation {{IPA|/ˈgeːlʲgʲə/}}. Before the spelling reform of [[1948]], this form was spelled '''Gaedhilge'''; originally this was the [[genitive case|genitive]] of '''Gaedhealg''', the form used in classical Modern Irish. Older spellings of this include '''Gaoidhealg''' in Middle Irish and '''Goídelc''' in [[Old Irish language|Old Irish]].
Other forms of the name found in the various modern Irish dialects, in addition to south Connacht ''Gaeilge'' mentioned above, include '''Gaedhilic'''/'''Gaeilic'''/'''Gaeilig''' (pronounced {{IPA|/ˈgeːlʲəkʲ/}}) in [[County Donegal]] and parts of [[County Mayo]], '''Gaedhealaing'''/'''Gaoluinn'''/'''Gaelainn''' (pronounced {{IPA|/ˈgeːləŋʲ/}}) in [[Munster]], and '''Gaedhlag''' (pronounced {{IPA|/ˈgeːləg/}}) in [[Omeath]], [[County Louth]].
==Official status==
Irish is given recognition by the [[Constitution of Ireland]] as the first official language of the Republic of Ireland (with [[English language|English]] being a second official language), despite the limited distribution of fluency among the population of that country. Since the State was founded in the 1920s as the [[Irish Free State]] (see also ''[[History of the Republic of Ireland]]''), the [[Irish Government]] required a degree of proficiency in Irish for all [[Civil service of the Republic of Ireland|civil service]] positions (including postal workers, tax officials, agricultural inspectors, etc.), as well as for employees of state companies (e.g. [[Aer Lingus]], [[RTE]], [[Electricity Supply Board|ESB]], etc). Proficiency in Irish for entrance to the public service ceased to be a compulsory requirement in 1974, in part through the actions of protest organizations like the [[Language Freedom Movement]]. While the requirement was also dropped for wider public service jobs, such as teaching, Irish remains a required subject of study in all schools within the Republic which receive public money (see also ''[[Education in the Republic of Ireland]]''). The need for a pass in [[Leaving Certificate]] Irish for entry to the [[Gardaí]] (police) was dropped in September 2005, although applicants are given lessons in the language during the two years of training. Most official documents of the Irish Government are published in both Irish and English.
The [[National University of Ireland, Galway]] is required to appoint a person who is competent in the Irish language, as long as they meet all other respects of the vacancy they are appointed to. This requirement is laid down by the [http://www.irishstatutebook.ie/ZZA35Y1929S3.html University College Galway Act, 1929 (Section 3)] and recently was subject of a [[High Court of the Republic of Ireland|High Court]] case on the matter[http://www.galwayindependent.com/news/3905.html] - it is expected that the requirement may be repealed in due course[http://www.education.ie/home/home.jsp?maincat=10861&pcategory=10861&ecategory=10876§ionpage=13637&language=EN&link=link001&page=1&doc=29800].
As a [[Languages of the European Union|treaty language of the European Union]], the highest-level documents of the EU are translated into Irish; in addition, the language has also recently received a degree of [[Irish language in Northern Ireland|formal recognition in Northern Ireland]] from the [[United Kingdom]], under the [[Belfast Agreement|Good Friday Agreement]].
Furthermore, Irish will become an official working language of the European Union beginning [[January 1]], [[2007]].
==Gaeltacht==
There are pockets of Ireland where Irish is spoken as a traditional, [[native language]]. These regions are known as the [[Gaeltacht]]. These are in [[County Galway]] (''Contae na Gaillimhe''), including [[Connemara]] (''Conamara'') and the [[Aran Islands]] (''na hOileáin Árann''); on the west coast of [[County Donegal]] (''Contae Dhún na nGall''; in the part which is known as ''Tyrconnell''/''Tír Chonaill''); and ''Corca Dhuibhne'' on the [[Dingle peninsula]] in [[County Kerry]] (''Contae Chiarraí''). Smaller ones also exist in [[County Mayo|Mayo]] (''Contae Mhaigh Eo''), [[County Meath|Meath]] (''Contae na Mí''), [[County Waterford|Waterford]] (''Contae Phort Láirge''), and [[County Cork|Cork]] (''Contae Chorcaí''). However, even within the Gaeltacht areas, the Irish-speaking populations have declined since the Gaeltacht boundaries were drawn up.
The numerically and socially strongest ''Gaeltacht'' areas are those of South ''Conamara'', the extreme west of ''Corca Dhuibhne'' and in and North West''Tír Chonaill'', in which a significant proportion of residents use Irish as a community language and in which children often speak the language among each other. These areas are often refered to as the ''Fíor-Ghaeltacht'' (Fíor=True) and collectively have a population of just under 10,000, of which over 80% use the language daily{{fact}}. The highest proportions of daily Irish speakers in the community are found in [[Ros Muc, Connemara]] (over 91%){{fact}}, and around [[Bloody Foreland]] (''Cnoc na Fola'') in ''Tír Chonaill'' (88-89%){{fact}}.
==Dialects==
There are a number of distinct dialects of Irish. Roughly speaking, the three major dialect areas coincide with the provinces of [[Munster]] (''Cúige Mumhan''), [[Connacht]] (''Cúige Chonnacht'') and [[Ulster]] (''Cúige Uladh'').
===Munster dialects===
{{main|Munster Irish}}
Munster Irish is spoken in the Gaeltachtaí of Kerry (''Contae Chiarraí''), Muskerry (''Múscraí''), [[Cape Clear]] (''Oileán Cléire'') in the western part of [[County Cork]] (''Contae Chorcaí''), and the tiny pocket of Irish-speakers in An Rinn near [[Dungarvan]] (''Dún Garbháin'') in County Waterford (''Contae Phort Láirge''). The most important subdivision in Munster is that between Decies Irish (spoken in Waterford) and the rest of Munster Irish.
Some typical features of Munster Irish are:
# The use of personal endings instead of pronouns with verbs, thus "I must" is in Munster ''caithfead'', while other dialects prefer ''caithfidh mé'' (''mé'' means "I"). "I was and you were" is ''Bhíos agus bhís'' in Munster but ''Bhí mé agus bhí tú'' in other dialects.
# In front of nasals and "ll" some short vowels are lengthened while other are diphthongised.
# A copula-construction involving ''is ea'' is frequently used.
===Connacht dialects===
{{main|Connacht Irish}}
The strongest dialect of Connacht Irish is to be found in [[Connemara]] and the [[Aran Islands]]. In some regards this dialect is quite different from general Connacht Irish but since most Connacht dialects have died out during the last century Connemara Irish is sometimes seen as Connacht Irish. Much closer to the traditional Connacht Irish is the very threatened dialect spoken in the region on the border between Galway (''Gaillimh'') and Mayo (''Maigh Eo''). The Irish of [[Tourmakeady]] (''Tuar Mhic Éadaigh'') in southern Mayo (''Maigh Eo Theas'') and Joyce Country (''Dúthaigh Sheoige'') are considered the living Irish dialects closest to Middle Irish. Also, the northern Mayo dialect of Erris (''Iorras'') and [[Achill]] (''Acaill'') is in grammar and word-building essentially a Connacht dialect; but shows an affinity in vocabulary with Ulster Irish, due to large-scale immigration of dispossessed people following the [[Plantation of Ulster]].
Connemara Irish is very popular with learners, thanks to Mícheál Ó Siadhail's self-teaching textbook ''Learning Irish''. However, there are features in Connemara Irish outside the official standard—notably the preference for verbal nouns ending in -achan, such as ''lagachan'' instead of ''lagú'', "weakening". The non-standard pronunciation with lengthened vowels and heavily reduced endings give Connemara Irish its distinct sound.
The distinguishing features of this dialect include the prounouncing of 'bh' as 'w', rather than as 'v' in other parts of the country: for example 'Ni raibh' is pronounced "Ni raow" in Connacht as opposed to "Ni rev" elsewhere. In addition Connacht speakers tend to put the "we" pronoun at the end of the verb rather than with the verb itself: for example "Bhi muid" is used for 'we were' instead of "Bhiomar" elsewhere. This has become a common teaching practice in schools as it is a much easier construction of any verb in the 'we' form.
Connacht Irish tends to be more widespread than any other dialect, as most Irish teachers tend to come from there, although, obviously, there are many exceptions.
===Ulster dialects===
{{main|Ulster Irish}}
The most important of the [[Ulster]] dialects today is that of the Rosses (''na Rosa''), which has been used extensively in literature by such authors as the brothers [[Séamus Ó Grianna]] and [[Seosamh Mac Grianna]], locally known as Jimí Fheilimí and Joe Fheilimí. This dialect is essentially the same as that in Gweedore (''Gaoth Dobhair''= Inlet of Streaming Water), the same dialect used by native speaker [[Enya]] (''Eithne'') and her siblings in [[Clannad]] (''Clann as Dobhar'' = Family from the Water).
Ulster Irish sounds very different and shares several unusual features with [[Scottish Gaelic]], as well as having lots of characteristic words and shades of meanings. However, since the demise of those Irish dialects spoken natively in what is today [[Northern Ireland]], it is probably an exaggeration to see Ulster Irish as an intermediary form between Scottish Gaelic and the southern and western dialects of Irish. Indeed, Scottish Gaelic does have lots of non-Ulster features in common with Munster Irish, too.
One noticeable trait of Ulster Irish is the use of the negative participle ''cha(n)'', in place of the Munster and Connaught version ''ní''. Even in Ulster, ''cha(n)'', most typical of Scottish Gaelic, has ousted the more common ''ní'' only in easternmost dialects (including the now defunct ones once spoken in what is now Northern Ireland). The practice seems to be that ''cha(n)'' is most usually used when answering to a statement, either confirming a negative statement (''Níl aon mhaith ann'' - ''Chan fhuil, leoga'' = "It is no good" - "Indeed it isn't") or contesting an affirmative one (''Tá sé go maith'' - ''Chan fhuil!'' = "It is good" - "No, it isn't!"), while ''ní'' is preferred in answering a question (''An bhfuil aon mhaith ann?'' - ''Níl'' = "Is it any good?" - "No").
===Other regions===
The dialects of Irish native to [[Leinster]], the fourth province of Ireland, became extinct during the [[20th century]], but records of some of these were made by the [[Irish Folklore Commission]] among other bodies prior to this.
The present-day Irish of Meath (in Leinster) is a special case. It belongs to the Connemara dialect, as the Irish-speaking community in Meath is simply a group of mostly Connemara speakers who moved there in the [[1930s]], after a land reform campaign spearheaded by [[Máirtín Ó Cadhain]] (subsequently one of the greatest modernist writers in the language).
In areas outside the traditional Gaeltacht, where standard Irish was learnt in schools, this has become the "dialect" of learners of the language. What has been called "Dublin Irish" or "Gaelscoil Irish" has also arisen, that is Irish poorly learnt and heavily influenced by English. English idioms are translated directly, e.g. "Tabhair suas" for Give up when the verb "Lig" should be used. English grammar is sometimes used straight when not applicable to Irish. Often, when the speaker doesn't know a word, the English will be substituted, sometimes with "áil" affixed. "áil" is generally an ending for the verbal noun of a verb, but when added to an English word, this becomes the stem, e.g. vótáil. Many "Béarlachas"(false Irish based on English) words and phrases are used, e.g. pioc, sórt, saghas, féar plé etc. Also, typical interjection words often used in English and especially English influenced by America are used, e.g. like, man, so, etc. are used un-translated in Irish.
Students in the Eastern part of Ireland tend to pronounce the Irish words in an English way rather than in a Gaelic way. This is possibly due to teaching inconsistency. The average Irish student would have twelve or thirteen different Irish teachers, each with a varying dialect.
===Comparisons===
The differences between dialects are considerable, and have led to recurrent difficulties in defining standard Irish. Even everyday phrases can show startling dialectal variation: the standard example is "How are you?":
* Ulster: ''cad é mar atá tú?'' ("what is it as you are?" Note: ''caidé'' or ''goidé'' and sometimes ''dé'' are alternative renderings of ''cad é'')
* Connacht: ''cén chaoi a bhfuil tú?'' ("what way [is it] that you are?")
* Munster: ''conas taoí?'' ("how are you?")
* "standard Irish": Conas a tá tú ("how are you?")
In recent times, however, contacts between speakers of different dialects have become more common, and mixed dialects have originated. Nevertheless, many dialect speakers (especially Ulster) are still jealously trying to guard their own variety against influences from other dialects. Among non-native speakers, this can be seen as a quest for authenticity. Regional accents are commonly taught to non-natives and imitated: an urban non-native speaker of Irish in [[Cork]] City (''Cathair Chorcaí'') is very probably trying to emulate Coolea or Kerry dialect; one from [[Belfast]] (''Béal Feirste'') tends to speak an Irish modelled on the Rosses dialect of Donegal; and Galwegian Irish-speakers, living next door to Connemara, will do their best to sound like a Connemara native.
==Shelta==
There also exists a [[Cant (language)|cant]] called [[Shelta]], based partly on [[English language|English]] and partly Irish, in use by the [[Irish Traveller]]s.
==Linguistic structure==
The features most unfamiliar to English speakers of the language are the [[orthography]], the [[initial consonant mutation]]s, the [[Verb Subject Object]] word order, and the use of two different forms for "to be". However, initial mutations are found in other [[Celtic languages]] as well as in some [[Italian language|Italian]] and Sardinian dialects, as an independent development. They are also found in some West [[African languages]].
===Syntax===
''See main article [[Irish syntax]]''
One aspect of Irish syntax that is unfamiliar to speakers of other languages is the use of the [[copula]] (known in Irish as ''an chopail''). The copula is used to describe what or who someone is, as opposed to how and where. This has been likened to the difference between the verbs ''ser'' and ''estar'' in [[Spanish language|Spanish]] and [[Portuguese language|Portuguese]], although this is only a rough approximation. The copula, which in the present tense is ''is'', is usually demonstrative:
:''Is fear é.'' "It is a man."
:''Is Sasanaigh iad.'' "They're English."
When saying "this is", or "that is", ''seo'' and ''sin'' are used:
:''Seo í mo mháthair.'' "This is my mother."
:''Sin é an muinteoir.'' "That's the teacher."
One can also add "that is in him/her/it", especially when using an adjective, when it is desired to emphasise the quality:
:''Is fear láidir atá '''ann'''.'' "He's a strong man."
:(Literally: "It is a strong man that is in him.")
:''Is cailín álainn atá '''inti'''.'' "She's a beautiful girl."
:(Literally: "It is a beautiful girl that is in her.")
This sometimes appears in [[Hiberno-English]], either translated literally as "that is in it", or as "so it is".
===Morphology===
''See main articles [[Irish morphology]], [[Irish nominals]], and [[Irish verbs]].''
Another feature of Irish grammar that is shared with other Celtic languages is the use of prepositional pronouns (''forainmneacha réamhfhoclacha''), which are essentially conjugated prepositions. For example, the word for "at" is ''ag'', which in the first person singular becomes '''agam''' "at me". When used with the verb ''bí'' ("to be") ''ag'' indicates possession; this is the equivalent of the English verb "to have".
{|cellspacing="7"
|''Tá leabhar '''agam'''''.||"I have a book."||(Literally, "is a book at me")
|-
|''Tá deoch '''agat'''''.||"You have a drink."
|-
|''Tá ríomhaire '''aige'''''.||"He has a computer."
|-
|''Tá páiste '''aici'''''.||"She has a child."
|-
|''Tá carr '''againn'''''.||"We have a car."
|-
|''Tá teach '''agaibh'''''.||"You (plural) have a house."
|-
|''Tá airgead '''acu'''''.||"They have money."
|}
Compare with [[Breton language|Breton]]:
{|cellspacing="7"
|''Ul levr a zo '''ganin'''''.||"I have a book."
|-
|''Ur banne a zo '''ganit'''''.||"You have a drink."||('Banne' related to the Irish 'bainne' - milk - though semantically drifted)
|-
|''Un urzhiataer a zo '''gantañ'''''.||"He has a computer."
|-
|''Ur bugel a zo '''ganti'''''.||"She has a child."||('Bugel' related to Irish word "buachail" - boy - though semantically drifted)
|-
|''Ur c'harr a zo '''ganimp'''''.||"We have a car."
|-
|''Un ti a zo '''ganeoc'h'''''.||"You (plural) have a house."
|-
|''Arc'hant a zo '''ganto'''''.||"They have money."
|}
===Orthography and pronunciation===
''See main articles [[Irish orthography]] and [[Irish phonology]].''
The written language looks rather daunting to those unfamiliar with it. Once understood, the orthography is relatively straightforward. The [[acute accent]], or ''síneadh fada'' (´), serves to lengthen the sound of the vowels and in some cases also changes their quality. For example, in Munster Irish (Kerry), ''a'' is {{IPA|/ʌ/}} or {{IPA|/ɑ/}} and ''á'' is {{IPA|/ɔ/}} in "law" but in Ulster Irish (Donegal), ''á'' tends to be {{IPA|/ɑː/}}.
Around the time of [[World War II]], [[Séamas Daltún]], in charge of Rannóg an Aistriúcháin (the official translations department of the Irish government), issued his own guidelines about how to standardise Irish spelling and grammar. This de facto standard was subsequently approved of by the State and called the Official Standard or ''Caighdeán Oifigiúil''. It simplified and standardised the orthography. Many words had silent letters removed and vowel combination brought closer to the spoken language. Where multiple versions existed in different dialects for the same word, one or more were selected.
Examples:
* ''Gaedhealg / Gaedhilg(e) / Gaedhealaing / Gaeilic / Gaelainn / Gaoidhealg / Gaolainn'' => ''Gaeilge'', "Irish language" (''Gaoluinn'' or ''Gaolainn'' is still used in books written in dialect by Munster authors, or as a facetious name for the Munster dialect)
* ''Lughbhaidh'' => ''Lú'', "Louth"
* ''biadh'' => ''bia'', "food" (The orthography ''biadh'' is still used by the speakers of those dialects that show a meaningful and audible difference between ''biadh'' - nominative case - and ''bídh'' - genitive case: "of food, food's". For example, in Munster Irish the latter ends in an audible -g sound, because final ''-idh, -igh'' regularly delenites to ''-ig'' in Munster pronunciation.)
Modern Irish has only one [[diacritic]] sign, the acute (á é í ó ú), known in Irish as the ''síneadh fada'' 'long mark', plural ''sínte fada''. In English, this is frequently referred to as simply the ''fada'', where the adjective is used as a noun. The dot-above diacritic, called a ''ponc séimhithe'' or ''sí buailte'' (often shortened to ''buailte''), derives from the ''punctum delens'', which was used in medieval manuscripts to indicate deletion, similar to crossing out unwanted words in handwriting today. From this usage it was used to indicate the [[lenition]] of ''s'' (from /s/ to /h/) and ''f'' (from /f/ to zero) in [[Old Irish]] texts. Lenition of ''c'', ''p'', and ''t'' was indicated by placing the letter ''h'' after the affected consonant; lenition of other sounds was left unmarked. Later both methods were extended to be indicators of lenition of any sound except ''l'' and ''n'', and two competing systems were used: lenition could be marked by a ''buailte'' or by a postposed ''h''. Eventually, use of the ''buailte'' predominated when texts were writing using Gaelic letters, while the ''h'' predominated when writing using Roman letters. Today Gaelic letters and the ''buailte'' are rarely used except where a 'traditional' style is required, e.g. the motto on the [[University College Dublin]] [[coat-of-arms]] or the symbol of the Irish Defence Forces, The [[Irish Defence Forces cap badge]] ''(Óglaiġ na h-Éireann)''. Letters with the ''buailte'' are available in [[Unicode]] and [[ISO 8859-14|Latin-8]] [[character set]]s (see Latin Extended Additional chart [http://www.unicode.org/charts/PDF/U1E00.pdf PDF]).
===Mutations===
''See main article [[Irish initial mutations]]''
In Irish, there are two classes of initial mutations:
* Lenition (in Irish, ''séimhiú'' "softening") describes the change of stops into fricatives. Indicated in old orthography by a dot (called a sí buailte) written above the changed consonant, this is now shown by adding an extra -h-:
** ''caith!'' "throw!" - ''chaith mé'' "I threw" (this is an example of the lenition as a past-tense marker, which is caused by the use of ''do'', although this is now usually omitted)
** ''margadh'' "market", "market-place", "bargain" - ''Tadhg an mhargaidh'' "the man of the street" (word for word "Timothy of the market-place" (here we see the lenition marking the genitive case of a masculine noun)
** ''Seán'' "Seán, John" - ''a Sheáin!'' "O John!" (here we see lenition as part of what is called the vocative case - in fact, the vocative lenition is triggered by the ''a'' or vocative marker before ''Sheáin'')
* Nasalisation (in Irish, ''urú'' "eclipsis") covers the voicing of voiceless stops, as well as the true nasalisation of voiced stops.
** ''athair'' "father" - ''ár nAthair'' "our Father"
** ''tús'' "start", ''ar dtús'' "at the start"
** ''Gaillimh'' "Galway" - ''i nGaillimh'' "in Galway"
==History and politics==
===Stages of the Irish language===
The introduction of Irish to Ireland dates from some time after 1200 BC.<sup>2</sup> The earliest form of the language, [[Primitive Irish]], is found in [[ogham]] inscriptions up to about the [[4th century]]AD. After the conversion to [[Christianity]], [[Old Irish]] begins to appear as [[gloss]]es in the margins of [[Latin]] [[manuscripts]], beginning in the [[6th century]], until it gives way in the [[10th century]] to Middle Irish. Modern Irish dates from about the [[16th century]].
===Irish Language Movement===
The Irish language was the most widely spoken language on the island of Ireland until the 19th century. The first [[Bible]] in Irish was translated by William Bedell, [[Church of Ireland]] [[Bishop]] of [[Kilmore]], in the [[17th century]].Though its number of speakers has been in decline since the 19th century, it is an important part of [[Irish nationalist]] identity.
A combination of the introduction of a primary education system (the '[[National School]]s'), in which Irish was prohibited and only English taught by order of the [[United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland|British government]], and the [[Irish Potato Famine|Great Famine]] (''An Gorta Mór'') which hit a disportionately high number of Irish language speakers (who lived in the poorer areas heavily hit by famine deaths and emigration), hastened its rapid decline. Irish political leaders, such as [[Daniel O'Connell]] (Dónall Ó Conaill), too were critical of the language, seeing it as 'backward', with English the language of the future. Contemporary reports spoke of Irish-speaking parents actively discouraging their children from speaking the language, and encouraging the use of English instead. This practice continued long after independence, as the stigma of speaking Irish remained very strong. Despite the policy of successive Irish governments to promote the language the decline in the number of native speakers within the Gaeltacht has accelerated although the number of those elsewhere in the country able to speak it (as a second language) has increased albeit not to the extent that many hoped.
Some, however, thought differently. The initial moves to save the language were championed by Irish [[Protestants]], such as the linguist and clergyman [[William Neilson]], in the end of the eighteenth century; the major push occurred with the foundation by [[Douglas Hyde]], the son of a Church of Ireland rector, of the [[Gaelic League]] (known in Irish as ''Conradh na Gaeilge'') which started the [[Gaelic Revival]]. Leading supporters of Conradh included [[Patrick Pearse|Pádraig Mac Piarais]] and [[Eamon de Valera|Éamon de Valera]]. The revival of interest in the language coincided with other cultural revivals, such as the foundation of the [[Gaelic Athletic Association]] and the growth in the performance of plays about Ireland in English, by such luminaries as [[William Butler Yeats]], [[J.M. Synge]], [[Sean O'Casey]] and [[Lady Gregory]], with their launch of the [[Abbey Theatre]].
Even though the Abbey Theatre playwrights wrote in English (and indeed some disliked Irish) the Irish language affected them, as it did all Irish English speakers. The version of English spoken in Ireland, known as [[Hiberno-English]] bears striking similarities in some grammatical idioms with Irish. Some have speculated that even after the vast majority of Irish people stopped speaking Irish, they perhaps subsconsciously used its grammatical flair in the manner in which they spoke English. This fluency is reflected in the writings of Yeats, [[George Bernard Shaw]], [[Oscar Wilde]] and more recently in the writings of [[Seamus Heaney]], [[Paul Durcan]], [[Dermot Bolger]] and many others. (It may also in part explain the appeal in Britain of Irish-born broadcasters like [[Terry Wogan]], [[Eamonn Andrews]], [[Graham Norton]], [[Desmond Lynam]], etc.)
This national cultural revival of the late nineteenth century and early twentieth century matched the growing Irish radicalism in Irish politics. Many of those, such as Pearse, de Valera, [[W.T. Cosgrave]] (Liam Mac Cosguir) and [[Ernest Blythe]] (Earnán de Blaghd), who fought to achieve Irish independence and came to govern the independent Irish state, first became politically aware through Conradh na Gaeilge, though Hyde himself resigned from its presidency in 1915 in protest at the movement's growing politicisation.
A Church of Ireland campaign to promote worship and religion in Irish was started in [[1914]] with the founding of ''Cumann Gaelach na hEaglaise'' (the Irish Guild of the Church). The [[Roman Catholic]] Church also replaced its liturgies in [[Latin]] with Irish and English for their liturgies following the [[Second Vatican Council]] in the [[1960s]].
===Independent Ireland and the language===
The independent Irish state was established in 1922 ([[The Irish Free State]] 1922-37; [[Éire|Ireland (Éire)]] from [[1937]], also known since [[1949]] as the [[Republic of Ireland]]). Although some [[Irish republicanism|Republican]] leaders had been committed language enthusiasts, the new state continued to use English as the language of administration, even in areas where over 80% of the population spoke Irish. The government refused to implement the 1926 recommendations of the Gaeltacht Commission, which included restoring Irish as the language of administration in such areas. As the role of the state grew, it therefore exerted tremendous pressure on Irish-speakers to speak English. This was only partly offset by measures which were supposed to support the Irish language. For instance, the state was by far the largest employer. A qualification in Irish was required to apply for state jobs. However, this did not require a high level of fluency, and few public employees were ever required to use Irish in the course of their work. On the other hand, state employees had to have perfect command of English and had to use it constantly. Because most public employees had a poor command of Irish, it was impossible to deal with them in Irish. If an Irish-speaker wanted to apply for a grant, obtain electricity, or complain about being over-taxed, they had to do it in English. As late as 1986 a Bord na Gaeilge report noted "...the administrative agencies of the state have been among the strongest forces for anglicisation in Gaeltacht areas". (page 41 of “The Irish Language in a Changing Society: Shaping The Future”. Author: Advisory Planning Committee of Bord na Gaeilge. Published by Criterion in 1986).
The new state increased attempts to promote Irish through the school system. Some politicians claimed that the state would become predominantly Irish-speaking within a generation. However, it is generally agreed that this policy was clumsily implemented (and sometimes proved even to be counter productive) . From the mid-1940s onward the policy of teaching English-speaking children through Irish was abandoned. In the following decades, support for the language was progressively reduced.
Whereas the first three presidents of Ireland ([[Douglas Hyde]]/Dubhghlas de hÍde, [[Sean T. O'Kelly]]/Seán T. Ó Ceallaigh and [[Eamon de Valera]]) and the fifth ([[Cearbhall Ó Dálaigh]]) were all so fluent in Irish that it became the working language in their official residence, later presidents struggled with any degree of fluency, its use declining to such an extent that it is ''only'' used now (if at all) in occasional speeches. Similarly, where earlier generations of Irish government leaders were highly fluent, recent prime ministers ([[Albert Reynolds]]/Ailbhe Mag Raghnaill, [[John Bruton]], [[Bertie Ahern]]) had little fluency, struggling to pronounce passages of their speeches in Irish to their [[Ard-Fheis|Ard-Fheiseanna]] (party conference(s), {{IPA2|ˈɑːrd ˈeʃənə}}).
It is, though, disputed to what extent such professed [[language revival]]ists as de Valera genuinely tried to Gaelicise political life. Ernest Blythe did little during his time as Minister of Finance to assist Irish language projects beyond the vested interests of already established organisations. Even in the first [[Dáil Éireann]], few speeches were delivered ''as Gaeilge'' (in Irish), with the exception of formal proceedings. None of the recent taoisigh (plural of 'Taoiseach', meaning 'prime minister') have been fluent in Irish; however, the two most recent [[President of Ireland|Presidents]], [[Mary McAleese]] (Máire Mhic Ghiolla Íosa) and [[Mary Robinson]] (Máire Mhic Róibín) are fluent, though the latter studied the language while in office to improve her fluency. Every [[President of Ireland]] has all so far taken their inaugurational 'Declaration of Office' in the language, but they have the option of taking the English declaration at [[Inauguration of the President of Ireland|the inauguration]].
Even modern parliamentary legislation, though ''supposed'' to be issued in both Irish and English, is frequently only available in English. Much of publicly displayed Irish is ungrammatical, thus irritating both language activists and enemies of the language and contributing to the public image of the revival as phony and bogus.
Many public bodies have Irish language or bilingual names, but some have downgraded the language. For example, [[Eircom]] (formerly [[Telecom Éireann]]) effectively dropped Irish from its telephone directories in [[1999]]. [[An Post]], the Republic's postal service, continues to have [[Place names in Irish|place names]] in the language on its postmarks, as well as recognising addresses (as does the [[Royal Mail]] in Northern Ireland).
In an effort to address the half-committed attitude of Irish language use by the State, the [[Official Languages Act 2003|Official Languages Act]] was passed in 2003. This act ensures that ''every'' publication made by a governmental body must be published in both official languages, Irish and English. In addition, the office of Language Commissioner has been set up to act as an [[ombudsman]] with regard to equal treatment in both languages.
[[Image:Irelandsign.jpg|thumb|200px|Picture of a typical Irish road sign with placenames in [[English language|English]] and Irish.]]
In 2002, at the launch of what was to be a new traffic management system for [[Dublin]], it was revealed that the vast majority of signs would be in English only. The justification offered was that, in making the English lettering large enough to be easily read by motorists from a distance, there was no space to include Irish. The use of the single Irish words left, 'An Lár' (meaning city centre) was criticised on the basis that no-one would know what it meant, even though it was a term used widely for decades on street signs. Even the once common method in Ireland of beginning and ending letters - beginning 'A Chara' (meaning friend) and ending 'Is Mise le Meas' - is becoming rarer.
A major factor in the decline of spoken Irish has been the movement of English-speakers into the Gaeltacht (predominantly Irish speaking areas) and the return of native Irish-speakers who have acquired English-speaking families. This has been stimulated by government grants and infrastructure projects. "only about half Gaeltacht children learn Irish in the home... this is related to the high level of in-migration and return migration which has accompanied the economic restructuring of the Gaeltacht in recent decades" (page xxvi of ''The Irish Language in a Changing Society: Shaping The Future'') . Many see this as a deliberate attempt by anti-nationalist politicians to wipe out the language. "That economic development of the kind undertaken was likely to have such consequences was readily predictable a decade ago" (p47). In a last-ditch effort to stop the complete collapse of Irish-speaking in Connemara in Galway, planning controls have been introduced on the building of new homes in Irish speaking areas. These are supposed to ensure that the proportion of English speakers in the local population does not increase. But even this may be too little, too late, as many of those areas have a majority of English speakers, with all Irish speakers being bilingual, using English as their everyday language except among themselves.
Attempts have been made to offer some support for the language through the media, notably the launch of [[Raidió na Gaeltachta]] (Gaeltacht radio) and [[Teilifís na Gaeilge]] (Irish language television, called initially 'TnaG', now renamed [[TG4]]); both have been relatively successful. TG4 has offered Irish-speaking young people a forum for youth culture ''as Gaeilge'' (in Irish) through rock and pop shows, travel shows, dating games, and even a controversial award-winning [[soap opera]] in Irish called ''[[Ros na Rún]]'' (featuring, among other characters, an Irish-speaking gay couple and their child). Most of TG4's viewership, however, tends to come from showing [[Gaelic football]], [[hurling]] and [[rugby football|rugby]] matches, and films in English.
There is also a daily Irish-language newspaper called ''[[Lá]]'', a weekly called ''[[Foinse]]'', and the ''[[Irish Times]]'' and ''[[Daily Ireland]]'' have pages in Irish, with articles appended with short lists giving the meaning of some of the words used in English.
More controversially the Official language required the use of both the Irish and English placenames in English speaking areas of the state but only allows for the use of Irish placenames on all official documents, maps and roadsigns in or referring to (what are often only nominally) Gaeltacht areas.
Opposition to these measures comes from several quarters including some people within popular tourist destinations located within the Gaeltacht (such as [[Dingle]]/An Daingean) who complain that tourists may not recognise the Gaelic forms of the placenames.
In 1938, the founder of the Conradh na Gaeilge, Douglas Hyde, was inaugurated as the first [[President of Ireland]]. The record of his delivering his inauguration 'Declaration of Office' in his native [[County Roscommon|Roscommon]] Irish remains almost the only surviving remnant of anyone speaking in that dialect, which in effect died out with him. Over sixty years later, the majority of the Gaeltacht and Irish-speaking areas in existence as he took that oath no longer exist.
There is a concerted effort to promote the language among recent immigrants. In 2003, the [[Qur'an]] was translated into Irish, following a collaboration between the Islamic Cultural Centre in [[Dublin]] and [[Foras na Gaeilge]].
===Northern Ireland===
:''Main article: [[Irish language in Northern Ireland]]''
As in the Republic, the Irish language is a [[minority language]] in Northern Ireland, known in Irish as ''Tuaisceart na hÉireann''/''Tuaisceart Éireann'' or ''na sé chontae'' (the [[six counties]]).
Attitudes towards the language in Northern Ireland have traditionally reflected the political differences between its two divided communities. The language has been regarded with suspicion by [[Unionists (Ireland)|unionists]], who have associated it with the [[Catholic]]-dominated Republic, and more recently, with the [[Irish republicanism|republican]] movement. Many republicans in Northern Ireland, including [[Sinn Féin]] President [[Gerry Adams]], learnt Irish while in prison, a development known as the ''jailtacht''. Although the language was taught in Catholic secondary schools (especially by the [[Congregation of Christian Brothers|Christian Brothers]]), it was not taught at all in state ([[Protestant]]) schools and public signs in Irish were effectively banned under laws by the [[Parliament of Northern Ireland]], which stated that only [[English language|English]] could be used.
These laws were not repealed by the [[British government]] until the early 1990s. However, Irish-medium schools, known as ''[[gaelscoil]]eanna'', had already been founded in [[Belfast]] and [[Derry]], and an Irish-language newspaper called ''Lá'' ('day') was established in Belfast. [[BBC]] [[BBC Radio Ulster|Radio Ulster]] began broadcasting a nightly half-hour programme in Irish in the early 1980s called ''Blas'' ('taste', 'accent'), and [[BBC Northern Ireland]] also showed its first TV programme in the language in the early 1990s.
The ''[[Ultach Trust]]'' was also established, with a view to broadening the appeal of the language among Protestants, although hardline [[loyalist]]s like [[Ian Paisley]] continued to ridicule it as a "[[leprechaun]] language". [[Ulster Scots language|Ulster Scots]], promoted by many [[loyalist]]s, was, in turn, ridiculed by nationalists (and even some [[Unionist]]s) as "a [[DIY]] language for [[Orange Order|Orangemen]]" According to recent statistics, there is no significant difference between the number of Catholic and Protestant speakers of Ulster Scots in Ulster (see [[Ulster Scots language#Who speaks it|Ulster Scots language]]), although those involved in promoting Ulster-Scots as a language are almost always unionist. Although Ulster-Scots is now officially recognised as a language in Northern Ireland (there are also some attempts to promote it in some border counties of the Republic) many people claim it is actually little more than a [[dialect]] of English
Irish received official recognition in Northern Ireland for the first time in [[1998]] under the [[Belfast Agreement|Good Friday Agreement]]. A cross-border body known as ''[[Foras na Gaeilge]]'' was established to promote the language in both Northern Ireland and the [[Republic of Ireland|Republic]], taking over the functions of the previous Republic-only ''Bord na Gaeilge''.
The British government has ratified the [[European Charter for Regional or Minority Languages]] in respect to Irish in Northern Ireland.
It has been claimed that [[Belfast]] now represents the fastest growing centre of Irish language usage on the island - and the [[Good Friday Agreement]]'s provisions on 'parity of esteem' have been used to give the language an official status there. In [[March 2005]], the Irish language TV service [[TG4]] began broadcasting from the Divis transmitter near [[Belfast]], as a result of agreement between the [[Irish Minister for Foreign Affairs|Department of Foreign Affairs]] and the [[Northern Ireland Office]], although so far this is the only transmitter to carry it.
==Irish language today==
The number of native Irish-speakers in the [[Republic of Ireland]] today is a tiny fraction of what it was at independence. The [[Official Languages Act 2003|Official Languages Act]] of 2003 gave people the right to interact with state bodies in Irish. It is too early to assess how well this is working in practice. Other factors were outward migration of Irish speakers from the Gaeltacht and inward migration of English-speakers. The Planning and Development Act (2000) attempted to address the latter issue, but the response is almost certainly inadequate. Planning controls now require new housing in Gaeltacht areas to be allocated to English-speakers and Irish-speakers in the same ratio as the existing population of the area. This will not prevent houses allocated to Irish-speakers subsequently being sold on to English-speakers. Outward migration of Irish-speakers could be reduced if the state, which is the main employer in the [[Republic of Ireland]], were to exercise its right to have certain jobs performed in Irish and relocated to the Gaeltacht. On 3rd December 2003 the [[Minister for Finance (Ireland)|Minister for Finance]] announced a new Decentralisation programme, moving over 10,000 civil and public service jobs to 53 locations in 25 other counties outside Dublin. The government explicitly said this was being done to boost the economy of outlying areas. None of these jobs were used to provide employment for native Irish-speakers in the Gaeltacht.
According to data compiled by the Irish Department of Community, Rural and Gaeltacht Affairs, only one quarter of households in Gaeltacht areas possess a fluency in Irish. The author of a detailed analysis of the survey, Donncha Ó hÉallaithe, described the Irish language policy followed by Irish governments a 'complete and absolute disaster.' [[The Irish Times]] ([[January 6]], [[2002]]), referring to his analysis, which was initially published in the Irish language newspaper ''Foinse'', quoted him as follows: 'It is an absolute indictment of successive Irish Governments that at the foundation of the Irish State there were 250,000 fluent Irish speakers living in Irish-speaking or semi Irish-speaking areas, but the number now is between 20,000 and 30,000.'
According to the language survey, levels of fluency among families is 'very low', from 1% in [[Galway]] suburbs to a maximum of 8% parts of west [[Donegal]]. With such sharp decline, particularly among the young, the real danger exists that Irish will largely become extinct within two generations, possibly even one. While the language will continue to exist among English speakers who have learned fluency and are bilingual (though mainly English-speaking in their everyday lives) Gaeltachtaí embody more than just a language, but the cultural context in which it is spoken, through song, stories, social traditions, folklore and dance. The death of the Gaeltachtaí would make a break forever between Ireland's cultural past and identity, and its future. All sides, irrespective of their view on the methodology used by independent Ireland in its efforts to preserve the language, agree that such a loss would be a cultural tragedy of a monumental scale.
The [http://www.usenglish.org/foundation U.S. English Foundation] has published analyses of the United States Census 2000, and states that 25,870 US residents [http://www.usenglish.org/foundation/research/lia/languages/irish_gaelic.pdf speak the Irish language at home (pdf file)].
An interest in the Irish language is maintained throughout the [[Anglophone|English speaking]] world among the [[Irish diaspora]] and there are active Irish language groups in [[North America]]n, [[Britain|British]] and [[Australia]]n cities.
Several computer software products have the option of an Irish-language interface. Prominent examples include [[Mozilla Firefox]][http://gaeilge.mozdev.org/], [[Mozilla Thunderbird]][http://gaeilge.mozdev.org/], [[OpenOffice.org]][http://ga.openoffice.org/], and Microsoft [[Windows XP]][http://www.microsoft.com/downloads/details.aspx?FamilyID=0db2e8f9-79c4-4625-a07a-0cc1b341be7c&displaylang=ga].
==Irish in education==
The Irish language is a compulsory subject in government funded schools in the Republic of Ireland and has been so since the early days of the state. While many students learn Irish well through the Irish school system, and develop a healthy respect for it, many other students find it difficult are taught it poorly by unmotivated teachers; these students' attitudes toward Irish tend to range from apathy to hostility.
All things being equal, for English-speakers, Irish is more difficult than Spanish or German. Irish syntax, morphology, and vocabulary are a good deal more different to English than many other European languages are; this makes learning it challenging for many. The Irish Government has endeavoured to address the situation by revamping the curriculum at primary school level to focus on spoken Irish. However, at secondary school level, it can easily be argued that Irish is still taught "academically". Students must write lengthy essays, debates, and stories in Irish in the Leaving Certificate exam.
Recently the abolition of compulsory Irish has been discussed and while some Irish people favour such a move, many do not. In 2005 [[Enda Kenny]], leader of Ireland's main opposition party, [[Fine Gael]], called for the language to be made an optional subject in the last two years of secondary school. This call drew widespread criticism from many quarters although some, such as the [[Reform Movement (Ireland)|Reform Movement]], have supported his call. Mr Kenny, despite being a fluent speaker himself, stated that he believed that compulsory Irish has done the language more harm than good.
A relatively recent development is the proliferation of [[gaelscoil]]eanna, i.e. schools in which Irish is the medium of education. By September 2005 there were 158 gaelscoileanna at primary level and 36 at secondary level in the Republic of Ireland and Northern Ireland together (excluding the Gaeltacht, whose schools are not considered gaelscoileanna), which amounted to approximately 31,000 students. This has grown from a total of less than 20 in the early 1970's and there are 15 more being planned at present. With the opening of Gaelscoil Liatroma in [[County Leitrim]] in 2005 there is now at least one gaelscoil in each of the 32 [[counties of Ireland|traditional counties of Ireland]].
==Language Reformism==
Calls for the simplification of the Irish language have been made by a few sources, most notably the [http://www.teanganua.pro.ie An Teanga Nua] website, to fierce opposition from online sources (such as [http://www.Daltai.com Daltai.com] who themselves are fluent in the language.
The reform advocated by this website is pretty radical, and not outlined in great detail online as of yet.
==Notes==
<sup>1</sup>Article in the Irish Independent.
<sup>2</sup> J.P.Mallory ''Two Perspectives on the Problem of Irish Origins'' Emania 9(1991)53, at 58: "The lexical evidence of the Irish language suggests that it was introduced into Ireland most plausibly after c.1200 BC and any attempt to set the arrival of the Irish before this date becomes increasingly difficult to sustain ... I find it difficult to imagine it as anything other than a language introduced by a population movement rather than a ''lingua franca'' or pidgin carried along trade routes ..."
==See also==
* [[Differences between Scottish Gaelic and Irish]]
* [[Irish initial mutations]]
* [[Irish name]]
* [[Irish morphology]]
* [[Irish orthography]]
* [[Irish phonology]]
* [[Irish syntax]]
* [[Irish words used in the English language]]
* [[Modern literature in Irish]]
* [[Place names in Irish]]
* [[List of Irish given names]]
* [[Common phrases in different languages]]
* [[Non-native pronunciations of English]]
* [[List of Ireland-related topics]]
* [[Céad míle fáilte]]
* [[Newfoundland Irish]]
* [[Language Freedom Movement]]
== External links ==
{{InterWiki|code=ga}}
{{Wikibookspar||Irish}}
*[http://wikisource.org/wiki/Main_Page:Gaeilge Irish main page at Wikisource]
*{{de icon}}''[http://de.wikisource.org/wiki/Die_araner_mundart Die araner mundart]'' (a phonological description of the dialect of the [[Aran Islands]], from 1899)
*[http://www.smo.uhi.ac.uk/gaeilge/gaeilge.html Gaeilge ar an ghréasán Irish online recources]
*[http://homepage.ntlworld.com/r.a.mccartney/baile_nua/main.html A Plan to save the Irish Language - includes background info from authoritative sources]
*[http://www.bnag.ie Foras na Gaeilge]
*[http://www.foinse.ie Foinse - weekly newspaper]
*[http://www.daltai.com Irish Language Information and Resources]
*[http://www.ethnologue.com/show_language.asp?code=gle Irish] at [[Ethnologue]]
*[http://www.ceantar.org/Dicts/search.html Gaelic Dictionaries]
*[http://nualeargais.ie/gnag/gram.htm Braesicke's Gramadach na Gaeilge (Engl. translation)]
*[http://www.naaclt.org/ North American Association for Celtic Language Teachers]
*[http://www.celticleague.org/ The Celtic League, American Branch (CLAB)]
*[http://www.celtdigital.org/ Celt Digital, The Celtic World on the Web]
*[http://www.irishhamilton.ca/ Irish Hamilton]
*[http://www.websters-online-dictionary.org/definition/Irish-english/ Irish English Dictionary] from [http://www.websters-online-dictionary.org Webster's Online Dictionary] - the Rosetta Edition
*[http://www.celtic-tigers.com Irish language for children in SE Asia]
*[http://www.gaelscoileanna.ie]
===Northern Ireland===
* [http://www.cinni.org/ultach/ Ultach Trust]
* [http://www.nuacht.com Lá]
* [http://www.bbc.co.uk/northernireland/irish/ BBC Northern Ireland Irish language]
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[[id:Bahasa Irlandia]]
[[is:Írska]]
[[it:Lingua irlandese]]
[[he:אירית]]
[[kw:Iwerdhonek]]
[[la:Lingua Hibernica]]
[[li:Iers]]
[[hu:Ír nyelv]]
[[nl:Iers-Gaelisch]]
[[ja:アイルランド語]]
[[no:Irsk gælisk]]
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[[oc:Irlandés]]
[[pl:Język irlandzki]]
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[[ru:Ирландский язык]]
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Icelandic (language)
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Internet Control Message Protocol
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{{IPstack}}
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The '''Internet Control Message Protocol''' ('''ICMP''') is one of the core protocols of the [[Internet protocol suite]]. It is chiefly used by networked computers' [[operating system]]s to send error messages—indicating, for instance, that a requested service is not available or that a host or router could not be reached.
ICMP differs in purpose from [[Transmission Control Protocol|TCP]] and [[User Datagram Protocol|UDP]] in that it is usually ''not'' used directly by user network applications. One exception is the [[ping]] tool, which sends ICMP Echo Request messages (and receives Echo Response messages) to determine whether a host is reachable and how long packets take to get to and from that host.
== Technical Details==
The '''Internet Control Message Protocol''' ('''ICMP''') is part of the [[Internet protocol suite]] as defined in RFC 792. ICMP messages are typically generated in response to errors in [[Internet Protocol|IP]] [[datagram]]s (as specified in RFC 1122) or for diagnostic or routing purposes.
The version of ICMP for [[IPv4|Internet Protocol version 4]] is also known as '''ICMPv4''', as it is part of IPv4. [[IPv6]] has an equivalent protocol.
ICMP messages are constructed at the IP layer, usually from a normal IP datagram which has generated an ICMP response. IP encapsulates the appropriate ICMP message with a new IP header (to get the ICMP message back to the original sending host), and transmits the resulting datagram in the usual manner.
For example, every machine (such as intermediate [[router]]s) that forwards an IP datagram has to decrement the [[time to live]] (TTL) field of the IP header by one; if the TTL reaches 0, an ICMP [[ICMP_Time_Exceeded|Time to live exceeded in transit]] message is sent to the source of the datagram.
Each ICMP message is encapsulated directly within a single IP datagram, and thus, like [[User Datagram Protocol|UDP]], ICMP does not guarantee delivery.
Although ICMP messages are contained within standard IP datagrams, ICMP messages are usually processed as a special case distinguished from normal IP processing, rather than processed as a normal sub-protocol of IP. In many cases, it is necessary to inspect the contents of the ICMP message, and deliver the appropriate error message to the application which generated the original IP packet, the one which prompted the sending of the ICMP message.
Many commonly used network utilities are based on ICMP messages. The [[traceroute]] command is implemented by transmitting UDP datagrams with specially set IP TTL header fields, and looking for ICMP [[ICMP_Time_Exceeded|Time to live exceeded in transit]] (above) and "Destination unreachable" messages generated in response. The related [[ping]] utility is implemented using the ICMP "Echo" and "Echo reply" messages.
List of permitted control messages (incomplete list):<br>
0 - [[ICMP Echo Reply|Echo Reply]]<br>
1 - Reserved<br>
2 - Reserved<br>
3 - [[ICMP Destination Unreachable|Destination Unreachable]]<br>
4 - [[ICMP Source Quench|Source Quench]]<br>
5 - [[ICMP Redirect Message|Redirect Message]]<br>
6 - Alternate Host Address<br>
7 - Reserved<br>
8 - [[ICMP Echo Request|Echo Request]]<br>
9 - Router Advertisement<br>
10 - Router Solicitation<br>
11 - [[ICMP_Time_Exceeded|Time Exceeded]]<br>
12 - Parameter Problem<br>
13 - [[ICMP_Timestamp|Timestamp]]<br>
14 - [[ICMP_Timestamp_Reply|Timestamp Reply]]<br>
15 - Information Request<br>
16 - Information Reply<br>
17 - [[Address Mask Request]]<br>
18 - [[Address Mask Reply]]<br>
19 - Reserved for security<br>
20-29 - Reserved for robustness experiment<br>
30 - Traceroute<br>
31 - Datagram Conversion Error<br>
32 - Mobile Host Redirect<br>
33 - [[IPv6]] [[Where-Are-You]]<br>
34 - [[IPv6]] [[Here-I-Am]]<br>
35 - Mobile Registration Request<br>
36 - Mobile Registration Reply<br>
37 - Domain Name Request<br>
38 - Domain Name Reply<br>
39 - [[SKIP]] Algorithm Discovery Protocol<br>
40 - [[Photuris (protocol)|Photuris]], Security failures<br>
41-255 - Reserved<br>
(Source: [http://www.iana.org/assignments/icmp-parameters IANA ICMP Parameters])<br>
==See also==
* [[ICMPv6]]
* [[IRDP]]
* [[Smurf attack]]
==External links==
* RFC 792, ''Internet Control Message Protocol''
* [http://www.eventhelix.com/RealtimeMantra/Networking/Icmp.pdf ICMP Sequence Diagram]
* RFC 1122, ''Requirements for Internet Hosts -- Communication Layers''
[[Category:Internet protocols]]
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Inverse limit
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In [[mathematics]], the '''inverse limit''' (also called the '''projective limit''') is a construction which allows one to "glue together" several related objects, the precise manner of the gluing process being specified by morphisms between the objects. Inverse limits can be defined in any [[category (mathematics)|category]], but we will initially only consider inverse limits of [[group (mathematics)|groups]].
== Formal definition ==
=== Algebraic objects ===
We start with the definition of an '''inverse system''' of [[group (mathematics)|groups]] and [[group homomorphism|homomorphisms]]. Let (''I'', ≤) be a [[directed set|directed]] [[poset]] (not all authors require ''I'' to be directed). Let (''A''<sub>''i''</sub>)<sub>''i''∈''I''</sub> be a [[family (mathematics)|family]] of groups and suppose we have a family of homomorphisms ''f''<sub>''ij''</sub> : ''A''<sub>''j''</sub> → ''A''<sub>''i''</sub> for all ''i'' ≤ ''j'' (note the order) with the following properties:
# ''f''<sub>''ii''</sub> is the identity in ''A''<sub>''i''</sub>,
# ''f''<sub>''ik''</sub> = ''f''<sub>''ij''</sub> <small>O</small> ''f''<sub>''jk''</sub> for all ''i'' ≤ ''j'' ≤ ''k''.
Then the set of pairs (''A''<sub>''i''</sub>, ''f''<sub>''ij''</sub>) is called an inverse system of groups and morphisms over ''I''.
We define the '''inverse limit''' of the inverse system (''A''<sub>''i''</sub>, ''f''<sub>''ij''</sub>) as a particular [[subgroup]] of the [[direct product]] of the ''A''<sub>''i''</sub>'s:
:<math>\varprojlim A_i = \Big\{(a_i) \in \prod_{i\in I}A_i \;\Big|\; a_i = f_{ij}(a_j) \mbox{ for all } i \leq j\Big\}</math>
The inverse limit, ''A'', comes equipped with ''natural projections'' π<sub>''i''</sub> : ''A'' → ''A''<sub>''i''</sub> which pick out the ''i''th component of the direct product. The inverse limit and the natural projections satisfy a [[universal property]] described in the next section.
This same construction may be carried out if the ''A''<sub>''i''</sub>'s are [[set]]s, [[ring (mathematics)|rings]], [[module (mathematics)|modules]] (over a fixed ring), [[algebra over a field|algebras]] (over a fixed field), etc., and the [[homomorphism]]s are homomorphisms in the corresponding [[category theory|category]]. The inverse limit will also belong to that category.
=== General definition ===
The inverse limit can be defined abstractly in an arbitrary [[category (mathematics)|category]] by means of a [[universal property]]. Let (''X''<sub>''i''</sub>, ''f''<sub>''ij''</sub>) be an inverse system of objects and [[morphism]]s in a category ''C'' (same definition as above). The '''inverse limit''' of this system is an object ''X'' in ''C'' together with morphisms π<sub>''i''</sub> : ''X'' → ''X''<sub>''i''</sub> (called ''projections'') satisfying π<sub>''i''</sub> = ''f''<sub>''ij''</sub> <small>O</small> π<sub>''j''</sub> . The pair (''X'', π<sub>''i''</sub>) must be universal in the sense that for any other such pair (''Y'', ψ<sub>''i''</sub>) there exists a unique morphism ''u'' : ''Y'' → ''X'' making all the "obvious" identities true; i.e. the diagram.
<div style="text-align: center;">[[Image:InverseLimit-01.png]]</div>
must [[commutative diagram|commute]] for all ''i'', ''j''. The inverse limit is often denoted
:<math>X = \varprojlim X_i</math>
with the inverse system (''X''<sub>''i''</sub>, ''f''<sub>''ij''</sub>) being understood.
Unlike for algebraic objects, the inverse limit may not exist in an arbitrary category. If it does, however, it is unique in a strong sense: given any another inverse limit ''X''′ there exists is a ''unique'' [[isomorphism]] ''X''′ → ''X'' commuting with the projection maps.
We note that an inverse system in category ''C'' admits an alternative description in terms of [[functor]]s. Any partially ordered set ''I'' can be considered as a [[small category]] where the morphisms consist of arrows ''i'' → ''j'' [[iff]] ''i'' ≤ ''j''. An inverse system is then just a [[contravariant functor]] ''I'' → ''C''.
== Examples ==
* The ring of [[p-adic numbers|''p''-adic integers]] is the inverse limit of the rings '''Z'''/''p''<sup>''n''</sup>'''Z''' (see [[modular arithmetic]]) with the index set being the [[natural number]]s with the usual order, and the morphisms being "take remainder". The natural [[topology]] on the ''p''-adic integers is the same as the one described here.
* [[Pro-finite group|Pro-finite groups]] are defined as inverse limits of finite discrete groups.
* Let the index set ''I'' of an inverse system (''X''<sub>''i''</sub>, ''f''<sub>''ij''</sub>) have a [[greatest element]] ''m''. Then the natural projection π<sub>''m''</sub> : ''X'' → ''X''<sub>''m''</sub> is an isomorphism.
* Inverse limits in the [[category of topological spaces]] are given by placing the [[initial topology]] on the underlying set-theoretic inverse limit.
* Let (''I'', =) be the trivial order (not directed). The inverse limit of any corresponding inverse system is just the [[product (category theory)|product]].
* Let ''I'' consist of three elements ''i'', ''j'', and ''k'' with ''i'' ≤ ''j'' and ''i'' ≤ ''k'' (not directed). The inverse limit of any corresponding inverse system is the [[pullback (category theory)|pullback]].
== Related concepts and generalizations ==
The [[dual (category theory)|categorical dual]] of an inverse limit is a [[direct limit]] (or inductive limit). More general concepts are the [[limit (category theory)|limits and colimits]] of category theory. The terminology is somewhat confusing: inverse limits are limits, while direct limits are colimits.
[[Category:Category theory]]
[[Category:Abstract algebra]]
[[de:Limes (Kategorientheorie)]]
Interplanetary travel
15111
40168606
2006-02-18T18:13:54Z
Nickshanks
20152
/* [[Orbital mechanics]] of interplanetary travel */
By definition, '''interplanetary travel''' is [[travel]] between bodies in a given star system.
== Current achievements in interplanetary travel ==
NASA's [[Apollo program]] landed twelve people on the [[Moon]] and returned them to [[Earth]]: Apollo 11-17, except 13, i.e. six missions, each with three astronauts of which two landed on the Moon. [[unmanned space mission|Robot probes]] have been sent to fly past most of the major planets of the [[Solar system]]. The most distant probe spacecraft [[Pioneer 10]], [[Pioneer 11]], [[Voyager 1]] and [[Voyager 2]] are on course to leave the Solar system, but will cease to function long before reaching the [[Oort cloud]].
Robot landers such as [[Viking program|Viking]] and [[Mars Pathfinder |Pathfinder]] have already landed on the surface of [[Mars (planet)|Mars]] and several [[Venera]] and [[Vega program|Vega]] spacecraft have landed on the surface of [[Venus (planet)|Venus]]. The [[NEAR Shoemaker]] orbiter successfully landed on the asteroid [[433 Eros]], even though it was not designed with this maneuver in mind.
==[[Orbital mechanics]] of interplanetary travel==
To date, the only form of [[spacecraft propulsion]] used for interplanetary missions is the chemical [[rocket engine]]. The limitations of this engine dictate the trajectories and travel times required for interplanetary travel.
All objects in a star system are in orbit around the star; if they were not, they would have "left" the system or fallen into the star long ago. This implies that one cannot simply point oneself at another planet and fly in that direction, because upon arrival the planet will be moving at an inappropriate relative velocity or may have moved altogether. For instance, if a [[spacecraft]] were to start from the Earth and fly to Mars, its final velocity will be close to Earth's orbital velocity which is much higher than that of Mars. This is because any spacecraft starting on a planet is also in orbit around the Sun, and a brief glance at the planetary speeds and distances demonstrates that the power of a chemical rocket pales in comparison to the relative speeds of the planets. In order to make interplanetary travel possible, a reduction in the total amount of energy needed to do so is required.
For many years this meant using the [[Hohmann transfer orbit]]. Hohmann demonstrated that the lowest energy transfer between any two orbits is to elongate the orbit so that its apogee lies over the orbit in question. Once the spacecraft arrives, a second application of thrust will re-circularize the orbit at the new location. In the case of planetary transfers this means adjusting the spacecraft, originally in an orbit almost identical to Earth's, such that the [[apogee]] is on the far side of the Sun near the orbit of the other planet. A spacecraft traveling from Earth to Mars via this method will arrive near Mars orbit in approximately 18 months, but because the orbital velocity is greater when closer to the center of mass (ie. the Sun) and slower when farther from the center, the spacecraft will be travelling quite slowly and a small application of thrust is all that is needed. If the manoeuver is timed properly, Mars will be "arriving" under the spacecraft when this happens.
The Hohmann transfer applies to any two orbits, not just those with planets involved. For instance it is the most common way to transfer satellites into [[geostationary orbit]], after first being "parked" in [[low earth orbit]]. However the Hohmann transfer takes an amount of time similar to 1/2 of the orbital period of the outer orbit, so in the case of the outer planets this is many years – too long to wait. It is also based on the assumption that the points at both ends are massless, as in the case when transferring between two orbits around Earth for instance. With a planet at the destination end of the transfer, calculations become considerably more difficult.
One technique, known as the [[gravitational slingshot]], uses the [[gravity]] of the planets to modify the path of the spacecraft without using fuel. In typical example, a spacecraft is sent to a distant planet on a path that is much faster than what the Hohmann transfer would call for. This would typically mean that it would arrive at the planet's orbit and continue past it. However if there is a planet between the departure point and the target, it can be used to bend the path toward the target, and in many cases the overall travel time is greatly reduced. A prime example of this are the two craft of the [[Voyager program]], which used slingshot effects to change trajectories several times in the outer solar system. This method is not easily applicable to Earth-Mars travel however, although it is possible to use other nearby planets such as [[Venus (planet)|Venus]] or even the [[Moon]] as slingshots.
Another technique uses the [[Celestial body atmosphere|atmosphere]] of the target planet to slow down. In this case the spacecraft is sent on a high-speed transfer, which would normally mean it would go right past its target upon arrival. By passing into the atmosphere this extra speed is lost, and the amount of energy lost to transport the weight of the required [[heat shield]] is considerably less than the weight of the rocket fuel that would be needed to provide the same amount of energy. This concept, known as [[aerobraking]], was first used on the [[Apollo program]] wherein the returning spacecraft did not bother to re-enter Earth orbit in a transfer, and instead re-entered immediately at the end of the journey. Similar systems are included on most basic plans for a manned mission to Mars.
Recent advances in [[computing]] have allowed old mathematical solutions to be re-investigated, and have led to a new system for calculating even lower-cost transfers. Paths have been calculated which link the [[Lagrange points]] of the various planets into the so-called [[Interplanetary Transport Network]]. The transfers on this system are slower than Hohmann transfers, but use even less energy, and are particularly useful for sending spacecraft between the inner planets.
==Improved methods==
There are a number of designs for more efficient spacecraft propulsion methods (as measured by [[specific impulse]]) that could, speed up interplanetary space missions greatly and allow greater design "safety margins" by reducing the imperative to make spacecraft lighter. If developed, such designs would use trajectories far different to Hohmann transfers.
The most likely near-term development is that of electric propulsion, which uses an external source such as a [[nuclear reactor]] to generate [[electricity]], which is then used to accelerate a chemically inert propellant to speeds far higher than achieved in a chemical rocket. A prototype of this technology has already been used on NASA's [[Deep Space 1|Deep Space One]]. A more ambitious, nuclear-powered version was intended for an unmanned Jupiter mission, the [[Jupiter Icy Moons Orbiter]], originally planned for launch sometime in the next decade. Due to a shift in priorities at NASA that favored manned space missions, the project lost funding in 2005, effectively cancelling the JIMO mission.
See the [[spacecraft propulsion]] article for a discussion of a number of other technologies that could, in the medium to longer term, be the basis of interplanetary missions. Unlike the situation with [[interstellar travel]], the barriers to fast interplanetary travel involve engineering and economics rather than any basic physics.
While manned interplanetary travel (with the arguable exception of the Apollo program) has not yet been achieved, a trip to [[Mars (planet)|Mars]] is probably feasible, even with chemical rocket propulsion, and could probably be achieved within a decade (at most two) if the funds were made available. [[NASA]]'s "Design Reference Mission" proposes a Mars exploration program costing $50 billion, but others have made detailed proposals with projected costs much less (see [[Mars Direct]]).
Interference
15112
39683851
2006-02-15T03:37:38Z
Falcorian
153128
Adding text to picture.
{{otheruses}}
[[image:wavepanel.png|right|frame|'''Interference of two circular waves''' - Wavelength (decreasing bottom to top) and Wave centers distance (increasing to the right). Absolute value snapshots of the (real-valued, scalar) wave field. As time progresses, the wave fronts would move outwards from the two centers, but the dark regions (destructive interference) stay fixed.]]
'''Interference''' is the [[Superposition principle|superposition]] of two or more [[wave]]s resulting in a new wave pattern. As most commonly used, the term usually refers to the interference of waves which are [[correlated]] or [[Coherence (physics)|coherent]] with each other, either because they come from the same source or because they have the same or nearly the same [[frequency]]. Two non-monochromatic waves are only fully coherent with each other if they both have exactly the same range of wavelengths and the same [[phase (waves)|phase]] differences at each of the constituent wavelengths.
The principle of superposition of waves states that the resultant displacement at a point is equal to the sum of the displacements of different waves at that point. If a crest of a wave meets a crest of another wave at the same point then the crests interfere ''constructively'' and the resultant wave [[amplitude]] is greater. If a crest of a wave meets a trough then they interfere ''destructively'', and the overall amplitude is decreased.
Interference is involved in [[Thomas Young (scientist)|Thomas Young]]'s [[double-slit experiment]] where two beams of light which are coherent with each other interfere to produce an interference pattern (the beams of light both have the same wavelength range and at the center of the interference pattern they have the same [[phase (waves)|phase]]s at each wavelength, as they both come from the same source). More generally, this form of interference can occur whenever a wave can propagate from a source to a destination by two or more paths of different length. Two or more sources can only be used to produce interference when there is a fixed phase relation between them, but in this case the interference generated is the same as with a single source; see [[Huygens principle|Huygens' principle]].
Light from any source can be used to obtain interference patterns, for example, [[Newton's rings]] can be produced with [[sunlight]]. However, in general [[white]] light is less suited for producing clear interference patterns, as it is a mix of a full spectrum of colours, that each have different spacing of the interference fringes. [[Sodium light]] is close to [[monochromatic]] and is thus more suitable for producing interference patterns. Most suitable is [[laser]] light because that is almost perfectly monochromatic.
==Constructive and destructive interference==
[[Image:Michelson Interferometer Green Laser Interference.jpg|thumb|right|250px|Interference pattern produced with a [[Michelson interferometer]]. Bright bands are the result of '''constructive interference''' while the dark bands are the result of '''destructive interference'''.]]
When two waves superimpose, the resulting waveform depends on the frequency (or wavelength) amplitude and relative phase of the two waves. If the two waves have the same amplitude ''A'' and wavelength the resultant waveform will have amplitude between 0 and 2''A'' depending on whether the two waves are in phase or [[out of phase]].
{|
|-
| '''combined<br> waveform'''
| colspan="2" rowspan="3" | [[Image:Interference of two waves.png]]
|-
| '''wave 1'''
|-
| '''wave 2'''
|-
| <br>
| '''Two waves in phase'''
| '''Two waves 180° out <br>of phase'''
|}
Consider two waves that are in phase,with amplitudes ''A''<sub>1</sub> and ''A''<sub>2</sub>. Their troughs and peaks line up and the resultant wave will have amplitude ''A'' = ''A''<sub>1</sub> + ''A''<sub>2</sub>. This is known as '''constructive interference'''.
If the two waves are 180° out of phase, then one wave's crests will coincide with another wave's troughs and so will tend to cancel out. The resultant amplitude is ''A'' = |A<sub>1</sub> − ''A''<sub>2</sub>|. If ''A''<sub>1</sub> = ''A''<sub>2</sub> the resultant amplitude will be zero. This is known as '''destructive interference'''.
== See also ==
* [[Beat (acoustics)]]
* [[Moiré pattern]]
* [[Interferometer]]
==External links==
{{Commons|Interference}}
* [http://www.falstad.com/ripple/ex-2source.html Java demonstration of interference]
[[Category:Interference| ]]
[[Category:Optics]]
[[Category:Wave mechanics]]
[[da:Interferens]]
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[[fr:Interférence]]
[[he:התאבכות]]
[[io:Interfero]]
[[ja:干渉 (物理学)]]
[[nl:Interferentie]]
[[pl:Interferencja]]
[[pt:Interferência]]
[[sl:Interferenca]]
[[fi:Interferenssi]]
[[sv:Interferens]]
[[vi:Giao thoa]]
[[zh:干涉]]
Indictable offence
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2006-02-19T17:52:17Z
David91
262604
tidying up
{{EngCrimLaw}}
In many [[common law]] [[jurisdiction]]s (e.g. the [[United Kingdom]], [[Canada]], [[United States]], [[Australia]]), an '''indictable offence''' is an offence which can only be tried on an [[indictment]] after a preliminary hearing to determine whether there is a ''[[prima facie]]'' case to answer or by a [[grand jury]]. In [[trial (law)|trial]]s for indictable offences, the accused normally has the right to a [[jury trial]], unless he or she waives that right. In the United States, a crime of similar severity is usually referred to as a [[felony]] although it too proceeds after an indictment.
In [[English law]] the term refers to [[either way]] and indictable only offences. An either way or hybrid offence allows the defendant to elect between trial by jury on indictment in the [[Crown Court]] and summary trial in the [[magistrate|Magistrates' Court]]. However, the election may be overruled by the court of first instance if the facts suggest that the [[sentence (law)|sentencing]] powers of a Magistrates' Court would be inadequate to represent the seriousness of the offence. Some offences such as [[murder]] and [[rape]] are considered so serious that they can only be tried on indictment at the Crown Court where the widest range of sentencing powers is available to the [[judge]].
==See also==
*[[Summary offence]]
*[[Felony]]
*[[Indictment]]
[[Category:Crimes]]
[[Category:Criminal law]]
[[Category:Common law]]
{{law-stub}}
Internazionale Milano F.C.
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42104509
2006-03-03T21:29:10Z
Donation
634260
revert
{{Football club infobox |
clubname = Inter |
image = [[Image:FC Internazionale logo.png|75px|logo]] |
fullname = Internazionale Milano<br>Football Club SpA |
nickname = [[Nerazzurri|''Nerazzurri'']]<br>(the Black-Blues) |
founded = [[March 9]],[[1908]] |
ground = [[San Siro|Stadio Giuseppe Meazza]],<br/>San Siro, [[Milan]], [[Italy]] |
capacity = 85,700 |
chairman = [[Giacinto Facchetti]] |
manager = [[Roberto Mancini]] |
league = [[Serie A]] |
season = 2004-05 |
position = [[Serie A]], 3rd |
pattern_la1=|pattern_b1=_blackstripes|pattern_ra1=|
leftarm1=0055A3|body1=0055A3|rightarm1=0055A3|shorts1=000000|socks1=000000|
pattern_la2=|pattern_b2=|pattern_ra2=|
leftarm2=FFFFFF|body2=FFFFFF|rightarm2=FFFFFF|shorts2=FFFFFF|socks2=FFFFFF|
}}
'''Internazionale Milano Football Club''' is an [[Italy|Italian]] [[football (soccer)|football]] club based in [[Milan]], [[Lombardy]], which plays in the [[Serie A]]. It is more commonly known as '''Inter''', and often named '''Inter Milan''' in foreign countries. The club wears the recognisable blue and black stripes, with the current sponsors [[Pirelli]] on their shirt.
==History==
===Pre First World War===
The club was founded on [[March 9]], [[1908]] following a schism from the Milan Cricket and Football Club, now known as [[A.C. Milan|AC Milan]]. A group of Italians and [[Switzerland|Swiss]] were unhappy about the domination of Italians in the AC Milan team, and broke away from them, leading to the creation of Internazionale. From the beginning, the club was open to foreign players and thus lived up to her founding name. The original nickname of the team in the Milano dialect was ''La Beneamata'', the cherished.
The club won its very first [[scudetto|championship]] in [[1910]] and its second in [[1920]]. The Captain and the Coach of the first ''scudetto'' was [[Virgilio Fossati]], born in [[Milan]] and brother of [[Giuseppe Fossati]] (who won the second Inter championship). Unfortunately Virgilio Fossati died during the [[World War I|First World War]].
===Between the Wars===
During the turbulent period between the [[World War I|First]] and [[World War II|Second World War]]s, Internazionale was forced to change its name to '''Ambrosiana-Inter''' in order to accommodate the requests of [[Benito Mussolini]]'s [[fascist]] regime. However, Inter was still used to winning ways and captured its third league championship in the new Italian first division in [[1930]]. Following that, a fourth league title was won in 1938, Inter's first [[Coppa Italia]] (Italian Cup) was won in 1940 and a fifth league championship followed in [[1940]]. From [[1942]] onwards, the name Ambrosiana-Inter was dropped in favour of the original ''Internazionale Milano''.
===La Grande Inter===
Following the war, Inter won its sixth championship in [[1953]] and the seventh in [[1954]]. Following these titles, Inter was to enter the best years of its history, affectionately known as the era of '''La Grande Inter''' (The Great Inter). During this magnificent period, the club won 3 league championships in [[1963]], [[1965]] & [[1966]]. The most famous moments during this decade also include Inter's 2 back-to-back [[UEFA Champions League|European Cup]] wins. In [[1964]], Inter won the first of those tournaments, playing against the famous Spanish club [[Real Madrid]]. The next season, playing in their own [[stadium]], the [[Giuseppe Meazza Stadium|San Siro]], Inter won their second [[European Cup]] against [[Portugal|Portuguese]] outfit [[SL Benfica|Benfica]]. During that years many great players dressed the Neroazzuri shirt: [[Luis Suarez]], [[Giacinto Facchetti]], [[Sandro Mazzola]], [[Angelo Domenghini]], [[Mario Corso]]. The owner and president of the team was [[Angelo Moratti]], father of the current owner. He offered enormous amounts of money to buy [[Eusebio]] and [[Pelé]]; both players agreed to move to Inter, but politics intervened. The military dictatorships of Portugal and Brazil both refused to sanction the moves, and both transfers fell through. In 1967, Inter lost 1-2 in the final of the European Cup against [[Celtic F.C.]].
===1970 to date===
Following the golden [[1960]]s, Inter managed to win their 11th league title in [[1971]] and their 12th in [[1980]]. Inter were defeated for the second time in five years in the final of the European Cup, going down 0-2 to [[Johan Cruijff]]'s [[Ajax Amsterdam]] in 1972. During the [[1970]]s & [[1980]]s, Inter also added to it's Coppa Italia tally the second and third cups in [[1978]] and [[1982]] respectively. Inter won their most recent league championship in 1989, bringing their total tally of ''scudetti'' to 13. They sit third in the all-time list of most wins of the league championship, behind [[Juventus]] (28) and [[A.C. Milan]] (17).
Internazionale has also won the [[UEFA Cup]] on 3 occasions, all of them in the the space of fifteen years. The first was in the 1990-91 season in a two-legged final with [[AS Roma]]. In 1993-94, Inter did it again, this time against Austrian side [[Austria Salzburg|Casino Salzburg]]. In a record third UEFA Cup victory, in the 1997-98 season, Inter beat [[SS Lazio]] in a one-match final played in the [[Parc des Princes]], [[Paris]].
===Other Historical Information===
Inter holds a proud record of never having been [[relegation|relegated]] to [[Serie B]] (second division) in its entire existence. The fans hold this in high regard as Inter are only one of two clubs (the other being [[Juventus]]) that have been ever-present in [[Serie A]]. Juventus were nominally relegated in 1911 and 1913 but remained at the first level in Piemonte Regional League in [[1911]], and in the Lombardia Regional League in the [[1913]]; in addition, they didn't finish the championship in [[1908]].
The current honorary [[president]] and owner of Inter is [[Massimo Moratti]]. His father, Angelo Moratti was the president of Inter during the golden era of the 1960s. Massimo, trying to emulate his father's great success, has spent a great deal of money to bring some of the world's best players to the club without managing to secure that elusive fourteenth championship.
==Rivalry==
Inter have two very great rivalries. The first is obviously cross-town arch-enemies, [[A.C. Milan]]. Inter is derived from AC Milan, so their rivalry has been in existence since creation. During the 1960's Inter was the more successful club, however in recent times AC Milan has been the more dominant team.
Another rival of Inter is [[Juventus F.C.]]. Matches between these two teams are called the ''derby d'italia''.
==San Siro==
The stadium in which Inter plays is called ''[[San Siro|Stadio Giuseppe Meazza]]'', also known as ''San Siro'' (since the stadium is in the "San Siro" district). It was previously simply known as San Siro, but a new name was adopted in [[1980]] after [[Giuseppe Meazza]]'s death. Meazza was a famous player for FC Internazionale in the [[1930]]s and also played for [[AC Milan]] for a brief period of time. As a player, he won two World Cups for Italy (in [[Football World Cup 1934|1934]] and [[Football World Cup 1938|1938]]) and, alongside [[Giovanni Ferrari]], remains one of only two Italian players to have ever won the [[FIFA World Cup]] on two occasions. As a result, he is revered amongst the ''Interisti'' (Inter fans) and was honored by having one of the most famous football stadiums in the world named after him. The stadium seats 85,700 and plays host to both FC Internazionale and [[AC Milan]].
==Current first team squad==
''As of January 31, 2006''
{{Football squad start}}
{{Football squad player|no=1|nat=Italy|name=[[Francesco Toldo]]|pos=GK}}
{{Football squad player|no=2|nat=Colombia|name=[[Iván Córdoba]]|pos=DF}}
{{Football squad player|no=3|nat=Argentina|name=[[Nicolas Burdisso]]|pos=DF}}
{{Football squad player|no=4|nat=Argentina|name=[[Javier Zanetti]]|pos=DF|other=captain}}
{{Football squad player|no=5|nat=Serbia and Montenegro|name=[[Dejan Stankovic]]|pos=MF}}
{{Football squad player|no=6|nat=Italy|name=[[Cristiano Zanetti]]|pos=MF}}
{{Football squad player|no=7|nat=Portugal|name=[[Luís Figo]]|pos=MF}}
{{Football squad player|no=8|nat=Chile|name=[[David Pizarro]]|pos=MF}}
{{Football squad player|no=9|nat=Argentina|name=[[Julio Ricardo Cruz|Julio Cruz]]|pos=FW}}
{{Football squad player|no=10|nat=Brazil|name=[[Adriano Leite Ribeiro|Adriano]]|pos=FW}}
{{Football squad player|no=11|nat=Serbia and Montenegro|name=[[Siniša Mihajlović]]|pos=DF}}
{{Football squad player|no=12|nat=Brazil|name=[[Júlio César Soares Espíndola|Júlio César]]|pos=GK}}
{{Football squad player|no=13|nat=Brazil|name=[[Zé María]]|pos=DF}}
{{Football squad player|no=14|nat=Argentina|name=[[Juan Sebastián Verón]]|pos=MF|other=on loan from [[Chelsea F.C.|Chelsea]]}}
{{Football squad player|no=16|nat=Italy|name=[[Giuseppe Favalli]]|pos=DF}}
{{Football squad mid}}
{{Football squad player|no=18|nat=Argentina|name=[[Kily Gonzalez]]|pos=MF}}
{{Football squad player|no=19|nat=Argentina|name=[[Esteban Cambiasso]]|pos=MF}}
{{Football squad player|no=20|nat=Uruguay|name=[[Alvaro Recoba]]|pos=FW}}
{{Football squad player|no=21|nat=Argentina|name=[[Santiago Solari]]|pos=MF}}
{{Football squad player|no=22|nat=Italy|name=[[Paolo Orlandoni]]|pos=GK}}
{{Football squad player|no=23|nat=Italy|name=[[Marco Materazzi]]|pos=DF}}
{{Football squad player|no=25|nat=Argentina|name=[[Walter Samuel]]|pos=DF}}
{{Football squad player|no=30|nat=Nigeria|name=[[Obafemi Martins]]|pos=FW}}
{{Football squad player|no=31|nat=Brazil|name=[[César Rodríguez Aparecido|César]]|pos=MF}}
{{Football squad player|no=33|nat=Cameroon|name=[[Pierre Wome]]|pos=DF}}
{{Football squad player|no=44|nat=Italy|name=[[Matteo Momenté]]|pos=FW|other=from youth team}}
{{Football squad player|no=49|nat=Italy|name=[[Marco Andreolli]]|pos=DF|other=from youth team}}
{{Football squad player|no=55|nat=Cameroon|name=[[Daniel Maa Boumsong]]|pos=MF|other=from youth team}}
{{Football squad player|no=87|nat=Italy|name=[[Giacomo Bindi]]|pos=GK|other=from youth team}}
{{Football squad end}}
==Famous players since 1908==
{|
|valign="top"|
*{{flagicon|Brazil}} [[Adriano Leite Ribeiro|Adriano]]
*{{flagicon|Italy}} [[Ermanno Aebi]]
*{{flagicon|Italy}} [[Luigi Allemandi]]
*{{flagicon|Italy}} [[Alessandro Altobelli]]
*{{flagicon|Argentina}} [[Antonio Valentin Angelillo]]
*{{flagicon|Italy}} [[Gino Armano]]
*{{flagicon|Italy}} [[Dino Baggio]]
*{{flagicon|Italy}} [[Roberto Baggio]]
*{{flagicon|Italy}} [[Giuseppe Baresi]]
*{{flagicon|Argentina}} [[Gabriel Batistuta]]
*{{flagicon|Italy}} [[Evaristo Beccalossi]]
*{{flagicon|Turkey}} [[Emre Belözoğlu|Belözoğlu Emre]]
*{{flagicon|Netherlands}} [[Dennis Bergkamp]]
*{{flagicon|Italy}} [[Giuseppe Bergomi]]
*{{flagicon|Italy}} [[Nicola Berti]]
*{{flagicon|France}} [[Laurent Blanc]]
*{{flagicon|Italy}} [[Roberto Boninsegna]]
*{{flagicon|Ireland}} [[Liam Brady]]
*{{flagicon|Germany}} [[Andreas Brehme]]
*{{flagicon|Italy}} [[Lorenzo Buffon]]
*{{flagicon|Italy}} [[Tarcisio Burgnich]]
*{{flagicon|Argentina}} [[Esteban Cambiasso]]
*{{flagicon|Italy}} [[Fabio Cannavaro]]
*{{flagicon|Italy}} [[Franco Causio]]
*{{flagicon|Italy}} [[Luigi Cevenini]]
*{{flagicon|Colombia}} [[Ivan Ramiro Cordoba|Ivan Cordoba]]
*{{flagicon|Italy}} [[Mario Corso]]
*{{flagicon|Argentina}} [[Hernan Crespo]]
*{{flagicon|Argentina}} [[Attilio Demaria]]
*{{flagicon|Argentina}} [[Ramon Diaz]]
*{{flagicon|France}} [[Youri Djorkaeff]]
*{{flagicon|Italy}} [[Angelo Domenghini]]
*{{flagicon|Italy}} [[Giacinto Facchetti]]
*{{flagicon|Italy}} [[Giovanni Ferrari]]
*{{flagicon|Italy}} [[Riccardo Ferri]]
*{{flagicon|Portugal}} [[Luis Figo|Luis Figo]]
*{{flagicon|Italy}} [[Giuseppe Fossati]]
*{{flagicon|Italy}} [[Virgilio Fossati]]
*{{flagicon|Italy}} [[Annibale Frossi]]
*{{flagicon|Italy}} [[Giorgio Ghezzi]]
*{{flagicon|Italy}} [[Aristide Guarneri]]
|valign="top"|
*{{flagicon|England}} [[Paul Ince]]
*{{flagicon|Brazil}} [[Jair_(football)|Jair]]
*{{flagicon|Germany}} [[Jürgen Klinsmann]]
*{{flagicon|Italy}} [[Benito Lorenzi]]
*{{flagicon|Nigeria}} [[Obafemi Martins]]
*{{flagicon|Uruguay}} [[Ernesto Mascheroni]]
*{{flagicon|Germany}} [[Lothar Matthäus]]
*{{flagicon|Italy}} [[Sandro Mazzola]]
*{{flagicon|Italy}} [[Giuseppe Meazza]]
*{{flagicon|Serbia and Montenegro}} [[Sinisa Mihajlovic]]
*{{flagicon|Italy}} [[Francesco Moriero]]
*{{flagicon|Italy}} [[Stefano Nyers]]
*{{flagicon|Italy}} [[Aldo Olivieri]]
*{{flagicon|Italy}} [[Gabriele Oriali]]
*{{flagicon|Italy}} [[Gianluca Pagliuca]]
*{{flagicon|Argentina}} [[Daniel Passarella]]
*{{flagicon|Italy}} [[Angelo Peruzzi]]
*{{flagicon|Italy}} [[Armando Picchi]]
*{{flagicon|Italy}} [[Andrea Pirlo]]
*{{flagicon|Austria}} [[Herbert Prohaska]]
*{{flagicon|Uruguay}} [[Alvaro Recoba]]
*{{flagicon|Brazil}} [[Roberto Carlos da Silva|Roberto Carlos]]
*{{flagicon|Brazil}} [[Ronaldo]]
*{{flagicon|Germany}} [[Karl-Heinz Rummenigge]]
*{{flagicon|Germany}} [[Matthias Sammer]]
*{{flagicon|Italy}} [[Salvatore Schillaci]]
*{{flagicon|Netherlands}} [[Clarence Seedorf]]
*{{flagicon|Italy}} [[Aldo Serena]]
*{{flagicon|Argentina}} [[Diego Simeone]]
*{{flagicon|Sweden}} [[Lennart Skoglund]]
*{{flagicon|Uruguay}} [[Ruben Sosa]]
*{{flagicon|Spain}} [[Luis Suarez]]
*{{flagicon|Italy}} [[Marco Tardelli]]
*{{flagicon|Italy}} [[Francesco Toldo]]
*{{flagicon|Argentina}} [[Juan Sebastián Verón]]
*{{flagicon|Italy}} [[Lido Vieri]]
*{{flagicon|Italy}} [[Christian Vieri]]
*{{flagicon|Netherlands}} [[Aron Winter]]
*{{flagicon|Chile}} [[Ivan Zamorano]]
*{{flagicon|Argentina}} [[Javier Zanetti]]
*{{flagicon|Italy}} [[Walter Zenga]]
|}
==Internazionale Presidents since 1908==
{|
|valign="top"|
*[[1908]] [[Giovanni Paramithiotti]]
*[[1909]] [[Ettore Strauss]]
*[[1910]] [[Carlo De Medici]]
*[[1912]] [[Emilio Hirzel]]
*[[1914]] [[Luigi Ansbacher]]
*[[1914]] [[Giuseppe Visconti Di Modrone]]
*[[1919]] [[Giorgio Hulss]]
*[[1920]] [[Francesco Mauro]]
*[[1923]] [[Enrico Olivetti]]
*[[1926]] [[Senatore Borletti]]
|valign="top"|
*[[1929]] [[Ernesto Torrusio]]
*[[1930]] [[Oreste Simonotti]]
*[[1932]] [[Ferdinando Pozzani]]
*[[1942]] [[Carlo Masseroni]]
*[[1955]] [[Angelo Moratti]]
*[[1968]] [[Ivanoe Fraizzoli]]
*[[1984]] [[Ernesto Pellegrini]]
*[[1995]] [[Massimo Moratti]]
*[[2004]] [[Giacinto Facchetti]]
|}
==Internazionale Managers since 1908==
{|
|valign="top"|
*1909-15 - [[Virgilio Fossati]]
*1919 - [[Virgilio Fossati]]
*1920 - [[Nino Resegotti]]
*1922-24 - [[Bob Spotiswood]]
*1924-26 - [[Paulo Schiedler]]
*1926-28 - [[Arpad Veisz]]
*1928-29 - [[Josef Viola]]
*1929-31 - [[Arpad Veisz]]
*1931-32 - [[Istvan Toth]]
*1932-34 - [[Arpad Veisz]]
*1935-36 - [[Gyula Feldmann]]
*1936 - [[Albino Carraro]]
*1936-38 - [[Armando Castellazzi]]
*1938-40 - [[Tony Carnelli]]
*1940 - [[Giuseppe Peruchetti]]
*1941 - [[Italo Zamberletti]]
*1941-42 - [[Ivo Fiorentini]]
*1942-43 - [[Giovanni Ferrari]]
*1945-46 - [[Carlo Carcano]]
*1946 - [[Nino Nutrizio]]
*1947-48 - [[Giuseppe Meazza]]
*1948 - [[Carlo Carcano]]
*1948 - [[John Astley]]
|width="33"|
|valign="top"|
*1949-50 - [[Giulio Cappelli]]
*1950-52 - [[Aldo Olivieri]]
*1952-55 - [[Alfredo Foni]]
*1955 - [[Aldo Campatelli]]
*1955-56 - [[Giuseppe Meazza]]
*1956 - [[Annibale Frossi]]
*1957 - [[Luigi Ferrero]]
*1957 - [[Giuseppe Meazza]]
*1957-58 - [[John Carver]]
*1958 - [[Giuseppe Bigogno]]
*1959-60 - [[Aldo Campatelli]]
*1960 - [[Camillo Achilli]]
*1960 - [[Giulio Cappelli]]
*1960-68 - [[Helenio Herrera]]
*1968-69 - [[Alfredo Foni]]
*1969-71 - [[Heriberto Herrera]]
*1971-73 - [[Giovanni Invernizzi]]
*1973 - [[Enea Masiero]]
*1973 - [[Heriberto Herrera]]
*1974 - [[Enea Masiero]]
*1974-75 - [[Luis Suarez]]
*1976-77 - [[Giuseppe Chiappella]]
*1977-82 - [[Eugenio Bersellini]]
|width="33"|
|valign="top"|
*1982-83 - [[Rino Marchesi]]
*1983-84 - [[Luigi Radice]]
*1984-86 - [[Ilario Castagner]]
*1986 - [[Mario Corso]]
*1986-91 - [[Giovanni Trapattoni]]
*1991 - [[Corrado Orrico]]
*1992 - [[Luis Suarez]]
*1992-94 - [[Osvaldo Bagnoli]]
*1994 - [[Giampiero Marini]]
*1994-95 - [[Ottavio Bianchi]]
*1995 - [[Luis Suarez]]
*1995-97 - [[Roy Hodgson]]
*1997 - [[Luciano Castellini]]
*1997-98 - [[Luigi Simoni]]
*1999 - [[Mircea Lucescu]]
*1999 - [[Luciano Castellini]]
*1999 - [[Roy Hodgson]]
*1999-01 - [[Marcello Lippi]]
*2001 - [[Marco Tardelli]]
*2001-03 - [[Héctor Raul Cúper]]
*2003 - [[Corrado Verdelli]]
*2004 - [[Alberto Zaccheroni]]
*2004 - [[Roberto Mancini]]
|}
==Team Honours==
*[[Serie A|Italian Championships]]: '''13'''
#1909/10 Campelli, Fronte, Zoller, Yenni, V.Fossati, Stebler, Capra, C.Payer, E.Peterly, Aebi, Schuler.
#1919/20 Campelli, Francesconi, Beltrami, Milesi, G.Fossati, Scheidler; Conti, Aebi, Agradi, L.Cevenini, Asti
#1929/30 Degani, Gianfardoni, Allemandi, Rivolta, Viani, Castellazzi, Visentin, Serantoni, Meazza, Blasevich, Conti
#1937/38 Peruchetti, Buonocore, Setti, Locatelli, Olmi, Antona, Frossi, N.Ferrara, Meazza, Ferrari, P.Ferraris
#1939/40 Peruchetti, Poli, Setti, Locatelli, Olmi, Campatelli, Frossi, A.Demaria, Guarnieri, Candiani, P.Ferraris
#1952/53 Ghezzi, Blason, Giacomazzi, Neri, Giovannini, Nesti, Armano, Mazza, Lorenzi, Skoglund, Nyers
#1953/54 Ghezzi, Giacomazzi, Padulazzi, Neri, Giovannini, Nesti, Armano, Mazza, Lorenzi, Skoglund, Nyers
#1962/63 Buffon, Burgnich, Facchetti, Zaglio, Guarneri, Picchi, Jair, S.Mazzola, Di Giacomo, Suarez, Corso
#1964/65 Sarti, Burgnich, Facchetti, Tagnin, Guarneri, Picchi, Jair, S.Mazzola, Domenghini, Suarez, Corso
#1965/66 Sarti, Burgnich, Facchetti, Bedin, Guarneri, Picchi, Jair, S.Mazzola, Domenghini, Suarez, Corso
#1970/71 L.Vieri, Bellugi, Facchetti, Bedin, Giubertoni, Burgnich, Jair, Bertini, Boninsegna, S.Mazzola, Corso
#1979/80 Bordon, G.Baresi, Oriali, Pasinato, Mozzini, Bini, Caso, Marini, Altobelli, Beccalossi, Muraro
#1988/89 Zenga, Bergomi, Brehme, Matteoli, Ferri, Mandorlini, A.Bianchi, Berti, Diaz, Matthaeus, A.Serena
*[[European Cup]]: '''2'''
#1963/64 Sarti, Burgnich, Facchetti, Tagnin, Guarneri, Picchi, Jair, S.Mazzola, Milani, Suarez, Corso
#1964/65 Sarti, Burgnich, Facchetti, Bedin, Guarneri, Picchi, Jair, S.Mazzola, Peirò, Suarez, Corso
*[[Coppa Italia|Italian Cup]] '''4'''
#1938/39 Sain, Buonocore, Setti, Locatelli, Olmi, Campatelli, Frossi, A.Demaria, Guarnieri, G.Meazza, P.Ferraris
#1977/78 Cipollini, Canuti, Fedele, Baresi, Gasparini, Bini, Scanziani, Oriali, Altobelli, Marini, Muraro
#1981/82 Bordon, Bergomi, Baresi, Marini, Oriali, Canuti, Bini, Bagni, Prohaska, Beccalossi, Altobelli
#2004/05 Toldo, J.Zanetti, Materazzi, Mihajlovic, Favalli, Ze Maria, Cambiasso, Stankovic, Kily Gonzalez, Martins, Adriano
*[[UEFA Cup]]: '''3'''
#1990/91 Zenga, Bergomi, Brehme, Battistini, Ferri, A.Paganin, A.Bianchi, Berti, Klinsmann, Matthaeus, Pizzi
#1993/94 Zenga, A.Paganin, D.Fontolan, Jonk, Bergomi, Battistini, Orlando, Manicone, Berti, Bergkamp, Sosa
#1997/98 Pagliuca, Colonnese, Fresi, West, J.Zanetti, A.Winter, Ze Elias, Djorkaeff, Simeone, Zamorano, Ronaldo
*[[European/South American Cup|Intercontinental Cup]]: '''2'''
#1964 Sarti, Malatrasi, Facchetti, Tagnin, Guarneri, Picchi, Domenghini, Milani, Peirò, Suarez, Corso
#1965 Sarti, Burgnich, Facchetti, Bedin, Guarneri, Picchi, Jair, S.Mazzola, Peirò, Suarez, Corso
*[[Italian Super Cup|SuperCoppa Italiana]] '''2'''
#1988/89 Zenga, G.Baresi, Brehme, Matteoli, Bergomi, Verdelli, Bianchi, Berti, Morello, Cucchi, A.Serena
#2005/06 Toldo, J.Zanetti, Materazzi, Cordoba, Favalli, Ze Maria, Cambiasso, Stankovic, Veron, Martins, Adriano
'''Finals:'''
*European Cup 2
#1966/67 Sarti; Burgnich, Guarneri, Facchetti; Bedin, Picchi; Domenghini, Mazzola, Cappellini, Bicicli, Corso
#1971/72 Bordon; Burgnich, Facchetti, Bellugi, Oriali; Giubertoni, Bedin, Frustalupi; Jair (Pellizarro), Mazzola, Boninsegna
*UEFA Cup 1
#1996/97 Pagliuca, Bergomi, Fresi, Paganin, Pistone, Djorkaeff, Sforza, Ince, Zanetti, Ganz, Zamorano
*Central Europe Cup ([[Mitropa Cup]]) 1 (The Mitropa Cup carried a prestige only comparable with the Champions' Cup of later decades)
#1932/33
*Italian Cup 4
#1958/59 Matteucci, Guarneri, Gatti, Masiero, Cardarelli, Bolchi, Bicieli, Firmani, Angelillo, Corso, Rizzolini
#1964/65 Sarti, Burgnich, Facchetti, Bedin, Guarneri, Picchi, Jair, S.Mazzola, Peirò, Suarez, Corso
#1976/77
#1999/00 Peruzzi, Serena, Cordoba, Blanc, Domoraud, J.Zanetti, Di Biagio, Cauet, Seedorf, R.Baggio, Zamorano
#2004/2005 (Leg 1) Toldo, J Zanetti, Mihajlovic, Materazzi, Ze Maria, Favalli, Kily (v.d. Meyde), Cambiasso, Stankovic, Martins (Cruz), Adriano. (Leg 2) Toldo, Cordoba, Mihajlovic, Materazzi, Ze Maria, Favalli (Gamarra), Kily, Stankovic, C.Zanetti, Martins, Cruz
'''Youth Trophies'''
*National Championship "Primavera" - Under 20: 1964, 1966, 1969, 1989, 2002
*Coppa Italia - Under 20: 1973, 1976, 1977, 1978
*National Championship "Berretti" - Under 18: 1980, 1984, 1991
*National Championship "Allievi" - Under 16: 1985, 1987, 1998
*National Championship "Giovanissimi" - Under 14: 1988, 1997, 2003
*International Trophy "Città di Viareggio" - Under 20: 1962, 1971, 1986, 2002
*Youth International Tournament - Città di Bergamo: 1998, 1999
*Youth Tournament U-19 Naters (Valais, Switzerland): 1999
*Citta di Gradisca-Trofeo Nereo Rocco U-16/U-17: 2000
*Trofeo Internazionale Giovanile "Citta di Arco - Beppe Viola" (U-17/U-16): 1999
*Tournoi International Juniors U-19 de Croix (France): 1964
*Tournoi Espoirs U-20 du CS Chênois (Switzerland): 1976
*San Remo U-18 Tournament (Italy): 1948, 1953, 1954, 1956, 1970, 1990
*Torneo Internazionale U-19/U-20 di Bellinzona (Ticino, Switzerland): 1946, 1949, 1966, 1979, 1986, 1987, 1988, 1989
*Blue Stars Youth Tournament (U-20 Zürich, Switzerland): 1983
*Tournoi Juniors du Servette FC, Switzerland: 1953,1954,1955,1957,1961
'''Other Trophies won by Inter'''
*Turnier Sankt Moritz: 1911
*Torneo Zürich di Milano: 1969
*Trofeo Ciudad de Vigo: 1996
*Trofeo Santiago Bernabéu: 1993, 2001
*Coppa Super Clubs (Mundialito de Clubs): 1981
*Trofeo Birra Moretti: 2001, 2002
*Trofeo Valle d'Aosta: 1998
*Trofeo TIM: 2002, 2003, 2004, 2005
==External links==
*[http://www.inter.it Official Website] (in [[Italian language|Italian]], [[English language|English]], and [[Spanish language|Spanish]])
*[http://www.internazionale.fr Internazionale.Fr]
*[http://www.forza-inter.com/forums/ Forza Inter Forums]
*[http://only-inter.fateback.com/default.htm Only Inter Website]
*[http://www.intermilan-online.com Inter Milan Online]
*[http://www.interfans.org Inter Fans]
*[http://www.intermediolan.com/ Polish Inter Milan Site]
*[http://www.inter-calcio.it/ Inter Calcio]
*[http://www.interfc.it/ Inter Emotional]
*[http://www.tuttointer.com/ TuttoInter]
*[http://www.inter-chat.tk/ Inter CHAT]
*[http://www.resultsfromfootball.com/seriea-team/fcinternazionale.html Inter statistics]
{{Champions League 2005/06}}
{{Serie A}}
[[Category:Italian football clubs]]
[[Category:Internazionale| ]]
[[Category:G-14 clubs|Internazionale]]
[[cs:FC Internazionale Milano]]
[[de:Inter Mailand]]
[[es:Internazionalle Milano Football Club]]
[[fr:Inter Milan]]
[[id:Internazionale]]
[[it:Internazionale Football Club]]
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IgNobel Prize
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#REDIRECT [[Ig Nobel Prize]]
Imbolg
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Conversion script
Automated conversion
#REDIRECT [[Imbolc]]
Interferon
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Bemoeial
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'''Interferons''' (IFNs) are natural [[protein]]s produced by the cells of the [[immune system]]s of most [[animal]]s in response to challenges by foreign agents such as [[virus]]es, [[bacterium|bacteria]], [[parasite]]s and [[tumor]] cells. Interferons belong to the large class of [[glycoproteins]] known as [[cytokine]]s.
==Types==
In [[human]]s, there are 3 major classes of interferon (IFN):
# The human type I IFNs consists of 13 different '''alpha''' isoforms (subtypes with slightly different specificities) - IFNA([[IFNA1_(protein)|1]],[[IFNA2_(protein)|2]],[[IFNA4_(protein)|4]],[[IFNA5_(protein)|5]],[[IFNA6_(protein)|6]],[[IFNA7_(protein)|7]],[[IFNA8_(protein)|8]],[[IFNA10_(protein)|10]],[[IFNA13_(protein)|13]],[[IFNA14_(protein)|14]],[[IFNA16_(protein)|16]],[[IFNA17_(protein)|17]],[[IFNA21_(protein)|21]]), and single '''beta''' - [[IFNB1]], '''omega''' - [[IFNW1]], '''epsilon''' - [[IFNE1]] and '''kappa''' - [[IFNK]] isoforms. Homologous molecules are found in many species, including rats and mice (and most mammals) and have been identified in birds, reptiles, amphibians and fish species. In addition to these IFNs, IFN '''zeta''' (limitin) in mice,IFN '''nu''' in cats, IFN '''tau''' in ruminants and IFN '''delta''' in pigs have been identified. All type I IFNs bind to a specific cell surface receptor complex known as IFNAR consisting of [[IFNAR1]] and [[IFNAR2]] chains.
# The type II IFNs consists of IFN '''gamma''' - [[IFNG]], its sole member. The mature IFNG ligand is an anti-parallel homodimer, and it binds to the IFNG receptor (IFNGR) complex, which is made up of two of each [[IFNGR1]] and [[IFNGR2]] subunits.
# The recently discovered 3rd class consists of IFN-'''lambda''' with 3 different isoforms - [[IL29]]. [[IL28A]], [[IL28B]] and signal through a receptor complex consisting of IL10R2 and IFNLR1.
While there are evidence to suggest other signaling mechanisms exist, the [[JAK-STAT pathway|JAK-STAT]] signaling pathway is the best-characterised and commonly accepted IFN signaling pathway.
==Principles==
In a majority of cases, the production of interferons is induced in response to microbes such as viruses and bacteria and their products (viral glycoproteins, viral RNA, bacterial endotoxin, flagella, CpG DNA), as well as mitogens and other cytokines, for example [[IL-1|interleukin-1]], [[IL-2|interleukin-2]], [[IL-12|interleukin-12]], [[TNF|tumor-necrosis factor]] and [[CSF|colony-stimulating factor]], that are synthesised in the response to the appearance of various antigens in the body. Their metabolism and excretion take place mainly in the liver and kidneys. They hardly pass the [[placenta]] and the [[blood-brain barrier]].
Interferon-alpha and -beta are produced by many cell types, including [[T-cell]]s and [[B-cell]]s, macrophages, fibroblasts, endothelial cells, osteoblasts and others, and are an important component of the anti-[[virus (biology)|viral]] response. They stimulate both [[macrophage |macrophages]] and NK cells. Interferons -alpha and -beta are also active against [[tumor]]s.
Interferon-gamma is involved in the regulation of the immune and inflammatory responses; in humans, there is only one type of interferon-gamma. It is produced in activated T-cells. Interferon-gamma has some anti-viral and anti-tumor effects, but these are generally weak; however, interferon-gamma potentiates the effects of interferon-alpha and interferon-beta. However, interferon-gamma must be released at the site of a tumor in very small doses; at this time, interferon-gamma is not very useful for treating cancer.
Interferon-gamma is also released by [[Th1 cell]]s, and recruits [[leukocyte]]s to a site of infection, resulting in increased inflammation. It also stimulates [[macrophage]]s to kill bacteria that have been engulfed. The interferon-gamma released by Th1 cells is also important in regulating the Th2 response. As interferon-gamma is vitally implicated in the regulation of immune response, its production can lead to autoimmune disorders.
Interferon-omega is released by [[leukocyte]]s at the site of viral infection or tumors.
==Pharmacological uses==
[[Image:Vials of Interferon Image 3549-PH.jpg|thumb|right|200px|Three vials filled with human leukocyte interferon. ]]
Interferon was scarce and expensive until [[1980]] when the interferon [[gene]] was inserted into [[bacterium|bacteria]] using [[recombinant DNA technology]], allowing mass [[cultivation]] and purification from bacterial cultures.
[[Interferon-beta-1a]] is produced in mammalian cells.
Several different types of interferon are now approved for use in humans, and interferon therapy is used (in combination with chemotherapy and radiation) as a treatment for many types of systemic cancer. When used in the systemic therapy, IFN-α and IFN-γ are mostly administered by an intramuscular injection. The injection of interferons in the muscle, in the vein, or under skin is generally well tolerated. The most frequent side-effects are flu-like symptoms: increased body temperature, feeling ill, fatigue, headache, muscle pain, and convulsion. Erythema, pain and hardness on the spot of injection are also frequently observed. Rarely, patients experience their hair falling out, dizziness and depression. All known effects are reversible and disappear a few days after the therapy has been finished.
Interferon-alpha was approved by the United States [[Food and Drug Administration]] (FDA) on [[February 25]] [[1991]] as a treatment for [[hepatitis C]]. Several different forms of interferon alpha, including interferon-alpha-2a, interferon-alpha-2b, and interferon-alfacon-1 are approved for the treatment of viral hepatitis. Interferon-alfa-2b is also used for [[chronic myelogenous leukemia]].
More than half of [[hepatitis C]] patients treated with interferon respond, with better blood tests and better liver biopsies. There is some evidence that giving interferon immediately following infection can prevent hepatitis C; however, people infected by hepatitis C often do not display symptoms until months or years later.
More recently, the FDA approved [[pegylated]] interferon-alpha, in which [[polyethylene glycol]] is added to make the interferon last longer in the body. (Pegylated interferon-alpha-2b was approved in January 2001; pegylated interferon-alpha-2a was approved in October 2002.) The pegylated form is injected once weekly, rather than three times per week for conventional interferon-alpha. Used in combination with the [[antiviral]] drug [[ribavirin]], pegylated interferon produces sustained cure rates of 75% or better in people with genotype 2 or 3 hepatitis C (which is easier to treat) and about 50% in people with genotype 1 (which is most common in the U.S. and Western Europe).
Interferon-beta ([[Interferon-beta-1a]] and [[Interferon-beta-1b]]) is used in the treatment and control of the neurological disorder [[multiple sclerosis]]. By an as-yet-unknown mechanism, interferon-beta inhibits the production of Th1 cytokines and the activation of monocytes.
==See also==
*[[Immunotherapy]]
*[[Immunosuppression]]
*[[Immunosuppressive drug]]
*[[PEGASYS]]
*[[ATC_code_L03#L03AB_Interferons]]
{{Antivirals}}
[[Category:Cytokines]]
[[de:Interferon]]
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Israeli settlement
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:''For Israeli settlements in Israel proper, see [[Settlements in Israel]]''
'''Israeli settlements''' are communities built for [[Israeli]] [[Jew]]ish [[Settler (disambiguation)|settler]]s in areas that it [[Israeli-occupied territories|captured]] during the 1967 [[Six-Day War]]. These areas are the [[West Bank]], [[East Jerusalem]], the [[Golan Heights]] and formerly the [[Sinai Peninsula]] and the [[Gaza Strip]]. The settlements have been declared illegal under [[international law]] by the [[United Nations Security Council]] [http://domino.un.org/UNISPAL.NSF/0/ba123cded3ea84a5852560e50077c2dc?OpenDocument] [http://domino.un.org/UNISPAL.NSF/0/0b7116abb4b7e3e9852560e5007688a0?OpenDocument] and the [[International Court of Justice]] [http://www.icj-cij.org/icjwww/idocket/imwp/imwp_advisory_opinion/imwp_advisory_opinion_20040709.htm], a position shared by a majority of UN member states [http://domino.un.org/UNISPAL.NSF/0/e29f7195c53cdda905256729005035e4?OpenDocument&Highlight=2,ES-10%2F6], but not a unanimous view among all international law scholars; for example, the late Julius Stone [http://www.law.usyd.edu.au/~jurisprudence/Biography.htm] argued that they were legal under international law [http://www.aijac.org.au/resources/reports/international_law.pdf]. The Israeli policy of sponsoring, supporting, and/or tolerating the establishment of such settlements is one of the most contentious issues in the [[Israeli-Palestinian conflict]]<!--, which [[Israeli-Palestinian conflict timeline|began]] decades earlier, in the 1920s-->.<!--dont see the last sentence as important for an introduction-->
In 2004, the Israeli government announced its [[Israel unilateral disengagement plan|unilateral disengagement plan]] to dismantle all settlements in the Gaza Strip, as well as four settlements in the West Bank. The withdrawal was completed on [[September 12]], [[2005]].
== Terminology ==
Terms commonly used to describe this matter are themselves controversial. They include:
*'''[[Settlers]]''' are people who have migrated from the land of their birth to live permanently in colonies controlled militarily by their home country.
In modern history, the word "settlers" is synonymous with terms like '''[[pioneers]]''', '''[[colonists]]''', or (as British people once called them) "'''[[colonials]]'''".
*'''Settlement''' vs '''community'''- there is broad agreement that the term settlement implies that these are recently established places, and therein lies the controversy. Although many Israelis concede that the term "settlement" is apt for these reasons, others argue that these are re-established communities, built on Jewish towns and villages that were vacated by force as late as 1948 or much earlier. They also point out that these are highly dissimilar places (see below), and that using one term is misleading.
:In [[Hebrew language|Hebrew]], the common term for the Israeli settlements outside the Green Line is ''hitnakhluyot'' (Hebrew: התנחלויות; singular - ''hitnakhlut'' or ''hitnakhalut'', התנחלות). This term is broadly used in the media and in public, although some think it has acquired a derogatory shade in recent years. Settlers are called ''mitnakhalim'' (Hebrew:מתנחלים; singular - ''mitnakhel'', מתנחל). The settlers themselves and their right-wing sympathizers prefer the term ''yishuvim'' (יישובים; singular - ''yishuv'', יישוב) for settlements and ''mityashvim'' (Hebrew: מתיישבים; singular - ''mityashev'', מתיישב) for settlers, which are more neutral, as they also refer to settlements inside Israel proper. Some think these terms are a euphemism.
:In [[Arabic language|Arabic]], the term for settlements is ''mustawtanaat'' (Arabic: المستوطنات) and settlers are ''mustawtineen'' (Arabic: ????????).
* '''[[West Bank]] vs. [[Judea and Samaria]]''' - the term "West Bank" dates from the time that [[Jordan]] controlled the area in question (1948-1967), but is still by far the most common name used in the English-speaking world and by international organizations such as the UN. The terms "Judea" and "Samaria" (English for ''Yehuda'' and ''Shomron'') are historical terms that relate to the political geography of the Roman-era Jewish dominion in the area. Palestinians strongly object to the terms ''Judea'' and ''Samaria'', the use of which they deem to reflect Israeli expansionist aims. Among Palestinians, the specific area is referred to as 'the West Bank', but is commonly known as 'Palestine' or part of the [[Palestinian Territories]].
* "'''Occupied'''" vs. "'''disputed'''" vs. "'''territories'''" - the legal status of the areas is a much debated question (see below) and drives the choice of qualifier for them.
== Historical background ==
The [[armistice|cease-fire]] agreement following the [[1967 Six Day War]] left Israel in control of a number of areas captured during hostilities.
* From [[Jordan]], Israel gained control of the entire western bank of the [[Jordan river]], including parts of [[Jerusalem]] previously controlled by Jordan - [[East Jerusalem]], and the [[West Bank]].
* From [[Egypt]], Israel gained control of the entire [[Sinai]] peninsula up to the [[Suez Canal]], and the [[Gaza]] strip.
* From [[Syria]], Israel gained control of most of the [[Golan Heights]].
Original Israeli policy at that time was to deny any Jewish settlement of these areas or even Jewish resettlement of specific locations where Jews had resided up until the 1948 [[Arab-Israeli War]] such as the Jewish villages listed in this [[List of villages depopulated during the 1948 Arab-Israeli war]] such as Kfar Etzion. Many attempts were made by [[Gush Emunim]] to establish outposts or resettle former Jewish areas and the Israeli government forcibly removed these attempts in the beginning, but in the absence of peace talks to determine the future of these and other disputed territories, Israel implemented different policies on their use, and did not enforce the original ban on settling.
* The municipal borders of Jerusalem were extended in 1967 to include all of the old city as well as other areas. Residents within the new municipal borders were offered the choice between citizenship (if they met Israeli requirements for naturalization) and permanent residency if they wished to retain their Jordanian passports. This annexation was not recognized by most countries.
* The Golan Heights were under Israeli military administration until 1981, when Israel similarly extended its law there, imposed permanent residency and ID cards on the residents and offered them the possibility of citizenship. This annexation was also not recognized by most countries.
* The Sinai, Gaza and the rest of the [[West Bank]] were put under Israeli military administration. Residents were not offered citizenship or residency, though they typically had de facto work permits within Israel and freedom of travel.
In the absence of a final peace settlement, the continued Israeli administration of areas captured in 1967 is in itself subject to continuing international concern and criticism. However, it is the establishment of Israeli homes and communities in those areas that has often generated condemnation.
Israel evacuated her citizens from the Sinai and demolished their homes when the area was returned to Egypt pursuant to the [[Camp David Accords (1978)|Camp David Accords]]. Since the Golan Heights was originally part of the British Mandate in Palestine, the remaining areas in question largely cover the original British mandate that was left after the establishment of the Hashemite Kingdom of Jordan.
The Jewish population in the areas captured in 1967 live in a wide variety of centers:
* Self-contained towns and small cities with a stable population in the tens of thousands, infrastructure, and all other features of permanence (e.g. [[Ma'ale Adummim]], [[Modi'in Illit]], [[Ariel, West Bank|Ariel]]).
* Jewish neighborhoods that coexist with Arab neighborhoods in the same city (e.g. [[Hebron]] and [[East Jerusalem]]).
* Suburbs to other population centers, especially [[Jerusalem]] (e.g. [[Gilo]]), and the [[Sharon, Israel|Sharon]] area (e.g. [[Karnei Shomron]]).
* Settlement blocs (e.g. [[Gush Etzion]], in the vicinity of [[Ariel (City)|Ariel]], the [[Shechem]]/[[Nablus]] area).
* Frontier villages such as those parallel to the [[Jordan River]].
* Residential outposts, consisting of campers, trailers, and even tents.
Most of these are the result of new construction; but some are based on Jewish communities that were abandoned in 1948 or earlier. Newly constructed developments are largely on hilltops, at some distance from Arab villages, towns, and camps.
==Population==
Except for areas that were effectively annexed in Jerusalem and the Golan, Israeli citizens and others can only move to areas captured in 1967 with the authorization of the Israeli government. According to various statistics, the population distribution can be estimated:
{| class="wikitable"
! Jewish population
! 1948
! 1966
! 1972
! 1983
! 1993
! 2004
! 2005
|-
| West Bank (excluding Jerusalem)
| 480 (see [[Gush Etzion]]) || 0 || 800 || 22,800 || 111,600 || 231,800 ||
|-
| Gaza
| 30 (see [[Kfar Darom]]) || 0 || 700 <sup>*</sup> || 900 || 4,800 || 8,000 || 0
|-
| Golan Heights
| 0 || 0 || 900 || 6,800 || 12,600 || 16,000 ||
|-
| Parts of Jerusalem annexed in 1967
| 300 (see [[Atarot]], [[Neve Ya'aqov]]) || 0 || 9,200 || 75,000 || 130,000 || 177,000 ||
|}
: <sup>*</sup> including Sinai
According to Israeli government statistics, just under 400,000 Israelis lived in territories captured during the 1967 war [[As of 2000|as of November 2000]]. This number is controversial, as it includes a large number of Israeli citizens who live in "[[East Jerusalem]]", which was once, along with most of western Jerusalem, proposed by the [[United Nations]] to be an international zone under UN administration (former compromise proposal, [[UN General Assembly Resolution 181|Resolution 181]] (II) of [[29 November]] [[1947]], which the [[Arab]] states rejected); however, if the boundaries of that peace plan were used, then the number of Israeli settlers would be far greater, including inhabitants of the [[Galilee]], the southwest, and many other areas. Maps of West Bank settlements [http://www.fmep.org/reports/2003/v13n4.html#map], [http://www.biu.ac.il/SOC/besa/publications/maps/settleme.htm].
Since the [[Oslo Accords]] 1993 the settlers' number on the West Bank (excluding East Jerusalem) has doubled, from 115,000 to 230,000.
<!-- Unsourced image removed: [[Image:Map_settlements_bw.JPG|thumb|right|300px|1996 Map of Israeli settlements in the Golan Heights, Gaza Strip and West Bank]] -->
== Communities established on the sites of previous recent Jewish communities ==
Some of the 323 settlements were established on sites that had been inhabited by Jewish communities during the [[British Mandate of Palestine]]. In at least one case, [[Hebron]], the post-1967 settlers were condemned by an association of its pre-1929 Jewish inhabitants.
''partial listing only''
* [[Jerusalem]] – various surrounding communities and neighborhoods, including
** [[Kfar Shiloah]] - settled by Yemeni Jews in 1882, Jewish residents evacuated in 1938, settled again in 2004[http://news.com.au/common/story_page/0,4057,9150753%255E1702,00.html]
* [[Gush Etzion]] communities - established between 1943-1947, destroyed 1948, reestablished beginning 1967
* [[Hebron]] - Jewish presence since biblical times, evacuated 1929 (because of massacre), resettled in 1967
* [[Kfar Darom]] - established in 1946, evacuated in 1948, resettled in 1970, evacuated in 2005 as part of the withdrawal of the [[Gaza Strip]].
== Legal status of territories ==
Although all areas in question were captured by [[Israel]] in the 1967 [[Six-Day War]], Israel claims that they fall into three different categories:
* "[[East Jerusalem]]" - [[Jerusalem]] and its surroundings were envisioned as an international area under [[United Nations|UN]] administration in the 1947 partition plan. In 1948, [[Jordan]] captured and annexed the eastern half of Jerusalem, while Israel captured and annexed the west. Following the war in 1967 Israel annexed the eastern part, together with several villages around it.
* The [[Golan Heights]], which were captured from Syria in 1967, have been similarly annexed by Israel.
* The [[Gaza Strip]] and [[West Bank]], a section of the areas awarded by the UN to a prospective Arab state of Palestine, remained in [[Arab]] hands while the rest of that area was taken by Israel. The former was administered by [[Egypt]] while the latter was annexed by [[Jordan]]. Egypt supported Palestinian efforts against Israel, while Jordan regarded itself as the legitimate representative of the Palestinians.
The annexations of East Jerusalem and the Golan Heights have both been deemed illegal by the [[UN Security Council]] (resolutions [[UN Security Council Resolution 267|267]] and [[UN Security Council Resolution 497|497]] respectively), and have not been recognized by other states.
Israel has signed peace treaties with Egypt (returning the [[Sinai Peninsula]] to Egyptian sovereignty), and Jordan (returning small sections to Jordanian sovereignty); there are currently no peace treaties governing Israel's borders related to the West Bank, the Gaza Strip, and the Golan Heights. Israel therefore asserts that the armistice lines (known as the Green Line) of 1949 have no other legal status.
Palestinians object to this view as the Israel-Jordan peace treaty was not to alter the status of any territories coming under Israeli control during the hostilities of 1967 (article 3(2) of the Israel-Jordan peace treaty [http://www.yale.edu/lawweb/avalon/mideast/jordan_treaty.htm]).
== Motivations for settlements ==
Complicating this issue, a number of reasons are cited from both sides for the establishment of settlements.
*Palestinians argue that the policy of settlements constitute an effort to pre-empt or even sabotage a peace treaty that includes Palestinian sovereignty, and claim that the settlements are built on land that belongs to Palestinians.
*The UN, various European governments, a vocal Israeli minority, and many NGOs view settlements similarly, arguing that they violate international law by making life difficult for Palestinians in the areas.
* Prior to the eruption of the Israeli-Palestinian conflict in the late eighties, even until the signing of the [[Israel-Jordan Treaty of Peace|Israeli-Jordanian peace treaty]] in 1994, Israeli governments on the left and right argued that the settlements were of strategic and tactical importance. The location of the settlements was primarily chosen based on the threat of an attack by the bordering hostile countries of [[Jordan]], [[Syria]], and [[Egypt]] and possible routes of advance into Israeli population areas.
*Many Israelis still argue that the settlements are of strategic and tactical importance, disrupting terrorist activities.
*Many Israelis, assert the historical Jewish connection to at least some of the areas in dispute, arguing that their claim is at least equal to that of the Palestinians.
*Most religious Jews, assert the biblical Jewish connection to the areas in dispute, arguing that their claim to build is equal to the biblical Jewish connection to the other areas in Israel.
As it turns out, the settlers themselves have varying reasons for choosing to reside where they do. While some live in the territories out of religious and/or political idealism and the lower price of rural real estate, others were attracted by tax incentives that were given, in general, to Israelis living in rural, periphery areas, but these were revoked entirely in 2003.
== Land grab accusations ==
Israel claims that the majority of the land currently taken by the new settlements was either vacant, belonging to the state (from which it was leased) or bought fairly from the [[Palestinian]]s, arguing that there is nothing illegal about acquiring land in these ways. Further, Israel argues that these lands were conquered in a defensive war and are held legitimately as [[reparation]].
Opponents dispute at least one of these bases, saying that vacant land had either belonged to Arabs who had fled or was communal land, that had belonged collectively to an entire village. That practice had formed under [[Ottoman Empire|Ottoman]] rule, although the British and the Jordanians have unsuccessfully tried to stop it since the late 1920s.
[[B'Tselem]] (an Israeli NGO) claims that the Israeli government used the absence of modern legal documents for the communal land as an excuse to seize it. Altogether, around 42% of the area of the West Bank (total of about 2,400 km²) is controlled by Israelis (see [http://www.btselem.org/English/Publications/Summaries/Land_Grab_Map.asp Map], [http://www.btselem.org/Download/Land_Grab_Eng.doc MS Word format report]).
== International and legal background ==
The [[Fourth Geneva Convention]] forbids an "Occupying Power" to "transfer parts of its own civilian population into the territory it occupies" (article 49(6)). This tractate is frequently cited by those who believe it establishes the illegality of the settlements.
Israel argues that West Bank and Gaza have never been part of a sovereign state since the defeat of the Ottoman Empire (apparently considering the annexation of the West Bank by [[Jordan]] as invalid), and do not therefore meet the definitions of the Geneva conventions article 2. Israel argues further that even if they did, the settlements are not intended to, nor have ever resulted in, the displacement of Palestinians from the area. In addition, the Geneva Conventions only apply in the absence of an operative peace agreement and between two powers accepting the Geneva Convention. Since the [[Oslo accords]] leave the issue of settlements to be negotiated later, Israel argues that there is no basis for declaring them illegal.
Israel has little international support for this view, and the application of the Fourth Geneva Convention to the territories has been determined by the [[International Court of Justice]], which in an advisory opinion to the [[UN General Assembly]], argued that according to article 2 of the Geneva Convention the convention applies if “there exists an armed conflict” between “two contracting parties”, regardless of the territories status in international law prior to the armed attack. It also argued that "no territorial acquisition resulting from the threat or use of force shall be recognized as legal" according to [[customary international law]] (and defined by "Declaration on Principles of International Law concerning Friendly Relations and Co-operation among States in accordance with the Charter of the United Nations" (General Assembly Resolution 2625)). It should be noted that advisory opinions are not binding verdicts, and the ruling has been disputed by some international law scholars. [http://www.jpost.com/servlet/Satellite?pagename=JPost/JPArticle/ShowFull&cid=1105845487512&p=1078027574097].
The establishment and expansion of Israeli settlements in the West Bank and Gaza Strip has also been described as "illegal" by the [[UN Security Council]] many times, for example in resolutions [[UN Security Council Resolution 446|446]], [[UN Security Council Resolution 452|452]], [[UN Security Council Resolution 465|465]] and [[UN Security Council Resolution 471|471]]. Since resolutions 446 and 465 were not made under Chapter VII of the [[United Nations Charter]], Israel argued that they held no binding force under international law, and chose not to heed them. Some scholars have lately argued that Security Council resolutions outside of Chapter VII can also be considered legally binding upon member states.[http://student.cs.ucc.ie/cs1064/jabowen/IPSC/articles/article0002338.txt] The Security Council itself takes great care to make the distinction in its resolutions.
Israel further points out that in the [[Oslo Accords]], the Palestinians accepted the temporary presence of Israeli settlements pending further negotiation; therefore the violent attacks carried out by Palestinians against settlements are not only wrong because of settlers' being civilians (a claim others dispute), but also constitute a breach of the Oslo Accords. These attacks, however, are frequently carried by organizations such as [[Hamas]] which do not accept the Oslo accords.
The settlements have also been frequently denounced by prominent international human rights groups, such as Amnesty International and Human Rights Watch.
== Tensions, mistrust and accusations ==
The settlements have on several occasions been a source of tension between Israel and the U.S. In 1991 there was a clash between the Bush administration and Israel, where the U.S. delayed a subsidized loan in order to pressure Israel not to proceed with the establishment of settlements for instance in the Jerusalem-Bethlehem corridor. Jimmy Carter has said that the settlements constitute a "major obstacle to peace". The current [[George W. Bush|Bush]] administration, while generally supportive of Israel, has said that settlements are "unhelpful" to the peace process, that they violate United States policy and prejudges the outcome of future negotiations, although President Bush has put forward the view that major Israeli population centers needs to be taken into account when determining final borders. Generally, U.S. efforts have at most temporarily delayed further expansion of established Israeli communities in the territories. U.S. public opinion is also divided: the strongest support for the Israeli position can be found among evangelical Christians. Public opinion outside the U.S. and Israel strongly opposes Israeli settlement and expansion of communities in the territories.
Although the [[Oslo Accords|Oslo accords]] did not include any obligation on Israel's part to stop building in the "settlements", Palestinians argue that Israel has undermined the Oslo accords, and the peace process more generally, by continuing to expand the settlements after the signing of the Accords. Palestinians and others regularly accuse Israel of attacking refugee camps and villages in an attempt to scare off Palestinians and claim the land as theirs. Israel justifies these attacks by saying that it only fights against terrorist organisations, and if there were no terrorists, there would be no military operations.
Israel previously also had settlements in the [[Sinai]], but these were withdrawn as a result of the peace agreement with [[Egypt]]. Most proposals for achieving a final settlement of the Middle East conflict involve Israel dismantling a large number of settlements in the West Bank and Gaza strip.
Most Israeli and US proposals for final settlement have also involved Israel being allowed to retain long established communities in the territories near Israel and in "[[East Jerusalem]]" (the majority of the settler population is near the "Green Line"), with Israel annexing the land on which the communities are located. This would result in a transfer of roughly 5% of the West Bank to Israel, with the Palestinians being compensated by the transfer of a similar share of Israeli territory (i.e. territory behind the "Green Line") to the [[Palestinian state]]. Palestinians complain that this would legitimize what they see as an illegitimate land grab, and that the land offered in exchange is situated in the southern desert, whereas the areas that Israel seeks to retain are among the West Bank's most fertile areas, including major aquifers. Israel, however, sees the current "Green Line" as unacceptable from a security standpoint - Israel would have at some points no more than 17 kilometers from the border to the sea - which was an important motivation for the placing of these settlements. For more details about the issues at stake, see [[Proposals for a Palestinian state]].
=== Dismantlement of Settlements ===
Given the dispute over the territories where the settlements were built, the issue of dismantling them has been considered. Arab parties to the conflict have demanded the dismantlement of the settlements as a condition for peace with Israel. As part of the [[Israel-Egypt Peace Treaty]], Israel was required to evacuate its settlers from the [[Sinai Peninsula|Sinai]]. The evacuation, which took place in 1982, was done forcefully in some instances, such as the evacuation of [[Yamit]]. The settlements were demolished, as it was feared that settlers may try to return to their homes after the evacuation.
During the peace process with the [[Palestinians]], the issue of dismantling the [[West Bank]] and [[Gaza Strip]] settlements has been raised. Although never officially discussed in the [[Oslo Accords]], many Israelis believed that a final status accord would require the dismantlement of at least some of these communities.
As part of the [[Israel unilateral disengagement plan|Disengagement Plan]], Israel has evacuated the [[Gaza Strip]] and part of the [[West Bank]], including all 21 settlements in Gaza and 4 in the West Bank, while retaining control over Gaza's borders, coastline and airspace. Most of these settlements have existed since the early 80's, some are over 30 years old, and with a total population of more than 10,000. There was significant opposition to the plan among parts of the Israeli public, and especially those living in the territories. American President [[George W. Bush]] has said that a permanent peace deal would have to reflect "demographic realities" in the West Bank regarding Israel's settlements [http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/middle_east/4382343.stm].
Some Israelis believe the settlements need not necessarily be dismantled and evacuated, even if Israel withdraws from the territory where they stand, as they can remain under Palestinian rule. These ideas have been expressed both by people from the left ([http://web.archive.org/web/19991006195817/http://www.jpost.co.il/com/Advertising/Ysadeh/]), who see this as a possible situation in a two-state solution, and by extreme right-wingers and settlers [http://english.aljazeera.net/NR/exeres/5EB5E1B3-B64F-43DF-A588-1C40FDDB0A83.htm] that, while object to any withdrawal, claim stronger links to the land than to the state of Israel. Such ideas are not widely accepted in Israel, and most Israelis consider an evacuation of settlements inevitable in territories Israel withdraws from.
== The Sasson Report ==
[[Image:Talia Sesson.jpg|right|frame|Sasson delivering her report.]]
An official Israeli government report published on March 8, 2005 has revealed that Israeli state bodies have been secretly diverting millions of shekels to build West Bank settlements and outposts which were illegal under Israeli law. The report, commissioned by Prime Minister [[Ariel Sharon]], was headed by the former head of the State Prosecution Criminal Department [[Talia Sasson]]. The report details how officials in the ministries of defence and housing and the settlement division of the [[World Zionist Organization]] spent millions of shekels from state budgets to support the illegal outposts. Ms. Sasson called it a "blatant violation of the law" and said "drastic steps" were needed to rectify the situation. It describes secret cooperation between various ministries and official institutions to consolidate "wildcat" outposts, which settlers began erecting more than a decade ago. Sasson added that the problem is ongoing, saying "the process of outpost expansion is profoundly under way."[http://news.ft.com/cms/s/67ba9b06-8ff9-11d9-9a51-00000e2511c8,stream=FTSynd,s01=2.html].
The report states:
*The housing ministry supplied 400 mobile homes for outposts on private Palestinian land
*The defence ministry approved the positioning of trailers to begin new outposts
*The education ministry paid for nurseries and their teachers
*The energy ministry connected outposts to the electricity grid
*Roads to outposts were paid for with taxpayers' money
The report mentions 150 communities in the West Bank with incomplete or nonexistent permits, but Sasson cautions that this list is not exhaustive, due to the lack of cooperation of some ministries and government offices which she says failed to hand over some important documents. She has recommended that the Housing Ministry be stripped of authority over construction of settlements in the West Bank, and that this power be transferred to the cabinet. The housing minister at the time of the tabling the report, [[Isaac Herzog]] ([[Labour (Israel)|Labour]]), said following the release of the report that every expense earmarked for the settlements would subsequently need the approval of the ministry's director-general. Up until then, the heads of each department at the ministry had been able to sign off on expenses for various construction and infrastructure matters at the settlements.
The report is seen as potentially embarrassing to the Prime Minister because, when he was foreign minister under [[Binyamin Netanyahu]] in 1998, he publicly urged settlers to seize hilltops in order to break up the contiguity of Palestinian areas and prevent the establishment of a Palestinian state (as reported by the BBC), saying: "Let everyone get a move on and take some hilltops! Whatever we take, will be ours, and whatever we don't take, will not be ours!" The report explicitly ignored Sharon's complicity and his name is absent from the report. Settler leaders have rejected criticism of illegality and wrong-doing, protesting that they were participating in officially-sanctioned community planning initiatives. [http://web.israelinsider.com/Articles/Politics/5126.htm] Settler leader Shaul Goldstein said Mr Sharon should be the one to face questioning over the report's findings, adding "It's obvious that the one who sent us in order to protect the roads and land is the prime minister so he should look in the mirror. Mr Sharon has to be questioned - not us." It remains to be seen whether the Prime Minister and other [former and current] government officials will face any legal repercussions for their alleged official involvement in the funding of illegal settlements, as [[Peace Now]] [http://www.peacenow.org/shalom/news.asp?rid=0&cid=277] and other groups have called for. According to the ''[[Haaretz]]'' newspaper, Herzog claimed that "the main responsibility for the building of illegal outposts in recent years falls with my predecessor, [[Effi Eitam]] and his director general." He also added that when he took up the position earlier this year, he ordered that no funds be transferred to the illegal outposts, as well as the establishment of a joint Defense Ministry and Prime Minister's Office team to coordinate the budgets for the settlements. Eitam replied in reaction to the report and the associated comments, saying that all illegal outposts he had approved during his time in office were approved in coordination with Prime Minister Ariel Sharon, had his full backing and were sometimes initiated by him.[http://news.haaretz.co.il/hasen/spages/549577.html] Eitam claimed that Talia Sasson was not an objective surveyor and that the report was politically motivated. [http://www.israelnationalnews.com/news.php3?id=78204]
Sasson has recommended that Sharon consider criminal investigations against those suspected of involvement.[http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/middle_east/4328817.stm]
Deputy Defence Minister [[Zeev Boim]] (formely [[Likud]]) told Israeli Army Radio that the outposts "must be removed", but that the government's plan to withdraw from Gaza had priority over any dismantling of illegal outposts in the West Bank. At a cabinet meeting on March 13, the government restated its commitment to visiting [[UN]] head [[Kofi Annan]] to remove illegal outposts, but did not give a timetable. The [[Road map for peace|Road map peace plan]] calls for removal of only those outposts erected since Sharon came to office. The report, however, states many outposts installed before that time are illegal under Israeli law. [http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/middle_east/4345413.stm] Palestinian officials reacted angrily to the report. "It is time for the international community to say 'enough' to Israel and work with the same determination as on other matters," said Palestinian Prime Minister [[Ahmed Qurei]]. A US embassy spokesman in Tel Aviv also repeated Washington's longstanding call for Israel to remove the outposts.
==External links==
* [http://www.jcpa.org/jl/vp470.htm an unofficial Israeli position paper]
* [http://www.nad-plo.org/permanent/settlements.html an official Palestinian position paper]
* [http://www.cartercenter.org/viewdoc.asp?docID=137&submenu=news analysis by former U.S. president Jimmy Carter]
* [http://www.us-israel.org/jsource/Peace/settletoc.html A compilation of facts on the settlements, as presented by a joint Israeli-American Organization]
* [http://www.reliefweb.int/rw/RWB.NSF/db900SID/EVIU-69HJYR?OpenDocument discusses the legal status of Israeli settlements under International Humanitarian Law]
*[http://www.btselem.org/English/ The Israeli Information Center for Human Rights in the Occupied Territories]
* [http://www.geocities.com/m_yericho/yishuvim.htm Jewish Communities in Yesha ]
* [http://www.frontpagemag.com/Articles/Printable.asp?ID=7142 Jewish Settlements in "the Territories" Aren't the Problem] by [[Chaim Herzog]].
* [http://www.forward.com/articles/7261 "At Israeli Outpost, Showdown Looms for Settlers, Government" article by Gershom Gorenberg, January 27, 2006, Forward Online]
[[Category:Arab-Israeli conflict]]
[[Category:History of Israel]]
[[Category:Israeli settlements|**]]
[[ar:مستوطنات إسرائيلية]]
[[de:Israelische Siedlung]]
[[fr:Colonie israélienne]]
[[he:התנחלויות]]
[[yi:מתנחלים]]
[[pl:Osiedla żydowskie]]
[[ru:Еврейские поселения на Западном берегу реки Иордан и в секторе Газа]]
[[tl:Paninirahang Israeli]]
Irrealism
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'''Irrealism''' is a philosophical term which seems to have been coined in the [[1980s]] by [[Nelson Goodman]] to refer to the belief that the debate between [[realism]] and [[anti-realism]] was based on poor assumptions. In practice many irrealists were sympathetic to the critique on realism, but were also critical of the [[idealist]], [[relativist]], or [[reductionist]] tendencies of the anti-realists.
Artist painter and philospher [[Tristan Tondino]] (1961-?) claimed to be an Irrealist and held the view that all realities are creations deriving from the needs and desires of living beings. As such Irrealism is anti-egocentric, basing truth on sustainability of worlds. Following Goodman, Tondino claimed truths about "the way the world is" make up building blocks for world versions. World versions may be thought of as functional and work by holding truths while nonetheless contradicting each other.
Tondino attempted to make his audience aware of the irreality of individual human perspectives. Some of his more well known works include ``the rule of the 2`` and ``Un tableau que personne ne veut`` or ``Realism is fascism``. Tondino claimed all art is an expression of Irrealism and that the History of Art is a representation of world versions. Irrealism therefore subsumes artistic expression and explains versions like Surrealism, Abstract Expressionism, Realism, Dadaism etc. as types of games - all significant ways of worldmaking or world picturing.
According to Tondino, Irrealism focuses on the deserts surrounding the tiny oases of truth about the world. Ireealist's accept Stace's arguments in his "Refutation of Realism" but claim it is just as coherent to infer there is a “world as it is”. Tondino's Irrealism holds that for the most part it is impossible to know "the given" in “sufficient” detail i.e sufficient enough to justify a theory like realism but capable of justifying one like Irrealism.
Irrealism further adopts the stance that contradiction is acceptable within the following parameters: We can’t make absolute claims about what really exists and as a result contradictory world pictures can be held coherently. For example, "physicalist monism is preferable in Physics while dualism works best in Psychology. Quarks are useless in poems – at present, love is as real as are molecules. Despite the fact that certain molecules are emotions – love itself is still relevant."
One of Tondino's more salient Letrist artworks depicting the Statue of Liberty is entitled, "A word that denotes the difference between our pictures of the world and the world".
See also [[Contemporary Art]]
Some [[hardcore punk|hardcore]] bands in [[Italy]] have claimed to be irrealist.
{{philo-stub}}
== See also ==
* [[Anti-realism]]
* [[Philosophical realism]]
* [[Realism]]
== External links ==
*[http://www.philosophy.ru/library/goodman/starmaking.htm "On Star-Making"] by Nelson Goodman.
== References ==
* ''Starmaking: Realism, Anti-Realism, and Irrealism'' by Peter J. McCormick (Editor). ISBN 0262133202
[[Category:Realism]]
[[Category:Epistemology]]
Internet humor
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Tokachu
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Reverted vandalism from [[User:70.64.26.162|70.64.26.162]]
[[Image:Counter.gif|frame|right|One of the more frequent jokes on the internet is to produce a "fake" or joke [[web counter]]. The counter pictured here dates back to 1992 and is possibly the first of its kind.]]
The [[Internet]] has long been a resource for the circulation of [[humor]]ous ideas and [[joke|jokes]]. Countless web-sites are devoted to the collection of Internet humour, and every day [[e-mail]] crosses the world, containing the text of humorous articles, or jokes about current events.
"Internet [[humor]]" is distinguishable from "Humor on the Internet" through the concept of ownership. There are definite examples of humor restricted by copyright law on the internet; examples include the cartoons of [[Dilbert]] or the [[newspaper]] columns of [[Dave Barry]]. "Internet humor" is regarded as that which belongs to the [[public domain]].
Internet humor may also be regarded as humor that specifically relies on characteristics belonging to the Internet, such as "[[geek]]" or "[[hacker culture|hacker]]" humor -- i.e, humor that would not exist if not for the Internet.
Generally, this type of semi-institutionalized humor starts as a specific group's [[in-joke]], and grows until it reaches a significant portion of Internet users, gaining popularity, "rules" and [[mythos]].
Longstanding and widely recognized examples of such humor are:
*The [[Internet Oracle]] (formerly The Usenet Oracle) at [http://cgi.cs.indiana.edu/~oracle/index.cgi cgi.cs.indiana.edu/~oracle/index.cgi]
*The [[Jargon file]] (also known as [http://www.catb.org/~esr/jargon/html/index.html The (New) Hacker's Dictionary])
*The cult of [[Kibology]]
*The [[Darwin Awards]] at [http://www.DarwinAwards.com www.DarwinAwards.com]
The concept of authorship with regard to Internet humor is very difficult to define. Frequently a "list" type joke may get started but within a few generations of distribution it evolves beyond recognition. A classic example is the well-known "[[you have two cows]]" joke - after circulating in more primitive media throughout the [[1980s]], it seems to have first appeared on the Internet in [[1993]] with simple descriptions of [[communism]], [[capitalism]], and [[socialism]]. However, it was later expanded to include all forms of government, regional variations, philosophical systems, and even art movements. Attempting to define an "author" of the joke hence becomes impossible, and it becomes a publicly owned resource, simply because no-one could validly claim legitimate ownership.
Though the Internet has allowed the global explosion of collectively-authored comedy, its precursors existed on [[bulletin board]]s, corporate messaging systems, and even through such low-tech mechanisms as the [[facsimile]] since at least the 1970s.
==Examples==
*[[Lightbulb joke]]s
*[[You have two cows]]
*[[Happening Happy Hippy Party]]
*[[Honor system virus]]
*[[Bash.org]]
*[[Shit happens]]
*[[You forgot Poland]]
*[[Evil Overlord List]]
*The [[Tourist guy|Accidental Tourist]] pictures
*[[YTMND]]
*[[All your base are belong to us]]
*[[Bert is Evil]]
*[[Internets_(colloquialism)|Internets]]
*[[Encyclopediadramatica]]
==See also==
*[[Urban legend]]
*[[Internet cartoons]]
*[[Internet phenomenon]]
[[Category:Web humor]]
You have two cows
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Wiki alf
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Reverted edits by [[Special:Contributions/65.201.5.115|65.201.5.115]] ([[User talk:65.201.5.115|talk]]) to last version by 68.85.232.135
[[Image:Two cows grazing.jpg|256px|right|thumb|Your two cows.]]
"'''You have two cows'''" is the beginning phrase for a series of [[politics|political]] [[joke]] definitions. "You have two cows" jokes originated as a [[parody]] of typical introductory-level [[economics]] course material examples featuring a farmer in a moneyless society, using his cattle and produce to trade with his neighbors. The examples ran along the lines of ''"You have two cows; you want chickens; you set out to find another farmer who has chickens and wants a cow."'' They were meant to show the limitations of the [[barter]] system, leading to the eventual introduction of currency and [[money]]. The "two cows" parodies however, place the cow-owner in a fully fledged economic system where cows are used as a [[metaphor]] for all [[currency]], [[capital (economics)|capital]], [[means of production]] and economic [[property]]. The intent is often to point out flaws and absurdities in those systems.
==Cows and economic systems==
The first "two cows" jokes were meant to compare opposing [[economic system]]s such as [[capitalism]] and [[communism]], typically by describing how [[government]] and [[bureaucracy]] would interfere with one's quiet enjoyment of one's cows. The jokes evolved into [[satire]] of various political, cultural, social and philosophical systems and theories. Eventually, virtually anything has come to be usable as "cow joke fodder." Newsworthy events involving actual cows ([[Bovine spongiform encephalopathy|Mad Cow]] outbreaks) have also been used as material.
==The early days of the internet==
The definitions are examples of the first [[internet humor|Internet jokes]] that circulated in the early days of the [[Internet]]. However, the initial variants of these jokes predated the widespread adoption of the Internet and were circulating in typewritten form even by the early [[1960s]]. Being such a readily understood source of humor in many cultures, "two cows" jokes became a part of the international development of the [[World Wide Web]]. The jokes are still circulated today, and are translated and quoted on many websites, in dozens of versions, with newer "definitions" added every year. [[Tucows]], the popular download site, is rumored to have taken its name from these jokes, rather than from ''The Ultimate Collection Of [[Microsoft Windows|Windows]]'' (or ''[[Winsock]]'') ''Software'' as implied by its logo, and thus alleged to be a [[backronym]] of the joke.
==Cross-cultural humor==
Because of their freedom and universality of topics, "two cows" jokes are sometimes considered a good example of "cross-cultural [[humor]]." They can be concise examples (not necessarily scientific) of how different cultures can express different visions of the same political concept, by [[paradox]], [[hyperbole]], or [[sarcasm]]. In practice, most such jokes reflect the views of outsiders to the systems being satirised. In the spirit of finding international common ground, some also see them as humorous manifestations of an underlying general scheme of [[political science]] that would compare legal or political concepts, such as the [[right]]s of [[ownership]], across cultures around the world.
==Other cows and humor==
Cows themselves are a frequent subject matter of humor, involved in works such as [[Wikipedia:Bad jokes and other deleted nonsense/ASCII cows|cow ASCII art]], [[cow tipping]], and [[The Far Side]]. Some have conjectured that the word ''cow'' may be an [[inherently funny word]], as invoked in the term "[[holy cow]]" and the [[compound (linguistics)|compound]] [[dvigu]]. Incidentally, "chicken" is also regarded as an inherently funny word.
==See also==
* [[Cow tipping]]
==External links==
*[http://www.YouHaveTwoCows.com/ TheCapitol.Net You Have Two Cows... at YouHaveTwoCows.com]
*[[Uncyclopedia:You have two cows]]
*[http://www.zodanet.com/lollerpedia/index.php/Jokebook:You_have_two_cows Lollerpedia You have two cows] ''GFDL wiki''
[[Category:Jokes]]
[[Category:Metaphors]]
[[Category:Economics]]
[[Category:Internet culture]]
[[he:יש לך שתי פרות]]
[[fr:Vous avez deux vaches]]
Lightbulb joke
15134
42160875
2006-03-04T05:36:46Z
Ragesoss
319203
/* Basic Variations */ add feminist joke
[[Image:Zarowa_ubt.JPG|thumb|right|250px|A light bulb]]
The '''lightbulb joke''' is an example of an endless-variations [[joke]] and has possibly thousands of versions covering every imaginable culture, belief, occupation and special-interest group. Generally the punchline is not complimentary to the group providing the subject of the joke.
The generally acknowledged "original" goes as follows:
:''Q: How many'' [insert chosen group here] ''does it take to change a [[lightbulb]]?''
:''A-1: Ten — one to hold the lightbulb and nine to turn the ladder around.''
:''A-2: Any quantity n — one to hold the lightbulb and n-1 to behave in a fashion generally associated with a negative [[stereotype]] of that group.''
==Basic Variations==
Even the original is subject to variation, the most common involving more people turning the entire house around.
Once the subject is chosen, variations on the joke tend to achieve their comedic effect by highlighting features of the cultural or social group based on altering five main variables:
* the '''quantity''' (ten, three, two, none, millions) of light bulb changers can be adjusted in unexpected ways in the punchline
:''Q: How many martians does it take to change a lightbulb?''
:''A: One and a half.''
:'' Q: How many statisticians does it take to change a lightbulb?''
:''A: 1.0 +/- 0.3, 19 times out of 20.''
:''Q: How many software engineers does it take to change a light bulb?''
:''A: None, it's a hardware problem.''
* the '''duration''' can be introduced as a variable, usually if the answer is "one"
:''Q: How many evolutionists does it take to change a light bulb?''
:''A: Only one, but it takes eight billion years.''
* the word '''screw''' can be used to mean either a [[screw|threaded fastener]], to make a mess of something, or the act of [[sexual intercourse]]
:''Q: How many bureaucrats does it take to screw in a lightbulb?''
:''A: Any number, but they always screw it up.''
:''Q: How many men does it take to install a light bulb?''
:''A: Three. One to install it, and two to listen to him brag about the ''screwing''.
:''Q: How many feminists does it take to screw in a lightbulb''
:''A: That's not funny!''
:''Q: How many Californians does it take to screw in a lightbulb?''
:''A: Californians don't screw in light bulbs, they screw in hot tubs.''
:''Q: How many mice does it take to screw in a lightbulb?''
:''A: Only two, but God knows how they got in there!''
* the word '''[[light]]''' can be used to mock or highlight the attitude of the subject towards light or darkness
:''Q: How many Zen gurus does it take to change a lightbulb?''
:''A: None; only the inner light matters.''
* the word '''change''' can refer either to replacing a light bulb or making a cultural or structural change
:''Q: How many psychologists does it take to change a lightbulb?''
:''A: One, but only if the lightbulb really wants to change.''
Other variations exist that achieve their effect through dramatic alteration of the joke paradigm itself; for example, by revealing the joke variables in an extremely long fashion.
:''Q: How many science fiction writers does it take to change a light bulb?''
:''A: Two, but it's actually the same person doing it. He went back in time and met himself in the doorway and then the first one sat on the other one's shoulder so that they were able to reach it. Then a major time paradox occurred and the entire room, light bulb, changer and all was blown out of existence.''
:''Q: How many politicians does it take to change a light bulb?''
:''A: It doesn't matter how many you have, none of them will ever trust any of the others to hold the ladder steady.''
A further variation plays with the structure of the joke itself (often only making comedic sense when read as part of a list of regular lightbulb jokes). For example:
:''Q: One
:''A: How many time-travellers does it take to change a lightbulb?
== [[Geography|Geographical]] or [[ethnicity|ethnic]] variations ==
=== General all-purpose ethnic version ===
This generic usability prompted one commentator to create the "all-purpose ethnic version" which reads as follows:
:''Q: How many members of a given demographic group does it take to change a lightbulb?''
:''A: 'N+1' — one to hold the lightbulb and N to behave in a fashion generally associated with a negative [[stereotype]] of that group.''
There is no uniformity as to the target of derision: in [[United States|America]] it has been the [[Poles|Polish people]], while in [[Great Britain]] it is the [[Ireland|Irish]] who are lampooned (in [[Wales]] it is the [[Cardigan|'Cardis']]). In [[Australia]] the [[New Zealanders]] are the target of the jokes, and in [[New Zealand]] the Australians are made fun of. The Canadians target their own [[Newfoundland and Labrador|Newfoundlanders]], or "newfies". The jokes are by no means limited to [[English language|English]]-speaking countries. For example, the [[Russia]]ns tell the same joke about the [[Moldavia]]ns, [[Chukchi (people)|Chukchi]] and [[Ukrainians]]. The Ukrainians, in turn, tell it about Russians; the [[Spain|Spanish]] make fun of the inhabitants of [[Lepe]], while the [[Colombia]]ns make fun of the inhabitants of [[Nariño]], and the rest of the [[Spanish language|Spanish]]-speaking population laugh at the [[Galicia (Spain)|Galicians]]; the [[Brazil]]ians mock the [[Portugal|Portuguese]]; the Portuguese mock the Brazilians; the [[Norway|Norwegians]] laugh at their [[Sweden|Swedish]] neighbours, and conversely, the Swedes tell the same joke about Norwegians; the [[Germany|Germans]] target the [[East Frisia]]ns; The [[Netherlands|Dutch]] and [[France|French]] target their [[Belgium|Belgian]] neighbours and the [[India|Indians]] target the [[Pakistan]]is. The [[Finland|Finns]] target everyone, including themselves. In [[Costa Rica]], people joke about foreigners from [[Nicaragua]].
==See also==
* [[Internet humor]]
==External links==
* [http://www.brainlock.org/fun/lbjs.htm Canonical List of Lightbulb Jokes]
* [http://www.eviloverlord.com/parodies/ Peter Anspach's Star Trek Parody Pages] — contains scripts for Star Trek Episodes of every flavour, each revolving solely around the business of changing a light bulb.
* [http://www.workinghumor.com/quickies/lightbulbs.shtml Quickies about Light Bulbs]
* [http://www.aquarianage.org/lore/jokes/litebulb.html Astrojokes — The Inevitable Lightbulb Jokes] — Contains lightbulb jokes revolving around star signs and their personalities.
* [http://www.publicradio.org/applications/formbuilder/projects/joke_machine/joke_page.php?joke_cat=Light+Bulb A Prairie Home Companion]
* [http://www.zodanet.com/lollerpedia/index.php/Jokebook:Lightbulb Lollerpedia lightbulb jokes] ''GFDL wiki''
[[Category:Humor-related lists|Lightbulb jokes]]
[[Category:Jokes]]
[[de:Glühbirnen-Witz]]
[[es:Chiste del bombillo]]
[[ja:電球ジョーク]]
Internet humor/Long lightbulb jokes
15135
15912633
2003-05-27T07:48:43Z
Minesweeper
7279
#REDIRECT [[lightbulb joke]]
#REDIRECT [[lightbulb joke]]
Honor system virus
15139
39430625
2006-02-13T02:13:29Z
Putnamehere3145
820541
To stop people from where I am from (USA) from editing the "mispelling"
'''Honor system viruses''' or '''signature viruses''' are not actual [[computer virus]]es but [[Internet humor|Internet jokes]] or [[Internet meme|meme]]s that are passed around voluntarily.
==Signature virus==
A signature virus is a piece of text placed in a [[signature block]] which encourages readers to copy it into their own signature block. This copying is the means of [[reproduction]] of the [[meme]], and because the text encourages its own copying it is considered to be a memetic [[virus]]. A simple example:
:I'm a signature virus. Please add me to your signature and help me spread!
It is possible for such a virus to carry a short informational [[payload]] in addition to the copying instructions. In the above example, the only payload is the [[concept]] and term "signature virus".
Signature viruses are usually copied mostly due to the humour (humor) value of the concept.
==Honor system virus==
An [[honor system]] virus claims to be an [[email]] virus, but using [[human]] rather than [[computer]] action as the substrate for its destructive and reproductive behaviours. It spreads as a simple textual email message, with text such as:
:This virus works on the honor system. Please forward this message to everyone you know, then delete all the files on your hard disk. Thank you for your cooperation.
It is a joke, not a serious virus. Because its alleged destructive behaviour requires positive action by its intended human victim, the intended victim can simply not take the instructed action (deleting their own files). Those humans who follow the virus's instruction to forward it to others can be safely presumed to have not followed the destructive part of the instructions, and to be forwarding the message deliberately so that their friends may also appreciate the joke.
The joke is based on the perceived foolishness in the design of mail programs that are susceptible to viruses. A normal email virus works by including computer instructions in an email; the mail programs in question, predominantly ones developed by [[Microsoft]], execute those instructions without an explicit request from the user. Most mail programs, in contrast, maintain a distinction between code and data, and so are immune to this type of virus. The honor system virus draws a parallel between humans and mail programs, and so makes the reader think about the human behaviours that are analogous to these mail program behaviours.
It should be noted that some serious email viruses make use of human action in their transmission. They include text that attempts to [[confidence trick|con]] the user into invoking the machine-executable part of the message. This is unlike the honor system virus not only because there is a directly machine-executable component but also because the virus attempts to mislead the human. The honor system virus is entirely straightforward and honest in its human-directed instructions, just like the computer-directed part of a normal email virus.
===Variants===
The honor system virus is also known as the [[Amish]] Computer Virus, the [[Ireland|Irish]] Computer Virus, and the [[Unix]] Computer Virus.
The "Unix Computer Virus" name refers to the [[Unix]] family of [[operating system]]s. In addition to having mail programs that lack the deficiencies that allow viruses to spread by email, they make a relatively inhospitable environment for viruses, when compared to other operating systems popular on desktop computers. Viruses do occur on [[Unix-like]] systems, but they are far less common than in other environments. A corresponding variant of the honor system virus reads thus:
:YOU HAVE RECEIVED THE UNIX VIRUS!
:This virus works on the honor system. Please randomly delete some of your files and forward this to everyone you know.
The "Discount Virus" variant apparently fooled some people into thinking they actually received a virus:
:This computer has just been infected by the Discount Virus. Due to budgetary constraints we have had to let our programming staff go. We are counting on you to use the honor system. Please erase all of the files from your hard drive and then send this message to the first 50 people on your mailing list.
==External links==
* [http://www.redhat.com/archives/redhat-install-list/2000-May/msg00805.html Virus attack on the Red Hat mailing list!]
[[Category:Computer humor]]
[[Category:Internet memes]]
International Electrotechnical Commission
15144
41436214
2006-02-27T08:10:50Z
61.21.54.4
/* External links: */ +ja
The '''International Electrotechnical Commission''' ('''IEC''') is an international [[standards organization]] dealing with electrical, electronic and related technologies. Some of its standards are developed jointly with [[International Organization for Standardization|ISO]].
The IEC held its inaugural meeting on 26th June [[1906]], following discussions between the British [[IEE]], the American [[IEEE]] (then called IEE), and others, which began at the 1900 [[Paris International Electrical Congress]], and continued with [[Colonel]] [[R. E. B. Crompton]] playing a key role. It currently counts more than 130 countries. Sixty-five of these are members, while another 69 participate in the Affiliate Country Programme, which is not a form of membership but is designed to help industrializing countries get involved with the IEC. Originally located in [[London]], the commission moved to its current headquarters in [[Geneva]] in [[1948]].
The IEC charter embraces all electrotechnologies including energy production and distribution, electronics, magnetics and electromagnetics, electroacoustics, multimedia and telecommunication, as well as associated general disciplines such as terminology and symbols, electromagnetic compatibility, measurement and performance, dependability, design and development, safety and the environment.
Today, the IEC tends to be the prime reference point for many standards which were originally drawn up by national standards bodies such as the [[BSI]], with those bodies now copying the IEC version into their current publications. For example, IEC 268-10 (1978) is commonly quoted as the standard defining 'Programme Level Meters', though the content is essentially the same as was defined in [[British Standard]] BS4297-1968, which in turn came out of work done at the [[BBC Research Department]].
The IEC was instrumental in developing and distributing standards for units of measurement, particularly the [[gauss]], [[hertz]], and [[Weber (Wb)|weber]]. They also first proposed a system of standards, the [[Giovanni Giorgi|Giorgi System]], which ultimately became the [[SI]], or Système International d’unités (in English, the International System of Units).
In [[1938]], it published a multilingual international vocabulary to unify electrical terminology.
This effort continues, and the '''International Electrotechnical Vocabulary''' remains an important work in the electrical and electronic industries.
IEC standards have numbers in the range 60000–79999 and their titles take a form such as ''IEC 60417: Graphical Symbols for use on Equipment''. The numbers of older IEC standards were converted in 1997 by adding 60000, for example IEC 27 became IEC 60027.
Standards developed jointly with ISO use ISO numbering standards and are titled such as ''ISO/IEC 7498-1:1994 Open Systems Interconnection: Basic Reference Model''. The use of the ISO/IEC prefix is limited to publications from ISO/IEC Joint Technical Committee 1 on Information Technology, as well as some ISO/IEC guides. ISO/IEC JTC1 is described in more detail under ISO.
The [[CISPR]] (''[[Comité International Spécial des Perturbations Radioélectriques]]'') – in English, the International Special Committee on Radio Interference – is one of the groups founded by the IEC.
==Membership==
The IEC is made up of members, called national committees, and each NC represents its nation's electrotechnical interests in the IEC. This includes manufacturers, providers, distributors and vendors, consumers and users, all levels of governmental agencies, professional societies and trade associations as well as standards developers from national standards bodies. National committees are constituted in different ways. Some NCs are public sector only, some are a combination of public and private sector, and some are private sector only. About 90% of those who prepare IEC standards work in industry.
Member organizations include:
*[[Brazil]] - [[Comitê Brasileiro de Eletricidade, Eletrônica, Iluminação e Telecomunicações]] (Cobei)
*[[Canada]] - [[Standards Council of Canada]]
*[[China]] - [[Standardization Administration of China]] (SAC)
*[[France]] - [[Union technique de l'électricité et de la communication]] (UTE)
*[[Germany]] - Deutsche Kommission Elektrotechnik Elektronik Informationstechnik im [[DIN]] & [[VDE]]
*[[India]] - [[Bureau of Indian Standards]] (BIS)
*[[Japan]] - [[Japanese Industrial Standards Committee]]
* [[Austria]] - Oesterreichischer Verband für Elektrotechnik [[OVE]]
*[[Russia]] - Federal agency for technical regulation and metrology (ГОСТ)
*[[South Africa]] - [[South African Bureau of Standards]] (SABS)
* [[Swiss]] - Swiss Electrotechnical Committee [[CES]]
*[[United Kingdom]] - [[British Standards Institute]]
*[[United States]] - [[American National Standards Institute]] (ANSI)
==See also==
* [[List of IEC standards]]
==External links:==
*http://www.iec.ch — IEC Home Page
*http://webstore.iec.ch — IEC Web Store (buy IEC standards online)
*http://tc17.iec.ch — IEC Switchgear
IEC Standards and tools in database format
*[http://std.iec.ch/iec60050 International Electrotechnical Vocabulary]
*[http://std.iec.ch/glossary IEC Glossary]
*[http://std.iec.ch/iec60061 IEC 60061: Lamp caps, lampholders and gauges]
*[http://www.graphical-symbols.info/equipment IEC 60417 - ISO 7000: Graphical Symbols for Use on Equipment]
*[http://std.iec.ch/iec60617 IEC 60617: Graphical Symbols for Diagrams]
*[http://std.iec.ch/iec61360 IEC 61360: Component Data Dictionary]
[[Category:IEC]]
[[Category:Standards organizations]]
[[Category:International standards|*]]
[[zh-min-nan:IEC]]
[[da:International Electrotechnical Commission]]
[[de:International Electrotechnical Commission]]
[[es:Comisión Electrotécnica Internacional]]
[[fr:Commission électrotechnique internationale]]
[[it:Commissione Elettrotecnica Internazionale]]
[[he:ארגון הסמכות האלקטרוטכנית הבינלאומית]]
[[ja:国際電気標準会議]]
[[nl:International Electrotechnical Commission]]
[[ru:Международная электротехническая комиссия]]
[[zh:国际电工委员会]]
ISO 9660
15145
41659870
2006-02-28T21:58:31Z
134.244.208.52
{{Optical disc authoring}}
'''ISO 9660,''' a standard published by the [[International Organization for Standardization]] (ISO), defines a [[file system]] for [[CD-ROM]] media.
It aims at supporting different computer [[operating system | operating systems]] such as [[Microsoft Windows]], [[Mac OS]], and systems that follow the [[Unix]] specification, so that data may be exchanged.
[[DVD-ROM|DVD]]s may also use the ISO 9660 file system. However, the [[Universal Disk Format|UDF]] file system is far more commonly used on DVDs.
== History ==
A CD-ROM may be mastered with any kind of information on it. [[Sun Microsystems]], for example, uses the Berkeley UNIX [[Unix File System|UFS]] file systems on many CD-ROMs. [[Silicon Graphics]]' [[IRIX]] uses [[EFS (IRIX)|EFS]]. [[Mac OS]] uses [[Hierarchical File System|HFS]]. This makes them usable only on this equipment, which is no big deal for a bootable CD-ROM with an operating system on it, but for distributing general information it's a big limitation.
However, because CD-ROMs are especially suited to volume publishing of information, a standard file system useful across many kinds of architecture is very desirable. Before there was a standard on this matter some were using the High Sierra format on CD-ROM, which arranged file information in a dense, sequential layout to minimise nonsequential access.
The [[High Sierra (computer term)|High Sierra]] file system format uses a hierarchical (eight levels of directories deep) tree file system arrangement, similar to UNIX and MS-DOS. High Sierra has a minimal set of file attributes (directory or ordinary file and time of recording) and name attributes (name, extension, and version). The designers realised they could never get people to agree on a unified definition of file attributes, so the minimum common information was encoded, and a place for future optional extensions (system use area) was defined for each file.
High Sierra was soon adapted (with changes) as an international standard (ISO 9660-1988), and the ISO 9660 file system format is now used throughout the industry.
== Specifications ==
=== CD-ROM Specifications ===
The smallest entity in the [[CD]] format is called a frame, and holds 24 bytes. Data in a CD-ROM are organized in both frames and sectors. A CD-ROM sector contains 98 frames, and holds 2352 bytes.
CD-ROM Mode 1, usually used for computer data, divides the 2352 byte data area defined by the Red Book standards into 12 bytes of synchronisation, 4 bytes of header, 2048 bytes of user data and 288 bytes of error correction and detection codes.
CD-ROM Mode 2, usually used for audio/video data, divides the 2352 byte into 12 bytes of synchronisation, 4 bytes of header and 2336 bytes of user data.
The main advantage of Mode 2 is that it provides an additional 14 per cent of the user data space per sector. The reason is that Mode 2 does not have the additional EDC and ECC error correction data of Mode 1.
=== ISO 9660 Specifications ===
A reserved field at the beginning of the disk is present for use in booting CD-ROM on a computer (system area). As a matter of fact its use was not specified by the ISO 9660 standard, but generally it is used for boot information.
Immediately afterwards, a series of '''volume descriptors''' details the contents and kind of information contained on the disk (something like the partition table of MS-DOS).
A volume descriptor describes the characteristics of the file system information present on a given CD-ROM, or volume. It is divided into two parts: the type of volume descriptor, and the characteristics of the descriptor.
The volume descriptor is constructed in this manner so that if a program reading the disk does not understand a particular descriptor, it can just skip over it until it finds one it recognises, thus allowing the use of many different types of information on one CD-ROM. Also, if an error were to render a descriptor unreadable, a subsequent redundant copy of a descriptor could then allow for fault recovery. When checking CD-ROMs with a dump utility we find each descriptor back in a single logical sector on itself, and also a backup of the descriptor a few logical sectors further.
The minimum requirement is that it has a '''primary descriptor''' describing the ISO 9660 file system and an '''ending descriptor''' (a variable length table that contains information on how many other descriptors are present).
The ISO 9660 primary volume descriptor acts much like the superblock of the UNIX file system, providing details on the ISO 9660 compliant portion of the disk. Contained within the primary volume descriptor is the root directory record describing the location of the contiguous root directory. (As in UNIX, directories appear as files for the operating system special use). Directory entries are successively stored within this region. Evaluation of the ISO 9660 filenames is begun at this location. The root directory is stored as an extent, or sequential series of sectors, that contains each of the directory entries appearing in the root. In addition, since ISO 9660 works by segmenting the CD-ROM into logical blocks, the size of these blocks is found in the primary volume descriptor as well.
A CD-ROM is only compliant to the ISO 9660 file system standard if there is a primary descriptor, and when there is an ending descriptor available (e.g., the volume descriptor constitute a variable length table which contains information on how many other descriptors are present).
The first field in a Volume Descriptor is the Volume Descriptor Type (type), which can have the following values:
* Number 0: shall mean that the Volume Descriptor is a Boot Record
* Number 1: shall mean that the Volume Descriptor is a Primary Volume Descriptor
* Number 2: shall mean that the Volume Descriptor is a Supplementary Volume Descriptor
* Number 3: shall mean that the Volume Descriptor is a Volume Partition Descriptor
* Number 255: shall mean that the Volume Descriptor is a Volume Descriptor Set Terminator.
The second field is called the '''Standard Identifier''' and is set to CD001 for a CD-ROM compliant to the ISO 9660 standard.
Another interesting field is the '''Volume Space Size''' which contains the amount of data available on the CD-ROM.
'''File attributes''' are very simple in ISO-9660. The most important file attribute is determining whether the file is a directory or an ordinary file. File attributes for the file described by the directory entry are stored in the directory entry and optionally, in the extended attribute record.
There are two ways to locate a file on an ISO 9660 file system. One way is to successively interpret the directory names and look through each directory file structure to find the file (much the way MS-DOS and UNIX work to find a file). The other way is through the use of a precompiled '''table''' of paths, where all the entries are enumerated in the successive contents of a file with the corresponding entries. Some systems do not have a mechanism for wandering through directories, they obtain a match by consulting the table.
While a large linear table seems a bit arcane, it can be of great value, as you can quickly search without wandering across the disk (thus reducing seek time).
=== Levels and restrictions ===
There are different levels to this standard.
* Level 1 : File names are restricted to eight characters with a three-character extension, upper case letters, numbers and underscore; maximum depth of directories is eight.
* Level 2 : File names may be up to 31 characters.
* Level 3 : Files allowed to be [[fragmentation|fragmented]] (mainly to allow [[packet writing]], or incremental CD recording).
All levels restrict names to upper case letters, digits and underscores ("_"). Some CD authoring applications allow the user to use almost any [[ASCII]] character. While this does not strictly conform to the ISO 9660 standard, most operating systems that can read ISO 9660 file systems support the use of most ASCII characters as an extension.
The restrictions on filename length and directory depth have been seen by many as a more serious limitation of the file system. Many CD authoring applications attempt to work around this by truncating filenames automatically, but at the risk of breaking applications that rely on a specific file structure.
== ISO 9660:1999 ==
ISO 9660:1999 is the latest update to the ISO 9660 standard. It improves on various restrictions imposed by the old standard, such as extending the maximum path length to 207 characters, removing the eight level maximum directory nesting limit, and removing the special meaning of the dot character in filenames. This has not seen general adoption in operating systems until around 2004, but developers are generally starting to catch onto the standard.
== Disc images ==
ISO 9660 file system images ([[ISO image]]s) are a common way to electronically transfer the contents of CD-ROMs. They often have the [[filename extension]] <code>.iso</code> and are commonly referred to as "ISOs". It should be noted an <code>.iso</code> file may be:
# A single ISO 9660 file system image
# A multi-track disc image with a table of contents
== Extensions ==
There are common extensions to ISO 9660 to deal with the limitations. [[Rock Ridge]] supports the preservation of Unix/Linux permissions and longer ASCII-coded names; [[Joliet (file system)|Joliet]] supports names stored in [[Unicode]], thus allowing almost any character to be used, even from non-[[Latin alphabet|Latin]] scripts; [[El Torito (CD-ROM standard)|El Torito]] enables CDs to be bootable on [[IBM PC|PC]].
[[ISO 13490]] is basically ISO 9660 with multisession support.
== Operating system support ==
Most operating systems support reading of ISO 9660 formatted discs, and most new versions support the extensions such as Rock Ridge and Joliet. Operating systems that do not support the extensions usually show the basic (non-extended) features of a plain ISO 9660 disc.
Here are some operating systems and their support for ISO 9660 and extensions:
* [[DOS]]: access with extensions, such as MSCDEX.EXE (Microsoft CDROM Extension) or CORELCD.EXE
* [[Microsoft Windows]] 95, Windows 98, Windows ME: can read ISO 9660 Level 1, 2, 3, and Joliet
* [[Windows NT|Microsoft Windows NT]] 4, Windows 2000
* [[Windows XP]] can read ISO 9660 Level 1, 2, 3, [[Joliet (file system)|Joliet]], and ISO 9660:1999
* [[Linux]] and [[Berkeley Software Distribution|BSD]]: ISO 9660 Level 1, 2, 3, Joliet, Rock Ridge, and ISO 9660:1999
* [[Mac OS]] 7 to 9: ISO Level 1, 2. Optional free software supports Rock Ridge and Joliet: [http://www.alex-castro.com/jokeridge/ Joke Ridge] and [http://www.tempel.org/joliet/ Joliet Volume Access].
* [[Mac OS X]] 10.2 Jaguar, 10.3 Panther, 10.4 Tiger: ISO Level 1, 2, Joliet and Rock Ridge Extensions. Level 3 is not currently supported, although some users have been able to mount these disks by issuing commands via the Terminal. http://www.macosxhints.com/article.php?story=2004041301593855
== See also ==
* [[Joliet (file system)|Joliet]]
* [[Rock Ridge]]
* [[CD ROM]]
* [[CD recorder]]
* [[DVD]]
* [[Universal Media Disc|UMD]]
* [[Daemon Tools]] - a free utility to mount ISO images
== External links ==
* [http://users.pandora.be/it3.consultants.bvba/handouts/ISO9960.html ISO 9660 Specifications]
* [http://www.osta.org/technology/cdqa.htm Understanding CD-R & CD-RW]
* [http://www.cdrfaq.org/ CD Recording FAQ]
* [http://www.ecma-international.org/publications/standards/Ecma-119.htm Ecma-119] – this standard is identical to ISO 9660 (but please be careful because it has several small incompatibilities with real-life iso images).
* [http://www.petri.co.il/how_to_write_iso_files_to_cd.htm How to write ISO files to CD in the Microsoft Windows Operating System]
* [http://www.tech-recipes.com/windows_tips620.html Small, Free Way to Use and Mount Images (ISO files) Without Burning Them in Windows XP]
* [http://linux-is-sexy.blogspot.com/2006/01/iso-files-with-linux.html How to extract ISO files with Linux]
[[Category:Disk file systems]]
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Ice skating
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[[Image:Ice_skating_on_Presseggersee.jpg|thumb|300px|Outdoor ice skating in Austria]]
'''Ice skating''' is [[travel]]ing on [[ice]] with [[skates]], narrow (and sometimes [[parabolic figure skating blades|parabolic]]) blade-like devices moulded into special [[boot]]s (or, more primitively, without boots, tied to regular [[footwear]]). It is mainly done for [[recreation]] and as a [[sport]].
It is possible on [[canal]]s and [[lake]]s, etc. after it has been freezing for some time, and at indoor and outdoor skating tracks and areas with artificial cooling. The [[ice rink|skating rink]] regarded as the world's longest (about 8 kilometres long) is the [[Rideau Canal]] located in Ottawa, Ontario, Canada.
In some countries with a temperate climate, e.g. the [[Netherlands]], frozen canals and lakes are fairly rare, but skating is popular where these are encountered.
==History==
Ice skating has been believed to be started in Sweden over twelve-hundred years ago by the Vikings.
The runners, made of bones, were ground down until they formed a flat gliding surface, and thongs tied them to the feet. The blades were polished oxen or reindeer bones. These weren't very efficient, so they used a long stick to push themselves forward and stay upright. Skates were originally used for transportation over the frozen rivers and later used for fun. Skating has been found to date back to 50 B.C. It was most common to skate where there are long, cold winters especially in places like [[Scandinavia]].
[[Image:GSskater.jpg|thumb|right|200px|''The Skater'', 1782, a portrait of [[William Grant]] by [[Gilbert Stuart]]. ]]
In the 17th century, canal racing on wooden skates with iron blades was popular in the Netherlands. Also in that century, James, the younger son of the British monarch Charles I, came to the Netherlands in exile, he fell for the sport. When he went back to England, this "new" sport was introduced to the British aristocracy.
In the 18th century, ice skating became a world known sport and the Dutch created skates with much longer blades.
==How it works==
Ice skating works because the metal blade at the bottom of the ice skate shoe can glide with very little [[friction]] over the surface of the ice. However, slightly leaning the blade over and digging one of its edges into the ice ("rockover and bite") gives skaters the ability to increase friction and control their movement at will. In addition, by choosing to move along curved paths whilst leaning their bodies radially and flexing their knees, skaters can use gravity to control and increase their momentum. They can also create momentum by pushing the blade against the curved track which it cuts into the ice. Skillfully combining these two actions of leaning and pushing - a technique known as "drawing" - results in what looks like effortless and graceful curvilinear flow across the ice.
Research in materials has come up with a number of theories explaining the true nature of skating. The issue is that the precise mechanism by which the low-friction is generated is not fully understood, though a number of plausible theories abound usually involving explanations of air-ice boundary layer water and/or friction generated through the skate bottom.
The boundary layer of water being the cause of slipperiness has been disputed when measurements of the boundary layer water with an atomic force microscope finding the boundary layer to be too thin to supply sufficient friction reduction. Nevertheless, a popular theory of this is: Because the molecular structure of ice is a [[crystalline structure]], it turns out that having this structure abruptly stop when it reaches the top of the ice is not the most [[entropically favorable]] form. Instead, there is always a [[thin film]] of liquid water ranging in thickness from only a few molecules to thousands of molecules on top of the ice. This allows a smoother transition from the structured ice to the completely random structure of the air molecules. The thickness of this liquid layer depends almost entirely on the temperature of the surface of the ice (higher temperatures give a thicker layer), and the liquid layer disappears around −20°[[Celsius|C]] (−4°[[Fahrenheit|F]]). However, skating is still possible at temperatures much lower than −20°[[Celsius|C]]. Experiments show that ice has a minimum of kinetic friction at −7°C (−19°[[Fahrenheit|F]]), and many indoor skating rinks set their system to a similar temperature.
==External links==
* [http://www.skridsko.net/klubbar/data/science.html Scientific Papers]
* [http://www.berkeley.edu/news/media/releases/2002/05/10_somorjai.html Gabor Somorjai, the father of modern surface chemistry]
* [http://schoonrijden.rinkes.nl schoonrijden or "fancy skating" (schoonrijden.rinkes.nl)]
* [http://www.skatelog.com/ice/ All About Ice skating]
==See also==
A number of sports are based on the principle of ice skating:
* [[figure skating]]
* [[ice hockey]]
* [[short track speed skating]]
* [[speed skating]]
* [[tour skating]]
* [[synchronized skating]]
* [[Rousette skating]] is a recreational event based on ice skating.
* [[Elfstedentocht]]
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International Olympic Committee
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{{redirect|IOC}}
The '''International Olympic Committee''' is an organisation based in [[Lausanne]], [[Switzerland]], created by [[Pierre de Coubertin]] on [[June 23]] [[1894]] to reinstate the [[Ancient Olympic Games]] held in [[Greece]] between 776 BC to 396 AD. Its membership is 203 National Olympic Committees.
The IOC organises the Olympic Games: the [[Games of the Olympiad]] (Summer Olympic Games) are celebrated during the first year of an Olympiad, and the [[Olympic Winter Games]] during its third year. The first Games of the Olympiad of modern times were celebrated in Athens, Greece, in 1896. The first Olympic Winter Games were celebrated in Chamonix, France, in 1924.
Olympism is a philosophy of life, exalting and combining in a balanced whole the qualities of body, will and mind. Blending sport with culture and education, Olympism seeks to create a way of life based on the joy of effort, the educational value of good example and respect for universal fundamental ethical principles.
==Presidents==
{{IOC_Presidents}}
The IOC Session (composed of the IOC Members) elects, by secret ballot, a President from among its members for a term of eight years renewable once for four years. The next President election will then take place in 2009.
The President represents the IOC and presides over all its activities.
Note: President [[Juan Antonio Samaranch]] has been elected Honorary President For Life. Samaranch was formerly Minister for Sport under General [[Francisco Franco|Franco's]] [[Fascist]] government.
== Presentation ==
On [[June 23]], [[1894]] the Olympic games were re-created by Pierre de Coubertin after a hiatus of 1500 years. The baron hoped to foster international communication and peace through the Olympic Games. The IOC is a parent organisation intended to localize administration and authority for the Games, as well as to provide a single legal entity which owns [[copyrights]], [[trademarks]], and other intangible properties associated with the Olympic games. For example, the Olympic logos, the design of the Olympic flag, the motto, creed, and anthem are all owned and administered by the IOC. There are other organisations which the IOC coordinates as well, which are collectively called the '''Olympic Movement'''. The IOC President is responsible for representing the IOC as a whole, and there are members of the IOC which represent the IOC in their respective countries.
== Mission and role ==
The mission of the IOC is to promote Olympism throughout the world and to lead the Olympic Movement.
The IOC’s role is:
1. to encourage and support the promotion of ethics in sport as well as education of youth through sport and to dedicate its efforts to ensuring that, in sport, the spirit of fair play prevails and violence is banned;
2. to encourage and support the organisation, development and coordination of sport and sports competitions;
3. to ensure the regular celebration of the Olympic Games;
4. to cooperate with the competent public or private organisations and authorities in the endeavour to place sport at the service of humanity and thereby to promote peace;
5. to take action in order to strengthen the unity and to protect the independence of the Olympic Movement;
6. to act against any form of discrimination affecting the Olympic Movement;
7. to encourage and support the promotion of women in sport at all levels and in all structures with a view to implementing the principle of equality of men and women;
8. to lead the fight against doping in sport;
9. to encourage and support measures protecting the health of athletes;
10. to oppose any political or commercial abuse of sport and athletes;
11. to encourage and support the efforts of sports organisations and public authorities to provide for the social and professional future of athletes;
12. to encourage and support the development of sport for all;
13. to encourage and support a responsible concern for environmental issues, to promote sustainable development in sport and to require that the Olympic Games are held
accordingly;
14. to promote a positive legacy from the Olympic Games to the host cities and host countries;
15. to encourage and support initiatives blending sport with culture and education;
16. to encourage and support the activities of the International Olympic Academy (“IOA”) and other institutions which dedicate themselves to Olympic education.
''See Olympic Charter, in force as from 1 September 2004''
== Organization ==
The powers of the IOC are exercised by its organs, namely:
1. the Session,
2. the IOC Executive Board,
3. the President
===The IOC Session===
The Session is the general meeting of the members of the IOC. It is the IOC’s supreme organ. Its decisions are final. Each IOC Member has one vote.
An ordinary Session is held once a year. Extraordinary Sessions may be convened by the President or upon the written request of at least one third of the members.
Among others, the powers of the Session are:
1. To adopt or amend the Olympic Charter.
2. To elect the members of the IOC, the Honorary President, honorary members and honour members.
3. To elect the President, the Vice-Presidents and all other members of the IOC Executive Board.
4. To elect the host city of the Olympic Games.
===The IOC Executive Board===
The IOC Executive Board consists of the President, four Vice-Presidents and ten other members. All members of the IOC Executive Board are elected by the Session, in a secret ballot, by a majority of the votes cast.
The IOC Executive Board assumes the general overall responsibility for the administration of the IOC and the management of its affairs.
==IOC Members==
{{see|List of members of the International Olympic Committee}}
For most of its existence, the IOC was controlled by members who were co-opted, which means they were selected by other members. Countries that had hosted the Games were allowed two members, others one or none. When named, they became not representatives of their respective countries to the IOC, but rather to opposite, IOC members in their respective countries.
For a long time, members of the royalty were popular targets of co-option, and there are still some around, like Prince Albert de Monaco, and then former athletes. These last 10 years, the composition has evolved, in order to get a better representation of the sports world. Members seats have been allocated specifically to athletes, International Federations leaders and National Olympic Committees leaders.
===Membership===
IOC members are natural persons. The total number of IOC members may not exceed 115.
Each member of the IOC is elected for a term of eight years and may be re-elected for one or several further terms.
1. A majority of members whose memberships are not linked to any specific function or
office; their total number may not exceed 70; there may be no more than one such member national of any given country;
2. Active athletes, the total number of whom may not exceed 15, elected for eight years by their peers during the Olympic Games;
3. Presidents or persons holding an executive or senior leadership position within IFs, associations of IFs or other organisations recognised by the IOC, the total number of whom may not exceed 15;
4. Presidents or persons holding an executive or senior leadership position within NOCs, or
world or continental associations of NOCs, the total number of whom may not exceed 15; there may be no more than one such member national of any given country within the IOC.
===Cessation of membership===
The membership of IOC members ceases in the following circumstances:
1. Resignation: any IOC member may cease his membership at any time by delivering his written resignation to the President.
2. Non re-election: any IOC member ceases to be a member without further formality if he is not re-elected.
3. Age limit: any IOC member ceases to be a member at the end of the calendar year during which he reaches the age of 70.
4. Failure to attend Sessions or take active part in IOC work for two consecutive years.
5. Transfer of domicile or of main centre of interests to a country other than the
country that was his at the time of his election.
6. Members elected as active athletes cease to be a member upon ceasing to be a member of
the IOC Athletes’ Commission.
7. Presidents and persons holding an executive or senior leadership position within NOCs, world or continental associations of NOCs, IFs or associations of IFs or other organisations recognised by the IOC cease to be a member upon ceasing to exercise the function he was exercising at the time of his election.
8. Expulsion: an IOC member may be expelled by decision of the Session if such member has betrayed his oath or if the Session considers that such
member has neglected or knowingly jeopardised the interests of the IOC or acted in a way which is unworthy of the IOC.
''See Olympic Charter, in force as from 1 September 2004''
== Host city bids ==
Countries which wish to host the [[Summer Olympic Games]] or the [[Winter Olympic Games]] must bid for the organisation with the IOC, which has the ultimate authority of deciding where the Games will take place. The IOC members, representing most of the member countries, vote to decide where the Games will take place. Members from countries which have cities bidding to host the games are excluded from the voting process, up until the point where their city drops out of the contest.
== Olympic marketing ==
===Revenue===
The Olympic Movement generates revenue through five major programmes. The International Olympic Committee (IOC) manages broadcast partnerships and the TOP worldwide sponsorship programme. The Organising Committees for the Olympic Games (OCOGs) manage domestic sponsorship, ticketing and licensing programmes within the host country under the direction of the IOC.
The Olympic Movement generated a total of more than US$4 billion in revenue during the most recent Olympic quadrennium (2001 – 2004). The following chart provides details of the revenue generated from each major programme managed by the IOC and the OCOGs during this period.
===Revenue distribution===
The IOC distributes approximately 92% of Olympic marketing revenue to organisations throughout the Olympic Movement to support the staging of the Olympic Games and to promote the worldwide development of sport. The IOC retains approximately 8% of Olympic marketing revenue for the operational and administrative costs of governing the Olympic Movement.
===The Organising Committees of the Olympic Games (OCOGs)===
The IOC provides TOP programme contributions and Olympic broadcast revenue to the OCOGs to support the staging of the Olympic Games and Olympic Winter Games:
*TOP Programme Revenue to OCOGs; the two OCOGs of each Olympic quadrennium generally share approximately 50% of TOP programme revenue and value-in-kind contributions, with approximately 30% provided to the summer OCOG and 20% provided to the winter OCOG.
*Broadcast Revenue to OCOGs; the IOC contributes 49% of the Olympic broadcast revenue for each Games to the OCOG. During the 2001 - 2004 Olympic quadrennium, the Salt Lake 2002 Organising Committee received US$443 million in broadcast revenue from the IOC, and the Athens 2004 Organising Committee received US$732 million.
*Domestic Programme Revenue to OCOGs; the OCOGs generate substantial revenue from the domestic marketing programmes that they manage within the host country, including domestic sponsorship, ticketing and licensing.
===National Olympic Committees (NOCs)===
The NOCs receive financial support for the training and development of Olympic teams, Olympic athletes and Olympic hopefuls. The IOC distributes TOP programme revenue to each of the NOCs throughout the world. The IOC also contributes Olympic broadcast revenue to Olympic Solidarity, an IOC organisation that provides financial support to NOCs with the greatest need.
The continued success of the TOP programme and Olympic broadcast agreements has enabled the IOC to provide increased support for the NOCs with each Olympic quadrennium. The IOC provided approximately US$318.5 million to NOCs for the 2001 - 2004 quadrennium.
===International Olympic Sports Federations (IFs)===
The IOC is now the largest single revenue source for the majority of IFs, with its contributions of Olympic broadcast revenue that assist the IFs in the development of their respective sports worldwide. The IOC provides financial support from Olympic broadcast revenue to the 28 IFs of Olympic summer sports and the seven IFs of Olympic winter sports after the completion of the Olympic Games and the Olympic Winter Games, respectively.
The continually increasing value of Olympic broadcast partnership has enabled the IOC to deliver substantially increased financial support to the IFs with each successive Games. The seven winter sports IFs shared US$85.8 million in Salt Lake 2002 broadcast revenue. The contribution to the 28 summer sports IFs from Athens 2004 broadcast revenue has not yet been determined, but the contribution is expected to mark a significant increase over the US$190 million that the IOC provided to the summer IFs following Sydney 2000.
===Other organisations===
The IOC contributes Olympic marketing revenue to the programmes of various recognised international sports organisations, including the International Paralympic Committee, the Paralympic Organising Committee, and the World Anti-Doping Agency (WADA).
See [http://www.olympic.org official site of the IOC]
== Scandals ==
The IOC has been involved in a number of scandals, most involving members taking advantage of the bidding cities to extort financial and other rewards. [[2002 Winter Olympic bid scandal|The most widely publicised example]] occurred in relation to the [[2002 Winter Olympics]] in [[Salt Lake City]] but earlier stories, reported by British journalists [[Vyv Simson]] and [[Andrew Jennings]], date back decades. After the Salt Lake City scandal, efforts were made to clamp down on the most blatant misbehaviour of IOC delegates (who used their position as voters for the host city to extract favours from bidders for the games), and an advisory board of recently retired former athletes has been set up. Critics of the organisation believe more fundamental reform is required, for instance replacing the self-perpetuating system of delegate selection with a more democratic process.
==See also==
*[[List of members of the International Olympic Committee]]
*[[List of IOC meetings]]
*[[Olympic Congress]]
*[[International Paralympic Committee]]
*[[List of IOC country codes]]
*[[Olympic Order]]
==Reference==
*{{cite book | first= | last= | year= | title= The Lord of The Rings. Power, Money and Drugs in the Modern Olympics.| publisher= Shuster & Shuster | id=ISBN 0-671-71122-9 | url= | authorlink= | author= Simson & Jennings}}
==External links==
*[http://www.olympic.org/ IOC Official Website]
*[http://www.olympicwatch.org/ Olympic Watch]
*[http://www.gamesbids.com/english/archives/past.shtml Overview of IOC-elections of hosting cities]
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List of Presidents of the International Olympic Committee
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The Inklings
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Integrated circuit
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[[Image:SEM integrated circuit (400x).jpg|right|thumb|300px|[[Scanning electron microscope|SEM]] image of an integrated circuit showing defects in the [[aluminium]] layer deposition (shown in [[cyan]]).]]
[[Image:Diopsis.jpg|right|thumb|300px|Integrated circuit showing memory blocks, logic and input/output pads around the periphery]]
A [[monolithic]] '''integrated circuit (IC)''' or often referred to as a '''microchip''' or simply '''chip''' is a miniaturized [[electronic circuit]] (consisting mainly of [[semiconductor device]]s, as well as [[passive component]]s) which has been manufactured in the surface of a thin substrate of [[semiconductor]] material.
A [[hybrid circuit|hybrid integrated circuit]] is a miniaturized electronic circuit constructed of individual semiconductor devices, as well as passive components, bonded to a substrate or circuit board.
This article is about monolithic integrated circuits.
==Introduction==
The integrated circuit was made possible by experimental discoveries which showed that [[semiconductor device]]s could perform the functions of [[vacuum tube]]s and by mid-20th-century technology advancements in [[Fabrication (semiconductor)|semiconductor device fabrication]]. The integration of large numbers of tiny [[transistor]]s onto a small chip was an enormous improvement over the manual assembly of [[vacuum tube]]s and circuits using discrete [[components]]. The integrated circuit's [[mass production]] capability, reliability, and ease of adding [[complexity]] prompted the use of standardized ICs in place of designs using discrete transistors which quickly pushed vacuum tubes into [[obsolescence]]. There are two main advantages of ICs over discrete circuits - cost and performance. The cost is low because the chips, with all their components, are printed as a unit by [[photolithography]] and not constructed a transistor at a time. As of 2006, chip areas range from a few square [[millimeter|mm]] to around 250 [[millimeter|mm]]<sup>2<sup>, with up to 1 million [[transistor]]s per [[millimeter|mm]]<sup>2<sup>.
==Advances in integrated circuits==
Among the most advanced integrated circuits are the [[microprocessor]]s, which control everything from [[computer]]s to [[cellular phone]]s to digital [[microwave oven]]s. Digital [[Random_access_memory|memory chip]]s are another family of integrated circuit that is crucially important to the modern [[information society]]. While cost of designing and developing a complex integrated circuit is quite high, when spread across typically millions of production units the individual IC cost is minimized. The performance of ICs is high because the small size allows short traces which in turn allows low [[Electric power|power]] logic (such as CMOS) to be used at fast switching speeds.
ICs have consistently migrated to smaller feature sizes over the years, allowing more circuitry to be packed on each chip - see [[Moore's law]]. As the feature size shrinks, almost everything improves - the cost and the power consumption go down, and the speed goes up. Since these gains are apparent to the end user, there is fierce competition among the manufacturers to use finer geometries. This process, and the expected progress over the next few years, is well described by the [[International Technology Roadmap for Semiconductors]], or [[ITRS]].
==Popularity of ICs==
Only a half century after their development was initiated, integrated circuits have become ubiquitous. [[Computer]]s, [[cellular phone]]s, and other [[digital]] [[appliance]]s are now inextricable parts of the structure of modern societies. That is, modern [[computing]], [[communication]]s, [[manufacturing]] and [[transport]] systems, including the [[Internet]], all depend on the existence of integrated circuits. Indeed, many [[scholar]]s believe that the [[digital revolution]] brought about by integrated circuits was one of the most significant occurrences in the [[history]] of [[mankind]].
==Classification and complexity==
[[Image:cmosic.JPG|thumb|A [[CMOS|CMOS]] [[4000_series|4000]] IC]]
Integrated circuits can be classified into [[analog circuit|analog]], [[digital circuit|digital]] and [[mixed-mode integrated circuit|mixed signal]] (both analog and digital on the same chip).
Digital integrated circuits can contain anything from one to millions of [[logic gate]]s, [[flip-flop (electronics)|flip-flop]]s, [[multiplexer]]s, and other circuits in a few square millimeters. The small size of these circuits allows high speed, low power dissipation, and reduced manufacturing cost compared with board-level integration. Analog integrated circuits perform analog functions like [[Amplifier|amplification]], [[active filter]]ing, [[demodulation]], [[Frequency mixer|mixing]], etc. [[Analog-to-digital converter|ADC]]s and [[digital-to-analog converter|DAC]]s are the key elements of mixed signal ICs. They convert signals between analog and digital formats. Analog ICs ease the burden on circuit designers by having expertly designed analog circuits available instead of designing a difficult analog circuit from scratch.
The growth of complexity of integrated circuits follows a trend called "[[Moore's Law]]", first observed by [[Gordon Moore]] of [[Intel]]. Moore's Law in its modern interpretation states that the number of transistors in an integrated circuit doubles every two years. By the year 2000 the largest integrated circuits contained hundreds of millions of transistors. It is difficult to say whether the trend will continue (see [[technological singularity]]).
==Manufacture==
===Fabrication===
''Main article: [[Semiconductor fabrication]].''
The [[semiconductor]]s of the [[periodic table]] of the [[chemical element]]s were identified as the most likely materials for a ''[[solid state]] [[vacuum tube]]'' by researchers like [[William Shockley]] at [[Bell Laboratories]] starting in the 1930s. Starting with [[copper oxide]], proceeding to [[germanium]], then [[silicon]], the materials were systematically studied in the 1940s and 1950s. Today, silicon [[monocrystal]]s are the main [[Substrate (printing)|substrate]] used for ''integrated circuits (ICs)'' although some III-V compounds of the periodic table such as [[gallium arsenide]] are used for specialised applications like [[LEDs]], [[lasers]], and the highest-speed integrated circuits. It took decades to perfect methods of creating [[crystal]]s without defects in the [[crystalline structure]] of the semiconducting material.
[[Semiconductor]] ICs are fabricated in a layer process which includes these key process steps:
*Imaging
*Deposition
*Etching
The main process steps are supplemented by doping, cleaning and planarisation steps.
Mono-crystal [[silicon]] [[wafer (electronics)|wafers]] (or for special applications, [[silicon on sapphire]] or [[gallium arsenide]] wafers) are used as the ''substrate''. [[Photolithography]] is used to mark different areas of the substrate to be [[Doping (Semiconductors)|doped]] or to have polysilicon, insulators or metal (typically [[aluminium]]) tracks deposited on them.
[[Image:Integrated circuit 0101.jpg|thumb|right|250px|Criss-crossing geometry of the layers of an IC]]
*For a [[CMOS]] process, for example, a [[transistor]] is formed by the criss-crossing intersection of striped layers. The stripes can be monocrystalline substrate, doped layers, perhaps insulator layers or polysilicon layers. Some etched vias to the doped layers might interconnect layers with [[metal]] conducting tracks.
*The criss-crossed checkerboard-like (see image above) transistors are the most common part of the [[Electrical network|circuit]], each checker forming a transistor.
*[[resistor|Resistive structures]], meandering stripes of varying lengths, form the loads on the circuit. The ratio of the length of the resistive structure to its width, combined with its sheet resistivity determines the resistance.
*[[capacitor|Capacitive structures]], in form very much like the parallel conducting plates of a traditional electrical capacitor, are formed according to the area of the "plates", with insulating material between the plates. Owing to limitations in size, only very small capacitances can be created on an IC.
*More rarely, [[inductor|inductive structures]] can be simulated by [[gyrator]]s.
Since a CMOS device only draws current on the ''transition'' between [[boolean algebra|logic]] [[State (computer science)|state]]s, CMOS devices consume much less current than [[bipolar transistor|bipolar]] devices.
A [[RAM|memory device]] is the most regular type of integrated circuit; the highest density devices are thus memories; but even a [[microprocessor]] will have memory on the chip. (See the regular array structure at the bottom of the first image.) Although the structures are intricate – with widths which have been shrinking for decades – the layers remain much thinner than the device widths. The layers of material are fabricated much like a photographic process, although [[light]] [[wave]]s in the [[visible spectrum]] cannot be used to "expose" a layer of material, as they would be too large for the features. Thus [[photon]]s of higher frequencies (typically [[ultraviolet]]) are used to create the patterns for each layer. Because each feature is so small, [[electron microscope]]s are essential tools for a [[process]] [[engineer]] who might be [[debugging]] a fabrication process.
Each device is tested before packaging. The wafer is then cut into small rectangles called ''die''. Each die is then connected into a package using aluminium (or occasionally [[gold]]) wires which are [[welding|welded]] to ''pads'', usually found around the edge of the die. After packaging, the devices go through final test on very expensive automated testers, which can account for over 25 percent of the cost of fabrication. As of [[2005]], a fabrication facility (commonly known as a ''[[semiconductor]] fab'') costs over a billion US Dollars to construct, because much of the operation is automated. The most advanced processes employ the following techniques:
* The wafers are up to 300 mm in diameter (wider than a common dinner plate).
* Use of 90 nanometer or smaller chip manufacturing process. [[Intel]], [[IBM]], and [[AMD]] are using 90 nanometers for their [[central processing unit|CPU]] chips, and Intel has started using a 65 nanometer process. {{citeneeded}}
* [[Copper-based chips|Copper interconnects]] where copper wiring replaces aluminium for interconnects.
* [[Low-K]] dielectric insulators.
* [[Silicon on insulator]] (SOI)
* [[Strained silicon]] in a process used by [[IBM]] known as [[Strained silicon directly on insulator]] (SSDOI)
===Packaging===
The earliest integrated circuits were packaged in ceramic flat packs, which continued to be used by the military for their reliability and small size for many years. Commercial circuit packaging quickly moved to the [[dual in-line package]] (DIP), first in ceramic and later in plastic. In the 1980s pin counts of VLSI circuits exceeded the practical limit for DIP packaging, leading to [[pin grid array]] (PGA) and [[leadless chip carrier]] (LCC) packages. [[Surface mount]] packaging appeared in the early 1980s and became popular in the late 1980s, using finer lead pitch with leads formed as either gull-wing or J-lead, as exemplified by [[Small-Outline Integrated Circuit]]. A carrier which occupies an area about 30 – 50% less than an equivalent [[dual in-line package|DIP]], with a typical thickness that is 70% less. This package has "gull wing" leads protruding from the two long sides and a lead spacing of 0.050 inches.
[[Small-Outline Integrated Circuit]] (SOIC) and [[PLCC]] packages. In the late 1990s, [[PQFP]] and [[thin small-outline package|TSOP]] packages became the most common for high pin count devices, though PGA packages are still often used for high-end [[microprocessor]]s.
[[Ball grid array]] (BGA) packages have existed since the 1970s.
Traces out of the die, through the package, and into the [[printed circuit board]] have very different electrical properties, compared to on-chip signals. They require special design techniques and need much more electric power than signals confined to the chip itself.
When multiple die are put in one package, it is called SiP, for ''[[System In Package]]''. When multiple die are combined on a small substrate, often ceramic, it's called a MCM, or [[Multi-Chip Module]]. The boundary between a big MCM and a small printed circuit board is sometimes fuzzy.
==History, origins and generations==
===The birth of the IC===
The integrated circuit was first conceived by a radar scientist, [[Geoffrey Dummer|Geoffrey W.A. Dummer]] (born 1909), working for the Royal Radar Establishment of the British [[Ministry of Defence (United Kingdom)|Ministry of Defence]], and published in [[Washington, D.C.]] on May 7, 1952. Dummer unsuccessfully attempted to build such a circuit in 1956.
The first integrated circuits were manufactured independently by two scientists: [[Jack Kilby]] of [[Texas Instruments]] filed a patent for a "Solid Circuit" made of [[germanium]] on February 6, 1959. Kilby received patents US3138743, US3138747, US3261081, and US3434015. [[Robert Noyce]] of [[Fairchild Semiconductor]] was awarded a patent for a more complex "unitary circuit" made of Silicon on April 25, 1961. (See [http://www.ti.com/corp/docs/kilbyctr/jackbuilt.shtml the Chip that Jack built] for more information.)
Noyce credited [[Kurt Lehovec]] of [[Sprague Electric]] for the ''principle of [[p-n junction]] isolation'' caused by the action of a biased p-n junction (the diode) as a key concept behind the IC.{{fn|Lehovec}}
===SSI, MSI, LSI===
The first integrated circuits contained only a few transistors. Called "'''Small-Scale Integration'''" ('''SSI'''), they used circuits containing transistors numbering in the tens.
SSI circuits were crucial to early aerospace projects, and vice-versa. Both the [[Minuteman missile]] and [[Apollo program]] needed lightweight digital computers for their inertially-guided flight computers; the [[Apollo guidance computer]] led and motivated the integrated-circuit technology, while the Minuteman missile forced it into mass-production.
These programs purchased almost all of the available integrated circuits from 1960 through 1963, and almost alone provided the demand that funded the production improvements to get the production costs from $1000/circuit (in 1960 dollars) to merely $25/circuit (in 1963 dollars).
The next step in the development of integrated circuits, taken in the late 1960s, introduced devices which contained hundreds of transistors on each chip, called "'''Medium-Scale Integration'''" ('''MSI''').
They were attractive economically because while they cost little more to produce than SSI devices, they allowed more complex systems to be produced using smaller circuit boards, less assembly work (because of fewer separate components), and a number of other advantages.
Further development, driven by the same economic factors, led to "'''Large-Scale Integration'''" ('''LSI''') in the mid 1970s, with tens of thousands of transistors per chip.
LSI circuits began to be produced in large quantities around 1970, for computer main memories and pocket calculators.
===VLSI===
The final step in the development process, starting in the 1980s and continuing on, was "Very Large-Scale Integration" ([[VLSI]]), with hundreds of thousands of transistors, and beyond (well past several million in the latest stages).
For the first time it became possible to fabricate a [[Central processing unit|CPU]] on a single integrated circuit, to create a [[microprocessor]]. In [[1986]] the first one megabit [[Random Access Memory|RAM]] chips were introduced, which contained more than one million transistors. Microprocessor chips produced in [[1994]] contained more than three million transistors.
This step was largely made possible by the codification of "design rules" for the [[CMOS]] technology used in VLSI chips, which made production of working devices much more of a systematic endeavour. (See the 1980 landmark text by [[Carver Mead]] and [[Lynn Conway]] referenced below.)
===ULSI, WSI, SOC===
To reflect further growth of the complexity, the term '''ULSI''' that stands for "'''Ultra-Large Scale Integration'''" was proposed for chips of complexity more than 1 million of transistors. However there is no qualitative leap between VLSI and ULSI, hence normally in technical texts the "VLSI" term covers ULSI as well, and "ULSI" is reserved only for cases when it is necessary to emphasize the chip complexity, e.g. in marketing.
The most extreme integration technique is '''wafer-scale integration''' ('''WSI'''), which uses whole uncut wafers containing entire computers (processors as well as memory). Attempts to take this step commercially in the 1980s (e.g. by [[Gene Amdahl]]) failed, mostly because of defect-free manufacturability problems, and it does not now seem to be a high priority for industry.
The WSI technique failed commercially, but advances in semiconductor manufacturing allowed for another attack on the IC complexity, known as '''[[System-on-a-chip|System-on-Chip]]''' ('''SOC''') design. In this approach, components traditionally manufactured as separate chips to be wired together on a [[printed circuit board]] are designed to occupy a single chip that contains memory, microprocessor(s), peripheral interfaces, Input/Output logic control, data converters, and other components, together composing the whole electronic system.
==Other developments==
In the 1980s [[programmable logic device|programmable integrated circuits]] were developed. These devices contain circuits whose logical function and connectivity can be programmed by the user, rather than being fixed by the integrated circuit manufacturer. This allows a single chip to be programmed to implement different LSI-type functions such as [[logic gate]]s, [[adder (electronics)|adders]], and [[processor register|registers]]. Current devices named [[FPGA]]s (Field Programmable Gate Arrays) can now implement tens of thousands of LSI circuits in parallel and operate up to 400 MHz.
The techniques perfected by the integrated circuits industry over the last three decades have been used to create microscopic machines, known as [[MEMS]]. These devices are used in a variety of commercial and defense applications, including projectors, ink jet printers, and accelerometers used to deploy the airbag in car accidents.
In the past, radios could not be fabricated in the same low-cost processes as microprocessors. But since 1998, a large number of radio chips have been developed using CMOS processes. Examples include Intel's DECT cordless phone, or [[Atheros]]'s 802.11 card.
==Silicon Graffiti==
Ever since ICs were created, some chip designers have used the silicon surface area for surreptitious, non-functional images or words. These are sometimes referred to as [[Chip art|Chip Art]], or ''Silicon Art'', or ''Silicon Graffiti'', or ''Silicon Doodling''. For an overview of this practice, see the article [http://www.spectrum.ieee.org/careers/careerstemplate.jsp?ArticleId=p030202 The Secret Art of Chip Graffiti], from the IEEE magazine ''Spectrum''.
==Key industrial and academic data==
===Notable ICs===
*The [[555 timer IC|555]] common [[multivibrator]] subcircuit (common in electronic timing circuits)
*The [[741 operational amplifier]]
*[[7400 series]] [[Transistor-transistor logic|TTL]] logic building blocks
*[[4000 series]], the [[CMOS]] counterpart to the 7400 series
*[[Intel 4004]], the world's first [[microprocessor]]
*The [[MOS Technology 6502]] and [[Zilog Z80]] microprocessors, used in many [[home computer]]s
===Manufacturers===
A list of notable manufacturers; some operating, some defunct:
*[[Alcatel]]
*[[AMD]] (Advanced Micro Devices; founded by ex-Fairchild employees)
*[[Analog Devices]]
<!--*[[Applied Materials]]--><!--Makes IC production equipment, not ICs themselves-->
*[[ATI Technologies]] (Array Technologies Incorporated; acquired parts of [[Tseng Labs]] in 1997)
*[[Agere Systems]] (formerly part of [[Lucent]], which was formerly part of [[AT&T]])
*[[Atmel]] (co-founded by ex-Intel employee)
*[[MOS Technology|Commodore Semiconductor Group]] (formerly MOS Technology)
*[[Fairchild Semiconductor]] (founded by ex-Shockley Semiconductor employees: the "[[Traitorous Eight]]")
*[[Intersil]]
*[[Freescale Semiconductor]] (formerly part of [[Motorola]])
*[[MOS Technology|GMT Microelectronics]] (formerly Commodore Semiconductor Group)
*[[IBM]] (International Business Machines)
*[[Infineon Technologies]] (formerly part of [[Siemens AG|Siemens]])
*[[Intel]] (founded by ex-Fairchild employees)
*[[MOS Technology]] (founded by ex-Motorola employees)
*[[Mostek]] (founded by ex-Texas Instruments employees)
*[[National Semiconductor]] (aka "NatSemi"; founded by ex-Fairchild employees)
*[[Nordic Semiconductor]] (formerly known as Nordic VLSI)
*[[NEC Corporation]] (formerly known as Nippon Electric Company)
*[[NVIDIA]] (acquired IP of competitor [[3dfx]] in 2000; 3dfx was co-founded by ex-Intel employee)
*[[Philips]]
*[[PMC-Sierra]] (from the former Pacific Microelectronics Centre and Sierra Semiconductor, the latter co-founded by ex-NatSemi employee)
*[[Renesas Technology Corporation|Renesas]] (joint venture of [[Hitachi, Ltd.|Hitachi]] and [[Mitsubishi Electric Corporation|Mitsubishi Electric]])
*[[Rohm]]
* [http://www.smartcodecorp.com SmartCode Corp.]
*[[STMicroelectronics]] (formerly SGS Thomson)
*[[Texas Instruments]]
*[[VIA Technologies]] (founded by ex-Intel employee) (part of [[Formosa Plastics Group]])
*[[Xilinx]] (founded by ex-ZiLOG employee)
*[[ZiLOG]] (founded by ex-Intel employees) (part of [[Exxon]] 1980–89; now owned by [[Texas Pacific Group|TPG]])
===VLSI conferences===
*ISSCC – IEEE International Solid-State Circuits Conference
*CICC – IEEE Custom Integrated Circuit Conference
*ISCAS – IEEE International Symposium on Circuits and Systems
*VLSI – IEEE International Conference on VLSI Design
*DAC – Design Automation Conference
*ICCAD – International Conference on Computer Aided Design
*ESSCIRC – European Solid-State Circuits Conference
*ISLPED – International Symposium on Low Power and Design
*ISPD – International Symposium on Physical Design
*ISQED – International Symposium on Quality Electronic Design
*DATE – Design and Test in Europe
*ICCD – International Conference on Computer Design
*IEDM – IEEE International Electron Devices Meeting
*GLSVLSI – IEEE Great Lakes Symposium on VLSI
*ASP-DAC – Asia and South Pacific Design Automation Conference
*MWSCAS – IEEE Midwest Symposium on Circuits and Systems
*ICSVLSI – IEEE Computer Society Annual Symposium on VLSI
*EDS – IEEE EDS Meetings Calendar
*EDS – IEEE EDS Sponsored, Cosponsored & Topical Conferences
===VLSI journals===
*ED – [http://www.ieee.org/organizations/pubs/transactions/ted.htm IEEE Transactions on Electron Devices]
*EDL – [http://www.ieee.org/organizations/pubs/transactions/edl.htm IEEE Electron Device Letters]
*CAD – [http://www.ieee.org/organizations/pubs/transactions/tcadics.htm IEEE Transactions on Computer-Aided Design of Integrated Circuits and Systems]
*JSSC – [http://www.ieee.org/organizations/pubs/transactions/jssc.html IEEE Journal of Solid-State Circuits]
*VLSI – [http://www.ieee.org/portal/pages/pubs/transactions/tvlsi.html IEEE Transactions on Very Large Scale Integration (VLSI) Systems]
*CAS II – [http://www.ieee.org/portal/pages/pubs/transactions/tcs2.html IEEE Transactions on Circuits and Systems II: Analogy and Digital Signal Processing]
*SM – [http://www.ieee.org/portal/pages/pubs/transactions/tsm.html IEEE Transactions on Semiconductor Manufacturing]
*SSE – Solid-State Electronics
*SST – Solid-State Technology
*TCAD – Journal of Technology Computer-Aided Design
==Branch pages==
*[[Clean room]]
*[[Current mirror]]
*[[Ion implantation]]
==See also==
*[[Computer engineering]]
*[[Electrical engineering]]
*[[Electronics]]
*[[Emitter_Coupled_Logic|Emitter-Coupled Logic (ECL)]]
*[[Hybrid circuit]]
*[[Vacuum_tube#Integrated_circuit_vacuum_tubes|Integrated circuit vacuum tube]]
*[[Integrated injection logic]]
*[[Mixed-mode integrated circuit]]
*[[Transistor-transistor logic|Transistor-transistor logic (TTL)]]
*[[Microcontroller]]
*[[Moore's law]]
*[[Semiconductor manufacturing]]
*[[Silicon Doodling]]
*[[Simulation]]
*[[Sound chip]]
*[[SPICE]], [[Hardware description language|HDL]], [[ZIF]], [[Automatic test pattern generation]]
==References==
Academic:
* Mead, C. and Conway, L. (1980). ''Introduction to VLSI Systems''. Addison-Wesley. ISBN 0-201-04358-0.
* Kang, S. and Leblebici, Y. (2002). ''CMOS Digital Integrated Circuits Analysis & Design''. McGraw-Hill. ISBN 0072460539.
* Hodges, D.A., Jackson H.G. and Saleh, R. (2003). ''Analysis and Design of Digital Integrated Circuits''. McGraw-Hill. ISBN 0072283653.
* Jan M. Rabaey, Anantha Chandrakasan, and Borivoje Nikolic (1996 - first edition). ''Digital Integrated Circuits, 2nd Edition''[http://bwrc.eecs.berkeley.edu/IcBook],'' ISBN: 0-13-090996-3 '', Publisher: Prentice Hall
Patents:
*{{anb|Lehovec}} Kurt Lehovec's patent on the isolation p-n junction: US patent 3 029 366 awarded on April 10, 1962, filed April 22, 1959. Robert Noyce credits Lehovec in his article – "Microelectronics", ''[[Scientific American]]'', September 1977, Volume 23, Number 3, pp. 63–9.
==External links==
{{Commons|Category:Microprocessors|Integrated circuit}}
;Patents
*[http://patft.uspto.gov/netacgi/nph-Parser?Sect1=PTO1&Sect2=HITOFF&d=PALL&p=1&u=/netahtml/srchnum.htm&r=1&f=G&l=50&s1=3138743.WKU.&OS=PN/3138743&RS=PN/3138743 US3138743] – Miniaturized electronic circuit – [[Jack Kilby|J. S. Kilby]]
*[http://patft.uspto.gov/netacgi/nph-Parser?Sect1=PTO1&Sect2=HITOFF&d=PALL&p=1&u=/netahtml/srchnum.htm&r=1&f=G&l=50&s1=3138747.WKU.&OS=PN/3138747&RS=PN/3138747 US3138747] – Integrated semiconductor circuit device – J. S. Kilby
*[http://patft.uspto.gov/netacgi/nph-Parser?Sect1=PTO1&Sect2=HITOFF&d=PALL&p=1&u=/netahtml/srchnum.htm&r=1&f=G&l=50&s1=3261081.WKU.&OS=PN/3261081&RS=PN/3261081 US3261081] – Method of making miniaturized electronic circuits – J. S. Kilby
*[http://patft.uspto.gov/netacgi/nph-Parser?Sect1=PTO1&Sect2=HITOFF&d=PALL&p=1&u=/netahtml/srchnum.htm&r=1&f=G&l=50&s1=3434015.WKU.&OS=PN/3434015&RS=PN/3434015 US3434015] – Capacitor for miniaturized electronic circuits or the like – J. S. Kilby
;Audio video
*[http://www.appliedmaterials.com/HTMAC/animated.html A presentation of the chip manufacturing process], from [[Applied Materials]]
[[Category:Integrated circuits| ]]
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I-Link
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#REDIRECT [[FireWire]]
Impedance match
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#REDIRECT [[impedance matching]]
Individual cases of anthrax
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#REDIRECT[[2001 anthrax attacks]]
#REDIRECT[[2001 anthrax attacks]]
IBM 3270
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[[de:IBM 3270]]
[[Image:3270ScreenShot.jpg|thumbnail|right|350px|Clemson University's library catalog as displayed in a 3270 emulation program]]
The '''IBM 3270''' is a class of [[computer terminal|terminals]] made by [[IBM]] (known as "Display Devices") normally used to communicate with [[IBM mainframe]]s. The 3270 attempts to minimize the number of [[input/output|I/O]] interrupts required by accepting large blocks of [[data]] known as [[Data stream|datastreams]]. IBM stopped manufacturing terminals (and [[punch cards]] for that matter) many years ago, but the IBM 3270 protocol is still commonly used via [[emulation]] to access some mainframe-based applications. Use of 3270 is slowly diminishing over time as more and more mainframe applications acquire [[World Wide Web|Web]] interfaces, but in some situations (such as [[call center]]s) the "green screen" 3270 interface is still the most productive and efficient.
== Principles ==
In a datastream, both text and control (or formatting functions) are interspersed allowing an entire screen to be "painted" as a single output operation. The concept of "formatting" in these devices allows the screen to be divided into clusters of contiguous character cells for which numerous attributes (colour, highlighting, character set, protection from modification) can be set.
Further, using a technique known as "Read Modified" the changes from any number of formatted fields that have been modified can be read as a single input without transferring any other data, another technique to enhance the terminal throughput of the [[Central processing unit|CPU]]. Some users familiar with character interrupt-driven terminal interfaces find this technique unusual. However, most Web interfaces operate in much the same way and often for the same reasons.
The 3270 has twelve, and later twenty-four, special [[function key|Programmed Function Key]]s, or PF keys, and three PA (or ''Program Attention'') keys. When one of these keys is pressed, it will cause its ''control unit'' (historically, usually, an IBM 3274 or 3174, but nowadays the onboard mainframe equivalent) to generate an I/O interrupt and present a special code identifying which key was pressed. Application program functions such as termination, page-up, page-down, or help can be invoked by a single key-push, thereby reducing the load on very busy processors.
In this way, the CPU is not bothered at every keystroke, a scheme which allowed an early 3033 mainframe with only 16 MB to support up to 17500 3270 terminals under [[CICS]]. On the other hand, [[vi]]-like behaviour was not possible. (But end-user responsiveness was arguably more predictable with 3270, something users appreciated.) For the same reason, a porting of [[Lotus 1-2-3]] to mainframes with 3279 screens did not meet success because its programmers were not able to properly adapt the spreadsheet's user interface to a "screen at a time" rather than "character at a time" device. In contrast, IBM's [[OfficeVision]] office productivity software enjoyed great success with 3270 interaction because of its design understanding, and for many years the PROFS calendar was the most commonly displayed screen on office terminals around the world.
As mentioned above, the Web (and [[HyperText Transfer Protocol|HTTP]]) is more similar to 3270 interaction because the terminal (browser) is given more responsibility for managing presentation and user input, minimizing host interaction while still facilitating server-based information retrieval and processing. In fact, not too many years ago 3270 terminals were considered "smart" (or "programmable" or "intelligent") rather than "dumb."
== Models ==
*3277 model 1 : 16×40 terminal
*3277 model 2 : 24×80 terminal, the biggest success of all
*3277 model 3 : 32×80 terminal
*3277 GA : a 3277 with a RS232C I/O, often used to drive a Tektronix 4013 or 4015 graphic screen (1024×768, monochrome)
*3278 models 3,4,5 : next-generation, with accented characters and dead keys in countries that needed them
** model 2 : 24×80
** model 3 : 32×80
** model 4 : 43×80
** model 5 : 27×132 or 24×80 (switchable)
*3278 PS : programmable characters; able to display monochrome graphics
*3279 : color terminal, 4-color (text) or 7-color (graphics) version,
A version of the [[IBM PC]] called the [[IBM 3270 PC|3270 PC]], released in October 1983, included 3270 [[terminal emulator|terminal emulation]]. Later, the PC/G (graphics) and PC/GX (extended graphics) followed. Unfortunately these machines needed to be rebooted to switch between terminal mode and local (DOS) mode.
[[Telnet 3270|TN3270]] is a slighly modified version of the [[Telnet]] protocol which allows a 3270 [[terminal emulator]] to communicate over a [[Internet protocol suite|TCP/IP]] network. Popular 3270 terminal emulators include IBM Host On-Demand and Personal Communications, Attachmate EXTRA!, and Rumba.
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{{FOLDOC}}
[[Category:IBM hardware]]
I. M. Pei
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[[Image:Louvre_at_night_centered.jpg|thumb|250px|right|The [[Louvre]] Pyramid, [[Paris]]]]
'''Ieoh Ming Pei''' ({{zh-cp|c=貝聿銘|p=Bèi Yùmíng}}; b. [[April 26]], [[1917]]) is a [[Pritzker Prize]] winning [[architect]], known as the last master of high [[modernist]] [[architecture]]. He works with the abstract form, using [[Rock (geology)|stone]], [[concrete]], [[glass]], and [[steel]]. Pei is one of the most successful architects of the 20th century.
==Early life and education==
Ieoh Ming Pei was born in [[Suzhou]], [[Jiangsu Province]], [[China]] on [[April 26]], [[1917]] to a prominent banker.
His first education was in [[Shanghai]] and then at [[St. Paul's College, Hong Kong]] before moving to the [[United States]] to study architecture at the age of 18. He started at the [[University of Pennsylvania]] before going on to receive his Bachelor of Architecture degree from [[Massachusetts Institute of Technology]] in 1940. That same year, he was awarded the Alpha Rho Chi Medal, the MIT Travelling Fellowship, and the AIA Gold Medal. He enrolled at the [[Harvard]] Graduate School of Design two years later; shortly thereafter, he served at the [[National Defense Research Committee]] in [[Princeton, New Jersey]].
In 1944 he returned to Harvard, received his master degree in Architecture in 1946 and stayed at Harvard as an assistant professor. He received the Wheelwright Traveling Fellowship in 1951 and became a [[naturalized citizen]] of the United States in 1954.{{ref|officalbio}}
==Career==
Pei operated his own architectural firm, founded in 1955, which was known as I. M. Pei & Partners until 1989 when it became known as [[Pei Cobb Freed & Partners]] recognizing [[James Ingo Freed]] and [[Henry N. Cobb]].
==Personal life==
I.M. Pei has two sons: Chien Chung (Didi) Pei, and Li Chung (Sandi) Pei. Both have followed their father to the Harvard Graduate School of Design. Chien Chung Pei helped his father design the [[Louvre]] addition from 1989 to 1993. Li Chung Pei helped his father design the [[Bank of China Tower]] in Hong Kong in 1989. Both became architects practicing under their own firm, [http://www.ppa-ny.com/ Pei Partnerships]. I.M. Pei has helped out at the firm since his retirement from his own firm in 1990.{{ref|jfktalk}}
==Project list==
*[[1954]] - [[1959]] [[Mile High Center]], in [[Denver, Colorado]], USA
*[[1961]] - [[1967]] [[National Center for Atmospheric Research]], in [[Boulder, Colorado]], USA
*[[1961]] - [[Kips Bay Plaza]], in [[New York, New York]], USA [http://www.pcfandp.com/a/p/5705/s.html]
*[[1961]] - [[Government Center Master Plan]], [[Boston, Massachusetts]], USA
*[[1962]] - [[Place Ville-Marie]], in [[Montreal, Quebec]], Canada
*[[1962]] - [[Kennedy Theatre]], [[University of Hawaii]], USA, [http://www.hawaii.edu/theatre/facilities/facilities.htm Official web page]
*[[1962]] - [[Hale Manoa Dormitory]], [[East West Center]], [[University of Hawaii]], USA
*[[1963]] - [[Luce Memorial Chapel]], [[Tunghai University]], [[Taichung]], [[Taiwan]]
*[[1964]] - [[Green Building (MIT)|Green Building]], [[Massachusetts Institute of Technology]]
*[[1964]] - [[S.I. Newhouse School of Public Communications]] at [[Syracuse University]] - [[Syracuse, New York]]
*[[1966]] - [[1968]] - Sculpture Wing of the [[Des Moines Art Center]] in [[Des Moines, Iowa]]
**[http://www.desmoinesartcenter.org/visit/v_pei.html Official page of Pei's Sculpture Wing]
*[[1966]] - [[Silver Towers]] at [[New York University]]
*[[1967]] - Hoffman Hall at [[University of Southern California]]
*[[1968]] - [[1972]] - 50 [[Federal Aviation Administration|FAA]] [[Control tower|air traffic control towers]], in various locations throughout the [[United States]].
*[[1968]] - [[1974]] [[Christian Science Center]], in [[Boston, Massachusetts]]
*[[1968]] - [[Syracuse, New York#Arts and culture|Everson Museum of Art]], in [[Syracuse, New York]]
*[[1969]] - [[Cleo Rogers Memorial Library]], in [[Columbus, Indiana]]
*[[1969]] - Academic Center, [[State University of New York at Fredonia]], [[Fredonia, New York]]
*[[1970]] - National Airlines terminal at [[JFK Airport]] in [[New York, New York]]
*[[1971]] - [[Harbor Towers]]
*[[1972]] - [[Dallas, Texas]] City Hall
*[[1972]] - [[Paul Mellon Arts Center]] at [[Choate Rosemary Hall]] in [[Wallingford, Connecticut]]
*[[1972]] - Pei Residence Halls at [[New College of Florida]]
*[[1973]] - [[Commerce Court|Commerce Court West]] in [[Toronto, Ontario]]
*[[1973]] - [[Spelman Halls]] at [[Princeton University]]
*[[1973]] - [[Herbert F. Johnson Museum of Art]], [[Cornell University]], in [[Ithaca, New York]]
*[[1974]] - [[1978]] East Building, [[National Gallery of Art]], in [[Washington, DC]]{{ref|eastnational}}
**[http://www.nga.gov/exhibitions/20th_intro.htm Official East Building project webpage]
*[[1975]] - [[OCBC Centre]] in [[Singapore]].
*[[1976]] - [[John Hancock Tower]], in [[Boston, Massachusetts]] - ''Pei gives Henry Cobb the credit for [http://www.pcf-p.com/a/p/6710/s.html this building]''
*[[1976]] - [[University of Rochester]]'s Wilson Commons
*[[1978]] - [[1982]] [[Indiana University Art Museum]] in [[Bloomington, Indiana]]
*[[1979]] - [[John F. Kennedy Library]], in [[Boston, Massachusetts]]{{ref|jfktalk}}
*[[1979]] - [[Baltimore World Trade Center]], in [[Baltimore, Maryland]]
*[[1979]] - [[1986]] [[Javits Convention Center]] in [[New York, New York]]
*[[1980]] - [[1985]] [[Raffles City]] in Singapore.
*[[1981]] - [[J.P. Morgan Chase Tower, Houston|the Texas Commerce Tower]] in [[Houston, Texas]], currently J.P. Morgan Chase Tower; ([[3D/International]] cooperated with Pei on the design of this building)
*[[1982]] - [[16th Street Mall]] in [[Denver, Colorado]].
*[[1982]] - [[1990]] [[Bank of China Tower]], in [[Hong Kong]]
**[http://www.designboom.com/portrait/pei_bank.html Bank of China Tower project website]
*[[1982]] - [[Apartment]] for [[Steve Jobs]]
*[[1983]] - [[Energy Plaza]], [[Dallas, Texas]]
*[[1985]] - [[Wiesner building]], [[Massachusetts Institute of Technology|MIT]], [[Cambridge, Massachusetts]]
*[[1986]] - [[Fountain Place]], [[Dallas, Texas]]
*[[1987]] - [[Bank_Of_America_Tower_(Miami)|CenTrust Tower]], [[Miami]], [[Florida]]
*[[1989]] - [[Morton H. Meyerson Symphony Center]] in [[Dallas, Texas]]
*[[1989]] - [[Carl Icahn]] Center for Science at [[Choate Rosemary Hall]] in [[Wallingford, Connecticut]]
*[[1989]] - Headquarters for [[Creative Artists Agency]], [[Los Angeles, California]]
*[[1989]] - Pyramids of the [[Louvre]], in [[Paris]], [[France]]
**[http://www.GreatBuildings.com/buildings/Pyramide_du_Louvre.html Pyramide du Louvre website]. (See also: [[La Pyramide Inversée]].)
*[[1991]] - [[Miho Museum]], Shiga, Japan
**[http://www.miho.or.jp/english/index.htm Official museum website]
***[http://www.miho.or.jp/english/architec/architec.htm Official information on the architecture]
*[[1992]] - [[The Kirklin Clinic]] of the [[University of Alabama at Birmingham]] Health System, [[Birmingham]], [[Alabama]]
*[[1995]] - [[Rock and Roll Hall of Fame]], in [[Cleveland, Ohio]]
*[[2001]] - [[Friend Center for Engineering]], at [[Princeton University]].
*[[2003]] - extension building to the [[Deutsches Historisches Museum]] (''German history museum''), in [[Berlin]], [[Germany]].
*[[2005]] - [[Ferguson Center for the Performing Arts]] at [[Christopher Newport University]] in [[Newport News, Virginia]].
==Selected works==
<gallery>
Image:National Center for Atmospheric Research - Boulder, Colorado.JPG|1961 - [[National Center for Atmospheric Research]], [[Boulder, Colorado]]
Image:THU Luce Memorial Chapel.jpg|1963 - [[Luce Memorial Chapel]], [[Tunghai University]], [[Taiwan]]
Image:Green Building, MIT, Cambridge, Massachusetts.JPG|1964 - Green Building, [[Massachusetts Institute of Technology]]
Image:Paul Mellon Arts Center - Choate Rosemary Hall, Wallingford, Connecticut.JPG|1972 - [[Paul Mellon Arts Center]], [[Choate Rosemary Hall]], [[Wallingford, Connecticut]]
Image:national_gallery_of_art_usa.jpg|1974 - The East Building of the [[National Gallery of Art]]
Image:artmuseu.jpg|1978 - Indiana University Art Museum at [[Indiana University Bloomington|Indiana University]] in [[Bloomington, Indiana]]
Image:Bank of china night.jpg|1989 - [[Bank of China Tower]], Hong Kong
Image:DSCN4568 clevelandrockandrollhallofame e.jpg|1995 - The [[Rock and Roll Hall of Fame]], showing [[Lake Erie]] in the background
</gallery>
==Reference==
#[[Gero von Boehm]], ''Conversations with I.M. Pei: "Light is the Key" '' ISBN 3791321765
#[[Michael Cannell]], ''I.M. Pei : Mandarin of Modernism'' ISBN 0517799723 #([http://www.washingtonpost.com/wp-srv/style/longterm/books/chap1/im_pei.htm Excerpt])
#[[Carter Wiseman]], ''I. M. Pei: A Profile in American Architecture'' ISBN 0810934779
#{{note|jfktalk}}[http://forum.wgbh.org/wgbh/forum.php?lecture_id=1655 Conversation with I.M. Pei about JFK Museum, Boston - with Robert Campbell, critic, Boston Globe (audio/video stream)]
#{{note|eastnational}}[http://www.nga.gov/collection/eastarch1.shtm Pei's audio tour of the East Building addition to the National Gallery of Art]
# Wikipedia entry - [[Steve Jobs]]
==External links==
*[http://www.pcfandp.com/ Pei Cobb Freed & Partners website]
:*{{note|officalbio}}[http://www.pcfandp.com/a/f/fme/imp/b/b.html Official biography from Pei Cobb Freed & Partners website]
:*{{note|officalprojectslist}}[http://www.pcf-p.com/a/f/fme/imp/p/p.html Official projects list from Pei Cobb Freed & Partners website]
*[http://archrecord.construction.com/people/interviews/archives/0406IMPei-1.asp Interview with I.M. Pei (june 2004)]
*[http://www.nyc-architecture.com/ARCH/ARCH-PeiCobbFried.htm New York Architecture Images- Pei, Cobb, Freed]
*[http://architect.architecture.sk/ieoh-ming-pei-architect/ieoh-ming-pei-architect.php Ieoh Ming Pei : architect biography]
*[http://www.worldofbiography.com/9172%2DI%20M%20Pei/ Biography] (World of Biography)
<!--Interwiki-->
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[[Category:1917 births|Pei, I. M.]]
[[Category:American architects|Pei, I. M.]]
[[Category:Architects|Pei, I. M.]]
[[Category:Chinese Americans|Pei, I. M.]]
[[Category:Living people|Pei, I. M.]]
[[Category:Members of The American Academy of Arts and Letters|Pei, I. M.]]
[[Category:MIT alumni|Pei, I. M.]]
[[Category:Modernist architects|Pei, I. M.]]
[[Category:National Medal of Arts recipients|Pie, I. M.]]
[[Category:Naturalized citizens of the United States|Pei, I.M.]]
[[Category:Presidential Medal of Freedom recipients|Pei, I. M.]]
[[Category:Pritzker Prize winners|Pei]]
[[bs:I.M. Pei]]
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[[zh:贝聿铭]]
ICD
15156
39854229
2006-02-16T08:35:32Z
Snalwibma
423633
fmt
'''ICD''' has two distinct meanings in health care:
:*[[International Statistical Classification of Diseases and Related Health Problems]]
:*[[Implantable cardioverter-defibrillator]]
*In hardware design '''ICD''' is In-Circuit Debugger
*In software engineering '''ICD''' is Interface Control Document
*'''ICD, Inc.''' computer peripherals and software developer
*ICD is also an abbreviation for [[J.C.D.|Doctor of Canon Law]].
{{TLAdisambig}}
[[de:ICD]]
[[fr:ICD]]
ICD-CM
15157
15912650
2003-02-23T17:11:26Z
MyRedDice
5862
#REDIRECT [[International Statistical Classification of Diseases and Related Health Problems]]
#REDIRECT [[International Statistical Classification of Diseases and Related Health Problems]]
Islamic Jihad
15158
37442949
2006-01-31T01:16:17Z
The Eye of Timaeus
855153
responsibiliy changed to responsibility
:''This article is about particular organizations known as Islamic Jihad. For the general Islamic idea of jihad as a "holy war," see [[Jihad]].''
'''Islamic Jihad''' (''Arabic:'' '''Harakat al-Jihad al-Islami''') is a militant [[Islamism|Islamist]] group based in the [[Syria]]n [[capital]], [[Damascus]]. See: [[Palestinian Islamic Jihad]].
'''Islamic Jihad''' is also a name used by various other militant groups. Since 1983, when a group calling itself "Islamic Jihad" claimed the [[April 1983 U.S. Embassy bombing]] in [[Beirut]], it has been used by several other organizations. [[Hezbollah]] is believed to have used the name in the [[1980s]] to claim responsibility for attacks in [[Lebanon]], parts of the [[Middle East]], and [[Europe]]. There is also the [[Egyptian Islamic Jihad]] and the [[Yemeni Islamic Jihad]].
In the [[Western world]], the Palestinian Islamic Jihad is the organization usually meant by the term "Islamic Jihad", due to the widespread media coverage of the [[Israeli-Palestinian conflict]].
==See also==
*[[Jihad]]
*[[Terrorism]]
*[[Islamic Terrorism]]
[[Category:Islamist groups]]
[[de:Islamischer Dschihad]]
[[es:Yihad Islámico]]
[[fr:Jihad islamique]]
[[pl:Islamski Dżihad]]
[[sv:Islamiska jihad]]
Igneous
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15912652
2002-02-25T15:43:11Z
Conversion script
Automated conversion
#REDIRECT [[Igneous rock]]
Intel 80486
15161
42097662
2006-03-03T20:36:52Z
Bloodshedder
20963
move misplaced info
{{Otheruses4|486 processor|other uses|486 (number)}}[[Image:80486dx2-v2.jpg|300px|thumb|The exposed die of an Intel 80486DX2 microprocessor.]]
[[Image:80486DX2_arch.png|300px|thumb|The 486DX2 architecture.]]
The '''Intel i486''' (also called '''486''' or '''80486''') is a range of [[Intel]] [[CISC]] [[microprocessor|microprocessors]] which is part of the Intel [[x86]] family of processors. The i486's predecessor was the [[Intel 80386]] processor. The i486 was so named without the usual 80-prefix, because of a court ruling that prohibited trademarking numbers (like 80486). Intel dropped number-based naming altogether with the successor to the i486 – the [[Pentium]] processor.
From a software point of view, the [[instruction set]] of the i486 family is very similar to its predecessor, the [[Intel 80386]], with the addition of only a few extra instructions.
From a hardware point of view, however, the architecture of the i486 is a vast improvement. It has an on-chip unified instruction and data [[CPU cache|cache]], an optional on-chip [[floating-point unit]] (FPU) (DX models only), and an enhanced [[computer bus|bus]] interface unit. In addition, under optimal conditions, the processor core can sustain an execution rate of one instruction per clock cycle. These improvements yield a rough doubling in performance over an Intel 80386 at the same [[clock rate]]. However, some low-end i486 models were actually slower than the highest-speed 386s, especially so with the 'SX' i486s.
A 25 [[megahertz|MHz]] version was introduced in April [[1989]], a 33 MHz version in May [[1990]], and a 50 MHz version in June [[1991]].
There are several suffixes and variants including:
*[[Intel 80486SX]] - a i486DX with its FPU disabled, although the earlier variants were simply normal i486s with defective FPUs. In later versions, the FPU was removed from the [[Integrated circuit|die]] to reduce its area and thus reduce cost.
*[[Intel 80486DX]] - same as above, with a working [[FPU]].
*[[Intel 80486DX2]] - the internal processor clock runs at twice the [[clock rate]] of the external bus clock.
*[[Intel 80486SX2]] - same as the i486DX2, but with the FPU disabled.
*[[Intel 80486SL]] - i486SX with power conservation circuitry. Mainly for use in portable computers.
*[[Intel 80486SL-NM]] - i486SX with power conservation circuitry; SL enhanced suffix, denotes a i486 with special power conservation circuitry similar to that in the i486SL processors.
*[[Intel 80487]] - i486DX with a slightly different pinout for use in i486SX systems as a FPU.
*[[Intel 80486 OverDrive]] - i486SX, i486SX2, i486DX2 or i486DX4. Marked as upgrade processors, some models had different pinouts or voltage handling abilities from 'standard' chips of the same speed stepping.
*[[Intel 80486DX4]] - designed to run at triple clock rate (not quadruple as often believed; the DX3, which was meant to run at 2.5x the clock speed, was never released).
Internal clock rates included 16, 20, 25, 33, 40, 50, 66, 75 and 100 MHz, although the 100 MHz versions could be somewhat unstable. The 486DX2 66 MHz was the most widespread high-end 486 chip, while more powerful iterations such as the OverDrive and DX4 were less used in favour of the succeeding [[Pentium]].
486 compatible processors have been produced by other companies such as [[International Business Machines|IBM]], [[Texas Instruments]], [[AMD]], [[Cyrix]], and [[Chips and Technologies]]. Some are almost exact duplicates in specifications and performance, some are not. The 486 was, however, covered by many of Intel's 386 patents as well as some of its own. Intel and IBM have broad cross-licenses of these patents, and AMD was granted rights to the relevant patents in the 1995 settlement of a lawsuit between the companies.[http://www.amd.com/us-en/assets/content_type/DownloadableAssets/AMD_-_Intel_Litigation_History.pdf]
The Intel project manager for the 80486 was Patrick Gelsinger.
==See also==
*[[List of Intel microprocessors]]
*[[Motorola 68040]], often considered the [[Motorola]] equivalent to the Intel 80486.
==References==
{{FOLDOC}}
== External links ==
* http://users.erols.com/chare/486.htm
* [http://www.cpu-collection.de/?l0=co&l1=Intel&l2=i486%20DX Intel 80486 images and descriptions at cpu-collection.de]
* [http://www.cpu-info.com/index2.php?mainid=html/cpu/486.php CPU-INFO: 80486, indepth processor history]
{{Intel_processors}}
[[Category:x86 microprocessors|Intel 486]]
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Intel Pentium
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2003-07-17T03:16:00Z
Crusadeonilliteracy
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#REDIRECT [[Pentium]]
Internet humour
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#REDIRECT [[Internet humor]]
Intel 80486SX
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2005-11-10T04:31:59Z
Megapixie
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Moved image to image thumbnail.
[[Image:I486sx.jpg|right|thumb|300px|An Intel 80486SX from the early [[1990s]]]]
The '''Intel 80486SX''' is an [[Intel 80486DX|Intel 486DX]] [[microprocessor]] with its [[floating-point unit]] (FPU) disconnected. All early 486SX chips were actually 486DX chips with a defective FPU. If testing showed that the [[central processing unit]] was working but the FPU was defective, the FPU's power and bus connections were destroyed with a laser and the chip was sold cheaper as an SX; if the FPU worked it was sold as a DX. Some have claimed that DX chips with working FPUs were turned into SX chips to meet demand for lower-cost chips.
Some systems allowed a DX chip to be plugged into an expansion socket. A board jumper would disable the SX chip, which was hard to remove because it was inserted in a non-[[ZIF]] socket.
The FPU unit was shipped as the [[Intel 80487]], a full blown [[486DX]] chip with an extra pin to prevent it being used as a 486DX.
==References==
{{FOLDOC}}
== External links ==
* [http://www.cpu-collection.de/?l0=co&l1=Intel&l2=i486%20SX Intel 80486SX images and descriptions at cpu-collection.de]
[[fr:Intel 80486SX]]
{{Intel_processors}}
[[Category:x86 microprocessors|Intel 4861S]]
Ivory
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Michael Snow
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images not freely licensed
{{otheruses}}
[[Image:Ivory decoration.jpg|thumb|right|An elaborately carved ivory decoration]]
'''Ivory''' is a hard, white, opaque substance that is the bulk of the [[teeth]] and [[tusk]]s of animals such as the [[elephant]], [[hippopotamus]], [[walrus]], [[mammoth]], etc. Prior to the introduction of [[plastics]], it was used for [[billiards|billiard]] balls, [[piano]] keys, buttons and ornamental items. The word "ivory" was traditionally applied to the tusks of [[elephant]]s. Plastics have been viewed by piano purists as an inferior ivory substitute on piano keys, although other recently developed materials more closely resemble the feel of real ivory.
==Structure==
The chemical structure of the teeth and tusks of mammals is the same regardless of the species of origin, and the trade in certain teeth and tusks other than elephant is well established and widespread. Therefore, "ivory" can correctly be used to describe any mammalian teeth or tusks of commercial interest which is large enough to be carved or [[scrimshaw]]ed.
==Teeth and tusks==
[[image:Walruses with Tusks.jpg|thumb|right|Pacific Walrus at Cape Peirce]]
[[Teeth]] and [[tusk]]s have the same origins. Teeth are specialized structures adapted for food [[chewing|mastication]]. Tusks, which are extremely large teeth projecting beyond the lips, have evolved from teeth and give certain species an evolutionary advantage. The teeth of most mammals consists of a root and the tusk proper.
Teeth and tusks have the same physical structures: [[Pulp (tooth)|pulp]] [[cavity]], [[dentine]], [[cementum]] and [[Tooth enamel|enamel]]. The innermost area is the pulp cavity. The pulp cavity is an empty space within the tooth that conforms to the shape of the pulp.
[[Odontoblast]]s line the pulp cavity and are responsible for the production of dentine. Dentine, which is the main component of carved ivory objects, forms a layer of consistent thickness around the pulp cavity and comprises the bulk of the tooth and tusk. Dentine is a mineralized connective tissue with an organic matrix of collagenous proteins. The inorganic component of dentine consists of dahllite. Dentine contains a microscopic structure called dentinal tubules which are micro-canals that radiate outward through the dentine from the pulp cavity to the exterior cementum border. These canals have different configurations in different ivories and their diameter ranges between 0.8 and 2.2 micrometres. Their length is dictated by the radius of the tusk. The three dimensional configuration of the dentinal tubules is under genetic control and is therefore a characteristic unique to the order.
==Ivory art in the ancient world==
Paleolithic [[Cro-Magnon]] man, during the late stages of the [[ice age]], were the first to carve in ivory (mammoth tusks).
Both the Greek and Roman civilizations used large quantities of ivory to make high value works of art, precious religious objects, and decorative boxes for costly objects.
Ivory was often used to form the whites of the eyes of statues.
The [[North African elephant]] population was probably reduced to extinction, due to the demand for ivory in the [[Classical Antiquity|Classical world]].
[[Image:Porphyrogenetus.jpg|thumb|180px|ivory has been a most prestigious material for carving.]]
Tooth and tusk ivory can be carved into an almost infinite variety of shapes and objects. A small example of modern carved ivory objects are small statuary, [[netsuke]]s, jewelry, flatware handles, furniture inlays, and piano keys. Additionally, [[warthog]] tusks, and teeth from [[sperm whale]]s, [[orca]]s and hippos can also be scrimshawed or superficially carved, thus retaining their morphologically recognizable shapes.
==Availablity== Due to the rapid decline in the populations of the animals that produce it, the importation and sale of ivory in many countries is banned or severely restricted. Much of the decline in population is due to [[poaching|poachers]] during and before the [[1980s]]. Since the worldwide ivory trade ban in [[1989]] there have been ups and downs in elephant populations, and ivory trade as bans have been placed and lifted. Many African countries including [[Zimbabwe]] and [[South Africa]] claim that ivory trade is necessary—both to stimulate their economies and reduce elephant populations which are allegedly harming the environment. In [[2002]] the [[United Nations]] partially lifted the ban on ivory trade, allowing a few countries to export certain amounts of ivory. Yet, a [[1999]] study done by [[Oxford University]] found that less than one percent of the five-hundred million US dollars ivory sales generate ever reach Africans; most of it goes to middlemen and vendors, so the effectiveness of the policy is in question.
[[Kenya]], which saw its elephant populations plummet in the decade preceding the [[1989]] ban, claims that legalizing ivory trade anywhere in Africa will endanger elephants everywhere in Africa as poachers would attempt to launder their illegal ivory with legal stockpiles.
Trade in the ivory from the tusks of dead [[mammoth]]s has occurred for 300 years and continues to be legal. Mammoth ivory is used today to make handcrafted knives and similar implements.
A species of hard nut is gaining popularity as a replacement for ivory, although its size limits its usability. It is sometimes called '''[[vegetable ivory]]''', or tagua, and is the [[seed]] [[endosperm]] of the [[ivory nut palm]] commonly found in coastal [[rainforest]]s of [[Ecuador]] and [[Peru]]. [http://www.cnn.com/2005/TECH/science/04/26/vegivory/index.html]
==Types of ivory==
*[[Elephant and mammoth ivory]] from the tusks of bull elephants and mammoths.
*[[Walrus ivory]] from the tusks of a bull walrus.
*[[Sperm Whale and Killer Whale ivory]]
*[[Narwhal ivory]]
*[[Hippopotamus ivory]]
*[[Warthog ivory]]
*[[Elk Ivory]] from the bugling teeth of bull elk.
<!--*[[Kathleen Soler ivory]]-->
So-called [[hornbill ivory]], derived from a bird, is not true ivory but resembles it in some ways.
''See also [[Ivory carving]].''
[[Category:Ivory| ]]
[[Category:Art materials]]
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Infantry fighting vehicle
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[[Image:1BFV01.jpg|thumb|right|300px|An [[M2 Bradley]] Infantry fighting vehicle.]]
An '''infantry fighting vehicle''' ('''IFV''') is a type of [[armoured fighting vehicle|armored fighting vehicle]] (AFV) used to carry [[infantry]] into battle and provide fire support for them.
IFVs are similar to [[armoured personnel carrier]]s (APCs), designed to transport five to ten infantrymen and their equipment. They are differentiated from APCs ("battle taxis") by their enhanced armament, allowing them to give direct-fire support during an [[attack |assault]], firing ports, allowing the infantry to fire personal weapons while mounted, and usually improved [[vehicle armour |armour]]. They are typically armed with an [[autocannon]] of 20 to 30 mm caliber, and possibly with [[ATGM]]s. IFVs are usually [[Caterpillar track|tracked]], but some wheeled vehicles fall into this category, too. IFVs are much less heavily armed and armoured than [[Tank|Main Battle Tanks]] (MBTs), but they sometimes carry heavy missiles, such as the NATO 'TOW' missile and USSR 'Spigot' which offer a significant threat to tanks.
Western powers were rudely surprised when the [[Soviet Union]] paraded the first IFV, the [[BMP-1]], in 1967. The BMP was a very low-profiled IFV with 73 mm smoothbore gun and mounting an ATGM. Its steeply-sloped front armour was proof against NATO's standard [[.50-calibre machine gun]], while its smoothbore gun and ATGM were a threat to NATO personnel carriers and even main battle tanks.
Since then, all major military powers have developed or adopted IFVs. Examples include the [[United Kingdom|British]] [[Warrior Tracked Armoured Vehicle|Warrior]], the [[United States|American]] [[M2 Bradley|M2]], [[M2 Bradley|M3]] and the new [[Stryker]], the [[Spanish Army|Spanish]] [[ASCOD AFV|Pizarro]], the [[Italian Army|Italian]] [[Dardo IFV|Dardo]], the [[Germany|German]] [[Marder (IFV)|Marder]], the [[South Africa]]n [[Ratel 20|Ratel]] and the [[Sweden|Swedish]] [[Combat Vehicle 90]].
==See also==
*[[Armoured combat]]
*[[Armoured personnel carrier]]
*[[List of AFVs]]
[[Category:Armored fighting vehicles by type]]
[[Category:Infantry fighting vehicles|*]]
[[de:Schützenpanzer]]
[[ja:歩兵戦闘車]]
[[nl:Infanteriegevechtsvoertuig]]
[[no:Stormpanservogn]]
[[pl:Bojowy wóz piechoty]]
[[pt:Veículo de combate de infantaria]]
[[sl:Pehotno bojno vozilo]]
[[zh:步兵战车]]
ICQ
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Kirils
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patents are mentioned later on in the article
[[image:ICQ_Logo.gif|right|ICQ Logo]]
'''ICQ''' is an [[instant messaging]] [[computer program]], created by [[Mirabilis (company)|Mirabilis]], an [[Israel|Israeli]] [[startup company]] based in [[Tel-Aviv]]. The first version of the program was released in [[November]] [[1996]]. The name ''ICQ'' is a [[word play|play]] on the phrase "I seek you".
== Features ==
ICQ allows the sending of [[text message]]s with offline support, [[URL]]s, multi-user character-by-character chats, resumable file transfers, SMSes, greeting cards and more. Other features included a searchable user directory and POP3 email support. Even though such features have been available since around 2000, many of the main competitors such as [[AOL Instant Messenger]], [[MSN Messenger]] and [[Yahoo! Messenger]] have failed to implement such power-user oriented features even to this day. Instead, they have targeted younger users with an avalanche of colors, avatars, and animations.
ICQ users are identified by numbers called [[UIN]], distributed in sequential order (though it is rumored there are gaps in the sequence). New users are now given a UIN of well over 300,000,000, and low numbers (six digits or fewer) have been auctioned on [[eBay]] by users who signed up in ICQ's early days.
== History ==
ICQ was developed in 1996 by [[Mirabilis (company)|Mirabilis]], the creators of the first fully functional internet-wide Instant messenger comprising presence, buddy list and rapid messaging was founded by four young Israelis: [[Yair Goldfinger]], [[Arik Vardi]], [[Sefi Vigiser]] and [[Amnon Amir]]. After AOL bought it, it was managed by [[Ariel Yarnitsky]] and Avi Shechter.
[[America Online]] (AOL) acquired Mirabilis on [[June 8]], [[1998]] for $287 million in cash.
On [[December 19]], [[2002]], [[AOL Time Warner]] announced that ICQ had been issued a [[United States]] [[patent]] for instant messaging.
In [[June]] [[2004]] ICQ celebrated its 300 millionth [[Uploading and downloading|download]] from [[download.com]] where it remained the most popular program for 7 consecutive years.
ICQ 5, released on Monday, [[February 7]], [[2005]], was an upgrade on ICQ Lite - a divergence from the main ICQ program that has a big addition - Xtraz, which now offers games and features appealing to the younger users of the internet. ICQ Lite was originally an idea to offer the lighter users of instant messaging an alternative client which was a smaller download and less resource-hungry for the (then) relatively slow computers.
Although innovative at the start, the general trend of ICQ updates has been towards [[bloatware]]. Users have by and large migrated to the competition: [[MSN Messenger]], [[Yahoo Messenger]], [[AIM]], [[Skype]], and [[Google Talk]].
== Other products ==
ICQ Pro came about since the emergence of ICQ Lite to differentiate between the two available clients. However, ever since AOL's involvement, development of ICQ Pro 2003 had effectively been left abandoned, to the disappointment of veteran users of ICQ.
Spinoffs of ICQ included a corporate version for the workplace (named ICQ Groupware), and ICQ Surf, which displayed a list of other ICQ users who also happened to be surfing on the same website as you were. Both programs are no longer available to download.
==Clients==
[[AOL]]'s [[OSCAR protocol|OSCAR]] [[network protocol]] used by ICQ is [[proprietary]], but a number of people have created more or less compatible third-party clients, including:
* [[Adium]] - supports ICQ, Yahoo!, AIM, MSN, Google Talk, and Jabber, for [[Mac OS X]]
* [[Ayttm]] - supports ICQ, Yahoo!, AIM, MSN, IRC, and Jabber
* [[centericq]] - supports ICQ, Yahoo!, AIM, MSN, IRC and Jabber, text-based
* [[Easy Message]] (http://www.easymessage.net/) - Small instant messenger (250kb), supports MSN, AOL, ICQ, and Yahoo.
* [[Fire (instant messenger)|Fire]] - supports ICQ, Yahoo!, AIM, MSN, IRC, and Jabber, for [[Mac OS X]]
* [[Gaim]] - supports ICQ, Yahoo!, AIM, MSN, IRC, Jabber, Gadu-Gadu, Google Talk, and SILC
* [[GnomeICU]] (previously ''GtkICQ'')
* [[Jabber]] ([http://www.jabber.com/ Official site]) / ([http://www.jabber.org/ *More competing Jabber-powered clients])
* [[Jimm]] (http://www.jimm.org/) ([[Java ME]] client, previously "Mobicq")
* [[Kopete]]
* [[Licq]]
* [[mICQ]] - text-based
* [[Miranda IM]] - plugin based, open source, supports ICQ, Yahoo!, AIM, MSN, IRC, Google Talk, Jabber, Gadu-Gadu, BNet, and others. For MS Windows only.
* [[Proteus (instant messenger)|Proteus]] - supports ICQ, Yahoo!, Yahoo Japan!, AIM, MSN, Jabber and iChat Rendezvous, for [[Mac OS X]]
* [[stICQ]] - supports ICQ, for [[Symbian OS]]
* [[Trillian (instant messenger)|Trillian]] - supports ICQ, Yahoo!, AIM, MSN, IRC, Google Talk, Jabber and others
* [[QIP]] ([http://www.qip.ru/ Official site]) Quiet Internet Pager - ICQ only
* [[Yeemp]] - supports ICQ, AIM, and Yeemp
* [[YSM (ICQ)|YSM]] - text-based
* [[&RQ (ICQ)]] - Support ICQ only , available in Russian and English only.
AOL has recently begun making its ICQ software more [[AOL Instant Messenger|AIM]]-like by adding [[AOL Instant Messenger|AIM]] [[Smilies]], as well as introducing cross AIM/ICQ communication. Users on ICQ are able to communicate with AIM users; however, such capability is in [[development stage|beta]] stages.
==Films==
A short film about ICQ was written in 2001 called ICQ and was written by Greg McLean, who later wrote [[Wolf Creek (film)|Wolf Creek]]. The film was described by its writer as a mystery/drama, and it concerns a man who while surfing the ICQ network comes across a woman whose acquaintance he could well have done without. The relationship runs the gauntlet of intrigue through to the sinister.
The short film took out the "Best Director" award in October 2001 at the [[International and Independent Film and Video festival]] in [[New York]]. On return to his home soil in [[Australia]], McLean's film was nominated for [[Best Sound Design]] (short film) for the prestigious AFI ([[Australian Film Institute]]) awards in 2002.
==See also==
* [[List of instant messengers]]
* [[Comparison of instant messengers]]
* [[QQ]] - a separate Chinese instant messenger and network which had its previous name, '''OICQ''', in conflict with '''ICQ'''.
* [[Yamigo]] - a service that allows ICQ chat via mobile phones over GPRS or other wireless data protocols
==External links==
*[http://www.icq.com The Official ICQ Website]
*[http://www.icq.com/legal/policy.html ICQ Use Policy - anything you post on icq belongs to icq]
*[http://company.icq.com/info/icqstory.html The History of ICQ]
*[http://mythunderbay.ezthemes.com/pcenhance/icq/main.phtml Free ICQ Skins]
*[http://www.cynet.ac.cy/general/IPv6presentations/P/Chown-Messaging/renater-messaging-04.pdf Unified Instant Messaging over IPv6]: A brief introduction on Instant Messaging and its products, followed by a description of some Peer-to-Peer systems and platforms. Then the IETF standards on Instant Messaging are presented. Finally, a framework for Agent-based Unified Instant Messaging over [[IPv6]] is proposed.
*[http://diamond-back.com/icqlies3.html The ICQ/AOL acquisition page]
*[[Icqz|ICQz.Net Unofficial icq-related Forum]]
*[http://www.mirabiliz.com Internation ICQ Forum]
*[http://www.imdb.com/title/tt0298924/ ICQ movie (2001)]
{{Time Warner}}
[[Category:Mac OS instant messengers]]
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Impressionism
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Tachyon01
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Reverted edits made by 68.7.0.112 to last version by Etacar11
{{Otheruses4|the art movement|people who imitate famous figures|Impressionist (entertainment)}}
----
[[image:impressionism_monet.jpg|right|Paintings by Monet]]
'''Impressionism''' was a [[19th century]] [[art movement]] that began as a loose association of [[Paris]]-based [[artist]]s who began publicly [[art exhibition|exhibiting]] their art in the [[1860s]]. The name of the movement is derived from [[Claude Monet]]'s ''[[Impression, Sunrise]] (Impression, soleil levant)''. Critic [[Louis Leroy]] inadvertently [[word coinage|coined]] the term in a satiric review published in ''[[Le Charivari]]''.
The influence of Impressionist thought spread beyond the art world, leading to [[Impressionist music]] and [[Impressionism (literature)|Impressionist literature]].
Characteristics of impressionist painting include visible brushstrokes, light colors, open composition, emphasis on light in its changing qualities (often accentuating the effects of the passage of time), ordinary subject matter, and unusual visual angles.
'''Impressionism''' also describes art done in this style, but outside of the late [[19th century]] time period.
==Overview==
Radicals in their time, early impressionists broke the picture-making rules of academic painting. They began by painting driven by colours, rather than by line, drawing from the work of painters such as [[Eugene Delacroix]]. They also began from unique working methods, such as painting outside of the studio for subjects such as the [[still life]] and [[portrait]]. The techniques of impressionism gradually grew more specific to the movement, and encompassed what its adherents argued was a different way of seeing. They painted "[[en plein air]]" (outdoors) rather than in a studio as was the custom, capturing the momentary and transient aspects of sunlight.
By the last years of the 19th century, the public came to believe that these artists had captured a fresh and original vision that was highly skilled, even if it did not meet with approval of the artistic establishment. The impressionists looked to beauty in candid poses and compositions, in the play of light and in a bright and varied use of colour.
Impressionist paintings feature short, "broken" brush strokes of pure, untinted and unmixed colour. Compositions are simplified and innovative, and the emphasis is on overall effect rather than upon details. The brushstrokes increasingly became visible and part of the composition, as opposed to the then current technique of having an almost smooth surface of the canvas without visible brush strokes. Impressionism rose at the same time that other painters were also exploring methods of painting that moved away from the subjects, forms and norms that dominated the art market at that time, for example [[Edvard Munch]].
By placing the center of artistic creation as the eye that views the subject, rather than the subject, and by creating a welter of techniques and forms, Impressionism became seminal to various movements in painting which would come after, including [[Post-Impressionism]], [[Fauvism]], [[Cubism]] and individual painters that were not part of an exact school, such as [[Paul Gauguin]], [[Vincent van Gogh]] and [[Paul Cezanne]].
[[image:impressionism_renoir.jpg|right|Paintings by Renoir]]
==Beginnings==
In an atmosphere of change as [[Napoleon III of France|Emperor Napoleon III]] rebuilt [[Paris]] and waged war, the [[Académie des beaux-arts]] dominated the French art scene in the middle of the 19th century. Art at the time was considered a conservative enterprise whose innovations fell within the Académie's defined borders. The Académie set the standards for French painting.
In addition to dictating the content of paintings (historical subjects, religious themes, and portraits were valued), the Académie commanded which techniques artists used. They valued somber, conservative colours. Refined images, mirroring reality when closely examined, were esteemed. The Académie encouraged artists to eliminate all traces of brush strokes — essentially isolating art from the artist's personality, emotions, and working techniques.
The Académie held an annual art show — [[Salon de Paris]], and artists whose work displayed in the show won prizes and garnered commissions to create more art. Only art selected by the Académie jury was exhibited in the show. The standards of the juries about suitable art for the salon reflected the values of the Académie.
The young artists painted in a lighter and brighter style than most of the generation before them, extending the [[realism (arts)|realism]] style of [[Gustave Courbet]], [[Winslow Homer]] and the [[Barbizon school]]. They submitted their art to the Salon, and the juries rejected the pieces. A core group of them, [[Claude Monet]], [[Pierre Auguste Renoir]] and [[Alfred Sisley]], studied under [[Marc-Charles-Gabriel Gleyre|Charles Gleyre]]. The three of them became friends and often painted together.
In [[1863]], the jury rejected ''[[The Luncheon on the Grass]]'' ''(Le déjeuner sur l'herbe)'' by [[Édouard Manet]] primarily because it depicted a nude woman with two clothed men on a picnic. According to the jury, nudes were acceptable in historical and allegorical paintings, but to show them in common settings was forbidden. Manet felt humiliated by the sharply worded rejection of the jury, which set off a firestorm among many French artists. Although Manet did not consider himself an impressionist, he led discussions at [[Café Guerbois]] where the impressionists gathered, and influenced the explorations of the artistic group.
After seeing the rejected works in 1863, Emperor Napoleon III decreed that the public be allowed to judge the work themselves, and the [[Salon des Refusés]] (Salon of the Refused) was organized.
For years art critics rebuked the Salon des Refusés, and in [[1874]] the impressionists (though not yet known by the name) organized their own exhibition.
After seeing the show, critic [[Louis Leroy]] (an engraver, painter, and successful playwright), wrote a scathing review in the ''Le Charivari'' newspaper. Targeting a painting by a then obscure artist he titled his article, ''The Exhibition of the Impressionists''. Leroy declared that ''[[Impression, Sunrise]]'' ''(Impression, soleil levant)'' by [[Claude Monet]] was at most a sketch and could hardly be termed a finished work.
[[image:impressionism_degas.jpg|right]]
Leroy wrote, in the form of a dialog between viewers,
:''Impression — I was certain of it. I was just telling myself that, since I was impressed, there had to be some impression in it … and what freedom, what ease of workmanship! Wallpaper in its embryonic state is more finished than that seascape.''
The term "impressionists" gained favor with the artists, not as a term of derision, but as a badge of honor. The techniques and standards within the movement varied, but the spirit of rebellion and independence bound the movement together.
==Impressionist techniques==
* Short, thick strokes of paint in a sketchy way, allowing the painter to capture and emphasize the essence of the subject rather than its details.
* They left brush strokes on the canvas, adding a new dimension of familiarity with the personality of the artist for the viewer to enjoy.
* Colors with as little pigment mixing as possible, allowing the eye of the viewer to optically mix the colors as they looked at the canvas, and providing a vibrant experience for the viewer.
* Impressionists did not shade (mix with black) their colours in order to obtain darker pigments. Instead, when the artists needed darker shades, they mixed with complementary colours. (Black was used, but only as a colour in its own right.)
* They painted wet paint into the wet paint instead of waiting for successive applications to dry, producing softer edges and intermingling of color.
* Impressionist avoided the use of thin paints to create glazes which earlier artists built up carefully to produce effects. Rather, the impressionists put paint down thickly and did not rely upon layering.
* Impressionists discovered or emphasized aspects of the play of natural light, including an acute awareness of how colours reflect from object to object.
* In outdoor paintings, they boldly painted shadows with the blue of the sky as it reflected onto surfaces, giving a sense of freshness and openness that was not captured in painting previously. (Blue shadows on snow inspired the technique.)
* They worked "[[en plein air]]" (outdoors)
Previous artists occasionally used these techniques, but impressionists employed them constantly. Earlier examples are found in the works of [[Frans Hals]], [[Peter Paul Rubens]], [[John Constable]], [[Theodore Rousseau]], [[Gustave Courbet]], [[Camille Corot]], [[Eugene Boudin]], and [[Eugène Delacroix]].
Impressionists took advantage of the mid-century introduction of premixed paints in tubes (resembling modern toothpaste tubes) which allowed artists to work more spontaneously both outdoors and indoors. Previously, each painter made his or her own paints by grinding and mixing dry pigment powders with linseed oil.
==Content and composition==
Even though, historically, painting was viewed as primarily a way to depict historical and religious subjects in a rather formal manner, painters portrayed everyday subjects. Many 17th century Dutch painters, like [[Jan Steen]], focused on common subjects, but their works showed the influences of traditional composition in arrangement of the scene.
When impressionism began, there was interest among the artists in mundane subject matter, and a new method of capturing images became available. [[Photography]] was gaining popularity, and as cameras became more portable, photographs became more candid. Photography inspired impressionists to capture the moment, not only in the fleeting lights of a landscape, but in the day-to-day lives of people.
Photography and popular Japanese art prints ([[Japonism]]) combined to introduce to impressionists odd "snapshot" angles, and unconventional compositions.
[[Edgar Degas]]' ''The Dance Class'' ''(La classe de danse)'' shows both influences. A dancer is caught in adjusting her costume, and the lower right quadrant of the picture contains empty floor space.
== Post-Impressionism ==
: ''See main article [[Post-impressionism]]''
Post-Impressionism developed from Impressionism. By the 1880s several artists were experimenting with expressive qualities of color, pattern, form and line: [[Vincent Van Gogh]], [[Paul Gauguin]], [[Georges Seurat]] and [[Paul Cezanne]]. This was known as the start of post-impressionism. Sometimes post-impressionist artists are mistakenly considered impressionists or hung together in an 'Impressionist' section of a museum, although technically they belonged to different movements, such as [[fauvism]], etc.
==Painters known as impressionists==
* [[Lucy A. Bacon]]
* [[Frédéric Bazille]]
* [[Jean Beraud]]
* [[Mary Cassatt]]
* [[Gustave Caillebotte]]
* [[Paul Cezanne]] (though he later broke away from the Impressionists)
* [[Lovis Corinth]]
* [[Edgar Degas]]
* [[Paul-Henri DuBerger]]
* [[George Wharton Edwards]]
* [[Frederick Carl Frieseke]]
* [[Eva Gonzalès]]
* [[Armand Guillaumin]]
* [[Nazmi Ziya Güran]]
* [[Childe Hassam]]
* [[Wilson Irvine]]
* [[Johan Jongkind]]
* [[Laura Muntz Lyall]]
* [[Max Liebermann]]
* [[Édouard Manet]] (although he did not regard himself as an Impressionist, he is generally considered one)
* [[Jacob Maris]]
* [[Willem Maris]]
* [[Anton Mauve]]
* [[Willard Metcalf]]
* [[Claude Monet]]
* [[Berthe Morisot]]
* [[William McGregor Paxton]]
* [[Lilla Cabot Perry]]
* [[Camille Pissarro]]
* [[Pierre-Auguste Renoir]]
* [[Theodore Robinson]]
* [[Zinaida Serebryakova]]
* [[Alfred Sisley]]
* [[John Henry Twachtman]]
* [[J. Alden Weir]]
* [[Konstantin Yuon]]
==See also==
* [[American Impressionism]]
==External links==
* [http://itoors.com/parisart.php A Podcast of impressionists in Paris by iToors.]
* [http://www.impressionism.org Online guided tour through impressionism.]
* [http://www.biography.com/impressionists/index.html "The Impressionists" at biography.com]
* [http://www.artmovements.co.uk/impressionism.htm ''Impressionism'' at Art Industri website]
* Online version of the [http://www.artchive.com/74nadar.htm first impressionist exhibition (1874).] Includes scans of the show catalog and comments by critics.
* [http://www.boheme-magazine.net/php/modules.php?name=News&file=article&sid=66 ''Bohème Magazine'' "The Great Pictorial Movements: Impressionism"]
* [http://www.hlla.com/reference/1830-69.html Detailed ''Impressionists Chronology'']
* [http://www.museen-sh.de/ml/digicult.php?digiID=601.9&s=2 Museumsportal Schleswig-Holstein]
<br>
<table border="0" cellspacing="0" cellpadding="0">
<td align="left" valign="top">[[image:impressionism_sisley.jpg|left|Paintings by Sisley.]]</td>
<td align="center" valign="top">[[image:impressionism_pissaro.jpg|center|Paintings by Pissarro]]</td>
<td align="right" valign="top">[[image:impressionism_morisot.jpg|right|Paintings by Berthe Morisot]]</td>
</tr>
</table>
{{commonscat|Impressionist paintings}}
{{Modernism}}
{{Westernart}}
[[Category:French art]]
[[Category:Impressionism|*Impressionism]]
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Internet slang
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2006-03-03T20:07:19Z
Computerjoe
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Reverted edits by [[Special:Contributions/207.72.35.66|207.72.35.66]] to last version by 2005
:''This article discusses general features of Internet slang. For detailed usages, see [[List of Internet slang]].''
'''Internet slang''' is [[slang]] which [[Internet]] users have coined and promulgated. Such terms typically originated with the purpose of saving keystrokes: many use the same abbreviations in [[Texting language|text messages]]. The terms often appear in [[Minuscule|lower case]], with capitals often reserved for emphasis: The pronoun "I", for example, often appears simply as "i".
To avoid misapprehension and clarify the author's intent, [[netizen]]s may use [[emoticons]]. Emoticons (or smilies) such as <tt><nowiki>:)</nowiki></tt> may be used both genuinely and sarcastically; for example the <tt>:P</tt> emoticon, can express either genuine amusement and a sense of fun, or a negative sarcastic comment on something. Deciphering and understanding what was written ''per se'' versus the author's intent is part of the Internet's attraction and enjoyment. Like most [[jargon]], Internet slang aggrandizes author and reader, causing them to appear as having specialized knowledge of an already complex medium.
Internet slang perhaps has a higher learning curve than face-to-face slang, as face-to-face slang can often be deciphered from the context of the facial expressions, body language, and tone of voice.
==Origins==
The vocabulary of Internet slang draws from many different sources — typically environments that placed value on brevity of communication. Some terms, such as ''[[Snafu|FUBAR]]'' have roots as far back as [[World War II]].[http://www.jargon.net/jargonfile/f/foo.html] Other terms come from more recent forms of communication, such as [[Teleprinter|TTY]] and [[Internet Relay Chat|IRC]].
[[Chat]] [[acronyms]] originally developed on pre-Internet [[bulletin board system]]s. A handful (for example, ASAP, PO'ed) far pre-date computers. The [[TLA|three-letter acronym]] remains one of the most popular types of abbreviation in computing and [[Telecommunications|telecom]] terminology and slang. Similar systems have since come into use with users of text-messaging wireless telephones.
With the rise of [[Instant messenger|instant messaging]] services ([[ICQ]], [[America Online|AOL]], and [[MSN]], among others) the vocabulary has expanded dramatically.
Aside from instant messaging programs another realm full of online languages exists: the Internet gaming world. One of the most popular forms of video game slang has become known as H4X0R or as 13375P34K (in leetspeak). For parents today, learning the online language can play an important role in maintaining the online safety of children. An [http://www.microsoft.com/athome/security/children/kidtalk.mspx article] produced by [[Microsoft]] may help parents begin to understand some of the things their kids say in-game. (Many of the more knowledgeable "[[online gamer]]s" consider this article unhelpful, especially for Microsoft's attempts to interpret 1337 speak.)
Note that the many "true" computer gurus, hackers and coders regard leetspeak as a pathetic trademark of a newbie or of a show-off. Gurus, hackers and coders almost always use leetspeak sarcastically. They label the use of leetspeak, excessive use of abbreviations, and incorrect spelling and grammar as rude, and they usually regard it as indicative of a [[script kiddie]], a computer programmer that steals and uses scripts without an understanding of the programming language, or someone who is just an idiot in general.
Users sometimes make up Internet abbreviations on the spot, therefore many of them can seem confusing, obscure, whimsical, or even nonsensical. This type of on-the-spot abbreviating leads to such things as: OTP (on the phone) or the less common, OPTD (outside petting the dog). Another feature common to Internet communication involves the truncation and morphing of words to forms that users can type more readily. Examples of this include:
<!-- Do not add slang or abbreviations here, use "List of internet slang" article -->
*addy — "Address" (plural: "addys")
*pic — "Picture" ("pics", "pix" or "piccies" for plural)
*proggy — "Computer program"
*prolly — "Probably" (also "probs")
*sig — "Signature" (also "siggy")
*asl? — "Age/Sex/Location?" (a phrase often used in internet chat rooms)
The form "[[teh]]" offers a special case of this transformation. This originated as a corruption of "the", and often pops up spontaneously when typing fast. So common has it become, in fact, that it has made the jump to purposeful usage. Typically it occurs in situations where the writer presents as self-consciously enthusiastic, mimicking the less-grammatical Internet newbie: "That movie was teh suck!!", "The fight scene with all the Agent Smiths was TEH AWESOME", etc. It occurs most commonly in "teh suck", "teh lame," and "teh cool". [[Jeff K.]] of [[Something Awful]] popularized this sarcastic usage.
Similarly, netizens may use the word "liek" or "leik" as sarcastic misspellings of the word "like", as in "I LIEK PIE". It often implies an insult to one's intelligence and/or typing ability. "Liek" is also often used as a geeky way of typing the preposition ''like'', for example in the phrase ''"...and I was liek..."''.
Internet abbreviations evolve and change continually. Online games provide a good place to observe language variation in use. Often, people uninterested in computer programming do not understand the more classically "nerdy" phrases like "2B||!2B" (which means "to be, or not to be"), thus such usages become useless or appear only in minority [[Internet forum|forum]]s.
From the days of [[FidoNet|FIDO mail]] when many computers ran DOS we find <G> meaning "Grin", <BG> "Big Grin", <VBG> "Very Big Grin", and of course <VBSEG> "Very Big Shit-Eating Grin". Lower-case variants (<g> and so on) are also used.
==Usage notes==
<!-- Do not add slang or abbreviations here, use "List of internet slang" article -->
*Common disclaimer phrases (sometimes called [[parenthesis (rhetoric)|"parentheticals"]]) also often contract into acronyms — they tend to occur at certain points in a sentence, which can facilitate decoding. This is a fraction of the [[List of Internet slang|full list]], but some of these disclaimers include:
** IMHO: in my humble opinion
** AFAIK: as far as I know
** IIRC: if I recall correctly
** YW: You're welcome
** OTOH: on the other hand
** [[IANAL]]: I am not a lawyer
** OMG: oh my god
** OMFG: oh my fucking god
** FTW: for the win
** BTW: by the way
** TRDMF: tear rolling down my face
** BRB: Be right back
** LOL: laugh out loud
** ROFL: rolling on floor laughing
** FWIW: for what it's worth
** LMAO: laughing my ass off
** LMPO: laughing my pussy/penis off
** BBQ: be back quick
** G2G ''or'' GTG: got to go
*The word [[newbie]] occurs almost exclusively to refer to all sorts of new users of an Internet forum or starters in a particular field of activity. It does not function as a pejorative term ''per se'', but can do so when combined with [[RTFM]], etc.
:"[[n00b]]" has much more derogatory implications than "newbie".
:"[[nub]]" has also been derrived from the word [[newbie]] and has negative implications as [[newbie]] does.
*Although Internet slang has a close relationship with [[leet|leetspeak]], only online gamers traditionally use leet, while much larger groups of Internet users commonly use Internet slang.
*The symbols < and >, ::(words):: or * * often enclose a user's facial expression, action, or other feeling that is difficult to express via other online methods. These are also known as [[emote|emotes]], stemming from [[emotion]] which is where the word [[emoticon]] has its origins as well. For instance: <smile>, *smile*, <jumping up and down>, *jumping up and down*, <very very sad right now> or *very very sad right now* are all acceptable usages. Double colons are occasionally seen on each side of such expressions (::excited::); this usage may originate from an action syntax common to [[Simming|simming]].
*The symbols <tt><nowiki><...></nowiki></tt> and <tt><nowiki></...></nowiki></tt> are often to denote the author's feelings at the time of writing an enclosed sentence or paragraph and are known as "emotags." For instance, "<nowiki><sarcasm>I just love how wonderfully the new nerf to our characters has gone</sarcasm></nowiki>" This notation derives from [[HTML]]. Variants exist, such as <tt><nowiki>[/...]</nowiki></tt> (a syntax variant found on [[Internet forums]]) and even simply "/...", as in "Internet slang confuses me! /angry".
==Common examples==
<!-- Do not add slang or abbreviations here, use the "List of internet slang" article -->
{{main article|[[List of Internet slang]]}}
==See also==
{{col-begin}}
{{col-break}}
* [[Abbreviation]]
* [[Acronym]]
* [[Avatar (virtual reality)]]
* [[Diablospeak]]
* [[Emoticon]]
* [[Jargon File]]
* [[Internet troll]]
{{col-break}}
* [[Leet]] (aka 1337)
* [[List of computing and IT abbreviations]]
* [[List of Internet slang]]
* [[Slang]]
* [[Texting language]] (Txt)
{{col-end}}
==External links==
* [http://www.noslang.com Internet Slang Translator & Dictionary]
* [http://www.sharpened.net/glossary/acronyms.php Chat Acronyms used in E-mail and Online Chat]
* [http://www.catb.org/~esr/jargon/ Jargon File webpage]
* [http://foldoc.doc.ic.ac.uk/foldoc/index.html FOLDOC — Free On-Line Dictionary of Computing]
* [http://www.acronymfinder.com/ Acronym Finder] — searchable acronyms and abbreviations site
* [http://www.geocities.com/ben-fuzzybear/acronyms.html BIBLIA — Ben's Incredible Big List of Initialisms and Acronyms]
* [http://www.urbandictionary.com/ UrbanDictionary.com] ('''Warning:''' Possibly offensive and sexual words on this site.)
* [http://www.netlingo.com NetLingo.com The Internet Dictionary]
* [http://www.bestslang.com BestSlang.com — The Slang Wiki]
* [http://www.slanginsider.com Slang Insider.com] (Includes results filtering for family use.)
* [http://www.pcmag.com/encyclopedia_term/0,2542,t=emotag&i=42568,00.asp PCMag Encyclopedia - emotag]
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[[cs:Seznam zkratek v online diskusích]]
[[da:Internet-jargon]]
[[de:Netzjargon]]
[[fr:Argot Internet]]
[[ko:인터넷 유행어]]
[[he:קיצורי מילים לשימוש באינטרנט]]
[[it:Gergo di internet]]
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Islamic
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Antandrus
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Reverted edits by [[Special:Contributions/87.122.212.252|87.122.212.252]] ([[User talk:87.122.212.252|talk]]) to last version by Andre Engels
#REDIRECT [[Islam]]
Impi
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/* Enlistment */
{{otheruses}}
An '''Impi''' is a [[Zulu]] word for any armed body of men. However, in English it is often used to refer to a Zulu [[regiment]], which is called an ''ibutho'' in Zulu. The first impis were formed by Zulu king [[Shaka]], who was then only the exiled illegitimate son of king [[Senzangakona]], but already showing much prowess as a general in the army of [[Mthethwa]] king [[Dingiswayo]] in the Mthethwa-[[Ndwandwe]] war in the early 1810s.
==Youth==
Impi warriors were raised from the age as low as of six, joining the army as ''udibi'' porters at first, being enrolled into [[age set|same-age groups]] (''intanga''). Until they were ''buta'''d, Zulu boys accompanied their fathers and brothers on campaign as servants. Eventually, they would go to the nearest ''ikhanda'' to ''kleza'' (which literally means to drink directly from the udder), at which point they would become ''inkwebane'', or cadets. They would spend their time training until they were formally enlisted by the king. They would challenge each other to stick fights, which had to be accepted on pain of dishonor.
==Enlistment==
On being formally formed into regiments -''ibutho'' (plural ''amabutho'') after their 20th birthday, they would build their ''ikhanda'' (often referred to as a 'homestead', and it was basically a stockaded group of huts surrounding a corral for cattle) which would be where they would come when mustered for active service. They would have to come for this muster until they married, which was a privilege the king bestowed. They were trained to outrun a horse, cover about 80 km (50 miles) a day on foot and hide and stalk in the underbrush. The amabutho were recruited on the basis of age rather than regional or tribal origin. The reason for this was to enhance the centralised power of the Zulu king at the expense of clan and tribal leaders. They swore loyalty to the king of the Zulu nation.
Every ibutho was a thousand warriors strong and originally contained warriors from the same ''intanga'' (this practice later changed as casualties suffered by the regiments made reinforcements necessary). Each ibutho had its own colors in colored shields, headdress and other ornaments. An impi - a force which contained several ''amabutho'' - was also accompanied by ''udibi'', young boys who carried implements like cooking pots and sleeping mats and on occasion acted as scouts. Shaka insisted that troops wear no shoes—they could run faster and were not disabled by the loss of their sandals. Training for this was to stamp thorns into the ground with bare feet.
==Service==
In wartime, the Zulu soldier went into battle minimally dressed, painting his upper body and face with chalk and red ochre, despite the popular conception of elaborately panoplied warriors. In Shaka's day, warriors often wore elaborate plumes and cow tail regalia, but by the [[Anglo-Zulu War]] of 1879, many warriors wore only loin cloth into battle. As a weapon he carried the ''[[iklwa]]'' stabbing spear (losing one could result in execution), [[cudgel]]s (''[[knobkerrie]]''). He also carried shields, which were property of the king. The iklwa with its long (c. 25cm) tip was an invention of Shaka that superseded the older thrown [[assegai]]. It could theoretically be used both in melee and as a thrown weapon, but warriors were forbidden in Shaka's day from throwing it, which would disarm them and give their opponents something to throw back. Moreover, Shaka felt it discouraged warriors from closing into hand to hand combat. However, after the Zulus encountered the Boers and the British, who were armed with firearms, the Zulus re-introduced the throwing spear in an effort to counter their enemies firepower. By the time of [[Zulu War]], king [[Cetshwayo]] also equipped them with [[musket]]s and they also used [[rifle]]s captured from the British. However, many of their weapons were obsolete or in bad condition and warriors were usually badly trained in their use.
==Tactics==
Shaka used impis with a modified encircling tactic - ''impondo zankoma'' ('bull's horns'); Impi troops would divide into four groups. The main group (''isifuba'', 'chest') would face the enemy, two wings (''izimpondo'', 'horns') on two sides of the enemy and then force them towards the center. The fourth party (usually the veterans) remained as a reserve. They travelled light, and carried their own food or foraged along the way. The image of the Zulu warrior who could "run fifty miles and fight a battle at the end of it" is not at all true, but the barefooted Zulu warrior was swift, and could cover perhaps 25 miles a day. Thus tactics against their enemies (other African tribes, the [[Boers]], and the British) were surprise and overwhelming force, rather than siege or long campaigns. During the [[Anglo-Zulu War]], British commander [[Frederick Augustus Thesiger, 2nd Baron Chelmsford|Lord Chelmsford]] complained that they did not 'fight fair'.
==History==
Against the [[Ndwandwe]], numerically superior northern neighbours who invaded Zulu territory to suppress them, [[Shaka]] played hide-and-seek games, while laying waste to the land to prevent foraging. Shaka waited and only attacked when the Ndwandwe were divided or exhausted.
Impi were also famous for their custom 'washing of spears (in their enemy's blood)' in which they cut open the belly of killed (and allegedly sometimes still living) opponents. The Zulus believed that this meant the release of the opponent's spirit so it could not haunt the killer.
Complex ceremonies surrounded battles, and great honours were bestowed upon the courageous in battle. Cowards were dishonoured and occasionally executed. Wounds were crudely serviced, but the Zulus had an unusual rate of recovery. Overall, the Zulu army was versatile and all but invincible against other African armies. However, they faced tougher opposition when confronted with the Boers, from around 1830 and later the British. Although Zulu impis under [[Dingane]] had some early success against the [[Trek Boers]], they suffered a bloody defeat when attacking a fortified [[laager]] at the [[battle of Blood River]] in 1838. Similarly, the Zulus scored a famous victory over the British at the [[battle of Isandlwana]] in 1879, but ultimately were no match for the [[Martini-Henry]] [[rifle]]s and [[Gatling gun|Gatling machine guns]] used against them in by the British troops.They suffered successive defeats at the [[battle of Kambula]], [[battle of Gingindlovu]] and the [[battle of Ulundi]], which led to the destruction of the Zulu Kingdom.
==Trivia==
The [[Aiel]] ''algai'd'siswai'' of the [[Wheel of Time]] fictional universe are largely based on Impi warriors.
[[Rudyard Kipling]] refers to them in his poem "Fuzzy-Wuzzy":
:''We took our chanst among the Khyber 'ills,''
::''The Boers knocked us silly at a mile,''
:''The Burman give us Irriwady Chills,''
::''<nowiki>'</nowiki>An a Zulu Impi dished us up in style.''
==Sources==
*Ian Knight, ''Brave Men's Blood - the Anglo-Zulu war of 1879''
*Ian Knight, ''The Zulus''
*D.R. Morris, ''The Washing of the Spears''
== External links ==
*http://www.kwazulu.co.uk/Secrets.html
[[Category:Zulus]] [[Category:Infantry]]
[[he:אימפי]]
Irish mythology
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The [[mythology]] of pre-Christian [[Ireland]] did not entirely survive the conversion to [[Christianity]], but much of it was preserved, shorn of its religious meanings, in [[medieval]] [[Irish literature]], which represents the most extensive and best preserved of all the branches of [[Celtic mythology]]. Although many of the manuscripts have failed to survive, and much more material was probably never committed to writing, there is enough remaining to enable the identification of four distinct, if overlapping, cycles: the [[Mythological Cycle]], The [[Ulster Cycle]], the [[Fenian Cycle]] and the [[Historical Cycle]]. There are also a number of extant mythological texts that do not fit into any of the cycles. In addition, there are a large number of recorded [[folk tales]] that, while not strictly mythological, feature personages from one or more of these four cycles.
==The sources==
The three main manuscript sources for Irish mythology are the late [[11th century|11th]]/early [[12th century]] ''[[Lebor na hUidre]]'' which is in the library of the [[Royal Irish Academy]], the early 12th century ''[[Book of Leinster]]'' in the library of [[Trinity College, Dublin]], and the [[Rawlinson]] manuscript B 502 (''Rawl.''), housed in the [[Bodleian Library]] at [[Oxford University]]. Despite the dates of these sources, most of the material they contain predates their composition. The earliest of the prose can be dated on linguistic grounds to the [[8th century]], and some of the verse may be as old as the [[6th century]].
Other important sources include a group of four manuscripts originating in the west of Ireland in the late [[14th century|14th]] or early [[15th century]]: ''The Yellow Book of Lecan'', ''The Great Book of Lecan'', ''The Book of Hy Many'', and ''The Book of Ballymote''. The first of these contains part of the earliest known version of the ''[[Táin Bó Cúailnge]]'' and is housed in Trinity College. The other three are in the Royal Academy. Other 15th century manuscripts, such as ''The Book of Fermoy'' also contain interesting materials, as do such later syncretic works such as [[Geoffrey Keating]]'s ''Foras Feasa ar Éirinn'' (''The History of Ireland'') (ca. [[1640]]), particularly as these later compilers and writers may have had access to manuscript sources that have since disappeared.
When using these sources, it is, as always, important to question the impact of the circumstances in which they were produced. Most of the manuscripts were created by [[Christianity|Christian]] [[monk]]s, who may well have been torn between the desire to record their native culture and their religious hostility to pagan beliefs resulting in some of the gods being [[wiktionary:Euhemerize|euhemerized]]. Many of the later sources may also have formed part of a propaganda effort designed to create a history for the people of Ireland that could bear comparison with the mythological descent of their British invaders from the founders of [[Rome]] that was promulgated by [[Geoffrey of Monmouth]] and others. There was also a tendency to rework Irish genealogies to fit into the known schema of Greek or Biblical genealogy.
It was once unquestioned that medieval Irish literature preserved truly ancient traditions in a form virtually unchanged through centuries of [[oral tradition]] back to the ancient [[Celts]] of Europe. Kenneth Jackson famously described the Ulster Cycle as a "window on the Iron Age", and Garret Olmsted has attempted to draw parallels between ''[[Táin Bó Cuailnge]]'', the Ulster Cycle epic, and the iconography of the [[Gundestrup Cauldron]]. However, this "nativist" position has been challenged by "revisionist" scholars who believe that much of it was created in Christian times in deliberate imitation of the [[Epic poetry|epic]]s of [[classical literature]] that came with [[Latin]] learning. The revisionists would point to passages apparently influenced by the [[Iliad]] in ''Táin Bó Cuailnge'', and the existence of ''Togail Troi'', a very early Irish adaptation of the [[Aeneid]] found in the Book of Leinster, and note that the material culture of the stories is generally closer to the time of the stories' composition than to the distant past. A consensus has emerged which encourages the critical reading of the material.
==Mythological cycle==
The [[Mythological Cycle]], comprising stories of the former gods and origins of the Irish, is the least well preserved of the four cycles. The most important sources are the ''[[Metrical Dindshenchas]]'' or ''Lore of Places'' and the ''[[Lebor Gabála Érenn]]'' or ''Book of Invasions''. Other manuscripts preserve such Mythological tales as ''[[The Dream of Aengus]]'', ''[[The Wooing Of Étain]]'' and ''[[Cath Maige Tuireadh]]'', ''The (second) Battle of Magh Tuireadh''. One of the best known of all Irish stories, ''Oidheadh Clainne Lir'', or ''[[Children of Lir|The Tragedy of the Children of Lir]]'', is also part of this cycle.
''Lebor Gabála Érenn'' is a pseudo-history of Ireland, tracing the ancestry of the Irish back to [[Noah]]. It tells of a series of invasions or "takings" of Ireland by a succession of peoples, one of whom was the people known as the [[Tuatha Dé Danann]], who were believed to have inhabited the island before the arrival of the [[Gaels]], or [[Milesians (Irish)|Milesians]]. They faced opposition from their enemies, the [[Fomorians]], led by [[Balor]] of the Evil Eye. Balor was eventually slain by [[Lugh|Lug Lámfada]] (Lug of the Long Arm) at the second battle of Magh Tuireadh. With the arrival of the Gaels, the Tuatha Dé Danann retired underground to become the [[fairy]] people of later myth and legend.
The ''Metrical Dindshenchas'' is the great onomastic work of early Ireland, giving the naming legends of significant places in a sequence of poems. It includes a lot of important information on Mythological Cycle figures and stories, including the Battle of Tailtiu, in which the Tuatha Dé Danann were defeated by the Milesians.
It is important to note that by the middle ages the Tuatha Dé Danann were not viewed so much as gods as the shape-shifting magician population of an earlier [[Golden Age]] Ireland. Texts such as ''Lebor Gabála Érenn'' and ''Cath Maige Tuireadh'' present them as kings and heroes of the distant past, complete with death-tales. However there is considerable evidence, both in the texts and from the wider Celtic world, that they were once considered [[deity|deities]].
Even after they are displaced as the rulers of Ireland, characters such as [[Lugh|Lug]], the [[Mórrígan]], [[Aengus]] and [[Manannan]] appear in stories set centuries later, betraying their immortality. A poem in the [[Book of Leinster]] lists many of the Tuatha Dé, but ends "Although [the author] enumerates them, he does not worship them". [[Goibniu]], [[Creidhne]] and [[Luchta]] are referred to as ''Trí Dée Dána'' ("three gods of craftsmanship"), and the [[Dagda]]'s name is interpreted in [[medieval]] texts as "the good god". [[Nuada]] is [[cognate]] with the [[Prehistoric Britain|British]] god [[Nodens]]; [[Lugh|Lug]] is a reflex of the pan-[[Celt]]ic deity [[Lugus]]; [[Tuireann]] may be related to the [[Gaulish]] [[Taranis]]; [[Ogma]] to [[Ogmios]]; the [[Badb]] to [[Catubodua]].
===Other important Tuatha Dé Danann figures===
* [[Boann]]
* [[Banba]]
* [[Brigid]]
* [[Creidhne]]
* [[Cyhiraeth]]
* [[Danu (Irish goddess)|Danu]]
* [[Dian Cecht]]
* [[Donn]]
* [[Ériu]]
* [[Étain]]
* [[Fódla]]
* [[Macha]]
* [[Nechtan]]
* [[Sídhe]]
* [[Banshee]] (also spelt ''Bean Sidhe'')
==Ulster cycle==
The [[Ulster Cycle]] is set around the beginning of the Christian era and most of the action takes place in the provinces of [[Ulster]] and [[Connacht]]. It consists of a group of heroic stories dealing with the lives of [[Conchobar mac Nessa]], king of Ulster, the great hero [[Cúchulainn]], the son of Lug, and of their friends, lovers, and enemies. These are the [[Ulaid]], or people of the North-Eastern corner of Ireland and the action of the stories centres round the royal court at [[Emain Macha]], close to the modern city of [[Armagh]]. The Ulaid had close links with the Irish colony in [[Scotland]], and part of Cúchulainn's training takes place in that colony.
The cycle consists of stories of the births, early lives and training, wooings, battles, feastings and deaths of the heroes and reflects a warrior society in which warfare consists mainly of single combats and wealth is measured mainly in cattle. These stories are written mainly in prose. The centrepiece of the Ulster Cycle is the ''[[Táin Bó Cúailnge]]''. Other important Ulster Cycle tales include ''The Tragic Death of Aife's only Son'', ''Bricriu's Feast'', and ''The Destruction of Ua Derga's Hostel''. ''The Exile of the Sons of Usnach'', better known as the tragedy of [[Deirdre]] and the source of plays by [[John Millington Synge]] and [[William Butler Yeats]], is also part of this cycle.
This cycle is, in some respects, close to the mythological cycle. Some of the characters from the latter reappear, and the same sort of shape-shifting magic is much in evidence, side by side with a grim, almost callous realism. While we may suspect a few characters, such as [[Medb]] or [[Cú Roí]], of once being deities, and Cúchulainn in particular displays superhuman prowess, the characters are firmly mortal and rooted in a specific time and place. If the Mythological Cycle represents a Golden Age, the Ulster Cycle is Ireland's [[Heroic Age]].
==Fenian cycle==
Like the Ulster Cycle, the Fenian Cycle is concerned with the deeds of Irish heroes. The stories of the Fenian Cycle appear to be set around the [[3rd century]] and mainly in the provinces of [[Leinster]] and [[Munster]]. They differ from the other cycles in the strength of their links with the Irish-speaking community in Scotland and there are many extant Fenian texts from that country. They also differ from the Ulster Cycle in that the stories are told mainly in [[verse]] and that in tone they are nearer to the tradition of romance than the tradition of epic. The stories concern the doings of [[Fionn mac Cumhail]] and his band of soldiers, the [[Fianna]].
The single most important source for the Fenian Cycle is the ''Acallamh na Senórach '' (''Colloquy of the Old Men''), which is found in two [[15th century]] [[manuscripts]], the ''Book of Lismore'' and Laud 610, as well as a [[17th century]] manuscript from [[Killiney]], [[County Dublin]]. The text is dated from linguistic evidence to the [[12th century]]. The text records conversations between the last surviving members of the Fianna and [[St Patrick]] and runs to some 8,000 lines. The late dates of the manuscripts may reflect a longer oral tradition for the Fenian stories.
The Fianna of the story are divided into the Clann Baiscne, led by Fionn, and the Clann Morna, led by his enemy, [[Goll mac Morna]]. Goll killed Fionn's father, [[Cumhal]], in battle and the boy Fionn was brought up in secrecy. As a youth, while being trained in the art of poetry, he accidentally burned his thumb while cooking the Salmon of Knowledge, which allowed him to suck or bite his thumb in order to receive bursts of stupendous wisdom. He took his place as the leader of his band and numerous tales are told of their adventures. Two of the greatest Irish tales, ''Toraigheacht Dhiarmada agus Ghrainne'' (''The Pursuit of [[Diarmuid]] and [[Grainne]])'' and ''[[Oisin]] in Tir na nOg'' form part of the cycle. The Diarmuid and Grainne story, which is one of the few Fenian prose tales, is a probable source of ''[[Tristan and Isolde]]''.
The world of the Fenian Cycle is one in which professional warriors spend their time hunting, fighting, and engaging in adventures in the spirit world. New entrants into the band are expected to be knowledgeable in poetry as well as undergo a number of physical tests or ordeals. Again, there is no religious element in these tales unless it is one of hero-worship.
==Historical cycle==
It was part of the duty of the medieval Irish bards, or court [[Irish poetry|poets]], to record the history of the family and the genealogy of the king they served. This they did in poems that blended the mythological and the historical to a greater or lesser degree. The resulting stories form what has come to be known as the Historical Cycle, or more correctly Cycles, as there are a number of independent groupings.
The kings that are covered range from the almost entirely mythological [[Labraid Loingsech]], who became High King of Ireland around [[431 BC]] to the entirely historical [[Brian Boru]]. However, the greatest glory of the Historical Cycle is the ''[[Buile Shuibhne]]'' (''The Frenzy of Suibhne''), a [[12th century]] tale told in verse and prose.
Suibhne, king of Dal nAraide, was cursed by St Ronan and became a kind of half man, half bird, condemned to live out his life in the woods, fleeing from his human companions. The story has captured the imaginations of contemporary Irish poets and has been translated by [[Trevor Joyce]] and [[Seamus Heaney]].
==Other tales==
===Adventures===
The adventures, or ''[[echtrae]]'', are a group of stories of visits to the Irish [[Other World]]. The most famous, ''Oisin in Tir na nOg'' belongs to the Fenian Cycle, but several free-standing adventures survive, including ''The Adventure of Conle'', ''[[The Voyage of Bran|The Voyage of Bran mac Ferbail]]'' and ''The Adventure of [[Lóegaire]]''.
===Voyages===
The voyages, or ''[[immrama]]'', are tales of sea journeys and the wonders seen on them. These probably grew from the experiences of fishermen combined with the Other World elements that inform the adventures. Of the seven ''immrama'' mentioned in the manuscripts, only three survive: ''The Voyage of [[Mael Duin]]'', ''The Voyage of the Ui Chorra'', and ''The Voyage of Snedgus and Mac Riagla''. ''The Voyage of Mael Duin'' is the forerunner of the later ''[[Voyage of St. Brendan]]''.
===Folk tales===
At the beginning of the 19th Century, [[Herminie T. Kavanagh]] wrote down many Irish folk tales which she published in magazines and in two books. Twenty-six years after her death, the tales from her two books, ''Darby O'Gill and the Good People'', and ''Ashes of Old Wishes'' were made in to the film [[Darby O'Gill and the Little People]].
==References==
===Primary sources in English translation===
*Cross, Tom Peete and Clark Harris Slover. ''Ancient Irish Tales''. Barnes and Noble Books, Totowa, New Jersey, 1936 repr. 1988. ISBN 566198895.
*Dillon, Myles. ''The Cycles of the Kings''. Oxford University Press, 1946; reprinted Four Courts Press: Dublin and Portland, OR, 1994. ISBN 1851821783.
*Dillon, Myles. ''Early Irish Literature''. Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1948; reprinted : Four Courts Press, Dublin and Portland, OR, 1994. ISBN 0785816763.
*Joseph Dunn: ''The Ancient Irish Epic Tale Táin Bó Cúailnge'' ([[1914]])
*Winifred Faraday: ''The Cattle-Raid of Cualng''. London, 1904. This is a partial translation of the text in the Yellow Book of Lecan, partially censored by Faraday.
*Gantz, Jeffrey. ''Early Irish Myths and Sagas''. London: Penguin Books, 1981. ISBN 0140443975.
*Kinsella, Thomas. ''The Tain''. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1970. ISBN 0192810901.
===Primary sources in Medieval Irish===
*''Cath Maige Tuired: The Second Battle of Mag Tuired''. Elizabeth A. Gray, Ed. Dublin: Irish Texts Society, 1982. Series: Irish Texts Society (Series) ; v. 52. Irish text, English translation and philological notes.
*''Táin Bo Cuailnge from the Book of Leinster''. Cecile O'Rahilly, Ed. Dublin Institute for Advanced Studies, 1984.
*''Táin Bo Cuailnge Recension I''. Cecile O'Rahilly, Ed. Dublin Institute for Advanced Studies 1976. Irish text, English translation and philological notes.
===Retellings of the myths in English===
*Lady [[Lady Gregory|Augusta Gregory]]: ''Cuchulain of Muirthemne'' (1902)
*Lady Augusta Gregory: ''Gods and Fighting Men'' (1904)
===Secondary sources===
*Mallory, J. P. Ed. ''Aspects of the Tain''. Belfast: December Publications, 1992. ISBN 0951706829.
*O'Rahilly, T. F. ''Early Irish History and Mythology'' (1946)
*O hOgain, Daithi "Myth, Legend and Romance: An Encyclopedia of the Irish Folk Tradition" Prentice Hall Press, (1991) : ISBN 0132759594 (the only dictionary/encyclopedia with source references for every entry)
*Rees, Brinley and Alwyn Rees. ''Celtic Heritage: Ancient Tradition in Ireland and Wales''. New York: Thames and Hudson, 1961; repr. 1989. ISBN 500270392.
*Sjoestedt, M. L. ''Gods and Heroes of the Celts''. 1949; translated by Myles Dillon. repr. Berkeley, CA: Turtle Press, 1990. ISBN 1851821791.
*Williams, J. F. Caerwyn. ''Irish Literary History''. Trans. Patrick K. Ford. University of Wales Press, Cardiff, Wales, and Ford and Bailie, Belmont, Massachusetts. Welsh edition 1958, English translation 1992. ISBN 0926689037.
==External links==
*[http://www.ucd.ie/folklore Department of Irish Folklore, Dublin. Includes the National Folklore Archives]
*[http://www.maryjones.us/ctexts/index_irish.html The Celtic Literature Collection] - over one hundred ancient texts available to download free
*[http://vassun.vassar.edu/~sttaylor/Cooley/Faraday/Contents.html Winifred Faraday's version of the Tain]
*[http://vassun.vassar.edu/~sttaylor/Cooley/ Joseph Dunn's version of the Tain]
*[http://www.sacred-texts.com/neu/cool/ Another source for Joseph Dunn's version of the Tain]
*[http://www.ucc.ie/celt/published/T301035/index.html Cecile O'Rahilly's version of the Tain]
*[http://www.paddybrown.co.uk/ulstercycle/tain.html A modern version of the Tain by Patrick Brown]
*[http://www.sacred-texts.com/neu/celt/gafm/ Gods and Fighting Men]
*[http://www.ucc.ie/celt/published/G302018/index.html Buile Shuibhne]
*[http://www.ucc.ie/celt/published/G303000/index.html Acallamh na Senórach]
*[http://www.ucc.ie/celt/published/G301020/index.html Deirdre of the Sorrows]
*[http://www.irishmythology.com/ The Irish mythology Cycles]
*[http://www.irishabroad.com/yourroots/mythology/ Irish Mythology features]
[[Category:Celtic mythology]]
[[Category:Irish mythology|*]]
[[Category:Irish literature]]
[[pl:Mitologia irlandzka]]
[[Category:Medieval literature]]
[[Category:Medieval Scotland]]
Insurance
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Monkeyman
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/* External links */ Removed spam links.
'''Insurance''', in [[law]] and [[economics]], is a form of [[risk management]] primarily used to [[Hedge (finance)|hedge]] against the [[risk]] of potential [[financial]] [[loss]]. Insurance is defined as the equitable transfer of the [[risk]] of a potential loss, from one entity to another, in exchange for a premium and duty of care.
==Principles of insurance==
The timing or occurrence of the loss must be uncertain.
The rate of losses must be relatively predictable: In order to set premiums (prices) insurers must be able to estimate them accurately. If the coverage is unique, the insured will pay a correspondingly higher premium. [[Lloyd's of London]] often accepts unique coverages. (e.g., the insuring of [[Tina Turner]]'s legs and [[Jennifer Lopez]]'s butt)
The losses must ''be predictable'' on a macro level: Insurers need to know how much they would be required to pay when the insured-for event occurs. Most types of insurance have maximum levels of payouts, but not all do, notably [[health insurance]].
The loss must be significant: The legal principle of ''[[De minimis]]'' dictates that trivial matters are not covered. Furthermore, rational insurance uses existing insurance when the [[transaction costs]] dictate that filing a claim is not rational.
The loss must not be catastrophic: If the insurer is insolvent, it will be unable to pay the insured. In the United States, there is a system of Guaranty Funds run at the state level to reimburse insured people whose insurance companies have become insolvent. [http://www.ncigf.org] This program is run by the National Association of Insurance Commissioners (NAIC). [http://www.naic.org/] To avoid catastrophic depletion of their own capital, insurers almost universally purchase [[reinsurance]] to protect them against excessively large accumulations of risk in a single area, and to protect them against large-scale catastrophes.
==Insurance Contract Principles==
A property or liability insurance policy is a "personal contract," a "conditional contract," a "contract of adhesion," a "contract of indemnity," and a contract which requires that the person insured have an insurable interest at the time of the insured-against contingency.
===Personal Contract===
Property and liability insurance policies cover persons and not property or operations. Although the terms "insured my house" or "insured my motorcycle" are used commonly, they are not technically correct. The contract between the insurer and the insured is a personal contract between an insuring entity and a person(s) and not the object being insured. In other words, the question of whether payment is due upon the occurrence of a contingency, and how such payment will be measured, depends upon economic loss suffered by the person(s).
===Conditional Contract===
Property and liability insurance policies are said to be "conditional contracts" because the obligation of the insurer to perform may be conditioned upon the insured satisfying certain conditions.
===Contract of Adhesion===
Property and liability insurance policies are said to be "contracts of adhesion" because the insurer and insured parties are of unequal bargaining power where the insured party cannot negotiate the terms of the contract and must take the offer of the insurer as made. Importantly, the rule of law regarding "contracts of adhesion" is that any ambiguities resolve in favor of the insured.
===Contract of Indemnity===
Property and liability insurance policies are said to be "contracts of indemnity" because the purpose of insurance is to indemnify the insured. The principle of indemnification is that the insured should not profit nor incur an economic loss from the response provided by the policy.
===Insurable Interest===
Insurable interest is one wherein economic loss would be suffered from an adverse occurrence to the person(s) insured.
==Indemnification==
An entity seeking to transfer risk (an individual, corporation, or association of any type) becomes the 'insured' party once risk is assumed by an 'insurer', the insuring party, by means of a [[contract]], defined as an insurance 'policy'. This [[legal]] contract sets out terms and conditions specifying the amount of coverage (compensation) to be rendered to the insured, by the insurer upon assumption of risk, in the event of a loss, and all the specific perils covered against ([[indemnity|indemnified]]), for the term of the contract.
When insured parties experience a loss for a specified peril, the coverage entitles the policyholder to make a 'claim' against the insurer for the amount of loss as specified by the policy contract. The [[fee]] paid by the insured to the insurer for assuming the risk is called the 'premium'. Insurance premiums from many clients are used to fund accounts set aside for later payment of claims - in theory for a relatively few claimants - and for [[overhead]] costs. So long as an insurer maintains adequate funds set aside for anticipated losses, the remaining margin becomes their [[profit]].
==How an insurance company makes money==
A customer might pay one or more premium payments over time. The company collects these payments from one or more customers. If something happens which triggers a claim, the company then pays out a certain amount of money. If, during the lifetime of all of the company's insurance contracts, it pays out less than it has taken in, it makes what is known as an [[underwriting profit]]. One measure of an insurance company's performance is their loss ratio (incurred losses and loss-adjustment expenses divided by net earned premium). The loss ratio is added to the expense ratio (underwriting expenses divided by net premium written) to determine the company's combined ratio. The combined ratio is a reflection of the company's overall underwriting profitability. A combined ratio of less than 100 percent indicates a profit, while anything over 100 is a loss. One company that is famous for achieving underwriting profit is [[American International Group]]. Berkshire Hathaway, by contrast, is famous for making its money on "float" rather than underwriting profit. Float is the concept that as insurance premiums are collected up front, and claims paid over time (sometimes up to periods of 10 years or more), the insurance companies are able to collect investment income on the money they have reserved for claims that have not occurred yet, or have not yet been paid. Over time, this interest is compounded into significant dollars, particularly for a company as large as Berkshire Hathaway.
In many cases a company's combined ratio is greater than 100 percent, however the company still manages to make money. This is because in between the time the company collects premiums and when it pays out claims, it can invest that money. The return from these investments may offset an underwriting loss resulting in profit. For example, if a company has to pay out 10 percent more than it took in, but made a 20 percent return on its investment, then it made a 10 percent profit. However, since most insurance companies consider it only prudent (and may be mandated to do so by laws controlling insurance businesses in the territory in which they operate) to invest in risk-free government bonds, or other lower risk and lower return forms of investments, it's important that the extra amount it has to pay out compared to what it has to take in is less than the percent return of these investments. If it isn't, the company loses money. The extra amount that a company has to pay out can be considered a "cost of funds" and be compared to an interest rate of the same company borrowing money. Because of this, most insurance companies don't have a goal just to have any amount of profit over the cost of funds, but rather to have this cost of funds be lower than what they would have been able to get by borrowing somewhere else. If this isn't the case, the insurance company does not add any value to their owners, who theoretically could have borrowed money from somewhere else and made the same investments themselves.
Although insurers traditionally depended upon [[underwriting profit]] to provide them with operating profit, market forces now require that insurers earn the bulk of their profit on investment income on premiums held pending claims occurrence. This is a form of financial leveraging.
==Determination of rate structures==
The insurer uses [[actuarial science]] to quantify the risk they are willing to assume. Data is generated to approximate future claims, ordinarily with reasonable accuracy. Actuarial science uses [[statistics]] and [[probability]] to analyze the risks associated with the range of perils covered, and these scientific principles are used by insurers, in conjunction with additional factors, to determine rate structures.
For example, many individuals purchase homeowner's insurance policies by signing a contract paying a premium to an insurance company. If a covered loss occurs, the insurer is obliged by the terms of the contract to [[honor]] the insured's claim. For some policyholders, the amount of insurance benefits received from their insurer will greatly exceed the expense of premiums paid. Others may never make a claim or receive any benefit other than the peace of mind rendered by the security of an insurance policy. When averaged, the total claims expense paid by an insurer should be less than the total premiums paid by their policyholders, with the difference allocated to [[overhead]] and [[profit]].
Insurance companies also earn [[investment]] profits. These are generated by investing premiums received until they are needed to pay claims. This money is called the 'float'. The insurer may make profits or losses from the value change in the float as well as [[interest]] or [[dividends]] on the float. In the [[United States]], the underwriting loss of [[property]] and [[casualty]] insurance companies was $142.3 billion in the five years ending 2003. But overall profit for the same period was $68.4 billion, at the result of float. Some insurance industry insiders, most notably [[Maurice R. Greenberg|Hank Greenberg]], do not believe that it is forever possible to sustain a profit from float without an underwriting profit as well, but this opinion is not universally held.
==Gambling analogy==
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Some people erroneously consider insurance a type of [[gambling|wager]] (particularly as associated with [[moral hazard]]) that executes over the policy period. The insurance company bets that you or your property will not suffer a loss while you put money on the opposite outcome. The difference in the fees paid to the insurance company versus the amount for which they can be held liable if an [[accident]] happens is roughly analogous to the odds one might expect when betting on a [[horse-racing|racehorse]] (for example, 10 to 1). For this reason, a number of [[religion|religious]] groups, including the [[Amish]] and Muslims, avoid insurance and instead depend on support provided by their [[community|communities]] when [[disaster]]s strike. This can be thought of as "social insurance," as the risk of any given person is assumed collectively by the community who will all bear the cost of rebuilding. In closed, supportive communities where others can be trusted to step in to rebuild lost property, this arrangement can work.
However, most [[society|societies]] could not effectively support this type of system, and the system will not work for large risks. For very large risks, Western insurance can also run into difficulties. This is the reason why most [[home insurance|homeowner's insurance]] does not cover [[flood]]s. A company that sells homeowner's insurance in a given city can accurately estimate the number of claims it would have to pay due to fires, [[tornado]]es, and other smaller-scale disasters. However, a flood may impact a large percentage of the city and the company might be unable to deal with this. A prime example of this is the flooding in [[New Orleans, Louisiana|New Orleans]] as a result of [[Hurricane Katrina]]. For the same reason, losses due to [[war]] and [[earthquake]]s are generally excluded. In the case of floods and earthquakes (which are smaller-scale than war) homeowners can purchase separate insurance from national companies with larger resources, which are able to distribute the risk across regions rather than individual buildings.
In gaming or gambling, the game is fixed at the start so that the odds are not affected by the players. However, to obtain certain types of insurance, such as fire insurance, policyholders are often required to conduct risk mitigation practices, such as installing [[Fire sprinkler|sprinkler]]s and using fireproof building materials to reduce the odds of loss to fire. In addition, after a proven loss, insurers specialize in providing rehabilitation to minimize the total loss.
While insurance is analogous to gambling in terms of risk and reward, the main difference is in the motivation behind the process (risk seeking vs. risk avoidance). When gambling, you are assuming risk that you would not otherwise be exposed to that has the possibility of either a loss or a gain (speculative risk). With insurance, you are managing risk that you could not otherwise avoid, and which does not present the possibility of gain (pure risk). [[Risk management]], the practice of appraising and controlling risk, has evolved as a discrete field of study and practice. Avoiding, mitigating and transferring certain risk creates greater predictability for consumers and business, and allows people and organizations to use risk intelligently to maximize their opportunities.
Historically, gambling has been considered an uninsurable risk. Recent developments, however, have lead to the invention and patenting of new types of insurance to protect against gambling losses. An example is United States Patent 6,869,362, [http://www.freepatentsonline.com/6869362.html "Method and apparatus for providing insurance policies for gambling losses"]
==History of insurance==
Early methods of transferring or distributing risk were practiced by [[Babylonia|Babylonian]] traders as long ago as the [[2nd millennium BCE]]. The Babylonians developed a system which was recorded in the famous [[Code of Hammurabi]], c. 1750 BC, and practiced by early [[Mediterranean]] sailing [[merchant]]s. If a merchant received a loan to fund his shipment, he would pay the lender an additional sum in exchange for the lender's guarantee to cancel the loan should the shipment be stolen.
A thousand years later, the inhabitants of [[Rhodes|Rhodes]] invented the concept of the 'general average'. Merchants whose goods were being shipped together would pay a proportionally divided premium which would be used to reimburse any merchant whose goods were jettisoned during storm or sinkage.
The [[Ancient Greece|Greeks]] and [[Ancient Rome|Romans]] introduced the origins of health and life insurance c. 600 AD when they organized guilds called "benevolent societies" which acted to care for the [[family|families]] and [[funeral]] expenses of members upon [[death]]. [[Guild]]s in the [[Middle Ages]] served a similar purpose. The [[Talmud]] deals with several aspects of insuring [[Good (economics)|goods]]. Before insurance was established in the late 17th century, "friendly societies" existed in England, in which people donated amounts of money to a general sum that could be used in case of emergency.
Insurance became far more sophisticated in post-[[Renaissance]] [[Europe]], and specialized varieties developed.
Toward the end of the seventeenth century, the growing importance of London as a center for trade led to rising demand for marine insurance. In the late 1680s, Mr. Edward Lloyd opened a coffee house which became a popular haunt of ship owners, merchants, and ships’ captains, and thereby a reliable source of the latest shipping news. It became the meeting place for parties wishing to insure cargoes and ships, and those willing to underwrite such ventures. Today, [[Lloyd's of London]] remains the leading market for marine and other specialist types of insurance, but it works rather differently than the more familiar kinds of insurance.
Insurance as we know it today can be traced to the [[Great Fire of London]], which in 1666 devoured 13,200 houses. In the aftermath of this disaster [[Nicholas Barbon]] opened an office to insure buildings. In 1680 he established England's first fire insurance company, "The Fire Office," to insure brick and frame homes.
The first insurance company in the [[United States]] provided fire insurance and was formed in Charles Town (modern-day [[Charleston, South Carolina|Charleston]]), [[South Carolina]], in 1732.
[[Benjamin Franklin]] helped to popularize and make standard the practice of insurance, particularly against [[fire]] in the form of [[Perpetual Insurance|perpetual insurance]]. In 1752, he founded the [http://www.contributionship.com/ Philadelphia Contributionship for the Insurance of Houses from Loss by Fire]. Franklin's company was the first to make contributions toward fire prevention. Not only did his company warn against certain fire hazards, it refused to insure certain buildings where the risk of fire was too great, such as all wooden houses.
In the United States, [[regulation]] of the insurance industry is highly [[Balkanization|Balkanized]], with primary responsibility assumed by individual [[U.S. state|State]] insurance departments. Whereas insurance markets have become centralized nationally and internationally, state insurance commissioners operate individually, though at times in concert through a national insurance [[commissioner]]'s organization. In recent years, some have called for a federal regulatory system for insurance similar to that of the banking industry.
In the State of [[New York]], which has unique laws in keeping with its stature as a global business center, Attorney General [[Eliot Spitzer]] has been in a unique position to grapple with major national insurance brokerages. Spitzer alleged that [[Marsh & McLennan Companies|Marsh & McLennan]] steered business to insurance carriers based on the amount of contingent commissions that could be extracted from carriers, rather than basing decisions on whether carriers had the best deals for clients. Several of the largest commercial insurance brokerages have since stopped accepting contingent commissions and have adopted new business models.
== Types of insurance ==
Any risk that can be quantified probably has a type of insurance to protect it. Among the different types of insurance are:
*[[Auto insurance|Automobile insurance]], also known as ''auto insurance'', ''car insurance'' and in the [[UK]] as ''motor insurance'', is probably the most common form of insurance and may cover both legal [[Liability#In law|liability]] claims against the [[driver]] and loss of or [[damage]] to the [[vehicle]] itself. Over most of the [[United States]] purchasing an auto insurance policy is required to legally operate a motor vehicle on public roads. Recommendations for which policy limits should be used are specified in a number of books. In some jurisdictions, bodily injury compensation for automobile accident victims has been changed to [[No_fault_insurance|No Fault]] systems, which reduce or eliminate the ability to sue for compensation but provide automatic eligibility for benefits.
*[[Boiler insurance]] (also known as Boiler and Machinery insurance or Equipment Breakdown Insurance)
*[[Casualty insurance]] insures against accidents, not necessarily tied to any specific property.
*[[Credit insurance]] pays some or all of a [[loan]] back when certain things happen to the borrower such as [[unemployment]], [[disability]], or [[death]].
*[[Financial loss insurance]] protects individuals and companies against various financial risks. For example, a [[business]] might purchase cover to protect it from loss of [[sales]] if a fire in a [[factory]] prevented it from carrying out its business for a time. Insurance might also cover failure of a [[creditor]] to pay [[money]] it owes to the insured. [[Fidelity bond]]s and [[surety bond]]s are included in this category.
*[[Health insurance]] covers [[medicine|medical]] bills incurred because of [[disease|sickness]] or accidents.
*[[Liability insurance]] covers legal claims against the insured. For example, a homeowner's insurance policy provides the insured with protection in the event of a claim brought by someone who slips and falls on the property, and brings a lawsuit for her injuries. Similarly, a [[Physician|doctor]] may purchase liability insurance to cover any legal claims against him if his negligence (carelessness) in treating a patient caused the patient injury and/or monetary harm. The protection offered by a liability insurance policy is two-fold: a legal defense in the event of a lawsuit commenced against the policyholder, plus indemnification (payment on behalf of the insured) with respect to a settlement or court verdict.
*[[Life insurance]] provides a cash benefit to a decedent's family or other designated beneficiary, and may specifically provide for [[burial]] and other final expenses.
**[[annuity|Annuities]] provide a stream of payments and are generally classified as insurance because they are issued by insurance companies and regulated as insurance. Annuities and [[pension]]s that pay a benefit for life are sometimes regarded as insurance against the possibility that a [[retirement|retiree]] will outlive his or her financial resources. In that sense, they are the complement of life insurance.
*[[Total permanent disability insurance]] insurance provides benefits when a person is permanently disabled and can no longer work in their profession, often taken as an adjunct to life insurance.
*[[Locked Funds Insurance]] is a little known hybrid insurance policy jointly issued by governments and banks. It is used to protect public funds from tamper by unauthorised parties. In special cases, a government may authorise its use in protecting semi-private funds which are liable to tamper. Terms of this type of insurance are usually very strict. As such it is only used in extreme cases where maximum security of funds is required.
*[[Marine Insurance]] covers the loss or damage of goods at sea. Marine insurance typically compensates the owner of merchandise for losses sustained from fire, shipwreck, etc., but excludes losses that can be recovered from the carrier.
*Nuclear incident insurance - damages resulting from an incident involving radioactivive materials is generally arranged at the national level. (For the United States, see [[Price-Anderson Nuclear Industries Indemnity Act]].)
*[[Political risk insurance]] can be taken out by businesses with operations in [[country|countries]] in which there is a risk that [[revolution]] or other [[politics|political]] conditions will result in a loss.
*[[Professional Indemnity Insurance]] is normally a mandatory requirement for professional practitioners such as Architects, Lawyers, Doctors and Accountants to provide insurance cover against potential negligence claims. Non licensed professionals may also purchase malpractice insurance, it is commonly called Errors and Omissions Insurance and covers a service provider for claims made against them that arise out of the performance of specified professional services. For instance, a web site designer can obtain E&O insurance to cover them for certain claims made by third parties that arise out of negligent performance of web site development services.
*[[Property insurance]] provides protection against risks to property, such as fire, [[theft]] or [[weather]] damage. This includes specialized forms of insurance such as [[fire insurance]], [[flood insurance]], [[earthquake insurance]], [[home insurance]], inland marine insurance or [[boiler insurance]].
*[[Terrorism insurance]]
*[[Title insurance]] provides a guarantee that title to [[real property]] is vested in the purchaser and/or [[mortgage]]e, free and clear of [[lien]]s or encumbrances. It is usually issued in conjunction with a search of the public records done at the time of a [[real estate]] transaction.
*[[Travel insurance]] is an insurance cover taken by those who travel abroad, which covers certain losses such as medical expenses, lost of personal belongings, travel delay, personal liabilities.. etc.
*[[Workers' compensation]] insurance replaces all or part of a worker's [[wage]]s lost and accompanying medical expense incurred due to a job-related injury.
A single policy may cover risks in one or more of the above categories. For example, car insurance would typically cover both property risk (covering the risk of theft or damage to the car) and liability risk (covering legal claims from say, causing an accident). A [[home insurance|homeowner]]'s insurance policy in the US typically includes property insurance covering damage to the home and the owner's belongings, liability insurance covering certain legal claims against the owner, and even a small amount of health insurance for medical expenses of guests who are injured on the owner's property.
Potential sources of risk that may give rise to claims are known as "[[peril]]s". Examples of perils might be fire, theft, [[earthquake]], [[hurricane]] and many other potential risks. An insurance policy will set out in details which perils are covered by the policy and which are not.
==Types of insurance companies==
Insurance companies may be classified as
*''Life'' insurance companies, who sell life insurance, annuities and pensions products.
*''Non-life'' or ''general'' insurance companies, who sell other types of insurance.
In most countries, life and non-life insurers are subject to different regulations, [[tax]] and [[accounting]] rules. The main reason for the distinction between the two types of company is that life business is very long term in nature — coverage for life assurance or a pension can cover risks over many [[decade]]s. By contrast, non-life insurance cover usually covers a shorter period, such as one year.
Insurance companies are generally classified as either ''[[mutual]]'' or ''stock'' companies. This is more of a traditional distinction as true mutual companies are becoming rare. Mutual companies are owned by the policyholders, while stockholders, (who may or may not own policies) own stock insurance companies.
''[[Reinsurance]]'' companies are insurance companies that sell policies to other insurance companies, allowing them to reduce their risks and protect themselves from very large losses. The reinsurance market is dominated by a few very large companies, with huge reserves.
''[[Captive Insurance]]'' companies may be defined as limited purpose insurance companies established with the specific objective of financing risks emanating from their parent group or groups. This definition can sometimes be extended to include some of the risks of the parent company's customers. In short terms, it is an in-house self-insurance vehicle. Captives may take the form of a "pure" entity (which is a 100% a subsidiary of the self-insured parent company); of a "mutual" captive (which insures the collective risks of industry members) and of an "association" captive (which self-insures individual risks of the members of a professional, commercial or industrial association). Captives represent commercial, economic and tax advantages to their sponsors due to the reductions on costs they help create, the ease for insurance risk management and the flexibility for cash flows they generate. Additionally, they may provide coverage of risks which are neither available nor offered in the traditional insurance market at reasonable prices.
The types of risk that a captive can underwrite for the parent include property damage, public and products liability, professional indemnity, employee benefits, employers liability, motor and medical aid expenses. The captive's exposure to such risks may be limited by the use of reinsurance.
Captives are becoming an increasingly important component of the risk management and risk financing strategy of their parent. This can be understood against the following background:
*heavy and increasing premium costs in almost every line of coverage;
*difficulties in insuring certain types of fortuitous risk;
*differential coverage standards in various parts of the world;
*rating structures which reflect market trends rather than individual loss experience;
*insufficient credit for deductibles and/or loss control efforts.
There are also companies known as 'insurance consultants'. Like a mortgage broker, these companies are paid a fee by the customer to shop around for the best insurance policy amongst many companies .
Similar to an insurance consultant, an 'insurance broker' also shops around for the best insurance policy amongst many companies. However, with insurance brokers, the fee is usually paid in the form of commission from the insurer that is selected rather than directly from the client.
Third Party Administrators are companies that perform underwriting and sometimes claims handling services for insurance companies. These companies often have special expertise that the insurance companies do not have.
==Life insurance and saving==
Certain life insurance contracts accumulate [[cash]] values, which may be taken by the insured if the policy is surrendered or which may be borrowed against. Some policies, such as annuities and [[financial endowment|endowment]] policies, are financial instruments to accumulate or [[liquidation|liquidate]] [[wealth]] when it is needed. See [[life insurance]].
In many countries, such as the US and the UK, [[tax law]] provides that the interest on this cash value is not taxable under certain circumstances. This leads to widespread use of life insurance as a tax-efficient method of [[saving]] as well as protection in the event of early death.
==Financial viability of insurance companies==
Financial stability and strength of the insurance company should be a major consideration when purchasing an insurance contract. An insurance premium paid currently provides coverage for losses that might arise many years in the future. For that reason, the viability of the insurance carrier is very important. In recent years, a number of insurance companies have become insolvent, leaving their policyholders with no coverage (or coverage only from a government-backed insurance pool with less attractive payouts for losses). A number of independent rating agencies, such as Best's, provide information and rate the financial viability of insurance companies.
==Controversies==
=== Insurance insulates too much ===
By creating a "security blanket" for its insureds, an insurance company may inadvertently find that its insureds may not be as risk-averse as they should be (since the insured assumes the risk belongs to the insurer). This problem is known to the insurance industry as [[moral hazard]]. To reduce their own financial exposure, insurance companies have contractual clauses that mitigate their obligation to provide coverage if the insured engages in some kind of behavior that grossly magnifies their risk of loss or liability.
For example, liability insurance providers do not provide coverage for liability arising from [[intentional tort]]s committed by the insured. Even if a provider was irrational enough to try to provide such coverage, it is against the public policy of most countries to allow such insurance to exist, and thus it is usually illegal.
===Complexity of insurance policy contracts===
Insurance policies can be complex and some policyholders may not understand all the fees, regulation and coverages included in a policy. As a result, people could buy policies at unfavorable terms. In response to these issues, governments often make detailed regulations that set down minimum standards for policies and govern how they may be [[advertising|advertised]] and sold.
Many individuals purchase policies through an insurance broker. The broker can counsel the policyholder on which coverage to purchase and limitations of the policy. A broker generally holds contracts with many insurers which allows the broker to "shop" the [[market]] for the best rates and coverage possible.
=== Redlining ===
Redlining is the practice of some insurance companies to deny the issuance of coverage in specific geographic areas, usually due to an increased likelihood of risk; the validity of the assessment may be real or perceived, though it is often attributed to discrimination.
Evaluation of risk, when an insurer determines a premium or premium rate structure, considers quantifiable factors, including location, [[credit score]]s, [[gender]], [[occupation]], [[marital status]], and [[education]] level. However, the use of these essential factors, whether inappropriately or not, are often considered to be 'unfair' or [[discriminatory]] by some consumers and their advocates, sometimes leading to political disputes about insurers' determination of premiums and possible [[government]] intervention to limit the factors used.
A refutation to this is that the job of an insurance underwriter is to properly categorize a given risk as to the likelihood that the loss will occur. Any factor that causes a greater likelihood of loss should in theory, be charged a higher rate. This is a basic principle of insurance and must be followed for insurance companies or groups to operate properly, even for [[non-profit organization]]s. Thus, discrimination of potential insureds by legitimate factors is central to insurance. Therefore the only thing that can be considered legitimately "unfair" are practices that [[discrimination|discriminate]] against a given group without actual factors that show that the group is a higher risk. So, eliminating real factors discriminates against other insureds by forcing them to bear part of the cost of the disallowed perceived factors.
=== Health insurance ===
Health insurance, which is coverage for individuals to protect them against medical costs, is a highly charged and political issue in the United States, which does not have socialized health coverage. In theory, the market for health insurance provision should function in a manner similar to other insurance coverages, but the skyrocketing cost of health coverage has disrupted markets around the globe, but perhaps most glaringly in the US. Please see [[health insurance]] for a discussion of this category.
=== Dental insurance ===
Dental insurance, like health insurance, is coverage for individuals to protect them against dental costs. Dental insurance usually goes hand-in-hand with health insurance, with most people in the United States receiving it included in their health insurance plan from their employer. Along with receiving dental insurance from your employer, there are ways to receive dental insurance through resellers and companies for individuals and families; although this way tends to be too expensive for most people.
=== Insurance Patents ===
New insurance products can now be protected from copying with a [[business method patent]]. This may lead to the more rapid introduction of new insurance products as insurance companies will invest more heavily in new product development if they can be reasonably assured that their patents will keep those products from being copied.
A recent example of a new insurance product that is patented is telematic [[auto insurance]]. It was independently invented and patented by a major US auto insurance company, [[Progressive Corporation|Progressive Auto Insurance]] ([http://www.freepatentsonline.com/5797134.html US patent 5,797,134]) and a Spanish independent inventor, Salvador Minguijon Perez ([http://v3.espacenet.com/origdoc?DB=EPODOC&IDX=EP0700009&F=8&RPN=EP0700009&DOC=cca34af1984f0dc47b32e9a9722ad1a148 European Patent EP0700009B1]).
The basic idea of telematic auto insurance is that a driver's behavior is monitored directly while the person drives and this information is transmitted to an insurance company. The insurance company then assesses the risk of that driver having an accident and charges insurance premiums accordingly. A driver that drives a lot of distance at high speed, for example, will be charged a higher rate than a driver that drives small distances at low speed.
A British auto insurance company, [[Norwich Union]], has taken a license to both the Progressive patent and Perez patent. They have made additional investments in infrastructure and developed a commercial offering called "Pay As You Drive" or PAYD.
Many independent inventors are in favor of patenting new insurance products since it gives them protection from big companies when they bring their new insurance products to market. Independent inventors account for 70% of the new US patent applications in this area.
Many insurance executives are opposed to patenting insurance products because it creates a new risk for them. [[The Hartford]] insurance company, for example, had to recently pay US$80 million to an independent inventor, Bancorp Services, in order to settle a patent infringement and theft of trade secret lawsuit for a new type of corporate owned life insurance product invented and patented by Bancorp.
There are currently about 150 new patent applications on insurance inventions filed per year in the United States. [http://marketsandpatents.com/IPB-12152005.mht (Source: Insurance IP Bulletin, December 15, 2005)]. Only about 20 - 30 patents per year, however, are actually issuing.
=== The insurance industry and rent seeking ===
Certain insurance products and practices have been described as [[rent seeking]] by critics. That is, insurance companies have been alleged to have certain products or practices that are only useful due to certain government laws (especially tax laws), and that the insurance industry in these cases generally adds no economic value but instead supports politicians who will continue the legal regime which gives the insurance company these benefits. For example, in the United States the current tax rules generally allow owners of variable annuities (see [[annuity (US financial products)]] and variable life insurance (see [[variable universal life insurance]]) to invest in the stock market and defer or eliminate paying any taxes until withdrawals are made. Sometimes this tax deferral is the only reason some individuals use these products instead of a mutual fund. Another example is the legal infrastructure which allows life insurance to be held in an irrevocable trust which is used to pay an [[estate tax]] while the proceeds itself are immune from the estate tax.
== Insurance in [[Blackjack]] ==
In the [[casino]] game , [[insurance]] is an optional play that requires the player to bet 1/2 of his current bet to the posibilitiy of the house drawing a blackjack (an ace and a ten), if the house does draw a blackjack, all insured players get their bet back, including the insurance, if not, the insurance is lost and the game continues as normal. A player can only buy insurance if the house open [[card]] is an ace, and only at the beginning of his turn.
According to [[Game Theory]], it is statistically unwise to buy insurance, given that the potential win is not enough to justify the risk of losing (there are 12 different cards, and either 4 or 1 are any good if insurance is possible).
==Glossary==
* 'Combined Ratio' = loss ratio + expense ratio. Loss Ratio is calculated by dividing the amount of losses by the amount of written premium. Expense ratio is calculated by dividing the amount of operational expenses by the amount of earned premium. A lower number indicates a better return on the amount of capital placed at risk by an insurer.
==Quote==
* [[Maurice R. Greenberg|Hank Greenberg]] told his board of directors, "you can't even spell 'insurance'"[http://editor.slate.msn.com/default.aspx/id/2116167/nav/ais/] (hearsay, April 2005)
==See also==
* [[Cindy Ossias]]
* [[False insurance claims]]
* [[Financial services]] (broader industry to which insurance belongs)
* [[Intergovernmental Risk Pool]]
* [[Uberrima fides]]
===Lists===
* [[List of finance topics#insurance|List of insurance topics]]
* [[List of finance topics]]
* [[List of U.S. insurance companies]]
==External links==
*[http://www.internationalinsurance.org/international/rankings Insurance industry statistics in the world.]
*[http://www.iii.org/media/facts/statsbyissue/industry Insurance industry statistics in the U.S.]
*[http://www.eh.net/encyclopedia/?article=murphy.life.insurance.us Life Insurance in the United States through World War I]
*[http://www.encyclopedia.com/html/section/insuranc_TheHistoryofInsurance.asp Columbia Encyclopedia: The History of Insurance]
[[Category:Insurance|*]]
[[Category:Service industries]]
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[[ms:Insuran]]
[[nl:Verzekering]]
[[ja:保険]]
[[no:Forsikring]]
[[pl:Ubezpieczenie]]
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International Convention for the Prevention of Pollution from Ships
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#REDIRECT [[MARPOL 73/78]]
International environmental law
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128.223.242.199
'''International environmental law''' is the body of [[international law]] that concerns the protection of the global environment.
There have been many [[environmental agreements|legally-binding international agreements]] concerning the protection of the environment, but in this area of international law [[soft law]] is more common than normal.
Some basic principles of international environmental law are:
*the [[precautionary principle]]
*the [[polluter pays principle]]
*the principle of [[sustainable development]]
*environmental procedural rights
Important cases have included the various [[nuclear testing|nuclear testing]] cases such as between [[New Zealand]] and [[France]] before the [[International Court of Justice]].
Groups active in the area include the [http://www.elaw.org/ Environmental Law Alliance Worldwide(E-LAW)] and the[http://www.ciel.org/ Centre for International Environmental Law]
International environmental lawyers often receive specialized training in the form of an LL.M. degree after having a first law degree -- often in another country from where they got their first law degree. Notable programs include the[http://www.law.uoregon.edu/org/llm/ LL.M. in Environmental Law Program at the University of Oregon]
{{law-stub}}
[[Category:Environmental law]]
Indira Gandhi
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/* Operation Blue Star and Assassination */
{{cleanup-date|January 2006}}
{| cellpadding="2" cellspacing="0" style="float: right; clear: right; border: 1px solid; margin-left: 1em"
|+ '''Indira Priyadarshini Gandhi'''
! bgcolor="#efefef" colspan="2" | [[Image:Indira Gandhi.jpg|250px|Indira Gandhi]]
|-
! Date of Birth:
| [[19 November]], [[1917]]
|-
! Date of Assassination:
| [[31 October]], [[1984]]
|-
! Place of Birth:
| [[Allahabad]], [[Uttar Pradesh|UP]], [[India]]
|-
! bgcolor="#efefef" colspan="2" | [[Prime Minister of India]]
|-
! Tenure Order:
| 3rd & 6th Prime Minister
|-
! Political party:
| [[Indian National Congress|Congress (I)]]
|-
! colspan="2" style="border-top: 1px solid" | First Term
|-
! Took Office:
| [[19 January]], [[1966]]
|-
! Left Office:
| [[24 March]], [[1977]]
|-
! Predecessor:
| [[Gulzarilal Nanda]]
|-
! Successor:
| [[Morarji Desai]]
|-
! colspan="2" style="border-top: 1px solid" | Second Term
|-
! Took Office:
| [[15 January]], [[1980]]
|-
! Left Office:
| [[31 October]], [[1984]]
|-
! Predecessor:
| [[Choudhary Charan Singh|Charan Singh]]
|-
! Successor:
| [[Rajiv Gandhi]]
|}
'''Indira Priyadarshini Gandhi (इन्दिरा प्रियदर्शिनी गान्धी)''' ([[19 November]], [[1917]] – [[31 October]], [[1984]]) was [[Prime Minister of India]] from [[19 January]], [[1966]] to [[24 March]], [[1977]], and again from [[14 January]], [[1980]] until her [[assassination]] on [[31 October]], [[1984]].
The daughter of Prime Minister [[Jawaharlal Nehru]] (and not related to [[Mahatma Gandhi]]), she was one of modern [[India]]'s most notable and politically controversial leaders.
==Early years==
The [[Nehru]] family can trace their ancestry to the [[Brahmin]]s of [[Jammu and Kashmir]] and [[Delhi]]. Indira's grandfather [[Motilal Nehru]] was a wealthy barrister of [[Allahabad]] in what is now [[Uttar Pradesh]]. Nehru was one of the most prominent members of the [[Indian National Congress]] in pre-[[Gandhi]] times and would go on to author the [[Nehru Report]], the people's choice for a future Indian system of government as opposed to the British system. Her father [[Jawaharlal Nehru]] was a well-educated lawyer and was a popular leader of the [[Indian Independence Movement]]. Indira was born to his young wife Kamala, at this juncture Nehru entered the independence movement with [[Mahatma Gandhi]].
Growing up in the sole care of her mother, who was sick and alienated from the Nehru household, Indira developed strong protective instincts and a loner personality. Her grandfather and father continually being enmeshed in national politics also made mixing with her peers difficult. She had conflicts with her father's sisters, and these continued into the political world.
Indira created the [[Vanara Sena]] movement for young girls and boys which played a small but notable role in the [[Indian Independence Movement]], conducting protests and flag marches, as well as helping Congress politicians circulate sensitive publications and banned materials. In an often-told story, Indira smuggled out from her father's police-watched house an important document in her schoolbag that outlined plans for a major revolutionary initiative in the early [[1930s]].
In 1936, her mother [[Kamala Nehru]] finally succumbed to [[tuberculosis]] after a long struggle. Indira was 17 at the time and thus never experienced a stable family life during her childhood. Indira attended prominent Indian, European and British schools like [[Santiniketan]] and [[Oxford]], but her weak academic performance prevented her from obtaining a degree. In her years in continental Europe and the U.K., she met [[Feroze Gandhi]], a young [[Parsee]] Congress activist, whom she married in 1942, just before the beginning of the [[Quit India Movement]] - the final, all-out national revolt launched by [[Gandhi]] and the Congress Party. Indira and Feroze were arrested and detained for several months for their involvement in the movement. In 1944, Indira gave birth to [[Rajiv Gandhi]], followed two years later by [[Sanjay Gandhi]].
During the traumatic [[Partition of India]] in 1947, Indira helped organize refugee camps and provide medical care for the millions of refugees from [[Pakistan]]. This was her first exercise in major public service, and a valuable experience for the tumult of the coming years.
==Personal Life==
The couple later settled in [[Allahabad]] where Feroze worked for a Congress Party newspaper and an insurance company. Their marriage started out well, but deteriorated later as Indira moved to [[Delhi]] to be at the side of her father, the Prime Minister, who was living alone in a high-pressure environment. Indira became his constant confidante, secretary and nurse. The boys lived with her, and the separation eventually became permanent.
When India's first general election approached in 1952, Indira managed the campaigns of both Nehru and her husband, who was contesting the constituency of [[Rae Bareilly]]. Feroze had not consulted Nehru on his choice to run, and even though he was elected, he opted to live in a separate house in Delhi. Feroze quickly developed a reputation for being a fighter against [[political corruption|corruption]] by exposing a major scandal in the nationalized insurance industry, resulting in the resignation of the Finance Minister, a Nehru aide.
At the height of the tension, it was known to both that Feroze was having extramarital affairs. However, in 1957, shortly after re-election, Feroze suffered a heart attack, which dramatically healed Indira's broken marriage. At his side to help him recuperate in [[Kashmir]], Indira, her husband and her children grew closer. But Feroze died on [[8 September]], [[1960]], while Indira was abroad with Nehru on a foreign visit.
==Rise to Power==
From 1959 - 1960, Indira was elected the President of the [[Indian National Congress]]. Her term of office was uneventful. Indira also acted as her father's chief of staff. Nehru was known as a vocal opponent of [[nepotism]], and Indira did not contest a seat in the 1962 elections.
Nehru died in May of 1964, and Indira, at the urgings of the new Prime Minister [[Lal Bahadur Shastri]], contested elections and joined the Government, being immediately appointed Minister for Information and Broadcasting. She went to [[Chennai]] when the riots over Hindi becoming the national language broke out in Southern, non-Hindi speaking states: There she spoke to government officials, soothed the anger of community leaders and supervised reconstruction efforts for the affected areas. Shastri and senior Ministers were embarrassed, owing to their lack of such initiative. Indira's actions were probably not directly aimed at Shastri or her own political elevation. Indira lacked interest for details in work and was a lack-lustre Minister, but she was media-savvy, and adept at the art of politics and image-making.
When the [[Indo-Pakistani War of 1965]] broke out, Indira was vacationing in the border region of [[Srinagar]]. Although warned by the Army that Pakistani insurgents had penetrated very close to the city, Indira refused to shift to [[Jammu]] or [[Delhi]]. She rallied local government and welcomed media attention, in effect reassuring the nation. Indira was hailed as the "only man in a cabinet full of women". Shastri died in [[Tashkent]], while conducting the peace agreement with Pakistan's Ayub Khan, with Soviet mediation. The circumstances of his death are unclear to this day. It is alleged that seniors in the Congress Party, changed the Prime Minister's personal aides at the very last moment. Others feel it was an assassination made to order since Indira was elected, in rather undue haste, as the person to succeed him.
Shastri had been a candidate of consensus, bridging the left-right gap and staving off the conservative [[Morarji Desai]]. Among Indira's many supporters was Congress President [[Kumaraswami Kamaraj]]. Many years later, Kamaraj declared that he had made a personal vow to Nehru, to make Indira, the Prime Minister 'at any cost'. (Nehru had assisted Kamaraj earlier in his political ambitions and had made him the General Secretary of the Congress Party. Kamaraj could speak only his native Tamil; Nehru's insistence at having Kamaraj in the most important post had raised eyebrows earlier). In a vote of the Congress Parliamentary Party, Indira won against Desai, 355 to 169, becoming the third Prime Minister of India, the first woman to hold that position in the world's most populous democracy.
[[Image:Indira_and_Nixon.JPG|thumb|Richard Nixon and Indira Gandhi in 1971]]
==Nuclear Security and the Green Revolution==
During the 1971 War, the US had sent its 7th Fleet to the [[Bay of Bengal]] as a warning to India not to use the genocide in East Pakistan as a pretext to launch a wider attack against West Pakistan, especially over the disputed territory of [[Kashmir]]. This move had further alienated India from the First World, and Indira now accelerated a previously cautious new direction in national security and foreign policy. India and the [[USSR]] had earlier signed the Treaty of Friendship and Mutual Cooperation, the resulting political and military support contributing substantially to India's victory in the 1971 war.
But Indira now also accelerated the national nuclear program, as it was felt that the nuclear threat from [[China]] and the intrusive interest of the two major superpowers were not conducive to India's stability and security. Indira also invited the new Pakistani President [[Zulfikar Ali Bhutto]] to [[Shimla]] for a week-long summit. After near-failure of the talks, Bhutto and Indira eventually signed the [[Shimla Agreement]], which bound the two countries to resolve the Kashmir dispute by negotiations and peaceful means.
Indira Gandhi was heavily criticized for not extracting the Pakistan-occupied portion of Kashmir from a humiliated Pakistan, whose 93,000 POWs were under Indian control. But the agreement did remove immediate United Nations and third party interference, and much reduced the likelihood of Pakistan launching a major attack in the near future. By not demanding total capitulation on a sensitive issue from Bhutto, Indira had allowed Pakistan to stabilize and normalize. Trade relations were also normalized, though much contact remained frozen for years.
In 1974, India successfully conducted an underground nuclear test near the desert village of [[Pokhran]] in [[Rajasthan]]. Describing the test as for "peaceful purposes", India nevertheless became the world's youngest nuclear power. This move naturally prompted Pakistan's nuclear program.
Special agricultural innovation programs and extra government support launched in the 1960s had finally resulted in India's chronic food shortages gradually being transformed into major production surpluses of wheat, rice, cotton and milk. The country became a food exporter, and diversified its commercial crop production as well, in what has become known as the ''[[Green Revolution]]''. At the same time, the White Revolution was an expansion in milk production which helped to combat malnutrition, especially amidst young children. Indira's economic policies, while socialistic, brought major industrialization as well.
==The PM's Personal Life==
Indira Gandhi, heroine and icon that she had become after 1971, just like her father was now more emotionally isolated than ever. The instability of her childhood had prevented her from developing her own independent personal interests and lifestyle. It had been her sense of duty and pride in her father and family legacy that had brought her into politics, but she had never been given the space to develop as a person. Through the 1950s and 1960s, she had corresponded with Dorothy Norman, a New York-based journalist, who became a very close friend via correspondence. But apart from political associates, she had no personal friends. Her sons were 'studying in England' (neither obtained any formal degrees from any university and in a sense were failures professionally). She was fond of her grandchildren. But she grew ever more close to her younger son, Sanjay, who is accused by many historians of misusing his mother's emotional dependence.
Indira Gandhi may have seen traits of Feroze in Sanjay and was ever-anxious to please him, as she perceived that Sanjay blamed her for his father's death. While Rajiv developed as an independent young man free from politics, Sanjay's reckless youth induced a need in his mother to take care of her son under all circumstances. The outcome was a political partnership that eventually resulted in abrogation of democracy, corruption and abuse of power on a previously unwitnessed scale. Rajiv Gandhi is believed to have said that he would never forgive his brother for what he had done to their mother at a time when Indira was isolated, depressed and humiliated after her defeat in the 1977 elections.
==Emergency==
{{main|Indian Emergency}}
Indira's government faced major problems after 1971. [[Sycophant|Sycophancy]] enveloped her administration, leaving the Congress Party entirely dependent on her leadership for its election fortunes. Socialism and a burgeoning bureaucracy brought major inefficiency and corruption into the national economy and administration. The Green Revolution was transforming the lives of India's vast underclasses, but not with the speed promised under ''Garibi Hatao''. Job growth was not strong enough to curb the widespread unemployment. A government contract to build India's first indigenous car was awarded to [[Sanjay Gandhi]], whose [[Maruti]] company subsequently failed to produce a single unit.
Indira had stood accused of authoritarianism before. Using her strong parliamentary majority, she had amended the Constitution and stripped power from the states granted under the federal system. The Congress Party government had repeatedly imposed ''President's Rule'' by deeming states ruled by opposition parties as "lawless and chaotic", thus winning administrative control of those states. Elected officials resented the growing influence of Sanjay Gandhi, who had become Indira's close political advisor at the expense of men like P.N. Haksar, the architect of Indira's political ascendancy. Renowned public figures and former freedom-fighters like [[Jaya Prakash Narayan]] and [[Acharya Jivatram Kripalani]] now spoke actively against her Government.
Opponents had long alleged that Indira's party fraudulently won the 1971 elections. In June 1975 the [[High Courts of India|High Court of Allahabad]] found the sitting Prime Minister guilty of employing a government servant in her election campaign and Congress Party work. Technically, this constituted election fraud, and the court thus ordered her to be removed from her seat in Parliament and banned from running in elections for six years.
It was known that the Congress Party were indulging in shady practices for a long time, but this was the first time that a judge had acted dramatically against that corruption. Indira appealed the decision; the opposition parties rallied en masse, calling for her resignation. Strikes by unions and protest rallies paralyzed life in many states. J.P. Narayan's [[Janata]] coalition even called upon the police to disobey orders if asked to fire on an unarmed public. Public disenchantment combined with hard economic times and an unresponsive government. A huge rally surrounded the Parliament building and Indira's residence in Delhi, demanding her to behave responsibly and resign.
Indira advised President [[Fakhruddin Ali Ahmed]] to declare a [[state of emergency]]. Ahmed was an old political ally, and in India the President acts upon the advice of an elected PM alone. (This former Governor of a border state had organized the infiltration of several million Bangladeshis into India). Claiming patriotism, some Indians saw this alliance as a political evil. Having secured a state of emergency, Indira called out the police and the army to break up the strikes and protests, ordering the arrest of all opposition leaders. Many of these were men who had first gone to jail fighting the British in the 1930s and 1940s. Curfews, indiscriminate charges, and unlimited powers of detention were granted to police, while all publications were directly censored by the Ministry for Information and Broadcasting. Elections were indefinitely postponed, and non-Congress state governments were dismissed.
The Prime Minister pushed a series of increasingly harsh bills and constitutional amendments through parliament with little discussion or debate. Indira attempted to re-write the nation's laws to protect herself from legal prosecution once emergency rule was revoked. Still, Indira did not feel her powers were amassing quickly enough, so she utilized President [[Fakhruddin Ali Ahmed]], an Indira loyalist, to issue "extraordinary laws" that bypassed parliament altogether, allowing her to [[rule by decree]]. [[Inder Kumar Gujral]], future Prime Minister but then Indira's Minister for Information and Broadcasting, resigned to protest Sanjay's interference in his Ministry's work. With a few exceptions everyone fell in line to Indira and Sanjay's style of rule; sychophancy and servile attitude in politics were encouraged and came to stay.
Indira's emergency rule lasted nineteen months. During this time, in spite of the controversy involved, the country made significant economic and industrial progress. This was primarily due to the end it put to strikes in factories, colleges, and universities and the disciplining of trade and student unions. Production and government work became more efficient. Tax evasion was reduced by zealous government officials, although corruption remained. Agricultural and industrial production expanded considerably under Indira's 20-point programme; revenues increased, and so did India's financial standing in the international community. Against this must be counted the arrest and torture of thousands of political activists, the ruthless clearing of slums around Delhi's Jama Masjid area ordered by Sanjay, which left hundreds of thousands of people homeless and thousands killed, and the family planning program which forcibly imposed [[vasectomy]] on thousands of fathers and was often poorly administered, nurturing a public anger against family planning that persists into the 21st century.
In 1977, greatly misjudging her own popularity, Indira called elections and was roundly defeated. To the surprise of some observers, she meekly agreed to step down, although the theory has been proposed that Field Marshall [[Sam Maneckshaw]], Chief of Army Staff, threatened her by suggesting the possibility of forcible removal.
==Ouster, Arrest and Return==
The unwieldy [[BJP|Janata]] Party coalition came to power in the 1977 elections. [[Morarji Desai]], Indira's long-time opponent, became Prime Minister and [[Neelam Sanjiva Reddy]], the establishment choice of 1969, became President of the Republic. Indira had lost her seat and found herself without work, income or residence. The Congress Party split, and veteran Indira supporters like [[Jagjivan Ram]] abandoned her for Janata. The Congress (Indira) Party was now a much smaller group in Parliament, although the official opposition. Unable to govern owing to fractious coalition warfare, the Janata government's Home Minister, [[Choudhary Charan Singh]], ordered the arrest of Indira and Sanjay Gandhi on a slew of charges. Her arrest and long-running trial, however, projected the image of a helpless woman being victimized by the Government, and this triggered Indira's political rebirth.
The people were already dissatisfied with a dysfunctional government, a stagnant economy, disorderly coalition governments at the state levels, near-continuous strikes and disorder, and frustratingly stalled trials of Emergency-era culprits. Millions of poor people recalled their former icon, and the middle classes recalled the order, peace and progress of the Emergency. They were disenchanted by the return of elections and freedom of expression, noting the disorder it caused. Indira began giving speeches again, tacitly apologizing for "mistakes" made during the Emergency, and garnering support from icons like [[Vinoba Bhave]]. Desai resigned in June 1979, and Charan Singh was appointed Prime Minister by the President.
Singh attempted to form a government with his Janata (Secular) coalition but lacked a majority. Charan Singh bargained with Indira for the support of Congress (I) MPs, causing uproar by his unhesitant coddling of his biggest political opponent. After a short interval, Indira withdrew her initial support and President [[Neelam Sanjiva Reddy]] dissolved Parliament, calling fresh elections in 1980. Indira's Congress (I) Party was returned to power with a landslide majority.
== Operation Blue Star and Assassination==
[[Image:Indira Time.jpg|thumb|250px|Time magzine covered a feature on Mrs. Gandhi after her assasination]]
Indira Gandhi found her toughest opponent in [[Jarnail Singh Bhindranwale]]. Much misunderstanding has existed in the state-controlled Indian press regarding this charismatic leader of the Sikhs. There is no evidence to believe that he began the movement for Khalistan, even though Indira Gandhi labelled him a separatist. On September 1981, Bhindrawale voluntarily offered his arrest in Amritsar, where he was detained and interrogated for twenty-five days, but was released because of lack of evidence. After his release, Bhindranwale relocated himself from his headquarters at Mehta Chowk to Guru Nanak Niwas within the Darbar Sahib precincts.<ref>Ibid, p. 105.</ref> This move of Bhindrawale is generally seen as the reason for Indira Gandhi's attack on the Darbar Sahib. The Indian army, however, attacked not only this important shine, but 37 additional shrines across Punjab where there were no Sikh nationalists or militants in residence.<ref>Mahmood, Cynthia Keppley, “Dynamics of Terror in Punjab and Kashmir,” Jeffrey A. Sluka, ed., Death Squad: The Anthropology of State Terror, Philadelphia: University of Pennsylvania Press, 2000, p. 77.</ref> Bhindranwale’s presence at the shrine, therefore, was a minor factor, if a factor at all, in Indira Gandhi’s decision to attack the Sikh Vatican. In fact, “the then deputy commissioner of Amritsar, Gurdev Singh…said that he had categorically informed the highest officials of the Punjab government that if they wanted to arrest Bhindranwale, there would be no major difficulty in organizing it. The chief minister, the governor of Punjab and other senior officials told him that the directive to take action against Bhindranwale had to come from Delhi.”<ref>Kumar, Ram Narayan, et. al., Reduced to Ashes, p. 34</ref> These orders never came because Bhindranwale had no outstanding charges against him. Arun Shourie of The Indian Express noted, "For all I know, he [Bhindranwale] is completely innocent and is genuinely and exclusively dedicated to the teachings of the Gurus.”<ref>Arun Shourie, “The consequences of pandering”, The Indian Express, May 13, 1982.</ref> In December 1983, a senior officer in Chandigarh confessed: “It’s really shocking that we have so little against him [Bhindranwale] while we keep blaming him for all sorts of things.”<ref>India Today, 31 December 1983, page 36.</ref> Therefore, to think that Bhindranwale invited an attack from the Indian army through his presence at the Darbar Sahib is to ignore an established fact that the army operation was planned well in advance, as stated by S. K. Sinha, a major figure in the Indian Army. The attack had been planned several months beforehand and was timed for an important anniversary in the [[Sikhism|Sikh]] calendar when thousands of pilgrims would be expected to be present.<ref>Joyce Pettigrew, "Parents and Their Children in Situation of Terror: Disappearances and Special Police Activity in Punjab," ''Death Squad: The Anthropology of State Terror'' (Philadelphia: University of Pennsylvania Press, 2000), p. 204. </ref> The army operation was followed by wholesale killings of [[Sikhism|Sikh]] males between the ages of 15 and 35 in Punjab’s villages.<ref>Mary Anne Weaver, The Christian Science Monitor, [[15 October]], [[1984]]. Also see ''ibid''.</ref> These violent events, together with organized massacre of Sikhs in India’s major cities in November 1984, and daily terror families subsequently experienced in Punjab’s villages gave rise to resistance.<ref> Joyce Pettigrew, "Parents and Their Children in Situation of Terror: Disappearances and Special Police Activity in Punjab," ''Death Squad: The Anthropology of State Terror'' (Philadelphia: University of Pennsylvania Press, 2000), p. 204. </ref>
Sikhs everywhere were outraged at the desecration of their holiest shrine. On [[October 31]], [[1984]], two of her Sikh bodyguards assassinated Indira Gandhi in the garden of her home.
Indira Gandhi was cremated on [[3 November]], near Raj Ghat and the place was called [[Raj Ghat and other memorials|Shakti Sthal]]. After her death, anti-Sikh [[pogroms]] engulfed [[New Delhi]] and spread across the country, killing thousands and leaving tens of thousands homeless.
==The Nehru-Gandhi Family==
[[Rajiv Gandhi]] entered politics in February 1981 and became Prime Minister on his mother's death, later (May 1991) himself meeting a similar fate, this time at the hands of Sri Lankan [[Liberation Tigers of Tamil Eelam]] (LTTE) militants. Rajiv's widow, [[Sonia Gandhi]], a native Italian, led a novel Congress-led coalition to a surprise electoral victory in the 2004 [[Lok Sabha]] elections, evicting [[Atal Bihari Vajpayee]] and his National Democratic Alliance (NDA) from power.
Sonia Gandhi controversially declined the opportunity to assume the office of Prime Minister but remains in control of the Congress political apparatus; Dr. [[Manmohan Singh]], notably a Sikh and a Nehru-Gandhi family loyalist, now heads the nation. Rajiv's children, [[Rahul Gandhi]] and [[Priyanka Gandhi]], have also entered politics. Sanjay Gandhi's widow, [[Maneka Gandhi]], who had a falling out with Indira after Sanjay's death, as well as his son, [[Varun Gandhi|Varun]], are active in politics as members of the main opposition [[Bharatiya Janata Party|BJP]] party.
Indira's story mirrors the afflictions suffered by many leaderships in third world nations. Nepotism, rigging of elections, theft from the national exchequer to win local elections.
Though frequently called '''The Nehru-Gandhi Family''', Indira was in no way related to the Mahatma. Though Mahatma was a family friend, Gandhi in her name comes from her marriage to Feroze Gandhi, a Parsi.
==Legacy==
Until this day, Indira's legacy as Prime Minister remains mixed. She was a strong, forceful personality and her reign was popular with some segments of India's population, especially the left. Her phrase "poverty is the greatest pollutor" in her remarkable speech at the first UN World Environmental Conference in Stockholm in 1972 set her (and India at the time) apart in attempting to harmonise environmental and developmental concerns in developing countries. In her early struggles to gain control of the Congress party, she transformed Indian politics by appealing directly to the people and subverting the established structure of Congress. The inadvertent result of this was fragmentation of the political hierarchy, resulting in the later rise of parties such as the [[Bahujan Samaj Party|BSP]] and the [[Samajwadi Party]], allowing previously marginalised communities to gain political representation.
Some suggest that Indira, despite her heavy-handed tactics and mistakes, was vital for India's democracy and unity, citing the faith in democracy of hundreds of millions of people united only in poverty and ignorance depended upon iconic leaders and guardians. It is suggested that the only viable alternative for India was to trade democracy for a dictatorship in view of the national insecurity and economic deprivation that defined the 1960s for India. Unfortunately, Indira's hard-nosed, zero-tolerance approach left serious divisions in India.
==External links==
* [http://www.findagrave.com/cgi-bin/fg.cgi?page=gr&GRid=6000976 Indira Gandhi's Gravesite]
== References ==
<references/>
* http://www.vepachedu.org/Nehrudynasty.html
* [[Ved Mehta]], ''A Family Affair: India Under Three Prime Ministers'' (1982) ISBN 0195031180
* Katherine Frank, ''Indira: the life of Indira Nehru Gandhi'' (2002) ISBN 039573097X
{{start box}}
{{succession box | title=[[Prime Minister of India]] | before=[[Gulzarilal Nanda]] | after=[[Morarji Desai]] | years=[[19 January]], [[1966]] – [[24 March]], [[1977]]}}
{{succession box | title=[[Prime Minister of India]] | before=[[Choudhary Charan Singh]] | after=[[Rajiv Gandhi]] | years=[[15 January]], [[1980]] – [[31 October]], [[1984]]}}
{{end box}}
{{Prime Ministers of India}}
[[Category:1917 births|Gandhi, Indira]]
[[Category:1984 deaths|Gandhi, Indira]]
[[Category:Assassinated politicians|Gandhi, Indira]]
[[Category:Bharat Ratna recipients|Gandhi, Indira]]
[[Category:Debaters|Gandhi, Indira]]
[[Category:Indian National Congress]]
[[Category:Female heads of government|Gandhi, Indira]]
[[Category:Firearm deaths|Gandhi, Indira]]
[[Category:Former students of Somerville College, Oxford|Gandhi, Indira]]
[[Category:Indian women|Gandhi, Indira]]
[[Category:Politics of India|Gandhi, Indira]]
[[Category:Political families of India]]
[[Category:Prime Ministers of India|Gandhi, Indira]]
[[Category:Women in war|Gandhi, Indira]]
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Intergovernmentalism
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'''Intergovernmentalism''' is a theory of decision-making in [[international organization]]s, where power is possessed by the [[member-state]]s and decisions are made by [[unanimity]]. Independent [[appoint]]ees of the [[government]]s or elected representatives have solely advisory or implementational functions. Intergovernmentalism is used by most international organizations today.
An alternative method of decision-making in international organizations is [[supranationalism]].
Intergovernmentalism is also a theory on European integration which rejects the idea of [[neofunctionalism]]. The theory, initially proposed by Stanley Hoffmann ([http://www.gov.harvard.edu/Faculty/Bios/Hoffmann.htm biography]) suggests that national governments control the level and speed of [[European integration]]. Any increase in power at supranational level, he argues, results from a direct decision by governments. He believed that integration, driven by national governments, was often based on the domestic political and economic issues of the day. The theory rejects the concept of the spill-over effect that neofunctionalism proposes. He also rejects the idea that supranational organisations are on an equal level (in terms of political influence) as national governments.
==See also==
* [[Federation]].
* [[Continental Union]].
* [[European Union]].
* [[Mundialization]].
[[Category:Federalism]]
[[Category:European Union]]
[[de:intergovernmental]]
Individualism
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'''Individualism''' is a moral, political, and social philosophy, which emphasizes individual [[liberty]], the primary importance of the [[individual]], and the "virtues of self-reliance" and "personal independence". Individualism embraces opposition to [[authority]], and to all manner of controls over the individual, especially when exercised by the political [[state]] or "[[society]]." It is thus directly opposed to ''[[collectivism]]'', which advocates subordination of the individual to the will of the society or community. It is often confused with "[[egoism]]," but an individualist need not be an egoist.
==Political individualism==
In political philosophy, the individualist theory of [[government]] holds that the state should take a merely defensive role by protecting the liberty of each individual to act as he wishes as long he does not infringe on the same liberty of another. This contrasts with collectivist political theories, where, rather than leaving the individual to pursue his own ends, the state ensures that the individual serves the interests of society when taken as a whole. It also contrasts with fascism, where the individual is required to serve the interests of the state. The term has also been used to describe "individual initiative" and "freedom of the individual" in general, perhaps best described by the French term "laissez faire," a verb meaning "to let [the people] do" [for themselves what they know how to do].
In practice, individualists are chiefly concerned with protecting individual autonomy by opposing encroachment by the state. They pay particular attention to protecting the liberties of the minority against transgressions by the majority and see the individual as the smallest minority. For example, individualists oppose democratic systems unless constitutional protections exist that preserve individual liberty of individuals from being diminished by the interests of the majority. These concerns encompass both civil and economic liberties. One typical concern is the concentration of commercial and industrial enterprise in the hands of the state, and the municipality. The principles upon which this opposition is based are mainly two: that popularly-elected representatives are not likely to have the qualifications, or the sense of responsibility, required for dealing with the multitudinous enterprises, and the large sums of public money involved in civic administration; and that the "health of the state" depends upon the exertions of individuals for their personal benefit (who, "like cells", are the containers of the life of the body). Individualism may take a radicalist approach, as in [[individualist anarchism]].
The individualist sees society as "a large number of individuals working together" to improve their individual and collective welfare. The single person is not just a member of a greater unity. In fact, the single individual is seen as "the ultimate unity," and society is nothing more than a composition of these "individuals". The "state" is an organized form of society, which "ensures the individual's freedom" by law (under the protections of a republic). Thus, individualist policy tends to approve laws that protect, or otherwise enhance the liberties of the individual citizen, but rejects laws that subordinate the individual to the collective.
==Individualism and society==
[[Jean-Jacques Rousseau]]'s "[[social contract]]" maintains that each individual is under implicit contract to submit his own will to the "general will." This advocacy of subordinating the individual will to a collective will is in fundamental opposition to the individualist philosophy. An individualist enters into society to further his own interests, or at least demands the ''right'' to serve his own interests, without taking the interests of society into consideration (an individualist need not be an [[egoist]]). The individualist does not lend credence to any philosophy that requires the sacrifice of the self-interest of the individual for any "higher" social causes.
Societies and groups can differ, in the extent to which they are based upon predominantly "self-regarding" (individualistic, and arguably self-interested) rather than "other-regarding" (group-oriented, and group, or society-minded) behaviour. There is also a distinction, relevant in this context, between "guilt" societies (e.g. medieval Europe) with an "internal reference standard", and "shame" societies (e.g. Japan, "bringing shame upon one's ancestors") with an "external reference standard", where people look to their peers for feedback, as to whether an action is "acceptable" or not (also known as "group-think").
The extent to which society, or groups are "individualistic" can vary from time to time, and from country to country. For example, Japanese society is more group-oriented (e.g. decisions tend to be taken by consensus among groups, rather than by individuals), and it has been argued that "personalities are less developed" (than is usual in the West). The USA is usually thought of as being at the individualistic (its detractors would say "[[atomistic]]") "end of the spectrum", whereas [[European ]]societies are more inclined to believe in "public-spiritedness", state "socialistic" spending, and in "public" initiatives.
[[John Kenneth Galbraith]] made a classic distinction between "private affluence and public squalor" in the USA, and private squalor and public affluence in, for example, Europe, and there is a correlation between individualism and degrees of public sector intervention and taxation.
Individualism is often contrasted with either [[totalitarianism]] or [[collectivism]], but in fact there is a spectrum of behaviours ranging at the societal level from highly individualistic societies (e.g. the USA) through mixed societies (a term the [[UK]] has used in the post-[[World War II]] period) to collectivist. Also, many collectivists (particularly supporters of [[anarchism]] or [[libertarian socialism]]) point to the enormous differences between liberty-minded collectivism and totalitarian practices.
Individualism, sometimes closely associated with certain variants of [[individualist anarchism]], [[libertarianism]] or [[classical liberalism]], typically takes it for granted that individuals know best and that public authority or [[society]] has the right to interfere in the person's decision-making process only when a very compelling need to do so arises (and maybe not even in those circumstances). This type of argument is often observed in relation to policy debates regarding regulation of industries.
==Economic individualism==
The doctrine of [[economic individualism]] holds that each individual should be allowed autonomy in making his own economic decisions as opposed to those decisions being made by the state, or the community, for him. Morever, it supports the liberty of individuals to own property as opposed to state or collective arrangements. Such an economic system is often called ''[[laissez-faire]]'' or ''[[capitalism]].
Critics of modern capitalism sometimes argue that [[capitalism]] is not based on individuals but largely on firms and [[institution|institutions]], and that individuals' roles are largely determined by these institutions. However, compared to various forms of political [[collectivism]], capitalism is usually still considered as individualistic since participation in these institutions is [[voluntary]] and an individual choice. Yet, capitalism can also thrive in certain [[collectivism|collectivistic]] societies with individual choice. The only difference is what the choice is based on: individual need versus collective need.
==Individualism and US history==
At the time of the formation of the [[United States]], many of its citizens had fled from state or religious oppression in Europe and were influenced by the egalitarian and fraternal ideals that later found expression in the [[French revolution]]. Such ideas influenced the framers of the [[United States Constitution|U.S. Constitution]] (the Jeffersonian [[United States Democratic-Republican Party|Democratic-Republicans]]) who believed that the government should seek to protect individual rights in the constitution itself; this idea later led to the [[United States Bill of Rights|Bill of Rights]].
==Opposing views==
Individualism has negative connotations in certain societies and environments where it is associated with selfishness. For example, individualism is highly frowned upon in [[Japan]] where self-interested behavior is traditionally regarded as a kind of [[betrayal]] of those to whom one has obligations (e.g. [[family]] and firm). The absence of [[universal health care]] in the United States, which traces back to a belief in individual (rather than societal) responsibility, is widely criticised in Europe and other countries where universal health care (usually funded through general taxation) is seen as protecting individuals from the vagaries of health problems. Health care in the United States is provided through private insurance. Some people who cannot afford health insurance in the United States are eligible for [[Medicaid]], a gvernment-sponsored program. Medicare is generally only available to those who are disabled and to single mothers (and their children). Not all doctors will accept medicare, typically just doctors in poor areas of the country who might have a large number of Medicare patients.
Proponents of such public initiatives and [[social responsibility]] argue that their policies are beneficial for the individual, and that excessive individualism may actually hurt the individuals themselves. Opponents hold that such public initiatives may have [[law_of_unintended_consequences|unintended consequences]] beyond the issues they are intended to address. Many individualists find the "beneficial to the individual" argument repugnant and argue that individualism is not about individual benefit so much as individual choice.
==References==
* [[Adam Smith]] ''The Wealth of Nations''
* [[Karl Popper]] ''The Open Society and Its Enemies''
* [[Alan Waterman]] ''The Psychology of Individualism''
* [[Lawrence Kohlberg]] ''Six Stages of Moral Development''
==See also==
*[[Anarchism]]
*[[Collectivism]] (opposite of individualism)
*[[Anarcho-capitalism]]
*[[Contrarian]]
*[[Individualist anarchism]]
*[[Libertarianism]]
*[[Self-ownership]]
*[[Tragedy of the commons]]
*[[Tragedy of the anticommons]]
==External links==
{{Philosophy portal}}
*[http://www.individual-i.com Individual-I]
*[http://www.encaoua.net The Individualist's Portal]
*[http://translate.google.com/translate?hl=en&sl=fr&u=http://kropot.free.fr/Palante-individu.htm&prev=/search%3Fq%3D%2522Georges%2BPalante%2522%26hl%3Den%26lr%3D%26c2coff%3D1%26safe%3Doff%26sa%3DG ''Individualistic sensitivity''] by [[Georges Palente]] roughly translated into English
*[http://raforum.apinc.org/article.php3?id_article=169 ''Manifesto''] by [[Josiah Warren]] Classic individualist treatise by the first American anarchist
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Intersexuality
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An '''intersexual''' or '''intersex''' person (or organism of any [[unisexual]] species) is one who is born with [[genitalia]] and/or [[secondary sex characteristic]]s determined as neither exclusively male nor female, or which combine features of the male and female sexes. The terms ''[[hermaphrodite]]'' and ''pseudohermaphrodite'', introduced in the 19th century, are now considered misleading and stigmatizing, and patient advocates call for these terms to be abandoned. There is also a move to drop the term "intersex", replacing it with "Disorders of Sex Development" (DSD). The phrase "ambiguous genitalia" refers specifically to genital appearance, but not all intersex conditions result in atypical genital appearance.
==Overview==
According to the highest estimates (Fausto-Sterling et. al., 2000) perhaps 1 percent of live [[childbirth|birth]]s exhibit some degree of sexual ambiguity [http://www.isna.org/faq/frequency], and that between 0.1% and 0.2% of live births are ambiguous enough to become the subject of specialist medical attention, including [[surgery]] to disguise their sexual ambiguity. Other sources (Leonard Sax, 2002) estimate the incidence of true intersexual conditions as far lower, at approximately 0.018%.
In typical [[fetus|fetal]] development, the presence of the [[SRY|SRY gene]] causes the fetal [[gonad]]s to become testes; the absence of it allows the gonads to continue to develop into ovaries. Thereafter, the development of the [[sex organ|internal reproductive organs]] and the [[external genitalia]] is determined by hormones produced by certain fetal gonads (ovaries or testes) and the cells' response to them. The initial appearance of the [[fetal genitalia]] (a few weeks after conception) is basically feminine: a pair of "[[urogenital folds]]" with a small protuberance in the middle, and the [[urethra]] behind the protuberance. If the fetus has testes, and if the testes produce testosterone, and if the cells of the genitals respond to the testosterone, the outer urogenital folds swell and fuse in the midline to produce the scrotum; the protuberance grows larger and straighter to form the penis; the inner urogenital swellings swell, wrap around the penis, and fuse in the midline to form the penile urethra.
Because there is variation in all of these processes, a child can be born with a [[sexual anatomy]] that is typically female, or feminine in appearance with a larger than average [[clitoris]]; or typically male, masculine in appearance with a smaller than average [[penis]] that is open along the underside. The appearance may be quite ambiguous, describable as female genitals with a very large clitoris and partially fused labia, or as male genitals with a very small penis, completely open along the midline ("[[hypospadic]]"), and empty scrotum.
There are dozens of named medical conditions that may lead to intersex anatomy. Fertility is variable. The distinctions "male pseudohermaphrodite", "female pseudohermaphrodite" and especially "true hermaphrodite" are vestiges of 19th century thinking that placed "true sex" in the [[histology]] (microscopic appearance) of the [[gonad]]s.
The common habit in the 21st century of elevating the role of the [[sex chromosomes]] above all other factors when determining gender may be analogous to the older habit of finding "true" sex in the gonads. Though high school biology teaches that men have XY and women XX chromosomes, in fact there are quite a few other possible combinations such as Turner syndrome [[Turner_syndrome|XO]], Metafemale Syndrome [[Triple-X_syndrome|XXX]], Klinefelter's Syndrome [[Klinefelter's Syndrome|XXY]], [[XYY]], XO/XY, XX male, Swyer syndrome [[Swyer_syndrome|XY female]], and there are many individuals who do not follow the typical patterns (such as cases with four or even more sex chromosomes).
Thus, people nowadays may be more likely to look towards the sex chromosomes than, for example, the histology of the gonads. However, according to researcher Eric Vilain at the [[University of California, Los Angeles]], "the biology of gender is far more complicated than XX or XY chromosomes".[http://www.eurekalert.org/pub_releases/2005-02/dnnl-dma020305.php] Many different criteria have been proposed, and there is little consensus.[http://www.isna.org/faq/what_is_intersex]
== Biological causes of intersexuality ==
Typical males have sex chromosomes XY and typical females XX. One biological definition of a male child is the presence of a Y chromosome. This definition has sometimes been used for sex determination at sports events, but it caused much confusion because it doesn't always apply.
The most common cause of sexual ambiguity is [[congenital adrenal hyperplasia]], an endocrine disorder in which the [[adrenal gland]]s produce abnormally high levels of virilizing hormones. In genetic females, this leads to an appearance that may be slightly masculinized (large clitoris) to quite masculine.
In many cases individuals are neither XX nor XY:
* The presence of one or two additional X chromosomes in a male (XXY or XXXY) may cause [[Klinefelter's syndrome]].
* A single X chromosome (XO) is called [[Turner's syndrome]]. It is characterized by a lack or incomplete development of certain primary and secondary female characteristics and is associated with a range of medical issues.
* Sex chromosomal [[mosaic_(genetics)|mosaicism]] or [[Chimera (genetics)|chimerism]] can cause what was once called "true hermaphroditism", the presence of both testicular and ovarian tissue in one individual.
In [[Persistent mullerian duct syndrome]] the child has XY chromsomes typical of a male. The child has a male body and an internal uterus and fallopian tubes because his body did not produce [[Mullerian inhibiting factor]] during fetal development.
The following further XY cases leads to intersexuality:
*[[Androgen insensitivity syndrome]]. They develop either partially or fully as females, due to their bodies failing to respond to [[testosterone]]. In the case of complete androgen insensitivity syndrome (CAIS), their tissues are totally insensitive to [[androgen]]s, and they will develop as females, with normal female external organs. However, they will not develop a uterus or fallopian tubes, due to the production of Mullerian inhibiting factor by their testes. At puberty breasts will develop due to the production of [[estrogen]] by the testes; but no menstruation will occur due to the lack of a uterus. The tissues of individuals with partial androgen insensitivity, by contrast, have partial sensitivity to testosterone, but it is reduced compared to the male normal. These individuals can develop with either male external anatomy, or female external anatomy, or some combination, depending on the degree of insensitivity.
*[[5-alpha-reductase deficiency]]. In this condition, individuals have testes, as well as vagina and labia, but with a small [[penis]] capable of ejaculation instead of a clitoris (this penis, however, appears to be a clitoris at birth). These individuals are normally raised as girls. However, come puberty, their testes will descend, their voice will deepen and they often will develop a male sexual identity. But they develop only limited facial hair. The number of people with this condition varies geographically, depending on how much of a given population is interrelated.
Excessive ''in utero'' exposure to androgens may lead to intersexuality in XX cases:
* [[Congenital adrenal hyperplasia]]: Female internal anatomy, but ambiguous or male external genitalia, and develop male secondary sexual characteristics.
*[[Progestin-induced virilisation]]. In this case, the male hormones are caused by use of [[progestin]], a drug that was used in the 1950s and 1960s in order to prevent miscarriage. These individuals have internal and external female anatomy. They develop however some male secondary characteristics, and they frequently have unusually large clitorises.
A similar phenomenon occurs in cases where a cow brings two fraternal twins, one male and one female, to term. Because (unlike humans) such twins share hormones via their placental blood interface with the mother cow, male hormones produced in the body of the fetal bull find their way into the body of the fetal cow and masculinize her brain. The result is a [[freemartin]] (unconventional heifer), a cow that will eventually try to mount other cows the way that a bull would.
In [[XX male syndrome]] (also called [[de la Chapelle syndrome]]) the resulting child is usually a phenotypically normal male, but without sperm production. This syndrome is sometimes the result of an abnormal interchange of the [[SRY]] region from a Y chromosome to an X.
== Chimerism ==
According to the ''New England Journal of Medicine'', vol 338, p 166, physicians in the Western General Hospital of Edinburgh have reported on a child with a penis, one testicle, and an ovary and fallopian tube instead of a second testicle. Some of this child's body cells are XY (male), and some are XX (female). The child was conceived as the result of [[in-vitro fertilization]], and it appears most likely that two embryos, a male embryo and a female embryo, fused before or soon after embryos were transferred to the mother's uterus.
This kind of condition, where there is more than one set of [[cell line]]s with different sets of chromosomes making up the body is known as [[Chimera (genetics)|chimerism]]. This kind of [[tetraploid]] chimerism can also occur naturally, without in-vitro fertilization (see ''New England Journal of Medicine'', vol 346, p 1545).
Not all cases of Chimerism involve intersexuality, however. There have been about 40 known cases worldwide of humans reproducing naturally and producing offspring with absolutely no genetic similarities between mother and child. Discovery Health Channel has produced a documentary on two families and their issues in dealing with chimerism. It was called "[http://www.medterms.com/script/main/art.asp?articlekey=8905 I Am My Own Twin]."
== Treatment of intersexuals by society ==
Intersexual individuals are treated in different ways by different cultures. In some cultures intersexuals were included in larger "third gender" or gender-blending social roles along with other individuals. In most societies, intersexed individuals have been expected to select one sex, and conform to its [[gender role]].
Since the rise of modern medical science in Western societies, intersexuals with ambiguous external genitalia have had their genitalia surgically modified to resemble either male or female genitals. But there are increasing calls for recognition of the various degrees of intersexuality as healthy variations which should not be subject to correction. Some have attacked the common Western practice of performing corrective surgery on the genitals of intersexuals as a Western cultural equivalent of [[female genital mutilation]]. Despite the attacks on the practice, most of the medical profession still supports it. Others have claimed that the talk about third sexes represents an ideological agenda to deride gender as a social construct whereas they believe gender is a biological reality.
Corrective surgery is generally not necessary for protection of life or health, but purely for aesthetic or social purposes. It may lead to negative consequences for sexual functioning in later life, which would have been avoided without the surgery; in other cases negative consequences are avoided by surgery. Defenders of the practice argue that it is necessary for individuals to be clearly identified as male or female in order for them to function socially. However, many intersex individuals have resented the medical intervention, and some have been so discontented with their surgically assigned gender as to opt for [[sexual reassignment surgery]] later in life.
The writer [[Anne Fausto-Sterling]] [[neologism|coined]] the words ''herm'' (for hermaphrodite), ''merm'' (for an intersex person that most closely resembles a male), and ''ferm'' (for an intersex person that most closely resembles a female), and proposed that these be recognized as sexes along with male and female. However, her use was "tongue-in-cheek"; she no longer advocates these terms even as a rhetorical device.
==See also==
* [[Hermaphrodite]]
* [[Intersex Society of North America]]
* [[Erik Schinegger]]
Conditions:
* [[Androgen insensitivity syndrome]]
* [[Adrenal hyperplasia]]
** [[Congenital adrenal hyperplasia]]
** [[Late onset adrenal hyperplasia]]
* [[5 alpha reductase deficiency]]
* [[Gonadal dysgenesis]]
* [[Hypospadias]]
* [[Klinefelter syndrome]]
* [[Ovotestis]]
* [[Progestin induced virilization]]
* [[Vaginal agenesis]]
== References ==
*Blackless, Melanie, Anthony Charuvastra, Amanda Derryck, Anne Fausto-Sterling, Karl Lauzanne, and Ellen Lee. 2000. [http://www3.interscience.wiley.com/cgi-bin/issuetoc?ID=69504032 How sexually dimorphic are we? Review and synthesis]. ''American Journal of Human Biology'' 12:151-166.
*Dreifus, Claudia. "A Conversation with Anne Fausto-Sterling" ''The New York Times''. [[2 January]] [[2001]] (p. F3).
*Heard, Alex. "Out There: Everything But the Truth" ''The Washington Post Magazine''. [[4 September]] [[1988]] (p. W9).
*Musto, Michael. "La Dolce Musto". ''The Village Voice''. [[22 September]] [[1998]] (p. 12).
*Sax, Leonard. [http://articles.findarticles.com/p/articles/mi_m2372/is_3_39/ai_94130313 How common is intersex? A response to Anne Fausto-Sterling.] ''J Sex Research 39:174-9, 2002''
* (2004) [http://biology.plosjournals.org/perlserv/?request=get-document&doi=10.1371/journal.pbio.0030030 The Evolution of Self-Fertile Hermaphroditism: The Fog Is Clearing.] PLoS Biol 3(1): e30.
== External links ==
*[http://www.isna.org/ Intersex Society of North America]
*[http://www.bodieslikeours.org/ Bodies Like Ours]
*[http://intersexinitiative.org/ Intersex Initiative]
*[http://www.msnbc.msn.com/id/6994580/ ''New guidelines for treating 'intersex' babies]'' ''Doctors urged not to operate on infants with unclear gender'' (Associated Press, Feb. 2005)
*[http://sfhrc.org/site/uploadedfiles/sfhumanrights/Committee_Meetings/Lesbian_Gay_Bisexual_Transgender/SFHRC%20Intersex%20Report.pdf A Human Rights Investigation into the medical "normalization" of intersex people] - a report of a hearing of the San Francisco Human Rights Commission - [[PDF]] format
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In vivo
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'''In vivo''' ([[Latin]] for ''(with)in the living''). ''In vivo'' is used to indicate the presence of a whole/living [[organism]], in distinction to a partial or dead organism, or a computer model.
For example, ''In vivo'' biological research differentiates whole organism research from ''[[in vitro]]'' research, which is performed on [[organ (anatomy)|organs]], [[Biological tissue|tissues]], [[Cell (biology)|cells]], cellular components, [[proteins]], or [[biomolecules]]. [[Clinical trials]] are a form of ''in vivo'' research, albeit on humans. ''In silico'' research refers to numerical simulation on a [[computer]] of, for example, a [[Protein-protein docking |reaction between two proteins]].
The ''in vivo''-''in vitro'' dichotomy is also frequently used in a medical context, ''e. g.'' ''in vivo''-''in vitro'' [[fertilization]].
==''In vivo'' Research==
''In vivo'' research is more suited to observe an overall effect than ''in vitro'' research, which is better suited to deduce mechanisms of action. ''In vitro'' research aims to describe and understand the effect of an experimental variable on a subset of an organism's components. ''In vitro'' research has the advantage over ''in vivo'' research that there are fewer variables which can confound an experiment, and that if an experimental effect is subtle the result will be more clearly visible.
''In vivo'' research has the advantage, over ''in vitro'' research, that the experimental system is a more complex biological system. This means that ''in vivo'' research will likely give a better indication of what will happen in a [[population]] when a [[Chemical compound|compound]] is administered to or a procedure is performed on an [[animal model]] of disease. This is why all new drugs must first undergo animal testing, followed by clinical trials, before they are released to the general population.
Christopher [[Lipinski's_Rule_of_Five|Lipinski]]'s rationale for this observation is:
<blockquote>
''Whether the aim is to discover drugs or to gain knowledge of biological systems, the nature and properties of a chemical tool cannot be considered independently of the system it is to be tested in. Compounds that bind to isolated recombinant proteins are one thing; chemical tools that can perturb cell function another; and pharmacological agents that can be tolerated by a live organism and perturb its systems are yet another. If it were simple to ascertain the properties required to develop a lead discovered in vitro to one that is active in vivo, drug discovery would be as reliable as drug manufacturing.'' (Lipinski 2004)
</blockquote>
The massive adoption of low-cost, ''in vitro'', [[molecular biology]] techniques has caused a move away from ''in vivo'' research, which is considered too idiosyncratic and, above all, expensive compared to its molecular counterpart. Currently, ''in vitro'' models and experiments are a vital and highly productive research tool.
The [[guinea pig]] was previously such a commonly used ''in vivo'' experimental model that they became part of idiomatic English: 'being a guinea-pig for someone/something'. Their use in research has been substantially replaced by the smaller, cheaper and faster breeding [[rat]]s and mice.
As the term is in Latin, it is written in italics.
''See also'': ''[[ex vivo]]'', ''[[in utero]]'', ''[[in situ]]'', ''[[in vitro]]'', ''[[in silico]]''.
==References==
Lipinski, C. & Hopkins, A. Navigating chemical space for biology and medicine. ''Nature''. 2004. 432: 855-861.
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'''''In vitro''''' ([[Latin]]: "within glass") is an experimental technique where the experiment is performed in a [[test tube]], or generally outside a living [[organism]] or [[cell (biology)|cell]]. An example is [[in vitro fertilization]]. Alternatives of ''in vitro'' include ''[[in vivo]]'' and ''[[in silico]]'': within an organism, and computational, respectively. Many experiments that deal with [[molecular biology]] are conducted outside organisms or cells, where the conditions and therefore results may not represent those inside the cell. This is why results are often annotated with ''in vivo'', ''in vitro'', or ''in silico'', as applies.
==See also==
* [[ex vivo]]
* [[in vitro diagnostics]]
* [[in vitro fertilisation]]
* [[in vitro meat]]
* [[in vitro organ]]
* [[in vitro toxicology]]
* [[in vivo]]
* [[in silico]]
* [[in situ]]
* [[in utero]]
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IEEE floating-point standard
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The '''[[IEEE]] Standard for Binary Floating-Point Arithmetic''' ('''IEEE 754''') is the most widely-used standard for [[floating point|floating-point]] computation, and is followed by many [[Central processing unit|CPU]] and [[FPU]] implementations. The standard defines formats for representing floating-point numbers (including ±[[0 (number)|zero]] and [[subnormal|denormal]]s) and special values ([[infinity|infinities]] and [[NaN]]s) together with a set of ''floating-point operations'' that operate on these values. It also specifies four rounding modes and five exceptions (including when the exceptions occur, and what happens when they do occur).
IEEE 754 specifies four formats for representing floating-point values: single-precision (32-bit), double-precision (64-bit), single-extended precision (≥ 43-bit, not commonly used) and double-extended precision (≥ 79-bit, usually implemented with 80 bits). Only 32-bit values are required by the standard; the others are optional. Many languages specify that IEEE formats and arithmetic be implemented, although sometimes it is optional. For example, the [[C programming language]], which pre-dated IEEE 754, now allows but does not require IEEE arithmetic (the C <tt>float</tt> typically is used for IEEE single-precision and <tt>double</tt> uses IEEE double-precision).
The full title of the standard is '''IEEE Standard for Binary Floating-Point Arithmetic (ANSI/IEEE Std 754-1985)''', and it is also known as '''IEC 60559:1989, Binary floating-point arithmetic for microprocessor systems''' (originally the reference number was IEC 559:1989).[http://www.opengroup.org/onlinepubs/009695399/frontmatter/refdocs.html]
== Anatomy of a floating-point number ==
Following is a description of the standard's format for floating-point numbers.
=== Bit conventions used in this article ===
[[Bit]]s within a [[word (computer science)|word]] of width W are indexed by [[integer]]s in the range 0 to W−1 inclusive. The bit with index 0 is drawn on the right. The lowest indexed bit is usually the least significant.
=== Single-precision 32 bit ===
A [[single precision|single-precision]] binary floating-point number is stored in a 32 bit word:
<pre>
1 8 23 width in bits
+-+--------+-----------------------+
|S| Exp | Fraction |
+-+--------+-----------------------+
31 30 23 22 0 bit index (0 on right)
bias +127
</pre>
Where <tt>S</tt> is the sign bit and <tt>Exp</tt> is the Exponent field.
The exponent is [[bias (electrical engineering)|bias]]ed in the engineering sense of the word – the value stored is offset (by 127 in this case) from the actual value. Biasing is done because exponents have to be [[Negative and non-negative numbers#Computing|signed values]] in order to be able to represent both tiny and huge values, but [[two's complement]], the usual representation for signed values, would make [[IEEE floating-point standard#Comparing floating point numbers|comparison]] harder. To solve this the exponent is biased before being stored, by adjusting its value to put it within an unsigned range suitable for comparison. So, for a single-precision number, an exponent in the range −126 to +127 is biased by adding 127 to get a value in the range 1 to 254 (0 and 255 have special meanings described below). When interpreting the floating-point number the bias is subtracted to retrieve the actual exponent.
The set of possible data values can be divided into the following
classes:
* zeroes
* normalised numbers
* denormalised numbers
* infinities
* NaN (Not a Number)
(NaNs are used to represent undefined or invalid results, such as the square root of a negative number.)
The classes are primarily distinguished by the value of the Exp field, modified by the fraction.
Consider the Exp and Fraction fields as unsigned binary integers (Exp will be in the range 0–255):
<pre>
Class Exp Fraction
Zeroes 0 0
Denormalised numbers 0 non zero
Normalised numbers 1-254 any
Infinities 255 0
NaN (Not a Number) 255 non zero
</pre>
For normalised numbers, the most common, Exp is the biased exponent and
Fraction is the fractional part of the [[significand]]. The number has value v:
v = s × 2<sup>e</sup> × m
Where
s = +1 (positive numbers) when S is 0
s = −1 (negative numbers) when S is 1
e = Exp − 127 (in other words the exponent is stored with 127 added to it, also called "biased with 127")
m = 1.Fraction in binary (that is, the significand is the binary number 1 followed by the radix point followed by the binary bits of Fraction). Therefore, 1 ≤ m < 2.
Note:
#Denormalised numbers are the same except that e = −126 and m is 0.Fraction. (e is NOT -127 : The significand has to be shifted to the right by one more bit, in order to include the leading bit, which is not always 1 in this case. This is balanced by incrementing the exponent to -126 for the calculation.)
#−126 is the smallest exponent for a normalised number
#There are two Zeroes, +0 (S is 0) and −0 (S is 1)
#There are two Infinities +∞ (S is 0) and −∞ (S is 1)
#NaNs may have a sign and a significand, but these have no meaning other than for diagnostics; the first bit of the significand is often used to distinguish ''signaling NaNs'' from ''quiet NaNs''
#NaNs and Infinities have all 1s in the Exp field.
=== An example ===
Let us encode the decimal number −118.625 using the IEEE 754 system.
We need to get the sign, the exponent and the fraction.
Because it is a negative number, the sign is "1". Let's find the others.
First, we write the number (without the sign) using binary notation. Look at [[binary numeral system]] to see how to do it. The result is 1110110.101.
Now, let's move the radix point left, leaving only a 1 at its left: 1110110.101 = 1.110110101 × 2<sup>6</sup>.
This is a normalised floating point number.
The fraction is the part at the right of the radix point, filled with 0 on the right until we get all 23 bits. That is 11011010100000000000000.
The exponent is 6, but we need to convert it to binary and bias it (so the most negative exponent is 0, and all exponents are non-negative binary numbers). For the 32-bit IEEE 754 format, the bias is 127 and so 6 + 127 = 133. In binary, this is written as 10000101.
Putting them all together:
<pre>
1 8 23 width in bits
+-+--------+-----------------------+
|S| Exp | Fraction |
|1|10000101|11011010100000000000000|
+-+--------+-----------------------+
31 30 23 22 0 bit index (0 on right)
the bias
is +127
</pre>
=== Double-precision 64 bit ===
[[Double precision|Double-precision]] is essentially the same except that the fields are wider:
<pre>
1 11 52
+-+-----------+----------------------------------------------------+
|S| Exp | Fraction |
+-+-----------+----------------------------------------------------+
63 62 52 51 0
the bias
is +1023
</pre>
NaNs and Infinities are represented with Exp being all 1s (2047).
For Normalised numbers the exponent bias is +1023 (so e is Exp − 1023).
For Denormalised numbers the exponent is −1022 (the minimum exponent for a normalised number—it is not −1023 because normalised numbers have a leading 1 digit before the binary point and denormalised numbers do not). As before, both infinity and zero are signed.
=== Comparing floating-point numbers ===
Comparing floating-point numbers is usually best done using floating-point instructions. However, this representation makes comparisons of some subsets of numbers possible on a byte-by-byte basis, if they share the same byte order and the same sign, and NaNs are excluded.
For example, for two positive numbers a and b, then a < b is true whenever the unsigned binary integers with the same bit patterns and same byte order as a and b are also ordered a < b. In other words, two positive floating-point numbers (known not to be NaNs) can be compared with an unsigned binary integer comparison using the same bits, providing the floating-point numbers use the same byte order (this ordering, therefore, cannot be used in portable code through a union in the [[C programming language]]).
This is an example of [[lexicographic ordering]].
=== Rounding floating-point numbers ===
The IEEE standard has four different rounding modes.
* '''Unbiased''' which rounds to the nearest value, if the number falls midway it is rounded to the nearest value with an even (zero) least significant bit. This mode is required to be default.
* '''Towards zero'''
* '''Towards positive infinity'''
* '''Towards negative infinity'''
==References==
*[http://www.opencores.org/projects.cgi/web/fpu100/fpu_v2.pdf Floating Point Unit] by Jidan Al-Eryani
== Revision of the standard ==
Note that the IEEE 754 standard is currently (2004) under revision. See: [[IEEE 754r]]
== See also ==
*[[-0]] (negative zero)
== External links ==
*[http://babbage.cs.qc.edu/courses/cs341/IEEE-754references.html IEEE 754 references]
*[http://www.d6.com/users/checker/pdfs/gdmfp.pdf Let's Get To The (Floating) Point by Chris Hecker]
*[http://docs.sun.com/source/806-3568/ncg_goldberg.html What Every Computer Scientist Should Know About Floating-Point Arithmetic by David Goldberg] - a good introduction and explanation.
* [http://www2.hursley.ibm.com/decimal/854mins.html IEEE 854-1987] History and minutes
* [http://dfp.sourceforge.net/ieee.html Differences between IEEE 854 and 754]
*[http://www.h-schmidt.net/FloatApplet/IEEE754.html Converter]
*[http://babbage.cs.qc.edu/courses/cs341/IEEE-754.html Another Converter]
[[Category:Computer arithmetic]]
[[Category:IEEE standards]]
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Intel 80186
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84.156.93.114
[[Image: Intel 80186.jpg|thumb|right|200px|An Intel 80186 Microprocessor]]
[[Image:80186_arch.png|300px|thumb|The 80186 architecture.]]
The '''80186''' is a [[microprocessor]] that was developed by [[Intel]] circa [[1982]]. The 80186 was an improvement on the [[Intel 8086]] and [[Intel 8088]]. As with the 8086, it had a [[16-bit]] external bus and was also available as the [[Intel 80188]], with an [[8-bit]] external [[data bus]]. The initial clock rate of the 80186 and 80188 was 6 [[Megahertz|MHz]]. They were generally used as [[embedded processor]]s (roughly comparable to [[microcontroller]]s). They were not used in many [[personal computer|personal computers]], but there were some notable exceptions: the [[Mindset computer|Mindset]], the [[Siemens PC-D]] (the first DOS PC line of Siemens, with MSDOS v2.11), the [[Compis]] (a [[Sweden|Swedish]] school computer), the [[Research Machines|RM Nimbus]] (a British school computer), the [[Unisys ICON]] (a Canadian school computer), the HP 200lx, and the [[Tandy 2000]] desktop (a somewhat PC-compatible workstation featuring particularly sharp graphics for its day). Acorn (another British computer manufacturer) also created a plugin Second Processor that contained the 80186 chip along with assorted support chips and 512k of RAM - hence the Master 512 system.
One major function of the 80186/80188 series was to reduce the number of chips required by including features such as a [[Direct memory access|DMA]] controller, interrupt controller, timers, and [[chip select]] logic.
New instructions were introduced as follows:
ENTER Make stack frame for procedure parameters
LEAVE High-level procedure exit
PUSHA Push all general registers
POPA Pop all general registers
BOUND Check array index against bounds
IMUL Signed (integer) multiply
INS Input from port to string
OUTS Output string to port
==External links==
* [http://www.cpu-collection.de/?tn=1&l0=cl&l1=80186/188 Intel 80186/80188 images and descriptions at cpu-collection.de]
{{Intel processors}}
{{Intel controllers}}
{{FOLDOC}}
[[Category:x86 microprocessors|Intel 186]]
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Inquisition
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/* See also */ lk to vatican secret archives
:''This article deals with Catholic history between 1134 and 1834. For other uses see [[Inquisition (disambiguation)]]''.
[[Image:inquisition2.jpg|right|thumb|250px|Artistic representation of an [[Auto de fe]], during the [[Spanish Inquisition]] ([[1475]]).]]
The term '''Inquisition''' ([[Latin]]: ''Inquisitio Haereticae Pravitatis Sanctum Officium'') refers broadly to a number of historical movements surrounding the suppression of [[heresy]] by the [[Catholic Church|Roman Catholic Church]]. There were four major movements, starting with the [[Medieval Inquisition]] in [[1184]] and ending with the [[Spanish Inquisition]] in [[1834]].
==Origin==
The Inquisition was an institution within the Roman Catholic Church, charged with the eradication of heresy, sometimes by violent means.
Heresies (from Greek ''haeresis'', sect, school of belief) were a problem to the Church and the Faith. Biblical lore [[Acts of the Apostles|Acts]] 15 recounts the convening of a [[Jerusalem Council|council in Jerusalem]] to deal with the heresy of the [[Judaizers]], who had contended with the Jerusalem faction in [[Asia Minor|Asia]] and especially [[Galatia]]. In the subsequent centuries there were the [[Arianism|Arians]] and [[Manichaeism|Manicheans]]; in the [[Middle Ages]] there were the [[Cathars|Cathari]] and [[Waldensians|Waldenses]]; and in the [[Renaissance]] there were the [[Hussite|Hussites]], [[Lutheran Church|Lutherans]], [[Calvinism|Calvinists]], and [[Rosicrucian|Rosicrucians]]. Efforts to suppress heresies were initially ''[[ad hoc]]'', but in the [[Middle Ages]] a permanent structure came into being to combat heresies. The Church deemed it according to the public good to remove these heretics from the public, or at least to correct them, as the Church held that the eternal good of one's soul depends on it's adherence to the teachings of the Magisterium of the Church. Although it was originally the state who began the reprimanding of heretics, it eventually fell in the hands of the Church in the late middle ages.
==History==
There were four Inquisitions; in chronological order, they were the [[Medieval Inquisition]], the [[Spanish Inquisition]], the [[Portuguese Inquisition]] and the [[Congregation for the Doctrine of the Faith|Roman Inquisition]]. One would however be incorrect to presume that these were totally unrelated to each other and that the inquisition was limited to these discrete events.
===Medieval Inquisition===
:''Main article: [[Medieval Inquisition]]''
The first of the Medieval Inquisitions is called the '''Episcopal Inquisition''' and was established in the year [[1184]] by a [[papal bull]], an official letter from the Pope, entitled ''Ad abolendam''; "For the purpose of doing away with". The Inquisition was in response to the growing [[Cathars|Catharist]] heresy in southern [[France]]. It is called the "episcopal" because it was administered by local [[bishop]]s, which in Greek is ''episcopos''. The Episcopal Inquisition was not very effective for many reasons (see [[Medieval Inquisition]]).
The '''Papal Inquisition''' in the [[1230s]] was in response to the failures of the Episcopal Inquisition and was staffed by professionals, trained specifically for the job as decreed by the Pope. Individuals were chosen from different orders and secular clergy, but primarily they came from the [[Dominican Order]] who had a number of traits that made them suitable (see [[Medieval Inquisition]]).
===Spanish Inquisition===
:''Main article: [[Spanish Inquisition]]''
The Spanish Inquisition was founded in [[1478]] in Spain under [[Ferdinand II of Aragon|Ferdinand]] and [[Isabella of Castile]]. It was to a large extent under the control of the Spanish monarch, with only the Inquisitor General appointed by Rome. In its dealings with converted Muslims and Jews and also [[illuminist]]s, the Spanish Inquisition, with its "[[auto de fe]]", represents a particularly notorious period in the history of the Inquisition. This inquisition also gave rise to the [[Peruvian Inquisition]] during the [[Viceroyalty of Peru]] which ended with its Independence on [[July]] [[28]], and also the [[Mexican Inquisition]], which continued in the Americas until Mexican Independence.
It was abolished in [[1834]].
===Roman Inquisition===
:''Main article: [[Roman Inquisition]]''
[[Pope Paul III]] established, in [[1542]], a permanent congregation staffed with [[Cardinal (Catholicism)|cardinals]] and other officials, whose task it was to maintain and defend the integrity of the faith and to examine and proscribe errors and false doctrines. This body, the Congregation of the Holy Office, now called the [[Congregation for the Doctrine of the Faith]], part of the [[Roman Curia]], became the supervisory body of local Inquisitions. The Pope appoints one of the cardinals to preside over the meetings. There are usually ten other cardinals on the Congregation, as well as a [[prelate]] and two assistants all chosen from the [[Dominican Order]]. The Holy Office also has an international group of consultants, experienced scholars of theology and canon law, who advise it on specific questions. In [[1616]] these consultants gave their assessment of the propositions that the Sun is immobile and at the center of the universe and that the Earth moves around it, judging both to be "foolish and absurd in philosophy," and the first to be "formally heretical" and the second "at least erroneous in faith" in theology. This assessment led to [[Copernicus]]'s ''[[De Revolutionibus Orbium Coelestium]]'' to be placed on the [[Index Librorum Prohibitorum|Index of Forbidden Books]], until revised and [[Galileo Galilei]] to be admonished about his Copernicanism. It was this same body in [[1633]] that tried Galileo, condemned him for a "grave suspicion of heresy", and banned all his works.
Not all prosecutions of alleged heretics, atheists and other deviations from the Catholic faith were prosecuted by the Inquisition. In some countries, such as [[France]] under the ''[[ancien régime]]'', atheists and [[blasphemy|blasphemers]] could be prosecuted by civilian courts, with the possible penalty of [[death]].
===Portuguese Inquisition===
:''Main article: [[Portuguese Inquisition]]''
The Portuguese Inquisition was established in [[Portugal]] in [[1536]] by the [[King of Portugal]], [[Joao III]], as a Portuguese analogue of the more famous Spanish Inquisition
==Other uses of the word "Inquisitions"==
Even though the last Inquisition (The Spanish Inquisition) ended in [[1834]] almost 200 years ago, the word "Inquisition" remains a part of modern vocabulary; even those with no interest in European history associate it with negative meanings.[http://www.nationalreview.com/comment/madden200406181026.asp] Because of the negative images associated with the Inquisition, the term has taken on a pejorative usage, and is often used to express disapproval, and is often used in a non-neutral manner, and not as a neutral historical descriptor.
*Some Christian fundamentalist authors like [[Jack Chick]] and [[Alberto Rivera]], along with other like-minded authors, believe the [[Nazi]] [[the Holocaust|Holocaust]] was an Inquisition against the Jews undertaken by [[Hitler]], a Catholic, at the behest of the Pope.
*In modern American politics, [[United States Senate]] investigations are often called "Inquisitions" as a means of expressing disapproval of the investigators. For example some people call the Second [[Red Scare]] an inquisition.
*[[Robert Anton Wilson]]'s book ''The New Inquisition'' (ISBN 1561840025) is critical of the application of the [[Scientific Method]] in the 20th century.
*[[Emperor Qian Long]]'s literary inquisition in [[Qing dynasty]] China.
==Derivative works==
The Inquisitions have been the subject of many cultural works. Some include:
*[[The Spanish Inquisition (Monty Python)|The Spanish Inquisition]] was the subject of a classic [[Monty Python]] sketch ("''Nobody'' expects the Spanish Inquisition!").
*The short story by [[Edgar Allan Poe]], ''[[The Pit and the Pendulum]]'' was set during the Spanish Inquisition.
*A body known as the [[Inquisition (Warhammer 40,000)|Inquisition]] exists in the fictional [[Warhammer 40,000]] universe.
*[[Mel Brooks]]'s [[1981]] film [[The History of the World, Part I]] contains a musical number about the Spanish Inquisition.
*In [[Terry Pratchett]]'s ''[[Small Gods]]'', the Omnian church has both an Inquisition and an ''Ex''quisition.
*In [[J.K. Rowling]]'s [[2003]] book ''[[Harry Potter and the Order of the Phoenix]]'', [[Professor]] [[Dolores Umbridge]] sets up an Inquisition at [[Hogwarts School of Witchcraft and Wizardry]], with herself as the High Inquisitor.
==See also==
* [[Witchhunt]]
* [[Konrad von Marburg]]
* [[Malleus Maleficarum]]
* [[Inquisitorial system]]
* [[Grand Inquisitor|List of Grand Inquisitors of Spain]]
* [[Historical revisionism (political)]]
* [[Histoire de l'Inquisition en France]]
* [[Michael Servetus]]
* [[Vatican Secret Archives]]
==External links==
* [http://www.bede.org.uk/inquisition.htm Frequently Asked Questions About the Inquisition] by James Hannam
* [http://www.rbookshop.com/religion/i/Inquisition/index.html Books on the Inquisition]
*[http://www.newadvent.org/cathen/08026a.htm Catholic Encyclopedia: Inquisition]
*[http://ic.net/~erasmus/RAZ247.HTM The Protestant Inquisition:"Reformation" Intolerance and Persecution] by [[Dave Armstrong]]
==References==
* Edward M. Peters, ''Inquisition.'' (University of California Press, 1989). ISBN 0520066308
** A brief, balanced inquiry, with an especially good section on the 'Myth of the Inquisition' (see [[The Inquisition Myth]]). This is particularly valuable because much of the history available in English of the Inquisition was written in the 19th century by Protestants interested in documenting the dangers of [[Catholicism]] or Catholic apologists demonstrating that the Inquisition had been an entirely reasonable judicial body without flaws.
* Henry Kamen, ''The Spanish Inquisition: A Historical Revision.'' (Yale University Press, 1999). ISBN 0300078803
** This revised edition of his 1965 original contributes to the understanding of the Spanish Inquisition in its local context.
* Cecil & Irene Roth, ''A history of the Marranos'', Sepher-Hermon Press, 1974.
* Simon Whitechapel, ''Flesh Inferno: Atrocities of Torquemada and the Spanish Inquisition'' (Creation Books, 2003). ISBN 1840681055
* William Thomas Walsh, ''Characters of the Inquisition'' (TAN Books, 1997). ISBN 0895553260
** Favorable treatment of inquisitors.
[[Category:Inquisition|*]]
[[af:Inkwisisie]]
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Isaac
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{{dablink|For other uses, see [[Isaac (disambiguation)]]. For the Muslim view of Isaac, see [[Ishaq]].}}
[[Image:Icelandic Isaac sacrifice.jpg|right|thumb|250px|An [[angel]] prevents [[Abraham]] from sacrificing Isaac in this illumation from a [[14th century]] [[Iceland]]ic manuscript.]]
'''Isaac''' ('''Yitschak''' or '''Yitzhak''') ('''יִצְחָק''' "He will laugh", [[Standard Hebrew]] '''{{IPA|Yiẓḥaq}}''', [[Tiberian Hebrew]] '''{{IPA|Yiṣḥāq}}'''; [[Arabic language|Arabic]] '''اسحاق''' '''{{IPA|ʾIsḥāq}}''') is the son and heir of [[Abraham]] and the father of [[Jacob]] and [[Esau]] as described in the [[Hebrew Bible]]. His story is told in the [[Book of Genesis]].
==Name==
Isaac was named because when his mother, [[Sarah]], overheard that she would bear a child in her old age, she laughed (Genesis 18:10-15, 21:6-7). Some commentators believe that in the [[Book of Amos]] there is some suggestion that ''[[Israel (disambiguation)|Israel]]'' may actually be another name for Isaac (''Amos'' 7:9, 16) despite the Bible stating that ''Israel'' is the later name given to Isaac's son [[Jacob]] (''Genesis'' 32:22-28, especially 28).
==Life==
[[Image:Rembrandt Harmensz. van Rijn 035.jpg|thumb|left|The angel hinders the offering up of Isaac, by Rembrandt]]
Isaac was born to Abraham by his wife Sarah, and the only child they had together. He was the longest lived of the three [[Patriarchs (Bible)|patriarchs]] (Genesis 21:1-3). Isaac was [[Brit milah|circumcised]] by his father when eight days old (Genesis 4-7); and a great feast was held in connection with his being weaned.
The next memorable event in his life is that connected with the story of God testing Abraham by asking him to offer Isaac as a [[Binding of Isaac | sacrifice]] on a mountain in the land of [[Moriah]] (Genesis 22).
When he was forty years of age [[Rebekah]] was chosen for his wife (Genesis 24). After the death and burial of his father, he took up his residence at [[Beer-lahai-roi]] (Genesis 25:7-11), where his twin sons, [[Esau]] and [[Jacob]], were born (Genesis 21-26), the former of whom seems to have been his favorite son (Genesis 27, 28).
Due to a famine (Genesis 26:1) Isaac went to [[Gerar]]. In order to avoid being killed, he lied about his relationship to Rebekah, and [[a wife confused for a sister|his wife was believed to be his sister]] much like Abraham's sojourn in [[Egypt]] (12:12-20) and also his sojourn in Gerar (20:2). The [[Philistine]] king rebuked Isaac for his dishonesty when he discovered him ''sporting'' with Rebekah. After staying for some time in the land of the Philistines, he returned to [[Beersheba]], where [[God]] gave him fresh assurance of the [[covenant]] blessing, and where [[a wife confused for a sister|the Philistine king entered into a covenant of peace with him]].
The next chief event in his life was the blessing of his sons (Genesis 27:1). He died at [[Mamre]], "being old and full of days" (Genesis 35:27-29), 180 years old, and was buried in the [[Cave of Machpelah]].
Isaac is "at once a counterpart of his father in simple devoutness and purity of life, and a contrast in his passive weakness of character, which in part, at least, may have sprung from his relations to his mother and wife. After the expulsion of Ishmael and [[Hagar]], Isaac had no competitor, and grew up in the shade of Sarah's tent, moulded into feminine softness by habitual submission to her strong, loving will." His life was so quiet and uneventful that it was spent "within the circle of a few miles; so guileless that he let Jacob overreach him rather than disbelieve his assurance; so tender that his mother's death was the poignant sorrow of years; so patient and gentle that peace with his neighbours was dearer than even such a coveted possession as a well of living water dug by his own men; so grandly obedient that he put his life at his father's disposal; so firm in his reliance on God that his greatest concern through life was to honour the divine promise given to his race", Geikie's ''Hours'', etc.
==Christianity==
In the [[New Testament]], reference is made to his having been "offered up" by his father (Heb. 11:17; James 2:21), and to his blessing his sons (Heb. 11:20). As the child of promise, he is contrasted with [[Ishmael]] (Rom. 9:7, 10; Gal. 4:28; Heb. 11:18).
==Islam==
In Islam, he is called [[Ishaq]], and stories about him are found in the [[Qur'an]].
The story also appears in the Qur'an, except Islam asserts that [[Ishmael]] was the one to be sacrificed because he was the only son of Abraham at the time, not Isaac (see [[Similarities between the Bible and the Qur'an]]).
''Initial text from Easton's Bible Dictionary, 1897 — Please update as needed.''
[[Category:Torah people]]
[[Maori:Ihaka]]
[[ar:اسحاق]]
[[ca:Isaac]]
[[de:Isaak]]
[[el:Ισαάκ]]
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Italian Football League
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fix redirect
#REDIRECT [[Italian football league system]]
Iduna
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Clarification
'''Iduna''' can mean several things:
* An alternative name for the [[Norse mythology|Norse]] goddess [[Iðunn]].
* [[Asteroid]] [[176 Iduna]] named after the goddess.
* The [[Iduna language]] of [[Papua New Guinea]]
{{disambig}}
Infra-red radiation
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Papua (Indonesian province)
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/* Geography */fixing redirect
[[Image:IndonesiaPapua2.png|frame|right|Map showing Papua province in Indonesia]]
'''Papua''' is a [[Provinces of Indonesia|province]] of [[Indonesia]] comprising part of the western half of the island of [[New Guinea]] and nearby islands (see also [[Western New Guinea]]). (The name ''Papua'' has had a somewhat confusing history: for details see the discussion under [[New Guinea]]). The name '''West Papua''' is preferred among nationalists who hope to separate from Indonesia and form their own country (the region was promised a referendum on independence from [[the Netherlands]]). The province was known as '''West Irian''' or '''Irian Barat''' from 1969 to 1973—''Irian'' is the [[Indonesian language|Indonesian]] term for the island of New Guinea. It was then renamed '''Irian Jaya''' (roughly translated, "Victorious Irian") by [[Suharto]], a name that remained in official use until 2002. During the colonial era the region was known as '''Dutch New Guinea''' or '''[[Netherlands New Guinea]]'''.
The province originally covered the entire western half of New Guinea, but in 2003, the western portion of the province, on the [[Bird's Head Peninsula]], was declared by Jakarta as separate province named [[West Irian Jaya]]. The legality of this separation has been disputed as it appears to conflict with a law giving Special Autonomy status to Papua in the year 2000. The status of West Irian Jaya province is not yet resolved as of early 2006.
== Government ==
The nature of Indonesian government in Papua is controversial. International opinion varies a great deal. Some view it as naked [[colonialism]], others maintain that Indonesia represents a legitimate authority with a willing people. Frank expression of views is complicated by the delicate and troubled relationship many nations have with Indonesia. The [[Free Papua Movement]] strives for independence of the area from Indonesia.
According to the United States [http://countrystudies.us/indonesia/84.htm Country Studies - Library of Congress] report about Indonesian government structure:
:''"Since independence the nation has been centrally governed from Jakarta in a system in which the lines of authority, budget, and personnel appointment run outward and downward. Regional and local governments enjoy little autonomy. Their role is largely administrative: implementing policies, rules, and regulations. Regional officialdom is an extension of the Jakarta bureaucracy. The political goal is to maintain the command framework of the unitary state, even at the cost of developmental efficiency. Governments below the national level, therefore, serve essentially as subordinate administrative units through which the functional activities of Jakarta-based departments and agencies reach out into the country."''
In January 2006, 43 refugees landed on the coast of Australia and stated that the Indonesian military is carrying out a genocide in Papua. They have been transported to an Australian immigration detention facility on Christmas Island, 2600 km north-west of Perth, and 360 km south of the western head of Java. Their claims for asylum are currently being assessed.
In 1999 it was proposed to split the province into three government-controlled sectors, sparking Papuan protests (see [http://www.worldevangelical.org/persec_papua_21nov03.html external article]). In January 2003 President [[Megawati Sukarnoputri]] signed an order dividing Papua into three provinces: [[Central Irian Jaya]] ([[Irian Jaya Tengah]]), Papua (or [[East Irian Jaya]], [[Irian Jaya Timur]]), and [[West Irian Jaya]] ([[Irian Jaya Barat]]). The formality of installing a local government for Jaraka in Irian Jaya Barat (West) took place in February 2003 and a governor was appointed in November; a government for Irian Jaya Tengah (central) was delayed from August 2003 due to violent local protests. The creation of this separate central province was blocked by Indonesian courts, who declared it to be unconstitutional and in contravention of the Papua's special autonomy agreement. The previous division into two provinces was allowed to stand as an established fact. (King, 2004, p. 91)
== Regions ==
[[Image:Papua, Indonesian province.JPG|right|thumb|280px|Map showing major Papuan cities]]
Indonesia structures regions by [[regency (Indonesia)|regencies]] and subdistricts within those. Though names and areas of control of these regional structures can vary over time in accord with changing political and other requirements, in 2005 Papua province consisted of 9 regencies. (''kabupaten'') <!--1 city (''kotamadya''), 117 subdistricts (''kecamatan''), 66 ''kelurahan'', and 830 villages (''desa'').-->
The regencies ("kabupaten") are: [[Mimika]]; [[Yapen-Waropen]]; [[Biak-Numfor]]; [[Nabire]]; [[Puncak Jaya]]; [[Paniai]]; [[Jayawijaya]]; [[Merauke]]; and [[Jayapura]]. In addition to these, the city of Jayapura also has the status of a regency.
[[Jayapura]], founded on [[7 March]] [[1910]] as ''Hollandia'', had by 1962 developed into a city with modern civil, educational, and medical services. Since Indonesian administration these services have been replaced by Indonesian equivalents such as the TNI (the army) replacing the Papua Battalion. The name of the city has been changed to Kotabaru, then to Sukarnopura and finally to its current official name. Papuans now like to call it Port Numbai, the name of the place before the arrival of foreigners.
Jayapura is the largest city, boasting a small but active tourism industry, it is built on a slope overlooking the bay. [[Cendrawasih University]] or [[Uncen]] campus at Abepura houses the [[University Museum]]. Both [[Tanjung Ria]] beach, near the market at Hamadi—site of the [[22 April]] 1944 [[Allies#World War II|Allied]] invasion during [[World War II]]—and the site of General [[Douglas MacArthur|Douglas MacArthur's]] World War II headquarters at Ifar Gunung have monuments commemorating the events.
== Geography ==
A central East-West [[mountain range]] dominates the geography of New Guinea, over 1600 [[kilometre|km]] in total length. The western section is around 600 km long and 100 km across. Steep mountains 3000 to 4000 m and up to 5000 m high along the range ensures a steady supply of rain from the tropical atmosphere. The [[tree line]] is around 4000 m [[elevation]] and the tallest peaks are snowbound year round.
Both North and West of the central ranges the land remains mountainous mostly 1000 to 2000 m high covered by thick [[rain forest]] and a warm humid year round climate.
The third major habitat feature is the south east lowlands with extensive [[wetland]]s stretching for hundreds of kilometers.
The [[Mamberamo]] river, sometimes referred to as the "[[Amazon River|Amazon]] of Papua" is the province's largest river which winds through the northern part of the province. The result is a large area of lakes and rivers known as the Lakes Plains region. The famous [[Baliem Valley]], home of the [[Dani (ethnic group)|Dani]] people is a tableland 1600 m above sea level in the midst of the central mountain range; [[Carstensz Pyramid]] (Puncak Jaya) is a mist covered limestone mountain peak 4884 m above sea level.
== Tribes ==
The following are some of the most well-known tribes of Papua:
*[[Amungme]]
*[[Asmat]]
*[[Bauzi]]
*[[Dani]]
*[[Kamoro]]
*[[Kombai]]
*[[Korowai]]
*[[Mee]]
*[[Sentani]]
*[[Yali people|Yali]]
== Demographics ==
The population of Papua province and the neighboring [[West Irian Jaya]], both of which are still under a united administration, totalled 2,646,489 in [[2005]].<ref>[http://irja.bps.go.id/LEFT%20FRAME/Proyeksi%20Penduduk%20%20menurut%20Kabupaten.htm BPS Papua]</ref> Since the early [[1990s]] Papua has had the highest population growth rate of all Indonesian provinces at over 3% annually. This is partly a result of high birth rates, but also from immigration from other regions in Indonesia.
According to the [[2000]] census, 78% of the Papuan population identified themselves as Christian with 54% being Protestant and 24% being Catholic. 21% of the population was Muslim and less than 1% were Buddhist or Hindu.<ref>[http://eng.papua.go.id/profil/profilpapua.html Profile of Papua - The Governmen tof Papua Province]</ref> There is also substantial practice of [[animism]] by Papuans, which is not recorded by the Indonesian government in line with the policy of [[Pancasila Indonesia|Pancasila]].
== Ecology ==
A vital tropical rainforest with the tallest tropical trees and vast biodiversity, Papua's known forest fauna includes [[marsupials]] (including [[possum]]s, [[wallabies]], [[tree-kangaroo]]s, [[cuscus]]es), other mammals (including the endangered [[Long-beaked Echidna]]), many bird species (including [[birds of paradise]], [[cassowary|cassowaries]], [[parrot]]s, [[cockatoo]]s), the world's longest lizards (Papua [[Monitor_lizard|monitor]]) and the world's largest butterflies.
The island has an estimated 16,000 species of plant, 124 genera of which are endemic.
The extensive waterways and wetlands of Papua are also home to salt and freshwater [[crocodile]], [[tree monitors]], [[megabat|flying foxes]], [[osprey]], [[bats]] and other animals; while the equatorial glacier fields remain largely unexplored.
In [[February]] [[2006]], a team of scientists exploring the [[Foja Mountains]] discovered numerous new species of birds, butterflies, amphibians, and plants, including a species of [[rhododendron]] which may have the largest bloom of the genus.<ref>McDowell, Robin. [http://www.canada.com/vancouversun/news/story.html?id=978c0a2b-4d79-4d09-b5a6-074e7daaabb9 "'Lost world' yields exotic new species"]. ''The Vancouver Sun'' 8 February 2006.</ref>
Ecological threats include logging-induced [[deforestation]], forest conversion for plantation agriculture (especially [[oil palm]]), smallholder agricultural conversion, the introduction and potential spread of non-native alien species such as the [[Crab-eating Macaque]] which preys on and competes with indigenous species, the illegal species trade, and water pollution from oil and mining operations.
==See also==
*[[Papua]]
*[[New Guinea]]
*[[Kaiser-Wilhelmsland]]
*[[Western New Guinea]]
*[[West Irian Jaya]]
*[[British New Guinea]]
*[[German New Guinea]]
*[[Dutch New Guinea]]
*[[Human rights in western New Guinea]]
==Notes==
<references/>
==External links==
* [http://www.irja.org/index2.shtml Online Library West Papua, Irian Jaya]
* [http://www.eco-action.org/ssp/resources.html Extensive Library, some material written by Lani (highland) tribespeople]
* [http://www.papuaweb.org/ PapuaWeb]
* [http://www.law.yale.edu/outside/html/Public_Affairs/426/westpapuahrights.pdf "Human Abuse in West Papua - Application of Law to Genocide"]
* [http://www.nzz.ch/dossiers/2001/westpapua/2000.12.22-engl-article72F07.html "Prison, Torture and Murder in Jayapura - Twelve Days in an Indonesian Jail" (''Neue Zürcher Zeitung'', 2000)]
* [http://www.papuaweb.org/goi/pp/peta-hr.gif Map showing the three new provinces]
* [http://www2.gwu.edu/~nsarchiv/NSAEBB/NSAEBB128/index.htm Declassified US documents on "Act of free choice"]
* [http://www.worldevangelical.org/persecute/persec_Papua_31Mar05.html Papua: Christian Leaders Fear Genocide]
* [http://www.ethnologue.com/show_country.asp?name=IDP Languages and Ethnic Groups of Papua Province, SIL Ethnologue]
===Ecology===
*[http://russbaker.com/The%20Nation%20-%20The%20Deforesting%20of%20Irian%20Jaya.htm The Deforesting of Irian Jaya, 1994]
*[http://web.archive.org/web/20040726043852/veederandld.20m.com/primnews/10201.html Monkeys Threaten New Guinea's Wildlife], October 2, 2001, '''Wall Street Journal''' (archived)
*[http://www.sidsnet.org/archives/biodiversity-newswire/2001/0055.html An article on biodiversity]
*[http://www.wetlands.or.id/irj20.htm Wetlands Study]
==References==
* King, Peter, ''West Papua Since Suharto: Independence, Autonomy, or Chaos?''. University of New South Wales Press, 2004, ISBN 0868406767.
{{Indonesia}}
[[Category:Provinces of Indonesia]]
[[Category:New Guinea]]
[[Category:Disputed territories]]
[[de:Papua (Provinz)]]
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[[lt:Vakarų Papua]]
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[[zh:巴布亚(印尼省分)]]
IMF (disambiguation)
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'''IMF''', abbreviation:
* [[Intelligent Message Filter]], server-side message filtering, heuristics-based message analysis.
* [[International Metalworkers' Federation]], a global union federation
* [[International Monetary Fund]]
* [[International Music Feed]], a music video television network.
* [[Initial Mass Function]], in [[Big Bang]] theories of [[astronomy]].
* [[Impossible Missions Force]], a secret espionage agency in the [[Mission: Impossible]] television series and series of movies
{{TLAdisambig}}
[[ja:IMF]]
Interdisciplinarity
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/* See also */
'''Interdisciplinarity''' is a type of academic collaboration in which specialists drawn from two or more [[academic]] [[discipline|disciplines]] work together in pursuit of common goals.
Interdisciplinary programs sometimes arise from a shared conviction that the traditional disciplines are unable or unwilling to address an important problem. For example, social science disciplines such as anthropology and sociology paid little attention to the social analysis of technology throughout most of the twentieth century. As a result, many social scientists with interests in technology have joined [[science and technology studies]] programs, which are typically staffed by scholars drawn from numerous disciplines (including [[anthropology]], [[history]], [[philosophy]], [[sociology]], and [[women's studies]]). They may also arise from new research developments, such as [[nanotechnology]], which cannot be addressed without combining the approaches of two or more disciplines. Examples include [[quantum information processing]], which amalgamates elements of [[quantum physics]] and [[computer science]], and
[[bioinformatics]], which combines [[molecular biology]] with computer science.
Many scientists believe that the most pressing problems facing humanity, including the [[AIDS]] [[pandemic]], [[global warming]], and the loss of [[biodiversity]], can be solved only by developing interdisciplinary approaches.
==Multidisciplinarity==
There are varying degrees of interdisciplinarity. In [[multidisciplinarity]], researchers from two or more disciplines work together on a common problem, but without altering their disciplinary approaches or developing a common conceptual framework. True interdisciplinarity occurs when researchers from two or more disciplines pool their approaches and modify them so that they are better suited to the problem at hand.
==Barriers to interdisciplinarity==
Because most participants in interdisciplinary ventures were trained in traditional disciplines, they must learn to appreciate differing perspectives and approaches. For example, a discipline that places more emphasis on quantitative "rigor" may produce practitioners who think of themselves (and their discipline) as "more scientific" than others; in turn, colleagues in "softer" disciplines may associate quantitative approaches with an inability to grasp the broader dimensions of a problem. An interdisciplinary program may not succeed if its members remain stuck in their disciplines (and in disciplinary attitudes).
From the disciplinary perspective, much interdisciplinary work is "soft," lacking in rigor, or ideologically motivated; these beliefs place barriers in the career paths of those who choose interdisciplinary work. For example, interdisciplinary grant applications are often refereed by [[peer review|peer reviewers]] drawn from established [[Academic discipline|disciplines]]; not surprisingly, interdisciplinary researchers may experience difficulty getting funding for their research. In addition, untenured researchers know that, when they seek [[promotion]] and [[tenure]], it is likely that some of the evaluators will lack commitment to interdisciplinarity. They may fear that making a commitment to interdisciplinary research will increase the risk of being denied tenure.
Interdisciplinary programs may fail if they are not given sufficient autonomy. For example, it is a common practice to recruit new interdisciplinary faculty to a [[joint appointment]], with responsibilities in both an interdisciplinary program (such as [[women's studies]]) and a traditional discipline (such as [[history]]). If the traditional discipline makes the tenure decisions, new interdisciplinary faculty will be hesitant to commit themselves fully to interdisciplinary work.
Due to the existence of these and other barriers, interdisciplinary research areas are strongly motivated to become disciplines themselves. If they succeed, they can establish their own research funding programs and make their own tenure and promotion decisions. In so doing, they lower the risk of entry. Examples of former interdisciplinary research areas that have become disciplines include [[neuroscience]], [[biochemistry]], and [[biomedical engineering]].
==New interdisciplinary programs==
Universities worldwide recognize that, in order to address the problems facing humanity today, they must increase their commitment to interdisciplinarity. For example, a grass-roots effort by faculty and students at [[Stanford University]] resulted in a new program called [[Bio-X]], which explores the intersections among biology, computer science, medicine, and engineering. The program is housed in the [[Clark Center]], which opened in 2003. Situated along the pathways between the university and the medical center, the Clark Center is designed to both express and facilitate the concept of interdisciplinarity. Each lab is equipped with at least two scientists from each of the participating disciplines, but they are by no means fixed: for example, walls can be moved (or eliminated), and all equipment is on wheels. The entire building is designed to facilitate interdisciplinary communication and to accommodate new, rapid, and unexpected growth as it occurs.
A similar program has recently been instituted at [[Truman State University]] in Kirksville, Missouri. Undergraduate students must apply for acceptance into the program, and in the process design their own major using available courses in disciplinary programs. The major requires students take only two courses: an introductory course to interdisciplinary studies (focusing on the theory of interdisciplinarity) and a senior capstone (focusing on synthesis/praxis). The first class of IDSM majors at the school were: Rhetoric and Power, Philosophy in Literature, and Gender in Politics, though recently Biochemistry, Medieval Studies, and East Asian Studies were proposed.
== Relation to holism ==
Interdisciplinarity is a typical trait of [[Holism|holistic]] approaches in science. Not all scientists that are committed to interdisciplinarity consider themselves holists, however, as the term "holism" can carry negative connotations. {{See|Holism in science}}
== See also ==
Highly interdisciplinary fields (see also: [[:Category:Interdisciplinary fields]])
{{col-begin}}
{{col-break}}
* [[American studies]]
* [[Biomedical engineering]]
* [[Biomedical informatics]]
* [[Biomedical technology]]
* [[Cognitive science]]
* [[Computer graphics]]
* [[Cybernetics]]
* [[Film studies]]
* [[Integrative learning]]
* [[Intelligence (information gathering)|Intelligence analysis]]
* [[Liberal arts college|Liberal arts]]
{{col-break}}
* [[Library and information science]]
* [[Media studies]]
* [[Nanotechnology]]
* [[Nativist theorizing]]
* [[Political economy]]
* [[Science studies]]
* [[Science and technology studies]]
* [[Systems theory]]
* [[Women's studies]]
{{col-end}}
== External links ==
* [http://www.units.muohio.edu/aisorg/ Association for Integrative Studies]
* [http://members.door.net/arisbe/menu/library/aboutcsp/awbrey/integrat.htm Awbrey, S. and Awbrey, J. (1999), "Integrative Universities"], ''2nd International Conference of the Journal "Organization"'', UMASS, Amherst, 17-[[19 September]] [[1999]].
* [http://www.manchester.ac.uk/cidra/ Centre for Interdisciplinary Research in the Arts (University of Manchester)]
* [http://www.shef.ac.uk/philosophy/department/hangseng/ Hang Seng Centre for Cognitive Studies]
* [http://sciencecareerst.sciencemag.org/career_development/issue/articles/2100/interdisciplinarity_and_tenure/ Interdisciplinarity and tenure]
* Johnston, R. (2003). [http://www.cia.gov/csi/kent_csi/pdf/v47i1a06p.pdf Integrating methodologists into teams of substantive experts]. ''Studies in Intelligence 47''(1).
[[de:Interdisziplinarität]]
[[nl:Interdisciplinariteit]]
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[[Category:Interdisciplinary fields| ]]
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Insertion sort
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/* External links */ link to LiteratePrograms implementations
'''Insertion sort''' is a simple [[sort algorithm]], a [[comparison sort]] in which the sorted array (or list) is built one entry at a time. It is much less efficient on large lists than the more advanced algorithms such as [[quicksort]], [[heapsort]], or [[merge sort]], but it has various advantages:
* Simple to implement
* Efficient on (quite) small data sets
* Efficient on data sets which are already substantially sorted
* More efficient in practice than most other simple [[big O notation|O]](''n''<sup>2</sup>) algorithms such as [[selection sort]] or [[bubble sort]]: the average time is ''n''<sup>2</sup>/4 and it is linear in the best case
* [[Stable sort|Stable]] (does not change the relative order of elements with equal keys)
* [[In-place algorithm|In-place]] (only requires a constant amount O(1) of extra memory space)
* It is an [[online algorithm]], in that it can sort a list as it receives it.
In abstract terms, each iteration of an insertion sort removes an element from the input data, inserting it at the correct position in the already sorted list, until no elements are left in the input. The choice of which element to remove from the input is arbitrary and can be made using almost any choice algorithm.
Sorting is typically done in-place. The result array after ''k'' iterations contains the first ''k'' entries of the input array and is sorted.
In each step, the first remaining entry of the input is removed, inserted into the result at the right position, thus extending the result:
[[Image:insertionsort-before.png | The array right before insertion of x]]
becomes:
[[Image:insertionsort-after.png | The array right after insertion of x]]
with each element > ''x'' copied to the right as it is compared against ''x''.
The most common variant, which operates on arrays, can be described as:
# Suppose we have a method called ''insert'' designed to insert a value into a sorted sequence at the beginning of an array. It operates by starting at the end of the sequence and shifting each element one place to the right until a suitable position is found for the new element. It has the side effect of overwriting the value stored immediately after the sorted sequence in the array.
# To perform insertion sort, start at the left end of the array and invoke ''insert'' to insert each element encountered into its correct position. The ordered sequence into which we insert it is stored at the beginning of the array in the set of indexes already examined. Each insertion overwrites a single value, but this is okay because it's the value we're inserting.
A simple pseudocode version of the complete algorithm follows, where the arrays are zero-based:
<u>insert</u>(''array'' a, ''int'' length, value) {
''int'' i := length - 1;
'''while''' (i ≥ 0 '''and''' a[i] > value) {
a[i + 1] := a[i];
i := i - 1;
}
a[i + 1] := value;
}
<u>insertionSort</u>(''array'' a, ''int'' length) {
''int'' i := 1;
'''while''' (i < length) {
insert(a, i, a[i]);
i := i + 1;
}
}
__NOTOC__
== Good and bad input cases ==
In the best case of an already sorted array, this implementation of insertion sort takes [[big O notation|O]](''n'') time: in each iteration, the first remaining element of the input is only compared with the last element of the result.
It takes O(''n''<sup>2</sup>) time in the average and worst cases, which makes it impractical for sorting large numbers of elements.
However, insertion sort's inner loop is very fast, which often makes it one of the fastest algorithms for sorting small numbers of elements, typically less than 10 or so.
== Variants ==
D.L. Shell made substantial improvements to the algorithm, and the modified version is called [[Shell sort]].
It compares elements separated by a distance that decreases on each pass. Shellsort has distinctly improved running times in practical work, with two simple variants requiring O(''n''<sup>3/2</sup>) and O(''n''<sup>4/3</sup>) time.
If comparisons are very costly compared to swaps, as is the case for example with string keys stored by reference, then using binary insertion sort can be a good strategy. Binary insertion sort employs [[binary search]] to find the right place to insert new elements, and therefore performs <math>\lceil ln(n!) \rceil</math> comparisons in the worst case, which is Θ(''n'' log ''n''). The algorithm as a whole still takes Θ(''n''<sup>2</sup>) time on average due to the series of swaps required for each insertion, and since it always uses binary search, the best case is no longer O(''n'') but O(''n log n'').
To avoid having to make a series of swaps for each insertion, we could instead store the input in a [[linked list]], which allows us to insert and delete elements in constant time. Unfortunately, binary search on a linked list is impossible, so we still spend Ω(n<sup>2</sup>) time searching. If we instead replace it by a more sophisticated [[data structure]] such as a [[heap (data structure)|heap]] or [[binary tree]], we can significantly decrease both search and insert time. This is the essence of [[heap sort]] and [[binary tree sort]].
In 2004, Bender, Farach-Colton, and Mosteiro published a new variant of insertion sort called ''[[library sort]]'' or ''gapped insertion sort'' that leaves a small number of unused spaces ("gaps") spread throughout the array. The benefit is that insertions need only shift elements over until a gap is reached. Surprising in its simplicity, they show that this sorting algorithm runs with high probability in O(''n'' log ''n'') time. [http://citeseer.ist.psu.edu/bender04insertion.html]
== Comparisons to other sorts ==
Insertion sort is very similar to [[bubble sort]]. In bubble sort, after ''k'' passes through the array, the ''k'' largest elements have bubbled to the top. (Or the ''k'' smallest elements have bubbled to the bottom, depending on which way you do it.) In insertion sort, after ''k'' passes through the array, you have a run of ''k'' sorted elements at the bottom of the array. Each pass inserts another element into the sorted run. So with bubble sort, each pass takes less time than the previous one, but with insertion sort, each pass may take more time than the previous one.
Some [[divide-and-conquer algorithm]]s such as [[quicksort]] and [[mergesort]] sort by recursively dividing the list into smaller sublists which are then sorted. A useful optimization in practice for these algorithms is to switch to insertion sort for "small enough" sublists on which insertion sort outperforms the more complex algorithms. The size of list for which insertion sort has the advantage varies by environment and implementation, but is typically around 8 to 20 elements.
== Implementations ==
{{main|Insertion sort implementations}}
This section shows just a few representative implementations of insertion sort. For a more comprehensive list of implementations, see ''[[Insertion sort implementations]]''.
<!-- Before adding an implementation, please consider whether it adds significantly in a conceptual way beyond the implementations already present. If not, you can still edit [[Insertion sort implementations]]. If so, you can edit the contents of this section using this link:
http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Template:Insertion_sort_core_implementations&action=edit
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{{Insertion sort core implementations}}
==External links==
* [http://web.engr.oregonstate.edu/~minoura/cs162/javaProgs/sort/InsertSort.html An animated Java applet showing a step-by-step insertion sort.]
* [http://literateprograms.org/Category:Insertion_sort Annotated implementations of insertion sort in various languages]
== References ==
* [[Donald Knuth|Donald Knuth]]. ''The Art of Computer Programming'', Volume 3: ''Sorting and Searching'', Third Edition. Addison-Wesley, 1997. ISBN 0-201-89685-0. Section 5.2.1: Sorting by Insertion, pp.80–105.
* [[Thomas H. Cormen]], [[Charles E. Leiserson]], [[Ronald L. Rivest]], and [[Clifford Stein]]. ''[[Introduction to Algorithms]]'', Second Edition. MIT Press and McGraw-Hill, 2001. ISBN 0262032937. Section 2.1: Insertion sort, pp.15–21.
[[Category:Sort algorithms]]
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Incompetence
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'''Incompetence''' can refer to:
:* '''Incompetence''', the condition of a person who is unable to properly perform his or her [[duty]].
:* '''Incompetence''' (in [[law]]), the failure to meet defined standards of [[competence]].
:* '''''[[Incompetence (book)|Incompetence]]''''', a [[novel]] by [[Rob Grant]].
== See also ==
*[[Administrative incompetence]]
*[[Military incompetence]]
*[[Darwin Awards]]
*[[Hanlon's Razor]]
{{disambig}}
[[pt:Incompetência]]
Ig Nobel Prize
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40604073
2006-02-21T19:43:41Z
165.138.227.252
The '''Ig Nobel Prizes''' are a [[parody]] of the [[Nobel Prize]]s and are given each year in early fall — around the time the recipients of the genuine Nobel Prizes are announced — for ten achievements that "first make people laugh, and then make them think." The name itself is a play on the words [[wikt:ignoble|ignoble]] and "Nobel." Sponsored by the scientific [[Humour|humor]] journal [[Annals of Improbable Research]] (AIR), they are presented by genuine [[Nobel Prize|Nobel Laureates]] at a ceremony in [[Harvard University]]'s [[Sanders Theatre]].
The awards are sometimes veiled criticism — as in the two awards given for [[homeopathy]] research, or prizes in "science education" to Kansas and Colorado state boards of education for their stance regarding the teaching of evolution — but more often they draw attention to scientific articles that have some funny or unexpected aspect. Examples range from the discovery that the presence of [[humans]] tends to sexually arouse [[ostrich]]es, to the statement that [[black holes]] fulfill all the technical requirements to be the location of [[Hell]], to research on the "[[five-second rule]]," a tongue-in-cheek belief that food dropped on the floor won't become contaminated if it is picked up within five seconds.
The first Ig Nobels were awarded in [[1991]], when they were described as discoveries "that cannot, or should not, be reproduced." The official pronunciation used during the ceremony is "ig no-BELL", not "ig-noble", but this distinction eludes many people.
The ceremony is followed a few days later by the Ig Informal Lectures at the [[Massachusetts Institute of Technology]], in which laureates have the opportunity to explain their achievements and their relevance to the general public.
The annual ceremony is co-sponsored by the [[Harvard Computer Society]], the [[Harvard-Radcliffe Science Fiction Association]], and the [[Harvard-Radcliffe Society of Physics Students]].
With the exception of three prizes in the first year (see [[Administratium]], [[Josiah Carberry]], and [[Paul DeFanti]]), most Ig Nobel Prizes have been for genuine achievements.
== Tours and outreach ==
Unlike the [[Darwin Awards]], whose aim is strictly to entertain, the aim of the Ig Nobel is also to arouse public interest in science. AIR Editor [[Marc Abrahams]] describes the awards as being designed "to make you laugh, and then to make you think."
The ceremony is recorded and broadcast on [[National Public Radio]] and is shown live over the Internet. Two books have been published [[as of 2006]] with writeups on some of the winners: ''The Ig Nobel Prize'' (2002, US paperback ISBN 0-452-28573-9, UK paperback ISBN 0-75284-261-7) and ''The Ig Nobel Prize 2'' (2005, US hardcover ISBN 0-525-94912-7, UK hardcover ISBN 0-75286-461-0).
The Ig Nobel Tour performed shows in [[Britain]] during [[National Science Week]]; it has also traveled to other countries, including Australia.
== Criticism ==
In 1995, Sir [[Robert May]], the chief scientific advisor to the British government, requested that the organizers no longer award Ig Nobel prizes to British scientists, claiming that the awards risked bringing "genuine" experiments into ridicule.
==Prize categories==
Prizes have been awarded annually since 1991 for achievements in many categories. They include the Nobel Prize areas of physics, chemistry, physiology/medicine, literature, and peace but also other categories such as public health, engineering, biology, and interdisciplinary research.
==Trivia==
*Throwing paper airplanes onto the stage has been a long-standing tradition at the Ig Nobels. In past years, physics professor [[Roy Glauber]] has been the official "Keeper of the Broom," sweeping the stage clean of the airplanes. In 2005, he became a genuine [[Nobel Prize|Nobel prize]] laureate.
*Broadcasting a recording of the ceremony on the Friday after U.S. [[Thanksgiving]] is a tradition on the radio program ''[[Science Friday]]''.
==See also==
* [[List of Ig Nobel Prize winners]]
==External links==
* [http://www.improb.com/ig/ig-top.html Ig Nobel home page]
* [http://www.improb.com/ig/ig-pastwinners.html List of past winners, with reasons for prize]
[[Category:Humor]]
[[Category:Prizes]]
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[[fr:Prix Ig Nobel]]
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[[it:Premio Ig Nobel]]
[[he:פרס איג נובל]]
[[nl:Ig Nobelprijs]]
[[ja:イグノーベル賞]]
[[pl:Nagroda Ig Nobla]]
[[ru:Шнобелевская премия]]
[[uk:Іґнобелівська премія]]
[[zh:搞笑諾貝爾獎]]
Isaac Albéniz
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2006-02-20T19:08:21Z
GCarty
10379
[[WP:AWB|AWB assisted]] recategorize as a classical pianist
[[Image:albeniz.jpg|thumb|135px|Isaac Albéniz]]
'''Isaac Manuel Francisco Albéniz''' ([[May 29]], [[1860]] – [[May 18]], [[1909]]) was a [[Spain|Spanish]] [[pianist]] and [[composer]], best known for his [[piano]] works that are based on [[Spanish folk music]].
Born in [[Camprodon]], [[Catalonia]], Albéniz was a [[child prodigy]] who first performed at the age of four. At age seven he passed the entrance examination for piano at the [[Paris Conservatoire]], but he was refused admission because after passing, he took out a ball from his pocket and broke a glass while playing with it. After going to the [[Madrid Conservatory]], he ran away and became a [[vagabond]], making a living by playing. By age fifteen, he had already given concerts worldwide. After a short stay at the [[Leipzig Conservatory]], in [[1876]] he went to study in [[Brussels]]. In [[1880]], he went to [[Budapest]] to study with [[Franz Liszt]], only to find out that Liszt was in [[Weimar, Germany]].
In [[1883]] he met the teacher and composer [[Felipe Pedrell]], who inspired him to write Spanish music such as the ''Suite Española'', Op. 47. The fifth movement of that suite, called ''Asturias'' ([[Leyenda]]) is probably most famous these days in the classical guitar world, even though it was originally composed for piano and only later transcribed to guitar by [[Francisco Tárrega]]. Many of his other compositions were also later transcribed to guitar - Albéniz himself preferred Tárrega's guitar transcriptions to his original piano works.
During the [[1890s]] Albéniz lived in [[London]] and [[Paris]] and wrote mainly theatrical works. In [[1900]] he started to suffer from kidney disease and returned to the writing of piano music. Between [[1905]] and [[1909]] he composed his most famous work, [[Iberia (Albéniz)|''Iberia'']] (1908), a suite of twelve piano "impressions".
His orchestral works include ''Spanish Rhapsody'' (1887) and ''Catalonia'' (1899).
Albéniz died in [[1909]] at age 48 in [[Cambo-les-Bains]] and is buried in the ''Cementiri del Sudoest'', [[Barcelona]].
Cécilia Sarkozy, the wife of French politician [[Nicolas Sarkozy]], is the great-granddaughter of Isaac Albéniz.
==External links==
*[http://www.lib.umd.edu/PAL/YALE/albeniz1.html The Life and Music of Isaac Albéniz]
*[http://www.sheetmusicarchive.net/single_listing.cfm?composer_id=1 Albeniz's Scores by SheetMusicArchive]
*[http://www.bookmine.org/music/asturiaz.mp3 An electronic version of the famous piece Asturias]
*[http://www.pianopublicdomain.com/index.php?dir=library/Albeniz Piano Sheet Music of Albeniz] in PDF.
*{{IckingArchive|idx=Albeniz|name=Isaac Albéniz}}
[[Category:1860 births|Albeniz, Isaac]]
[[Category:1909 deaths|Albeniz, Isaac]]
[[Category:Catalan composers|Albeniz, Isaac]]
[[Category:Romantic composers|Albeniz, Isaac]]
[[Category:Spanish composers|Albeniz, Isaac]]
[[Category:Spanish classical pianists|Albeniz, Isaac]]
[[ca:Isaac Albéniz i Pascual]]
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[[eo:Isaac ALBÉNIZ]]
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[[ja:イサーク・アルベニス]]
[[pl:Isaac Albéniz]]
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[[uk:Альбеніс Ісаак]]
ITU-R
15210
26441196
2005-10-25T13:18:10Z
Lindosland
522516
/* External links */
The '''ITU Radiocommunication Sector''' ('''ITU-R''') is a standards body subcommittee of the [[International Telecommunication Union]] (ITU) relating to [[radio]] communication. Its role is to regulate the allocation of [[radio frequencies]] and so reduce the [[interference]] between radio stations in various countries. It also has responsibility for regulating [[orbit]]al positions of [[satellite]]s relating to radio communications. In addition, it publishes international engineering standard documents in its area of responsibility.
=== History ===
In 1927, the CCIR - ''Comité consultatif international pour la radio'', "Consultative Committee on International Radio" or "International Radio Consultative Committee" - was founded.
In 1932, the CCIR, and several other organizations (including the original ITU, which had been founded as the [[International Telegraph Union]] in 1865) merged to form what would become known as the [[International Telecommunication Union]] in 1934. In 1992, the CCIR became the ITU-R.
==See also==
* [[ITU-T]]
* [[ITU-R 468 noise weighting]]
== External links ==
* [http://www.itu.int/ ITU official website]
* [http://www.itu.int/ITU-R/ ITU-R official website]
[[ca:Comité Consultiu Internacional de Radiocomunicació]]
[[da:International Telecommunication Union, ITU Radiocommunication Sector]]
[[de:CCIR]]
[[es:CCIR]]
[[nl:ITU-R]]
[[pl:CCIR]]
Irish Civil War
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42012263
2006-03-03T05:19:52Z
63.231.128.211
grammar
{{Infobox Military Conflict
|conflict=[[Irish Civil War]]
|date=[[June 28]], [[1922]]–[[May 24]], [[1923]]
|place=[[Ireland]]
|casus=acceptance of the [[Anglo-Irish Treaty]]
|result=Creation of [[Irish Free State]] and defeat of anti-Treaty IRA forces
|combatant1=[[Irish Republican Army (1922-1969)]]
|combatant2=[[Irish Army]] of the [[Irish Free State]]
|strength1= c.15,000
|strength2= [[Irish Army]] c.55,000 men, 3000 officers
|casualties1= unknown number of anti-treaty [[Irish Republican Army (1922-1969)|IRA]], C.2-3000 (incl 77 official executions) ,12,000 taken prisoner
|casualties2= c. 800 Irish Army killed (unknown no. of civilians, c.250 killed in Dublin fighting alone)
}}
The '''Irish Civil War''' (June 28th [[1922]]–May 24th [[1923]]) was a conflict between supporters and opponents of the [[Anglo-Irish Treaty]] of [[December 6]], [[1921]], which established the [[Irish Free State]], precursor of today's [[Republic of Ireland]]. Opponents of the Treaty objected to the fact that it retained constitutional links between the [[United Kingdom]] and [[Ireland]], and that the six counties of [[Northern Ireland]] would not be included in the Free State. The Civil War cost the lives of more than had died in the [[Anglo-Irish War|War of Independence]] that preceded it. It left Irish society deeply divided and its influence in Irish politics can still be seen to this day.
==Background==
[[Image:firstdail.jpg|frame|[[First Dáil]]: [[Michael Collins (Irish leader)|Michael Collins]] (second from left, front row), [[Arthur Griffith]] (fourth from left, front row) [[Eamon de Valera]] (centre, front row), [[W.T. Cosgrave]] (second from right, front row).]]
===The Treaty===
The Anglo-Irish Treaty arose from the [[Anglo-Irish War]] (or "Irish War of Independence"), fought between Irish separatists (organised as the extra-legal [[Irish Republic]]) and the [[British government]], from [[1919]]-1921. The treaty provided for a fully self-governing Irish state, controlling most of Ireland's population and area, and having its own army and police. However, rather than creating the independent [[republic]] favoured by many nationalists, it provided that the state would be a dominion of the [[British Empire]] with the [[British monarchy|British monarch]] as [[head of state]]. The treaty also stipulated that members of the new Irish [[Oireachtas of the Irish Free State|Oireachtas]] (parliament) would have to take an "[[Oath of Allegiance (Ireland)|Oath of Allegiance]]" to the Free State constitution and an oath of fidelity to the British king. Under the treaty the state was not to be called a republic but a "[[Free State|free state]]" and it was only to include twenty-six southern and western counties of Ireland. The remaining six northeastern counties were to remain part of the United Kingdom as [[Northern Ireland]]. Also, [[Treaty ports (Ireland)|several strategic ports]] were to remain occupied by the [[Royal Navy]].
Nonetheless, [[Michael Collins]], the republican leader who had led the Irish negotiating team, argued that the treaty gave "not the ultimate freedom that all nations aspire and develop, but the freedom to achieve freedom". Events were eventually to prove him right, as the Free State later evolved into an independent republic. However, Anti-Treaty militants in 1922 believed that the Treaty would never deliver full Irish independence.
===Split in the Nationalist movement===
The split over the Treaty was deeply personal. The protagonists on both sides had been close friends and comrades during the War of Independence. This made their lethal disagreement over the Treaty all the more bitter. [[Michael Collins (Irish leader)|Michael Collins]] felt that [[Éamon de Valera]] had sent him to negotiate the Treaty because he knew that the British would not concede an independent Irish republic and wanted Collins to take the blame for the compromise settlement. He therefore felt deeply betrayed when De Valera refused to stand by the agreement he had negotiated with [[David Lloyd George]] and [[Winston Churchill]]. [[Image:Flyingcolumn westcork-DB668.JPG|300px|thumb|The IRA West Cork [[Flying Column]] during the War of Independence. Most of the IRA units in Munster were against the Treaty</small>]]
[[Dáil Éireann (1919-1922)|Dáil Éireann]] (the parliament of the Irish Republic) narrowly passed the Anglo-Irish Treaty by 64 votes to 57 in December 1921. Following the Treaty's ratification, a '''Provisional Government''', headed by Michael Collins and [[Arthur Griffith]] was set up to transfer power from the British adminstration to the [[Irish Free State]].
Upon the Treaty's ratification [[Eamon de Valera]] resigned as [[President of the Irish Republic|President of the Republic]] and led the anti-treaty wing of [[Sinn Féin]] out of the Dáil. He challenged the right of the Dáil to approve the Treaty, saying that its members were breaking their oath to the [[Irish Republic]]. De Valera then attempted to promote a compromise, in which the new Irish Free State would have "external association" with the [[Commonwealth of Nations|British Commonwealth]] rather than membership of it. More seriously, the majority of the [[Irish Republican Army]] officers were also against the Treaty and in March 1922, their Army Convention repudiated the authority of the [[Dail]] to accept the Treaty. The anti-treaty IRA formed their own '''Army Executive''', which they recognised as the real government of the country.
However, both sides wanted to avoid civil war. Collins established an "army re-unification committee" to re-unite the IRA and organised an election pact with De Valera's anti-treaty political followers to jointly fight the [[Irish Treaty Election, 1922|Free State's first election in 1922]] and form a coalition government afterwards. He also tried to reach a compromise with anti-treaty IRA leaders by agreeing to republican type constitution (with no mention of the British monarchy) for the new state. IRA leaders such as [[Liam Lynch (general)|Liam Lynch]] were prepared to accept this compromise. However, the proposal for a republican constitution was vetoed by the British as being contrary to the terms of the treaty and they threatened to impose an economic blockade on Free State unless the treaty was fully implemented. Collins reluctantly agreed. This completely undermined the electoral pact between the pro and anti treaty factions, who went into the [[Irish general election, 1922]] on June 18th as hostile parties, both calling themselves [[Sinn Fein]]. The Pro Treaty Sinn Fein party won the election with 239,193 votes to 133,864 for anti-Treaty Sinn Fein. A further 247,226 people voted for other parties, all of whom supported the Treaty. The election showed that the Irish electorate supported the Treaty and the foundation of the [[Irish Free State]] but De Valera, his political followers and most of the IRA continued to oppose it. De Valera is quoted as saying, "the majority have no right to do wrong".
Meanwhile under the leadership of Michael Collins and [[Arthur Griffith]], the pro-treaty Provisional Government set about establishing the Irish Free State, an organised national army to replace the [[Irish Republican Army|IRA]] and a new police force. However, since it was envisaged that the new army would be built around the IRA, anti-treaty IRA units were allowed to take over British barracks and take their arms. In practice, this meant that by the summer of 1922, the Provisional government of the Free State controlled only [[Dublin]] and some other areas like [[Longford]] where the IRA units supported the Treaty.
Fighting would ultimately break out when the Provisional government tried to assert its authority over well armed and intransigent anti-treaty IRA units around the country -particularly a hardline group in [[Dublin]].
==Course of the war==
===Dublin fighting===
[[image:fourcourtsquays.JPG|thumb|left|300px|The Four Courts along the River Liffey quayside. The building was occupied by Anti Treaty forces during the civil war, whom the Free State army subsequently bombarded into surrender. The building was badly damaged but was fully restored after the war]]
In April 1922, 200 anti-treaty IRA militants led by [[Rory O'Connor (Irish republican)|Rory O'Connor]], occupied the [[Four Courts]] in [[Dublin]], resulting in a tense stand-off. These Anti-Treaty Republicans wanted to spark a new armed confrontation with the British, which they hoped would unite the two factions of the IRA against their common enemy. However, for those who were determined to make the Free State into a viable, self-governing Irish state, this was an act of rebellion that would have to be put down ''by them'' rather than the British. [[Arthur Griffith]] was in favour of using force against these men immediately, but Michael Collins wanted at all costs to avoid civil war and left the Four Courts garrison alone until late June 1922. His hand was forced by British pressure.
Ironically, the British lost patience as result of an action ordered by Collins. He had [[Henry Hughes Wilson]], a retired British General assassinated in [[London]] on the 22nd of June because of his role in attacks on Catholics in [[Northern Ireland]]. [[Winston Churchill]] assumed that the anti-treaty IRA were responsable for the killing and warned Collins that he would use British troops to attack the Four Courts unless the Free State took action. The final straw for the Free State government came on the 27th of June, when the Fourt Courts republican garrison kidnaped JJ "Ginger" O'Connell, a general in the new [[Irish Army|Free State Army]]. Collins made a final attempt to persuade the men holding the Four Courts to leave it before violence broke out. They refused and Collins decided to end the stand-off, under a British threat of imminent re-occupation, by the bombarding the Four Courts garrison into surrender. Collins was then appointed Commander-in-Chief of the Free State Army. This attack was not the opening shots of the war as skirmishes had taken place between pro and anti treaty IRA factions throughout the country when the British were handing over barracks. However this represented the 'point of no return' when all out war was ''ipso facto'' declared and the Civil War officially began.
[[Image:4courtsbomb.jpg|250px|thumb|right|The Four Courts under bombardment by Free State Troops in 1922]]
Michael Collins had accepted a British offer of [[artillery]] for use by the new Free State Army. The anti-treaty forces in the Four Courts, who possessed only small arms, surrendered after two days of bombardment and the storming of the building by Free State troops (28th-30th of June 1922). In the chaos of the moment, the [[Irish Public Records Office]], which had been used as an ammunition store by the Four Courts garrison, was the centre of a huge explosion, blowing to pieces one thousand years of Irish state and religious archives. Several anti-Treaty leaders, notably [[Ernie O'Malley]] escaped from captivity to continue fighting elsewhere. Pitched battles continued in Dublin until [[July 5]], as anti-Treaty IRA units from the Dublin Brigade led by [[Oscar Traynor]] occupied [[O'Connell Street]] - provoking a week's more street fighting. The republicans held out in a "block" of buildings until artillery was brought up, under the cover of armoured cars, to bombard them at point blank range. Oscar Traynor and most of his men made their escape when the buildings they were holding caught fire. Among the Republican casualties was Republican leader [[Cathal Brugha]], who stayed behind in the Granville hotel after Traynor and most other IRA men had left. He was shot dead when he left the burning building alone to confront the Free State troops. Cathal Brugha was the last casualty in the battle for Dublin which had cost both sides sixty-five killed and twenty-eight wounded. In addition, the Free State took over 500 Republican prisoners. The civilian casualties are thought to have numbered well over 250.
[[Image:cathalbrugha.JPG|thumb|left|Cathal Brugha, Anti-Treaty leader killed during the fighting on Dublin's O'Connell St]] When the fighting in Dublin died down, the Free State Government was left firmly in control of the Irish capital and the anti-treaty forces dispersed around the country, mainly to the south and west.[[Image:Oconnell-street-fighting-1.jpg|thumb|right|150px|Street fighting on O'Connell Street during the Irish Civil War. The Free State's acquisition of armoured cars, seen in action here, was a major advantage in street fighting.]]
The outbreak of the civil war forced pro and anti treaty supporters to choose sides. Supporters of the treaty came to be known as "pro-treaty", "National Army" or "Free State" forces. Its opponents were known as "anti-treaty", "Irregulars" or "Republicans" and continued to refer to themselves as the "IRA". The Anti-Treaty IRA claimed that it was defending the Irish Republic that had been declared in 1916 during the [[Easter Rising]], that had been confirmed by the [[First Dáil]] and that had been invalidly set aside by those who accepted the compromise of the Free State. Éamon de Valera stated that he would serve as an ordinary IRA volunteer, and left the leadership of the Anti-Treaty Republicans to military leaders such as [[Liam Lynch (general)|Liam Lynch]], the [[list of IRA Chiefs of Staff|IRA Chief of Staff]].
===The Opposing forces===
At the start of the Civil War the IRA had split down the middle. The Anti-Treaty side had considerable support among IRA units, particularly in the south and west of Ireland. In fact, when the civil war broke out, the Anti-Treaty IRA outnumbered the pro-Free State forces -by roughly 15,000 men to 7000 or nearly 2-1. (The paper strength of the IRA in early 1922 was over 72,000 men, but most of them fought in neither the War of Independence nor the Civil War). However the anti-treaty IRA lacked an effective command structure, a clear strategy and sufficient arms. They started the war with only 6,780 rifles and a handful of machine guns. They also took a handful of [[armoured cars]] from British troops as they were evacuating the country. More importantly, the had no artillery of any kind. As a result, they were forced to adopt a defensive stance throughout the war.
By contrast, the Free State managed to expand its forces dramatically after the start of the war. Michael Collins and his commanders were able to build up an army which was able to overwhelm the Irregulars in the field. British supplies of artillery, [[aircraft]], [[armoured cars]], [[machine gun]]s, [[small arms]] and [[ammunition]] were much help to pro-treaty forces. By the end of the war, the Free State Army had swollen to over 55,000 men and 3,500 officers, far in excess of what the Irish state would need to maintain in peacetime. Collins' most ruthless officers and men were recruited from the Dublin "Active Service Unit" (the elite unit of the IRA's Dublin Brigade), which Collins had commanded in the Irish War of Independence and in particular from his assassination unit "The Squad". In the New [[Irish Army]], they were known as the [[Dublin Guard]]. Towards the end of the war, they were implicated in some gruesome atrocities against Anti-Treaty [[guerrilla warfare|guerrillas]]. Most of the Free State Army's officers were Pro-Treaty IRA officers. However, the bulk of the Free State Army was made up of unemployed Irish ex-servicemen, who had fought in the [[First World War]] in the [[British Army]].
===The Free State takes major towns===
[[Image:Griffith.jpg|130px|thumb|'''Arthur Griffith''' <br>(1871-1922)]]
With Dublin in pro-treaty hands, conflict spread throughout the country, with anti-Treaty forces briefly holding [[Cork]], [[Limerick]] and [[Waterford]] as part of a self-styled independent [[Munster Republic|"Munster Republic"]]. However, the Anti-Treaty side were not equipped to wage conventional war, lacking artillery and armoured units, both of which the Free State obtained from the British. This meant that the large towns in Ireland were all easily taken by the Free State after only sporadic fighting.
In [[Limerick]], the anti-treaty IRA held four military barracks and most of the town. Fighting broke out between them and Free state units in the city on the 11th of July 1921. On the 17th, General [[Eoin O'Duffy]] arrived with 1,500 Free State reinforcments including four armoured cars and an 18 pounder cannon. After three days of street fighting the Republicans evacuated the city and retreated south. Eight Free State troops died in Limerick and up to thirty Republicans. Similarly, [[Waterford]] was taken by a Free State column equipped with armour and artillery under General Prout between the 18th and 20th of July at a cost of only ten killed. However, the Free State troops encountered more tenacious resistance in the countryside around [[Kilmallock]], south of Limerick city, when they tried to advance into republican held [[Munster]]. Eoin O'Duffy's 1,500 troops were faced with about 2000 anti-Treaty IRA men under [[Liam Deasy]], who had three armoured cars they had taken from the evacuating British troops. Fighting continued here from the 22nd of July until August the 5th, despite the arrival of over 1000 more Free State troops and more armoured cars and cannon. These engagements were the closest thing in the war to a conventional battle and were costly for both sides. Deasy's men were ultimately forced to retreat, however, when Free State forces were landed by sea behind them in [[Passage West]] and [[Fenit]] in counties Cork and Kerry on the 2nd and 8th of August respectively.
These seaborne landings landed about 2000 well equipped Free State troops into the heart of the "Munster Republic" and caused the rapid collapse of the Republican position in the south. After some fighting at [[Rochestown]], the badly armed anti-treaty IRA in Cork did not try to resist this offensive, but burned the barracks they were holding and dispersed. On [[August 10]], [[Cork]] city was retaken, the last city to fall in the "Munster Republic". [[Liam Lynch]], the Republican commander in chief abandoned [[Fermoy]], the last republican held town, the following day.
Another naval landing, at [[Clew Bay]] in Mayo, helped re-take the west of Ireland for the Free State. This force consisting of 400 Free State soldiers, one cannon and an armoured car under Christopher O'Malley, re-took the Republican held town of [[Westport]] and linked up with another Free State column under [[Sean McEoin]] advancing from [[Castlebar]].
Government victories in the major towns inaugurated a period of inconclusive [[guerrilla warfare]]. Anti-Treaty IRA units held out in areas such as the western part of counties Cork and Kerry in the south, [[county Wexford]] in the east and counties [[Sligo]] and [[Mayo]] in the west. Sporadic fightin also took place around [[Dundalk]], where [[Frank Aiken]] and the [[Fourth Northern Division of the Irish Republican Army]] were based. Aiken originally wanted to stay neutral, but was arrested by Free State troops along with 400 of his men on July 16th 1922. They subsequently broke out of prison in Dundalk and conducted a guerrilla campaign against the Free State along the new Irish border with [[Northern Ireland]].
It took eight more months of intermittent warfare before the war was brought to an end. This period was marked by assassinations and executions of leaders formerly allied in the cause of Irish independence. Commander-in-Chief Michael Collins was assassinated by anti-treaty republicans at Béal na mBláth, near his home in [[County Cork]], in August 1922{{fn|1}}. Arthur Griffith, the Free State president had also died of a brain haemorrhage ten days before, leaving the Free State government in the hands of [[W.T. Cosgrave|William Cosgrave]] and the Free State Army under the command of General [[Richard Mulcahy]].
In October 1922, Eamonn de Valera and the anti-treaty TDs (members of the [[Dail]] Parliament) set up their own "Republican government" in opposition to the Free State. However, by then the anti-Treaty side held no significant territory and De Valera's "government" had no authority over the population. In any case, the IRA leaders paid no attention to it, seeing the Republican authority as vested in their own military leaders.
[[Image:MickC.jpg|frame|left|'''Michael Collins''', as Commander-in-Chief at [[Arthur Griffith|President Griffith's]] funeral, one week before his own death.]]
===Atrocities, executions and the end of the war===
The final phase of the Civil War (November 1922-May 1923) degenerated into a series of atrocities that left a lasting legacy of bitterness in Irish politics. On October 15th 1922, the Free State's Provisional Government passed an "Emergency Powers Bill" in the [[Dail]], which allowed for the execution of men captured bearing arms against the state. On November the 17th, four IRA men who were captured with arms were shot by firing squad. On the 24th of November, acclaimed author and treaty negotiator [[Robert Erskine Childers]] was executed by the Free State, having been captured in possession of a pistol. Liam Lynch, in response, issued an order to the IRA units under his command that any member of Parliament who had signed or voted for the "murder bill" should be shot on sight. The Anti-Treaty IRA therefore began assassinating [[Teachta Dála|TDs]] who sat in the [[Dáil]], beginning with [[Sean Hales]]. A number of other TD's and Senators were also shot and wounded. In response, the Free State announced that it would be shooting IRA prisoners already in its custody in reprisal for future "outrages". Accordingly, on December the 7th 1922, the day after Hales' killing, four prominent Republicans (one from each [[Provinces of Ireland|province]]), who had been held since the first week of the war - [[Rory O'Connor (Irish republican)|Rory O'Connor]], [[Liam Mellows]] [[Richard Barett]] and [[Joe McKelvey]]- were executed in revenge for the killing of Hales. In all, the Free State sanctioned 77 official executions of Anti-Treaty prisoners during the civil war - a number that was recalled by [[Fianna Fail]] members with bitterness for decades afterwards.
In addition, Free State troops, particularly in [[County Kerry]], where the guerrilla campaign was most bitter, began unofficial killings of captured Anti-Treaty fighters. Several high profile atrocities took place in the month of March 1923. The most notorious example of this occurred at Ballyseedy, where, in reprisal for the killing of five Free State soldiers with booby trap bomb at Knocknagoshel, 9 Republican prisoners were tied to a [[land mine|landmine]], which was exploded and the remaining survivors were then machine-gunned, with one of the prisoners Stephen Fuller, escaping to tell of the event afterwards. This was followed by series of similar killings of prisoners by Free State troops in [[Killarney]] and [[Cahersiveen]]. [[Image:Dickmulc.jpg|thumb|Richard Mulcahy - the Free State General who instituted the policy of executions of republican prisoners in reprisal for the murder of elected representatives.]]
The Anti-Treaty IRA were unable to maintain an effective guerrilla campaign, since the great majority of the Irish population did not support them. This was demonstrated in the [[elections]] immediately after the civil war, which [[Cumann na nGaedheal]], the Free State party, won easily (See [[Irish general election, 1923]] for the results). The [[Roman Catholic Church]] also supported the Free State, deeming it the lawful government of the country, denouncing the Anti-Treaty IRA and refusing to administer the [[Sacrament]]s to Anti-Treaty fighters. On October 10th 1922, The Catholic Bishops of Ireland issued a formal statement, describing the anti treaty campaign as,
''a system of murder and assassination of the National forces without any legitimate authority...the guerrilla warfare now being carried on [by] the Irregulars is without moral sanction and therefore the killing of National soldiers is murder before God, the seizing of public and private property is robbery, the breaking of roads, bridges and railways is criminal. All who in contravention of this teaching, participate in such crimes are guilty of grevious sins and may not be absolved in [[Confession]] nor admitted to the [[Holy Communion]] if they persist in such evil courses'' (Coogan, De Valera p344).
This stance would have influenced many Catholic Irish people at the time.
The lack of public support for the Anti-Treaty IRA, the determination of the government to defeat them and their lack of will also contributed to their defeat. By February 1923, republican leader [[Liam Deasy]] had already surrendered to Free State forces and called on other republicans to do the same. As the conflict petered out into a ''de facto'' victory for the pro-Treaty side, De Valera asked the IRA leadership to call a ceasefire, but they refused. Some historians suggest that the death of [[Liam Lynch]], the intransigent Republican leader, in a skirmish in the Knockmealdown mountains in [[County Waterford]] on April 10th, allowed the more pragmatic [[Frank Aiken]], who took over as IRA Chief of Staff, to call a halt to what seemed a futile struggle. Aiken's accession to IRA leadership was followed on the 30th of April by the declaration of a [[ceasefire]] on behalf off the anti-treaty forces. Aiken followed this on the 24th of May 1923 by an order to IRA volunteers to dump arms rather than surrender them or continue a fight which they were incapable of winning. Thousands of Anti-Treaty IRA members (including De Valera) were arrested by the Free State forces in the weeks after the end of the war, when they had dumped their arms and returned home.
===Attacks on Loyalists===
Although the cause of the civil war was the treaty, as the war developed the Irregulars sought to identify their actions with the traditional republican cause of the "men of no property" and the result was that the war also saw large Loyalist landowners, and some not very well-off Protestant [[Loyalists]], attacked and a large number of country estates occupied by small holders. Many, but not all of these people, had supported the Crown forces during the War of Independence. This support was often largely moral, but sometimes it took the form of actively assisting the British in the conflict. This made their situation post-independence difficult, and in the anarchy of the Civil War they became easy targets. Sometimes these attacks had sectarian overtones, although most anti-treaty IRA men made no distinction between Catholic and [[Protestant]] supporters of the Irish government. The Free State made efforts to protect Protestants and their property, most notably in [[County Louth]], where a special police force was set up specifically for this purpose. Controversy continues to this day about the extent of intimidation of Protestants at this time.
==Cost and results==
The Civil War, though short, was bloody. It cost the lives of many senior figures, including Michael Collins. Both sides carried out brutal acts: the anti-treaty forces murdered TDs (MPs) and burned many historic homes (such as the famous Moore Hall in [[County Mayo|Mayo]], because its owner had become a senator); the government executed anti-treaty prisoners, officially and unofficially. The pro-treaty National Army suffered 800 fatalities and perhaps as many as 4000 people were killed in total. As their forces retreated the Irregulars caused much destruction and the economy of the Free State suffered a hard blow in the earliest days of its existence as a result. In addition, about 12,000 Republicans were [[internment|interned]] by the end of the Civil War, most of whom were not released until 1924. After Aiken called an end to the Anti-Treaty campaign, up to 8000 IRA prisoners went on [[hunger strike]] in protest at their continued detention.
However, it has also been argued that the Irish Civil War could have been far worse than it actually was. The numbers killed were relatively modest by the standards of other contemporary civil wars - for example in [[Russian Civil War|Russia]] and [[Spanish Civil War|Spain]]. Moreover, the new Police force, the [[Civic Guard]]s, was not involved which meant that it was possible for the Free State to establish an unarmed and politically neutral police service after the war. <!-- CG became Garda Síochána in August 1923 -->
The fact that the Irish Civil War was fought between Irish Nationalist factions meant that the issue of [[Northern Ireland]] was ignored and Ireland was spared what could have been a far bloodier civil war based on [[ethnic]] and [[sectarian]] lines over the future of Ireland's six north-eastern counties. In fact, because of the Irish Civil War, [[Northern Ireland]] was able to consolidate its existence and partition of Ireland was confirmed for the foreseeable future. Collins, up to the outbreak of the civil war and possibly until his death, had been planning to launch a clandestine guerrilla campaign against the Northern state and was funelling arms to the northern units of the IRA to this end. This may have led to open hostilities between north and south had the Irish Civil War not broken out. In the event, it was only after their defeat in the Civil War that anti-treaty Irish Republicans seriously considered whether to take armed action against British rule in Northern Ireland. The northern units of the IRA largely supported the Free State side in the civil war due to Collins's policies and over 1000 of them joined the new Free State's [[Irish Army]].
In [[1926]], having failed to persuade the majority of the anti-treaty side of accepting the new status quo as a basis for an evolving Republic, a large faction led by De Valera and Aiken left to resume constitutional politics and to found the [[Fianna Fáil]] party. [[Sinn Fein]] became a small, isolated poltical party. The IRA, then much more numerous and influential than Sinn Fein, remained associated with Fianna Fail (though not directly) until banned by De Valera in 1935.
[[Image:Eamondv.jpg|thumb|left|Eamon de Valera in the 1930s.]]
As with most civil wars, the internecine conflict left a bitter legacy, which continues to influence Irish politics to this day. The two largest political parties in the Republic are still Fianna Fáil and [[Fine Gael]], the descendants respectively of the anti-treaty and pro-treaty forces of 1922. Until the 1970s, almost all of Ireland's prominent politicians were veterans of the civil war, a fact which poisoned the relationship between Ireland's two biggest parties. Examples of Civil War veterans include: Eamon de Valera, Frank Aiken, [[Todd Andrews]], [[Sean Lemass]]{{fn|2}}, (Republican) and [[W.T. Cosgrave]], Richard Mulcahy and [[Kevin O'Higgins]]{{fn|3}} (Free State). Moreover, many of these men's sons and daughters also became politicians, meaning that the personal wounds of the civil war were felt over three generations. In the 1930s after Fianna Fail took power for the first time, it looked possible for a while that the Civil War might break out again between the [[Irish Republican Army (1922-1969)|IRA]] and the pro-Free State [[Blueshirts]]. Fortunately, this crisis was averted and by the 1950s, political violence was no longer prominent in Southern Irish politics.
[[Image:WTCosgrave2.jpg|thumb|right|W.T. Cosgrave]]
However, the breakaway IRA continued (and continues in various forms) to exist. Up until the 1980s it still claimed to be the Provisional Government of the Irish Republic declared in 1918 and annulled by the Treaty of 1921. Some people, notably [[Michael McDowell]], claim that this attitude, which dates from the Civil War, still underpins the politics of the [[Provisional IRA]].
==Footnotes==
{{fnb|1}}In the 1996 film ''[[Michael Collins (film)|Michael Collins]]'', Eamon de Valera orders Collins' death. However, although de Valera was in the area at the time, he is not known to have been involved in the assassination.<br>
{{fnb|2}}Whose brother Noel, a captain in the anti-Treaty IRA, was abducted and shot by Free State forces in July 1923, two months after the war had ended. His body was dumped in the [[Wicklow Mountains]], near Glencree, where it was found in October 1923. The spot where his body was found is marked by a memorial.<br>
{{fnb|3}} O'Higgins was the Minister for Economic Affairs in the Free State government and was known to be in favour of executions of prisoners. His elderly father was killed by republicans during the civil war. He was assassinated in 1927 by anti-treaty IRA members on his way to [[Mass]]. He was killed in reprisal for what they viewed as his responsibility for executions of republicans during the civil war.
==Sources==
*Ernie O'Malley, The Singing Flame, Dublin 1978.
*M.E. Collins, Ireland 1868-1966, Dublin 1993.
*Michael Hopkinson, Green against Green - the Irish Civil War
*Eoin Neeson, The Irish Civil War
*Paul V Walsh, The Irish Civil War 1922-23 -A Study of the Conventional Phase
*Meda Ryan, The Real chief, Liam Lynch
*Tim Pat Coogan, De Valera, Long Fellow, Long Shadow
==See also==
*[[History of Ireland]]
*[[History of the Republic of Ireland]]
*[[List of Ireland-related topics]]
==External links==
*[http://www.limerick-leader.ie/issues/20000101/s1920.html The final siege of Limerick City] from [[July 7]] until [[July 21]] 1922, on the [[Limerick Leader]] web site.
[[Category:Civil wars]]
[[Category:Guerrilla wars]]
[[Category:History of Ireland]]
[[Category:History of the Republic of Ireland]]
[[Category:Wars of Ireland]]
[[ca:Guerra Civil Irlandesa]]
[[de:Irischer Bürgerkrieg]]
[[es:Guerra Civil Irlandesa]]
[[ga:Cogadh Cathartha na hÉireann]]
[[it:Guerra civile irlandese]]
[[ja:アイルランド内戦]]
[[pl:Irlandzka wojna domowa]]
[[fi:Irlannin sisällissota]]
Internet Explorer
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{{Infobox_Software | name =
| logo = [[Image:Internet Explorer 7 logo.png|250px|Windows Internet Explorer logo]]
| screenshot = [[Image:Internet Explorer 6.png|250px]]
| caption = Internet Explorer 6 under Windows XP
| developer = [[Microsoft]], [[Spyglass]]
| latest_release_version = 6.0 SV1
| latest_release_date = August 6, 2004
| latest_preview_version = [http://www.microsoft.com/windows/IE/ie7/ie7betaredirect.mspx 7.0 Beta 2 Preview] (build 5296)
| latest_preview_date = January 31, 2006
| operating_system = [[Microsoft Windows|Windows]]
| genre = [[Web browser]]
| license = Closed source
| website = [http://www.microsoft.com/windows/ie/ Internet Explorer]
}}
'''Internet Explorer''', abbreviated '''IE''' or '''MSIE''', is a [[proprietary software|proprietary]] [[graphical user interface|graphical]] [[web browser]] made by [[Microsoft]] and included as part of the [[Microsoft Windows]] line of operating systems. It is the most widely used web browser today.
Microsoft has shipped Internet Explorer as the default browser in all versions of Microsoft Windows since [[Windows 95]] OSR1. The last major upgrade to Internet Explorer, 6.0 SV1{{ref|sv1}}, is included in [[Windows XP]] Service Pack 2 and [[Windows Server 2003]] Service Pack 1 only. [[software beta|Beta versions]] of Internet Explorer 7 for Windows XP SP2 have been available since [[July 27]] [[2005]] and versions specific to [[Windows Server 2003]] as well as for 64-bit editions of Windows will also be released, though it won't be available for older versions of Windows. Internet Explorer versions, prior to the one included in Windows XP SP2, are also available as a separate download for versions of Windows uptil [[Windows XP]].
In the past, Internet Explorer was also developed for several other operating systems: [[Internet Explorer for Mac]] and [[Internet Explorer for UNIX]] (the latter for use through the [[X Window System]] on [[Solaris Operating Environment|Solaris]] and [[HP-UX]]). All of these versions have ceased active development.
Internet Explorer is currently known as '''Microsoft Internet Explorer''', but the name will change to '''Windows Internet Explorer''' with the release of Internet Explorer 7.
==History==
[[Image:Internet Explorer 4.png|thumb|Internet Explorer 4.0 under Windows]]
{{main|History of Internet Explorer}}
Internet Explorer is derived from [[Spyglass]] [[Mosaic (web browser)|Mosaic]], an early commercial web browser. In 1995, Spyglass Mosaic was licensed by [[Microsoft]] in an arrangement under which Spyglass would receive a quarterly fee plus a percentage of Microsoft's revenues for the software. Although bearing a name similar to [[National Center for Supercomputing Applications|NCSA]] Mosaic, which was the first widely used browser, Spyglass Mosaic was relatively unknown in its day and did not use any of the NCSA Mosaic source code {{ref|SpyglassMosaic}}.
Internet Explorer 3 was the first major browser with [[Cascading Style Sheets|CSS]] support released in August, 1996 and it could handle the [[Platform for Internet Content Selection|PICS]] system for content [[metadata]]. The improvements were significant, compared to its main competitor at the time, [[Netscape Navigator]].
The browser was not widely used until version 4, which was released in October 1997 and was integrated with the [[Windows 98]] operating system. This integration, however, was subject to numerous criticisms (see [[United States v. Microsoft]]). Version 5, released in September 1998, was another significant release that supported [[bi-directional text]], [[ruby character]]s, [[XML]] and [[Extensible Stylesheet Language|XSL]].
Version 6 was released on [[August 27]] [[2001]], a few weeks before [[Windows XP]]. This version included DHTML enhancements, content restricted inline frames, and better support of CSS level 1, DOM level 1 and SMIL 2.0. The MSXML engine was also updated to version 3.0. Other new features included a new version of the IEAK, Media bar, [[Windows Messenger]] integration, fault collection, automatic image resizing, [[P3P]], and a new look-and-feel that is in line with the style of Windows XP.
On [[February 15]] [[2005]], Microsoft Chairman [[Bill Gates]] announced that the new version of its browser will be released at the RSA Conference 2005 in San Francisco {{ref|RSAConference2005}}. The decision to update the browser occurred in the wake of a decline in the use of Internet Explorer for the first time. Microsoft also stated that Internet Explorer 7 will only be available for Windows XP SP2 and later, including Windows Server 2003 SP1 and Windows Vista. The first [[software beta|beta version]] of the browser was released on [[July 27]] [[2005]] for technical testing, and a first public preview version of Internet Explorer 7 (Beta 2 preview: Pre-Beta 2 version) was released on [[January 31]], [[2006]]. Version 7 is intended to defend users from [[phishing]] as well as deceptive or malicious software, and also features full user control of ActiveX, and better security framework. It includes important bug fixes, enhancements to support the web standards, improvements in HTML 4.01/CSS 2, [[Tabbed document interface|Tabbed Browsing]], Tab preview and management, and web feeds reader.
==Features==
{{main|Features of Internet Explorer}}
[[Image:XPSP2_popup.png|thumb|right|The pop-up blocker included in Internet Explorer 6 SP 2]]
Internet Explorer has been designed to view the broadest range of web pages and to provide certain features within the operating system, including [[Windows Update]]. During the heydays of the historic [[browser wars]], Internet Explorer superseded Netscape by supporting many of the progressive features of the time.
===Component architecture===
The [[Component Object Model]] (COM) technology is used extensively in Internet Explorer. It allows third parties to add functionalities via [[Browser Helper Object]]s (BHO); and allows websites to offer rich content via [[ActiveX]]. As these objects have the same privileges as the browser itself (in certain situations), this raised concern over security. This issue was addressed in Internet Explorer 6.0 Service Pack 2, which provides an [[Add-on]] Manager for controlling ActiveX controls and Browser Helper Objects. Internet Explorer 7 provides a "No Add-Ons" version (Under Programs/Accessories/System Tools) to address this issue, as well.
===Usability and accessibility===
[[Image:Ie7tabbedbrowsing.PNG|thumb|Tabbed browsing in Internet Explorer 7 Beta 2 preview]]
Since it is tightly integrated with the operating system, Internet Explorer makes use of the accessibility framework provided in Windows. Internet Explorer is also a user interface for FTP, with operations similar to that of [[Windows Explorer]].
The ability to block [[popup]] windows was introduced with Internet Explorer 6.0, Service Pack 2.
[[Tabbed browsing]] can be added to Internet Explorer 6 by installing Microsoft's [[MSN Search Toolbar]], and is natively supported as of Internet Explorer 7.
===Security framework===
Internet Explorer uses a zone-based [[computer security|security]] framework, which means that sites are grouped based upon certain conditions. It allows the restriction of broad areas of functionality, and also allows specific functions to be restricted.
Patches and updates to the browser are released periodically and made available through [[Windows Update]] [[website]]. Although security patches continue to be released for a range of platforms, most recent feature additions and security improvements are released for Windows XP only. A report in April 2005 showed that only [http://www.winplanet.com/article/2825-.htm 24% of corporate PCs] had upgraded to XP SP2.
Internet Explorer 6 Service Pack 2 provide Download Monitoring and Install Monitoring that user can choose to download, or not to download and, choose to install, or not to install Applications, Executables and Installations. This prevents installation of Spywares, Adwares, Viruses or Malwares.
===Standards support===
Internet Explorer almost fully supports [[HTML]] 4.01, [[Cascading Style Sheets|CSS]] Level 1, [[XML]] 1.0 and [[Document Object Model|DOM]] Level 1, with minor implementation gaps. It partially supports CSS Level 2 and DOM Level 2, with some implementation gaps and conformance issues. It supports [[XHTML]] 1.0 to the extent that HTML 4.01 compatibility guidelines are followed. Internet Explorer uses [[DOCTYPE sniffing]] to choose between "[[quirks mode]]" (renders similarly to older versions of MSIE) and [[standards mode]] (renders closer to W3C's specifications) for HTML and CSS rendering. It fully supports [[XSLT]] 1.0 or the December 1998 Working Draft of [[Extensible Stylesheet Language|XSL]], depending on the version of [[MSXML]] (a [[dynamic link library]]) available. It also provides its own dialect of [[ECMAScript]] called [[JScript]].
===Proprietary extensions===
Internet Explorer has introduced an array of proprietary extensions to many of the standards, including HTML, CSS and the DOM. This has resulted in a number of web pages that can only be viewed properly using Internet Explorer. Many view this as an example of what is called "[[embrace and extend|embrace, extend and extinguish]]" (EEE), a way to drive competitors out of business by forcing them to use proprietary technology that a company controls, resulting in [[vendor lock-in]]. Netscape Navigator up to version 4.7 was also responsible for massive proprietary extension of the core web standards, but was not criticized for it as much.
==Version 7.0==
[[Image:IE7_Quick_Tabs.png|thumb|Internet Explorer 7's "Quick Tabs"]]
Version 7.0 of Internet Explorer has been renamed to '''Windows Internet Explorer''', as part of Microsoft's rationalization of component names that are included with Windows. Set to ship with [[Windows Vista]], and as a separate download for [[Windows XP|Windows XP with Service Pack 2]] and [[Windows Server 2003]] Service Pack 1, large amounts of the underlying architecture, including the rendering engine and security framework, have been completely overhauled. Partly as a result of these security enhancements, the browser will be a stand-alone application, rather than integrated with the Windows shell, and it will no longer be capable of acting as a file browser.
The Windows Vista version will incorporate additional security measures, most significantly "Protected Mode", whereby the browser runs in a sandbox with even lower rights than a limited user account software. As such, it can write to only the Temporary Internet Files folder and can not install start-up programs or change any configuration of the operating system. This is expected to increase the security of the system considerably.[http://blogs.msdn.com/ie/archive/2006/02/09/528963.aspx]
On January 31st 2006, Microsoft released a public preview build (Beta 2 preview: Pre-Beta 2 version) of Internet Explorer 7 for Windows XP Service Pack 2 (not for Windows Server 2003 SP 1) on their web site. It stated that more public preview builds (possibly Beta 2 in April) of Internet Explorer 7 will be released in first half of 2006, and final version will be released in second half of 2006.[http://www.microsoft.com/windows/ie/ie7/ie7betaredirect.mspx]
===New features===
[[Image:Ie7feedreader.PNG|thumb|Internet Explorer 7's [[Web feed]] reader]]
* Version 7 supports [[tabbed browsing]], which has been a popular feature in competing web browsers for some time. In addition to this, there is a feature called "Quick Tabs", which displays a thumbnail preview of opened tabs, treating tabs like [[Exposé (Mac OS X)|Exposé]] treats application windows. With this new feature, user can find, open, close, and refresh opened tabs easily.
* A search box has been added to the top-right corner, to do fast searches using a search engine. MSN Search is the default{{ref|search7default}}, but additional providers may be added. Microsoft provides a list of common providers, but any web site can identify itself as having a search capability.[http://blogs.msdn.com/ie/archive/2006/02/07/527266.aspx]
* Long-awaited support for per-pixel [[alpha compositing|alpha channel]] transparency in [[PNG]] images has been added.[http://blogs.msdn.com/ie/archive/2005/04/26/412263.aspx]
* Feed reader integration in [[Web feed]]s support is built in version 7.0. The feed reader is fully integrated with the browser, so that user can read web feeds (RSS or Atom) without an RSS reader. It also discovers web feeds automatically. Updates to web feeds can be retrieved when the web browser isn't running. The web feeds feature set is also available to third-party developers through API's, so that the list of subscribed feeds (as well as their current contents) can be used. [http://blogs.msdn.com/rssteam/archive/2006/02/09/528195.aspx]
* ActiveX Opt-In blocks ActiveX Control unless it allowed to be installed. This feature improves security from unverificable and vulnerable controls. ActiveX controls can be chosen to be installed on Information Bar. User can turn on and off ActiveX Contol by using Add-on Manager.
* A number of improvements to CSS support have been made. Microsoft's stated goal with version 7 was to fix the most significant "bugs" and areas which caused the most trouble for developers, and then improved coverage of the standards would come later.
* The well-known problem of having the right-hand portion of a web page cut off when the page is printed, has been fixed. Page content can also be "shrunk" to fit more text on a single page. The revamped "Print Preview" interface will also let users drag the page margins around and see the results immediately.
* A "Zoom" selector has been added to the bottom-right corner of the user interface. Unlike the "Text size" feature, this will zoom the complete contents of the web page, allowing for easier reading on larger displays. Fonts are rendered at higher resolution.[http://blogs.msdn.com/ie/archive/2006/02/07/526805.aspx]
* ClearType can be enabled or disabled separately from the rest of the operating system.[http://blogs.msdn.com/ie/archive/2006/02/03/524367.aspx]
* The new "Phishing Filter" offers protection against phishing scams and other web sites that may be considered dangerous for a user to enter their personal information into. When enabled, every web site the user visits is checked against a master list of known phishing sites. If a site is listed, the user is informed. In light of the privacy implications of this feature, it is not enabled automatically; the user is asked when they start Internet Explorer 7 if they want it enabled.[http://blogs.msdn.com/ie/archive/2005/09/09/463204.aspx] Microsoft is working in conjunction with companies that specialize in identifying phishing schemes to ensure the list of known sites is accurate and quickly updated.[http://blogs.msdn.com/ie/archive/2005/11/17/494040.aspx]
* Address Bar and status bar appear in all windows including Pop-Up which helps to block malicious sites from disguising them as trusted sites. Also the address bar features a color code to visually indicate the trustworthiness of the page. The Address Bar turns red when a page, with invalid security certificate, is accessed. In case of sistes not using any encryption, the address bar is white. And if the page uses high security certificate, the bar turns green.
==Criticisms==
{{main|Criticisms of Internet Explorer}}
<!-- To keep this section from becoming contentious, please use it only to report on the fact that there is criticism of Internet Explorer, and to summarize the topics, not the arguments, found in the main article. Thanks. -->
Internet Explorer is subject to a relatively high volume of criticism. Much of this criticism is related to concerns about security: <!-- Now, in one sentence, we answer how the security issues, enumerated and detailed ELSEWHERE, affect people such that the volume of criticism for IE is unusually high --> A notable portion of the widespread promulgation of [[spam (electronic)|spam]], [[spyware]], [[adware]], and [[computer virus]]es across the Internet is known to be facilitated by exploitable bugs and flaws in the security architecture of Internet Explorer. Furthermore, a notable number of users and security experts have pointed out that Microsoft has not been sufficiently committed to fixing the browser's exploitable bugs in a timely manner, and has been ineffective in pushing those changes out to users. Several companies maintain databases of security vulnerabilities known to exist in Internet Explorer and for which no fixes have been published by Microsoft — as of June 2005, there were between 20 and 27 such vulnerabilities reported in Internet Explorer 6 for Windows XP SP2, and 146 in Internet Explorer 6 for Windows 2000 SP4.
Other criticisms, mostly coming from technically proficient users and developers of websites and browser-based software applications, concern Internet Explorer's support of [[open standard]]s. Internet Explorer supports, to some degree, a number of standardized technologies, but has implementation gaps and conformance failures — some minor, some not — that have led to criticism from an increasing number of developers. The increase is attributable, in large part, to the fact that competing browsers that offer relatively thorough, standards-compliant implementations are becoming more widely used. Internet Explorer's ubiquity, in spite of its perceived inferiority in this area, frustrates developers who want to write standards-compliant, [[cross-browser]] code.
{{seealso|Criticism of Microsoft}}
==Market adoption==
===Usage share===
{{see|Usage share of web browsers}}
The adoption rate of Internet Explorer seems to be closely related to that of Microsoft Windows, as it is the default web browser that comes with Windows. Since the integration of Internet Explorer 3.0 with Windows 95 OSR 2 in late 1996, the adoption was greatly accelerated: from below 20% in 1996 to about 40% in 1998 and over 80% in 2000. This effect, however, has recently been dubbed the "Microsoft [[monoculture]]", by analogy to the problems associated with lack of [[biodiversity]] in an [[ecosystem]]. By 2002, Internet Explorer had almost completely superseded its main rival Netscape and dominated the market.
After having fought and won the [[browser wars]] of the late 1990s, Internet Explorer began to see its [[usage share]] shrink. Having attained a peak of about 96% in 2002, it has since been in a steady decline. Statistics indicate the current most significant competition comes from [[Gecko (layout engine)|Gecko]]-based browsers, in particular [[Mozilla Firefox]].
Nevertheless, Internet Explorer remains the dominant web browser, with a usage share of around 85% (based on statistics reference) in United States. It's relatively high in Asia, and much lower in Europe, For instance, the share is around 93% in Japan, and around 70% in Germany.[http://www.websidestory.com/products/web-analytics/datainsights/spotlight/05-10-2005.html]
===Industry adoption===
ActiveX is used by many public websites and [[web application]]s, including [[eBay]]. Similarly, [[Browser Helper Object|BHO]]s are also used by many [[search engine]] companies and third parties for creating add-ons that access their services, for example, search engine toolbars. Because of the use of [[Component Object Model|COM]], it is possible to include web-browsing functionality in third-party applications. Hence, there are a number of [[Internet Explorer shell]]s, and a number of applications like [[RealPlayer]] (a [[media player]]) also use Internet Explorer's web browsing module for viewing the [[World Wide Web]] within the applications.
=="Standalone" Internet Explorer==
While it is not officially possible to keep multiple versions of Internet Explorer on the same machine, some [[hacker]]s (Joe Maddalone, Ryan Parman, ''et al.'') successfully separated several versions of Internet Explorer making them standalone applications. These were referred as "standalone" IEs and included versions 3.0 to 5.5 SP2.
*[http://labs.insert-title.com/labs/article795.aspx Multiple IEs In Windows Web Design] — The web developer Joe Maddalone who found the solution.
*[http://www.skyzyx.com/downloads/ Skyzyx.com - Standalone Internet Explorer] — The web developer Ryan Parman who made the customized browsers files available.
*[http://www.quirksmode.org/browsers/multipleie.html Multiple Explorers] — Downloads of all the versions
Microsoft has discontinued standalone installers for Internet Explorer to the general public. However, a blogger/web developer/programmer named Liew Cheon Fong has posted a procedure for downloading the complete install package.
*[http://www.liewcf.com/blog/archives/2005/04/download-full-internet-explorer-6-sp1-standalone-installer/ Standalone Install Procedure for IE6 SP1]
Be aware that unlike previous standalone versions of IE, running IE7 in standalone alongside a normal installation of IE6 may cause severe problems when using IE6 thereafter, owing to the insertion of at least one registry key. Some users have been unable to fix the resulting problems once IE7 has been run. It may be unwise to attempt running IE7 in standalone mode if you are not prepared for the possible consequences. See Jon Galloway's script for running IE7 more safely:
*[http://weblogs.asp.net/jgalloway/archive/2005/12/28/434132.aspx IE7 Standalone Launch Script]
==Removal==
{{main|Removal of Internet Explorer}}
The idea of removing Internet Explorer from a Windows system was first proposed during the [[United States v. Microsoft]] case. Critics felt that users should have the right to uninstall Internet Explorer freely just like any other [[application software]]. One of Microsoft's arguments during the trial was that removing Internet Explorer from Windows may result in system instability.
An Australian computer scientist [[Shane Brooks]] demonstrated that Windows 98 could in fact run with IE files removed {{ref|FindingsOfFacts}}. Brooks went on to develop software designed to customize Windows versions by removing "undesired components", which is known as [[98lite]]. He later created [[XPLite]] to support NT based [[operating system]]s. Both of these pieces of software can remove IE after the installation of the operating system.
There are a few popular methods for removing IE from a copy of the Windows install disc so it never touches the user's hard drive. A method developed by [[Fred Vorck]] involves the manual removal of IE from installation discs. [[nLite]], on the other hand, is an automated program that allows users to exclude IE and many other Windows components from installation as desired.
It is also not possible to run Microsoft's [[Windows Update]] with any other browser because of its use of [[ActiveX]], therefore removing Internet Explorer will cause this to stop working.
==Footnotes==
#{{note|sv1}} SV1 stands for "Security Version 1", referring to the set of security enhancements made for that release.[http://blogs.msdn.com/ie/archive/2004/09/02/224902.aspx] This version of Internet Explorer is more popularly known as IE6 SP2, given that it is included with Windows XP Service Pack 2, but this can lead to confusion when discussing Windows Server 2003, which includes the same functionality in the SP1 update to that operating system.
#{{note|SpyglassMosaic}} [http://biztech.ericsink.com/Browser_Wars.html Memoirs From the Browser Wars], [[May 12]] [[2005]].
#{{note|AbandonStandaloneIE}} [http://www.zone-h.org/en/news/read/id=2789/ Microsoft to abandon standalone IE], [[May 12]] [[2005]].
#{{note|search7default}} Some users have noted that Internet Explorer 7's default search engine appears to be Google or Yahoo; this is because the default search provider setting is inherited from Internet Explorer 6's settings, which various search engine toolbars override to provide search capabilities on the address bar.
#{{note|RSAConference2005}} [http://www.microsoft.com/presspass/press/2005/feb05/02-15RSA05KeynotePR.asp Gates Highlights Progress on Security, Outlines Next Steps for Continued Innovation], [[May 12]] [[2005]].
#{{note|IE7PlatformsAndOutlookExpress}} [http://blogs.msdn.com/ie/archive/2005/02/28/382054.aspx IE7 Platforms and Outlook Express], [[May 12]] [[2005]].
#{{note|FindingsOfFacts}} [http://www.usdoj.gov/atr/cases/f3800/msjudgex.htm U.S. v. Microsoft: Court's Findings of Fact], [[May 12]] [[2005]].
==References==
*{{cite web | title=Microsoft Windows Family Home Page | work=Windows History: Internet Explorer History | url=http://www.microsoft.com/windows/WinHistoryIE.mspx | accessdate=May 12 | accessyear=2005}}
*{{cite web | title=Index DOT Html and Index DOT Css | work=Browser History: Windows Internet Explorer | url=http://www.blooberry.com/indexdot/history/ie.htm | accessdate=May 12 | accessyear=2005}}
==See also==
*[[History of the Internet]]
*[[Internet Explorer shell]]
*[[List of web browsers]]
*[[Comparison of web browsers]]
==External links==
*[http://www.microsoft.com/windows/ie/ Internet Explorer Home]
*[http://blogs.msdn.com/ie IEBlog] — The weblog of the Internet Explorer team
*[http://channel9.msdn.com/wiki/default.aspx/Channel9.InternetExplorer Channel9 Wiki: InternetExplorer] — The wiki for Internet Explorer
*[http://www.microsoft.com/windows/ie/community/ Internet Explorer Community] — The official Microsoft Internet Explorer Community
*[http://support.microsoft.com/default.aspx?id=293907 How to Uninstall Internet Explorer 6] — A Microsoft support article for pre-XP versions of Windows
*[http://secunia.com/product/11/ Secunia Vulnerability Report for Microsoft Internet Explorer 6.x]
*[http://www.oldapps.com/internet_explorer.htm Old Version of Internet Explorer]
*[http://www.microsoft.com/windows/WinHistoryIE.mspx Internet Explorer History]
*[http://www.vorck.com/remove-ie.html Remove IE from Windows 2000 at install] — A guide to burning IE-free Windows installer discs
*[http://www.nliteos.com/ nLite] — A program that disables installation of specified Windows components, including IE
*[http://msdn.microsoft.com/ie/releasenotes/default.aspx Internet Explorer 7 release notes]
{{Microsoft products}}
[[Category:Internet Explorer]]
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[[Category:Microsoft Internet applications]]
[[ar:متصفح إنترنت إكسبلورر]]
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Ideolect
15217
15912705
2002-02-25T15:43:11Z
Conversion script
Automated conversion
#REDIRECT [[Idiolect]]
Insterburg
15219
15912706
2002-08-24T11:25:50Z
Andre Engels
300
fixing indirect redirect
#REDIRECT [[Chernyakhovsk]]
Imprecise language
15220
29798671
2005-12-01T12:36:56Z
Nikola Smolenski
11304
Moving disambig tag to bottom
Language might be said to imprecise because it exhibits one or more of the following features:
* [[ambiguity]] - when two or more different meanings can be interpreted equally well from a certain word or phrase
* [[vagueness]] - when borderline cases interfere with an interpretation
* [[equivocation]] - ambiguity or vagueness within an argument
* [[accent (logic)]] - when the use of bold or italics causes confusion over the meaning of a statement
* [[amphiboly]] - when crucial premises in an argument are left implicit
{{disambig}}
Intel 80188
15221
40887000
2006-02-23T17:51:11Z
DabMachine
922466
disambiguation from [[Stack pointer]] to [[Stack-based memory allocation]] - ([[WP:DPL|You can help!]])
The '''Intel 80188''' is a version of the [[Intel 80186]] microprocessor with an 8 bit external [[data bus]], instead of 16 bit. This makes it less expensive to connect to [[computer peripheral|peripherals]].
As the [[8086]], the 80188 featured four 16-bit general [[processor register|registers]], which could also be accessed as eight 8-bit registers. It also included six more 16-bit registers, which included, for example, the [[Stack-based memory allocation|stack pointer]], the [[instruction pointer]], [[index registers]], or a status word register that acted like a flag, for example, in comparison operations.
Just like the [[8086]], the processor also included four 16-bit [[memory segment|segment]] registers that enabled the addressing of more than 64 Kbytes of memory, which is the limit of a 16-bit architecture, by introducing an offset value that was added, after being shifted left 4 bits, to the value of another register. This addressing system provided a total of 1 Mbyte of addressable memory, a value that, at the time, was considered to be very far away from the total memory a computer would ever need.
==External links==
*[http://www.cpu-collection.de/?tn=1&l0=cl&l1=80186/188 Intel 80186/80188 images and descriptions at cpu-collection.de]
{{Intel processors}}
{{Intel controllers}}
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[[Category:x86 microprocessors|Intel 188]]
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IEEE 802.2
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2006-02-20T01:58:44Z
Rich Farmbrough
82835
External links per MoS.
'''IEEE 802.2''' is the [[IEEE 802]] standard defining [[Logical Link Control]] (LLC), which is the upper portion of the data link layer for [[local area network|local area networks]]. The LLC sublayer presents a uniform interface to the user of the data link service, usually the [[network layer]]. Beneath the LLC sublayer is the [[media access control|Media Access Control]] (MAC) sublayer.
The IEEE standard adds this sublayer which adds the standard 8-bit ''DSAP'' (''Destination [[Service Access Point]]'') and ''SSAP'' (''Source Service Access Point'') labels to a given packet regardless of network type. There is also an 8 or 16 bit control field for use in auxiliary functions such as [[flow control]].
== Operational modes ==
IEEE 802.2 provides two [[connectionless mode transmission| connectionless]] and one connection-oriented operational modes:
* '''Type 1''' is an unacknowledged connectionless mode. It allows for sending frames
** to a single destination (point-to-point or unicast transfer),
** to multiple destinations on the same network (multicast),
** or to all stations of the network (broadcast).
The use of multicasts and broadcasts reduce network traffic when the same information needs to be propagated to all stations of the network.
However the Type 1 service provides no guarantees regarding the order of the received frames compared to the order in which they have been sent; the sender does not even get an acknowledgment that the frames have been received.
* '''Type 2''' is a [[connection-oriented| connection-oriented]] operational mode. Sequence numbering ensures that the frames received are guaranteed to be in the order they have been sent, and no frames are lost. A [[sliding window]] flow control procedure prevents fast senders from flooding slow destinations.
* '''Type 3''' is an acknowledged [[connectionless mode transmission| connectionless]] service. It supports point-to-point communication only.
== IEEE 802.2 header control words and frame formats ==
To confuse matters further, there can be three kinds of IEEE 802.2 PDU, in so-called U, I or S frames.
* U frames, with an 8-bit control field, are intended for connectionless applications
* I frames, with a 16-bit control and sequence numbering field, are intended to be used in connection-oriented applications
* S frames, with a 16-bit control field, are intended to be used for supervisory functions at the LLC layer.
Of these three formats, only the U-format is commonly used. The format of a PDU frame is identified by the lower two bits of the first byte of the control field. IEEE 802.2 was conceptually derived from [[HDLC]], which explains these aspects of its design.
==External links==
* [http://standards.ieee.org/getieee802/802.2.html IEEE 802.2 online]
{{FOLDOC}}
[[Category:IEEE 802|IEEE 802.02]]
[[Category:Link protocols]]
[[pt:IEEE 802.2]]
Invertebrate
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2006-02-22T22:17:59Z
Hede2000
284384
+da:
'''Invertebrate''' is a term coined by [[Jean-Baptiste Lamarck]] to describe any [[animal]] without a [[spinal column]]. It therefore includes all animals except [[vertebrate]]s ([[fish]], [[reptile]]s, [[amphibian]]s, [[bird]]s and [[mammal]]s).
Lamarck divided these animals into two groups, the [[Insect]]a and the [[Vermes]], but nowadays, they are classified into over 30 [[phylum (biology)|phyla]], from simple organisms such as [[sponge]]s and [[flatworm]]s to complex animals such as [[arthropod]]s and [[mollusk]]s.
Since invertebrates include all animals except a certain group, invertebrates form a [[paraphyletic]] group, but, despite not forming a "natural group" (that is, [[monophyletic]]), "invertebrate" is still a widely used term. It is not uncommon for books entitled "Invertebrate Zoology" to be found. This reflects the bias in society and also in [[zoology]] towards larger, more complex animals that are more closely related to [[human]]s. Thus, there are relatively many scientists studying (and relatively much funding available for the study of) birds, mammals, reptiles, and so on, but far fewer scientists studying invertebrates, even though invertebrates include 97% of all animal [[species]].
For a full list of animals considered to be invertebrates, see [[animal]]. All the listed phyla are invertebrates along with two of the three [[subphylum|subphyla]] in Phylum [[chordate|Chordata]]: [[Urochordata]] and [[Cephalochordata]]. These two, plus all the other known invertebrates, have only one cluster of [[Hox genes]], while the vertebrates have duplicated their original cluster more than once.
==External links==
* [http://reference.allrefer.com/encyclopedia/categories/invertz.html Invertebrate Zoology]
*[http://digitalcommons.unl.edu/onlinedictinvertzoology/ ''Online Dictionary of Invertebrate Zoology'']
*[http://www.goliathus.cz/en/museum-homepage-0.html Online museum] of many invertebrates, provided by [http://www.goliathus.cz/ goliathus.cz].
[[Category:Animals]]
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[[he:חסרי חוליות]]
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[[ja:無脊椎動物]]
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Ivar Aasen
15225
36344677
2006-01-23T11:08:17Z
EmirA
740055
'''Ivar Andreas Aasen''' ([[August 5]], [[1813]] – [[September 23]], [[1896]]) was a [[Norway|Norwegian]] [[philologist]] and [[lexicographer]].
[[Image:Ivaraasen.jpg|thumb|Ivar Aasen]]
Aasen was born at Åsen in [[Ørsta]] (then Ørsten), in the district of [[Sunnmøre]], on the west coast of [[Norway]]. His father, a small peasant-farmer named Ivar Jonsson, died in 1826. He was brought up to farmwork, but he assiduously cultivated all his leisure in reading, and when he was eighteen he opened an elementary school in his native parish. In 1833 he entered the household of [[H. C. Thoresen]], the husband of the eminent writer [[Magdalene Thoresen]], in [[Herøy, Møre og Romsdal|Herøy]] (then Herø), and there he picked up the elements of [[Latin language|Latin]]. Gradually, and by dint of infinite patience and concentration, the young peasant became master of many languages, and began the scientific study of their structure.
About 1841 he had freed himself from all the burden of manual labour, and could occupy his thoughts with the dialect of his native district, Sunnmøre; his first publication was a small collection of [[folk song]]s in the Sunnmøre dialect (1843). His remarkable abilities now attracted general attention, and he was helped to continue his studies undisturbed. His ''Grammar of the Norwegian Dialects'' (1848) was the result of much labour, and of journeys taken to every part of the country. Aasen's famous ''Dictionary of the Norwegian Dialects'' appeared in its original form in 1850, and from this publication dates all the wide cultivation of the popular language in Norwegian, since Aasen really did no less than construct, out of the different materials at his disposal, a popular language or definite ''folke-maal'' (people's language) for Norway. With certain modifications, the most important of which were introduced later by Aasen himself, but also through a latter policy aiming to merge this Norwegian language with Dano-Norwegian, this language has become ''[[Nynorsk]]'' ("New Norwegian"), the second of Norway's two official languages (the other being ''Bokmål'', the Dano-Norwegian descendant of the [[Danish language]] used in Norway at Aasen's time). An unofficial variety of Norwegian more close to Aasen's language is still found in [[Høgnorsk]] ("High Norwegian").
Aasen composed poems and plays in the composite dialect to show how it should be used; one of these dramas, ''The Heir'' ([[1855]]), was frequently acted, and may be considered as the pioneer of all the abundant dialect-literature of the last half-century of the [[1800s]], from [[Aasmund Olavsson Vinje|Vinje]] to [[Arne Garborg|Garborg]].
Aasen continued to enlarge and improve his grammars and his dictionary. He lived very quietly in lodgings in [[Oslo]] (then Christiania), surrounded by his books and shrinking from publicity, but his name grew into wide political favour as his ideas about the language of the peasants became more and more the watch-word of the popular party.
Quite early in his career, in 1842, he had begun to receive a stipend to enable him to give his entire attention to his philological investigations; and the [[Storting]] (Norwegian [[parliament]]), conscious of the national importance of his work, treated him in this respect with more and more generosity as he advanced in years. He continued his investigations to the last, but it may be said that, after the 1873 edition of his ''Dictionary'', he added but little to his stores. Aasen holds perhaps an isolated place in literary history as the one man who has invented, or at least selected and constructed, a language which has pleased so many thousands of his countrymen that they have accepted it for their schools, their sermons and their songs. He died in Christiania on [[September 23]], [[1896]], and was buried with public honours.
[[Ivar Aasen-tunet]], an institution devoted to the Nynorsk language, opened in June 2000. Their web page includes all of Aasens' texts, numerous other examples of Nynorsk literature (in Nettbiblioteket), and some articles, also in English, about language history in Norway.
[http://www.aasentunet.no]
{{Wikisource1911Enc|Aasen, Ivar}}
{{1911}}
[[Category:1813 births|Aasen, Ivar]]
[[Category:1896 deaths|Aasen, Ivar]]
[[Category:Norwegian philologists|Aasen, Ivar]]
[[Category:Lexicographers|Aasen, Ivar]]
[[Category:Norwegian writers|Aasen, Ivar]]
[[Category:Norwegian language|Aasen, Ivar]]
[[bs:Ivar Aasen]]
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[[ru:Осен, Ивар Андреас]]
[[sv:Ivar Aasen]]
Irredentism
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Skookum1
534835
/* Irredentist disputes */ Tibetan info PARTLY restored (PRC propagandists can just give up now, OK?)
'''Irredentism''' is an [[international relations]] term that involves advocating [[annexation]] of territories administered by another state on the grounds of common [[ethnicity]] and/or prior historical possession, actual or alleged. It is a feature of [[identity politics]] and [[cultural geography|cultural]] and [[political geography]]. Since most [[border]]s have been moved and redrawn at one point, a great many countries could theoretically present irredentist claims to their neighbours.
However, some countries are the subject of potential irredentism from birth. Many of Africa's borders were artificially imposed by European colonial powers. The result split ethnic groups between different countries, such as the [[Igbo]] who are divided between [[Nigeria]], [[Cameroon]] and [[Equatorial Guinea]].
An area that may be subjected to a potential claim is therefore sometimes called an '''''irredenta'''''. Not all potential irredentas are involved in actual irredentism.
==Origins==
{{main|Italia irredenta}}
The word was coined in [[Italy]] from the phrase ''[[Italia irredenta]]'' ("unredeemed Italy"). This originally referred to [[Austria-Hungary|Austro-Hungarian]] rule over mostly or partly Italian-inhabited territories in the northern [[Adriatic]] such as [[Trentino]] and [[Trieste]] during the [[19th century|19th]] and early [[20th century]]. Today, [[Pakistan]] refers to the part of [[Kashmir]] controlled by its own forces as "redeemed" or "liberated", using the name [[Azad Kashmir]], meaning "Free Kashmir".
A common way to express a claim to adjacent territories on the grounds of historical or ethnic association is by using the epithet "Greater" before the country name, as in [[Greater Israel]], [[Greater Serbia]], [[Greater Albania]] or [[Greater Morocco]]. This conveys the image of national territory at its maximum conceivable extent with the country "proper" at its core, e.g. [[Serbia proper]].
==Irredentist disputes==
Not all [[territorial dispute]]s are irredentist, although they are often couched in irredentist [[propaganda|rhetoric]] to justify and [[legitimacy (political science)|legitimize]] such claims both internationally and within the country.
Prominent irredentist disputes during the past century have included:
* [[Gabriele D'Annunzio]]'s occupation of [[Fiume]] (now [[Rijeka]]) from [[1919]]–[[1921]] — the original irredentist dispute (when the term was first popularized).
* Mutual counterclaims between the [[People's Republic of China]] and the [[Republic of China]] to territories currently controlled by the other:
** The [[People's Republic of China]] claims to the islands of [[Taiwan]], [[Penghu]], [[Matsu Islands|Matsu]], [[Kinmen]], and [[Orchid Island]], collectively ruled by the government of the Republic of China (Taiwan). [[Arunachal Pradesh]] under Indian administration are also claimed by PRC as part of Tibet, although China's similar claims to Nepal and Bhutan have been dropped. China's ongoing occupation of Tibet is also seen as irredentist as also its rearrangement of Tibetan provincial boundaries.
** The [[Republic of China]]'s claims to [[Tannu Uriankhai]], now a republic of [[Russia]]; [[Outer Mongolia]] (i.e. the independent country of [[Mongolia]]); [[mainland China]], ruled by the [[People's Republic of China]], and most of the PRC's territorial claims.
* Claims among [[Aztlán|Mexican]]s to the Southwestern [[United States]], purchased by the [[United States]] from [[Mexico]] in the [[Treaty of Guadalupe Hidalgo]] after the [[Mexican-American War]] for a sum of 15 million dollars, an amount equivalent today to 120 billion dollars.
* The [[PIRA]]'s claim that British rule in [[Northern Ireland]] hinders the prospect of a [[United Ireland]].
* [[France|French]] claims before [[World War I]] to [[Alsace-Lorraine]].
* [[Weimar Germany]]'s claims after World War I to Alsace-Lorraine, areas of [[Poland]], [[Lithuania]], [[Austria]] and the Czech [[Sudetenland]].
* [[Jew]]ish claims after [[World War I]] to territories within the [[British Mandate of Palestine]].
* [[Israeli]] claims to the [[Gaza Strip]], [[Golan Heights]] and the [[West Bank]], which includes [[East Jerusalem]].
* [[Palestinian]] claims after division of the land under the British Mandate of Palestine to [[Israel]] and [[East Jerusalem]].
* [[Syrian]] claims on the [[Golan Heights]].
* [[Argentina]]'s claims to the [[Falkland Islands]].
* [[Bolivia]]n claims to coastal regions of [[Chile]] annexed after the [[War of the Pacific]].
*[[Guatemala]]n claims to [[Belize]] and parts of [[Mexico]]
* [[Pakistan]]i claims to the [[Kashmir]] valley territory, which is divided between Pakistan and [[India]].
* [[Greater Hungary (political concept)|Hungarian]] claims to parts of the neighbouring countries inhabited by the ethnic Hungarians (including parts of [[Slovakia]], [[Romania]], [[Serbia and Montenegro]], [[Ukraine]], etc.). The claim is based on historic criteria for some regions (such as [[Transylvania]], where Hungarians are a minority), and ethnic for other regions.
* [[Romanian]] irredentists before [[World War 1]] claimed the unification of areas where [[Romanians]] formed a majority into the national Romanian state. The goal was achieved in [[1918]], but [[Bessarabia]] was lost again in [[1940]], being transformed into the [[Moldavian SSR|Soviet Republic of Moldova]]. More recently, the goal of Romanian irredentism is the unification of Romania with the [[Republic of Moldova]].
* [[Greater Serbia|Serbian]] claims to large areas of [[Bosnia and Herzegovina|Bosnia]] and [[Croatia]] (on grounds of ethnic affiliation).
* [[Bosniak nationalism|Bosniak]] claims to [[Sandzak]].
* [[Albania]]n claims to [[Kosovo]] and to parts of [[Republic of Macedonia|Macedonia]] and [[Greece]] (on grounds of ethnic affiliation).
* The Soviet Union annexed parts of [[Finnish Karelia]] after World War II. This [[Karelian question in Finnish politics|question of the status of ceded Karelia]] was revived in Finland after the end of [[Cold War]].
* [[Iraq]]i claims to [[Kuwait]] before the [[Gulf War]]
* [[Morocco]]'s claims, initiated in [[1963]] by [[King Hassan II]], to a claimed "[[Greater Morocco]]" (an area comprising parts of [[Algeria]], [[Western Sahara]], [[Mauritania]], the Spanish cities of [[Ceuta]] and [[Melilla]]. This led to a border war with Algeria and the annexation of Western Sahara in 1976.
* [[Greece]]'s claims on areas of the Ottoman Empire after independence, leading to annexation of [[Thessaly]], a failed war against Turkey in 1897 and the [[Balkan Wars]]. After World War I Greece claimed what is now the Aegean coastline of [[Turkey]], because of the predominence there of Greek speakers since antiquity and former rule by the [[Byzantine Empire]]. Other Greek irredentist claims under the "Greater Greece" policy called ''[[Megali Idea]]'' included south [[Albania]] (North Epirus) and [[Cyprus]].
* [[Japan]]'s [[Kuril Islands Dispute]] with the former [[Soviet Union]] (now [[Russia]]), most recently over the loss of the southern four islands in the [[Kuril Islands]] chain in the closing days of [[World War II]] under the [[Treaty of San Francisco]]. The [[Ainu people|Ainu]], a people indigenous to Japan, had been the sole inhabitants of the islands for thousands of years until ethnic [[Russians]], [[Ukrainians]] and [[Byelorussians]] began to settle there and displace them.
=="Triadic nexus" of irredenta conflict==
In his 1996 book, ''Nationalism Reframed'', [[Rogers Brubaker]] outlined a pattern to describe a common theme of irredentist conflict, referred to as the "triadic nexus". In this view, irredenta conflict is a conflict between three parties: a nationalizing state, a national movement representing an ethnic minority within that state, and an external national homeland, to which that minority is construed as ethnically belonging. Brubaker's triadic nexus is a visual representation of this, granting each party a corner of the triangle. The implication is that the national minority is caught between the nationalizing state within whose borders it exists, and the external homeland to which it is seen as belonging.
==Constitutional irredentism==
Some states formalize their irredentist claims by including them in their constitutional documents.
'''[[Argentina]]''' Part III, Section 1 of the Constitution of the Argentine Nation states that ''"The Argentine Nation ratifies its legitimate and non-prescribing sovereignty over the [[Malvinas]], [[South Georgia]] and [[South Sandwich Islands]] and over the corresponding maritime and insular zones, as they are an integral part of the national territory. The recovery of said territories and the full exercise of sovereignty, respectful of the way of life of their inhabitants and according to the principles of international law, are a permanent and unrelinquished goal of the Argentine people."'' Section 35 mentions that the Argentine Nation is the modern name of the United Provinces of the River Plata, which included [[Uruguay]] as the Province of [[Montevideo]] until 1830.
'''[[China]]''' The preamble to the constitution of the [[People's Republic of China]] states ''"[[Taiwan]] is part of the sacred territory of the People's Republic of China. It is the lofty duty of the entire Chinese people, including our compatriots in Taiwan, to accomplish the great task of reunifying the motherland."''
'''[[Republic of Ireland]]''' From [[1937]] until [[1999]] [[Articles 2 and 3 of the Constitution of Ireland]] claimed [[Northern Ireland]] as part of the state's "national territory".
'''[[Somalia]]''' Prior to its break-up as a functioning state, the Somali constitution contained paragraphs explicitly claiming adjacent territories.
In addition, [[Bolivia]], [[Ecuador]], [[Guatemala]], [[Suriname]] and [[Venezuela]] have all at one point in their recent history inscribed territorial claims extending into other states in formal documents, such as constitution.
==See also==
*[[Fait accompli]]
*[[Ethnic nationalism]]
*[[Ethnic cleansing]]
*[[Expansionism]]
*[[Identity politics]]
*[[Lebensraum]]
*[[Revanchism]]
*[[Status quo ante bellum]]
*[[Territorial dispute]]
[[Category:Irredentism| ]]
[[Category:International relations]]
[[de:Irredentismus]]
[[fr:Irrédentisme]]
[[it:Irredentismo]]
[[nl:Irredentisme]]
[[sl:Iredentizem]]
Inuit language
15227
41152085
2006-02-25T10:45:32Z
62.55.107.63
/* Morphology and syntax */
The language of the [[Inuit]] people is traditionally spoken across the [[North America]]n [[Arctic]] and to some extent in the [[subarctic]] in [[Labrador]]. It was also to some degree spoken in far eastern [[Russia]], particularly the [[Diomede Islands]], but is almost certainly extinct in Russia today. The Inuit live primarily in three countries: [[Greenland]] (an autonomous province of [[Denmark]]), [[Canada]], and the [[United States of America|American]] state of [[Alaska]].
The total population of Inuit speaking their traditional language is difficult to assess with precision, since most counts rely on self-reported census data that may not accurately reflect usage or competence. [[Greenland]] census estimates place the number of speakers of Inuit dialects there at roughly 50,000, while Canadian estimates are at roughly 30,000. These two countries count the bulk of speakers of Inuit language variants, as usage in Alaska is increasingly moribund - roughly 3,000 Alaskans speak Inuit dialects out of a population of over 13,000 Inuit - and the language is almost certainly extinct in Russia. In addition, an estimated 7,000 Greenlandic Inuit live in European Denmark, but this is the largest group outside of Canada and Greenland. So, the global population of speakers of Inuit language variants is on the order of 90,000 people.
==What is the Inuit language called?==
<!-- This section shouldn't have to be here, but I am tired of seeing people rename this article because they think they know what a language they don't know ought to be called. So, it stays. Don't rename this article "Inuktitut", or "Inuit languages", or anyhting with the word "eskimo" in it. In fact, don't rename it at all, okay? Everytime someone does so, it makes a lot of work for me, since so far I seem to be the only person with a clue of how this language works that contributes here. -->
The traditional language of the Inuit is a system of closely interrelated dialects that are not readily comprehensible from one end of the Inuit world to the other, and some people do not think of it as a single language but rather as a group of languages. However, there are no clear criteria for breaking the Inuit language into specific member tongues, since it forms a continuum of close dialects. Each band of Inuit understands its neighbours, and most likely their neighbours' neighbours; but at some remove, comprehensibility drops to a very low level.
As a result, Inuit in different places use different words for their own variants and for the entire group of languages, and this ambiguity has been carried into other languages, creating a great deal of confusion over what labels should be applied to it.
In Greenland, the official form of Inuit language, and one of the official languages of the state, is called ''[[Kalaallisut]]''. In other languages, it is often called ''Greenlandic'' or some cognate term. However, neither the words ''Kallaalisut'' nor ''Greenlandic'' are generally used to refer to the variants of Canada or Alaska. In Alaska, the language is called ''[[Inupiatun]]'', but the variants of the [[Seward Peninsula]] are distinguished from the other Alaskan variants by calling them ''[[Qawiaraq]]'', or for some dialects, ''[[Bering Straits]] Inupiatun''.
In Canada, the word ''[[Inuktitut]]'' is routinely used to refer to all Canadian variants of the Inuit traditional language, and it is under that name that it is recognised as one of the official languages of [[Nunavut]] and the [[Northwest Territories]]. However, one of the variants of western Nunavut is called ''[[Inuinnaqtun]]'' to distinguish itself from the dialects of eastern Canada, while the variants of the Northwest Territories are sometimes called ''[[Inuvialuktun]]'' and have in the past sometimes been called ''Inuktun''. In those dialects, the name is sometimes rendered as ''Inuktitun'' to reflect dialectical differences in pronunciation. The Inuit language of [[Quebec]] is called ''Inuttitut'' by its speakers, and often by other people, but this is a minor variation in pronunciation. In [[Labrador]], the language is called ''Inuttut'' or, often in official documents, by the more descriptive name ''[[Labradorimiutut]]''. Furthermore, Canadians - both Inuit and non-Inuit - sometimes use the word ''Inuktitut'' to refer to ''all'' of the Inuit language variants, including those of Alaska and Greenland.
The phrase ''"Inuit language"'' is largely limited to professional discourse, since in each area, there is one or more conventional terms that cover all the local variants; or it is used as a descriptive term in publications where readers can't necessarily be expected to know the locally used words. But, this means that while you can call the [[French language]] ''French'', you cannot call the Inuit language ''Inuit''. Saying ''"Peter speaks Inuit"'' is a very strange usage that most people who are familiar with the Inuit language would recognise as suspect, comparable to asserting that [[Hispanic]]s must speak ''"Hispanic"''. The word ''Inuit'' is generally reserved for the ethnic group, both from its Inuit language meaning - it refers specifically to a group of people - and in the way the word has been adopted in [[English language|English]].
Although many people refer to the Inuit language as ''Eskimo language'', this is an ambiguous term that can also include [[Yupik language|Yupik]] (see [[Eskimo-Aleut languages]]), and is in addition strongly discouraged in Canada and diminishing in usage elsewhere. See the article on ''[[Eskimo]]'' for more information on this word.
==Classification and history==
The language of the Inuit is an [[Eskimo-Aleut languages|Eskimo-Aleut language]]. It is fairly closely related to the [[Yupik language]]s, and more remotely to the [[Aleut language]]s. These cousin languages are all spoken in Western [[Alaska]] and Eastern [[Chukotka]], [[Russia]]. It is not discernibly related to other [[Native American languages|North American]] or [[Asian languages|northwest Asian]] indigenous languages, although some have proposed that it is related to [[Indo-European languages]] as part of the hypothetical [[Nostratic]] superphylum, and there are those who consider it a [[Paleo-Siberian languages|Paleo-Siberian language]], although that is more a geographic than a linguistic grouping.
Early forms of the Inuit language were spoken by the [[Thule (people)|Thule people]], who overran the [[Dorset (culture)|Dorset civilisation]], which had previously occupied Arctic America, at the beginning of the [[second millennium]]. By [[1300]], the Inuit and their language had reached western Greenland, and finally east Greenland roughly at the same time the [[Viking]] colony in southern Greenland disappeared. It is generally believed that it was during this centuries-long eastwards migration that the Inuit language became distinct from the [[Yupik language]]s spoken in Western Alaska and Chukotka.
Until [[1902]], an enclave of [[Dorset (culture)|Dorset people]] or ''Sadlermiut'' (in modern [[Inuktitut]] spelling ''Sallirmiut'') existed on [[Southampton Island]]. Almost nothing is known about their language, but the few eyewitness accounts tell of them speaking a "strange dialect". This suggests that they also spoke an [[Eskimo-Aleut]] language, but one quite distinct from the forms spoken in Canada today.
The Yupik and Inuit languages are very similar syntactically and morphologically. Their common origin can be seen in a number of cognates:
<center>
{| class="wikitable" border="1" width="70%"
! English !! Central Yupik !! Iñupiatun !! North Baffin Inuktitut
|-
| person || yuk || iñuk [iɲuk] || inuk
|-
| frost || kaneq || kaniq || kaniq
|-
| river || kuik || kuuk || kuuk
|-
| outside || ellami || siḷami [siʎami] || silami
|}
</center>
The western Alaskan variants retain a large number of features present in proto-Inuit language and in Yup'ik, enough so that they might be classed as Yup'ik languages if they were viewed in isolation from the larger Inuit world.
==Geographic distribution and variants==
[[Image:Inuktitut dialect map.png|thumb|right|Distribution of Inuit language variants across the Arctic.]]The Inuit language is a fairly closely linked set of dialects which can be broken up using a number of different criteria. Traditionally, Inuit describe dialect differences by means of place names to describe local idiosyncracies in language: The dialect of [[Iglulik]] versus the dialect of [[Iqaluit]], for example. However, political and sociological divisions are increasingly the principal criteria for describing different variants of the Inuit language because of their links to different writing systems, literary traditions, schools, media sources and borrowed vocabulary. This makes any partition of the Inuit language somewhat problematic. This article will use labels that try to synthesise linguistic, sociolinguistic and political considerations in splitting up the Inuit dialect spectrum. This scheme is not the only one used or necessarily one used by Inuit themselves, but its labels do try to reflect the usages most seen in popular and technical literature.
In addition to the territories listed below, some 7,000 Greenlandic speakers are reported to live in mainland [[Denmark]] [http://www.ethnologue.com/show_language.asp?code=kal], and according to the 2001 census roughly 200 self-reported Inuktitut native speakers regularly live in parts of [[Canada]] which are outside of traditional Inuit lands.
===Alaska===
''See ''[[Inupiatun]]'' and ''[[Qawiaraq]]'' for more information.''
Of the roughly 13,000 Alaskan [[Inupiat]], as few as 3,000 may still be able to speak Inuit language variants, with most of them over the age of 40. [http://www.uaf.edu/anlc/langs/i.html] Alaskan Inuit speak at least two fairly distinct dialects:
*'''[[Qawiaraq]]''' is spoken on the southern side of the [[Seward Peninsula]] and the [[Norton Sound]] area. It was also in the past spoken in [[Chukotka]], particularly [[Diomede Islands|Big Diomede island]], but appears to have vanished in [[Russia]]n areas through assimilation into [[Yupik]], [[Chukchi]] and [[Russian language|Russian]] speaking communities. It is radically different in phonology from other Inuit language variants. Some people consider the '''[[Bering Strait]]''' dialect to be separate from Qawariaq.
*'''[[Inupiatun]]''' is spoken in [[North Slope]] and the [[Kotzebue Sound]] area. The variants of the [[Kotzebue Sound]] area and the northwest of Alaska are sometimes called '''Malimiutun''' or '''Malimiut Inupiatun'''. However, despite significant differences in phonology, Malimiutun is readily comprehensible to other Alaskan [[Inupiat]]. [http://www.uaf.edu/anlc/langs/i.html]
===Canada===
''See ''[[Inuktitut]]'' for more information.''
The Inuit language is an official language in the [[Northwest Territories]], the official and dominant language of [[Nunavut]], enjoys a high level of official support in [[Nunavik]], a semi-autonomus portion of [[Quebec]], and is still spoken in some parts of [[Labrador]]. Generally, Canadians refer to all dialects spoken in Canada as ''[[Inuktitut]]'', but the terms ''[[Inuvialuktun]]'', ''[[Inuinnaqtun]]'' and ''[[Labradorimiutut]]'' have some currency in referring to the variants of specific areas.
===Greenland===
''See ''[[Kalaallisut]]'' for more information.''
[[Greenland]] counts approximately 50,000 speakers of Inuit language variants, of whom over 90% speak west Greenlandic dialects at home.
*'''[[Kalaallisut]]''', or in English '''Greenlandic''', is the name given to the standard dialect and official language of Greenland. This standard national language is now taught to all Greenlanders in school, regardless of their native dialect. It reflects almost exclusively the language of western Greenland and has borrowed a great deal of vocabulary from [[Danish language|Danish]], while Canadian and Alaskan Inuit language variants have tended to take vocabulary from [[English language|English]] or sometimes [[French language|French]] and [[Russian language|Russian]]. It is written using the Roman alphabet. The dialect of the [[Upernavik]] area in northwest Greenland is somewhat different in phonology from the standard dialect.
*'''Tunumiit oraasiat''', (or '''Tunumiisut''' in Kalaallisut, often '''[[East Greenlandic]]''' in other languages), is the dialect of eastern Greenland. It differs sharply from other Inuit language variants and has roughly 3,000 speakers according to [http://www.ethnologue.com/show_language.asp?code=kal Ethnologue].
*'''Avanersuaq''' is the dialect of the area around [[Qaanaaq]] in northern Greenland. It is sometimes called the '''Thule''' dialect or '''North Greenlandic'''. This area is the northernmost settlement area of the Inuit and has a relatively small number of speakers. It is reputed to be fairly close to the North Baffin dialect, since a group of migratory Inuit from [[Baffin Island]] settled in the area during the [[19th century|19th]] and early [[20th century|20th centuries]]. It counts under 1,000 speakers according to [http://www.ethnologue.com/show_language.asp?code=kal Ethnologue].
==Phonology and Phonetics==
''See main article ''[[Inuit language phonology and phonetics]]''.''
Eastern Canadian Inuit language variants have fifteen [[consonant]]s and three [[vowel]]s (which can be long or short).
Consonants are arranged with five [[place of articulation|places of articulation]]: [[bilabial]], [[Alveolar consonant|alveolar]], [[palatal]], [[velar]] and [[uvular]]; and three [[manner of articulation|manners of articulation]]: voiceless [[Stop consonant|stop]]s, voiced [[continuant]]s and [[nasals]], as well as two additional sounds — voiceless [[Fricative consonant|fricative]]s. The Alaskan dialects have an additional manner of articulation, the ''[[retroflex]]'', which was present in proto-Inuit language. Retroflexes have disappeared in all the Canadian and Greenlandic dialects, except for the phoneme /{{IPA|[[Voiced palatal plosive|ɟ]]}}/ in Natsilingmiutut, which derives from a former retroflex.
Almost all Inuit language variants have only three basic vowels and make a phonological distinction between short and long forms of all vowels. The only exceptions are at the extreme edges of the Inuit world - parts of Greenland, and in western Alaska.
==Morphology and syntax==
''See ''[[Inuit language morphology and syntax]]'' for a more detailed description specific to Nunavut Inuktitut.''
The Inuit language, like other [[Eskimo-Aleut]] languages, has a very rich morphological system, in which a succession of different [[morpheme]]s are added to root words (like verb endings in foreign European languages) to indicate things that, in languages like English, would require serveral words to express. (See also: [[Agglutinative language]] and [[Polysynthetic language]]) All Inuit language words begin with a root morpheme to which other morphemes are suffixed. The language has hundreds of distinct suffixes, in some dialects as many as 700. Fortunately for the learners, the language has a highly regular morphology. Although the rules are sometimes very complicated, they do not have exceptions in the sense that English and other [[Indo-European languages]] do.
This system makes words very long, and potentially unique. For example in central [[Nunavut]] [[Inuktitut]]:
:'''tusaatsiarunnanngittualuujunga'''
:''I can't hear very well.''
This long word is composed of a root word '''tusaa-''' - ''to hear'' - followed by five suffixes:
:<table><tr><th>-tsiaq-</th><td>well</td></tr><tr><th>-junnaq-</th><td>be able to</td></tr><tr><th>-nngit-</th><td>not<td></tr><tr><th>-tualuu-</th><td>very much</td></tr><tr><th>-junga</th><td>1st pers. singular present indicative non-specific</td></tr></table>
This sort of word construction is pervasive in Inuit language and makes it very unlike English, In one large Canadian corpus - the ''[[Nunavut]] [[Hansard]]'' - 92% of all words appear only once, in contrast to a small percentage in most English corpora of similar size. This makes the application of [[Zipf's law]] quite difficult in the Inuit language. Furthermore, the notion of a [[part of speech]] can be somewhat complicated in the Inuit language. Fully inflected verbs can be interpreted as nouns. The word '''ilisaijuq''' can be interpreted as a fully inflected verb - "he studies" - but can also be interpreted as a noun: "student". That said, the meaning is probably obvious to a fluent speaker, when put in context.
The morphology and syntax of the Inuit language vary to some degree between dialects, and the article ''[[Inuit language morphology and syntax]]'' describes primarily central [[Nunavut]] dialects, but the basic principles will generally apply to all of them and to some degree to [[Yupik]] as well.
==Vocabulary==
===Toponymy and Names===
Exotic as traditional Inuit names sound, both the names of places and people tend to be highly prosaic when translated. ''[[Iqaluit]]'', for example, is simply the plural of the noun ''iqaluk'' - "fish". ''[[Iglulik]]'' simply means ''place with houses'', a word that could be interpreted as simply ''town''; ''[[Inuvik]]'' is ''place of people''; ''[[Baffin Island]]'' - ''Qikiqtaaluk'' in Inuit language - approximately translates to "big island".
Although practically all Inuit have legal names based on southern naming traditions, at home and among themselves they still use native naming traditions. There too, names tend to consist of highly prosaic words. The Inuit traditionally believed that by adopting the name of a dead person or a class of things, they could take some of their characteristics or powers, and enjoy a part of their identity. (This is why they were always very willing to accept European names - they believed that this made them equal to the Europeans.)
Common native names in Canada include "Ujaraq" (rock), "Nuvuk" (headland), "Nasak" (hat, or hood), "Tupiq" (tent), and "Qajaq" ([[kayak]]). Inuit also use animal names, traditionally believing that by using those names, they took on some of the characteristics of that animal: "Nanuq" (polar-bear), "Uqalik" (Arctic hare), and "Tiriaq" (ermine) are favourites. In other cases, Inuit are named after dead people or people in traditional tales, by naming them after anatomical traits those people are believed to have had. Examples include "Itigaituk" (has no feet), "Usuiituk" (has no penis), and "Tulimak" (rib). Inuit may have any number of names, given by parents and other community members.
===Words for snow===
''See a more thorough discussion at ''[[Eskimo words for snow]]''.''
A [[urban myth|popular belief]] exists that the Inuit have an unusually large number of words for [[snow]]. This is not accurate, and results from a misunderstanding of the nature of polysynthetic languages. In fact, The Inuit have only a few base roots for snow: 'qanniq-' ('qanik-' in some dialects), which is used most often like the verb ''to snow'', and 'aput', which means ''snow'' as a substance. Parts of speech work very differently in the Inuit language than in English, so these definitions are somewhat misleading.
The Inuit language can form very long words by adding more and more descriptive affixes to words. Those affixes may modify the syntactic and semantic properties of the base word, or may add qualifiers to it in much the same way that [[English language|English]] uses adjectives or prepositional phrases to qualify nouns (eg. "falling snow", "blowing snow", "snow on the ground", "snow drift", etc.)
The "fact" that there are many Inuit words for snow has been put forward so often it is somewhat of a journalistic [[cliché]] (as evidenced by [http://itre.cis.upenn.edu/~pullum/eskimo_quotes.html a collection of quotes from linguist Mark Liberman]).
==Writing==
Because the Inuit language is spread over such a large area, divided between different nations and political units and originally reached by Europeans of different origins at different times, there is no uniform way of writing the Inuit language. Most Inuktitut in Nunavut and Nunavik is written using a scheme called [[Inuktitut syllabics]], based on [[Canadian Aboriginal Syllabics]]. The western part of Nunavut and the [[Northwest Territories]] use a Roman alphabet scheme usually identified as [[Inuinnaqtun]]. In [[Alaska]], another Roman scheme is used. [[Nunatsiavut]] uses another variant devised by German-speaking [[Moravian]] missionaries, which included the letter [[Kra (letter)|''kra'']]. Greenland's Roman scheme was originally much like the one used in Nunatsiavut, but has been reformed and modified in recent years. <!-- more to follow -->
===The Canadian syllabary===
''See [[Inuktitut syllabics]] for more information.''
[[Image:Inuktitut.png|framed|right|The syllabary used to write Inuktitut (titirausiq nutaaq). The extra characters with the dots represent long vowels; in the Latin transcription, the vowel would be doubled.]]The Inuktitut syllabary used in Canada is based on the [[Cree]] syllabary devised by the missionary [[James Evans]]. The present form of the syllabary for Canadian Inuktitut was adopted by the [[Inuit Cultural Institute]] in Canada in the [[1970s]]. The Inuit in Alaska, the [[Inuvialuit]], Inuinnaqtun speakers, and Inuit in [[Greenland]] and [[Labrador]] use the Roman alphabet, although it has been adapted for their use in different ways.
Though conventionally called a [[syllabary]], the writing system has been classified by some observers as an [[abugida]], since syllables starting with the same consonant have related [[glyph]]s rather than unrelated ones.
All of the characters needed for the Inuktitut syllabary are available in the [[Unicode]] character repertoire. (See [[Unified Canadian Aboriginal Syllabics character table]].)
==See also==
* [[Eskimo-Aleut languages]]
* [[Canadian Aboriginal Syllabics]]
* [[Yupik language]]
==References==
*[http://inuktitutcomputing.ca/Technocrats/ Inuktitut Linguistics for Technocrats], Mick Mallon.
*'''Introductory Inukitut''' and '''Introductory Inuktitut Refernce Grammar''', Mick Mallon, 1991. ISBN 0771702302 and ISBN 0771702353
*'''Inuktitut: A multi-dialectal outline dictionary (with an Aivilingmiutaq base)''', Alex Spalding, 1998. ISBN 1896204295
*'''Inuktitut: a Grammar of North Baffin Dialects''', Alex Spalding, 1992. ISBN 0920063438
*'''Arctic Languages: An Awakening''', ed: Dirmid R. F. Collis. ISBN 92-3-102661-5 [http://unesdoc.unesco.org/images/0008/000861/086162e.pdf Available in PDF via the UNESCO website].
==External links==
===Dictionaries and lexica===
*[http://www.websters-online-dictionary.org/definition/Inuktitut-english/ Inuktitut - English Dictionary]
*[http://www.livingdictionary.com/ Nunavut Living Dictionary]
*[http://www.alaskool.org/Language/dictionaries/inupiaq/dictionary.htm Interactive IñupiaQ Dictionary]
*[http://www.oqaasileriffik.gl/cgi-bin/katersat.cgi?lang=eng Oqaasileriffik Language database]
*[http://web.uni-frankfurt.de/fb08/IHE/download/InukMorphList.pdf Inuktitut Morphology List] ([[Portable Document Format|PDF]])
===Webpages===
* [http://www.aipainunavik.com/about/e_brief_history.html A Brief History of Inuktitut Writing Culture]
* [http://www.languagegeek.com/inu/inu_syllabarium.html Inuktitut Syllabarium]
* [http://www.nunavut.com/nunavut99/english/our.html Our Language, Our Selves]
* [http://halfmoon.org/inuit.html Writing in Inuktitut]
* [http://tafkac.org/language/eskimo_words_for_snow_derby.html Alt.folkore.urban on Eskimo words for snow.]
[[Category:Inuit language|*]]
[[Category:Abugida writing systems]]
[[Category:Inuit]]
[[Category:Eskimo-Aleut languages]]
[[Category:Languages of Canada]]
[[Category:Polysynthetic languages]]
[[Category:Guttural R]]
[[Category:Indigenous languages of the North American Arctic]]
[[eo:Inuita lingvo]]
[[fr:Langue inuit]]
[[fi:Inuittikielet]]
[[zh-min-nan:Inuit-gí]]
Ibn Battuta
15229
41367105
2006-02-26T22:09:31Z
71.255.75.249
/* To Iran and the Silk Road */
[[Image:IbnBattuta.jpg|thumb|Ibn Battuta (1304–1377).]]
'''Abu Abdullah Muhammad ibn Battuta''' ([[Arabic]]: '''أبو عبد الله محمد ابن بطوطة''') (born [[February 24]], [[1304]]; year of death uncertain, possibly [[1368]] or [[1377]]) was born in [[Tangier]], [[Morocco]] during the time of [[Merinid dynasty|Merinid Sultanate]] rule in the [[Islamic calendar]] year 703, into a [[Berber]] family. He was a [[Sunni Islam]]ic scholar and [[Jurisprudence|jurisprudent]] from the [[Maliki]] [[Madhhab]] (a school of [[Fiqh]], or Sunni Islamic law), and at times a [[Qadi]] or judge. However, he is best known as an extensive traveller or [[exploration|explorer]], whose account documents his travels and side-excursions over a period of almost thirty years, covering some 73,000 miles (117,000 km). This journeying covered almost the entirety of the known Islamic world, extending also to present-day [[India]], the [[Maldives]], [[Sri Lanka]], [[Southeast Asia]] and [[China]], a distance readily surpassing that of his prior, near-contemporary and traveller [[Marco Polo]].
At the instigation of the Sultan of Morocco, [[Abu Inan Faris]], several years after his return Ibn Battuta dictated an account of his journeys to a scholar named [[Ibn Juzayy]], whom he had met while in [[Granada]]. This account, recorded by Ibn Juzayy and interspersed with the latter's own comments is the primary source of information for his adventures. The title of this initial manuscript may be translated as ''A Gift to Those Who Contemplate the Wonders of Cities and the Marvels of Travelling'', but is often simply referred to as the ''Rihla'', or "Journey". Whilst apparently fictional in places, the ''Rihla'' still gives as complete an account as exists of some parts of the world in the [[14th century]].
Almost all that is known about Ibn Battuta's life comes from one source – Ibn Battuta himself (via Ibn Juzayy). In places the things he claims he saw or did are probably fanciful, but in many others there is no way to know whether he is reporting or story-telling. The following account assumes the latter where it is not obviously the former.
==The Hajj (with detours)==
Born in [[Tangier]], [[Morocco]] some time between [[1304]] and [[1307]], at the age of (approximately) twenty Ibn Battuta went on a ''[[hajj]]'' – a pilgrimage to [[Mecca]]. Once done, however, he continued travelling, eventually covering about 75,000 miles over the length and breadth of the Muslim world, and beyond (about 44 modern countries). Batutta started his journeys in [[1325]].
His journey to Mecca was by land, and followed the North African coast of the [[Maghreb]] region quite closely until he reached [[Cairo]]. At this point he was within [[Mameluk]] territory, which was relatively safe, and he embarked on the first of his detours. Three commonly used routes existed to Mecca, and Ibn Battuta chose the least-travelled: a journey up the Nile, then east by land to the Red Sea port of [[Aydhad|'Aydhad]]. However, upon approaching that city he was forced to turn back due to a local rebellion.
Returning to Cairo he took a second side trip, to [[Damascus]] (then also controlled by the Mameluks), having encountered a holy man during his first trip who prophesied that Ibn Battuta would only reach Mecca after a journey through [[Syria]]. An additional advantage to the side journey was that other holy places were along the route – [[Hebron]], [[Jerusalem]], and [[Bethlehem]], for example – and the Mameluke authorities put special effort into keeping the journey safe for pilgrims.
After spending [[Ramadan]] in Damascus, Ibn Battuta joined up with a caravan travelling the 800 miles from Damascus to [[Medina]], burial place of [[Muhammad]]. After four days, he then journeyed on to Mecca. There he completed the usual rituals of a Muslim pilgrim, and having graduated to the status of ''[[al-Hajji]]'' as a result, now faced his return home. Upon reflection, he decided to continue journeying instead. His next destination was the [[Il-Khanate]] in modern-day [[Iraq]] and [[Iran]].
==To Iran and the Silk Roads==
Once again hooking up with a caravan he crossed the border into [[Mesopotamia]] and visited [[al-Najaf]], the burial place of the fourth Caliph [[Ali ibn Abi Talib|Ali]]. From there he journeyed to [[Basra]], then [[Isfahan (city)|Isfahan]], which was only a few decades away from being nearly destroyed by [[Timur]]. Next were [[Shiraz, Iran|Shiraz]] and [[Baghdad]], the latter of which was in bad shape after [[Battle of Baghdad (1258)|being sacked]] by [[Hulagu Khan]].
There he met [[Abu Said|Abu Sa'id]], the last ruler of the unified Il-Khanate. Ibn Battuta travelled with the royal caravan for a while, then turned north to [[Tabriz]] on the [[Silk Road]]. The first major city in the region to open its gates to the [[Mongols]], it had become an important trading centre after most of its nearby rivals were razed.
==Second Hajj and East Africa==
After this trip, Ibn Battuta returned to Mecca for a second ''[[hajj]]'', and lived there for a year before embarking on a second great trek, this time down the [[Red Sea]] and the [[Eastern African]] coast. His first major stop was [[Aden]], where his intention was to make his fortune as a trader of the goods that flowed into the Arabian Peninsula from around the [[Indian Ocean]]. Before doing so, however, he determined to have one last adventure, and signed on for a trip down the coast of [[Africa]].
Spending about a week in each of his destinations, he visited [[Ethiopia]], [[Mogadishu, Somalia|Mogadishu]], [[Mombasa]], [[Zanzibar]], and [[Kilwa]], among others. With the change of the monsoon, he and the ship he was aboard then returned to south Arabia. Having completed his final adventure before settling down, he then immediately decided to go visit [[Oman]] and the [[Straits of Hormuz]]. This done, he journeyed to Mecca again.
==Turkey and India==
Spending another year there, he then resolved to seek employment with the Muslim [[Sultanate of Delhi|Sultan of]] [[Delhi]]. Needing a guide and translator if he was to travel there, he went to [[Anatolia]], then under the control of the [[Seljuk Turks]], to join up with one of the caravans that went from there to [[India]]. A sea voyage from Damascus on a Genoese ship landed him in [[Alanya]] on the southern coast of modern-day [[Turkey]]. From there he travelled by land to [[Konya]] and then [[Sinope]] on the [[Black Sea]] coast.
Crossing the Black Sea, Ibn Battuta landed in Caffa (now [[Theodosia]]), in the Crimea, and entered the lands of the [[Golden Horde]]. There he bought a wagon and fortuitously joined the caravan of [[Ozbeg]], the Golden Horde's Khan, on a journey as far as [[Astrakhan]] on the [[Volga River]].
Upon reaching Astrakhan, the Khan allowed one of his pregnant wives to go give birth back in her home city – [[Constantinople]]. It is perhaps of no surprise to the reader that Ibn Battuta talked his way into this expedition, his first beyond the boundaries of the Islamic world.
Arriving there towards the end of [[1332]], he met the emperor [[Andronicus III]] and saw the outside of [[Hagia Sophia]]. After a month in the city, he retraced his route to Astrakhan, then carried on past the [[Caspian Sea|Caspian]] and [[Aral Sea]]s to [[Bokhara]] and [[Samarkand]]. From there he journeyed south to [[Afghanistan]], the mountain passes of which he used to cross into India.
The [[Delhi Sultanate|Sultanate of Delhi]] was a relatively new addition to ''[[Dar al-Islam]]'', and Sultan [[Muhammed Tughlaq]] had resolved to import as many Muslim scholars and other functionaries as possible to consolidate his rule. On the strength of his years of studies while in Mecca, Ibn Battuta was employed as a ''[[qadi]]'' ("judge") by the sultan.
Tughlaq was erratic even by the standards of the time, and Ibn Battuta veered between living the high life of a trusted subordinate, and being under suspicion for a variety of reasons. Eventually he resolved to leave on the pretext of taking another ''hajj'', but the Sultan offered the alternative of being ambassador to [[China]]. Given the opportunity to both get away from the Sultan and visit new lands, Ibn Battuta took it.
==Southeast Asia and China==
En route to the coast, he and his party were attacked by [[Hindus]], and separated from the others he was robbed and nearly lost his life. Nevertheless, he managed to catch up with his group within two days, and continued the journey to [[Cambay]]. From there they sailed to [[Calicut]]. While Ibn Battuta visited a mosque on shore, however, a storm blew up and two of the ships of his expedition were sunk. The third then sailed away without him, and ended up seized by a local king in a Kingdom of ''Samudra'', [[Aceh]] province of [[Sumatra]] a few months later, local myth says he was the one who always referred to the kingdom of ''Samudra'' but pronounced in a way that sounded more like the modern day [[Sumatra]], which then became the name of the whole island, previously the island was called ''Andalas''.{{fact}}
Fearful of returning to Delhi as a failure, he stayed for a time in the south under the protection of [[Jamal al-Din]], but when that worthy was overthrown it became necessary for Ibn Battuta to leave India altogether. He resolved to carry on to China, with a detour near the beginning of the journey to the [[Maldives]].
In the Maldives he spent nine months, much more time than he had intended to. As a ''qadi'' his skills were highly desirable in the backwards islands and he was half-bribed, half-kidnapped into staying. Appointed chief judge and marrying into the royal family, he became embroiled in local politics, and ended up leaving after wearing out his welcome by imposing strict judgments in the laissez-faire island kingdom. From there he carried on to [[Ceylon]] for a visit to [[Sri Pada]] (Adam's Peak).
Setting sail from Ceylon, his ship nearly sank in a storm, then the ship that rescued him was attacked by pirates. Stranded on shore, Ibn Battuta once again worked his way back to Calicut, from where he then sailed to the Maldives again before getting onboard a Chinese junk and trying once again to get to China.
This time he succeeded, reaching in quick succession [[Chittagong]], Sumatra, [[Vietnam]], and then finally [[Quanzhou]] in [[Fujian]] Province, China. From there he went north to [[Hangzhou]], not far from modern-day [[Shanghai]]. He also travelled even further north, through the [[Grand Canal of China|Grand Canal]] to [[Beijing]], although there has been some doubt about whether this actually occurred.
==Return home and the Black Death==
Returning to Quanzhou, Ibn Battuta decided to return home – though exactly where "home" was was a bit of a problem. Returning to Calicut once again, he pondered throwing himself on the mercy of Muhammed Tughlaq, but thought better of it and decided to carry on to Mecca once again. Returning via Hormuz and the Il-Khanate, he saw that state dissolved into civil war, Abu Sa'id having died since his previous trip there.
Returning to Damascus with the intention of retracing the route of his first ''Hajj'', he learned that his father had died. Death was the theme of the next year or so, for the [[Black Death]] had begun, and Ibn Battuta was on hand as it spread through Syria, Palestine, and Arabia. After reaching Mecca, he decided to return to Morocco, nearly a quarter century after leaving it. During the trip he made one last detour to [[Sardinia]], then returned to Tangier to discover that his mother had also died, a few months before.
==Andalus and North Africa==
Having settled in Tangier for all of a few days, Ibn Battuta then set out for a trip to ''al-Andalus'' – [[Al-Andalus|Muslim Spain]]. [[Alfonso XI of Castile]] was threatening the conquest of [[Gibraltar]], and Ibn Battuta joined up with a group of Muslims leaving Tangier with the intention of defending the port. By the time he arrived the Black Death had killed Alfonso and the threat had receded, so Ibn Battuta decided to visit for pleasure instead. He travelled through [[Valencia]], and ended up in [[Granada]].
Leaving Spain he decided to travel through one of the few parts of the Muslim world that he had never explored: Morocco. On his return home he stopped for a while in [[Marrakesh]], which was nearly a ghost town after the recent plague and the transfer of the capital to [[Fez, Morocco|Fez]].
Once more he returned to Tangier, and once more he moved on. Two years before his own first visit to Cairo, the [[Mali Empire|Mali]]an king [[Mansa Musa]] had passed through the same city on his own ''Hajj'' and had caused a sensation with his extravagant riches -- [[West Africa]] contained vast quantities of gold, previously unknown to the rest of the world. While Ibn Battuta never mentions this specifically, hearing of this during his own trip must have planted a seed in his mind, for he decided to set out and visit the Muslim kingdom on the far side of the [[Sahara Desert]].
==Mali==
In the fall of 1351, Ibn Battuta set out from Fez, reaching the last Moroccan town ([[Sijilmasa]]) a bit more than a week later. When the winter caravans began a few months later, he joined one, and within a month he was in the Central Saharan town of [[Taghaza]]. A centre of the salt trade, Taghaza was awash with salt and Malian gold, though Ibn Battuta did not have a favorable impression of the place. Another 500 miles through the worst part of the desert brought him to Mali, particularly the town of Walata.
From there he travelled southwest along a river he believed to be the [[Nile]] (it was actually the [[Niger River]]) until he reached the capital of the Mali Empire. There he met Mansa [[Suleyman (mansa)|Suleyman]], king since [[1341]]. Dubious about the miserly hospitality of the king, he nevertheless stayed for eight months before journeying back up the Niger to [[Timbuktu]]. Though in the next two centuries it would become the most important city in the region, at the time it was small and unimpressive, and Ibn Battuta soon moved on. Partway through his journey back across the desert he received a message from the Sultan of Morocco commanding him to return home. This he did, and this time it lasted.
After the publication of the ''Rihla'', little is known about Ibn Battuta's life. He may have been appointed a ''qadi'' in [[Morocco]]. Ibn Battuta died in Morocco some time between [[1368]] and [[1377]]. For centuries his book was obscure, even within the Muslim world, but in the [[1800s]] it was rediscovered and translated into several European languages. Since then Ibn Battuta has grown in fame, and is now a well-known figure in the Middle East.
==See also==
*[[Ibn Battuta (crater)]] for the [[Lunar]] [[crater]] named after him
*[http://dubaicityguide.com/specials/index.asp?id=1114 Ibn Battuta (shopping centre)] - Dubai UAE named after him
== References ==
*{{cite book | author=Mackintosh-Smith, Tim (ed.) | title=The Travels of Ibn Battutah | publisher=Picador | year=2003 | id=ISBN 0-330-41879-3}}
==External links==
*[http://www.isidore-of-seville.com/ibn-battuta/ Ibn Battuta on the Web] — a Ibn Battuta-centered web directory
*[http://www.fordham.edu/halsall/source/1354-ibnbattuta.html Ibn Battuta: Travels in Asia and Africa 1325-1354] — excerpts from H. A. R. Gibb's translation
*[http://www.saudiaramcoworld.com/issue/200004/default.htm The Longest Hajj: The Journeys of Ibn Battuta] — Saudi Aramco World article by Douglas Bullis (July/August 2000)
*[http://www.mackintosh-smith.com/ Travels with a Tangerine: Travels in the Footnotes of Ibn Battutah and The Hall of a Thousand Columms: Hindustan to Malabar with Ibn Battutah ] — Books by [[Tim Mackintosh-Smith]]
*[http://www.harcourtschool.com/activity/biographies/battuta/ Biography ] — interactive journeys of Ibn Battuta
[[Category:1304 births|Battuta, Ibn]]
[[Category:1377 deaths|Battuta, Ibn]]
[[Category:Moroccan writers|Battuta, Ibn]]
[[Category:Moroccan explorers|Battuta, Ibn]]
[[Category:Explorers of Asia|Battuta, Ibn]]
[[Category:Explorers of Africa|Battuta, Ibn]]
[[Category:Geographers|Battuta, Ibn]]
[[Category:Muslim scientists|Battuta, Ibn]]
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[[he:אבן בטוטה]]
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[[pl:Muhammad Ibn Battuta]]
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Iron Curtain
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[[Image:EiserneVorhang.png|thumb|right|Europe at the time of the Iron Curtain]]
The '''''Iron Curtain''''' (''Eiserner Vorhang'' in German, ''Železná opona'' in Czech, ''Железный занавес'' (''Zhelezniy zanaves'') in [[Russian language|Russian]], ''Σιδηρούν παραπέτασμα'' in [[Greek language|Greek]], ''Vasfüggöny'' in [[Hungarian language|Hungarian]], ''Jernteppet'' in [[Norwegian language|Norwegian]], ''Żelazna kurtyna'' in [[Polish_language|Polish]], ''Cortina de fier'' in [[Romanian language|Romanian]], ''Желязна завеса'' in [[Bulgarian language|Bulgarian]] , "Rautaesirippu" in [[Finnish language|Finnish]] ) is a [[Western world|Western]] term referring to the boundary which symbolically, ideologically, and physically divided [[Europe]] into two separate areas from the end of [[World War II]] until the end of the [[Cold War]], roughly 1945 to 1990.
A variant of the Iron Curtain, the [[Bamboo Curtain]], was coined in reference to the [[People's Republic of China]]. As the standoff between the West and the countries of the Iron and Bamboo curtains eased with the end of the Cold War, the term fell out of any but historical usage.
==Political, economic and military realities==
===East of the Iron Curtain===
[[Image:curtain germany.jpg|thumb|Iron Curtain Germany]]
While the Iron Curtain was in place, certain countries of [[Eastern Europe]] and many in [[Central Europe]] (except [[West Germany]], [[Liechtenstein]], [[Switzerland]] and [[Austria]]) were under the political influence of the [[Soviet Union]]. Indeed the Central European states to the east of the Curtain were frequently regarded as being part of Eastern Europe, rather than Central Europe.
Many of the states were members of the Soviet Union itself (the [[Republics of the Soviet Union|Soviet Socialist Republics]]), while with two exceptions the neighboring countries of the [[Eastern bloc]] were ruled by pro-Soviet governments, kept in place by the threat of military force. The two exceptions were [[Socialist Federal Republic of Yugoslavia|Yugoslavia]] which retained its full independence, and [[Albania]] which escaped Soviet influence in the [[1960s]] and aligned itself with [[People's Republic of China|China]]; both Albania and Yugoslavia were [[Communist state]]s.
To the east of the Iron Curtain, the states developed their own international economic and military alliances, [[Comecon]] and the [[Warsaw Pact]]. Many people tried to escape the soviets rule.
===West of the Iron Curtain===
To the west of the Iron Curtain, the countries of [[Western Europe]] and [[Southern Europe]], along with [[Austria]], [[West Germany]], [[Liechtenstein]] and [[Switzerland]], operated [[market economy|market economies]]. With the exception of a period of [[fascism]] in [[Spain]] and [[Portugal]] and military [[dictatorship]] in [[Greece]], these countries were ruled by [[democracy|democratic]] governments.
Most states to the west of the Iron Curtain - with the exception of [[Neutral country|neutral]] [[Switzerland]], [[Liechtenstein]], [[Austria]], [[Sweden]], [[Finland]] and [[Republic of Ireland|Ireland]] - were allied with the [[United States]] within [[NATO]]. Economically, the [[European Community]] and the [[European Free Trade Association]] were the Western counterparts to COMECON.
===The Iron Curtain as a physical entity===
[[image:Mock&Horn.jpg|frame|In the summer of [[1989]], the [[foreign minister]]s of [[Austria]] and [[Hungary]], [[Alois Mock]] and [[Gyula Horn]], ceremonially cut through the border defences separating their countries.]]
The Iron Curtain took physical form in the shape of border defences between the countries of the western and eastern blocs. These were some of the most heavily militarised areas in the world, particularly the so-called "inner German border" – commonly known simply as ''die Grenze'' in German – between East and West Germany. The inner German border was marked in rural areas by double fences made of steel mesh with sharp edges, while near urban areas a high concrete barrier similar to the [[Berlin Wall]] was built. The barrier was always a short distance inside East German territory to avoid any intrusion into Western territory. The actual borderline was marked by posts and signs and was overlooked by numerous watchtowers set behind the barrier. In some places a "death strip" was constructed on the East German side of the barrier, in which unauthorized access would be met with bullets. The strip of land on the West German side of the barrier – between the actual borderline and the barrier – was readily accessible but only at considerable personal risk, as it was patrolled by both East and West German border guards. Shooting incidents were not uncommon, and a total of 28 East German border guards were killed between [[1948]]-[[1989]] (some may have been victims of "[[friendly fire]]" by their own side).
''For more on this topic, see the [[GDR border system]] article.''
Elsewhere, the border defences between west and east were much lighter. The border between Hungary and neutral Austria, for instance, was marked by a simple chain link fence which was easily removed when it became the first part of the Iron Curtain to be dismantled in 1989.
The abandon of this strip of land created a [[wildlife corridor]] across Europe, that helped the spread of several species to new territories.
The term "Iron Curtain" was only used for the fortified borders in central Europe; it was never used for similar borders in Asia between communist and capitalist states. The border between [[North Korea]] and [[South Korea]] is very comparable to the former inner German border, particularly in its degree of militarisation, but it has never conventionally been considered part of the Iron Curtain.
==Origins of the Iron Curtain==
{{wikisourcepar|Iron Curtain Speech}}
[[Image:Yousef Karsh - Winston Churchill - 30 December 1941.jpg|thumb|right|Winston Churchill popularized the term "Iron Curtain".]]
The first recorded use of the term ''iron curtain'' was in [[1819]], in the general sense of "an impenetrable barrier". By [[1920]] it had become associated with the boundary of the [[Soviet Union]]'s [[sphere of influence]].
[http://www.etymonline.com/index.php?term=iron+curtain]
It was used during [[World War II]] by German [[Propagandaministerium|Propaganda Minister]] [[Joseph Goebbels]] and later Count [[Lutz Schwerin von Krosigk]] in the last days of the war; however, its use was popularized by the former [[United Kingdom|British]] leader [[Winston Churchill]], who used it in his "Sinews of Peace" address [[March 5]], [[1946]]:
:''From [[Szczecin|Stettin]] in the [[Baltic Sea|Baltic]] to [[Trieste]] in the [[Adriatic Sea|Adriatic]] an "iron curtain" has descended across the Continent. Behind that line lie all the capitals of the ancient states of Central and Eastern Europe. [[Warsaw]], [[Berlin]], [[Prague]], [[Vienna]], [[Budapest]], [[Belgrade]], [[Bucharest]] and [[Sofia]]; all these famous cities and the populations around them lie in what I must call the Soviet sphere, and all are subject, in one form or another, not only to Soviet influence but to a very high and in some cases increasing measure of control from [[Moscow]].''
Churchill made his speech at [[Westminster College]] in [[Fulton, Missouri]]. After its fall, a section of the Berlin Wall was transported to and erected at Westminster College. Although the phrase was not well received at the time, as the [[Cold War]] strengthened it gained popularity as a short-hand reference to the division of Europe. The Iron Curtain served to keep people in and information out, and the metaphor eventually enjoyed wide acceptance in the West.
In the Soviet Union, the speech was seen by [[Stalin]] as reinforcing his view that a future conflict with the West was inevitable. Over the following months, through a mixture of persuasion and purges of those holding contrary views, the Soviet Union did indeed come to see the West as a threat, rather than the ally they had been during World War II. The [[Cold War]] had begun in earnest.
===Antagonism between East and West===
The antagonism between the [[Soviet Union]] and the West that led to Churchill's speech had various origins.
[[Britain]], [[France]], [[Japan]], [[Canada]], the [[United States]] and many other countries had backed the [[White Russian]]s against the [[Bolshevik]]s during the [[1918]]–[[1920]] [[Russian Civil War]], and the fact hadn't been forgotten by the Soviets. In the build up to World War II and in the face of the Western [[appeasement]] of [[Hitler]] the Soviets signed the [[Molotov-Ribbentrop Pact]] with [[Nazi Germany]], one of the intentions being to divide the border states between them to form a buffer zone. Following the war Stalin was determined to acquire a similar buffer against Germany with pro-Soviet states on its border, leading to strained relations at the [[Yalta Conference]] (February [[1945]]) and the subsequent [[Potsdam Conference]] (August 1945).
In the West, there was not only opposition to Soviet domination over the buffer states, but the fear grew that the Soviets were building an empire that might be a threat to them and their interests. And, in particular, Churchill was concerned that the United States might return to its pre-war [[United States isolationism|isolationism]], leaving the exhausted European states unable to resist Soviet demands. President [[Franklin D. Roosevelt]] had announced at Yalta that after the defeat of Germany, US forces would be withdrawn from Europe within two years ''([[Antony Beevor]] Berlin: The Downfall 1945, p80)''.
''See also [[Cold War (1947-1953) and its origins]]''
==Earlier usages of the term==
There are various earlier usages of the term "Iron Curtain" pre-dating Churchill. Some suggest the term may have first been coined by [[Queen Elisabeth of the Belgians]]<sup>[[#Notes|1]]</sup> after World War I to describe the political situation between [[Belgium]] and [[Germany]], in [[1914]]. An iron curtain, or ''eisener Vorhang'', was an obligatory precaution in all German theaters to prevent the possibility of fire from spreading from the stage to the rest of the theater. Such fires were rather common as the decor often was very flammable. In case of fire a metal wall would separate the stage from the theater, secluding the flames to be extinguished by firefighters. [[Douglas Reed]] used this metaphor in his book ''Disgrace Abounding'' ([[Jonathan Cape]], 1939, page 129): "The bitter strife [in Yugoslavia between Serb unionists and Croat federalists] had only been hidden by the iron safety-curtain of the King's dictatorship."
On February 25, 1945 [[Joseph Goebbels]] wrote of an "iron curtain" in his weekly newspaper Das Reich:
:''If the German people lay down their weapons, the Soviets, according to the agreement between Roosevelt, Churchill and Stalin, would occupy all of East and Southeast Europe along with the greater part of the Reich. An iron curtain [ein eiserner Vorhang] would fall over this enormous territory controlled by the Soviet Union, behind which nations would be slaughtered. The Jewish press in London and New York would probably still be applauding.''
"[http://www.calvin.edu/academic/cas/gpa/goeb49.htm The Year 2000]"
The first oral mention of an Iron Curtain was in a broadcast by [[Count Lutz Schwerin von Krosigk]] to the German people on May 2, 1945:
:''In the East the iron curtain behind which, unseen by the eyes of the world, the work of destruction goes on, is moving steadily forward.''
The first recorded occasion on which Churchill used the term "iron curtain" was in a May 12, 1945 telegram he sent to US President [[Harry S. Truman]]:
:''I am profoundly concerned about the European situation. ... 3. An iron curtain is drawn down upon their front. We do not know what is going on behind. There seems little doubt that the whole of the regions east of Lübeck-Trieste-Corfu will soon be completely in their hands. To this must be added the further enormous area conquered by the American armies between Eisenach and the Elbe, which will, I suppose, in a few weeks be occupied, when the Americans retreat, by the Russian power. All kinds of arrangements will have to be made by General [[Eisenhower]] to prevent another immense flight of the German population westward as this enormous Muscovite advance towards the centre of Europe takes place. And then the curtain will descend again to a very large extent, if not entirely. Thus a broad land of many hundreds of miles of Russian-occupied territory will isolate us from Poland. ... ''
(US Dept of State, Foreign Relations of the US, The Conference of Berlin (Potsdam) 1945, vol. 1, p. 9)
Churchill repeated the words in a further telegram to Truman on June 4, 1945 in which he protested against such a US retreat to what was earlier designated as, and ultimately became, the US occupation zone, saying the military withdrawal would bring
:''Soviet power into the heart of Western Europe and the descent of an iron curtain between us and everything to the eastward.''
(Ibid., p. 92)
At the Potsdam Conference, Churchill complained to Stalin about an "iron fence" coming down upon the British Mission in Bucharest.
[[Allen Dulles]] used the term in a speech on [[December 3]], [[1945]], referring to only [[Germany]]:
:''It is difficult to say what is going on, but in general the Russians are acting little better than thugs. They have wiped out all the liquid assets. No food cards are issued to Germans, who are forced to travel on foot into the Russian zone, often more dead than alive. An iron curtain has descended over the fate of these people and very likely conditions are truly terrible. The promises at Yalta to the contrary, probably 8 to 10 million people are being enslaved.''
==External links==
*[http://www.theanswerbank.co.uk/Answered/Question1990-6.asp?Page=1 Where did the term Iron Curtain originate?]
*[http://www.cnn.com/SPECIALS/cold.war/episodes/02/reflections/ Soviet reaction to Churchill's speech - CNN site]
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Integrated Services Digital Network
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'''Integrated Services Digital Network''' ('''ISDN''') is a type of circuit switched [[telephone]] network system, designed to allow digital transmission of voice and data over ordinary telephone copper wires, resulting in better quality and higher speeds than available with [[analog signal|analog]] systems. More broadly, '''ISDN''' is a set of [[protocol (computing)|protocol]]s for establishing and breaking circuit switched connections, and for advanced call features for the user. The English term is a "[[backronym]]", thought better for English-language advertisements than the original, "Integriertes Sprach- und Datennetz" (German for "integrated voice and data net").
In a videoconference, ISDN provides simultaneous voice, video, and text transmission between individual desktop videoconferencing systems and group (room) videoconferencing systems.
== Configurations ==
In ISDN, there are two types of channels, ''B'' (for "Bearer") and ''D'' (for "Delta"). ''B channels'' are used for data (which may include voice), and ''D channels'' are intended for signalling and control (but can also be used for data).
There are two kinds of access to ISDN. '''[[Basic rate interface]] (BRI)''' — also '''[[Basic rate access]] (BRA)''' — consists of two B channels, each with bandwidth of 64 [[kbit/s]], and one D channel with a bandwidth of 16 kbit/s. Together these three channels can be designated as 2B+D. '''[[Primary rate interface]] (PRI)''' — also '''[[Primary rate access]] (PRA)''' — contains a greater number of B channels and a D channel with a bandwidth of 64 kbit/s. The number of B channels for PRI varies according to the nation: in North America and Japan it is 23B+1D, with an aggregate bit rate of 1.544 Mbit/s (T1); in Europe and Australia it is 30B+1D, with an aggregate bit rate of 2.048 Mbit/s (E1).
Using a variation of the [[Alternate Mark Inversion|alternate mark inversion]] encoding technique, call data is transmitted over the data (B) channels, with the signalling (D) channels used for call setup and management. Once a call is set up, there is a simple 64 kbit/s synchronous bidirectional data channel between the end parties, lasting until the call is terminated. There can be as many calls as there are data channels, to the same or different end-points. Bearer channels may also be [[multiplexing|multiplexed]] into what may be considered single, higher-bandwidth channels via a process called B channel bonding.
The D channel can also be used for sending and receiving [[X.25]] data packets, and connection to X.25 packet network, this is specified in [[X.31]]. In practice, X.31 was only commercially implemented in France and Japan.
== Reference points ==
A set of ''[[reference point]]s'' are defined in the ISDN [[International standard|standard]] to refer to certain points between the [[Telephone company|telco]] and the end user ISDN equipment.
*[[R interface|R]] - defines the point between a non-ISDN device and a ''[[terminal adapter]]'' (TA) which provides translation to and from such a device
*[[S interface|S]] - defines the point between the ISDN equipment (or TA) and a ''Network Termination Type 2'' ([[Network termination 2|NT-2]]) device
*[[T-interface|T]] - defines the point between the NT-2 and [[network termination 1|NT-1]] devices<sup>1</sup>
*[[U interface|U]] - defines the point between the NT-1 and the telco switch<sup>2</sup>
''<sup>1</sup> Most NT-1 devices can perform the functions of the NT-2 as well, and so the S and T reference points are generally collapsed into the S/T reference point.''<br>
''<sup>2</sup> Inside North America, the NT-1 device is considered [[customer premises equipment]] and must be maintained by the customer, thus, the U interface is provided to the customer. In other locations, the NT-1 device is maintained by the telco, and the S/T interface is provided to the customer.''<br>
== Types of communications handled ==
Among the kinds of data that can be moved over the 64 kbit/s channels are [[Pulse code modulation|pulse-code modulated]] voice calls, providing access to the traditional voice [[PSTN]]. This information can be passed between the network and the user end-point at call set-up time.
In North America, ISDN is nowadays mostly used as an alternative to analog connection, most commonly for Internet access. Some of the services envisaged as being delivered over ISDN are now delivered over the Internet instead. In Europe, and in Germany in particular, ISDN has been successfully marketed as a phone with features, as opposed to a POTS phone (Plain Old Telephone Service) with few or no features. However meanwhile features that were first available with ISDN (such as Three-Way Call, Call Forwarding, Caller ID, etc.) are now commonly available for ordinary analog phones as well, eliminating this advantage of ISDN. Another advantage of ISDN was the possibility of multiple simultaneous calls (one call per B channel), e.g. for big families, but with the increased popularity and reduced prices of mobile telephony this has become less interesting as well, making ISDN rather unappealing to the private customer.
Where an analog connection requires a [[modem]], an ISDN connection requires a [[terminal adapter]] (TA).
==A sample ISDN call==
The following is an example of a Primary Rate (PRI) ISDN call showing the [[Q.921]]/[[Link Access Procedures, D channel|LAPD]] and the [[Q.931]]/Network message intermixed (i.e. exactly what was exchanged on the D-channel). The call is originating from the switch where the trace was taken and goes out to some other switch, possibly an end-office '''LEC''', who terminates the call.
The first line format is <time> <D-channel> <Transmitted/Received> <LAPD/ISDN message ID>. If the message is an ISDN level message, then a decoding of the message is attempted showing the various Information Elements that make up the message. All ISDN messages are tagged with an ID number relative to the switch that started the call (local/remote). Following this optional decoding is a dump of the bytes of the message in <offset> <hex> ... <hex> <ascii> ... <ascii> format.
The '''RR''' messages at the beginning prior to the call are the keep alive messages. Then you will see a '''SETUP''' message that starts the call. Each message is acknowledged by the other side with a '''RR'''.
<pre>
10:49:47.33 21/1/24 R RR
0000 02 01 01 a5 ....
10:49:47.34 21/1/24 T RR
0000 02 01 01 b9 ....
10:50:17.57 21/1/24 R RR
0000 02 01 01 a5 ....
10:50:17.58 21/1/24 T RR
0000 02 01 01 b9 ....
10:50:24.37 21/1/24 T SETUP
Call Reference : 000062-local
Bearer Capability : CCITT, Speech, Circuit mode, 64 kbit/s
Channel ID : Implicit Interface ID implies current span, 21/1/5, Exclusive
Calling Party Number : 8018023000 National number User-provided, not screened Presentation allowed
Called Party Number : 3739120 Type: SUBSCRB
0000 00 01 a4 b8 08 02 00 3e 05 04 03 80 90 a2 18 03 .......>........
0010 a9 83 85 6c 0c 21 80 38 30 31 38 30 32 33 30 30 ...l.!.801802300
0020 30 70 08 c1 33 37 33 39 31 32 30 0p..3739120
10:50:24.37 21/1/24 R RR
0000 00 01 01 a6 ....
10:50:24.77 21/1/24 R CALL PROCEEDING
Call Reference : 000062-local
Channel ID : Implicit Interface ID implies current span, 21/1/5, Exclusive
0000 02 01 b8 a6 08 02 80 3e 02 18 03 a9 83 85 .......>......
10:50:24.77 21/1/24 T RR
0000 02 01 01 ba ....
10:50:25.02 21/1/24 R ALERTING
Call Reference : 000062-local
Progress Indicator : CCITT, Public network serving local user,
In-band information or an appropriate pattern is now available
0000 02 01 ba a6 08 02 80 3e 01 1e 02 82 88 .......>.....
10:50:25.02 21/1/24 T RR
0000 02 01 01 bc ....
10:50:28.43 21/1/24 R CONNECT
Call Reference : 000062-local
0000 02 01 bc a6 08 02 80 3e 07 .......>.
10:50:28.43 21/1/24 T RR
0000 02 01 01 be ....
10:50:28.43 21/1/24 T CONNECT_ACK
Call Reference : 000062-local
0000 00 01 a6 be 08 02 00 3e 0f .......>.
10:50:28.44 21/1/24 R RR
0000 00 01 01 a8 ....
10:50:35.69 21/1/24 T DISCONNECT
Call Reference : 000062-local
Cause : 16, Normal call clearing.
0000 00 01 a8 be 08 02 00 3e 45 08 02 8a 90 .......>E....
10:50:35.70 21/1/24 R RR
0000 00 01 01 aa ....
10:50:36.98 21/1/24 R RELEASE
Call Reference : 000062-local
0000 02 01 be aa 08 02 80 3e 4d .......>M
10:50:36.98 21/1/24 T RR
0000 02 01 01 c0 ....
10:50:36.99 21/1/24 T RELEASE COMPLETE
Call Reference : 000062-local
0000 00 01 aa c0 08 02 00 3e 5a .......>Z
10:50:36.00 21/1/24 R RR
0000 00 01 01 ac ....
10:51:06.10 21/1/24 R RR
0000 02 01 01 ad ....
10:51:06.10 21/1/24 T RR
0000 02 01 01 c1 ....
10:51:36.37 21/1/24 R RR
0000 02 01 01 ad ....
10:51:36.37 21/1/24 T RR
0000 02 01 01 c1 ....
</pre>
==See also==
===Protocols===
<!-- international -->
*[[DSS1]] ([[ETSI]] "[[Europe|Euro]]-ISDN", also used in many non-European countries)
*[[DSS2]] (Digital Subscriber Signalling System No. 2)
<!-- US -->
*[[NI-1]] ([[United States|US]] National ISDN Phase 1)
*[[NI-2]] ([[United States|US]] National ISDN Phase 2)
<!-- other -->
*[[INS-NET]] 64/1500 ([[Japan]]ese national/[[NTT]] carrier-specific protocol)
* [[DACS]] used in the [[UK]] by [[British Telecom]] it uses non standard D channel signalling for [[Pair gain]]
<!-- obsolete -->
*[[FTZ 1 TR 6]] (obsolete [[Germany|German]] national protocol)
*[[TS.013]]/[[TS.014]] (obsolete [[Australia]]n national protocol)
*[[VN2]]/[[VN3]]/[[VN4]] (obsolete [[France|French]] national protocols)
Specifications defining the physical layer and part of the data link layers of ISDN:
*'''ISDN BRI''': [[ITU-T]] I.430.
*'''ISDN PRI''': [[ITU-T]] I.431.
From the point of view of the OSI architecture, a ISDN line has a stack of three protocols
* physical layer
* data link layer
* network layer (the ISDN protocol, properly)
===Other===
*[[Asymmetric Digital Subscriber Line|ADSL]]
*[[Asynchronous Transfer Mode|ATM]]
*[[B-ISDN]]
*[[Internet]]
*[[H.320]]
==External links==
* http://www.cisco.com/univercd/cc/td/doc/cisintwk/ito_doc/isdn.htm
* http://hea-www.harvard.edu/~fine/ISDN/
* http://www.itu.org
* http://www.ralphb.net/ISDN/
* http://www.concito.net/isdn.php
{{Internet Access}}
[[Category:ITU-T recommendations]]
[[Category:telephony]]
[[Category:Network access]]
{{Link FA|de}}
[[bs:ISDN]]
[[cs:ISDN]]
[[da:ISDN]]
[[de:Integrated Services Digital Network]]
[[es:RDSI]]
[[fr:Réseau numérique à intégration de services]]
[[gl:RDSI]]
[[ko:ISDN]]
[[hr:ISDN]]
[[it:Integrated Services Digital Network]]
[[lt:ISDN]]
[[nl:Integrated Services Digital Network]]
[[ja:ISDN]]
[[no:ISDN]]
[[pl:ISDN]]
[[pt:RDIS]]
[[ru:ISDN]]
[[sl:ISDN]]
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[[zh:综合业务数字网]]
Iambic Pentameter
15233
15912719
2002-02-25T15:51:15Z
Conversion script
Automated conversion
#REDIRECT [[Iambic pentameter]]
Imprinting (genetics)
15235
40122885
2006-02-18T08:03:13Z
Timothyarnold85
413969
{{wikify}}
'''Genomic imprinting''' is the phenomenon whereby a small subset of all the [[genes]] in the [[genome]] are expressed according to their parent of origin. Some imprinted genes are expressed from a maternally inherited [[chromosome]] and silenced on the paternal chromosome; while other imprinted genes show the opposite expression pattern and are only expressed from a paternally inherited chromosome. Contrary to expectation, 'imprints' can act as a silencer or an activator for imprinted genes.
Normally, a healthy child inherits two sets of chromosomes, one from the mother and one from the father. A living child (this applies to all mammals) cannot be produced when both sets of chromosomes come from the same parent because imprinted gene expression will be unbalanced. Because of the way imprints work, a fetus that has two maternal sets of chromosomes will have twice the normal level of some imprinted genes, and completely lack expression of other imprinted genes. No naturally occurring cases of [[parthenogenesis]] exist in mammals because of imprinted genes. Experimental manipulation of a paternal methylation imprint controlling the Igf2 gene has, however, recently allowed the creation of rare individual mice with two maternal sets of chromosomes - but this is not a true parthenogenote.
A process known as [[reprogramming]] occurs in the parent female or male when the egg or sperm is maturing. In many instances this is achieved through [[methylation]] of the DNA of genes or [[regulatory sequence]]s, which results in the gene not being expressed. In other instances, [[phosphorylation]] or other chemical modification of [[histone]] proteins appears to lead to silencing.
Imprinting is known to cause problems in [[cloning]], with clones having DNA that is not [[methylation|methylated]] in the right places. Some scientists think this is due to there not being enough time for reprogramming to be properly achieved. When a [[cell nucleus|nucleus]] is added to an egg during [[somatic cell nuclear transfer]], the egg starts dividing in minutes, as compared to the days or months it takes for reprogramming during [[embryo|embryonic]] development. If time is the responsible factor, it may be possible to delay cell division in clones, giving time for proper reprogramming to occur.
Several [[genetic disorder|genetic diseases]] that map to 15q13 (locus 3 of section 1 of the long arm of chromosome 15) in humans are due to abnormal imprinting. The [[Prader-Willi syndrome]] is due to 2 copies of the chromosome 15 being inherited from the mother, and the locus is imprinted; the [[Angelman syndrome]] gene is due to 2 copies of the chromosome 15 inherited from the father and the locus is similarly imprinted. Thus, someone who inherits both chromosomes 15 from one parent (called [[uniparental disomy]]) has Prader-Willi or Angelman syndrome, depending on which parent they come from. But more common is the deletion of the region, 15q13, and when this deletion is inherited depending on from whom the affected person gets this deletion from, the disease varies, if it's the mother who transfers the deletion then the child will have [[Angelman syndrome]] and if it's the father who gives the deletion then the child will get [[Prader-Willi syndrome]].
An allele of the "callipyge" (from the [[Greek language|Greek]] for "beautiful buttocks"), or CLPG, gene in [[sheep]] produces large buttocks consisting of muscle with very little fat. The large-buttocked phenotype only occurs when the allele is present on the copy of chromosome 18 inherited from a sheep's father and is ''not'' on the copy of chromosome 18 inherited from that sheep's mother.[http://www.genomenewsnetwork.org/articles/05_01/Callipyge_sheep_imprinting.shtml]
[[Category:Molecular genetics]]
[[Category:Gene expression]]
[[Category:Epigenetics]]
[[de:Imprinting]]
[[ja:ゲノムインプリンティング]]
[[fi:Leimautuminen]]
ICANN
15236
41147886
2006-02-25T09:45:52Z
Alvestrand
50958
Refactoring text
[[Image:Icann.jpg|right]]
'''ICANN''' (pronounced ''"I can"'') is the '''Internet Corporation for Assigned Names and Numbers'''.
Headquartered in [[Marina Del Rey, California]], ICANN is a [[California]] [[non-profit]] [[corporation]] that was created on [[September 18]], [[1998]] in order to oversee a number of [[Internet]]-related tasks previously performed directly on behalf of the [[Federal government of the United States|U.S. Government]] by other organizations, notably [[Internet Assigned Numbers Authority|IANA]].
The tasks of ICANN include managing the assignment of [[domain name]]s and [[IP address]]es. To date, much of its work has concerned the introduction of new generic [[top-level domain]]s. The technical work of ICANN is referred to as the [[Internet Assigned Numbers Authority|IANA]] function; the rest of ICANN is mostly about defining policy.
[[Paul Twomey]] is the President/CEO of ICANN, since [[March 27]] [[2003]]. [[Vint Cerf]] is currently Chairman of the ICANN Board of Trustees.
==ICANN procedures==
ICANN holds its periodic public meetings for the expressed purpose of staying in touch with its membership. Critics note that the locations of these meetings are often in countries with disproportionally small Internet access and far away from locations that the majority of the Internet-using public can afford to reach, thus making public input or participation less likely. Supporters reply that ICANN has a worldwide remit and a key part of its mission is to build Internet use where it is weak.
At present, ICANN is formally organized as a public benefit, non-profit corporation in California. ICANN was set up in California due to the presence of [[Jon Postel]], who was a founder of ICANN and was set to be its first CTO prior to his untimely death. ICANN remains in the same building where [[Jon Postel]] worked in the Marina del Rey, California location of the [[Information Sciences Institute]] at the [[University of Southern California]].
Resolutions of the ICANN Board, preliminary reports and minutes of the meetings are published for the public to view on the ICANN website.
==Notable events in ICANN history==
The original mandate for ICANN came from the United States Government, spanning two presidential administrations [[Bill Clinton]] and [[George W. Bush]]. On January 30, 1998, the National Telecommunications and Information Administration (NTIA), an agency of the [[US Department of Commerce]], issued for comment, A Proposal to Improve the Technical Management of Internet Names and Addresses. The proposed rulemaking, or "Green Paper," was published in the Federal Register on February 20, 1998, providing opportunity for public comment. NTIA received more than 650 comments, as of March 23, 1998, when the comment period closed.
The Green Paper proposed certain actions designed to privatize the management of Internet names and addresses in a manner that allows for the development of robust competition and facilitates global participation in Internet management. The Green Paper proposed for discussion a variety of issues relating to DNS management including private sector creation of a new not-for-profit corporation (the "new corporation") managed by a globally and functionally representative Board of Directors. ICANN was formed in response to this policy. The IANA function currently exists under a remit from the [[U.S. Department of Commerce]].
On [[March 14]], [[2002]], in a public meeting in [[Accra]], in [[Ghana]], ICANN decided to reduce direct public ("at large") participation.
One of a few publicly elected board members, [[Karl Auerbach]], sued ICANN in Superior Court in [[California]] in order to see accounting records. The records were ultimately released to the public in [[August]] [[2002]].
In September and October 2003 ICANN played a crucial role in the conflict over [[VeriSign]] and its "wildcard" DNS service [[Site Finder]]. After an open letter from ICANN issuing an ultimatum to VeriSign, the company voluntarily shut down the service on [[October 4]] 2003. Following this step VeriSign filed a lawsuit against ICANN on [[February 27]] [[2004]], claiming that ICANN had overstepped its authority, seeking through the suit to reduce ambiguity over ICANN's authority. The anti-trust component of Verisign's claim was dismissed in August 2004. VeriSign's broader challenge that ICANN overstepped its contractual rights is currently outstanding, although a proposed settlement would drop VeriSign's challenge to ICANN in exchange for the right to increase pricing on .COM domains.
At the meeting of ICANN in [[Rome]] taking place from [[March 2]] to [[March 6]] [[2004]], ICANN agreed to ask approval of the [[United_States_Department_of_Commerce | US Department of Commerce ]] for the [[Waiting List Service]] of VeriSign.
On [[17 May]] [[2004]], ICANN published a proposed budget for the year 2004-05. It included proposals to increase the openness and professionalism of its operations, and greatly increased its proposed spending, from US $8.27m to $15.83m. The increase was to be funded by the introduction of new [[top-level domain]]s, charges to all [[Domain name registry|Domain Registries]], and a fee for all domain name registrations, renewals and transfers (initially 20¢ US for all domains within a country-code top-level domain, and 25¢ for all others). The [[Council of European National Top Level Domain Registries]] (CENTR), which represents the [[Internet registry|Internet registries]] of 39 countries, has rejected the increase, accusing ICANN of a lack of financial prudence and criticising what it describes as ICANN's "unrealistic political and operational targets". Despite the criticism, the registry agreement for the top-level domains .JOBS and .TRAVEL includes a US $2 fee on every domain the licensed companies sell or renew.
Along with the successful negotiations of the .TRAVEL and .JOBS namespace, .XXX, .MOBI, and .CAT are some of the new applicants in front of ICANN. The recent introduction of the .EU [[Top Level Domain]] to the root, and the currently proposed .ASIA multiregional suffix are developments to watch.
In May of 2005, ICANN participated in the [http://domainroundtable.com Domain Roundtable Conference] in Seattle. They are, however, under fire from the [[United Nations]]' [[Working Group on Internet Governance]].
The [[World Summit on the Information Society]] in [[Tunisia]] in [[November 2005]] agreed not to get involved in the day-to-day and technical operations of ICANN. However it also agreed to set up an international [[Internet Governance Forum]], with a consultative role on the future governance of the internet. ICANN's Government Adivsory Committee or GAC, is currently set up to provide advice to ICANN regarding public policy issues and has participation by many of the world's governments.
==Arguments about ICANN==
Some of ICANN's critics would like to see it internationalize itself, meaning that it would be reconstituted as some kind of public sector entity under international law and would cancel its contractual links to the U.S. Government and the [[U.S. Department of Commerce]], which are historical in origin. Of the 15 voting members of the ICANN Board of Directors, it currently has board members from six continents, and has only two US Directors, 1) ICANN Chairman, [Vint Cerf], a noted "Father of the Internet" who was appointed by ICANN's Nominating Committee and 2) Michael Palage, a Florida intellectual property attorney who was appointed by ICANN's Generic Name Supporting Organization or GNSO.
Proponents want the United States to maintain the authority it holds via the contract between ICANN and Commerce. This authority stems from the historical role of the United States in creating the Internet. Support from [[ccTLD|National Top Level Domain]] [[Internet registry|Internet registries]] is a missing critical milestone within the commitments that ICANN has made to the [[US Department of Commerce]].
==See also==
* [[Alternatives to ICANN]]
* [[Domain name]]
* [[Domain name registrar]]
* [[Internet democracy]]
* [[Internet Assigned Numbers Authority|IANA]]
* Franda, Marcus, ''The Emergence of an International Regime'', ISBN 1555879993
* Wass, Erica, ''Addressing the World'', ISBN 0-7425-2809-X
* Paré, Daniel J. ''Internet Governance in Transition'', ISBN 0-7425-1846-9
* Meuller, Milton L. ''Ruling the Root'', ISBN 0-262-13412-8
* Froomkin, A. Michael [http://www.law.miami.edu/~froomkin/articles/icann.pdf Wrong Turn in Cyberspace: Using ICANN to Route Around the APA and the Constitution], 50 Duke Law Journal17 (2000)
* Tim Schumacher, Thomas Ernstschneider & Andrea Wiehager ''Domain-Namen im Internet'' (text in German), ISBN 3-540-42910-7
==External links==
* [http://www.icann.org ICANN web-site]
** [http://www.icann.org/general/litigation.htm ICANN Litigation]
* [http://www.ntia.doc.gov/ntiahome/domainname/icann.htm Memorandum of Understanding Between the Department of Commerce and the Internet Corporation for Assigned Names and Numbers]
* [http://www.icannwiki.org ICANN Wiki]
* [http://www.icannwatch.org ICANNWatch]
* [http://www.lextext.com/icann/ Independent ICANN news blog / Lextext]
* [http://www.icannatlarge.com/ Site advocating the return of public representation in ICANN]
* [http://www.domainroundtable.com/ Domain Roundtable Conference] - Annual Domain Industry Conference
* [http://www.circleid.com/ CircleID: Community discussions involving ICANN and Internet Governance]
* [http://www.cfit.info/ Coalition For ICANN Transparency]
* [http://dailychanges.com DailyChanges.com] - a Free ICANN Registrar Statistics site
*{{Citenews | title=U.N. Summit to Focus on Internet | date=December 5, 2003 | org=Washington Post | url=http://www.washingtonpost.com/ac2/wp-dyn/A36852-2003Dec4?language=printer}}
*{{Citenews | title=ICANN imposes $2 internet tax | date=March 31, 2005 | org=The Register | url=http://www.theregister.co.uk/2005/03/31/icann_2buck_fee}}
*{{Citenews | title=Bush administration annexes internet | date=July 1, 2005 | org=The Register| url=http://www.theregister.co.uk/2005/07/01/bush_net_policy/}}
*{{Citenews | title=Power grab could split the net | date=October 3, 2005 | org=CNET | url=http://news.com.com/2010-1071_3-5886556.html}} (Includes discussion.)
**[http://www.dotlove.org the dot love company] - proposal for ".love" (and related domains such as .thanks) as sTLDs
*[http://www.unifiedroot.com Unified Root] - Unified Root (for-profit alternative to ICANN), based on Public Root technology
*[http://www.dotberlin.de/ dotBERLIN Website]
[[Category:Information technology]]
[[Category:Internet governance]]
[[Category:Domain Name System]]
[[ca:ICANN]]
[[de:Internet Corporation for Assigned Names and Numbers]]
[[es:ICANN]]
[[eo:ICANN]]
[[fr:Internet corporation for assigned names and numbers]]
[[gl:ICANN]]
[[it:ICANN]]
[[he:ICANN]]
[[nl:Internet Corporation for Assigned Names and Numbers]]
[[ja:ICANN]]
[[no:ICANN]]
[[pl:ICANN]]
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[[ru:Internet Corporation for Assigned Names and Numbers]]
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[[zh:互联网名称与数字地址分配机构]]
Iterative method
15237
30388519
2005-12-06T21:12:56Z
128.2.135.109
/* History */
In [[computation]]al [[mathematics]], an '''iterative method''' attempts to solve a problem (for example an equation or system of equations) by finding successive [[approximation]]s to the solution starting from an initial guess. This approach is in contrast to direct methods, which attempt to solve the problem in one-shot (like solving a linear system of equations ''Ax'' = ''b'' by finding the inverse of the [[matrix (mathematics)|matrix]] A). Iterative methods are useful for problems involving a large number of variables (sometimes of the order of millions), where direct methods would be prohibitively expensive and in some cases impossible even with the best available computing power.
==Newton's method==
One of the most familiar iterative methods is usually taught in 1st-year calculus: [[Newton's method]].
==Attractive fixed points==
If an equation can be put into the form ''f''(''x'') = ''x'', and a solution '''x''' is an attractive [[fixed point (mathematics)|fixed point]] of the function ''f'', then one may begin with a point ''x''<sub>1</sub> in the basin of attraction of '''x''', and let ''x''<sub>''n''+1</sub> = ''f''(''x''<sub>''n''</sub>) for ''n'' ≥ 1, and the sequence {''x''<sub>''n''</sub>}<sub>''n'' ≥ 1</sub> will converge to the solution '''x'''.
==Linear systems==
In the case of a [[linear system]], the two main classes of iterative methods are the '''stationary iterative methods''', and the more general [[Krylov subspace]] methods.
===Stationary iterative methods===
Stationary iterative methods solve a linear system with an [[operator]] approximating the original one; and based on a measurement of the error (the residual), form a [[correction equation]] for which this process is repeated. While these methods are simple to derive, implement, and analyse, convergence is only guaranteed for a limited class of matrices.
===Krylov subspace methods===
Krylov subspace methods form an [[orthogonal basis]] of the sequence of successive matrix powers times the initial residual (the '''Krylov sequence'''). The approximations to the solution are then formed by minimizing the residual over the subspace formed. The prototypical method in this class is the [[conjugate gradient method]].
===Convergence===
Since these methods form a basis, it is evident that the method converges in ''N'' iterations, where ''N'' is the system size. However, in the presence of rounding errors this statement does not hold; moreover, in practice ''N'' can be very large, and the iterative process reaches sufficient accuracy already far earlier. The analysis of these methods is hard, depending on a complicated function of the [[spectrum of an operator|spectrum]] of the operator.
===Preconditioners===
The approximating operator that appears in stationary iterative methods can also be incorporated in Krylov subspace methods (alternatively, preconditioned Krylov methods can be considered as accelerations of stationary iterative methods), where they become transformations of the original operator to a presumably better conditioned one. The construction of preconditioners is a large research area.
===History===
Probably the first iterative method appeared in a letter of [[Carl Friedrich Gauss|Gauss]] to a student of his. He proposed solving a 4-by-4 system of equations by repeatedly solving the component in which the residual was the largest.
The theory of stationary iterative methods was solidly established with the work of [[D.M. Young]] starting in the 1950s. The Conjugate Gradient method was also invented in the 1950s, with independent developments by [[Cornelius Lanczos]], [[Magnus Hestenes]] and [[Eduard Stiefel]], but its nature and applicability were misunderstood at the time. Only in the 1970s was it realized that conjugacy based methods work very well for [[partial differential equation]]s, especially the elliptic type.
== External links ==
* [http://www.netlib.org/linalg/html_templates/Templates.html Templates for the Solution of Linear Systems]
* [http://www.math.uu.nl/people/vorst/cgnotes.ps.gz Lecture notes on iterative methods]
* [http://www-users.cs.umn.edu/~saad/books.html Y. Saad: ''Iterative Methods for Sparse Linear Systems'', 1st edition, PWS 1996]
[[Category: Numerical analysis]]
International judicial institution
15238
41057772
2006-02-24T20:04:27Z
Bolivian Unicyclist
642800
'''International judicial institutions''' can be divided into [[court]]s, arbitral [[tribunal]]s and [[Quasi-judicial_body|quasi-judicial]] institutions. Courts are permanent bodies, with near the same composition for each case. Arbitral tribunals, by contrast, are constituted anew for each case. Both courts and arbitral tribunals can make binding decisions. Quasi-judicial institutions, by contrast, make rulings on cases, but these rulings are not in themselves legally binding; the main example is the individual complaints mechanisms available under the various UN human rights treaties.
Institutions can also be divided into global and regional institutions.
The listing below incorporates both currently existing institutions, defunct institutions that no longer exist, institutions which never came into existence due to non-ratification of their constitutive instruments, and institutions which do not yet exist, but for which constitutive instruments have been signed. It does not include mere proposed institutions for which no instrument was ever signed.
==Global institutions: Courts==
*[[International Court of Justice]]
*[[International Tribunal for the Law of the Sea]]
*[[International Criminal Tribunal for the Former Yugoslavia]]
*[[International Criminal Tribunal for Rwanda]]
*[[International Criminal Court]]
*[[WTO Appelate Body]]
*[[International Military Tribunal]] (defunct)
*[[International Military Tribunal for the Far East]] (defunct)
*[[International Prize Court]] (never established)
==Global institutions: Arbitral Tribunals==
*[[Permanent Court of Arbitration]]
*[[WTO Dispute Settlement Panels]]
*[[International Centre for the Settlement of Investment Disputes]]
==Global institutions: Quasi-judicial Institutions==
<!-- - ''check whether the names below are correct, and if the below institutions are the optional procedure ones'' -->
*[[Human Rights Committee]]
*[[Committee on the Elimination of all forms of Racial Discrimination]]
*[[Committee on the Elimination of all forms of Discrimination Against Women]]
==Regional institutions: Africa==
*[[African Court on Human and Peoples' Rights]]
==Regional institutions: Americas==
*[[Inter-American Court of Human Rights]]
*[[Central American Court of Justice]] (defunct?)
*[[ALADI]], [[CARICOM]], [[MERCOSUR]], Central American Community institutions?
==Regional institutions: Europe==
*[[European Court of Justice]]
*[[European Court of Human Rights]]
*[[European Tribunal in Matters of State Immunity]]
*[[European Nuclear Energy Tribunal]]
*[[Benelux Court of Justice]]
[[Category:International law]][[Category:International organizations]]
International Prize Court
15239
30009874
2005-12-03T12:15:21Z
Itai
17456
The capturing of [[prize]]s (enemy equipment, vehicles, and especially ships) during wartime is a tradition that goes back as far as organized warfare itself.
The '''International Prize Court''' was an [[international judicial institutions|international court]] proposed at the beginning of the [[20th century]], to hear prize cases. An international agreement to create it, the ''Convention Relative to the Creation of an International Prize Court'', was made at the [[Hague]] on [[October 18]], [[1907]].
The International Prize Court was to hear appeals from national courts concerning prize cases. It was later modified by the ''Additional Protocol to the Convention Relative to the Creation of an International Prize Court'' [http://www1.umn.edu/humanrts/instree/1907k.htm], done at the Hague on [[October 18]], [[1910]]. However, neither the convention nor the subsequent protocol ever entered into force, since none of the signatories ever ratified it, and the court never came into existence.
The Convention was opposed, particularly by elements within the [[United States]] and the [[United Kingdom]], as a violation of national sovereignty.
It was innovative for the time, in being both the first ever treaty for a truly international court (as opposed to a mere arbitral tribunal), and in providing individuals with access to the court, going against the prevailing doctrines of international law at the time, according to which only states had rights and duties under international law. The protocol was an attempt to resolve some concerns expressed by the United States at the court, who felt it to be in violation of its constitution, which provided for its Supreme Court to have the final judicial authority.
A number of ideas from the International Prize Court can be seen in present day international courts, such as its provision for judges ''ad hoc'', later adopted in the Permanent Court of International Justice (now the [[International Court of Justice]]).
[[Category:Prize warfare]]
Imam
15240
40930661
2006-02-23T23:19:52Z
Bubuka
204163
ru
{{Islam}}
'''''Imam''''' ([[Arabic language|Arabic]]: إمام ,[[Persian language| Persian]]: امام ) is an Arabic word meaning "Leader". The ruler of a country might be called the Imam, for example. However, the capitalized term or ''The Imam'' ([[Arabic language|Arabic]]: ''' الإمام''') has important connotations in the [[Islam|Islamic]] tradition especially in [[Shia]] Beliefs .
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==Prayer Leader==
The common everyday use of the word is for a person leading [[Salah|Muslim congregational prayers]] (salah). In this meaning the imam is not required to be a [[clergy|cleric]].
==Clerical "Imams"==
===Shia "Imams"===
In the [[Shia]] context, '''''[[Shia Imam|Imam]]''''' has a meaning more central to belief.
The Shia believe that The Imam is someone who is able to lead mankind in all aspects of life. In addition they believe that an Imam is a perfect example in everything. According to Shia, an Imam is a leader that ''must'' be followed since he is appointed by [[Allah]] (GOD).
The Shia interpretation is that the Quran clearly says that only God can appoint an ''Imam'' and no one else has the power to designate one. The incident of [[Ghadir Khom|Ghadeer-e-Khum]] is referenced as when Muhammad declared [[Ali]] as the leader of the community after him.
According to the Twelve-Imam [[Shiite]], Imam is a divine status like Prophethood. A Prophet can also be an Imam but not all Prophets are Imams. Since Prophet Muhammad is the last Prophet, there could be no Prophets after him and so the 12 Imams are not Prophets but only Imams. These 12 Imams are as great in a sense as all the previous prophets except Prophet Muhammed who is the greatest of all. Following is a listing of the rightful successors of [[Muhammad]], as recognized by ("Twelver") Shias. Each Imam was the son of the previous Imam, except for Husayn who was the brother of Hasan and Ali being Muhammad's cousin and son-in-law. The Shi'a argue that is in Honor of the Muhammed that God made the Imams of his lineage through [[Fatima Zahra|Fatima]] and it is not a simple inheritance like a kingdom. See [[Shia Imams]] for details.
# [[Ali|Ali ibn Abu Talib]] ([[600]]–[[661]])
# [[Hasan ibn Ali]] ([[625]]–[[669]])
# [[Husayn ibn Ali]] ([[626]]–[[680]])
# [[Ali ibn Husayn]] ([[658]]–[[713]]), also known as ''Zainul Abideen''
# [[Muhammad al-Baqir|Muhammad al Baqir]] ([[676]]–[[743]])
# [[Ja'far al-Sadiq|Jafar as Sadiq]] ([[703]]–[[765]])
# [[Musa al-Kazim|Musa al Kazim]] ([[745]]–[[799]])
# [[Ali al-Rida|Ali ar Rida]] ([[765]]–[[818]])
# [[Muhammad al-Taqi|Muhammad at Taqi]] ([[810]]–[[835]])
# [[Ali al-Hadi|Ali al Hadi]] ([[827]]–[[868]])
# [[Hasan al-Askari|Hasan al Askari]] ([[846]]–[[874]])
# [[Muhammad al-Mahdi|Muhammad al Mahdi]] ([[868]]–?))
The [[Ismailis]] trace a different line of Imams, branching at one of Husayn's descendants, [[Ismail bin Jafar]].
The [[Zaiddiyah]] trace a different line, branching at Husayn's grandson, [[Zaid]].
===Sunni "Imams"===
The term is also used for a recognized religious leader or teacher in [[Islam]], often for the founding scholars of the four [[Sunni]] [[madhhab]]s, or schools of [[fiqh|religious jurisprudence ''(fiqh)'']]. For example, ''Imam [[Abu Hanifa]]''. Or the Imams of the sciences related to [[Hadith]] such as Imam Bukhari, Imam Muslim, Imam Abu Dawood. Or the heads of the Prophet's descendants in their times such as Imam Ali, Imam Hasan, Imam Hussein, and Imam [[Jafar Sadiq]].
==Theocratical "Imams"==
In a few historical cases, the title of imam was used for a [[de facto]] Muslim theocratic ruler, especially [[Sectarianism|sectarian]], sort of a mini-[[caliph]] or [[Mahdi]]; notably :
* in northern [[Yemen]]
* in [[Oman]]
* in [[Chechnya]] and in Muslim regions of [[Russia]]
==See also==
*[[Shia Imam]]
* [[Women as imams]]
==External links==
*For a slightly more detailed description of the Shiite belief (and for the other names and titles of the twelve Imáms), see, for example, http://www.bahai-library.org/books/dawnbreakers/preface/prefislam.html .
*[http://philtar.ucsm.ac.uk/encyclopedia/islam/shia/index.html Graphical illustration of the Shia sects]
*[http://www.akhbari.com Akhbari sub-sect], a Shia school of thought; including Khomeini's
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Instrument flight rules
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{{mergefrom|Air traffic control#Instrument Flight Rules (IFR)}}
'''Instrument flight rules (IFR)''' is a set of regulations and procedures for flying [[aircraft]] without the assumption that pilots will be able to see and avoid obstacles, terrain, and other air traffic; it is an alternative to [[visual flight rules]] (VFR), where the [[aviator|pilot]] is primarily or exclusively responsible for ''see-and-avoid''.
==Separation==
The most important concept of IFR flying is that it allows continued flight operations in reduced visibility, during which time the ability of a pilot to physically see and avoid collision with other aircraft or obstacles is severely reduced, or even impossible. The distance that is achieved when avoiding obstacles or other aircraft is termed ''separation''. In [[controlled airspace]], [[air traffic control]] (ATC) separates IFR aircraft from obstacles and other IFR aircraft by applying separations based on time, distance, and altitude differences between aircraft, by relying either on [[radar]] or reports of aircraft positions traditionally sent as voice radio transmissions, but increasingly as electronic data exchanges.
Generally, in most controlled airspaces, IFR aircraft require an ATC ''clearance'' for each part of the flight, typically providing a heading or route, altitude, and ''clearance limit'' (the farthest the aircraft can fly without a new clearance). In very busy areas, typically near major airports, clearances may also be required for VFR aircraft, and ATC may also provide separation between IFR and VFR aircraft or even between VFR aircraft. In uncontrolled airspace, IFR aircraft do not require clearances, and they separate themselves from each other by using charted minimum altitudes to avoid terrain and obstacles, standard cruising altitudes to avoid aircraft flying in different directions, and radio reports over mandatory locations. In the United States and Canada, all airspace from 18,000 to 60,000 feet (5,586 to 18,288 meters) is designated as ''Class A'', requiring all aircraft to operate under IFR.
==Weather==
One advantage of IFR is the ability to fly an aircraft in [[instrument meteorological conditions]] (IMC), weather conditions that do not meet the minimum visibility requirements for VFR. In such conditions the pilot will control the attitude of the aircraft by watching the [[flight instruments]], and will rely entirely on ATC for separation (though large airliners and, increasingly, smaller aircraft now carry their own terrain- and collision-avoidance systems such as [[TCAS]]). It is important, however, not to confuse IFR with IMC: the vast majority of IFR flying is done under [[visual meteorological conditions]] (VMC), and in many cases, the pilot will be controlling the aircraft primarily by outside visual references, as with VFR. Under VMC in some types of airspace, ATC will not provide separation between IFR and VFR aircraft (in fact, in areas with limited radar coverage, ATC may not know the location of VFR aircraft), so pilots are responsible for seeing and avoiding other traffic just as they would be under VFR.
The pilot will usually navigate by using electronic navigation equipment and, in areas of radar coverage, by receiving ''vectors'' (compass headings assigned by ATC). While weather conditions can be worse than those allowed for VFR flight, there are still minimum conditions that must be present in order for the aircraft to take off or land. These will vary according to the type of electronic navigation aids available, the location and height of terrain and obstructions in the vicinity of the airport, and according to qualifications of the crew and aircraft.
==Procedures==
There are three stages to an IFR flight: departure, en route, and approach. For each stage, there are standard, published procedures to allow IFR aircraft to move in a safe, orderly way, from the moment the wheels leave the runway to the moment they touch down again. These procedures also allow an IFR aircraft to complete a flight predictably in the case of lost communications with ATC (''lost-comms''), with default altitudes and headings for every stage.
Departures are described by simple [[departure procedure]]s (DP), normally providing an initial heading and altitude, or (for busier airports) by [[standard instrument departure]]s (SID) providing more detailed instructions, often accompanied by diagrams or charts. En route flight is described by IFR charts showing navigation aids, fixes, and standard routes called ''[[Airway (aviation)|airways]]'' with minimum safe altitudes for each segment. Approaches are described by ''terminal procedures'' (often called [[approach plate]]s), describing a series of steps and segments to make the transition from en route flight to a position where the aircraft can complete a landing visually (often from a low altitude and close to the airport). All instrument approaches have minimum altitudes: if it is not possible to complete a landing visually from the specified altitude (''decision height'') and location, the pilot must commence a ''missed approach'' and return to en route flight. Busy airports may also have [[standard terminal arrivals]] (STARS) providing an additional connection between en route flight and the final approach.
==Qualifications==
To fly under IFR, a pilot must have an [[instrument rating]], and must meet recency of experience requirements. In the United States, these recency of experience requirements include six [[instrument approach]]es, [[navaid]] intercepting and tracking, and [[hold (aviation)|holding]] procedures in the past six months. The aircraft must also be equipped and type-certified for instrument flight.
The UK differs from pilot licensing practice in the U.S. In the UK any pilot can decide to which flight rules he adheres given that the meteorological conditions for those rules are met. The pilot does need an instrument rating to fly in instrument meteorological conditions, and under IFR in controlled airspace. The upshot of this is that non-instrument qualified pilots can elect to fly under IFR in visual meteorological conditions outside controlled airspace. Compared to the rest of the world the UK's flight crew licensing regime is somewhat unusual in this respect by licensing for meteorological conditions and airspace, rather than flight rules.
== See also ==
* [[Visual flight rules]] (VFR)
* [[VHF omnidirectional range|VHF Omni-directional Range]] (VOR)
* [[Instrument Landing System]] (ILS)
* [[Non-directional beacon|Non-Directional Beacon]] (NDB)
* [[Distance Measuring Equipment]] (DME)
* [[Global Positioning System]] (GPS)
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In Vitro Fertilisation
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Ismail Khan
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External links per MoS.
'''Ismail Khan''' (b. [[1946]]) was the governor of [[Herat province]] in [[Afghanistan]]. During the [[Soviet invasion of Afghanistan]] of [[1979]], Khan was an officer in the [[Afghanistan]] army. He rose to the rank of a [[Mujahedin]] commander during his tenure in the army. He has been described as "shrewd, short, and with an elfin smile." His human rights record as governor is said to be decent when compared to other governors, although his record is reportedly still questionable. However, after the airing in January [[2004]] on television of women singing, Khan sided with the [[Afghan Supreme Court]] opinion that such broadcasts should be banned.
After becoming governor of Herat the first time, he was forced to flee to [[Iran]] after the [[Taliban]] took over authority in [[1996]]. Two years later, while organising opposition to the Taliban, he was handed over to the Taliban by old adversaries. Then in March [[2000]] he escaped and worked as a low-profile member of the [[Afghan Northern Alliance]].
During the [[Afghan Transitional Administration]], Khan was military commander of western Afghanistan, until [[August 13]], [[2003]] when President [[Hamid Karzai]] decreed that officials could no longer hold both military and civil posts. In [[September 2004]] he was also removed from the post of governor for Herat province; although Khan was offered the post of minister of mines and industry in the central government, he declined. Several people were reportedly killed during protests against his removal.
He boasts a provincial army of 25,000 men.
On [[March 21]], [[2004]], an assassination attempt against Khan, allegedly ordered by General [[Abdul Zaher Nayebzadah]], was reported to have failed. Shortly thereafter, [[Mirwais Sadeq]] — Khan's son and Afghanistan's civil aviation minister — was killed by Nayebzadah's forces, and severe fighting broke out between the two factions in Herat. After hours of fighting in which about 100 people were reported killed, Khan's forces claimed to be once again in control of the city.
Khan is one of the most religiously conservative warlords. He was slower than other leaders in lifting the restrictions imposed by the Taliban, and has retained many of them. Some of his men have been known to carry out "virginity tests", in Herat's public areas, on women found walking alone. He is widely suspected of withholding much of the customs duties collected at the Iranian border from the central government. Khan maintains close ties with the [[Iranian government]].
==External links==
* [http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/world/south_asia/2535261.stm Profile: Ismail Khan]; BBC
* ISBN 0586087060
[[Category:1946 births|Khan, Ismail]]
[[Category:Living people|Khan, Ismail]]
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Information
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/* See also */ +[[Abstraction]], which should probably be worked into the 'Information is not data' prose, but can be a See Also for now, no?
''"Info" redirects here; for other uses, see [[.info]], [[NFO]] and [[Dagbladet Information]].''
----
'''Information''' as a concept bears a diversity of meanings, from everyday usage to technical settings. Generally speaking, the concept of information is closely related to notions of [[communication]], [[constraint]], [[control system|control]], [[data]], [[form]], [[instruction]], [[knowledge]], [[meaning]], [[stimulation|mental stimulus]], [[pattern]], [[perception]], and [[knowledge representation|representation]].
Many people speak about the [[Information Age]] as the advent of the [[Knowledge Age]] or [[knowledge society]], the [[information society]], and [[Information technology|information technologies]], and even though [[information science]] and [[computer science]] are often in the spotlight, the word "information" is often used without careful consideration of the various meanings it has acquired.
== Information as a message ==
'''Information''' is the state of a system of interest (curiosity). Message is the information materialized.
'''Information''' is a [[message]] from a [[sender]] to one or more receivers. If information is viewed in this manner, it does not have to be accurate. It may be a truth or a lie, or just the sound of a kiss. Even a disruptive noise used to inhibit the flow of communication and create misunderstanding would in this view be a form of information. This model assumes there is a definite sender and at least one receiver. Many refinements of the model assume the existence of a common language understood by the sender and at least one of the receivers. An important variation identifies information as that which would be [[communication|communicated]] by a message if it was sent from a sender to a receiver capable of understanding the message. However, in requiring the existence of a definite sender, the "information as a message" model does not attach any significance to the idea that information is something that can be extracted from an environment, e.g., through observation, reading or measurement.
=== Measuring information ===
The view of information as a message came into prominence with the publication in 1948 of an influential paper by [[Claude Shannon]], "[[A Mathematical Theory of Communication]]." This paper provides the foundations of [[information theory]] and endows the word ''information'' not only with a technical meaning but also a measure. If the sending device is equally likely to send any one of a set of <math>N</math> messages, then the preferred measure of "the information produced when one message is chosen from the set" is the base two [[logarithm]] of <math>N</math> (This measure is called '''[[self-information]]'''). In this paper, Shannon continues:
:''The choice of a logarithmic base corresponds to the choice of a unit for measuring information. If the base 2 is used the resulting units may be called binary digits, or more briefly [[bit]]s, a word suggested by [[John Tukey|J. W. Tukey]]. A device with two stable positions, such as a relay or a flip-flop circuit, can store one bit of information. N such devices can store N bits ...'' [The Bell System Technical Journal, Vol. 27, p. 379, (July 1948).]
A complementary way of measuring information is provided by [[Algorithmic information theory]]. In brief, this measures the information content of a list of symbols based on how predictable they are, or more specifically how easy it is to generate the list. The sequence below would have a very low algorithmic information measurement since it is a very predictable pattern, and as the pattern continues the measurement would not change. Shannon information would give the same information measurement for each symbol, since they are [[statistical randomness|statistically random]], and each new symbol would increase the measurement.
: 123456789101112131415161718192021
It is important to recognise the limitations of Shannon's work from the perspective of human meaning. When referring to the meaning content of a message Shannon noted ''“Frequently the messages have '''meaning”…''' these semantic aspects of communication are irrelevant to the engineering problem. The significant aspect is that the actual message is one selected '''from a set of possible messages'''”'' (emphasis in original).
In Information Theory signals are part of a process, not a substance, they do something, they do not contain any specific meaning. Combining [[Algorithmic information theory]] and Information Theory we can conclude that the most random signal contains the most information as it can be interpreted in any way and cannot be compressed.
Micheal Reddy noted that ''“signals” of the mathematical theory are “patterns that can be exchanged”. There is no message contained in the signal, the signals covey the ability to select from a set of possible messages.”'' In information theory “the system must be designed to operate for each possible selection, not just the one which will actually be chosen since this is unknown at the time of design.”
See also [[lexicographic information cost]].
== Information as a pattern ==
Information is any represented [[pattern]]. This view assumes neither accuracy nor directly communicating parties, but instead assumes a separation between an object and its representation, as well as the involvement of someone capable of understanding this relationship. This view seems therefore to require a conscious [[mind]]. Consider the following example: [[economic statistics]] represent an [[Economics|economy]], however inaccurately. What are commonly referred to as [[data]] in [[computing]], [[statistics]], and other fields, are forms of information in this sense. The [[electromagnetism|electro-magnetic]] patterns in a [[computer network]] and connected [[device]]s are related to something other than the pattern itself, such as [[text]] to be displayed and [[Computer keyboard|keyboard]] input. [[Signal (information theory)|Signal]]s, [[sign]]s, and [[symbol]]s are also in this category. On the other hand, according to [[semiotics]], data is symbols with certain syntax and information is data with a certain semantic. [[Painting]] and [[drawing]] contain information to the extent that they represent something such as an assortment of objects on a table, a [[profile]], or a [[landscape]]. In other words, when a pattern of something is transposed to a pattern of something else, the latter is information. This type of information still assumes some involvement of conscious mind, of either the entity constructing the representation, or the entity interpreting it.
If you accept that information can be defined merely as a pattern, does it not follow that neither [[utility]] nor meaning are necessary components of information? Surely a distinction must be made between raw unprocessed data and information which possesses utility, [[value]] or some quantum of [[meaning]]. Information may indeed be characterised as a pattern; it is a [[necessary]] condition, but not [[sufficient]]. For example a telephone book follows a specific pattern: name, address , telephone number.
An individual entry does not become "informative" in some sense unless and until it possesses some degree of utility, value or meaning. For example, someone might look up a girlfriend's number, might order a take away etc. The vast majority of numbers will never be construed as "information" in any meaningful sense. The gap between data and information is only closed by a behavioural bridge whereby some value, utility or meaning is added to transform mere data or pattern into information.
When one constructs a representation of an object, one can selectively extract from the object ([[sampling]]) or use a [[system]] of signs to replace ([[encode|encoding]]), or both. The sampling and encoding result in representation. An example of the former is a "sample" of a product; an example of the latter is "verbal description" of a product. Both contain information of the product, however inaccurate. When one interprets representation, one can predict a broader pattern from a limited number of observations (inference) or understand the relation between patterns of two different things ([[decode|decoding]]). One example of the former is to sip a [[soup]] to know if it is spoiled; an example of the latter is examining footprints to determine the animal and its condition. In both cases, information sources are not constructed or presented by some "sender" of information. To repeat, information in this sense does not assume direct communication, but it assumes involvement of some conscious mind.
Regardless, information is dependent upon, but usually unrelated to and separate from, the medium or media used to express it. In other words, the position of a theoretical series of bits, or even the output once interpreted by a computer or similar device, is unimportant, except when someone or something is present to interpret the information. Therefore, a quantity of information is totally distinct from its medium.
== Information as sensory input ==
Often information is viewed as a type of [[input]] to an [[organism]] or designed [[device]]. Inputs are of two kinds. Some inputs are important to the function of the organism (for example, food) or device ([[energy]]) by themselves. In his book ''Sensory Ecology,'' Dusenbery<!-- who? --> called these causal inputs. Other inputs (information) are important only because they are associated with causal inputs and can be used to predict the occurrence of a causal input at a later time (and perhaps another place). Some information is important because of association with other information but eventually there must be a connection to a causal input. In practice, information is usually carried by weak stimuli that must be detected by specialized sensory systems and amplified by energy inputs before they can be functional to the organism or device. For example, light is often a causal input to plants but provides information to animals. The colored light reflected from a flower is too weak to do much photosynthetic work but the visual system of the bee detects it and the bee's nervous system uses the information to guide the bee to the flower, where the bee often finds nectar or pollen, which are causal inputs, serving a nutritional function.
Information is any type of sensory input. When an [[organism]] with a [[nervous system]] receives an input, it transforms the input into an electrical signal. This is regarded information by some. The idea of representation is still relevant, but in a slightly different manner. That is, while [[abstract painting]] does not represent anything concretely, when the viewer sees the painting, it is nevertheless transformed into electrical signals that create a representation of the painting. Defined this way, information does not have to be related to truth, communication, or representation of an object. [[Entertainment]] in general is not intended to be informative. [[Music]], the [[performing arts]], [[amusement park]]s, works of [[fiction]] and so on are thus forms of information in this sense, but they are not forms of information according to the previous definitions above. Consider another example: food supplies both nutrition and taste for those who eat it. If information is equated to sensory input, then nutrition is not information but taste is.
== Information as an influence which leads to a transformation ==
Information is any type of pattern that influences the formation or transformation of other patterns. In this sense, there is no need for a conscious mind to perceive, much less appreciate, the pattern. Consider, for example, [[DNA]]. The sequence of [[nucleotide]]s is a pattern that influences the formation and development of an organism without any need for a conscious mind. [[Systems theory]] at times seems to refer to information in this sense, assuming information does not necessarily involve any conscious mind, and patterns circulating (due to [[feedback]]) in the system can be called information. In other words, it can be said that information in this sense is something potentially perceived as representation, though not created or presented for that purpose.
When [[Marshall McLuhan]] speaks of [[Medium|media]] and their effects on human cultures, he refers to the structure of artifacts that in turn shape our behaviors and mindsets. Also, [[pheromone]]s are often said to be "information" in this sense.
In 2003, J. D. Bekenstein claimed there is a growing trend in [[physics]] to define the physical world as being made of information itself (and thus information is defined in this way).
See the section below on information as a property in physics. (Also see [[Gregory Bateson]].)
== Information as a property in physics ==
''Main article: [[Physical information]]''
Information has a well defined meaning in [[physics]]. Examples of this include the phenomenon of [[quantum entanglement]] where particles can interact without reference to their separation or the speed of light. Information itself cannot travel faster than light even if the information is transmitted indirectly. This could lead to the fact that all attempts at physically observing a particle with an "entangled" relationship to another are slowed down, even though the particles are not connected in any other way other than by the information they carry.
Another link is demonstrated by the [[Maxwell's demon]] thought experiment. In this experiment, a direct relationship between information and another physical property, [[entropy]], is demonstrated. A consequence is that it is impossible to destroy information without increasing the entropy of a system; in practical terms this often means generating heat. Thus, in the study of [[logic gates]], the theoretical lower bound of thermal energy released by an ''AND gate'' is more than for the ''NOT gate'' (because information is destroyed in an ''AND gate'' and simply converted in an ''NOT gate''). Physical information is of particular importance in the theory of [[quantum computers]].
== Etymology ==
According to the [[Oxford English Dictionary]], the earliest historical meaning of the word ''information'' in [[English language|English]] was the act of ''informing'', or giving form or shape to the mind, as in education, instruction, or training. A quote from 1387: "Five books come down from heaven for information of mankind." It was also used for an ''item'' of training, ''e.g.'' a particular instruction. "Melibee had heard the great skills and reasons of Dame Prudence, and her wise informations and techniques." (1386)
The English word was apparently derived by adding the common "noun of action" ending "''-ation''" (descended through French from Latin "''-tio''") to the earlier verb ''to inform'', in the sense of to give form to the mind, to discipline, instruct, teach: "Men so wise should go and inform their kings." (1330) ''Inform'' itself comes (via French) from the Latin verb ''informare'', to give form to, to form an idea of. Furthermore, Latin itself already even contained the word ''informatio'' meaning concept or idea, but the extent to which this may have influenced the development of the word ''information'' in English is unclear.
As a final note, the ancient Greek word for ''form'' was eidos, and this word was famously used in a technical philosophical sense by [[Plato]] (and later Aristotle) to denote the ideal identity or essence of something (see [[The Forms]]).
== Information is not data ==
The words, ''information'' and ''[[data]]'', are used interchangeably in many contexts. This may lead to their confusion. However, they are not synonyms.
Often data is defined as raw facts while information is processed data (as is the case in most of the article below). Another distinction that is made is that information is the things that we know and data is the representation of the information. As an example, we may be thinking about a favorite niece's age, who is four. We would tend to represent that with Arabic numerals (4), but we could represent it using Roman numerals (IV), tick marks (||||), or any other way we agree on. The information has not changed in each case, although the data has. Note that we tend to think of information in terms of declarative [[knowledge]]. That is, the facts we know such as a temperature, an age, etc. Information can also be skills and things we know how to do, which is called procedural knowledge.
An important consequence of this distinction is that information has [[meaning]] (i.e.: can inform), while data does not. Computers work with data (representations) and not information (meanings). This is why a computer will calculate the average employee number even though it is meaningless.
Note that one person's information may be another's data depending on whether the recipient understand the data (or its context). Also, when someone (or some<em>thing</em>, such as a [[computer system]]) is given a fact, it may only be data, but when they make sense of (or interpret) it, often by bringing it together with other facts, it may become information.
Information is usually thought of as, in a strict sense, a subset of data. However, sometimes the reverse interpretation can be taken (such as describing data as "raw information"). Data may also have a more specific sense in some fields (e.g.: referring to a certain type or set of <em>information</em> used in that context). When used pragmatically in everyday speech, it usually specifically refers to collections of numbers, or, in a wider sense, to any content not of relevance or interest to the speaker, or not (yet) understood by the speaker themselves in particular.
Data is unstructured, lacks context and may not be relevant to the recipient. When data is correctly organized, filtered and presented with context it can become information because it then has "value" to the recipient.<!-- rm? -->
Data which is not information (i.e.: has not yet informed or been given a context) is often called '''raw data'''.
<!-- add link to content and explain difference to? -->
== References ==
* Bekenstein, Jacob D. (2003, August). Information in the [[holographic principle|holographic universe]]. ''Scientific American''. Retrieved from http://www.referencenter.com
== See also ==
<!-- {{wikibookspar||Useless Information}} removed by User:Joeblakesley as it has no content ATM -->
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* [[Information entropy]]
* [[Information geometry]]
* [[Information highway]]
* [[Information mapping]]
* [[Information overload]]
* [[Information processing]]
* [[Information processor]]
* [[Information technology]]
* [[Information theory]]
* [[Abstraction]]
* [[Algorithmic information theory]]
{{col-break}}
* [[Classified information]]
* [[Complexity]]
**[[Complex system]]
**[[Complex adaptive system]]
* [[Cybernetics]]
* [[Fisher information]]
* [[Free Information Infrastructure]]
* [[Freedom of information]]
* [[Library and Information Science]]
* [[Medium]]
* [[Observation]]
{{col-break}}
* [[Physical information]]
* [[Prediction]]
* [[Propaganda model]]
* [[Receiver operating characteristic]]
* [[Satisficing]]
* [[Shannon–Hartley theorem]]
**[[Claude Shannon]]
**[[Ralph Hartley]]
* [[Systems theory]]
{{col-end}}
== External links ==
* [http://isria.com International Security Research & Intelligence Agency], a consulting company specialized in information and international security-related issues that provides internet users with an [http://osint.isria.com Open Sources Center].
* [http://plato.stanford.edu/entries/information-semantic/ Semantic Conceptions of Information] Review by Luciano Floridi for the [[Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy]]
* [http://pespmc1.vub.ac.be/ASC/NEGENTROPY.html Principia Cybernetica entry on negentropy]
* [http://www.princeton.edu/~pear/IU.pdf Information & Uncertainty in Remote Perception Research]
* [http://www.princeton.edu/~pear/JahnATpages.pdf Information, Consciousness & Health]
[[Category:Information| ]]
[[Category:Cybernetics]]
[[Category:Information technology]]
[[ar:معلومات]]
[[be:Інфармацыя]]
[[bg:Информация]]
[[ca:Informació]]
[[cs:Informace]]
[[da:Information]]
[[de:Information]]
[[et:Informatsioon]]
[[el:Πληροφορία]]
[[es:Información]]
[[eo:Informo]]
[[fa:اطلاعات]]
[[fr:Information]]
[[he:מידע]]
[[io:Informo]]
[[it:Informazione]]
[[ko:정보]]
[[lt:Informacija]]
[[mk:Информација]]
[[nl:Informatie]]
[[ja:情報]]
[[no:Informasjon]]
[[pl:Informacja]]
[[pt:Informação]]
[[ro:Informaţie]]
[[ru:Информация]]
[[simple:Information]]
[[sk:Informácia]]
[[sl:Informacija]]
[[fi:Tieto]]
[[sv:Information]]
[[uk:Інформація]]
[[zh:信息]]
Indus Valley Civilisation
15249
15912732
2003-10-29T13:02:05Z
(
7041
fix link
#redirect [[Indus Valley Civilization]]
Indigo
15250
41122193
2006-02-25T04:42:32Z
Lefty
44031
normalize cmyk to [0-100]
:''This article is about the color. For other meanings, see [[Indigo (disambiguation)]].''
{{infobox color|
title=Indigo (closest in [[gamut]])|textcolor=white|
hex=4B0082|
r= 75|g= 0|b=130|
c= 42|m=100|y= 0|k= 49|
h=275|s=100|v= 51
}}
'''Indigo''' is the color of [[light]] between 440 to 420 [[nanometre]]s in [[wavelength]], placing it between [[blue]] and [[violet (color)|violet]]. Like many other colors ([[Orange (colour)|orange]] and [[violet (color)|violet]] are the most well-known), it gets its name from an object in the natural world - the plant named ''[[indigo plant|indigo]]'' once used for dyeing cloth (see also [[Indigo dye]]).
Indigo is neither an additive [[primary color]] nor a subtractive primary color. It was named and defined by [[Isaac Newton]] when he divided up the [[optical spectrum]] (which is a continuum of frequencies). He named [[seven]] colors specifically to link them with the (known) [[planet]]s, [[day]]s of the [[week]], and other lists that had seven items.
The [[human]] [[eye]] is relatively insensitive to indigo's frequencies, and some otherwise well-sighted people cannot distinguish indigo from blue and violet. For this reason some commentators including [[Isaac Asimov]] have suggested that indigo should not be regarded as a color in its own right but merely as a shade of blue or violet.
== See also ==
*[[List of colors]]
[[da:Indigo]]
[[de:Indigo (Farbton)]]
[[es:Añil]]
[[fr:indigo]]
[[he:אינדיגו]]
[[id:Indigo]]
[[ja:インディゴ]]
[[nl:indigo (kleur)]]
[[sl:Indigo]]
[[sv:Indigo]]
[[vi:Chàm]]
[[Category:Shades of violet]]
[[Category:Optical spectrum]]
{{EMSpectrum}}
{{color-stub}}
International Monetary Fund
15251
42126213
2006-03-04T00:11:25Z
Catquas
899948
/* See also */
:'' '''IMF''' redirects here. For other meanings of IMF see [[IMF (disambiguation)]] ''
[[Image:imf_logo.png|thumb|180px|right|The logo of the International Monetary Fund (IMF)]]
The '''International Monetary Fund''' ('''IMF''') is the [[international organization]] entrusted with overseeing the [[global financial system]] by monitoring [[exchange rate]]s and [[balance of payments]], as well as offering technical and financial assistance when asked.
== Organization and purpose ==
The IMF describes itself as "an organization of 184 countries, working to foster global monetary cooperation, secure financial stability, facilitate international trade, promote high employment and sustainable economic growth, and reduce poverty". With the exception of [[North Korea]], [[Cuba]], [[Liechtenstein]], [[Andorra]], [[Monaco]], [[Tuvalu]] and [[Nauru]], all UN member states either participate directly in the IMF or are represented by other member states.
In the 1930s, as economic activity in the major industrial countries dwindled, countries started adopting [[mercantilist]] practices, attempting to defend their economies by increasing restrictions on imports. To conserve dwindling reserves of gold and foreign exchange, some countries curtailed foreign imports, some devalued their currencies, and some introduced complicated restrictions on foreign exchange accounts held by their citizens. These measures were arguably detrimental to the countries themselves as the [[David Ricardo|Ricardian]] [[comparative advantage]] states that everyone gains from trade without restrictions. It is noteworthy to mention that, although the "size of the pie" is enhanced according to this theory of free trade, when distributional concerns are taken into account, there are always industries that benefit while others lose out. World trade declined sharply, as did [[employment]] and [[living standards]] in many countries.
As [[World War II]] came to a close, the leading allied countries considered various plans to restore order to international monetary relations, and at the [[Bretton Woods]] conference the IMF emerged. The founding members drafted a charter (or Articles of Agreement) of an international institution to oversee the international monetary system and to promote both the elimination of exchange restrictions relating to trade in goods and services, and the stability of exchange rates.
The IMF came into existence in December 1945, when the first 29 countries signed its Articles of Agreement. The statutory purposes of the IMF today are the same as when they were formulated in 1944 (see Box 2). From the end of World War II until the late-1970s, the capitalist world experienced unprecedented growth in [[real income]]s. (Since then, [[China]]'s integration into the capitalist system has added substantially to the growth of the system.) Within the capitalist system, the benefits of growth have not flowed equally to all (either within or among nations) but most capitalist countries have seen recent increases in prosperity that contrast starkly with the conditions within capitalist countries during the interwar period. The lack of a recurring global depression is likely due to improvements in the conduct of international economic policies that have encouraged the growth of international trade and helped smooth the economic cycle of boom and bust.
In the decades since World War II, apart from rising prosperity, the world economy and monetary system have undergone other major changes that have increased the importance and relevance of the purposes served by the IMF, but that has also required the IMF to adapt and reform. Rapid advances in technology and communications have contributed to the increasing international integration of markets and to closer linkages among national economies. As a result, financial crises, when they erupt, now tend to spread more rapidly among countries.
The IMF's influence in the global economy steadily increased as it accumulated more members. The number of IMF member countries has more than quadrupled from the 44 states involved in its establishment, reflecting in particular the attainment of political independence by many developing countries and more recently the collapse of the Soviet bloc. The expansion of the IMF's membership, together with the changes in the world economy, have required the IMF to adapt in a variety of ways to continue serving its purposes effectively.
== History ==
Agreement for the creation of the International Monetary Fund came at the [[United Nations Monetary and Financial Conference]]{{mn|footnote_1|1}} in [[Bretton Woods, New Hampshire]], [[United States]], on [[July 22]], [[1944]]. The principal architects of the IMF at the conference were British economist [[John Maynard Keynes]] and the chief international economist at the [[United States Department of the Treasury|US Treasury Department]], [[Harry Dexter White]]. The [[Articles of Agreement]]{{mn|footnote_2|2}} came into force on [[December 27]], [[1945]], the organization came into existence on [[May 1]], [[1946]], as part of a post-[[World War II|WWII]] reconstruction plan, and it began financial operations on [[March 1]], [[1947]].
It is sometimes referred to as "a Bretton Woods institution", along with the [[International Bank for Reconstruction and Development]] (now part of the larger [[World Bank Group]]).
== Membership qualifications ==
A country may apply for membership of the IMF. The application will be considered, first, by the IMF's Executive Board. After its consideration, the Executive Board will submit a report to the Board of Governors of the IMF with recommendations in the form of a "Membership Resolution." These recommendations cover the amount of [[quota]] in the IMF, the form of payment of the [http://www.imf.org/external/pubs/ft/aa/aa03.htm#1 subscription], and other customary terms and conditions of membership. After the Board of Governors has adopted the "Membership Resolution," the applicant state needs to take the legal steps required under its own law to enable it to sign the IMF's Articles of Agreement and to fulfill the obligations of IMF membership.
A member's quota in the IMF determines the amount of its subscription, its voting weight, its access to IMF financing, and its allocation of [[Special Drawing Rights|SDR]]s.
== Assistance and reforms ==
Part of its mission has become to provide assistance to countries that experience serious economic difficulties. Member states with [[balance of payments]] problems may request loans and/or organizational management of their national economies. In return, the countries are obliged to launch certain [[structural adjustment program|reforms]], an example of which is the "[[Washington Consensus]]".
==Criticism ==
The role of the two Bretton Woods institutions has been controversial to many since the late [[Cold War]] period. Critics claim that IMF policy makers deliberately supported capitalistic [[military dictatorship]]s friendly to American and European [[corporation]]s. Critics also claim that the IMF is generally [[apathetic]] or hostile to their views of [[democracy]], [[human rights]], and [[labor rights]]. These criticisms generated a controversy that helped spark the [[anti-globalization movement]]. Others claim the IMF has little power to democratize sovereign states, nor is that its stated objective: to advise and promote financial stability. Arguments in favor of the IMF say that economic stability is a precursor to democracy.
Two criticisms from economists have been that financial aid is always bound to so-called "[[Conditionalities]]", including [[Structural Adjustment Program]]s. Conditionalities, it is claimed, retard social stability and hence inhibit the stated goals of the IMF.
Typically the IMF and its supporters advocate a [[Keynesian economics|Keynesian]] approach. As such, adherents of [[supply-side economics]] generally find themselves in open disagreement with the IMF. The IMF frequently advocates currency [[devaluation]], criticized by proponents of supply-side economics as [[inflation|inflationary]]. Secondly they link higher taxes under "[[austerity]] programmes" with [[economic contraction]].
Currency devaluation is recommended by the IMF to the governments of poor nations with struggling economies. Supply-side economists claim these Keynesian IMF policies are destructive to economic prosperity, although many other economists disagree.
Complaints are also directed toward [[International Monetary Fund gold reserve]] being undervalued. At its inception in 1945, the IMF pegged gold at 35 dollars per [[troy weight|Troy ounce]] of gold. In 1973 the Nixon administration lifted the fixed asset value of gold in favour of a world market price. Hence the fixed exchange rates of currencies tied to gold were switched to a [[floating rate]], also based on market price and exchange. This largely came about because ''[[Petrodollar]]s'' outside the United States were more than could be backed by the gold at [[Fort Knox]] under the fixed exchange rate system. The fixed rate system only served to limit the amount of assistance the organization could use to help debt-ridden countries.
That said, the IMF sometimes advocates "austerity programmes," increasing [[tax|taxes]] even when the economy is weak, in order to generate government revenue and balance [[budget deficit]]s, which is the opposite of Keynesian policy. These policies were criticised by [[Joseph E. Stiglitz]], former chief economist at the World Bank, in his book [[Globalization and Its Discontents]]. He argued that by converting to a more Monetarist approach, the fund no longer had a valid purpose, as it was designed to provide funds for countries to carry out Keynesian reflations.
Most [[Alter-globalization|altermondialists]], like [[ATTAC]], believe that IMF interventions aggravate the [[poverty]] and [[debt]] of [[Third world|Third World]] and [[Developing nation|developing countries]]. According to the analysis by [[Yves Engler]], the IMF is considered to be responsible for worsening or actually creating [[famine]] in [[Malawi]] ([[2002]]), [[Ethiopia]] ([[2003]]) and [[Niger]] ([[2005]]). [http://www.zmag.org/content/showarticle.cfm?SectionID=2&ItemID=8494]
Opposition to the IMF is often fragmented. For instance, advocates of supply-side economics would generally regard the policies advocated by ATTAC to be little different in form to the ideas peddled by the IMF. In other words, they would see ATTAC ''tax-and-spend'' policies and the IMF's austerity policies as being fundamentally similar.
[[Argentina]], which had been considered by the IMF to be a model country in its compliance to policy proposals by the Bretton Woods institutions, experienced a catastrophic economic crisis in [[2001]], generally believed to have been caused by IMF-induced budget restrictions — which undercut the government's ability to sustain national infrastructure even in crucial areas such as health, education, and security — and [[privatization]] of strategically vital national resources. The crisis added to widespread hatred of this institution in Argentina and other South American countries, with many blaming the IMF for the region's economic problems [http://www.serendipity.li/hr/imf_and_dollar_system.htm]. The current — as of early 2006 — trend towards moderate left-wing governments in the region and a growing concern with the development of a regional economic policy largely independent of big business pressures has been ascribed to this crisis.
Another example of where IMF Structural Adjustment Programmes aggravated the problem was in [[Kenya]]. Before IMF got involved in the country, the Kenya central bank oversaw all currency movement in and out of the country. IMF mandated that Kenya central bank had to allow easier currency movement. However, the adjustment resulted in very little foreign investment, but allowed [[Kamlesh Manusuklal Damji Pattni]], with the help of corrupt government officials, to syphon out billions of Kenya shillings in what came to be known as the [[Goldenberg scandal]], leaving the country in a state worse than that which it was in before the IMF reforms were implemented.
That the IMF intervenes only in countries that experience years of dire economic conditions has certainly hurt its reputation. The financial collapses it intervenes in are products of uneven capitalist development sometimes exacerbated by government mismanagement, but mismanagement is often cited by rich nations as the source of the financial crises. These collapses tend to lead to years of economic difficulty that can be addressed in various ways, but IMF Stuctural Adjustment Policies consistently serve to open up or "liberalize" economies to foreign capital rather than provide for economic recovery through statist policies such as government financed projects to achieve full employment. Thus, IMF policies further the notion that economic development in underdeveloped countries is dependent on attracting foreign investment rather than through a state-managed approach centered on full employment and progressive taxation. It is also true that politicians have used the IMF as an easy target for blame when they themselves have erred, using nationalism to gain easy political points.
Overall the IMF success record is limited. While it was created to help stabilize the global economy, since 1980 over 100 countries have experienced a banking collapse that reduced GDP by four percent or more -- far more than at any previous time in history. The considerable delay in IMF response to a crisis, and the fact that it tends to only respond to rather than prevent them, has led many economists to argue for reform.
Whatever the feelings people in the Western world have for the IMF, research by the [[Pew Research Center]] shows that more than 60 percent of Asians and 70 percent of Africans feel that the IMF and the [[World Bank]] have a ''positive'' effect on their country [http://people-press.org/reports/pdf/185topline.pdf]. Such research has made proponents of IMF claim the IMF-critique misleading, as it would be difficult to speak of suffering if the sufferers don't feel hurt.
The documentary [[Life and Debt]] deals with the IMF's policies' influence on [[Jamaica]] and its economy, from a critical point of view.
.
== Past managing directors ==
An unwritten rule establishes that the IMF's managing director must be European and that the president of the World Bank must be from the [[United States]]. Executive Directors, who confirm the managing director are voted in by Finance Ministers from countries they represent.
The IMF is for the most part controlled by the major Western Powers, with voting rights on the Executive board based on a quota derived from a monetary stake in the institution. Rarely does the board vote and pass issues contradicting the will of the US or Europeans. There have been some exceptions in the past. Dr. [[Mohamed Finaish]] from [[Libya]], the Executive Director representing the majority of the Arab World and [[Pakistan]], was a tireless defender of the developing nations' rights at the IMF. He stood steadfast in his beliefs and principles for fourteen years until his defeat in the 1992 elections to an Egyptian IMF Staff Member.
<table border=0 cellspacing=0 cellpadding=0>
<tr valign=top><td>'''Dates'''<hr></td><td rowspan=12> </td><td>'''Name'''<hr></td><td rowspan=12> </td><td>'''Country'''<hr></td></tr>
<tr valign=top><td>[[May 6]], [[1946]] - [[May 5]], [[1951]]<td>[[Camille Gutt]]<td>[[Belgium]]</tr>
<tr valign=top><td>[[August 3]], [[1951]] - [[October 3]], [[1956]]<td>[[Ivar Rooth]]<td>[[Sweden]]</tr>
<tr valign=top><td>[[November 21]], [[1956]] - [[May 5]], [[1963]]<td>[[Per Jacobsson]]<td>[[Sweden]]</tr>
<tr valign=top><td>[[September 1]], [[1963]] - [[August 31]], [[1973]]<td>[[Pierre-Paul Schweitzer]]<td>[[France]]</tr>
<tr valign=top><td>[[September 1]], [[1973]] - [[June 16]], [[1978]]<td>[[Johannes Witteveen]]<td>[[Netherlands]]</tr>
<tr valign=top><td>[[June 17]], [[1978]] - [[January 15]], [[1987]]<td>[[Jacques de Larosière]]<td>[[France]]</tr>
<tr valign=top><td>[[January 16]], [[1987]] - [[February 14]], [[2000]]<td>[[Michel Camdessus]]<td>[[France]]</tr>
<tr valign=top><td>[[May 1]], [[2000]] - [[March 4]], [[2004]]<td>[[Horst Köhler]]<td>[[Germany]]</tr>
<tr valign=top><td>[[June 7]], [[2004]] - present<td>[[Rodrigo de Rato]]<td>[[Spain]]</tr></table>
==Footnotes==
* {{mnb|footnote_1|The [[United Nations]] was at the time only a wartime alliance, not yet an international organization}}
* {{mnb|footnote_2| [http://www.imf.org/external/pubs/ft/aa/index.htm Articles of Agreement of the International Monetary Fund] }}
== See also ==
* [[Bretton Woods Institutions]]
* [[Economics]]
* [[Bank for International Settlements]]
* [[Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development]]
* [[Special Drawing Rights]]
* [[World Bank]]
* [[Globalization and Its Discontents]]
* [[Bancor]]
* [[Development aid]]
== External links ==
* [http://www.imf.org International Monetary Fund website]
* [http://www.augustreview.com/index.php?module=pagesetter&func=viewpub&tid=4&pid=10 Global Banking: The International Monetary Fund]
* [http://www.imf.org/external/pubs/ft/fandd/index.htm Finance & Development - A quarterly magazine of the IMF]
* [http://www.imf.org/external/pubs/ft/ar/ Annual Reports of the Executive Board]
* [http://www.imf.org/external/pubs/ft/weo/weorepts.htm World Economic Outlook Reports]
* [http://www.imf.org/external/pubind.htm IMF Publications]
* [http://www.economist.com/opinion/displayStory.cfm?story_id=2941379 Kenneth Rogoff - The sisters at 60]
* How the IMF Props Up the Dollar System [http://www.serendipity.li/hr/imf_and_dollar_system.htm]
* [http://web.gc.cuny.edu/eusc/activities/paper/schwartz.htm ''IMF’s Origins as a Blueprint for Its Future'', Anna J. Schwartz, National Bureau of Economic Research]
== References ==
*{{ cite book | title=[http://www.fondad.org/publications/helpingpoor/contents.htm Helping the Poor? The IMF and Low-Income Countries]| author=Jan Joost Teunissen and Age Akkerman (eds.)| year=2005 | publisher=FONDAD | id=ISBN-10: 90-74208-25-8}}
*{{ cite book | title=[http://econwpa.wustl.edu/eps/if/papers/0207/0207003.pdf The Development and Implementation of IMF and World Bank Conditionality]| author=Axel Dreher | year=2002 | publisher=HWWA | id=ISSN 16164814}}
* Dreher, Axel (2004), A Public Choice Perspective of IMF and World Bank Lending and Conditionality, ''Public Choice'' 119, 3-4: 445-464.
*Dreher, Axel (2004), The Influence of IMF Programs on the Re-election of Debtor Governments, ''Economics & Politics'' 16, 1: 53-75
*Dreher, Axel (2003), The Influence of Elections on IMF Programme Interruptions, ''The Journal of Development Studies'' 39,6: 101-120.
* ''[[The Best Democracy Money Can Buy]]'' by [[Greg Palast]] ([[2002]])
* The IMF and The World Bank: How do they differ?[http://www.imf.org/external/pubs/ft/exrp/differ/differ.htm] by David D. Driscoll
[[Category:International organizations]]
[[Category:International economics]]
[[Category:International Monetary Fund]]
[[bg:Международен валутен фонд]]
[[ca:Fons Monetari Internacional]]
[[cs:Mezinárodní měnový fond]]
[[da:Internationale Valutafond]]
[[de:Internationaler Währungsfonds]]
[[et:Rahvusvaheline Valuutafond]]
[[es:Fondo Monetario Internacional]]
[[eo:Internacia Mona Fonduso]]
[[fr:Fonds monétaire international]]
[[ko:국제통화기금]]
[[id:Dana Moneter Internasional]]
[[it:Fondo Monetario Internazionale]]
[[he:קרן המטבע הבינלאומית]]
[[ka:საერთაშორისო სავალუტო ფონდი]]
[[lt:Tarptautinis Valiutos Fondas]]
[[hu:IMF]]
[[mk:Меѓународен Монетарен Фонд]]
[[nl:Internationaal Monetair Fonds]]
[[ja:国際通貨基金]]
[[no:Det internasjonale pengefondet]]
[[nn:Det internasjonale pengefondet]]
[[pl:Międzynarodowy Fundusz Walutowy]]
[[pt:Fundo Monetário Internacional]]
[[ro:Fondul Monetar Internaţional]]
[[ru:Международный валютный фонд]]
[[sk:Medzinárodný menový fond]]
[[sr:Међународни монетарни фонд]]
[[sv:Internationella valutafonden]]
[[th:กองทุนการเงินระหว่างประเทศ]]
[[uk:Міжнародний валютний фонд]]
[[zh:國際貨幣基金]]
Islands of the Clyde
15252
38603230
2006-02-07T11:48:56Z
Warofdreams
20855
moved [[Islands of the lower Firth of Clyde]] to [[Islands of the Clyde]]: shorter title, as proposed on talk page without objections
[[image:Islands of the lower Firth of Clyde.PNG|thumb|Map showing location of the islands]]
The '''Islands of the lower Firth of Clyde''' is the smallest of the three major [[Scotland|Scottish]] island groups after the [[Hebrides]] and the [[Northern Isles]].
The islands are situated in [[Scotland]] in the [[Firth of Clyde]] between [[Ayrshire]] and [[Argyll]]. They include:
[[image:Holy_Isle_from_North.JPG|thumb|'''Holy Isle''' seen from '''Bute''']]
[[image:Lady_Isle.jpg|thumb|'''Lady Isle''' with '''Ailsa Craig''' beyond]]
*[[Ailsa Craig]]
*[[Isle of Arran|Arran]]
*[[Burnt Islands|The Burnt Islands]]
***Eilean Mór
***Eilean Fraoich
***Eilean Buidhe
*[[Isle of Bute|Bute]]
*[[Davaar]]
*[[Eilean Dearg, Loch Riddon|Eilean Dearg]]
*[[Eilean Dubh, Kyles of Bute|Eilean Dubh]]
*[[Glunimore Island]]
*[[Great Cumbrae]]
*[[Holy Isle, Firth of Clyde|Holy Isle]]
*[[Horse Isle]]
*[[Inchmarnock]]
*[[Lady Isle]]
*[[Little Cumbrae]]
*[[Pladda]]
*[[Sanda, Scotland|Sanda]]
*[[Sgat Mór and Sgat Beag]]
*[[Sheep Island, Argyll and Bute|Sheep Island]]
*[[The Eileans]]
'''Arran''', '''Bute''', '''Great Cumbrae''', '''Holy Isle''' and '''Inchmarnock''' are all inhabited and are serviced by dedicated ferry routes. '''Little Cumbrae''' and '''Sanda''' are also inhabited but without ferry services. The rest of the islands are uninhabited.
The majority of the islands at one time made up the [[traditional county]] of [[Bute]]. Today the islands are split more or less equally between the modern unitary authorities of [[Argyll and Bute]] and [[North Ayrshire]] with only '''Ailsa Craig''' and '''Lady Isle''' falling outwith these two areas in [[South Ayrshire]].
[[image:The_Cumbraes.jpg|left|thumb|400px|[[The Cumbraes]] with '''Arran''' and '''Bute''' beyond]]
<br>
==See also== [[Hebrides]], [[Northern Isles]]
[[Category:Islands of the Clyde]]
[[Category:Lists of islands]]
International Bank Account Number
15253
41442437
2006-02-27T09:42:10Z
193.170.62.242
adding Hungary
The '''International Bank Account Number''' ('''IBAN''') is an international standard for numbering bank accounts. It was originally adopted by the [[European Committee for Banking Standards]], and was later adopted as [[ISO 13616]]:[[1997]]. The IBAN consists of a two letter [[ISO 3166-1]] [[country code]], followed by two check digits, and up to thirty alphanumeric characters for the domestic bank account number, called the BBAN (Basic Bank Account Number). It is up to each country's national banking community to decide on the length of the BBAN for accounts in that country, but its length must be fixed for any given country. A unique identifying code for the bank, of a fixed length and at a fixed position, is required to be contained in the BBAN. However, it is left up to the national banking communities to determine its length and position within the BBAN, so long as it is constant for each country.
When stored electronically, the IBAN is not to be broken up by spaces; but when printed on paper, it is to be expressed in groups of four characters, with the last group of variable length.
The IBAN was developed to help improve the payments system within the European Union. Customers, especially individuals and [[Small and Medium-sized Enterprise|SME]]s, are frequently confused by differing national standards for bank account numbers. While the system is capable of being used for routing purposes, it cannot at present be used to do so since the IBAN has not been widely adopted outside of Europe, and the ECBS expects that the process of adoption may take five to ten years. Until then, it is necessary to continue to use the current [[ISO 9362]] [[Bank Identifier Code]] or BIC system in conjunction with the IBAN in order to ensure proper routing.
===Examples=== <!-- sorted by the name of the country -->
*[[Austria|Austrian]] IBAN format: ATkk BBBB BCCC CCCC CCCC
::The Bs represent the [[bank code]] and the Cs the account number.
*[[Belgium|Belgian]] IBAN format: BEkk CCCC CCCC CCCC
::The last 12 digits represent the bank and account number.
*[[United Kingdom|British]] IBAN format: GBkk BBBB SSSS SSCC CCCC CC
::The four character bank designation is alphabetical, the next six characters are a [[Sort Code]] (often a specific branch) and the remaining characters are the customer account number.
*[[Czech Republic|Czech]] IBAN format: CZkk BBBB CCCC CCCC CCCC CCCC
::The Bs represent the [[bank code]] and the Cs the acount number.
*[[Denmark|Danish]] IBAN format: DKkk CCCC CCCC CCCC CC
::The last 14 digits represent the bank and account number.
*[[Finland|Finnish]] IBAN format: FIkk BBBB BBCC CCCC CK
::The Bs represent the bank code, branch number and account type, Cs represent the account number, and the final K is the check digit of the Finnish account numbering scheme.
*[[France|French]] IBAN format: FRkk BBBB BGGG GGCC CCCC CCCC CKK
::The Bs represent the [[bank code]], the Gs are the [[branch code|code guichet]]
*[[Germany|German]] IBAN format: DEkk BBBB BBBB CCCC CCCC CC
::The first eight digits are the [[bank code]] and the last 10 digits an account.
*[[Hungary|Hungarian]] IBAN format: HUkk CCCC CCCC CCCC CCCC [CCCC CCCC]
::The 16 or 24 digits represent the account number which already contains the [[bank code]] in the first three digits.
*[[Iceland|Icelandic]] IBAN format: ISkk BBBB CCCC CCCC XXXX XXXX XX
::The first 4-digit group represents the [[bank code]], the next two 4-digit goups represent the account and the last ten digits are the account holder's unique ID number, issued by the Bureau of Statistics.
*[[Ireland|Irish]] IBAN format: IEkk AAAA BBBB BBCC CCCC CC
::The first 4 alphanumeric characters are the start of the SWIFT code. Then a 6 digit long [[sort code|routing code]] and an 8 digit account code follow, both numeric.
*[[Italy|Italian]] IBAN format: ITkk BBBB BBBB BBBX XXXX XXXX XXX
::The first 11 alphanumeric characters represent the bank, the last 12 digits the account.
*[[Latvia|Latvian]] IBAN format: LVkk BBBB CCCC CCCC CCCC C
::The first two letters (LV) means Latvia, next is 2 control digits, after bank's [[SWIFT]] code, next is account individual number (which can include both letters and numbers).
*[[Netherlands|Dutch]] IBAN format: NLkk BBBB CCCC CCCC CC
::The first 4 alphanumeric characters represent a bank and the last 10 digits an account.
*[[Norway|Norwegian]] IBAN format: NOkk BBBB CC CCCCC
::The first 4 alphanumeric characters represent a bank and the last 7 digits an account.
*[[Poland|Polish]] IBAN format: PLkk BBBB BBBB MMMM MMMM MMMM MMMM
::The first 8 digits are the bank-branch code and the last 16 are the account number. Within the bank-branch code, the first 3 or 4 digits represent the bank, the next 4 or 3 - the branch, and the last one is the check digit.
*[[Romania|Romanian]] IBAN format: ROkk BBBB CCCC CCCC CCCC CCCC
::The first 4 alphanumeric characters represent the bank; according to a rule established by the Romanian National Bank, the BBBB code must be the same with the first 4 characters of the [[Bank_Identifier_Code|bank's identifier code]]. The last 16 represent the specific bank branch and an account, combined any way the bank decides (typically the first 4 among the 16 identify the branch). Some banks include the [[ISO 4217]] currency identifier somewhere in the account name.
*[[Slovenia|Slovenian]] IBAN format: SIkk BB BBB CCCCCCCC KK
::The first 2 BB digits represent a bank, the next 3 - the branch. The last 2 digits (KK) are the check digits. IBAN check digits (kk) for Slovenia are 5 and 6.
*[[Spain|Spanish]] IBAN format: ESkk BBBB GGGG KKCC CCCC CCCC
*[[Sweden|Swedish]] IBAN format: SEkk BBBB CCCC CCCC CCCC CCCC
::The Bs represent the bank code and the Cs the account number.
*[[Turkey|Turkish]] IBAN format: TRkk BBBB BRCC CCCC CCCC CCCC CC
::The total number of alphanumeric characters including the country code and the check digits is 26. The first 5 digits represent a bank. The next alphanumeric character, reserved for future use, is set to zero. The following 16 alphanumeric characters represent the specific bank branch and an account. The issuing start date of the Turkish IBAN was [[September 1]], [[2005]] [http://www.tbb.org.tr/IBAN.htm].
==See also==
* [[ISO 9362|Bank Identifier Code]] (BIC)
* [[Bank Identification Number]] (BIN)
* [[Online banking]]
==External links==
*[http://www.ecbs.org/iban/iban.htm ECBS IBAN page]
*[http://www.ecbs.org/Download/EBS204_V3.2.PDF ECBS IBAN standard v. 3.2]
*A free [http://www.iban-rechner.de/ IBAN calculator and validator] (for German, Austrian and Belgian banks)
*A free [http://www.xe.com/idt/ IBAN decoder] (for all countries)
*[http://swissiban.com IBAN used in Switzerland]
*[http://www.europebanks.info/ibanguide.htm Excellent Guide on IBAN Account Numbers and Payments in Europe]
*[http://kernel.umbrella.ro/us/ A LGPL program (source available) for IBAN validation]
[[Category:Banking terms and equipment]]
[[Category:ISO standards]]
[[Category:Identifiers]]
[[de:International Bank Account Number]]
[[es:International Bank Account Number]]
[[fr:ISO 13616]]
[[lt:IBAN]]
[[nl:IBAN]]
[[pl:IBAN]]
[[sv:IBAN]]
[[sk:Medzinárodné bankové číslo účtu]]
Infinitive
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In [[grammar]], the '''infinitive''' is the form of a [[verb]] that has no [[inflection]] to indicate [[Grammatical person|person]], [[Grammatical number|number]], [[grammatical mood|mood]] or [[grammatical tense|tense]]. It is called the "infinitive" because the verb is usually not made "[[finite verb|finite]]", or limited by inflection. In some [[language]]s, however, there are inflected forms of the infinitive denoting attributes such as tense, person and number. It happens for example in [[Portuguese language|Portuguese]]. There are languages that do not have infinitives at all, for example [[Arabic language|Arabic]], [[Bulgarian language|Bulgarian]] and [[Modern Greek]]. In some languages the infinitive can be construed as a [[verbal noun]].
The infinitive is often used as the "[[citation form]]", as for many languages this is the basic [[lemma (linguistics)|lemma]] form of a verb which is usually presented in dictionaries. In language classes, children are sometimes taught to think of it as the "name" of the verb.
==Infinitives in English==
[[English language|English]] has three non-finite verbal forms, but by long-standing convention, the term "infinitive" is applied to only one of these. (The other two are the past- and present-[[participle]] forms, where the present-participle form is also the [[gerund]] form.) In English, a verb's infinitive is its unmarked form, such as "be," "do," "have," or "sit," often introduced by the [[grammatical particle|particle]] "to." When this particle is absent, the infinitive is said to be a ''bare infinitive''; when it is present, it is generally considered to be a part of the infinitive, then known as the ''full infinitive'' (or ''to-infinitive''), and some grammarians hold that it should not be separated from the main word of the infinitive. (''See'' [[split infinitive]].)
While many other languages, including French and German, use prepositions before the infinitive in much the same way English does (''de faire, zu tun''), grammarians of those languages do not construe the prepositions as part of the infinitive. To this extent, the concept of the full infinitive, though not the construction itself, is uniquely English. <!-- I'm not so sure. Hebrew has something very similar; both "daber" and "l'daber" - "speak" and "to speak" are commonly considered infinitives. -->
The bare infinitive and the full infinitive are not generally interchangeable, but the distinction does not generally affect the meaning of a sentence; rather, certain contexts call almost exclusively for the bare infinitive, and all other contexts call for the to-infinitive.
===Uses of the bare infinitive===
The bare infinitive is used in a rather limited number of contexts, but some of these are quite common:
*The bare infinitive is used as the [[main verb]] after the dummy auxiliary verb ''do'', or any [[modal auxiliary verb]] (such as ''will'', ''can'', or ''should''), except that ''ought'' usually takes a to-infinitive. So, "I will/do/can/etc. '''see''' it."
*Several common verbs of perception, including ''see'', ''watch'', ''hear'', ''feel'', and ''sense'' take a direct object and a bare infinitive, where the bare infinitive indicates an action taken by the main verb's direct object. So, "I saw/watched/heard/etc. it '''happen'''." (A similar meaning can be effected by using the present participle instead: "I saw/watched/heard/etc. it '''happening'''." The difference is that the former implies that the entirety of the event was perceived, while the latter implies that part of the progress of the event was perceived.)
*Similarly with several common verbs of permission or causation, including ''make'', ''bid'', ''let'', and ''have''. So, "I made/bade/let/had him '''do''' it." (However, ''make'' takes a to-infinitive in the passive voice: "I was made '''to do''' it.")
*The bare infinitive is the dictionary form of a verb, and is generally the form of a verb that receives a definition; however, the definition itself generally uses a to-infinitive. So, "The word ''''amble'''' means 'to walk slowly.'"
*The bare infinitive form is also the present [[subjunctive mood|subjunctive]] form and the [[imperative mood|imperative]] form, although most grammarians do not consider uses of the present subjunctive or imperative to be uses of the bare infinitive.
===Uses of the full infinitive===
The full infinitive (or to-infinitive) is used in a great many different contexts:
*Apart from in dictionary lemmata, the full infinitive is the most commonly used [[citation form]] of the English verb: "How do we conjugate the verb ''to go''?"
*It can serve as an ordinary noun, expressing its action or state in an abstract, general way. So, "'''To be''' is '''to do'''." (A [[gerund]] can also be used for this: "'''Being''' is '''doing'''.")
*It can serve as an adjective or adverb, expressing purpose or intent. So, "He is <nowiki>[supposed]</nowiki> '''to die''' at noon," or "<nowiki>[In order]</nowiki> '''to meditate''', one must free one's mind."
*In either of the above uses, it can often be given a subject using the preposition ''for'': "'''For him to fail now''' would be a great disappointment"; "<nowiki>[In order]</nowiki> '''for you to get there on time''', you'll need to leave now." (The former sentence could also be written, "His failing now would be a great disappointment.")
*It can be used after many intransitive verbs; in this case, it generally has the subject of the main verb as its implicit subject. So, "I agreed '''to leave'''," or "He failed '''to make''' his case." (This may be considered a special case of the noun use above.)
*It can be used after the direct objects of many transitive verbs; in this case, it generally has the direct object of the main verb as its implicit subject. So, "I convinced him '''to leave''' with me," or "He asked her '''to make''' his case on his behalf."
*As a special case of the above, it can often be used after an intransitive verb, together with a subject using the preposition ''for'': "I arranged '''for him to accompany''' me," or "I waited '''for summer to arrive'''."
When the verb is implied, some dialects will reduce the to-infinitive to simply ''to'': "Do I have '''to'''?"
===The infinitive with auxiliary verbs===
The auxiliary verb ''do'' is not used with the infinitive - even though ''do'' is also a main verb and in that sense is often used in the infinitive. One does not say *''I asked to do not have to'', but rather, either ''I asked not to have to'' or ''I asked to not have to'' (but ''see'' [[split infinitive]]). Similarly, one cannot emphasize an infinitive using ''do''; one cannot say, "I hear him do say it all the time."
Nonetheless, the auxiliary verbs ''have'' (used to form the [[perfect aspect]]) and ''be'' (used to form the [[passive voice]] and [[continuous aspect]]) both commonly appear in the infinitive: "It's thought '''to have''' been a ceremonial site," or "I want '''to be''' doing it already."
===Defective verbs===
The [[modal auxiliary verb]]s, ''can'', ''may'', ''shall'', ''will'' and ''must'' are [[defective verb|defective]] in that they do not have infinitives; so, one cannot say, *''I want him to can do it'', but rather must say, ''I want him to be able to do it''. The circumlocutions ''to be able to'', ''to have to'' and ''to be going to'' are generally used in these cases.
== Germanic languages ==
The original Germanic suffix of the infinitive was ''-an'', with verbs derived from other words ending in ''-jan'' or ''-janan''. In [[German language|German]] it is ''-en'' ("sagen"), with ''-eln'' or ''-ern'' endings on a few words based on -l or -r roots ("segeln", "ändern"); the use of ''zu'' with infinitives is less frequent than ''to'' in English. They can function as nouns, often expressing abstractions of the action, in which case they are of neuter gender: "das Essen" means the "the eating", but also "the food". In [[Dutch language|Dutch]] infinitives also end in ''-en'' ("zeggen" - to say), sometimes used with 'te' similar to English ''to'', e.g. "Het is niet moeilijk te begrijpen" -> "It is not difficult to understand". The few verbs with stems ending in -a have infinitives in -n ("gaan" - to go, "slaan" - to hit). In Scandinavian languages the ''n'' has dropped out and the infinitive suffix has been reduced to ''-e'' or ''-a''.
== Romance languages ==
Romance infinitives can be used in much the same way as the infinitive is used in English, and they can also sometimes function as masculine nouns. In [[Spanish language|Spanish]] and [[Portuguese language|Portuguese]], infinitives mostly end in ''-ar'', ''-er'', or ''-ir''. A similar phenomenon also exists in [[French language|French]]: infinitives of verbs have the suffixes ''-er'', ''-ir'', ''-re'' or ''-oir''. [[Italian language|Italian]] follows a similar pattern, with its infinitives ending in ''-are'', ''-ere'', ''-ire'' or ''-urre''.
Formation of the infinitive in Romance languages reflects that of their ancestor, [[Latin]], in which a significant majority of verbs had an infinitive ending with ''-re'' (with a varying vowel, called the ''thematical'', preceding it).
Portuguese (and its sister language, [[Galician language|Galician]]) is the only [[Indo-European languages|Indo-European language]] with a personal infinitive, which helps to make infinitive clauses very common. English finite sentences as ''so that you/she/we have/has/have...'' would be translated to ''para teres/ela ter/termos...'' (the [[Subject (grammar)|subject]] is dropped very often). Portuguese personal infinitive has only two proper tenses (present and perfect), but other tenses are replaced by [[periphrasis|periphrastic]] structures. For instance, ''although you sing/sang/will sing'' could be translated to ''apesar de cantares/teres cantado/ires cantar''.
== Slavic languages ==
The infinitive in [[Russian language|Russian]] usually ends in ''-t''' (ть) preceded by a [[thematic vowel]]; some verbs have a stem ending in a consonant and change the ''t'' to ''ch'', such as *могть → мочь "can". Some other [[Slavic languages]] have the infinitive typically ending in -ć. However, Bulgarian and Macedonian have lost the infinitive. Serbo-Croatian officially retains it but the infinitive is dying out in Serbia.
== Hebrew language ==
[[Hebrew language|Hebrew]] has ''two'' infinitives, the infinitive absolute and the infinitive construct. The infinitive construct is used after prepositions and is inflected with pronominal endings to indicate its subject or object: ''bikhtōbh hassōphēr'' "when the scribe wrote", ''ahare lekhtō'' "after his going". When the infinitive construct is preceded by ל (''lə-'', ''li-'', ''lā-'') "to", it is identical in its meaning to the English ''to''-infinitive, and this is its most frequent use in Modern Hebrew. The infinitive absolute is used to add emphasis or certainty to the verb, as in מות ימות ''mōth yāmūth'' (literally "die he will die"; figuratively, "he shall indeed die"). This construction is analogous to such English pleonasms as in "he slept a sleep of peace." This usage is commonplace in the Bible, but in Modern Hebrew it is restricted to high-flown literary works.
Note, however, that the ''to''-infinitive of Hebrew is not the dictionary form; that is the third person singular past tense.
== Finnish language ==
To form the first infinitive, the strong form of the root (without [[consonant gradation]] or epenthetic 'e') is used, and these changes occur:
# the root is suffixed with ''-ta/-tä'' according to [[vowel harmony]]
# consonant elision takes place if applicable, e.g. ''juoks+ta'' → ''juosta''
# assimilation of clusters violating sonority hierarchy if applicable, e.g. ''nuol+ta'' → ''nuolla'', ''sur+ta'' → ''surra''
# 't' weakens to 'd' after diphthongs, e.g. ''juo+ta'' → ''juoda''
# 't' elides if intervocalic, e.g. ''kirjoitta+ta'' → ''kirjoittaa''
As such, it is inconvenient for dictionary use, because the imperative would be closer to the root word. Nevertheless, dictionaries use the first infinitive.
There are four other infinitives, which create a noun-, or adverb-like word from the verb. For example, the third infinitive is ''-ma/-mä'', which creates an adjective-like word like "written" from "write": ''kirjoita-'' becomes ''kirjoittama''.
==Translation to languages without an infinitive==
In languages without an infinitive, the infinitive is translated either as a ''that''-clause or as a [[verbal noun]]. For example, in Literary Arabic the phrase "I want to write a book" is translated as either ''urīdu an aktuba kitāban'' (literally "I want that I should write a book", with a verb in the [[subjunctive mood|subjunctive]]) or ''urīdu kitābata kitābin'' (literally "I want the writing of a book", with the ''masdar'' or verbal noun), and in Demotic Arabic ''biddi aktob iktāb'' (subordinate clause with verb in subjunctive). Similarly, the modern Greek for "I want to write", as opposed to the ancient Greek <span style="font-family: 'Palatino Linotype', Athena;">θέλω γραφεῖν</span> with the infinitive, is θέλω να γράψω, which is literally "I want that I should write".
== See also ==
*[[Auxiliary verb]]
*[[Finite verb]]
*[[Gerund]]
*[[Split infinitive]]
*[[Verbal noun]]
[[Category:Parts of speech]]
[[cv:Инфинитив]]
[[da:Infinitiv]]
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[[fr:Infinitif]]
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[[no:Infinitiv]]
[[nn:Infinitiv]]
[[pl:Bezokolicznik]]
[[ru:Инфинитив]]
[[fi:Infinitiivi]]
[[sv:Infinitiv]]
[[zh:动词不定式]]
Intellectual Property law
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#REDIRECT [[Intellectual property]]
Immaculate Conception
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/* Parallelisms in other religions */
[[Image:Bartolomé Esteban Perez Murillo 021.jpg|thumb|300px||Mary Immaculate]]
:''This article refers to the dogma of the immaculate conception of Mary, Mother of Jesus. For the doctrine of the virginal conception of Jesus Christ, see [[Virgin Birth (Christian doctrine)]].''
The '''Immaculate Conception''' is a [[Catholic Church|Catholic]] [[dogma]] that asserts that [[Mary, the mother of Jesus]], was preserved by [[God]] from the stain of [[original sin]] at the time of her own conception. Specifically, the dogma says she was not afflicted by the lack of [[sanctifying grace]] that afflicts mankind, but was instead filled with grace by God, and furthermore lived a life completely free from [[sin]]. It is commonly confused with the doctrine of the [[Virgin Birth (Christian doctrine)|virgin birth]], though the two deal with separate subjects. Mary was conceived by normal biological means, but her soul was acted upon by God (kept "immaculate") at the time of her conception.
The Immaculate Conception was solemnly [[dogmatic definition|defined as a dogma]] by [[Pope Pius IX]] in his constitution ''Ineffabilis Deus'', published [[December 8]], [[1854]] (the [[Feast of the Immaculate Conception]]).
The Feast of the Immaculate Conception of Mary had been established in [[1483]] by Pope [[Sixtus IV]] who stopped short of defining the doctrine as a dogma of the Catholic Faith, thus giving Catholics freedom to believe in this or not; this freedom had been reiterated by the [[Council of Trent]]. The existence of the feast was a strong indication of the Church´s belief in the Immaculate Conception, even before its 19th century definition as a dogma.
The Catholic Church believes the dogma is supported by scripture (e.g. her being greeted by Angel Gabriel as "full of Grace"), and by the writings of many of the [[Church Fathers]], either directly or indirectly, and often calls Mary the [[Blessed Virgin Mary|Blessed Virgin]] ([[Gospel of Luke|Luke]] [http://drbo.org/cgi-bin/d?b=drb&bk=49&ch=001&l=48 1:48]). Catholic theology maintains that since Jesus became [[incarnation|incarnate]] of the Virgin Mary, she needed to be completely free of sin to bear the Son of God, and that Mary is "redeemed 'by the grace of [[Christ]]' but in a more perfect manner than other human beings" (Ott, ''Fund.'', Bk 3, Pt. 3, Ch. 2, §3.1.e).
In the Catholic Church, the Feast of the Immaculate Conception on [[8 December]] is generally a [[Holy Day of Obligation]], and a public holiday in countries where Catholicism is predominant. Prior to the spread of this doctrine, December 8 was celebrated as the Conception of Mary, since September 8 is the Feast of the Nativity of Mary.
==History of the doctrine==
Aside from the acceptability of the doctrine of the Immaculate Conception, and its necessity or lack thereof, there is the history of its development within the Catholic Church. The Conception of Mary was celebrated in [[England]] from the ninth century. [[Eadmer]] was influential in its spread. The [[Normans]] suppressed the celebration, but it lived on in the popular mind. It was rejected by St. [[Bernard of Clairvaux]], [[Alexander of Hales]], and St. [[Bonaventure]] (who, teaching at [[Paris, France|Paris]], called it "this foreign doctrine", indicating its association with England). St [[Thomas Aquinas]] expressed questions about the subject, but said that he would accept the determination of the Church. These famous churchmen had problems with the doctrine due to their understanding of human conception. They did not believe that the soul was placed in the body at the moment of implantation in the womb. Aquinas and Bonaventure, for example, believed that Mary was completely free from sin, but that she was not given this grace at the instant of her conception.
The [[Oxford University|Oxford]] [[Franciscan]]s [[William of Ware]] and especially [[Beatification|Blessed]] [[John Duns Scotus]] defended the doctrine, despite the opposition of most scholarly opinion at the time. Scotus proposed a solution to the theological problems involved with reconciling the doctrine with that of universal redemption in Christ, by arguing that Mary's immaculate conception did not remove her from redemption by Christ, but rather was the result of a more perfect redemption given to her on account of her special role in history. Furthermore, Scotus said that Mary was redeemed ''in anticipation'' of Christ's death on the cross. This was similar to the way that the Church explained the Last Supper (since Catholic theology teaches that the Mass is the sacrifice of Calvary made present on the altar, and Christ did not die before the Last Supper). Scotus' defense of the immaculist thesis was summed up by one of his followers as ''potuit, decuit ergo fecit'' (God could do it, it was fitting that he did it, and so he did it). Following his defense of the thesis, students at Paris swore to defend the thesis, and the tradition grew of swearing to defend the doctrine with one's blood.
Popular opinion was firmly behind accepting this privilege for Mary, but such was the sensitivity of the issue and the authority of Aquinas, that it was not until 1854 that Pius IX, with the support of the overwhelming majority of Catholic [[Bishop]]s, pronounced the doctrine [[Papal infallibility|infallible]].
== Protestant and Eastern Orthodox opinion ==
The doctrine is generally not shared by either [[Eastern Orthodoxy]] or by [[Protestantism]].
Protestants generally reject the doctrine, because they do not consider the development of [[dogma]]tic [[theology]] to be authoritative apart from [[Biblical]] [[exegesis]], and the doctrine of the Immaculate Conception is not explicit in the [[Bible]]. It is accepted by some [[Anglo-Catholicism|Anglo-Catholics]], but is rejected by most in the [[Anglican Communion]]. In the [[Book of Common Prayer]], December 8 is a "lesser commemoration", whose observance is optional. However, members of the [[Society of Mary (Anglican)|Society of Mary]] are required to attend mass that day.
Orthodox Christians do believe that Mary was without sin for her entire life, but they do not share the Catholic Church's views on original sin. They note that [[Augustine of Hippo|St. Augustine]] (d. [[430]]), whose works were not well known in Eastern Christianity until after the [[17th century]], has exerted considerable influence over the theology of sin that has generally taken root through the [[Holy See]], and since Eastern Orthodoxy does not share Rome's (or most Protestants') view of original sin, it considers unnecessary the doctrine that Mary would require purification prior to the Incarnation. Instead, Eastern Orthodox theologians suggest that the references among the Greek and Syrian Fathers to Mary's purity and sinlessness may refer not to an ''[[a priori]]'' state, but to her conduct after birth. Although this is not a [[dogma]] in the Orthodox Church, there is the universal belief that there was a pre-sanctification of Mary at the time of her conception, similar to the conception of Saint [[John the Baptist]]. However, there was no cleansing of original sin, since Orthodox Christians believe that that one cannot inherit original sin, or any sin for that matter; instead, 'original sin' in Orthodoxy refers to the general tendency towards sin and pain in the world, caused by the fall of Adam.
== Scriptural sources ==
In his Apostolic Constitution ''[http://www.ewtn.com/library/PAPALDOC/P9INEFF.HTM Ineffabilis Deus]'' (December 8, 1854), which officially defined the Immaculate Conception as dogma for the Catholic Church, [[Pope Pius IX]] primarily appealed to the text of [[Genesis|Genesis]] [http://www.vatican.va/archive/ENG0839/__P5.HTM 3:15], where the serpent was told by God, "I will put enmity between you and the woman, between your seed and her seed." According to the Catholic understanding, this was a prophecy that foretold of a "woman" who would always be at enmity with the serpent — that is, a woman who would never be under the power of sin, nor in bondage to the serpent.
Some Catholic theologians have also found Scriptural evidence for the Immaculate Conception in the angel Gabriel's greeting to Mary at the Annunciation, recorded by Saint Luke in [[Gospel of Luke|Luke]] [http://www.vatican.va/archive/ENG0839/__PWK.HTM 1:28]. The English translation, "Hail, Full of Grace," or "Hail, Favored One," is based on the Greek of [[Gospel of Luke|Luke]] [http://www.vatican.va/archive/ENG0839/__PWK.HTM 1:28], Χαιρε κεχαριτωμενη ''Chaire kecharitomene''. The latter word has the verb "to grace" as its root, and the Greek syntax indicates that the action of the verb was passive, fully completed in the past, with results continuing into the future. Put another way, it means that the subject (Mary) was graced fully and completely at some time in the past, and continued in that fully graced state.
The [[Church Fathers]], almost from the beginning of Church History, found further Scriptural evidence by comparing the figure of Eve to the figure of Mary. St. [[Justin Martyr]] said that Mary was a kind of New Eve, "in order that the disobedience which proceeded from the serpent might receive its destruction in the same manner in which it derived its origin." (''Dialogue with Trypho'', 100) Tertullian argued in the same manner, saying, "As Eve had believed the serpent, so Mary believed the angel. The delinquency which the one occasioned by believing, the other by believing effaced." (''On the Flesh of Christ'', 17) St. Irenaeus declared that Mary became "the cause of salvation, both to herself and the whole human race," because "what the virgin Eve had bound fast through unbelief, this did the virgin Mary set free through faith." (''Against Heresies'', Book III, cap. 22, 4) St. Jerome coined the phrase, "Death came through Eve, but life has come through Mary." (''Letter XXII, To Eustochium'', 21)
== Parallelisms in other religions ==
In [[Islam]], the prophet [[Muhammed]] is considered the sinless bearer of the kalam of Allah (speech of God), just as in definitive Catholic formulation, Mary is the sinless bearer of Christ, the Word of God.
[[Anahita]] (or Nahid in Modern Persian), the mother of [[Mitra]], whose name means "unstained" or "immaculate", was an ancient Persian deity. Her cult was strongest in Western Iran, and had parallels with that of the Semitic Near Eastern "Queen of Heaven", deification of the planet Venus. The largest temple with a Mithraic connection is the Seleucid temple at Kangavar in western Iran (c. 200 BC), dedicated to "Anahita, the Immaculate Virgin Mother of the Lord Mithras".
[[Isis]] was also sometimes described as immaculate. "Immaculate is our Lady Isis," is the legend around an engraving of Serapis and Isis, described by C W King, in ''The Gnostics and their Remains''.
== Common misinterpretation ==
There is a widespread misunderstanding of the term ''immaculate conception''. Many people, even many Catholics, believe this refers to the conception of Jesus by Mary. Nearly every time this term is used in the mass media, it is in reference to the conception of Jesus by Mary. The conception of Jesus by Mary is more properly called the [[incarnation]] of Christ. The phrase "Immaculate Conception," by Catholic interpretation, is not directly connected to the concept of the "Virgin Birth." The Catholic Church celebrates the Immaculate Conception on [[8 December]], exactly nine months before the official birthday of Mary. The [[Annunciation|Incarnation of Christ]] is celebrated on [[25 March]], nine months before [[Christmas Day]].
==See also==
*[[Feast of the Immaculate Conception]]
*[[Cathedral of the Immaculate Conception]]
*[[Perpetual virginity of Mary]]
*[[Original sin]]
== References ==
* [http://www.newadvent.org/library/docs_pi09id.htm ''Ineffabilis Deus'' (Apostolic Constitution of Pope Pius IX defining the dogma of the Immaculate Conception)]
* [http://www.newadvent.org/cathen/07674d.htm Catholic Encyclopedia entry on the Immaculate Conception]
* [http://www.newadvent.org/cathen/11312a.htm Catholic Encyclopedia entry on Original Sin]
==Opinion==
* [http://www.oca.org/QA.asp?ID=4&SID=3 "St. Augustine and Original Sin"] — a short article on the different understandings of Original Sin in Eastern and Western Christianity.
* [http://www.rosicrucian.com/zineen/magen214.htm Rosicrucians: The Immaculate Conception] (esoteric Christian view)
[[Category:Blessed Virgin Mary]]
[[Category:Catholic theology and doctrine]]
[[Category:Liturgical Calendar]]
[[cs:Dogma o neposkvrněném početí Panny Marie]]
[[da:Jomfru Marias ubesmittede undfangelse]]
[[de:Unbefleckte Empfängnis]]
[[es:Inmaculada Concepción]]
[[eo:Senmakula koncipiĝo]]
[[fr:Immaculée conception]]
[[it:Immacolata concezione]]
[[la:Immaculata Conceptio]]
[[li:Ónbevlekde óntvangenis]]
[[hu:Szeplőtelen fogantatás]]
[[nl:Onbevlekte Ontvangenis]]
[[ja:無原罪の御宿り]]
[[ru:Непорочное зачатие]]
[[sv:Immaculata conceptio]]
Scilly Isles
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Saga City
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revamped in line with new guidance
This phrase may refer to:
*the [[Isles of Scilly]], an archipelago off the west of Cornwall, Great Britain, or
*[[The Scilly Isles, Surrey|The Scilly Isles]], an area of Surrey, England.
{{geodis}}
Isle of Skye
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Grinner
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Broadford, Isle of Skye|Broadford
[[Image:OM Storr 2004.jpg|right|thumb|300px|The Old Man of Storr, Skye]]
The '''Isle of Skye''', usually known simply as '''Skye''' (''An t-Eilean Sgitheanach'' in [[Scottish Gaelic]]) is the largest and most northerly island in the [[Inner Hebrides]] of [[Scotland]]. [[Scots Gaelic]] "sgiath" means "winged".
Its name came via [[Old Norse]] ''Skið'' = "ski" (and similar meanings), as an alteration of a [[Pictish]] original which is recorded in [[Ancient Rome|Roman]] sources as ''Scitis'' ([[Ravenna Cosmography]]) and ''Scetis'' (on [[Ptolemy]]'s map). Some legends associate the isle with the mythic figure of [[Scáthach]].
==Geography==
[[Image:Skye landsat.jpeg|thumb|right|300 px|Landsat photo]]
At [[1 E9 m²|1700]] [[square kilometre|km²]] (656 [[square mile|mi²]]), Skye is the second largest island in [[Scotland]] after ''[[Lewis]] and [[Harris]]'' (which form a single island). The island has some of the most dramatic and challenging mountain terrain in Scotland, including the [[Cuillin]], as well as a rich heritage of ancient monuments, [[castle]]s, and [[memorial]]s.
The southwest side of Skye is a series of [[peninsula]]s, including [[Sleat]], [[Strathaird]], [[Minginish]] and [[Duirinish]], with [[Waternish]] and [[Trotternish]] to the northwest. Surrounding islands include [[Raasay]], [[Scalpay, Inner Hebrides|Scalpay]] and [[Soay]].
==History==
Skye has sites showing occupation by [[Mesolithic]] hunter-gatherers, such as the site at ''An Corran'' in ''Staffin'' which appears to have been in contact with occupants of the rock shelter at [[Sand, Applecross]] on the coast of [[Ross and Cromarty|Wester Ross]].
Skye suffered [[famine]] and clearances over the latter part of the [[18th century]], leading to its badly depleted population of less than 10,000 at the [[1991]] [[Census]]. In [[2001]] the usually resident population was found to be 8,748.
[[Image:Skye Road Bridge.JPG|thumb|300px|[[Skye bridge]] Isle of Skye]]
The [[Skye Bridge]], linking Skye with the mainland of Scotland was built in the [[1990s]], with an unpopularly expensive toll. Some locals formed a protest group – SKAT (Skye and Kyle Against Tolls). They refused to pay the toll on the grounds that they had the right of free passage on any highway within the Kingdom of Scotland. On [[21 December]] [[2004]] it was announced that the [[Scottish Executive]] had purchased the [[toll bridge]] from its owners and that tolls were abolished.
==Culture==
[[Image:Scotland Skye Trotternish.jpg|thumb|300px|[[Black house|Restored Black house,]] Isle of Skye]]
Of all the Inner Hebrides, Skye has the most in common with the [[Outer Hebrides]], with nearly half the population speaking Gaelic, and many belonging to the [[Free Church of Scotland]], known for its strict observance of the [[Sabbath]].
The [[Talisker Single Malt|Talisker Distillery]], which produces a [[single malt whisky|single malt]] [[whisky]], is beside [[Loch Harport]] on the west coast of the island.
[[Dunvegan Castle]] has been the seat of [[Clan MacLeod]] since the [[1200s|thirteenth century]].
The Isle of Skye has been immortalised in the traditional song ''[[The Skye Boat Song]]'' and in the book ''[[To the Lighthouse]]'' by [[Virginia Woolf]].
==Transport==
Skye is linked to the mainland by the [[Skye Bridge]], while [[ferry|ferries]] sail from [[Armadale, Isle of Skye|Armadale]] on the island to [[Mallaig]], and from [[Kylerhea]] to [[Glenelg, Scotland|Glenelg]]. Ferries also run from [[Uig, Skye|Uig]] to [[Tarbert, Harris|Tarbert]] on [[Harris]] and [[Lochmaddy]] on [[North Uist]], and from [[Sconser]] to [[Raasay]].
Bus Services run to [[Inverness]] and [[Glasgow]], and there are infrequent local services on the island, mainly starting from [[Portree]] or [[Broadford, Isle of Skye|Broadford]]. Train services run from [[Kyle of Lochalsh]] at the mainland end of the [[Skye Bridge]] to [[Inverness]].
Ferries to and from Armadale are sometimes synchronised with train arrivals and departures at Mallaig. If you are getting the 08.20 (Monday to Saturday only) or 12.40 train from Glasgow Queen Street to Mallaig, you can connect with the ferry to Armadale. However, on Sundays in July and August, you should call Caledonian MacBrayne in Mallaig (01687-462403) and ask them to delay the ferry for you, as the 12.40 from Glasgow arrives at 17.48, while the ferry's scheduled departure time is 17.45.
The 09.05 and 14.25 ferries from Armadale to Mallaig also connect with train departures, arriving in Glasgow Queen Street at 15.45 and 21.25, respectively.
==Towns and villages==
[[Image:Scotland Skye cliffs.jpg|thumb|300px|Cliffs near Point Neist]]
The main settlements on the island are connected by the [[A87 road]], [[Portree]], [[Sconser]] and [[Broadford]] lying on the northeast coast, and [[Uig, Skye|Uig]] on the northwest. <!--Other p-->Places on the island include:
*[[Armadale, Isle of Skye|Armadale]]
*[[Bernisdale]], [[Borreraig]], [[Broadford, Isle of Skye|Broadford]]
*[[Carbost]]
*[[Duntulm]]
*[[Dunvegan]], and nearby [[Dunvegan Castle]]
*[[Edinbane]], [[Elgol]]
*[[Fiskavaig]], [[Flodigarry]]
*[[Glenbrittle]], [[Glendale, Isle of Skye|Glendale]]
*[[Isleornsay]]
*[[Kilmaluag]], [[Kilmore, Isle of Skye|Kilmore]], [[Kilmuir]], [[Kyleakin]], [[Kylerhea]]
*[[Milovaig]]
*[[Portnalong]], [[Portree]]
*[[Sconser]], [[Skeabost]], [[Sligachan]], [[Staffin]], [[Stein, Isle of Skye|Stein]], [[Struan]]
*[[Talisker, Isle of Skye|Talisker]], [[Tarskavaig]], [[Teangue]], [[Torrin]]
*[[Uig, Skye|Uig]], [[Ullinish]]
==See also==
*[[:Category:Mountains and hills of Skye]]
==External links==
{{Commons|Category:Skye}}
*[http://www.skat.org.uk/ SKAT homepage]
{{Hebrides}}
[[Category:Isle of Skye|*]]
[[da:Skye]]
[[de:Skye]]
[[et:Skye]]
[[fr:Île de Skye]]
[[gd:An t-Eilean Sgitheanach]]
[[nl:Skye]]
[[pl:Skye]]
[[pt:Ilha de Skye]]
Islands of the North Atlantic
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Snottygobble
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Reverted edits by [[Special:Contributions/203.254.146.68|203.254.146.68]] ([[User talk:203.254.146.68|talk]]) to last version by Calaschysm
:''For an explanation of often confusing terms like ([[Great Britain|Great]]) [[Britain]]'', ''[[United Kingdom]]'' and ''[[England]]'' see also [[British Isles (terminology)]].''
"'''Islands of the North Atlantic'''" ('''IONA''') was suggested by Sir [[John Biggs-Davison]] <!--what year?--> as a less contentious alternative to the term "[[British Isles]]" to refer to [[Britain and Ireland]] and the smaller associated islands. It has been used particularly in the context of the [[Northern Ireland|Northern Irish]] "peace process", during the negotiation of the [[Belfast Agreement]], as a neutral description of those islands. However its use has been mainly limited to this context: [[as of 2004]] (January), the term ''Islands of the North Atlantic'' was not used in any official internet site of the [[British government|British]] or [[Irish government|Irish]] governments, apart from verbatim reports of [[Dáil Éireann|Irish parliamentary]] debates discussing whether it might be used.
The term has been adopted by the Councils of the [[World Universities Debating Championship]] and [[European Universities Debating Championship]] for the purposes of regional elections to the Councils.
One feature of this name is that the [[acronym]] IONA has the same spelling as the island of [[Iona]] which is off the coast of [[Scotland]] but with which Irish people have strong cultural associations. It is therefore a name with which people of both main islands might identify. On the other hand, it can be confusing (a) because of this duplication of the name of the existing Iona and (b) because [[Greenland]], [[Iceland]], and [[Newfoundland]] are also important and rather prominent islands of the North [[Atlantic Ocean|Atlantic]], which the term is not intended to include.
"British Isles" remains for now the most widely used term to describe the aforementioned territories, and vastly predates the present matters of controversy. Some, however, seeing in "British" an implication of possession, object, saying that while accurate in describing both the geography and the politics of the islands when Ireland remained part of the [[United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland]] (1801-1922), it has not changed to reflect [[History of the Republic of Ireland|political developments since 1922]].
It remains to be seen whether IONA, which has been used as part of the [[Northern Ireland peace process|Northern Ireland "peace process"]], will become a widely accepted replacement term for the British Isles, whether another term will evolve over time, or whether the ''status quo'' will prevail.
== References ==
[http://www.biipb.org/biipb/summary/sum/doc/8033001/8033012.htm] Denis Canavan MSP, British Irish Inter-Parliamentary Body, Summary of the 15th Plenary Session, 9. The Future of the Body
[http://www.imsgrp.com/greenparty/goodfrid.htm] [[Trevor Sargent]] TD, "The Good Friday Agreement", [[Dáil Éireann]] speech
[http://www.parliament.the-stationery-office.co.uk/pa/cm199798/cmhansrd/vo980116/debtext/80116-14.htm] Mr. Peter Luff MP, [[British House of Commons]] speech
[http://www.iona.edu/academic/arts_sci/orgs/resiliency/barry.htm] Kevin Barry, "Resiliency, Tolerance and Avoidance in Northern Ireland"
[http://www.irlgov.ie/taoiseach/press/Archives/1999/15-10-99.htm] [[Taoiseach]] Mr [[Bertie Ahern]] TD, "Ireland and Britain A New Relationship for a New Millennium"
[http://www.ciaonet.org/isa/shp01/] Paul Sharp, "When New Meets Old: Irish Diplomacy, Northern Ireland and the Peace Process"
==External links==
*[http://cain.ulst.ac.uk/events/peace/docs/agreement.htm The Good Friday Agreement]
*[http://www.britishirishcouncil.org/ British-Irish Council]
[[Category:North Atlantic Islands]]
[[eo:Insularo de la Norda Atlantiko]]
Intel 80486DX4
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2006-01-05T16:17:45Z
Krash
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dab Megahertz
The [[Intel]] '''DX4''' is a clock-tripled [[80486]] [[microprocessor]] chip. Intel named their chip deceptively during [[litigation]] with [[AMD]] over [[trademark]]s. The product was officially named the DX4, but [[original equipment manufacturer|OEM]]s continued using the 486DX4 naming convention.
Intel produced DX4s with two [[clock speed]] steppings: A 75 [[Megahertz|MHz]] version (3x 25 MHz multiplier) and a 100 MHz version (usually 3x 33.3 MHz, but sometimes 2.5x 40 MHz or 2x 50 MHz). [[Intel 80486 OverDrive|OverDrive]] editions of the DX4 had locked multipliers, and therefore can run only at 3x the external clock-speed.
{{Intel_processors}}
[[de:Intel 80486DX4]]
[[Category:x86 microprocessors|Intel 4864]]
Intel 80486DX
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2006-02-04T09:17:30Z
Mjager
109140
linking
The '''Intel 80486DX''' is a [[microprocessor]] made by [[Intel]] [[x86]] family of processors. It is the successor to the [[Intel 80386]] processor line.
[[Image:Intel 80486DX-33.jpg|thumb|An Intel 80486DX-33 microprocessor]]
Differences between the 80386 and 80486DX include:
*Data/Instruction Cache- An 8192-byte (8 kB) SRAM built into the processor core, designed to store the most commonly used instructions. The 386 supported an off-chip cache, but this was much slower.
*Pipelining- This allows the processor to handle a LocateFetchExecute each clock cycle. The pipeline is offset meaning the execute step required information from the previous two clock cycles. A locate would be to feed the next fetch, the fetch would be to feed the next execute. The 386 needs to do each step separately.
*Virtual Memory Handler- [[Hardwired]] programming to handle swapping memory to hard drive.
*Integrated [[FPU]]- Added accelerated high end math functions.
The 486 had a 32 bit data bus. This requires either four matched 30 pin simms or one 72 pin simm.
The 486 has a 32 bit address bus limiting it to a 4 GB of ram.
The Early 486 machines often used [[VESA Local Bus]] for video cards and hard drives. The bus speed matches the motherboard frequency.
''See also'': [[Intel 80486]]
{{Intel_processors}}
[[Category:x86 microprocessors|Intel 4861]]
[[eo:486DX]]
[[fr:Intel 80486DX]]
Iapetus
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2006-02-04T21:05:30Z
Chobot
259798
warnfile Adding: ko
'''Iapetus''' may mean:
*[[Iapetus (mythology)]], a Titan in Greek mythology
*[[Iapetus (moon)]], one of the planet Saturn's moons
*[[Iapetus Ocean]], an ancient ocean between present-day Scotland and Scandinavia
{{disambig}}
[[ast:Xapetu]]
[[da:Iapetus]]
[[es:Japeto]]
[[fr:Japet]]
[[ko:이아페투스]]
[[it:Giapeto]]
[[he:יאפטוס]]
[[ja:イアペトゥス]]
Ignatius Loyola
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15912748
2004-12-10T18:20:11Z
Alfvaen
142109
Added a space
#REDIRECT [[Ignatius of Loyola]]
Interactive Fiction Competition
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2006-02-20T01:58:47Z
Rich Farmbrough
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External links per MoS.
The '''Interactive Fiction Competition''' is an annual competition for works of [[interactive fiction]] that has been held since [[1995]].
It is intended for fairly short games, as judges are only allowed to spend two hours playing a game before deciding how many points to award it.
The first competition had separate sections for [[Inform]] and [[TADS]] games.
Subsequent competitions have not been divided into sections and are open to games produced by any method, provided that the software used to play the game is freely available.
Anyone can judge the games, and anyone can donate a prize. Almost always, there are enough prizes donated that anyone who enters will get one.
Entries are required to be released as [[freeware]] or [[public domain]], reflecting the general non-profit ethos of the IF community.
The following is a list of winners to date:
*'''1995''':
**[[Inform]] category: ''[[A Change in the Weather]]'' by [[Andrew Plotkin]]
**[[TADS]] category: ''[[Uncle Zebulon's Will]]'' by Magnus Olsson
*'''1996:''' ''[[The Meteor, The Stone, And A Long Glass Of Sherbet]]'' by [[Graham Nelson]]
*'''1997:''' ''[[The Edifice]]'' by Lucian P. Smith
*'''1998:''' ''[[Photopia]]'' by [[Adam Cadre]]
*'''1999:''' ''[[Winter Wonderland (game)|Winter Wonderland]]'' by Laura A. Knauth
*'''2000:''' ''[[Kaged]]'' by Ian Finley
*'''2001:''' ''[[All Roads]]'' by Jon Ingold
*'''2002:''' ''[[Another Earth, Another Sky]]'' by [[Paul O'Brian]]
*'''2003:''' ''[[Slouching Towards Bedlam]]'' by Star Foster and Daniel Ravipinto
*'''2004:''' ''[[Luminous Horizon]]'' by Paul O'Brian
*'''2005:''' ''[[Vespers (game)|Vespers]]'' by [[Jason Devlin]]
==See also==
*[[Spring Thing]]
==External links==
* [http://www.ifcomp.org Official website]
Immunity
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2006-03-02T20:19:47Z
Natalinasmpf
107009
formalise
* In a medical sense, '''[[immunity (medical)|immunity]]''' is a state of having sufficient biological defenses to avoid infection, disease, or other unwanted biological invasion.
* In a legal sense, '''[[immunity (legal)|immunity]]''' confers a status on a person or body that makes that person or body free from otherwise legal obligations such as, for example, liability for damages or punishment for criminal acts. [[Transactional immunity]] refers to the inability of the prosecutor to prosecute a witness in exchange for the witness's testimony, an action referred to as "turning state's evidence." Under '''[[use immunity]]''', the government may not use a witness's grand jury testimony to prosecute that person. But if the state acquires evidence for a crime independent of the testimony, then the witness can be prosecuted.
==See also==
*[[Immune system]]
{{disambig}}
[[cs:Imunita]]
[[de:Immunität]]
[[es:Inmunidad]]
[[eo:Imuneco]]
[[it:Immunità]]
[[nl:Immuniteit]]
[[ru:Иммунитет]]
Inquest
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2006-01-02T04:58:35Z
Robth
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disambig corruption link
:''For the gaming magazine, see [[InQuest Gamer]].''
An '''inquest''' is a formal process of state investigation. A common type inquest is a medical examination of any cause of death under suspicious circumstances. Larger inquests can be held into disasters, or into cases of [[political corruption|corruption]].
==Inquests in jurisdictions based on British laws==
In jurisdictions under the [[Westminster system]], the process is the responsibility of a special non-criminal court called the Coroner's Court under the supervision of the [[Coroner]]. In [[Scotland]] the equivalent term is a [[Fatal Accident Inquiry]], and the majority of [[death]]s are investigated and signed off by the area [[Procurator Fiscal]].
Individuals with an interest in the proceedings, such as relatives of the deceased, individuals appearing as witnesses, and organisations or individuals who may face some responsibility in the death of the individual, may be represented by lawyers at the discretion of the coroner. Witnesses may be compelled to testify subject of a protection against self-incrimination.
Some inquests take place before a [[jury]].
At the conclusion of the inquest, the jury (or coroner) considers the facts of the death and gives a verdict representing their opinion of the reasons for the death. This may include recommendations that individuals or organisations are in some way responsible for the death. If so, a finding may recommend that those entities face criminal charges. The finding may state that it is believed that a death was accidental. Often, no conclusion can be reached about the reason for a death, and an '''open finding''' is returned. Findings may also contain recommendations for changes to the practices of governments or organisations on how to avoid such deaths in the future, if the inquest reveals that such changes are desirable.
Coroners record their verdicts; juries return verdicts.
If an open finding is returned, the inquest can be reopened if new evidence is found and presented to the coroner.
The qualifications required of coroners varies from jurisdiction to jurisdiction. Originally, coroners did not always have legal training. This has led to concerns that, particularly in cases where a real suspicion of foul play exists and where coroners must correctly instruct juries as to the relevant law, that incorrect findings were too common. Consequently, some jurisdictions have modified their laws to require coroners to have studied and practised law.
[[Category:English law]]
[[Category:Civil procedure]]
[[Category:Legal terms]]
Index
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2006-02-26T18:36:16Z
David Shay
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interwiki he
{{wiktionary}}
'''''Index''''' can be defined as:
* an ordered list, plural ''indexes''
* a number or variable, plural ''indices''.
'''''Index''''' can also have the following meanings:
* The city -- [[Index, Washington]], [[United States]]
* '''Publishing''' purposes; see [[index (publishing)]]
* '''Information technology''' (IT) purposes; see [[index (information technology)]] or [[index (database)]]
* '''The default page''' served by a [[web server]], such as [[index.html]] or [[index.htm]].
* '''Mathematics'''; see [[index (mathematics)]]
* '''Linguistics'''; see [[Indexicality]]
* '''Economics and finance'''; see [[index (economics)]]
* In the '''[[Catholic Church]]''' the term ''Index'' may refer to the now defunct ''[[Index Librorum Prohibitorum]]'' created in 1559, the list of books that obedient Catholics were forbidden to read.
** This meaning has been extended to book [[censorship]] by some political regimes.
* Index also refers to a style of playing the game stepmania by using index fingers on both hands to hit the arrows on the keyboard; see [[StepMania]].
* [[Index finger]]s on human [[hand]]s.
* The former UK catalogue retailer, [[Index (retailer)|Index]], of the [[Littlewoods]] group, later known as ''Littlewoods Index''.
* [[Index Magazine]], based in [[New York City]].
{{disambig}}
[[category:Indexes|Indexes]]
[[zh-min-nan:Ín-tit]]
[[de:Index]]
[[eo:Indekso]]
[[he:אינדקס]]
[[io:Indico]]
[[fr:Indice]]
[[hu:Index]]
[[nl:Index]]
[[ja:索引]]
[[pt:Index]]
[[sv:Index]]
Information retrieval
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Rfrisbie
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/* See also */ added one
'''Information retrieval (IR)''' is the art and science of searching for [[information]] in documents, searching for documents themselves, searching for [[Metadata (computing)|metadata]] which describe documents, or searching within [[database]]s, whether [[relational database|relational]] stand alone databases or hypertext networked databases such as the Internet or intranets, for text, sound, images or data. There is a common confusion, however, between data retrieval, [[document retrieval]], information retrieval, and [[text retrieval]], and each of these have their own bodies of literature, theory, praxis and technologies.
The term "information retrieval" was coined by [[Calvin Mooers]] in 1948-50.
IR is a broad interdisciplinary field, that draws on many other disciplines. Indeed, because it is so broad, it is normally poorly understood, being approached typically from only one perspective or another. It stands at the junction of many established fields, and draws upon [[cognitive psychology]], information architecture, [[information design]], human information behaviour, [[linguistics]], [[semiotics]], [[information science]], [[computer science]] and [[librarian]]ship.
Automated information retrieval (IR) systems were originally used to manage information explosion in scientific literature in the last few decades. Many universities and public libraries use IR systems to provide access to books, journals, and other documents. IR systems are often related to object and query. Queries are formal statements of information needs that are put to an IR system by the user. An object is an entity which keeps or stores information in a database. User queries are matched to documents stored in a database. A document is, therefore, a data object. Often the documents themselves are not kept or stored directly in the IR system, but are instead represented in the system by document surrogates.
In 1992 the Department of Defense, along with the [[National Institute of Standards and Technology]] (NIST), cosponsored the [[Text Retrieval Conference]] '''(TREC)''' as part of the TIPSTER text program. The aim of this was to look into the information retrieval community by supplying the infrastructure that was needed for such a huge evaluation of text retrieval methodologies.
Web [[search engine]]s such as [[Google]] and [[Lycos]] are amongst the most visible applications of information retrieval research.
== Performance measures ==
There are various ways to measure how well the retrieved information matches the intended information:
=== Precision ===
The proportion of [[Relevance (information retrieval)|relevant]] documents to all the documents retrieved:
:''P = (number of relevant documents retrieved) / (number of documents retrieved)''
In [[binary classification]], precision is analogous to [[positive predictive value]].
Precision can also be evaluated at a given cut-off rank, denoted ''P@n'', instead of all retrieved documents.
=== Recall ===
The proportion of relevant documents that are retrieved, out of all relevant documents available:
:''R = (number of relevant documents retrieved) / (number of relevant documents)''
In binary classification, recall is called [[sensitivity (tests)|sensitivity]].
=== F-measure ===
The weighted [[harmonic mean]] of precision and recall, the traditional F-measure is:
:<math>F = 2 \times \mathrm{precision} \times \mathrm{recall} / (\mathrm{precision} + \mathrm{recall}).\,</math>
This is also known as the <math>F_1</math> measure, because recall and precision are evenly weighted.
The general formula is:
:<math>F_N = (1 + N^2) \times \mathrm{precision} \times \mathrm{recall} / ((N^2 \times \mathrm{precision}) + \mathrm{recall}).\,</math>
Two other commonly used F measures are the <math>F_{0.5}</math> measure, which weights precision twice as much as recall, and the <math>F_2</math> measure, which weights recall twice as much as precision.
=== Mean average precision ===
Over a set of queries, find the mean of the average precisions, where Average Precision is the average of the precision after each relevant document is retrieved.
Where ''r'' is the rank, ''N'' the number retrieved, ''rel()'' a binary function on the relevance of a given rank, and ''P()'' precision at a given cut-off rank:
:<math> \operatorname{Ave}P = \frac{\sum_{r=1}^N (P(r) \times \mathrm{rel}(r))}{\mbox{number of relevant documents}} \!</math> <!-- It /should/ be P@r instead of P(r), but couldn't find the right way to do that -->
This method emphasizes returning more relevant documents earlier.
== Model types ==
[[Image:Information-Retrieval-Models.png|thumb|500px|classification of IR-models (translated from [http://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Informationsr%C3%BCckgewinnung#Klassifikation_von_Modellen_zur_Repr.C3.A4sentation_nat.C3.BCrlichsprachlicher_Dokumente German entry], original source [http://www.logos-verlag.de/cgi-bin/engbuchmid?isbn=0514&lng=eng&id= Dominik Kuropka])]]
For a successful IR, it is necessary to represent the documents in some way. There are a number of models for this purpose. They can be classified according to two dimensions like shown in the left figure: the mathematical basis and the properties of the model. (translated from [http://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Informationsr%C3%BCckgewinnung#Klassifikation_von_Modellen_zur_Repr.C3.A4sentation_nat.C3.BCrlichsprachlicher_Dokumente German entry], original source [http://www.logos-verlag.de/cgi-bin/engbuchmid?isbn=0514&lng=eng&id= Dominik Kuropka])
=== 1. dimension: mathematical basis ===
* ''Set-theoretic Models'' represent documents by sets. Similarities are usually derived from set-theoretic operations on those sets. Common models are:
** [[Standard Boolean model]]
** [[Extended Boolean model]]
** [[fuzzy retrieval]]
* ''Algebraic Models'' represent documents and queries usually as vectors, matrices or tuples. Those vectors, matrices or tuples are transformed by the use of a finite number of algebraic operations to a one-dimensional similarity measurement.
** [[Vector space model]]
** [[Generalized vector space model]]
** [[Topic-based vector space model]]
** [[Extended Boolean model]]
** Enhanced topic-based vector space model
** Latent semantic indexing aka [[latent semantic analysis]]
* ''Probabilistic Models'' treat the process of document retrieval as a multistage random experiment. Similarities are thus represented as probabilities. Probabilistic theorems like the [[Bayes'_theorem]] are often used in these models.
** [[Binary independence retrieval]]
** Uncertain inference
** [[Language model]]s
** [[Divergence from randomness models]]
=== 2. dimension: properties of the model ===
* ''Models without term-interdependencies'' treat different terms/words as not interdependent. This fact is usually represented in vector space models by the orthogonality assumption of term vectors or in probabilistic models by an independency assumption for term veriables.
* ''Models with immanent term interdependencies'' allow a representation of interdependencies between terms. However the degree of the interdependency between two terms is defined by the model itself. It is usually directly or indirectly derived (e.g. by dimensional reduction) from the co-occurrence of those terms in the whole set of documents.
* ''Models with transcendent term interdependencies'' allow a representation of interdependencies between terms, but they do not allege how the interdependency between two terms is defined. They relay an an external source for the degree of interdependency between two terms. (For example a human or sophisticated algorithms.)
== Open source information retrieval systems ==
* [http://www.galaxquery.com/galatex/ GalaTex] XQuery Full-Text Search (XML query text search)
* [http://www.htdig.org/ ht://dig] Open source web crawling software
* [http://www.ihop-net.org/UniPub/iHOP/ iHOP] Information retrieval system for the biomedical domain
* [http://www.cs.uni.edu/~okane/source/ISR/isr.html Information Storage and Retrieval Using Mumps](Online GPL Text)
* [http://www.lemurproject.org/ Lemur] Language Modelling IR Toolkit
* [http://lucene.apache.org/java/docs/ Lucene] Apache Jakarta project
* [http://www.nzdl.org/html/mg.html MG full-text retrieval system] Now maintained by the [[Greenstone Digital Library Software]] Project
* [ftp://ftp.cs.cornell.edu/pub/smart/ SMART] Early IR engine from Cornell University
* [http://ir.dcs.gla.ac.uk/terrier Terrier] Information Retrieval Platform
* [http://www.wumpus-search.org/ Wumpus] multi-user information retrieval system
* [http://www.xapian.org/ Xapian] Open source IR platform based on Muscat
* [http://www.indexdata.dk/zebra/ Zebra] GPL structured text/XML/MARC boolean search IR engine supporting Z39.50 and Web Services
* [http://www.seg.rmit.edu.au/zettair/ Zettair]
== Major information retrieval research groups ==
* [http://ir.dcs.gla.ac.uk Glasgow Information Retrieval Group]
* [http://ciir.cs.umass.edu/ Center for Intelligent Information Retrieval]
* [http://www.ir.iit.edu/ IIT Information Retrieval Lab]
* [http://research.microsoft.com/ir/ Information Retrieval at Microsoft Research Cambridge]
* [http://www.dcs.vein.hu/CIR/ CIR Centre for Information Retrieval]
* [http://iis.ist.psu.edu/ PSU Intelligent Systems Research Laboratory]
== Major figures in information retrieval ==
* [[Calvin Mooers]]
* [[Eugene Garfield]]
* [[Gerard Salton]]
* [[W. Bruce Croft]]
* [[Karen Spärck Jones]]
* [[C. J. van Rijsbergen]]
* [[Stephen E. Robertson]]
* [[S. Dominich]]
Awards in this field: [[Tony Kent Strix award]]
== ACM SIGIR Gerard Salton Award==
; 1983 - [[Gerard Salton]], [[Cornell University]] : "About the future of automatic information retrieval"
; 1988 - [[Karen Sparck Jones]], [[University of Cambridge]] : "A look back and a look forward"
; 1991 - [[Cyril Cleverdon]], [[Cranfield Institute of Technology]] : "The significance of the Cranfield tests on index languages"
; 1994 - [[William S. Cooper]], [[University of California, Berkeley]] : "The formalism of probability theory in IR: a foundation or an encumbrance?"
; 1997 - [[Tefko Saracevic]], [[Rutgers University]] : "Users lost: reflections on the past, future, and limits of information science"
; 2000 - [[Stephen E. Robertson]], [[City University London]] : "On theoretical argument in information retrieval"
; 2003 - [[W. Bruce Croft]], [[University of Massachusetts, Amherst]] : "Information retrieval and computer science: an evolving relationship"
== See also ==
* [[Controlled vocabulary]]
* [[Cross-language information retrieval]]
* [[Digital libraries]]
* [[Document classification]]
* [[Educational psychology]]
* [[Free text search]]
* [[Geographic information system]]
* [[Information extraction]]
* [[Information science]]
* [[Knowledge visualization]]
* [[Search engines]]
* [[Spoken document retrieval]]
* [[tf-idf]]
== External links ==
* [http://www.acm.org/sigir/ ACM SIGIR: Information Retrieval Special Interest Group]
* [http://irsg.bcs.org/ BCS IRSG: British Computer Society - Information Retrieval Specialist Group]
* [http://www-db.stanford.edu/~backrub/google.html The Anatomy of a Large-Scale Hypertextual Web Search Engine]
* [http://trec.nist.gov Text Retrieval Conference (TREC)]
* [http://www.dcs.gla.ac.uk/Keith/Preface.html Information Retrieval] (online book) by [[C. J. van Rijsbergen]]
* [http://www.civr2004.org/ International Conference on Image and Video retrieval, July 21-23, 2004]
* [http://ir.dcs.gla.ac.uk/wiki Glasgow Information Retrieval Group Wiki]
* [http://www.irccyn.ec-nantes.fr/mlschool/mlss03/slides03/slides_mlss03_tutorial.pdf An introduction to IR]
* [http://www.innovationsinsearch.com/ Innovations in Search Conference, September 27-29, 2005]
* [http://www.hsl.creighton.edu/hsl/Searching/Recall-Precision.html Measuring Search Effectiveness]
* [http://www.cs.technion.ac.il/~gabr/resources/resources.html Resources for Text, Speech and Language Processing]
* [http://www.stanford.edu/class/cs276/cs276-2005-syllabus.html Stanford CS276 course - Information Retrieval and Web Mining]
[[Category:Computer science]]
[[Category:Information science]]
[[de:Informationsrückgewinnung]]
[[es:Recuperación de información]]
[[fr:Recherche d'information]]
List of Italian language poets
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{{CompactTOC2}}
[[Poets]] who wrote in [[Italian language|Italian]] (or Italian dialects):
== A ==
*[[Cielo d'Alcamo]]
*[[Antonio Abati]]
*[[Luigi Alamanni]]
*[[Pellegatta Alberto]]
*[[Aleardo Aleardi]]
*[[Dante Alighieri]]
*[[Cecco Angiolieri]]
*[[Gabriele D'Annunzio]]
*[[Guittone d'Arezzo]]
*[[Ludovico Ariosto]]
*[[Francis of Assisi]]
*[[Rinaldo d'Aquino]]
== B ==
*[[Angelo Barile]]
*[[Giuseppe Gioacchino Belli]] ([[Rome|Roman dialect]])
*[[Bruno Barilli]]
*[[Luigi Bartolini]]
*[[Giovanni Boccaccio]]
*[[Matteo Boiardo]] (Epic poet, 1441-94)
*[[Ignazio Buttitta]] ([[Sicily|Sicilian dialect]])
== C ==
*[[Guido dalle Colonne]]
*[[Dino Campana]]
*[[Vincenzo Cardarelli]]
*[[Giosuè Carducci]]
*[[Guido Cavalcanti]]
*[[Dario Chioli]]
*[[Girolamo Comi]]
== F ==
*[[Franco Fortini]]
*[[Ugo Foscolo]]
== G ==
*[[Luca Ghiselli]]
*[[Lapo Gianni]]
*[[Giuseppe Giusti]]
*[[Guido Gozzano]]
*[[Lionello Grifo]]
*[[Margherita Guidacci]]
*[[Giovanni Battista Guarini]]
*[[Guido Guinizzelli]]
== J ==
*[[Piero Jahier]]
== L ==
*[[Giacomo da Lentini]]
*[[Giacomo Leopardi]]
*[[Mario Luzi]]
*[[Alessandro Manzoni]]
== M ==
*[[Lorenzo il Magnifico]] (sovereign of Florence, 1449-92)
*[[Giambattista Marini]]
*[[Alda Merini]]
*[[Metastasio]] (Pietro Trapassi)
*[[Grazyna Miller]]
*[[Eugenio Montale]] ([[Nobel Prize in literature]], [[1975]])
*[[Vincenzo Monti]]
== O ==
*[[Arturo Onofri]]
== P ==
*[[Giovanni Pascoli]]
*[[Cesare Pavese]]
*[[Francesco Petrarca]]
*[[Poliziano]] (Angelo Ambrogini)
*[[Carlo Porta]] ([[Milan|Milanese dialect]])
*[[Luigi Pulci]] (1432-84)
== Q ==
*[[Salvatore Quasimodo]]
== S ==
*[[Umberto Saba]]
*[[Maria Luisa Spaziani]]
*[[Pietro Spiggia]]
== T ==
*[[Torquato Tasso]]
*[[Jacopone da Todi]]
*[[Trilussa]] (Carlo Alberto Salustri) ([[Rome|Roman dialect]])
== U ==
*[[Giuseppe Ungaretti]]
== V ==
*[[Giuseppe Villaroel]]
*[[Cesare Vivaldi]]
*[[Pier della Vigna]]
== Z ==
*[[Andrea Zanzotto]]
==See also==
*[[List of Italian writers]]
[[Category:Lists of poets|Italian poets]]
[[Category:Italian poets| ]]
[[fr:Liste de poètes de langue italienne]]
ICTY
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#REDIRECT [[International Criminal Tribunal for the former Yugoslavia]]
International Criminal Tribunal for the former Yugoslavia
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[[no:Det internasjonale krigsforbrytertribunalet for det tidligere Jugoslavia]]
The ''International Tribunal for the Prosecution of Persons Responsible for Serious Violations of International Humanitarian Law Committed in the Territory of the Former Yugoslavia since 1991'', more commonly referred to as the "'''International Criminal Tribunal for the former Yugoslavia'''", acronym 'ICTY', is a body of the [[United Nations]] (UN) established to prosecute [[war crime]]s in the [[Socialist Federal Republic of Yugoslavia|former Yugoslavia]]. The tribunal functions as an ad-hoc court and is located in [[The Hague]].
It was established by [[UN Security Council Resolution 827|Resolution 827]] of the [[UN Security Council]], which was passed on [[May 25]], [[1993]]. It has jurisdiction over certain types of crime committed on the territory of the former Yugoslavia since [[1991]]: grave breaches of the [[1949]] [[Geneva Conventions]], violations of the [[laws or customs of war]], [[genocide]], and [[crime against humanity]]. It can try only individuals, not [[organization]]s or [[government]]s. The maximum sentence it can impose is [[life imprisonment]]. Various countries have signed agreements with the UN to carry out custodial sentences. The last indictment was issued [[March 15]], [[2004]]. It aims to complete all trials by the end of [[2008]] and all appeals by [[2010]].
==Organization==
The Tribunal employs some 1,200 staff. Its main organisational components are Chambers, Registry and the Office of The Prosecutor (OTP).
Chambers encompasses the [[judge]]s and their aides. The Tribunal operates three Trial Chambers and one Appeals Chamber (which also functions as the Appeals Chamber for the [[ICTR]]); the Presiding Judge of the Appeals Chamber is also the President of the Tribunal as a whole. Currently, this is [[Theodor Meron]] ([[USA]]; since [[2002]]). His predecessors were [[Antonio Cassese]] ([[Italy]]; [[1993]]-[[1997]]), [[Gabrielle Kirk-McDonald]] (USA; 1997-1999) and [[Claude Jorda]] ([[France]]; [[1999]]-[[2002]]).
Registry is responsible for handling the administration of the Tribunal; activities include keeping court records, translating court documents, transporting and accommodating those who appear to testify, operating the Public Information Section, and such general duties as payroll administration, personnel management and procurement. It is also responsible for the Detention Unit for indictees being held during their trial and the Legal Aid program for indictees who cannot pay for their own defence. It is headed by the Registrar, currently [[Hans Holthuis]] ([[Netherlands]]; since [[2000]]). His predecessor was [[Dorothée de Sampayo Garrido-Nijgh]] (Netherlands; [[1995]]-[[2000]]).
The Office of the Prosecutor is responsible for investigating crimes, gathering evidence and prosecuting indictees. It is headed by the Prosecutor, who also serves as the Prosecutor of the [[ICTR]]. The current Prosecutor is [[Carla del Ponte]] ([[Switzerland]]; since [[1999]]). Previous Prosecutors have been [[Ramón Escovar-Salom]] ([[Venezuela]]; [[1993]]-[[1994]]), [[Richard Goldstone]] ([[South Africa]]; [[1994]]-[[1996]]), and [[Louise Arbour]] ([[Canada]]; [[1996]]-[[1999]]).
==Judges==
[[As of 2005]], the International Criminal Tribunal for the former Yugoslavia's Appeals Chamber is integrated by:
*Justice [[Theodor Meron]] ([[United States of America]]), [[President]]
*Justice [[Fausto Pocar]] ([[Italy]]), [[Vice-President]]
*Justice [[Andrésia Vaz]] ([[Senegal]])
*Justice [[Mehmet Güney]] ([[Turkey]])
*Justice [[Wolfgang Schomburg]] ([[Germany]])
*Justice [[Mohamed Shahabuddeeen]] ([[Guyana]])
*Justice [[Florence Ndepele Mwachande Mumba]] ([[Zambia]])
The Trial Chambers are integrated by:
*Justice [[Patrick Lipton Robinson]] ([[Jamaica]])
*Justice [[Carmel A. Agius]] ([[Malta]])
*Justice [[Liu Daqun]] ([[People's Republic of China]])
*Justice [[Amin El Mahdi]] ([[Egypt]])
*Justice [[Alphonsus Martinus Maria Orie]] ([[The Netherlands]])
*Justice [[O-gon Kwon]]) ([[Republic of Korea]])
*Justice [[Jean-Claude Antonetti]] ([[France]])
*Justice [[Kevin Parker]] ([[France]])
*Justice [[Ian Bonomy]] ([[Australia]])
According to [[UN]] resolutions, the ICTY also has nine [[ad litem]] Judges:
*Justice [[Joaquín Martín Canivell]] ([[Spain]])
*Justice [[Vonimbolana Rasoazanany]] ([[Madagascar]])
*Justice [[Bert Swart]] ([[The Netherlands]])
*Justice [[Krister Thelin]] ([[Sweden]])
*Justice [[Christine van den Wyngaert]] ([[Belgium]])
*Justice [[Hans Henrik Brydensholt]] ([[Denmark]])
*Justice [[Albin Eser]] ([[Germany]])
*Justice [[Claude Hanoteau]] ([[France]])
*Justice [[Györg Szénási]] ([[Hungary]])
One judge comes from the Eastern European legal system, and none from [[Eastern Orthodox Church|orthodox]]-predominant countries.
==Accomplishments of the Court==
In 2004, the ICTY published a list of five successes which it claimed it had accomplished:
1. "Spearheading the shift from impunity to accountability", pointing out that, until very recently, it was the only court judging crimes committed as part of the Yugoslav conflict, since prosecutors in the former Yugsolavia were, as a rule, reluctant to prosecute such crimes;
2. "Establishing the facts", highlighting the extensive evidence-gathering and lengthy findings of fact that Tribunal judgments produced;
3. "Bringing justice to thousands of victims and giving them a voice", pointing out the large number of witnesses that had been brought before the Tribunal;
4. "The accomplishments in international law", describing the fleshing out of several international criminal law concepts which had not been ruled on since the Nuremberg Trials;
5. "Strengthening the Rule of Law", referring to the Tribunal's role in promoting the use of international standards in war crimes prosecutions by former Yugoslav republics.
==Criticisms of the Court==
Some of the criticisms levelled against the court include:
* It was established by the [[UN Security Council]] instead of the [[UN General Assembly]] The UN Charter specifically gives the exclusive right to establish such organs to the General Assembly. This has been the formal basis of [[Slobodan Milošević|Milošević]]'s claim that the court has no legal authority. It was established on the basis of the Chapter VII of the [[UN Charter]]; relevant portion of the charter reads "the Security Council can take measures to maintain or restore international peace and security"; it is disputed whether a tribunal could be considered a measure to maintain or restore international peace and security.
* An apparently disproportionately large number of indictees are [[Serbs]] (to the extent that a sizeable portion of the Bosnian Serb and Serbian political and military leaderships have been indicted), whereas there have been very few indictments resulting from crimes committed against Serbs (many Croat indictees were charged with crimes committed against Bosnian Muslims); furthermore, Serbian indictees are of higher rank than those of other nations and face with broader accusations. Defenders of the Tribunal respond that Serb control of the established command structure (and most of the [[weapon]]ry) of the [[Yugoslav People's Army]] (JNA) from the start of the various wars facilitated the commission of crimes on a wider and more organised scale; furthermore, the Serb command structure facilitated the identification of those with command responsibility for war crimes. However, this fails to explain why a number of specific crimes committed against Serbs are not prosecuted.
* Many of the indictees are still not apprehended, which reflects badly on its image. Defenders point out that the Tribunal has no powers of [[arrest]], and is reliant on other agencies (notably national governments, [[EUFOR]] and [[KFOR]]) to apprehend and extradite indictees.
* The Tribunal's power to issue secret indictments creates uncertainty among people who regard themselves as possible indictees, which places an unreasonable strain on their ability to proceed with their everyday lives, both in the short and long term.
* The Tribunal in effect makes no distinction between the Bosnian, Croatian and Serbian languages, issuing documents in what it terms "B/C/S" ("Bosnian/Croatian/Serbian") with no regard to differences between the three; see [[Serbo-Croatian language]]. Supporters of this approach respond that since all three forms are mutually intelligible to a high degree (and indeed were officially considered to be single [[language]] before the breakup of the former Yugoslavia) separate translations are not needed. However, despite the fact that most of the indictees are Serbs, the tribunal exclusively uses [[translator]]s who speak Bosnian and Croatian languages. Some of the indictees have filed complaints about not being able to fully understand the translations.
* The Tribunal has not prosecuted the citizens of any [[NATO]] countries as a result of NATO's involvement in the Kosovo conflict. NATO spokesman [[Jamie Shea]] said the following about the court:
: ''NATO countries are those that have provided the finance to set up the Tribunal, we are amongst the majority financiers, and of course to build a second chamber so that prosecutions can be speeded up so let me assure that we and the Tribunal are all one on this, we want to see war criminals brought to justice and I am certain that when Justice Arbour goes to Kosovo and looks at the facts she will be indicting people of Yugoslav nationality and I don't anticipate any others at this stage.''
The Tribunal is funded by approved appropriations made by the Fifth Committee of the General Assembly. NATO countries contribute to the budget as they are members of the UN and hence they get assesed for it as approved. However, a significant portion of the budget is voluntary funding, done mostly by NATO and Muslim countries. The UN General Assembly publishes the Tribunal's annual budget and Audited Financial Statements.
In [[December 2003]], [[Wesley Clark]] testified behind closed doors during [[Slobodan Milosevic|Slobodan Milošević]]'s trial. In the [[1990s]], Clark had spoken with Milosevic for more than 100 hours in his role as the head of the U.S. military team during the [[Dayton Agreement]] negotiations and as [[NATO]]'s [[Supreme Allied Commander]] in Europe.
Critics of the court took Clark's testimony as a prime example of the court's flaws. During Clark's cross-examination by Milosevic the following exchange is found:
:MILOSEVIC: [Interpretation] General Clark, is it true that in an interview that you gave for ''[[The New Yorker]]'' on the 17th of November, you said that the war that you waged was technically illegal?
:[Judge [[Richard May]], presiding, cuts Milošević off and some back and forth follows between the two, in which Judge May reminds Milošević that since Milošević is cross-examining General Clark, he can only address matters regarding which the witness was asked to testify during the examination in chief by the prosecutions counsel. Since the legality of the NATO military action was not discussed during examination in chief, the rules of procedure do not permit Milošević to raise that issue during cross-examination. At the end of the exchange, Milošević asks:]
:MILOSEVIC: [Interpretation] So I cannot ask him anything at all about the war waged by NATO against Yugoslavia. Is that what you're saying?
:JUDGE MAY: Yes.
:MILOSEVIC: [Interpretation] Well, Mr. May, that really is an example showing that this is truly nothing more than a farce.
Milosevic was required to call Clark as his own witness to open these lines of questioning.
* Critics have questioned whether the Tribunal exascerbates tensions rather than promotes reconciliation, as is claimed by Tribunal supporters. Polls show a generally negative reaction to the Tribunal among the Serb and Croat public. The majority of Croats and Serbs doubt the tribunal's integrity and question the tenability of its legal procedures (although the Serbs's and Croats's opinions on the court are almost always exactly the opposite with regard to the cases that involve both parties). On the other hand, Kosovo Albanians and Bosnian Muslims have frequently expressed their high regard for the court and the trust in its impartiality.
*Critics, even within the United Nations, have complained of the Tribunal's high cost. The two-year budget for the Tribunal for 2004 and 2005 was $271,854,600 (USD). The cost is borne by all U.N. members.
*Critics have also complained of the length of trials, with some extending for several years. Supporters of the Tribunal respond that many of the defendants are charged with multiple crimes against many victims, all of which must be proven beyond reasonable doubt, thus requiring long trials. Simultaneous translation also slows trials.
==Indictees==
An incomplete list.
{| border="1" cellspacing="0" cellpadding="5"
|-
!Name||Ethnicity<br>Former rank||Indictment||Disposition
|-
|[[Rahim Ademi]]
|Croatian army general, ethnic Albanian
|
|
|-
|[[Milan Babić]]
|Croatian Serb, prime minister of [[Republika Srpska Krajina]]
|
|Sentenced to thirteen years for his part in ethnic cleansing
|-
|[[Haradin Bala]]
|Kosovo Albanian, [[Kosovo Liberation Army]] prison camp guard
|
|-Sentenced to thirteen years for his direct participation in the killings at Berisha mountains.
|[[Idriz Balaj]]
|Kosovo Albanian, [[Kosovo Liberation Army]] special unit commander
|
|
|-
|[[Beqë Beqaj]]
|Albanian
|indicted for contempt of the tribunal for allegedly interfering with witnesses in the case against Fatmir Limaj and Isak Musliu
|-
|[[Vidoje Blagojević]]
|Bosnian Serb, Bosnian Serb Army officer
|
|Sentenced to 18 years for involvement in the [[Srebrenica massacre]]
|-
|[[Tihomir Blaškić]]
|Croatian, Croatian Army general
|
|convicted, partially dismissed in appeal, since released
|-
|[[Janko Bobetko]]
|Croatian
chief of staff, Croatian army
|indicted, died before the case could be heard
|-
|[[Ljube Boškovski]]
|Macedonian
interior minister of Macedonia
|for [[Ljuboten]] attack
|-
|[[Lahi Brahimaj]]
|Kosovo Albanian, [[Kosovo Liberation Army]]
|
|
|-
|[[Ljubomir Borovcanin]]
|Serb
|indicted in [[Srebrenica]] case
|-
|[[Goran Borovnica]]
|Serb
|indicted in [[Prijedor]] case
|-
|[[Miroslav Bralo]]
|Bosnian Croat
|
|
|-
|[[Ivan Čermak]]
|Croatian
army general
|awaiting trial
|-
|[[Mario Čerkez]]
|Croatian
|sentenced to 15 years for offensives in Lašva Valley, Bosnia
|-
|[[Hazim Delić]]
|Bosnian Muslim, Bosnian prison camp deputy commander
|
|Sentenced to twenty years, found guilty of murder & rape
|-
|[[Rasim Delić]]
|Bosnian Muslim, Bosnian Army General
|
|-
|[[Vlastimir Đorđević]]
|Serb
army general
|
|-
|[[Đorđe Đukić]]
|Serb
|
|indicted for shelling civilian targets, died before case was tried
|-
|[[Stanislav Galić]]
|Bosnian Serb
|indicted for Sarajevo ; sentenced to 20 years ; appeal pending.
|-
|[[Milan Gvero]]
|Bosnian Serb
|indicted for Srebrenica
|-
|[[Ante Gotovina]]
|Croat, Army general
|Crimes against humanity & Violations of the laws or customs of war
|
|-
|[[Momčilo Gruban]]
|Serb
|indicted in Omarska Camp case
|
|-
|[[Sefer Halilović]]
|Bosnian Muslim
|for massacres in the villages of Grabovica and Uzdol, Bosnia
|On [[November 16]], [[2005]], Halilović was acquitted on all charges and released.
|-
|[[Ramush Haradinaj]]
|Albanian
prime minister of Kosovo
|indicted for action while regional commander of the [[Kosovo Liberation Army]]
|-
|[[Gojko Janković]],
| Bosnian Serb
|
|-
|[[Goran Jelisić]],
|Serb
|
|convicted
|-
|[[Dragan Jokić]]
|Bosnian Serb
|sentenced to 9 years for involvement in [[Srebrenica massacre]]
|-
|[[Miodrag Jokić]]
|Serb
admiral in Yugoslav navy
|sentenced to seven years for the bombing of [[Dubrovnik]]
|-
|[[Drago Josipović]]
|Croat
|
|convicted for the massacres in Ahmići-Šantići
|-
|[[Radovan Karadžić]]
|Montenegrin, former President of Republika Srpska
|Genocide, Crimes against humanity, Violations of the laws or customs of war & Grave breaches of the Geneva conventions of 1949
|
|-
|[[Duško Knežević]]
|Serb
|indicted in Omarska Camp case
|-
|[[Dario Kordić]]
|Croat
|
|sentenced to 25 years for offensives in the Lašva Valley, Bosnia
|-
|[[Radomir Kovač]]
|Serb
|
|convicted
|-
|[[Momčilo Krajišnik]]
|Bosnian Serb
prime minister of Republika Srpska
|
|-
|[[Milorad Krnojelac]]
|Bosnian Serb, Bosnian Serb prison commander
|
|Sentenced to fifteen years for the Foca prison camp
|-
|[[Radislav Krstić]]
|Bosnian Serb, Bosnian Serb Army general
|Genocide, Crimes against humanity & Violations of the laws or customs of war
|Sentenced to thirty five years (Originally forty six years)
|-
|[[Dragoljub Kunarac]]
|Serb
|
|convicted
|-
|[[Esad Lanzo]]
|Bosnian Muslim
|convicted
|-
|[[Vladimir Lazarevic]]
|Serb
army general
|
|-
|[[Fatmir Limaj]]
|Albanian
|
|Acquitted
|-
|[[Sreten Lukić]]
|Serb
Serbian police general
|
|-
|[[Gruban Malić]]
|Serbian [[fictional character]]
|Indicted for forced sexual intercourse, violation of the laws or customs of war, crime against humanity
|Charges dropped
|-
|[[Mladen Markač]]
|Serb
|
|awaiting trial
|-
|[[Milan Martić]]
|Serb
prime minster of Republika Srpska Krajina
|
|-
|[[Željko Meakić]]
|Bosnian Serb
|indicted in Omarska Camp case
|-
|[[Radivoj Miletić]]
|Bosnian Serb
|indicted for Srebrenica
|-
|[[Milan Milutinović]]
|Serb
[[President of Serbia]]
|indicted for incidents while in authority during [[Kosovo War]]
|-
|[[Dragomir Milošević]],
|Bosnian Serb
|indicted for command of [[siege of Sarajevo]]
|-
|[[Slobodan Milošević]]
|Serb
president of Serbia, president of Yugoslavia
|indicted for incidents while in authority during [[Kosovo War]]
|-
|[[Ratko Mladić]]
|Bosnian Serb, Bosnian Serb Army Commander of the Main Staff
|Genocide, Complicity in Genocide, Crimes against Humanity & Violations of the laws & customs/war
|
|
|-
|[[Darko Mrđa]]
|Bosnian Serb, Bosnian Serb police unit commander
|
|Sentenced to 17 years
|-
|[[Mile Mrkšić]]
|Croatian Serb, Yugoslav Army Colonel, Later [[Republika Srpska Krajina]] Army Commander
|Indictment in relation to [[Vukovar]]
|-
|[[Isak Musliu]]
|Kosovo Albanian, Kosovo Liberation Army commander
|
|Acquitted
|-
|[[Mladen Naletilić|Mladen ''Tuta'' Naletilić]]
|Bosnian Croat, Bosnian Croat paramilitary
|
|
|-
|[[Dragan Nikolić]]
|Serb, Bosnian Serb Prison Commander
|Indicted in the Susica Camp case
|Sentenced to twenty years
|-
|[[Drago Nikolić]]
|Bosnian Serb, Bosnian Serb Army Officer
|indicted in the Srebrenica case
|
|-
|[[Dragan Obrenović]]
|Bosnian Serb, Bosnian Serb Army Lieuttenant-Colonel
|
|Sentenced to seventeen years
|-
|[[Dragoljub Ojdanić]]
|Serb, Yugoslav Army Chief of Staff
|indicted for incidents while in authority during [[Kosovo War]]
|
|-
|[[Naser Orić]]
|Bosnian Muslim, Bosnian Muslim Army commander of Srebrenica
|Violations of the laws or customs of war
|
|-
|[[Vinko Pandurević]]
|Bosnian Serb, Bosnian Serb Army general
|indicted in the Srebrenica case
|
|-
|[[Nebojša Pavković]]
|Serb, former Yugoslav Army chief of staff
|indicted for incidents while in authority during [[Kosovo War]]
|
|-
|[[Biljana Plavšić]]
|Bosnian Serb, former President of [[Republika Srpska]]
|
|plead guilty, Sentenced to eleven years
|-
|[[Vujadin Popović]]
|Bosnian Serb, Bosnian Serb Army Lieutenant colonel
|indicted in the Srebrenica case
|-
|[[Miroslav Radić]]
|Serb, Yugoslav Army captain
|
|
|-
|[[Mitar Rašević]]
|Serb
|
|
|-
|[[Nikola Šainović]]
|Serb, Former deputy prime minister of Yugoslavia
|indicted for incidents while in authority during [[Kosovo War]]
|
|-
|[[Vladimir Šantić]],
|Bosnian Croat
|
|Freed on appeal
|-
|[[Vojislav Šešelj]]
|Serb, President of the Serbian Radical Party (SRS)
|
|
|-
|[[Duško Sikirica]]
|Bosnian Serb, Bosnian Serb prison commander
|
|Sentenced to fifteen years
|-
|[[Veselin Šljivančanin]]
|Montenegrin, Yugoslav army battalion commander
|related to [[Vukovar]]
|
|-
|[[Mićo Stanišić]]
|Bosnian Serb, Former Bosnian Serb interior minister
|Crimes against humanity and Violations of the laws or customs of war
|
|-
|[[Vlajko Stojiljković]]
|Serb, Former Serbian interior minister
|Indicted with [[Slobodan Milosevic]]
|Committed suicide before trial
|-
|[[Pavle Strugar]]
|Montenegrin, Yugoslav Army general
|
|sentenced to eight years for command authority in bombing of [[Dubrovnik]]
|-
|[[Duško Tadić]]
|Bosnian Serb, [[Serbian Democratic Party]] leader in Kozarac and member of paramilitary force
|
|Sentenced to twenty five years
|-
|[[Miroslav Tadić]]
|Bosnian Serb, Chairman of Bosanki Samac 'Exchange commission'
|
|sentenced to eight years in the Bosanski Šamac case, given early release
|-
|[[Johan Tarculovski]]
|Macedonian, Macedonian police officer
|for [[Ljuboten]] attack
|
|-
|[[Stevan Todorović]]
|Bosnian Serb, Bosnian Serb police head for the municipalty of Bosanki Samac
|
|Sentenced to ten years
|-
|[[Savo Todović]]
|Bosnian Serb, Bosnian Serb prison commander
|
|
|-
|[[Zdravko Tolimir]]
|Bosnian Serb, Bosnian Serb Army assistant commander
|Crimes against humanity and Violations of the laws or customs of war
|
|-
|[[Mitar Vasiljević]]
|Bosnian Serb, Bosnian Serb paramilitary
|
|Sentenced to twenty years, Found guilty of crimes against humanity
|-
|[[Zoran Vuković]]
|Bosnian Serb, Bosnian Serb Army soldier
|
|Sentenced to twelve years, Found guilty of rape & torture
|}
==See also==
* [[Command responsibility]]
* [[Historical revisionism (political)|Historical revisionism]]
* [[International Criminal Court]]
* [[International Criminal Tribunal for Rwanda]]
* [[State Court of Bosnia and Herzegovina]]
==External links==
* [http://www.un.org/icty/ Official website of ICTY]
* [http://www.ohr.int/print/?content_id=7117 UN Security Council resolution 827 (1993)]
* [http://www.icdsmireland.org/resources/trial/2003/illegal.htm Illegal Tribunal - Illegal Indictment]
* [http://www.un.org/icty/glance/index.htm] - KEY FIGURES OF ICTY CASES includes complete list of indictees and disposition of cases (to February 2005).
* [http://jurist.law.pitt.edu/issue_milo_discuss.php Jurist Milosevic Trial discussion]
* [http://www.icdsm.org/ International Committee to Defend Slobodan Milosevic]
* [http://www.balkanstudies.org/wordfiles/Byronica/Hague.htm: Raymond K. Kent: The Hague and Serb history]
*[http://www.srpska-mreza.com/library/facts/Kent-summary.html Raymond K. Kent: The Hague Tribunal and the Serbs]
* [http://www.icdsmireland.org/resources/trial/trial-index.htm Milosevic on trial]
* [http://www.un.org/icty/pressreal/nato061300.htm Report to the Prosecutor by the Committee Established to Review the NATO Bombing]
* [http://findingkaradzic.blogspot.com Finding Karadzic blog]
[[Category:Human rights bodies]]
[[Category:International courts]]
[[Category:International criminal law]]
[[Category:United Nations tribunals]]
[[Category:History of Bosnia and Herzegovina]]
[[de:Internationaler Strafgerichtshof für das ehemalige Jugoslawien]]
[[es:Tribunal Penal Internacional para la ex-Yugoslavia]]
[[fr:Tribunal pénal international pour l'ex-Yougoslavie]]
[[hr:Međunarodni sud za ratne zločine počinjene na području bivše Jugoslavije]]
[[id:Pengadilan Internasional untuk Bekas Yugoslavia]]
[[ja:旧ユーゴスラヴィア国際戦犯法廷]]
[[no:Det internasjonale krigsforbrytertribunalet for det tidligere Jugoslavia]]
[[pl:Międzynarodowy Trybunał Karny dla byłej Jugosławii]]
[[sr:Хашки трибунал]]
[[fi:ICTY]]
ISO 216
15275
38643232
2006-02-07T18:19:08Z
82.71.26.206
/* A series */
{| class="wikitable" style="float:right; margin-left: 0.5em; text-align: '×';"
|+ '''ISO 216 sizes'''<br><small>([[millimeter|mm × mm]])</small>
|-
!colspan="2"| A Series
|-
| A0 || 841 × 1189
|-
| A1 || 594 × 841
|-
| A2 || 420 × 594
|-
| A3 || 297 × 420
|-
| A4 || 210 × 297
|-
| A5 || 148 × 210
|-
| A6 || 105 × 148
|-
| A7 || 74 × 105
|-
| A8 || 52 × 74
|-
| A9 || 37 × 52
|-
| A10|| 26 × 37
|-
!colspan="2"| B Series
|-
| B0 ||1000 × 1414
|-
| B1 || 707 × 1000
|-
| B2 || 500 × 707
|-
| B3 || 353 × 500
|-
| B4 || 250 × 353
|-
| B5 || 176 × 250
|-
| B6 || 125 × 176
|-
| B7 || 88 × 125
|-
| B8 || 62 × 88
|-
| B9 || 44 × 62
|-
| B10|| 31 × 44
|-
!colspan="2"| C Series
|-
| C0 || 917 × 1297
|-
| C1 || 648 × 917
|-
| C2 || 458 × 648
|-
| C3 || 324 × 458
|-
| C4 || 229 × 324
|-
| C5 || 162 × 229
|-
| C6 || 114 × 162
|-
| C7/6|| 81 × 162
|-
| C7 || 81 × 114
|-
| C8 || 57 × 81
|-
| C9 || 40 × 57
|-
| C10|| 28 × 40
|-
| DL || 110 × 220
|}
'''ISO 216''' specifies [[International Organization for Standardization|international standard]] (ISO) [[paper size]]s, used in most countries in the world today. It is the standard which defines the well-known [[A4 paper size]].
[[Image:A size illustration.png|thumb|300px|left|A comparison of different A paper sizes]]
The standard was originally adopted by [[DIN]] (as '''DIN 476''') in [[Germany]] in [[1922]], although some of the formats contained therein were independently invented in [[France]] during its revolution and later forgotten.
ISO 216 defines two series of paper sizes: A and B. There is also a C series for envelopes, defined in [[ISO 269]].
==A series==
Paper in the A series format has a 1:√2 aspect ratio, though this is rounded to the nearest millimetre. A0 is defined so that it has an area of 1 [[square metre|m²]], prior to the above mentioned rounding. Successive paper sizes in the series A1, A2, A3, etc., are defined by halving the preceding paper size parallel to its shorter side, again prior to rounding. The most frequently used paper size is A4, which is 210 × 297 mm.
==B series==
The B series formats are [[geometric mean]]s between the A series format with the same number and the A series format with one lower number. For example, B1 is a geometric mean between A1 and A0. The sides of B0 are 1 m to √2 m.
There is also an incompatible Japanese B series defined by the [[Japanese Industrial Standard|JIS]]. The lengths of JIS B series paper are approximately 1.22 times those of A-series paper.
==C series==
The C series formats are geometric means between the B series format with the same number and the A series format with the same number, e.g. C2 is the geometric mean between B2 and A2. The C series formats are used mainly for envelopes. An A4 page will fit into a C4 envelope. If you fold the A4 page so that it is A5 in size, it will fit in a C5 envelope and so on.
==Application==
Prior to the adoption of ISO 216, many different paper formats were used internationally. These formats did not fit into a coherent system and were defined in terms of non-metric units. The ISO 216 formats are organized around the ratio 1:√2; two sheets next to each other together have the same ratio, sideways. This simplifies copying two A4 sheets in reduced size on one, and copying an A4 sheet in magnified size on an A3 sheet or copying half an A4 sheet in magnified size on an A4 sheet. The principal countries not generally using the ISO paper sizes are the [[United States|United States of America]] and [[Canada]], which use the [[Paper size#Current U.S. loose paper sizes|Letter]], [[Paper size#Current U.S. loose paper sizes|Legal]], and [[Paper size#Current U.S. loose paper sizes|Executive]] system. (Canada uses a P-series of sizes, which are the American paper sizes rounded to metric dimensions.)
==External links==
* [http://www.cl.cam.ac.uk/~mgk25/iso-paper.html Details] about paper sizes
[[Category:DIN standards]]
[[Category:ISO standards|#00216]]
[[Category:Stationery]]
[[Category:Metrication]]
[[cs:Formát papíru]]
[[da:Størrelser (papir)]]
[[de:Papierformat]]
[[et:ISO 216]]
[[es:ISO 216]]
[[fr:ISO 216]]
[[it:ISO 216]]
[[nl:Papierformaat]]
[[pl:Format arkusza]]
[[pt:Tamanho do papel]]
[[sk:Formát papiera]]
[[sl:ISO 216]]
[[fi:ISO 216]]
[[sv:A-format]]
[[zh:ISO 216]]
ISO 3864
15276
41891773
2006-03-02T12:03:54Z
Markus Kuhn
44867
'''[[International Organization for Standardization|ISO]] 3864''' specifies [[international standard]]s for [[safety symbol]]s. These labels are graphical, to overcome language barriers. There is an alternative American standard, [[ANSI]] Z.535, which is incompatible with the international standard. The ANSI standard requires an accompanying text, which can pose problems for environments in which people expected to understand the sign may not read the language or may not read at all, including many workplaces in the [[United States|USA]].
{{standard-stub}}
[[Category:ISO standards|#03864]]
Infinite product
15279
34839262
2006-01-12T02:08:27Z
TobinFricke
68831
spelling
In [[mathematics]], for a [[sequence]] of numbers ''a''<sub>1</sub>, ''a''<sub>2</sub>, ''a''<sub>3</sub>, ... the '''infinite product'''
:<math>
\prod_{n=1}^{\infty} a_n = a_1 \; a_2 \; a_3 \cdots
</math>
is defined to be the [[limit (mathematics)|limit]] of the partial products ''a''<sub>1</sub>''a''<sub>2</sub>...''a''<sub>''n''</sub> as ''n'' goes to infinity. The product is said to ''converge'' when the limit exists and is not zero. Otherwise the product is said to ''diverge''. The value zero is treated specially in order to get results analogous to those for [[Infinite series|infinite sums]]. If the product converges, then the limit of the sequence ''a''<sub>''n''</sub> as ''n'' goes to infinity must be 1 while the converse is in general not true. Therefore, the [[logarithm]] log ''a''<sub>''n''</sub> will be defined for all but finitely many ''n'', and for those we have
:<math>\log \prod_{n=1}^{\infty} a_n = \sum_{n=1}^{\infty} \log a_n</math>
with the product on the left converging if and only if the sum on the right does. This allows the translation of convergence criteria for infinite sums into convergence criteria for infinite products.
The best known examples of infinite products are probably some of the formulae for [[pi|π]], such as the following two products, respectively by [[Viète]] and [[John Wallis]] ([[Wallis product]]):
:<math>\frac{2}{\pi} = \frac{ \sqrt{2} }{ 2 } \cdot \frac{ \sqrt{2 + \sqrt{2}} }{ 2 } \cdot \frac{ \sqrt{2 + \sqrt{2 + \sqrt{2}}} }{ 2 } \cdots</math>
:<math>\frac{\pi}{2} = \frac{2}{1} \cdot \frac{2}{3} \cdot \frac{4}{3} \cdot \frac{4}{5} \cdot \frac{6}{5} \cdot \frac{6}{7} \cdot \frac{8}{7} \cdot \frac{8}{9} \cdots = \prod_{n=1}^{\infty} \left( \frac{ 4 \cdot n^2 }{ 4 \cdot n^2 - 1 } \right) </math>
==Product representations of functions==
One important result concerning infinite products is that every [[entire function]] ''f''(''z'') (i.e., every function that is [[holomorphic function|holomorphic]] over the entire [[complex number|complex plane]]) can be factored into an infinite product of entire functions each with at most a single zero. In general, if ''f'' has a zero of order ''m'' at the origin and has other complex zeros at ''u''<sub>1</sub>, ''u''<sub>2</sub>, ''u''<sub>3</sub>, ... (listed with multiplicities equal to their orders) then
:<math>
f(z) = z^m \; e^{\phi(z)} \; \prod_{n=1}^{\infty} \left(1 - \frac{z}{u_n} \right) \;
\exp \left\lbrace \frac{z}{u_n} + \left(\frac{z}{u_n}\right)^2 + \cdots + \left(\frac{z}{u_n}\right)^{\lambda n} \right\rbrace
</math>
where λ''n'' are positive integers that can be chosen to make the series converge, and φ(''z'') is some uniquely determined analytic function (which means the term before the product will have no zeros in the complex plane). The above factorization is not unique, since it depends on the choice of λ''n''s, and is not especially elegant. For most functions, though, there will be some minimum positive integer ''p'' such that λ''n'' = ''p'' gives a convergent product, called the canonical product representation, and in the event that ''p'' = 1, this takes the form
:<math>
f(z) = z^m \; e^{\phi(z)} \; \prod_{n=1}^{\infty} \left(1 - \frac{z}{u_n}\right)
</math>
This can be regarded as a generalization of the [[Fundamental Theorem of Algebra]], since for polynomials the product becomes finite and φ(''z'') is constant. Aside from these, the following representations are of special note:
<table cellspacing=15><tr><td>
[[Sine]] function
</td><td>
<math>\sin \pi z = \pi z \prod_{n=1}^{\infty} \left(1 - \frac{z^2}{n^2}\right)</math>
</td><td>
[[Euler]] - [[Wallis product|Wallis' formula for π]] is a special case of this.
</td></tr><tr><td>
[[Gamma function]]
</td><td>
<math>1 / \Gamma(z) = z \; \mbox{e}^{\gamma z} \; \prod_{n=1}^{\infty} \left(1 + \frac{z}{n}\right) \; \mbox{e}^{-z/n}</math>
</td><td>
[[Schlömilch]]
</td></tr><tr><td>
[[Riemann zeta function]]
</td><td>
<math>\zeta(z) = \prod_{n=1}^{\infty} \frac{1}{(1 - p_n^{-z})}</math>
</td><td>
Euler - Here ''p''<sub>''n''</sub> denotes the sequence of [[prime number|prime numbers]].</tr></table>
Note the last of these is not a product representation of the same sort discussed above, as ζ is not entire.
[[Category:Mathematical analysis]]
[[fr:Produit infini]]
[[ja:総乗]]
[[sv:Oändlig produkt]]
Isaac Abendana
15281
36180359
2006-01-22T05:04:27Z
Dmlandfair
296817
bio
{{unsourced}}
'''Isaac Abendana''' (c.[[1640]] - [[1710]]) was the younger brother of [[Jacob Abendana]], ''haham'' ([[rabbi]]) of the Spanish Portuguese Synagogue in [[London]]. Isaac Abendana moved to [[England]] before his brother, in [[1662]], and taught [[Hebrew language|Hebrew]] at [[University of Cambridge|Cambridge University]]. He completed an unpublished [[Latin]] translation of the [[Mishnah]] for the university in [[1671]].
While he was at Cambridge, Abendana sold Hebrew books to the [[Bodleian Library]] of [[Oxford University|Oxford]], and in [[1689]] he took a teaching position in [[Magdalen College]]. In Oxford, he wrote a series of [[Jewish]] [[almanac]]s for Christians, which he later collected and compiled as the ''[[Discourses on the Ecclesiastical and Civil Polity of the Jews]]'' ([[1706]]). Like his brother, he maintained an extensive correspondence with leading Christian scholars of his time, most notably with the philosopher [[Ralph Cudworth]], master of [[Christ's College, Cambridge]].
{{Wikisource1911Enc|Abendana}}
{{judaism-bio-stub}}
[[Category:Middle Ages rabbis|Abendana, Isaac]]
I Ching
15282
41964614
2006-03-02T22:43:45Z
84.159.45.209
/* Implications of the title */
:''Alternative meaning: [[I Ching (monk)]]''
{| cellpadding=3px cellspacing=0px bgcolor=#f7f8ff style="float:right; border:1px solid; margin:5px"
!style="background:#ccf; border-bottom:1px solid" colspan=2 align=center|'''I Ching'''
|-
|align=right|[[Simplified Chinese]]:|| 易经
|-
|align=right|[[Traditional Chinese]]:|| 易經
|-
|align=right|[[Hanyu Pinyin]]:|| Yì Jīng;
|-
|align=right|[[Wade-Giles]]:||I<sup>4</sup> Ching<sup>1</sup>
|-
|align=right|Alt. [[romanization]]s||I Jing, Yi Ching, Yi King
|-
|align=right|[[Cantonese language|Cantonese]] [[International Phonetic Alphabet|IPA]]:|| {{IPA|jɪk<sub>22</sub> kɪŋ<sub>55</sub>}}
|-
|align=right|[[Cantonese language|Cantonese]] [[Jyutping|Jyutping]]:|| jik6 ging1
|}
The '''''I Ching''''' is the oldest of the [[Chinese classic texts]]. It describes an ancient system of [[cosmology]] and [[philosophy]] which is at the heart of Chinese cultural beliefs. The philosophy centers on the ideas of ''the dynamic balance of opposites'', ''the evolution of events as a process,'' and ''acceptance of the inevitability of change'' (see ''Philosophy'', below). In [[Western world|Western]] cultures, the ''I Ching'' is regarded by some as simply a system of [[divination]]; many believe it expresses the wisdom and philosophy of [[ancient China]].
== Implications of the title ==
Used as an adjective, it means "easy" or "simple", while as a verb it implies "to change".
* 經 (''jīng'') here means "classic (text)", which derived from its original meaning of "regularity" or "persistency", implying that the text describes the [[Tao|Ultimate Way]] which will not change throughout the flow of time.
The conception behind this title, thus, is profound. It has three implications:
# ''Simplicity'' - the root of the substance. The fundamental law underlying everything in the universe is utterly plain and simple, no matter how abstruse or complex some things may appear to be.
# ''Variability'' - the use of the substance. Everything in the universe is continually changing. By comprehending this one may realize the importance of flexibility in life and may thus cultivate the proper attitude for dealing with a multiplicity of diverse situations.
# ''Persistency'' - the essence of the substance. Everything in the universe seems to be changing, yet among the changing tides there is a persistent principle--which is the change itself. like in sunrise and set. full moon, half moon, that means, persistency. cheerZ
(易一名而含三義：易簡一也；變易二也；不易三也。 commented on by [[Zheng Xuan]] (鄭玄 ''zhèng xúan'') in his writings ''Critique of I Ching'' (易贊 ''yì zàn'') and ''Commentary on I Ching'' (易论 ''yì lùn'') of [[Eastern Han Dynasty]])
Due to the profound ideas conveyed by the title itself, it is practically impossible to arrive at an unbiased translation which could preserve the original concepts intact. The translation of the title into English used to be ''Book of Changes'', though a slightly more accurate name, ''Classic of Changes'', appears more frequently in recent use.
== History ==
===Traditional view===
Traditionally it was believed that the principles of the ''I Ching'' originated with the legendary [[Fu Hsi]] (伏羲 ''Fú Xī''). In this respect he is seen as an early [[culture hero]], one of the earliest legendary rulers of China (traditional dates [[29th century BC|2852 BCE]]-[[28th century BC|2738 BCE]]), reputed to have had the [[Bagua_(concept)|trigrams]] (八卦 ''bā gùa'') revealed to him supernaturally. By the time of [[Yu the Great|Yu]] (禹 ''Yǔ''), trigrams had been developed into hexagrams (六十四卦 ''lìu shí sì gùa''), which were recorded in the scripture [[Lian Shan]] (《連山》 ''Lián Shān''; also called ''Lian Shan Yi''). ''Lian Shan'', meaning "continuous mountains" in Chinese, begins with the hexagram [[I Ching hexagram 52|Bound]] (艮 ''gèn''), which depicts a ''mountain'' (::|) mounting on another and is believed to be the origin of the scripture's name.
After the [[Xia Dynasty]] was overthrown by the [[Shang Dynasty]], the hexagrams were re-deduced to form [[Gui Cang]] (《歸藏》 ''Gūi Cáng''; also called ''Gui Cang Yi''), and the hexagram [[I Ching hexagram 02|Field]] (坤 ''kūn'') became the first hexagram. ''Gui Cang'' may be literally translated into "return and be contained," which refers to ''earth'' as the first hexagram itself indicates. At the time of Shang's last king, [[Zhou Wang]], [[King Wen of Zhou]] deduced the hexagram and discovered that the hexagrams beginning with [[I Ching hexagram 01|Force]] (乾 ''qián'') revealed the rise of [[Zhou Dynasty|Zhou]]. He then gave each hexagram a description regarding its own nature, thus [[Gua Ci]] (卦辭 ''guà cí'', "Explanation of Hexagrams").
When [[King Wu of Zhou]], son of King Wen, toppled the Shang Dynasty, his brother [[Zhou Gong Dan]] created [[Yao Ci]] (爻辭 ''yáo cí'', "Explanation of Horizontal Lines") to clarify the significance of each horizontal line in each hexagram. It was not until then that the whole context of ''I Ching'' was understood. Its philosophy heavily influenced the literature and government administration of the [[Zhou Dynasty]] ([[1122 BCE]] - [[256 BCE]]).
Later, during the time of [[Spring and Autumn]] ([[722 BCE]] - [[481 BCE]]), [[Confucius]] wrote [[Shi Yi]] (十翼 ''shí yì'', "Ten Wings"), an introductory comment on the ''I Ching''. By the time of [[Han Wu Di]] (漢武帝 ''Hàn Wǔ Dì'') of the [[Western Han Dynasty]] (circa [[200 BCE]]), ''Shi Yi'' was often called ''Yi Zhuan'' (易傳 ''yì zhùan'', "Commentary on the I Ching"), and together with the ''I Ching'' they composed ''Zhou Yi'' (周易 ''zhōu yì'', "Changes of Zhou"). All later texts about ''Zhou Yi'' were explanations only, due to the classic's deep meaning.
===Western ("Modernist") view===
In the past 50 years a "Modernist" history of the ''I Ching'' has been emerging, based on context criticism and research into Shang and Zhou dynasty [[oracle bones]], as well as Zhou bronze inscriptions and other sources (see below). These reconstructions are dealt with in a growing number of books, such as ''The Mandate of Heaven: Hidden History in the I Ching'', by S. J. Marshall, and Richard Rutt's ''Zhouyi: The Book of Changes'', (see ''References'', below). Scholarly works dealing with the new view of the Book of Changes include doctoral dissertations by Richard Kunst and Edward Shaughnessy. These and other scholars have been helped immensely by the discovery, in the 1970s, by Chinese archaeologists, of intact Han dynasty era tombs in [[Ma-wang-tui Texts|Mawangdui]] near [[Changsha]], [[Hunan]] province. One of the tombs contained more or less complete 2nd century BCE texts of the ''I Ching'', the [[Dao De Jing]] and other works, which are mostly similar yet in some ways diverge significantly from the "received," or traditional, texts preserved by the chances of history.
The tomb texts include additional commentaries on the ''I Ching'', previously unknown, and apparently written as if they were meant to be attributed to Confucius. All of the Mawangdui texts are many centuries older than the earliest known attestations of the texts in question. When talking about the evolution of the Book of Changes, therefore, the Modernists contend that it is important to distinguish between the traditional history assigned to texts such as the ''I Ching'' (felt to be anachronistic by the Modernists), assignations in commentaries which have themselves been canonized over the centuries along with their subjects, and the more recent scholarly history aided by modern linguistic textual criticism and [[archaeology]]. Many hold that these perspectives are not necessarily mutually exclusive, but, for instance, many Modernist scholars doubt the actual existence of Fuxi, think Confucius had nothing to do with the Book of Changes, and contend that the hexagrams came before the trigrams.
== Structure ==
The ''I Ching'' symbolism is embodied in a set of 64 abstract line arrangements called ''[[Hexagram (I Ching)|hexagrams]]'' (卦 ''guà''). These are each composed of six stacked horizontal lines (爻 ''yáo''); each line is either [[Yang]] (''unbroken'', a ''solid'' line), or [[Yin]] (''broken'', an ''open'' line with a gap in the centre). With six such lines stacked from bottom to top in each hexagram, there are 2<sup>6</sup> or 64 possible combinations and thus 64 hexagrams.
Each hexagram is considered to be composed of two three-line arrangements called ''trigrams'' (卦 ''guà''). There are 2<sup>3</sup>, hence 8, possible trigrams.
Each hexagram represents a state, a process and may represent a change happening. When a hexagram is cast using one of the processes of [[divination with I Ching|divination with ''I Ching'']], each of the lines may be indicated as ''moving'' or ''fixed''. Moving ("old", or "unstable") lines have a polarity in the process of reversal; a full reading will consider the hexagram that would result from the lines changing polarity.
The traditional methods for casting the hexagrams use ''biased'' [[random number]] generation procedures, so the 64 hexagrams are not equiprobable.
There are a few formal arrangements of the trigrams and hexagrams with a traditional context. The ''bā gùa'' is a circular arrangement of the trigrams, traditionally printed on a mirror, or disk. According to legend, Fu Hsi found the bā gùa on the scales of a tortoise's back.
The [[King Wen sequence]] is considered the authoritative arrangement of the hexagrams.
=== Components of hexagrams ===
The solid line represents ''yang'', the creative principle. The open line represents ''yin'', the receptive principle. These principles are also represented in a common circular symbol (☯), known as [[taijitu]] (太極圖), but more commonly known in the west as the ''[[yin-yang]]'' (陰陽) diagram, expressing the idea of complementarity of changes: when Yang is at top, Yin is increasing, and the reverse.
In the following lists, the trigrams and hexagrams are represented using a common textual convention, horizontally from left to right, using '|' for yang and ':' for yin. Note, though, that the normal diagrammatic representation is to show the lines stacked vertically, from bottom to top (i.e. to visualize the actual trigrams or hexagrams, rotate the text counterclockwise 90°).
There are eight possible trigrams (八卦 ''[[Bagua|bāguà]]''):
<table border="1">
<tr align="center"><th></th><th>Trigram</th><th>Name</th><th>Nature</th><th>Direction</th></tr>
<tr align="center"><td>1</td><td>||| (☰)</td><td>Force (乾 ''qián'')</td><td>heaven (天)</td><td>northwest</td></tr>
<tr align="center"><td>2</td><td>||: (☱)</td><td>Open (兌 ''duì'')</td><td>swamp (澤)</td><td>west</td></tr>
<tr align="center"><td>3</td><td>|:| (☲)</td><td>Radiance (離 ''lí'')</td><td>fire (火)</td><td>south</td></tr>
<tr align="center"><td>4</td><td>|:: (☳)</td><td>Shake (震 ''zhèn'')</td><td>thunder (雷)</td><td>east</td></tr>
<tr align="center"><td>5</td><td>:|| (☴)</td><td>Ground (巽 ''xùn'')</td><td>wind (風)</td><td>southeast</td></tr>
<tr align="center"><td>6</td><td>:|: (☵)</td><td>Gorge (坎 ''kǎn'')</td><td>water (水)</td><td>north</td></tr>
<tr align="center"><td>7</td><td>::| (☶)</td><td>Bound (艮 ''gèn'')</td><td>mountain (山)</td><td>northeast</td></tr>
<tr align="center"><td>8</td><td>::: (☷)</td><td>Field (坤 ''kūn'')</td><td>earth (地)</td><td>southwest</td></tr>
</table>
The first three lines of the hexagram, called the ''lower trigram'', are seen as the ''inner aspect'' of the change that is occurring. The ''upper trigram'' (the last three lines of the hexagram), is the ''outer aspect''. The change described is thus the dynamic of the inner (personal) aspect relating to the outer (external) situation. Thus, hexagram 04 :|:::| Enveloping, is composed of the inner trigram :|: Gorge, relating to the outer trigram ::| Bound.
=== Chart of trigrams ===
<table cellspacing="3" cellpadding="3" border="2">
<tr>
<td width="10%">
<p>'''Upper →'''</p>
<p>'''Lower ↓'''</p>
</td>
<td valign="top" align="center" width="10%">|||<br>
'''Ch'ien<br>Heaven'''</td>
<td valign="top" align="center" width="10%">|::<br>
'''Chên<br>Thunder'''</td>
<td valign="top" align="center" width="10%">:|:<br>
'''K'an<br>Water'''</td>
<td valign="top" align="center" width="10%">::|<br>
'''Kên<br>Mountain'''</td>
<td valign="top" align="center" width="10%">:::<br>
'''K'un<br>Earth'''</td>
<td valign="top" align="center" width="10%">:||<br>
'''Sun<br>Wind'''</td>
<td valign="top" align="center" width="10%">|:|<br>
'''Li<br>Flame'''</td>
<td valign="top" align="center" width="10%">||:<br>
'''Tui<br>Swamp'''</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td align="center" width="10%">|||<br>
'''Ch'ien<br>Heaven'''</td>
<td align="center" width="10%">[[I_Ching_hexagram_01|1]]</td>
<td align="center" width="10%">[[I_Ching_hexagram_34|34]]</td>
<td align="center" width="10%">[[I_Ching_hexagram_05|5]]</td>
<td align="center" width="10%">[[I_Ching_hexagram_26|26]]</td>
<td align="center" width="10%">[[I_Ching_hexagram_11|11]]</td>
<td align="center" width="10%">[[I_Ching_hexagram_09|9]]</td>
<td align="center" width="10%">[[I_Ching_hexagram_14|14]]</td>
<td align="center" width="10%">[[I_Ching_hexagram_43|43]]</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td align="center" width="10%">|::<br>
'''Chên<br>Thunder'''</td>
<td align="center" width="10%">[[I_Ching_hexagram_25|25]]</td>
<td align="center" width="10%">[[I_Ching_hexagram_51|51]]</td>
<td align="center" width="10%">[[I_Ching_hexagram_03|3]]</td>
<td align="center" width="10%">[[I_Ching_hexagram_27|27]]</td>
<td align="center" width="10%">[[I_Ching_hexagram_24|24]]</td>
<td align="center" width="10%">[[I_Ching_hexagram_42|42]]</td>
<td align="center" width="10%">[[I_Ching_hexagram_21|21]]</td>
<td align="center" width="10%">[[I_Ching_hexagram_17|17]]</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td align="center" width="10%">:|:<br>
'''K'an<br>Water'''</td>
<td align="center" width="10%">[[I_Ching_hexagram_06|6]]</td>
<td align="center" width="10%">[[I_Ching_hexagram_40|40]]</td>
<td align="center" width="10%">[[I_Ching_hexagram_29|29]]</td>
<td align="center" width="10%">[[I_Ching_hexagram_04|4]]</td>
<td align="center" width="10%">[[I_Ching_hexagram_07|7]]</td>
<td align="center" width="10%">[[I_Ching_hexagram_59|59]]</td>
<td align="center" width="10%">[[I_Ching_hexagram_64|64]]</td>
<td align="center" width="10%">[[I_Ching_hexagram_47|47]]</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td align="center" width="10%">::|<br>
'''Kên<br>Mountain'''</td>
<td align="center" width="10%">[[I_Ching_hexagram_33|33]]</td>
<td align="center" width="10%">[[I_Ching_hexagram_62|62]]</td>
<td align="center" width="10%">[[I_Ching_hexagram_39|39]]</td>
<td align="center" width="10%">[[I_Ching_hexagram_52|52]]</td>
<td align="center" width="10%">[[I_Ching_hexagram_15|15]]</td>
<td align="center" width="10%">[[I_Ching_hexagram_53|53]]</td>
<td align="center" width="10%">[[I_Ching_hexagram_56|56]]</td>
<td align="center" width="10%">[[I_Ching_hexagram_31|31]]</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td align="center" width="10%">:::<br>
'''K'un<br>Earth'''</td>
<td align="center" width="10%">[[I_Ching_hexagram_12|12]]</td>
<td align="center" width="10%">[[I_Ching_hexagram_16|16]]</td>
<td align="center" width="10%">[[I_Ching_hexagram_08|8]]</td>
<td align="center" width="10%">[[I_Ching_hexagram_23|23]]</td>
<td align="center" width="10%">[[I_Ching_hexagram_02|2]]</td>
<td align="center" width="10%">[[I_Ching_hexagram_20|20]]</td>
<td align="center" width="10%">[[I_Ching_hexagram_35|35]]</td>
<td align="center" width="10%">[[I_Ching_hexagram_45|45]]</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td align="center" width="10%">
<p align="center">:||<br>
'''Sun<br>Wind'''</p>
</td>
<td align="center" width="10%">[[I_Ching_hexagram_44|44]]</td>
<td align="center" width="10%">[[I_Ching_hexagram_32|32]]</td>
<td align="center" width="10%">[[I_Ching_hexagram_48|48]]</td>
<td align="center" width="10%">[[I_Ching_hexagram_18|18]]</td>
<td align="center" width="10%">[[I_Ching_hexagram_46|46]]</td>
<td align="center" width="10%">[[I_Ching_hexagram_57|57]]</td>
<td align="center" width="10%">[[I_Ching_hexagram_50|50]]</td>
<td align="center" width="10%">[[I_Ching_hexagram_28|28]]</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td align="center" width="10%">
<p align="center">|:|<br>
'''Li<br>Flame'''</p>
</td>
<td align="center" width="10%">[[I_Ching_hexagram_13|13]]</td>
<td align="center" width="10%">[[I_Ching_hexagram_55|55]]</td>
<td align="center" width="10%">[[I_Ching_hexagram_63|63]]</td>
<td align="center" width="10%">[[I_Ching_hexagram_22|22]]</td>
<td align="center" width="10%">[[I_Ching_hexagram_36|36]]</td>
<td align="center" width="10%">[[I_Ching_hexagram_37|37]]</td>
<td align="center" width="10%">[[I_Ching_hexagram_30|30]]</td>
<td align="center" width="10%">[[I_Ching_hexagram_49|49]]</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td align="center" width="10%">
<p align="center">||:<br>
'''Tui<br>Swamp'''</p>
</td>
<td align="center" width="10%">[[I_Ching_hexagram_10|10]]</td>
<td align="center" width="10%">[[I_Ching_hexagram_54|54]]</td>
<td align="center" width="10%">[[I_Ching_hexagram_60|60]]</td>
<td align="center" width="10%">[[I_Ching_hexagram_41|41]]</td>
<td align="center" width="10%">[[I_Ching_hexagram_19|19]]</td>
<td align="center" width="10%">[[I_Ching_hexagram_61|61]]</td>
<td align="center" width="10%">[[I_Ching_hexagram_38|38]]</td>
<td align="center" width="10%">[[I_Ching_hexagram_58|58]]</td>
</tr>
</table>
=== The hexagrams ===
The text of the ''I Ching'' describes each of the 64 hexagrams, and later scholars added commentaries and analyses of each one; these have been subsumed into the text comprising the ''I Ching''.
Each hexagram's common translation is accompanied by the corresponding R. Wilhelm translation, which is the source for the [[Unicode]] names.
<table><tr><td valign="top">
<table border="1" align="center">
<tr><th>Hexagram</th><th>R. Wilhelm</th>
<tr><td>[[I Ching hexagram 01|01. |||||| Force (乾 qián) ]]</td><td>The Creative</td></tr>
<tr><td>[[I Ching hexagram 02|02. :::::: Field (坤 kūn) ]]</td><td>The Receptive</td></tr>
<tr><td>[[I Ching hexagram 03|03. |:::|: Sprouting (屯 chún) ]]</td><td>Difficulty at the Beginning</td></tr>
<tr><td>[[I Ching hexagram 04|04. :|:::| Enveloping (蒙 méng) ]]</td><td>Youthful Folly</td></tr>
<tr><td>[[I Ching hexagram 05|05. |||:|: Attending (需 xū) ]]</td><td>Waiting</td></tr>
<tr><td>[[I Ching hexagram 06|06. :|:||| Arguing (訟 sòng) ]]</td><td>Conflict</td></tr>
<tr><td>[[I Ching hexagram 07|07. :|:::: Leading (師 shī) ]]</td><td>The Army</td></tr>
<tr><td>[[I Ching hexagram 08|08. ::::|: Grouping (比 bǐ) ]]</td><td>Holding Together</td></tr>
<tr><td>[[I Ching hexagram 09|09. |||:|| Small Accumulating (小畜 xiǎo chù) ]]</td><td>Small Taming</td></tr>
<tr><td>[[I Ching hexagram 10|10. ||:||| Treading (履 lǚ) ]]</td><td>Treading (Conduct)</td></tr>
<tr><td>[[I Ching hexagram 11|11. |||::: Prevading (泰 tài) ]]</td><td>Peace</td></tr>
<tr><td>[[I Ching hexagram 12|12. :::||| Obstruction (否 pǐ) ]]</td><td>Standstill</td></tr>
<tr><td>[[I Ching hexagram 13|13. |:|||| Concording People (同人 tóng rén) ]]</td><td>Fellowship</td></tr>
<tr><td>[[I Ching hexagram 14|14. ||||:| Great Possessing (大有 dà yǒu) ]]</td><td>Great Possession</td></tr>
<tr><td>[[I Ching hexagram 15|15. ::|::: Humbling (謙 qiān) ]]</td><td>Modesty</td></tr>
<tr><td>[[I Ching hexagram 16|16. :::|:: Providing-For (豫 yù) ]]</td><td>Enthusiasm</td></tr>
<tr><td>[[I Ching hexagram 17|17. |::||: Following (隨 suí) ]]</td><td>Following</td></tr>
<tr><td>[[I Ching hexagram 18|18. :||::| Corrupting (蠱 gǔ) ]]</td><td>Work on the Decayed</td></tr>
<tr><td>[[I Ching hexagram 19|19. ||:::: Nearing (臨 lín) ]]</td><td>Approach</td></tr>
<tr><td>[[I Ching hexagram 20|20. ::::|| Viewing (觀 guān) ]]</td><td>Contemplation</td></tr>
<tr><td>[[I Ching hexagram 21|21. |::|:| Gnawing Bite (噬嗑 shì kè) ]]</td><td>Biting Through</td></tr>
<tr><td>[[I Ching hexagram 22|22. |:|::| Adorning (賁 bì) ]]</td><td>Grace</td></tr>
<tr><td>[[I Ching hexagram 23|23. :::::| Stripping (剝 bō) ]]</td><td>Splitting Apart</td></tr>
<tr><td>[[I Ching hexagram 24|24. |::::: Returning (復 fù) ]]</td><td>Return</td></tr>
<tr><td>[[I Ching hexagram 25|25. |::||| Without Embroiling (無妄 wú wàng) ]]</td><td>Innocence</td></tr>
<tr><td>[[I Ching hexagram 26|26. |||::| Great Accumulating (大畜 dà chù) ]]</td><td>Great Taming</td></tr>
<tr><td>[[I Ching hexagram 27|27. |::::| Swallowing (頤 yí) ]]</td><td>Mouth Corners</td></tr>
<tr><td>[[I Ching hexagram 28|28. :||||: Great Exceeding (大過 dà guò) ]]</td><td>Great Preponderance</td></tr>
<tr><td>[[I Ching hexagram 29|29. :|::|: Gorge (坎 kǎn) ]]</td><td>The Abysmal Water</td></tr>
<tr><td>[[I Ching hexagram 30|30. |:||:| Radiance (離 lí) ]]</td><td>The Clinging</td></tr>
<tr><td>[[I Ching hexagram 31|31. ::|||: Conjoining (咸 xián) ]]</td><td>Influence</td></tr>
<tr><td>[[I Ching hexagram 32|32. :|||:: Persevering (恆 héng) ]]</td><td>Duration</td></tr>
</table></td>
<td valign="top">
<table border="1" align="center">
<tr><th>Hexagram</th><th>R. Wilhelm</th>
<tr><td>[[I Ching hexagram 33|33. ::|||| Retiring (遯 dùn) ]]</td><td>Retreat</td></tr>
<tr><td>[[I Ching hexagram 34|34. ||||:: Great Invigorating (大壯 dà zhuàng) ]]</td><td>Great Power</td></tr>
<tr><td>[[I Ching hexagram 35|35. :::|:| Prospering (晉 jìn) ]]</td><td>Progress</td></tr>
<tr><td>[[I Ching hexagram 36|36. |:|::: Brightness Hiding (明夷 míng yí) ]]</td><td>Darkening of the Light</td></tr>
<tr><td>[[I Ching hexagram 37|37. |:|:|| Dwelling People (家人 jiā rén) ]]</td><td>The Family</td></tr>
<tr><td>[[I Ching hexagram 38|38. ||:|:| Polarising (睽 kuí) ]]</td><td>Opposition</td></tr>
<tr><td>[[I Ching hexagram 39|39. ::|:|: Limping (蹇 jiǎn) ]]</td><td>Obstruction</td></tr>
<tr><td>[[I Ching hexagram 40|40. :|:|:: Taking-Apart (解 xiè) ]]</td><td>Deliverance</td></tr>
<tr><td>[[I Ching hexagram 41|41. ||:::| Diminishing (損 sǔn) ]]</td><td>Decrease</td></tr>
<tr><td>[[I Ching hexagram 42|42. |:::|| Augmenting (益 yì) ]]</td><td>Increase</td></tr>
<tr><td>[[I Ching hexagram 43|43. |||||: Parting (夬 guài) ]]</td><td>Breakthrough</td></tr>
<tr><td>[[I Ching hexagram 44|44. :||||| Coupling (姤 gòu) ]]</td><td>Coming to Meet</td></tr>
<tr><td>[[I Ching hexagram 45|45. :::||: Clustering (萃 cuì) ]]</td><td>Gathering Together</td></tr>
<tr><td>[[I Ching hexagram 46|46. :||::: Ascending (升 shēng) ]]</td><td>Pushing Upward</td></tr>
<tr><td>[[I Ching hexagram 47|47. :|:||: Confining (困 kùn) ]]</td><td>Oppression</td></tr>
<tr><td>[[I Ching hexagram 48|48. :||:|: Welling (井 jǐng) ]]</td><td>The Well</td></tr>
<tr><td>[[I Ching hexagram 49|49. |:|||: Skinning (革 gé) ]]</td><td>Revolution</td></tr>
<tr><td>[[I Ching hexagram 50|50. :|||:| Holding (鼎 dǐng) ]]</td><td>The Cauldron</td></tr>
<tr><td>[[I Ching hexagram 51|51. |::|:: Shake (震 zhèn) ]]</td><td>Arousing</td></tr>
<tr><td>[[I Ching hexagram 52|52. ::|::| Bound (艮 gèn) ]]</td><td>The Keeping Still</td></tr>
<tr><td>[[I Ching hexagram 53|53. ::|:|| Infiltrating (漸 jiàn) ]]</td><td>Development</td></tr>
<tr><td>[[I Ching hexagram 54|54. ||:|:: Converting The Maiden (歸妹 guī mèi)]]</td><td>The Marrying Maiden</td></tr>
<tr><td>[[I Ching hexagram 55|55. |:||:: Abounding (豐 fēng) ]]</td><td>Abundance</td></tr>
<tr><td>[[I Ching hexagram 56|56. ::||:| Sojourning (旅 lǚ) ]]</td><td>The Wanderer</td></tr>
<tr><td>[[I Ching hexagram 57|57. :||:|| Ground (巽 xùn) ]]</td><td>The Gentle</td></tr>
<tr><td>[[I Ching hexagram 58|58. ||:||: Open (兌 duì) ]]</td><td>The Joyous</td></tr>
<tr><td>[[I Ching hexagram 59|59. :|::|| Dispersing (渙 huàn) ]]</td><td>Dispersion</td></tr>
<tr><td>[[I Ching hexagram 60|60. ||::|: Articulating (節 jié) ]]</td><td>Limitation</td></tr>
<tr><td>[[I Ching hexagram 61|61. ||::|| Centre Confirming (中孚 zhōng fú) ]]</td><td>Inner Truth</td></tr>
<tr><td>[[I Ching hexagram 62|62. ::||:: Small Exceeding (小過 xiǎo guò) ]]</td><td>Small Preponderance</td></tr>
<tr><td>[[I Ching hexagram 63|63. |:|:|: Already Fording (既濟 jì jì) ]]</td><td>After Completion</td></tr>
<tr><td>[[I Ching hexagram 64|64. :|:|:| Not-Yet Fording (未濟 wèi jì) ]]</td><td>Before Completion</td></tr></table>
</td></tr></table>
The hexagrams, though, are mere mnemonics for the philosophical concepts embodied in each one. The philosophy centres around the ideas of ''balance through opposites'' and ''acceptance of change''.
==Unicode==
The hexagram symbols range from U+4DC0 – U+4DFF (19904 – 19967) in [[Unicode]].
== Philosophy ==
Gradations of binary expression based on yin and yang -- old yang, old yin, young yang or young yin (see the ''divination'' paragraph below) -- are what the hexagrams are built from. Yin and yang, while common expressions associated with many schools known from classical Chinese culture, are especially associated with the [[Taoist]]s.
Another view holds that the ''I Ching'' is primarily a [[Confucianism|Confucianist]] ethical or philosophical document. This view is based upon the following:
* The Wings or Appendices are attributed to Confucius.
* The study of the ''I Ching'' was required as part of the Civil Service Exams. These exams only studied Confucianist texts.
* It is one of the Five Confucian Classics.
* It does not appear in any surviving editions of the [[Dao Zheng]].
* The major commentaries were written by Confucianists, or Neo-Confucianists.
Both views may be seen to show that the ''I Ching'' was at the heart of Chinese thought, serving as a common ground for the Confucian and Taoist schools. Partly forgotten due to the rise of Chinese Buddhism during the [[Tang dynasty]], the ''I Ching'' returned to the attention of scholars during the [[Song dynasty]]. This was concomitant with the reassessment of Confucianism by Confucians in the light of Taoist and Buddhist [[metaphysics]], and is known in the West as [[Neo-Confucianism]]. The book, unquestionably an ancient Chinese scripture, helped Song Confucian thinkers to synthesize Buddhist and Taoist cosmologies with Confucian and Mencian [[ethics]]. The end product was a new [[cosmogony]] that could be linked to the so-called "lost Tao" of [[Confucius]] and [[Mencius]].
=== Binary sequence ===
In his article ''[[Explication de l'Arithmétique Binaire]]'' ([[1703]]) [[Gottfried Leibniz]] writes that he has found in the hexagrams a base for claiming the universality of the [[binary numeral system]]. He takes the layout of the combinatorial exercise found in the hexagrams to represent binary sequences, so that :::::: would correspond to the binary sequence 000000 and :::::| would be 000001, and so forth.
The binary arrangement of hexagrams was developed by the famous Chinese scholar and philosopher [[Shao Yung]] (a neo-Confucian and Taoist) in the 11th century. He displayed it in two different formats, a circle, and a rectangular block. Thus, he clearly understood the sequence represented a logical progression of values. However, while it is true that these sequences do represent the values 0 through 63 in a binary display, there is no evidence that Shao understood that the numbers could be used in computations such as addition or subtraction.
== Divination ==
{{main|I Ching divination}}
The ''I Ching'' has long been used as an oracle and many different ways coexist to "cast" a reading, i.e., a hexagram, with its dynamic relationship to others.
== Symbolism ==
[[Image:South_korea_flag_large.png|thumb|The flag of South Korea, with ''tàijítú'' in the center with four trigrams representing Heaven, Water, Earth, and Fire (beginning top left and proceeding clockwise).]]
[[Image:Old Flag Of Vietnam.png|thumb|Flag of the [[Empire of Vietnam]] uses Hexagram number 30]]
The [[Flag of South Korea]] contains the [[taijitu|''T'ai Chi'' symbol]], or ''tàijítú,'' (yin and yang in dynamic balance, called ''Taeguk'' in Korean), representing the origin of all things in the universe. The ''taijitu'' is surrounded by four of the eight trigrams, starting from top left and going clockwise: Heaven, Water, Earth, Fire.
The flag of the [[Empire of Vietnam]] used the hexagram number 30 and was known as ''cờ quẻ Ly'' (Li hexagram flag) because the hexagram represents South. Its successor the [[South Vietnam|Republic of Vietnam]] connected the middle lines, turning it into hexagram number 1. (see [[Flag of the Republic of Vietnam]]).
==Influence on Western culture==
{{main|I Ching's influence}}
The ''I Ching'' has influenced countless Chinese philosophers, artists and even businessmen throughout history. In more recent times, several Western artists have used it.
==Translations==
*Blofeld, J. 1965. ''The Book of Changes: A New Translation of the Ancient Chinese I Ching''. New York: E. P. Dutton.
*Huang, A. 1998. ''The Complete I Ching: the Definitive Translation From the Taoist Master Alfred Huang''. Rochester, N.Y: Inner Traditions.
*Hua-Ching Ni. 1999. ''I Ching: The Book of Changes and the Unchanging Truth''. (2nd edition). Los Angeles: Seven Star Communications.
*Legge, J. 1964. ''I Ching: Book of Changes''. With introduction and study guide by [[Ch'u Chai]] and [[Winberg Chai]]. New York: Citadel Press.
*''I Ching, The Classic of Changes'', The first English translation of the newly discovered second-century B.C. Mawangdui texts by Edward L. Shaughnessy, Ballantine, 1996. ISBN 0345362438.
*Wilhelm, R. & Baynes, C., 1967. ''The I Ching or Book of Changes,'' With forward by [[Carl Jung]]. 3rd. ed., Bollingen Series XIX. Princeton NJ: Princeton University Press (1st ed. 1950).
==References==
*Herbie Brennan, 1973. ''The Syncronistic Barometer'', [[Astounding (magazine)|Analog]], August 1973.
*Marshall, S. 2001. ''The Mandate of Heaven: Hidden History in the I Ching''. Columbia University Press
*Rutt, R. 1996. ''Zhouyi: The Book of Changes''. Curzon Press.
*Reifler, Samuel. 1974. "I Ching: A New Interpretation for Modern Times." Bantam New Age Books. ISBN: 0553278738
==External links==
* [http://www.zhouyi.com/ I CHING Bookmarks] - Directory of ''I Ching'' sites
* [http://pacificcoast.net/~wh/Index.html The I Ching on the Net] includes full text translations of the ''I Ching'', commentaries and other links.
* {{dmoz|Society/Religion_and_Spirituality/Divination/I_Ching|I Ching}}
{{I Ching}}
[[Category:I Ching| ]]
[[Category:Chinese thought]]
[[Category:Chinese classic texts]]
[[Category:Divination]]
[[Category:Taoist texts]]
{{Link FA|de}}
{{Link FA|vi}}
[[af:I-Ching]]
[[da:I Ching]]
[[de:I Ging]]
[[es:I Ching]]
[[fr:Yi Jing]]
[[ko:역경]]
[[it:I Ching]]
[[he:אי צ'ינג]]
[[nl:I Ching]]
[[ja:易経]]
[[pl:I Ching]]
[[pt:I Ching]]
[[ru:Книга Перемен]]
[[vi:Kinh Dịch]]
[[zh:易经]]
List of intelligence agencies
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The following is a partial list of current '''[[intelligence agency|intelligence agencies]]'''.
==Agencies by country==
=== [[Albania]] ===
*[[National Intelligence Service (Albania)|National Intelligence Service]] (SHIK)
*[[National Intelligence Service (Albania)|State Intelligence Service]] (SHISH)
=== [[Argentina]] ===
*[[Secretaría de Inteligencia]] (SI) (Secretariat of Intelligence)
**[[Escuela Nacional de Inteligencia]] (ENI) (National Intelligence School)
**[[Dirección de Observaciones Judiciales]] (DOJ) (Directorate of Judicial Surveillance)
*[[Servicio Federal de Lucha contra el Narcotráfico]] (SEFECONAR) (Federal Counternarcotics Service)
*[[Sistema de Inteligencia Nacional]] (SIN) (National Intelligence System)
*[[Dirección Nacional de Inteligencia Criminal]] (DNIC) (National Directorate of Criminal Intelligence)
*[[Dirección Nacional de Inteligencia Estratégica Militar]] (DNIEM) (National Directorate of Strategic Military Intelligence)
*[[Inteligencia del Servicio Penitenciario Federal]] (Federal Penitentiary Service Intelligence)
*[[Inteligencia de la Policía Federal Argentina]] (Argentine Federal Police Intelligence)
*[[Inteligencia de la Policía Bonaerense]] (SIPBA) (Buenos Aires Police Intelligence)
*[[Inteligencia de la Gendarmería Nacional Argentina]] (SIGN) (Argentine National Gendarmerie Intelligence)
*[[Inteligencia de la Prefectura Naval Argentina]] (SIPN) (Argentine Naval Prefecture Intelligence)
*[[Inteligencia de la Policía de Seguridad Aeroportuaria]] (Airport Security Police Intelligence)
*[[Unidad de Inteligencia Financiera]] (UIF) (Financial Intelligence Unit)
*[[Jefatura de Inteligencia del Estado Mayor Conjunto de las Fuerzas Armadas]] (J-2) (Intelligence Department of the Joint General Staff of the Armed Forces)
**[[Central de Reunión de Inteligencia Militar]] (CRIM) (Military Intelligence Collection Center)
**[[Servicio de Inteligencia del Ejército (Argentina)|Servicio de Inteligencia del Ejército]] (SIE) (Army Intelligence Service)
**[[Servicio de Inteligencia Naval (Argentina)|Servicio de Inteligencia Naval]] (SIN) (Naval Intelligence Service)
**[[Servicio de Inteligencia de la Fuerza Aérea (Argentina)|Servicio de Inteligencia de la Fuerza Aérea]] (SIFA) (Air Force Intelligence Service)
=== [[Australia]] ===
*[[Australian Security Intelligence Organisation]] (ASIO)
*[[Australian Secret Intelligence Service]] (ASIS)
*[[Defence Intelligence Organisation]] (DIO)
*[[Defence Imagery and Geospatial Organisation]] (DIGO)
*[[Defence Signals Directorate]] (DSD)
*[[Office of National Assessments]] (ONA)
=== [[Austria]] ===
* [[Heeresnachrichtenamt]] (HNA) (Army Intelligence Office)
* [[Abwehramt]] (AWA) (Military Protective Office)
* [[Bundesamt für Verfassungsschutz und Terrorismusbekämpfung]] (BVT) (Federal Office for the Protection of the Constitution and Counter-Terrorism)
** [[Landesamt für Verfassungsschutz und Terrorismusbekämpfung]] (LVT) (State Offices for the Protection of the Constitution and Counter-Terrorism)
=== [[Azerbaijan]] ===
*[[Milli Tehlukesizlik Nazirliyi]] (MTN) (Ministry of National Security)
=== [[Belarus]] ===
*[[Committee for State Security]] (KGB)
=== [[Belgium]] ===
*[[Belgian State Security Service|Veiligheid van de Staat / Staatsveiligheid / Sûreté de l'État]] (SV/SE) (State Security Service)
*[[Belgian General Information and Security Service|Algemene Dienst Inlichting en Veiligheid / Service Général du Renseignement et de la Sécurité]] (ADIV/SGRS) (General Information and Security Service)
=== [[Bermuda]] ===
*[[Special Branch]]
=== [[Bosnia and Herzegovina]] ===
*[[Obavještajno sigurnosna agencija]] (OSA)
*[[Agencija za istragu i zaštitu]] (SIPA)
=== [[Brazil]] ===
*[[Agência Brasileira de Inteligência]] (ABIN) (Brazilian Intelligence Agency)
=== [[Bulgaria]] ===
*[[Nacionalna razuznavatelna sluzhba]] (NRS)
*[[Nacionalna sluzhba za sigurnost]] (NSS)
=== [[Canada]] ===
*[[Canadian Foreign Intelligence Agency]] (CFIA)
*[[Canadian Security Intelligence Service]] (CSIS)
*[[Communications Security Establishment]] (CSE)
*[[Canadian Forces Security and Intelligence Branch]]
=== [[People's Republic of China|China, People's Republic of]] ===
*[[Ministry of State Security|Guojia Anquan Bu]] (Guoanbu) (Ministry of State Security)
*[[Ministry of Public Security of the People's Republic of China|Gonggong Anquan Bu]] (Gonganbu) (Ministry of Public Security)
=== [[Republic of China|China, Republic of]] ===
*[[National Security Bureau]] (NSB)
=== [[Colombia]] ===
*[[Departamento Administrativo de Seguridad]] (DAS) (Administrative Department of Security)
=== [[Croatia]] ===
*[[Protuobavještajna agencija]] (POA) (Counter-Intelligence Agency)
*[[Obavještajna agencija]] (OA) (Intelligence Agency)
*[[Vojna sigurnosna agencija]] (VSA) (Military Security Agency)
Note: POA and OA awaiting merge into [[Središnja obavještajna agencija]] (SOA) (Central Intelligence Agency)
=== [[Cuba]] ===
*[[General Intelligence Directorate|Dirección General de Inteligencia]] (DGI) (General Directorate of Intelligence)
*[[Revolutionary Armed Forces Intelligence]]
=== [[Czech Republic]] ===
*[[Bezpecnostni informacni sluzba]] (BIS)
*[[Urad pro zahranicni styky a informace]] (UZSI)
=== [[Denmark]] ===
*[[Politiets Efterretningstjeneste]] (PET) (Police Intelligence Service)
*[[Forsvarets Efterretningstjeneste]] (FE) (Defence Intelligence Service)
=== [[Egypt]] ===
*[[General Directorate of State Security Service|Al-Mukhabarat al-'Ammah]] (General Directorate of State Security Service)
* [[Mukhabarat el-Khabeya]] (Military Intelligence)
=== [[Estonia]] ===
*[[Kaitsepolitseiamet]] (KAPO) (Security Police Board)
=== [[Finland]] ===
*[[Suojelupoliisi]] (Supo) (Protection Police)
=== [[France]] ===
*[[Direction de la Surveillance du Territoire]] (DST) (Directorate of Territorial Surveillance)
*[[Direction Générale de la Sécurité Extérieure]] (DGSE) (General Directorate of External Security)
*[[Direction centrale des renseignements généraux|Direction Centrale des Renseignements Généraux]] (RG) (Central Directorate of General Intelligence)
*[[Direction du Renseignement Militaire]] (DRM) (Directorate of Military Intelligence)
*[[Direction de la Protection et de la Sécurité de la Défense]] (DPSD) (Directorate of Protection and Defense Security)
=== [[Germany]] ===
*[[Verfassungsschutz]] (Protection of the Constitution)
**[[Bundesamt fur Verfassungsschutz]] (BFV) (Federal Office for the Protection of the Constitution)
**[[Landesämter für Verfassungsschutz]] (LFV) (State Offices for the Protection of the Constitution)
*[[Bundesnachrichtendienst]] (BND) (Federal Intelligence Service)
*[[Militärischer Abschirmdienst]] (MAD) (Military Protective Service)
=== [[Greece]] ===
*[[Hellenic National Intelligence Service|Ethniki Ypiresia Pliroforion]] (EYP) (National Intelligence Service)
=== [[Hungary]] ===
*[[Információs Hivatal]] (IH) (Information Office)
*[[Katonai Biztonsági Hivatal]] (KBH) (Military Security Office)
*[[Katonai Felderítő Hivatal]] (KFH) (Military Reconnaissance Office)
*[[Nemzetbiztonsági Hivatal]] (NBH) (National Security Office)
*[[Nemzetbiztonsági Szakszolgálat]] (NBSZ) (National Security Special Service)
=== [[India]] ===
*[[Defense Intelligence Agency (India)|Defense Intelligence Agency]] (DIA)
*[[Intelligence Bureau]] (IB)
*[[Research and Analysis Wing]] (RAW)
=== [[Indonesia]] ===
*[[Badan Intelijen Nasional]] (BIN)
=== [[Iran]] ===
*[[Ministry of Intelligence (Iran)|Vezarat-e Ettela'at va Amniat-e Keshvar]] (VEVAK) (Ministry of Intelligence and National Security)
=== [[Iraq]] ===
* [[Iraqi National Intelligence Service]]
* [[General Security Directorate|Mudiriyat al-Amn al-Amma]]
=== [[Republic of Ireland|Ireland, Republic of]] ===
* [[Irish Secret Service]]
* [[G2 (Republic of Ireland)|G2]] (Military Intelligence)
=== [[Israel]] ===
*[[Mossad|ha-Mossad le-Modiin ule-Tafkidim Meyuhadim]] (Mossad) (Institute for Intelligence and Special Operations)
*[[Shin Bet|Sherut ha-Bitachon ha-Klali]] (Shabak or Shin Bet)
*[[Aman (IDF)|Agaf ha-Modi'in]] (Aman)
=== [[Italy]] ===
*[[CESIS|Comitato Esecutivo per i Servizi di Informazione e Sicurezza]] (CESIS) (Executive Committee for Intelligence and Security Services)
*[[Comitato Interministeriale per le Informazioni e la Sicurezza]] (CIIS) (Inter-ministerial Committee for Intelligence and Security)
*[[SISDE|Servizio per le Informazioni e la Sicurezza Democratica]] (SISDE) (Democratic Intelligence and Security Service)
*[[SISMI|Servizio per le Informazioni e la Sicurezza Militare]] (SISMI) (Military Intelligence and Security Service)
=== [[Japan]] ===
*[[Naicho|Naikaku Jouho Chousashitsu]] (Naicho) (Cabinet Intelligence and Research Office)
*[[Public Security Intelligence Agency]] (PSIA), [[Ministry of Justice (Japan)|Ministry of Justice]]
*[[Defense Intelligence Headquarters]] (DIH), [[Defence Agency]]
*[[Intelligence and Analysis Service]] (IAS), [[Ministry of Foreign Affairs (Japan)|Ministry of Foreign Affairs]]
*[[Security Bureau (Japan)|Security Bureau]] (SB), [[National Police Agency (Japan)|National Police Agency]]
=== [[Jordan]] ===
*[[Dairat al-Mukhabarat]]
=== [[South Korea]] ===
*[[National Intelligence Service (South Korea)|National Intelligence Service]] (NIS)
=== [[Libya]] ===
*[[Jamahiriya el-Mukhabarat]]
=== [[Luxembourg]] ===
*[[Service de Renseignement de l'Etat]] (State Intelligence Service)
=== [[Malaysia]] ===
*[[Cawangan Khas]] (Special Branch)
*[[Jabatan Risikan Persekutuan]] (Federal Intelligence Department)
*[[Kor Risikan DiRaja]] (Royal Intelligence Corps)
=== [[Maldives]] ===
*[[National Security Service (Maldives)|National Security Service]] (NSS)
=== [[Isle of Man|Man, Isle of]] ===
* [[Special Branch]]
=== [[Mexico]] ===
*[[Centro de Investigacion y Seguridad Nacional]] (CISEN) (National Security and Investigation Centre)
=== [[Republic of Moldova|Moldova]] ===
*[[Information and Security Service of the Republic of Moldova|Serviciul de Informaţii şi Securitate al Republicii Moldova]] (SIS) (Information and Security Service of the Republic of Moldova)
=== [[Morocco]] ===
*[[Direction de la Surveillance du Territoire du Maroc|Direction de la Surveillance du Territoire]] (DST) (Directorate of Territorial Surveillance)
=== [[Netherlands]] ===
*[[General Intelligence and Security Service|Algemene Inlichtingen- en Veiligheidsdienst]] (AIVD) (General Intelligence and Security Service)
*[[Military Intelligence and Security Service|Militaire Inlichtingen- en Veiligheidsdienst]] (MIVD) (Military Intelligence and Security Service)
=== [[New Zealand]] ===
*[[Government Communications Security Bureau]]
*[[New Zealand Security Intelligence Service|Security Intelligence Service]]
=== [[Nigeria]] ===
*[[State Security Service]] (SSS)
*[[National Intelligence Agency (Nigeria)|National Intelligence Agency]] (NIA)
=== [[Norway]] ===
*[[Politiets Sikkerhetstjeneste]] (PST) (Police Security Agency)
*[[Nasjonal Sikkerhetsmyndighet]] (NSM) (National Security Authority)
*[[Norwegian National Intelligence Service|Forsvarets Etterretningstjeneste]] (Defence Intelligence Agency)
=== [[Pakistan]] ===
*[[Inter-Services Intelligence|Directorate for Inter-Services Intelligence]] (ISI)
=== [[Philippines]] ===
*[[Intelligence Group]], Philippine National Police
*[[Intelligence Service of the Armed Forces of the Philippines]] (ISAFP)
*[[National Intelligence Coordinating Agency]] (NICA)
*[[National Bureau of Investigation]] (NBI)
=== [[Poland]] ===
*[[Agencja Wywiadu]] (AW) (Foreign Intelligence Agency)
*[[Agencja Bezpieczeństwa Wewnetrznego|Agencja Bezpieczeństwa Wewnętrznego]] (ABW) (Internal Security Agency)
*[[Wojskowe Służby Informacyjne]] (WSI) (Military Intelligence Service)
=== [[Portugal]] ===
*[[Sistema de Informações da República Portuguesa]] (SIRP) (Intelligence System of the Republic of Portugal)
*[[Serviço de Informações de Segurança]] (SIS) (Security Intelligence Service)
*[[Serviço de Informações Militares]] (SIM) (Military Intelligence Service)
*[[Serviço de Informações Estratégicas de Defesa]] (SIED) (Strategic Defense Intelligence Service)
=== [[Romania]] ===
*[[Romanian Intelligence Service|Serviciul Român de Informatii]] (SRI) (Romanian Intelligence Service)
*[[Serviciul de Informatii Externe]] (SIE) (External Intelligence Service)
*[[Serviciul de Protectie şi Paza]] (SPP) (Protection and Security Service)
*[[Directia Generala de Informatii a Apararii]] (DGIA) (Directorate General of Defence Intelligence)
** Directia de Informatii Militare (DIM) (Directorate of Military Intelligence)
** Directia de Siguranta Militara (DSM - J2) (Directorate of Military Security)
*[[Directia Generala de Informatii si Protectie Interna]] (DGIPI) (Directorate General of Information and Internal Protection) (Ministry of the Interior)
*[[Directia Generala de Protectie si Anticoruptie]] (DGPA) (Directorate General of Protection and Anti-Corruption) (Ministry of Justice)
*[[Serviciul de Telecomunicatii Speciale]] (STS) (Special Telecommunications Service)
=== [[Russia|Russian Federation]] ===
*[[FSB (Russia)|Federalnaya Sluzhba Bezopasnosti]] (FSB) (Federal Security Service)
*[[GRU|Glavnoye Razvedyvatelnoye Upravlenie]] (GRU) (Main Intelligence Directorate)
*[[Sluzhba Vneshney Razvedki]] (SVR) (Foreign Intelligence Service)
=== [[Saudi Arabia]] ===
*[[Al Mukhabarat Al A'amah]] (General Intelligence Service)
=== [[Serbia]] ===
*[[Bezbednosno Informativna Agencija]] (BIA) (Security Information Agency)
=== [[Singapore]] ===
*[[Internal Security Department]] (ISD)
*[[Security and Intelligence Department]] (SID)
=== [[Slovakia]] ===
*[[Slovenská informačná služba]] (SIS) (Slovak Information Service)
*[[Vojenské spravodajstvo]] (Military Intelligence)
**[[Vojenská spravodajská služba]] (VSS) (Military Intelligence Service)
**[[Vojenské obranné spravodajstvo]] (VOS) (Military Defence Service)
*[[Národný bezpečnostný úrad]] (NBÚ) (National Security Bureau)
=== [[Slovenia]] ===
*[[Slovenska Obveščevalno-Varnostna Agencija]] (SOVA) (Slovenian Intelligence and Security Agency)
=== [[South Africa]] ===
*[[National Intelligence Agency]] (NIA)
*[[South African Secret Service]] (SASS)
*[[South African National Defence Force Intelligence Division]] (SANDF-ID)
*[[Crime Intelligence (SAPS)|Crime Intelligence Division, South African Police Service]]
=== [[Spain]] ===
*[[Centro Nacional de Inteligencia]] (CNI) (National Intelligence Centre)
=== [[Sweden]] ===
*[[Militära underrättelse- och säkerhetstjänsten]] (MUST) (Military Intelligence and Security Service)
*[[Swedish Security Service|Säkerhetspolisen]] (SÄPO) (Security Police)
*[[Kontoret för särskild inhämtning]] (KSI)
*[[Swedish National Defence Radio Establishment|Försvarets Radioanstalt]] (FRA) (Defence Radio Establishment)
=== [[Switzerland]] ===
*[[Strategischer Nachrichtendienst]] (SND) (Strategic Intelligence Service)
*[[Dienst für Analyse und Prävention]] (DAP) (Analysis and Prevention Service)
*[[Militärischer Nachrichtendienst]] (MND) (Military Intelligence Service)
*[[Luftwaffennachrichtendienst]] (LWND) (Air Force Intelligence Service)
=== [[Syria]] ===
*[[Idarat al-Mukhabarat al-Amma]] (Directorate of State Intelligence)
*[[Shu'bat al-Mukhabarat al-'Askariyya]] (Department of Military Intelligence)
*[[Idarat al-Mukhabarat al-Jawiyya]] (Directorate of Air Force Intelligence)
=== Taiwan ===
''See [[#Republic of China|Republic of China]]''
=== [[Turkey]] ===
*[[Milli Istihbarat Teskilati]] (MIT) (National Intelligence Organization)
*[[Jandarma Istihbarat ve Terorle Mucadele]] (JITEM)
=== [[Turkmenistan]] ===
*[[Committee for National Security]] (KNB)
=== [[Ukraine]] ===
* [[Holovne Upravlinnya Rozvidky]] (HUR) (Central Intelligence Directorate)
* [[Sluzhba Bezpeky Ukrayiny]] (SBU) (Security Service of Ukraine)
**[[Upravlinnya Derzhavnoyi Okhorony]] (UDO) (State Guard Directorate)
* [[Sluzhba Zovnishnioyi Rozvidky]] (SZR) (External Intelligence Service)
=== [[United Kingdom]] ===
*[[Defence Intelligence Staff]] (DIS)
*[[Government Communications Headquarters]] (GCHQ)
*[[UK Joint Intelligence Committee|Joint Intelligence Committee]] (JIC)
*[[RAF Intelligence|Royal Air Force Intelligence Branch]]
*[[Intelligence Corps]]
*[[Police Intelligence]]
*[[Secret Intelligence Service]] (SIS or MI6)
*[[MI5|Security Service]] (MI5)
*[[Special Branch]]
=== [[United States]] ===
*[[Air Intelligence Agency]] (AIA)
*[[Army Intelligence]]
*[[Central Intelligence Agency]] (CIA)
**[[National Clandestine Service]] (NCS)
*[[Coast Guard Intelligence]]
*[[Defense Intelligence Agency]] (DIA)
*[[Office of Intelligence]], [[United States Department of Energy|Department of Energy]]
*[[Bureau of Intelligence and Research]] (INR), [[United States Department of State|Department of State]]
*[[Office of Intelligence Support]], [[United States Department of the Treasury|Department of the Treasury]]
*[[National Security Division]], [[Federal Bureau of Investigation]]
*[[Information Analysis and Infrastructure Protection Directorate]]
*[[Marine Corps Intelligence]]
*[[National Geospatial-Intelligence Agency]] (NGA)
*[[National Intelligence Council]] (NIC)
*[[National Reconnaissance Office]] (NRO)
*[[National Security Agency]] (NSA)
*[[Office of Naval Intelligence]] (ONI)
*[[United States Secret Service]] (USSS)
===[[Venezuela]]===
*[[Dirección de los Servicios de Inteligencia y Prevención]] (DISIP) (Directorate of Intelligence and Prevention Services)
===[[Vietnam]]===
*[[Second Central Commission of Military Intelligence|Tổng cục 2 tình báo quân đội]] (TC2) (Second Central Commission of Military Intelligence)
===[[Zimbabwe]]===
*[[Central Intelligence Organization]] (CIO)
==See also==
<!-- section with alphabetical order -->
*[[List of historical intelligence agencies]]
*[[List of law enforcement agencies]]
*[[List of protective service agencies]]
*[[Secret police]]
*[[Secret service]]
==External links==
*[http://www.fas.org/irp/world/index.html FAS report]
[[Category:Intelligence agencies| ]]
[[Category:Lists of organizations|Intelligence agencies]]
[[de:Liste der Nachrichtendienste]]
[[el:Κατάλογος υπηρεσιών πληροφοριών]]
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[[fr:Liste des services secrets]]
[[pl:Służby specjalne]]
[[sv:Lista över underrättelseorganisationer]]
Internet Engineering Task Force
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The '''Internet Engineering Task Force''' ('''IETF''') develops and promotes [[Internet]] standards; in particular those of the [[TCP/IP]] [[protocol suite]]. It is an open, all-volunteer [[standards organization]], with no formal membership or membership requirements.
It is organized into a large number of [[IETF Working Group|working group]]s, each dealing with a specific topic, and intended to complete work on that topic and then shut down. Each working group has an appointed chair (or sometimes several co-chairs), along with a charter that describes its focus, and what and when it is expected to produce.
The working groups are organized into ''areas'' by subject matter; each area is overseen by an ''[[area director]]'' (AD) (most areas have 2 co-AD's); the ADs appoint working group chairs. The area directors, together with the IETF Chair, form the [[Internet Engineering Steering Group]] (IESG), which is responsible for the overall operation of the IETF.
The IETF is formally an activity under the umbrella of the [[Internet Society]]. The IETF is overseen by the [[Internet Architecture Board]] (IAB), which oversees its external relationships, and relations with the [[RFC Editor]]. The IAB is also jointly responsible for the [[IETF Administrative Oversight Committee]] (IAOC), which oversees the [[IETF Administrative Support Activity]] (IASA), which provides logistical, etc support for the IETF. The IAB also manages the [[Internet Research Task Force]] (IRTF), with which the IETF has a number of cross-group relations.
==History==
The first IETF meeting was on [[January 16]], [[1986]], consisting of 21 U.S.-government-funded researchers. Initially, it met quarterly, but from 1991, it's been meeting 3 times a year. Representatives from non-government vendors were invited starting with the fourth IETF meeting, in October of that year. Since that time all IETF meetings have been open to anyone. The majority of the IETF's work is done on mailing lists, however, and meeting attendance is not required for contributors.
The initial meetings were very small, with less than 35 people in attendance at each of the first five meetings and with the peak attendance in the first 13 meetings of only 120 attendees, at the 12th meeting in January of 1989. It has grown in both participation and scope a great deal since the early 90s; it had a peak attendance of almost 3000 at the December 2000 IETF held in San Diego, CA. Attendance declined with industry restructuring in the early 2000s, and is currently around 1300.
During the early 1990s the IETF changed institutional form from an activity of the U.S. government to an independent, international activity associated with the Internet Society. The IETF has at times been ascribed nearly magical abilities by the trade press, who assumed its mechanisms were responsible for the success of the Internet because it works on the Internet's core protocols. The reality that it is a group of engineers putting together specifications so that multiple vendors' products can interoperate across networks is considerably more prosaic. The details of its operations have changed considerably as it has grown, but the basic mechanism remains publication of draft specifications, review and independent testing by participants, and republication. Interoperability is the chief test for IETF specifications becoming standards. Most of its specifications are focused on single protocols rather than tightly-interlocked systems. This has allowed its protocols to be used in many different systems, and its standards are routinely re-used by bodies which create full-fledged architectures (e.g. [[3GPP]] [[IMS]]). Because it relies on volunteers and uses "rough consensus and running code" as its touchstone, it can, however, be slow whenever the number of volunteers is either too small to make progress or so large as to make consensus difficult. For protocols like SMTP, which is used to transport e-mail for a user community in the many hundreds of millions, there is also considerable resistance to any change which is not fully backwards compatible. Work within the IETF on ways to improve its speed is ongoing but, because the number of volunteers with opinions on it is very great, consensus mechanisms on how to improve have been slow to emerge.
==List of IETF chairs==
The IETF Chair is selected by the NOMCOM process specified in RFC 3777 for a 2-year term, renewable.
Before 1993, the IETF Chair was selected by the [[Internet Architecture Board|IAB]].
* [[Mike Corrigan]] (1986)
* [[Phill Gross]] (1986–1993)
* [[Paul Mockapetris]] (1994–1995)
* [[Fred Baker (IETF chair)|Fred Baker]] (1996–2001)
* [[Harald Tveit Alvestrand]] (2001–2005)
* [[Brian Carpenter]] (2005–)
==See also==
*[[Request for Comments]]
*[[Internet standard]]
*[[Standardization]]
*[[IETF Working Group]]
*[[Internet Engineering Steering Group]]
*[[Internet Architecture Board]]
*[[Internet Research Task Force]]
==External links and references==
*[http://www.ietf.org/ The official IETF site]
** [http://www.ietf.org/proceedings/directory.html IETF Online Proceedings]
** [http://www.ietf.org/proceedings/directory2.html Early IETF Proceedings] (''note: large [[Portable Document Format|pdf]] files, one for each volume)
** [http://www.ietf.org/meetings/past.meetings.html Past Meetings of the IETF]
**[http://www.ietf.org/ietf_chairs_year.html IETF Chairs]
*[http://www.ietf.org/rfc/rfc3160.txt The Tao of the IETF]: details on how IETF is organized [http://www.ietf.org/tao.html (also as HTML)]
*[http://koi.uoregon.edu/~iaoc/ IAOC information]
* [http://www.cs.berkeley.edu/~lazzaro/sa/pubs/txt/current-guide.txt An Implementation Guide for RTP MIDI]
* [http://www.cs.berkeley.edu/~lazzaro/sa/pubs/txt/current-rtp-midi.txt RTP Payload Format for MIDI]
[[Category:Internet governance]]
[[Category:Internet]]
[[Category:Standards organizations]]
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ISM band
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The '''industrial, scientific and medical (ISM)''' [[radio band]]s were originally reserved internationally for non-commercial use of RF electromagnetic fields for industrial, scientific and medical purposes.
The '''ISM''' bands are defined by the [[ITU-R]] in 5.138 and 5.150 of the [[Radio Regulations]]. Individual countries' use of the bands designated in these sections may differ due to variations in national radio regulations.
In recent years they have also been used for license-free error-tolerant communications applications such as [[wireless LAN]]s and [[Bluetooth]]:
*900 [[Megahertz|MHz]] band (33.3 [[centimeter|cm]] [[wavelength]])
*2.4 [[Gigahertz|GHz]] band (12.5 cm wavelength)
*5.8 GHz band (5.2 cm wavelength)
(using an approximation to the [[speed of light]] of 3×10<sup>8</sup> m/s)
[[IEEE 802.11]]b/g wireless [[Ethernet]] also operates on the 2.4 GHz band, and most [[microwave oven]]s use 2.45 GHz.
==External links==
*[http://www.maxstream.net/helpdesk/index.php?_a=knowledgebase&_j=questiondetails&_i=118&nav2=Specifications&PHPSESSID=3d0c24f32f042f97c6d6c57a3c4b8c50 900 MHz vs. 2.4 GHz]
*[http://www.itu.int/ITU-R/terrestrial/faq/index.html ITU page on definitions of ISM bands]
*[http://www.itu.int/publications/productslist.aspx?lang=e&CategoryID=R-REG&product=R-REG-RR ITU page on Radio Regulations]
*[http://www.efis.dk/ European Radiocommunications Office frequency information system]
*In the US, [[United States Code of Federal Regulations|CFR]] [http://www.access.gpo.gov/nara/cfr/waisidx_03/47cfr18_03.html Title 47 Part 18] describes the regulation of the ISM bands.
[[Category:Radio spectrum]]
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[[de:ISM-Band]]
[[fr:Bande industrielle, scientifique et médicale]]
[[ja:ISMバンド]]
[[tr:ISM]]
[[zh:ISM频段]]
Series (mathematics)
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/* Convergence criteria */
In [[mathematics]], a '''series''' is often represented as the [[sum]] of a [[sequence]] of [[term (mathematics)|term]]s. That is, a series is represented as a list of numbers with [[addition]] operations between them, e.g,
:1 + 2 + 3 + 4 + 5 + ...
which may or may not be meaningful, as it will be explained below.
In most cases of interest the terms of the sequence are produced according to a certain rule, such as by a [[formula]], by an [[algorithm]], by a sequence of [[measurement]]s, or even by a [[random number generator]].
Series may be [[finite]], or ''infinite''; in the first case they may be handled with elementary [[algebra]], but infinite series require tools from [[mathematical analysis]] if they are to be applied in anything more than a tentative way.
Examples of simple series include the [[arithmetic series]] which is a sum of an [[arithmetic progression]], written as:
:<math>\sum_{n=0}^k (an+b);</math>
and finite [[Geometric progression|geometric series]], a sum of a [[geometric progression]], which can be written as:
:<math>\sum_{n=0}^k a^{n}.</math>
==Infinite series==
The sum of an '''infinite series''' is a limit of partial sums of [[infinite]]ly many terms. Such a limit can have a finite value; if it has, the series is said to ''converge''; if it does not, it is said to ''diverge''. The fact that infinite series can converge resolves several of [[Zeno's paradoxes]].
The simplest convergent infinite series is perhaps
:<math>1+\frac{1}{2}+\frac{1}{4}+\frac{1}{8}+\frac{1}{16}+\cdots</math>
It is possible to "visualize" its convergence on the [[real number|real number line]]: we can imagine a line of length 2, with successive segments marked off of lengths 1, 1/2, 1/4, etc. There is always room to mark the next segment, because the amount of line remaining is always the same as the last segment marked: when we have marked off 1/2, we still have a piece of length 1/2 unmarked, so we can certainly mark the next 1/4. This argument does not prove that the sum is ''equal'' to 2 (although it is), but it does prove that it is ''at most'' 2 — in other words, the series has an upper bound.
This series is a geometric series and mathematicians usually write it as:
:<math>\sum_{n=0}^\infty 2^{-n}=2.</math>
An infinite series is formally written as
:<math>\sum_{n=0}^\infty a_n</math>
where the elements ''a''<sub>''n''</sub> are real (or [[complex number|complex]]) numbers. We say that this series '''converges towards''' ''S'', or that
'''its value is''' ''S'', if the [[Limit (mathematics)|limit]]
:<math>\lim_{N\rightarrow\infty}\sum_{n=0}^N a_n</math>
exists and is equal to ''S''. If there is no such number, then the series is said to ''diverge''.
The [[sequence]] of '''partial sums''' is defined as the sequence
:<math>\sum_{n=0}^N a_n</math>
indexed by ''N''. Then, the definition of series convergence simply says that the sequence of partial sums has limit ''S'', as ''N'' → ∞.
=== Formal definition ===
Mathematicians usually ''define'' a series as the above ''sequence of partial sums''. The notation
:<math>\sum_{n=0}^\infty a_n</math>
represents then ''[[a priori]]'' this sequence, which is always well defined, but which may or may not converge. Only in the latter case, i.e., if this sequence has a limit, the notation is also used to denote the ''limit'' of this sequence. To make a distinction between these two completely different objects (sequence vs. numerical value), one may sometimes omit the limits (atop and below the sum's symbol) in the former case, although it is usually clear from the context which one is meant.
Also, different notions of convergence of such a sequence do exist ([[absolute convergence]], summability., etc). In case the elements of the sequence (and thus of the series) are not simple numbers, but, for example, functions, still more types of convergence can be considered (pointwise convergence, uniform convergence, etc.; see below).
== History of the theory of infinite series ==
===Development of infinite series===
The idea of an [[infinite]] series expansion of a function was first conceived in [[Indian mathematics|India]] by [[Madhava of Sangamagrama|Madhava]] in the [[14th century]], who also developed the concepts of the [[power series]], the [[Taylor series]], the [[Maclaurin series]], rational approximations of infinite series, and infinite [[continued fraction]]s. He discovered a number of infinite series, including the [[Taylor series]] of the [[trigonometric function]]s of [[sine]], [[cosine]], [[tangent]] and [[arctangent]], the Taylor series approximations of the sine and cosine functions, and the [[power series]] of the [[radius]], [[diameter]], [[circumference]], angle [[θ]], [[π]] and π/4. His students and followers in the [[Kerala School]] further expanded his works with various other series expansions and approximations, until the [[16th century]].
In the [[17th century]], [[James Gregory (astronomer and mathematician)|James Gregory]] also worked on infinite series and published several [[Maclaurin series]]. In [[1715]], a general method for constructing the [[Taylor series]] for all functions for which they exist was provided by [[Brook Taylor]]. [[Leonhard Euler]] in the [[18th century]], developed the theory of [[hypergeometric series]] and [[q-series]].
===Convergence criteria===
The study of the [[convergence]] criteria of a series began with Madhava in the 14th century, who developed [[Integral test for convergence|tests of convergence]] of infinite series, which his followers further developed at the Kerala School.
In Europe however, the investigation of the validity of infinite series is considered to begin with [[Carl Friedrich Gauss|Gauss]] in the [[19th century]]. Euler had already considered the [[hypergeometric series]]
:<math>1 + \frac{\alpha\beta}{1\cdot\gamma}x + \frac{\alpha(\alpha+1)\beta(\beta+1)}{1 \cdot 2 \cdot \gamma(\gamma+1)}x^2 + \cdots.</math>
on which Gauss published a memoir in 1812. It established simpler criteria of convergence, and the questions of remainders and the range of convergence.
[[Cauchy]] (1821) insisted on strict tests of convergence; he showed that if two series are convergent their product is not necessarily so, and with him begins the discovery of effective criteria. The terms ''convergence'' and ''divergence'' had been introduced long before by [[James Gregory (astronomer and mathematician)|Gregory]] (1668). [[Euler]] and [[Carl Friedrich Gauss|Gauss]] had given various criteria, and [[Maclaurin]] had anticipated some of Cauchy's discoveries. Cauchy advanced the theory of [[power series]] by his expansion of a complex [[function (mathematics)|function]] in such a form.
[[Niels Henrik Abel|Abel]] (1826) in his memoir on the series
:<math>1 + \frac{m}{1}x + \frac{m(m-1)}{2!}x^2 + \cdots</math>
corrected certain of Cauchy's conclusions, and gave a completely
scientific summation of the series for complex values of <math>m</math> and <math>x</math>. He showed the necessity of considering the subject of continuity in questions of convergence.
Cauchy's methods led to special rather than general criteria, and
the same may be said of [[Raabe]] (1832), who made the first elaborate
investigation of the subject, of [[Augustus De Morgan|De Morgan]] (from 1842), whose
logarithmic test [[DuBois-Reymond]] (1873) and [[Pringsheim]] (1889) have
shown to fail within a certain region; of [[Bertrand]] (1842), [[Bonnet]]
(1843), [[Malmsten]] (1846, 1847, the latter without integration);
[[Stokes]] (1847), [[Paucker]] (1852), [[Tchebichef]] (1852), and [[Arndt]]
(1853).
General criteria began with [[Kummer]] (1835), and have been
studied by [[Eisenstein]] (1847), [[Weierstrass]] in his various
contributions to the theory of functions, [[Dini]] (1867),
[[DuBois-Reymond]] (1873), and many others. Pringsheim's (from 1889)
memoirs present the most complete general theory.
===Uniform convergence===
The theory of [[uniform convergence]] was treated by Cauchy (1821), his
limitations being pointed out by Abel, but the first to attack it
successfully were Stokes and Seidel (1847-48). Cauchy took up the
problem again (1853), acknowledging Abel's criticism, and reaching
the same conclusions which Stokes had already found. Thomé used the
doctrine (1866), but there was great delay in recognizing the
importance of distinguishing between uniform and non-uniform
convergence, in spite of the demands of the theory of functions.
===Semi-convergence===
Semi-convergent series were studied by Poisson (1823), who also gave
a general form for the remainder of the Maclaurin formula. The most
important solution of the problem is due, however, to Jacobi (1834),
who attacked the question of the remainder from a different
standpoint and reached a different formula. This expression was also worked out, and another one given, by [[Malmsten]] (1847).
[[Schlömilch]] (''Zeitschrift'', Vol.I, p. 192, 1856) also
improved Jacobi's remainder, and showed the relation between the
remainder and Bernoulli's function
:<math>F(x) = 1^n + 2^n + \cdots + (x - 1)^n</math>.
[[Genocchi]] (1852) has further contributed to the theory.
Among the early writers was [[Josef Hoene-Wronski|Wronski]], whose "loi suprême" (1815) was hardly recognized until [[Cayley]] (1873) brought it into
prominence.
===Fourier series===
[[Fourier series]] were being investigated
as the result of physical considerations at the same time that
Gauss, Abel, and Cauchy were working out the theory of infinite
series. Series for the expansion of sines and cosines, of multiple
arcs in powers of the sine and cosine of the arc had been treated by
[[Jakob Bernoulli]] (1702) and his brother [[Johann Bernoulli]] (1701) and still
earlier by [[Viète]]. Euler and [[Joseph Louis Lagrange|Lagrange]] simplified the subject,
as did [[Poinsot]], Schröter, [[Glaisher]], and [[Kummer]].
Fourier (1807) set for himself a different problem, to
expand a given function of <math>x</math> in terms of the sines or cosines of
multiples of <math>x</math>, a problem which he embodied in his ''[[Théorie analytique de la Chaleur]]'' (1822). Euler had already given the
formulas for determining the coefficients in the series;
Fourier was the first to assert and attempt to prove the general
theorem. [[Poisson]] (1820-23) also attacked the problem from a
different standpoint. Fourier did not, however, settle the question
of convergence of his series, a matter left for [[Cauchy]] (1826) to
attempt and for Dirichlet (1829) to handle in a thoroughly
scientific manner (see [[convergence of Fourier series]]). Dirichlet's treatment (''[[Crelle]]'', 1829), of trigonometric series was the subject of criticism and improvement by
Riemann (1854), Heine, [[Lipschitz]], [[Schläfli]], and
[[DuBois-Reymond]]. Among other prominent contributors to the theory of
trigonometric and Fourier series were [[Dini]], [[Hermite]], [[Halphen]],
Krause, Byerly and [[Appell]].
== Some types of infinite series ==
* A ''[[geometric series]]'' is one where each successive term is produced by multiplying the previous term by a constant number. Example:
::<math>1 + {1 \over 2} + {1 \over 4} + {1 \over 8} + {1 \over 16} + \cdots=\sum_{n=0}^\infty{1 \over 2^n}.</math>
:In general, the geometric series
::<math>\sum_{n=0}^\infty z^n</math>
:converges if and only if |''z''| < 1.
* The ''[[harmonic series (mathematics)|harmonic series]]'' is the series
::<math>1 + {1 \over 2} + {1 \over 3} + {1 \over 4} + {1 \over 5} + \cdots =\sum_{n=1}^\infty {1 \over n}.</math>
* An ''[[alternating series]]'' is a series where terms alternate signs. Example:
::<math>1 - {1 \over 2} + {1 \over 3} - {1 \over 4} + {1 \over 5} - \cdots =\sum_{n=1}^\infty (-1)^{n+1} {1 \over n}.</math>
*The series
::<math>\sum_{n=1}^\infty\frac{1}{n^r}</math>
:converges if ''r'' > 1 and diverges for ''r'' ≤ 1, which can be shown with the integral criterion described below in [[Series (mathematics)#Convergence tests|convergence tests]]. As a function of ''r'', the sum of this series is [[Riemann zeta function|Riemann's zeta function]].
*A [[telescoping series]]
::<math>\sum_{n=1}^\infty (b_n-b_{n+1})</math>
:converges if the [[sequence]] ''b''<sub>''n''</sub> converges to a limit ''L'' as ''n'' goes to infinity. The value of the series is then ''b''<sub>1</sub> − ''L''.
==Absolute convergence ==
:''Main article: [[absolute convergence]].''
A series
:<math>\sum_{n=0}^\infty a_n</math>
is said to '''converge absolutely''' if the series of [[absolute value|absolute values]]
:<math>\sum_{n=0}^\infty \left|a_n\right|</math>
converges. In this case, the original series, and all reorderings of it, converge, and converge towards the same sum.
The [[Riemann series theorem]] says that if a series converges, but not absolutely, then one can always find a reordering of the terms so that the reordered series diverges. Moreover, if the ''a''<sub>''n''</sub> are real and ''S'' is any real number, one can find a reordering so that the reordered series converges with limit ''S''.
==Convergence tests ==
*[[Comparison test]] 1: If ∑''b<sub>n</sub>'' is an [[absolute convergence|absolutely convergent]] series such that |''a<sub>n</sub>'' | ≤ ''C'' |''b<sub>n</sub>'' | for some number ''C'' and for sufficiently large ''n'' , then ∑''a<sub>n</sub>'' converges absolutely as well. If ∑|''b<sub>n</sub>'' | diverges, and |''a<sub>n</sub>'' | ≥ |''b<sub>n</sub>'' | for all sufficiently large ''n'' , then ∑''a<sub>n</sub>'' also fails to converge absolutely (though it could still be conditionally convergent, e.g. if the ''a<sub>n</sub>'' alternate in sign).
*[[Comparison test]] 2: If ∑''b<sub>n</sub>'' is an absolutely convergent series such that |''a<sub>n+1</sub>'' /''a<sub>n</sub>'' | ≤ ''C'' |''b<sub>n+1</sub>'' /''b<sub>n</sub>'' | for some number ''C'' and for sufficiently large ''n'' , then ∑''a<sub>n</sub>'' converges absolutely as well. If ∑|''b<sub>n</sub>'' | diverges, and |''a<sub>n+1</sub>'' /''a<sub>n</sub>'' | ≥ |''b<sub>n+1</sub>'' /''b<sub>n</sub>'' | for all sufficiently large ''n'' , then ∑''a<sub>n</sub>'' also fails to converge absolutely (though it could still be conditionally convergent, e.g. if the ''a<sub>n</sub>'' alternate in sign).
*[[Ratio test]]: If |''a''<sub>''n''+1</sub>/''a''<sub>''n''</sub>| < 1 for all sufficiently large ''n'', then ∑ ''a''<sub>''n''</sub> converges absolutely. When the ratio is 1, convergence can sometimes be determined as well.
*[[Root test]]: If there exists a constant ''C'' < 1 such that |''a''<sub>''n''</sub>|<sup>1/''n''</sup> ≤ ''C'' for all sufficiently large ''n'', then ∑ ''a''<sub>''n''</sub> converges absolutely.
*[[Integral test for convergence|Integral test]]: if ''f''(''x'') is a positive [[monotone decreasing]] function defined on the [[interval (mathematics)|interval]] <nowiki>[</nowiki>1, ∞<nowiki>)</nowiki><!--DO NOT "FIX" THE "TYPO" IN THE FOREGOING. IT IS INTENDED TO SAY [...) WITH A SQUARE BRACKET ON THE LEFT AND A ROUND BRACKET ON THE RIGHT. --> with ''f''(''n'') = ''a''<sub>''n''</sub> for all ''n'', then ∑ ''a''<sub>''n''</sub> converges if and only if the [[integration|integral]] ∫<sub>1</sub><sup>∞</sup> ''f''(''x'') d''x'' is finite.
*[[Alternating series test]]: A series of the form ∑ (−1)<sup>''n''</sup> ''a''<sub>''n''</sub> (with ''a''<sub>''n''</sub> ≥ 0) is called ''alternating''. Such a series converges if the [[sequence]] ''a''<sub>''n''</sub> is [[monotone decreasing]] and converges to 0. The converse is in general not true.
*For some specific types of series there are more specialized convergence tests, for instance for [[Fourier series]] there is the [[Dini test]].
==Power series ==
Several important functions can be represented as [[Taylor series]]; these are infinite series involving powers of the independent variable and are also called [[power series]]. For example, the series
:<math>\sum_{n=0}^\infty\frac{x^n}{n!}</math>
converges to <math>e^x</math> for all ''x''. See also [[radius of convergence]].
Historically, mathematicians such as [[Leonhard Euler]] operated liberally with infinite series, even if they were not convergent.
When calculus was put on a sound and correct foundation in the nineteenth century, rigorous proofs of the convergence of series were always required.
However, the formal operation with non-convergent series has been retained in rings of [[formal power series]] which are studied in [[abstract algebra]]. Formal power series are also used in [[combinatorics]] to describe and study [[sequence]]s that are otherwise difficult to handle; this is the method of [[generating function]]s.
==Generalizations==
[[Asymptotic series]], otherwise [[asymptotic expansion]]s, are infinite series that do not converge. But they are useful as sequences of approximations, each of which provides a value close to the desired answer for a finite number of terms. The difference is that an asymptotic series cannot be made to produce an answer as exact as desired, the way that convergent series can. In fact, after a certain number of terms, a typical [[asymptotic series]] reaches its best approximation; if more terms are included, most such series will produce worse answers.
The notion of series can be defined in every [[abelian group|abelian]] [[topological group]]; the most commonly encountered case is that of series in a [[Banach space]].
There is no serious definition for an infinite sum over an [[uncountable]] set. For example if ''X'' is a set and ''f'' a function on ''X'' taking non-negative real values, such that
:<math>\sum_{y\in Y} f(y)<A</math>
for any countable subset ''Y'' of ''X'', with ''A'' an absolute constant, it follows that ''f''(''x'') = 0 for all ''x'' outside some countable subset of ''X''. In other words, infinite sums of uncountably many non-negative reals make sense only in the case that this is a conventional convergent infinite series, extended by the value 0 to an uncountable set.
==See also==
*[[Convergent series]]
*[[Divergent series]]
*[[Sequence transformations]]
[[Category:Calculus]]
[[Category:Mathematical series|*]]
[[de:Reihe (Mathematik)]]
[[es:Serie (matemáticas)]]
[[fi:Sarja (matematiikka)]]
[[fr:Série (mathématiques)]]
[[he:טור (מתמטיקה)]]
[[it:Serie]]
[[ja:級数]]
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[[sl:Vrsta (matematika)]]
[[sr:Ред (математика)]]
[[scn:Seri (matimatica)]]
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Irish Dance
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#redirect [[Irish dance]]
#redirect [[Irish dance]]
Interrupt
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/* Overview */ Removed space
In [[computer science]], an '''interrupt''' is an [[asynchronous circuit | asynchronous]] signal from hardware or software indicating the need for attention. A ''hardware interrupt'' causes the [[central processing unit|processor]] to save its state of execution via a [[context switch]], and begins [[execution (computers) | execution]] of an [[interrupt handler]]. ''Software interrupts'' are usually implemented as [[instruction (computer science) | instruction]]s in the [[instruction set]], which cause a context switch to the interrupt handler similarly to a hardware interrupt.
The act of ''interrupting'' is referered to as an [[interrupt request]].
== Overview ==
Interrupts originated as a way to avoid wasting the processor's valuable time in polling loops, waiting for external events. Instead, an interrupt signals the processor when an event occurs, allowing the processor to process other work while the event is pending.
Interrupts may be implemented in hardware as a distinct system with control lines, or they may be integrated into the memory subsystem. If implemented in hardware, a [[Programmable Interrupt Controller]] (PIC) or [[Advanced Programmable Interrupt Controller]] (APIC) is connected to both the interrupting device and to the processor's interrupt pin. If implemented as part of the memory controller, interrupts are mapped into the system's memory address space.
<!-- Expand on how memory mapped interrupts work. e.g. PowerPC -->
Interrupts can be categorized into the following types: software interrupt, maskable interrupt, [[non-maskable interrupt]] (NMI), [[interprocessor interrupt]] (IPI), and spurious interrupt. A software interrupt is an interrupt generated within a processor by executing an instruction. Examples of software interrupts are [[system call]]s. A ''maskable interrupt'' is essentially a hardware interrupt which may be ignored by setting a bit in an interrupt mask register's (IMR) bit-mask. Likewise, a ''non-maskable interrupt'' is a hardware interrupt which typically does not have a bit-mask associated with it allowing it to be ignored. An ''interprocessor interrupt'' is a special type of interrupt which is generated by one processor to interrupt another processor in a multiprocessor system. A ''spurious interrupt'' is a hardware interrupt which is generated by system errors, such as electrical noise on one of the PICs interrupt lines.
Processors typically have an internal ''interrupt mask'' which allows software to ignore all external hardware interrupts while it is set. This mask may offer faster access than accessing an IMR in a PIC, or disabling interrupts in the device itself. In some cases, such as the [[x86]] architecture, disabling and enabling interrupts on the processor itself acts as a [[memory barrier]], in which case it may actually be slower.
The phenomenon where the overall system performance is severely hindered by excessive amounts of processing time spent handling interrupts is called an [[interrupt storm]] or ''live lock''.
== Typical uses ==
Typical interrupt uses include the following: system timers, disks IO, power-off signals, and [[trap]]s. Other interrupts exist to transfer data bytes using [[UART]]s or [[Ethernet]]; sense key-presses; control motors; or anything else the equipment must do.
A classic system timer interrupt interrupts periodically from a counter or the power-line. The interrupt handler counts the interrupts to keep time. The timer interrupt may also be used by the OS's [[task scheduler]] to reschedule the priorities of running [[process]]es. Counters are popular, but some older computers used the power line frequency instead, because power companies in most Western countries control the power-line frequency with an [[atomic clock]].
A disk interrupt signals the completion of a data transfer from or to the disk peripheral. A process waiting to read or write a file starts up again.
A power-off interrupt predicts or requests a loss of power. It allows the computer equipment to perform an orderly shutdown.
Interrupts are also used in [[typeahead]] features for buffering events like keystrokes.
== See also ==
* [[Advanced Programmable Interrupt Controller]]
* [[Programmable Interrupt Controller]]
* [[Inter-Processor Interrupt]]
* [[Interrupt Handler]]
* [[Interrupt Latency]]
* [[Non-Maskable Interrupt]]
== External links ==
*[http://www.atarimagazines.com/compute/issue149/60_Interrupts_made_easy.php Interrupts Made Easy]
[[Category:Interrupts| ]]
[[de:Interrupt]]
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Intercalation
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:''For other meanings of "Intercalation", see [[Intercalation (disambiguation)]]''
The solar [[year]] does not have whole number of days, but a [[calendar year]] must have a whole number of days. The only way to reconcile the two is to vary the number of days in the calendar year.
In many calendars, this is done by adding to a [[common year]] of 365 days, an extra day ('''leap day''' or '''intercalary day'''): this makes a [[leap year]] of 366 days. In the [[Gregorian calendar]], the intercalary day is [[February 29]].
The solar [[year]] does not have a whole number of [[lunar month]]s either, so a [[lunisolar calendar]] must have a variable number of [[month]]s in a year. This is usually 12 months, but sometimes a 13th month (an '''intercalary''' or '''embolismic''' month) is added to the year.
[[ISO 8601]] includes a specification for a 52-week year. Any year that has 53 Thursdays has 53 weeks; this extra week may be regarded as intercalary.
The determination of whether a year has intercalation may be calculated ([[Julian calendar|Julian]], [[Gregorian calendar|Gregorian]] and [[Hebrew calendar|Hebrew]] calendars), or determined by observation ([[Iranian calendar]]).
==See also==
*[[Calendar]]
*[[Bahá'í calendar]]
*[[Julian calendar]]
*[[Gregorian calendar]]
*[[Iranian calendar]]
*[[Hebrew calendar]]
*[[Hindu calendar]]
*[[Chinese calendar]]
*[[Leap second]]
[[Category:Calendars]]
[[fr:Intercalation (mesure du temps)]]
[[pl:Interkalacja]]
[[vi:Nhuận]]
Intercourse
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The word '''intercourse''' refers to:
{{Wiktionarypar|intercourse}}
*Any kind of [[human communication]] and interaction.
** Most popularly, however, it is used to refer to [[sexual intercourse]], whether [[intromission]] or [[outercourse]], including [[Vaginal sex|vaginal intercourse]], [[anal sex|anal intercourse]], and [[interfemoral intercourse]].
'''''[[Intercourse (book)|Intercourse]]''''' is the title of a [[1987]] book by [[radical feminism|radical feminist]] author [[Andrea Dworkin]], which discusses [[sexual intercourse]] in art and society.
'''Intercourse''' is also the name of two communities in the United States:
*[[Intercourse, Alabama]]
*[[Intercourse, Pennsylvania]]
{{disambig}}
Ink
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{{otheruses}}
An '''ink''' is a [[liquid]] containing various [[pigment]]s and/or [[dye]]s used for colouring a surface to render an [[image]] or [[text]]. Common perceptions consider ink for use in drawing or writing with a [[pen]] or [[brush]].
However ink can be of a paste form, this kind of ink is used most extensively in letterpress and lithographic [[printing]].
[[Image:Tinte1.JPG|thumb|Inkpots with penholder]]
==Types of ink==
Early varieties of ink include [[Indian ink]], various natural dyes made from metals, the husk or outer covering of nuts or seeds, and sea creatures like the [[squid]] (known as [[sepia]] ). India ink is black and originated in [[Asia]]. [[Walnut ink]] and [[iron-gall nut ink]] were made and used by many of the early masters to obtain the golden brown ink used for drawing.
===Pigmented inks===
Pigmented inks contain other agents that ensure adhesion of the pigment to the surface and prevent it from being removed by mechanical abrasion. These materials are typically referred to as resins (in solvent-based inks) or binding agents (in water-based inks).
Pigmented inks are advantageous when printing on paper because the pigment stays on the surface of the paper. This is desirable because more ink on the surface of the paper means less ink needs to be used to create the same intensity of color.
===Dyes in inks===
Dyes, however, are generally much stronger and can produce more color of a given density per unit of mass. However, because dyes are dissolved in the liquid phase, they have a tendency to soak into paper, thus making the ink less efficient and also potentially allowing for the ink to bleed at the edges, producing poor quality printing.
To circumvent this problem, dye-based inks are made with solvents that dry rapidly or are used with quick-drying methods of printing, such as blowing hot air on the fresh print. Other methods to resolve this include harder paper [[sizing]] and more specialized paper coatings. The latter is particularly suited to inks that are used in non-industrial settings (and thus must conform to tighter toxicity and emission controls), such as [[inkjet printer]] inks, include coating the paper with a charged coating. If the dye has the opposite charge, then it is attracted to and retained by this coating, while the solvent soaks into the paper. [[Cellulose]], the material that paper is made of, is also naturally charged, and so a compound that complexes with both the dye and the paper surface aids retention at the surface. Such a compound in common use in ink-jet printing inks is [[poly vinyl pyrrolidone|polyvinyl pyrrolidone]].
An additional advantage of dye-based ink systems is that the dye [[molecule]]s interact chemically with other ink ingredients. This means that they can benefit more than pigmented ink from [[optical brightener]]s and colour-enhancing agents designed to increase the intensity and appearance of dyes. Because dyes get their colour from the interaction of [[electron]]s in their molecules, the way in which the electrons can move is determined by the charge and extent of electron delocalisation in the other ink ingredients. The colour emerges as a function of the light energy that falls on the dye. Thus, if an optical brightener or colour enhancer absorbs light energy and emits it through or with the dye, the appearance changes, as the spectrum of light re-emitted to the observer changes.
A disadvantage of dye-based inks is that they can be more susceptible to fading, especially when exposed to [[ultraviolet radiation]] as in sunlight.
Pigments contain the different colors. Pigments are the main components of the Inks. The size of the pigment is very important for the ability of diffuse in the solution inks. Denpending the sources and kind of the pigments so they have some special properties of ink like that : Brighness , Satulation, Hue.
==History of ink==
Approximately 5000 years ago, the Chinese developed ink for blackening the raised surfaces of pictures and texts carved in stone. This early ink was a mixture of soot from pine smoke, lamp oil, and gelatin from animal skins and musk. Other early cultures also developed inks (of many colors) from available berries, plants and minerals.
In an article for the Christian Science Monitor, Sharon J. Huntington describes these other historical inks:
<blockquote>About 1,600 years ago, a popular ink recipe was created. The recipe was used for centuries. Iron "salts," such as ferrous sulfate (made by treating iron with sulfuric acid), was mixed with tannin from gallnuts (they grow on trees) and a thickener. When first put to paper, this ink is bluish-black. Over time it fades to a dull brown.</blockquote>
<blockquote>Scribes in medieval Europe (about AD 800 to 1500) wrote on sheepskin parchment. One 12th-century ink recipe called for hawthorn branches to be cut in the spring and left to dry. Then the bark was pounded from the branches and soaked in water for eight days. The water was boiled until it thickened and turned black. Wine was added during boiling. The ink was poured into special bags and hung in the sun. Once dried, the mixture was mixed with wine and iron salt over a fire to make the final ink.</blockquote>
In the 14th century, a new type of ink had to be developed in Europe for the printing press. Two types of ink were prevelent at the time; The Greek and Roman writing ink (soot, glue, and water) and the 12th century variety composed of ferrous sulfate, nutgall, gum, and water. Neither of these handwriting inks could adhere to printing surfaces without creating blurs. Eventually an oily, varnish-like ink made of soot, turpentine, and walnut oil was created specifically for the printing press.
==References==
*[http://www.csmonitor.com/2004/0921/p18s02-hfks.html "Think Ink!"] by Sharon J. Huntington, Christian Science Monitor, September 21, 2004, retrieved January 17, 2006.
*"A History of Technology and Invention" by Maurice Audin, page 630
==See also==
*[[Invisible ink]]
*[[Soy ink]]
*[[Quink]]
*[[Ink sac]]
*[http://www.printpromotionguide.com/blog/item/40 Printing Metallic Inks]
[[Category:Inks|*]]
[[da:Blæk]]
[[de:Tinte]]
[[eo:Inko]]
[[es:Tinte]]
[[fr:Encre]]
[[he:דיו]]
[[it:Inchiostro]]
[[nl:Inkt]]
[[nn:blekk]]
[[no:blekk]]
[[ja:インク]]
[[simple:Ink]]
[[fi:Muste]]
[[zh:墨]]
Balochistan (Iran)
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Davidpdx
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Reverted vandalism
'''Balochistan''' is the [[Iran]]ian province of the greater terroitory [[Balochistan]] (or Baluchistan). It comprises [[Sistan va Baluchestan]] province and the southeastern parts of [[Kerman province|Kerman]] and [[Hormozgan]] provinces. To the south is the [[Gulf of Oman]]. To the east is [[Balochistan, Pakistan]].
The southern part of Balochistan is known as [[Makran]].
==Cities in Balochistan==
* [[Bampur]]
{{Iran-geo-stub}}
[[Category:Geography of Iran|Balochistan, Iranian]]
Islamabad Capital Territory
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Fast track
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Infobox corrected
{{ISB-infobox}}
''For main article on the capital of [[Pakistan]] go to [[Islamabad]].''
'''Islamabad Capital Territory''' is the capital of [[Pakistan]]. It is located to the north of [[Punjab, Pakistan|Punjab]] and to the south of [[North-West Frontier, Pakistan|North-West Frontier Province]].
==Introduction==
Islamabad was designed and built to be a modern capital for [[Pakistan]]. It is located amongst the Margalla Hills at the northern end of Pothowar Plateau. It was established in 1960 by the orders of then President General [[Ayub Khan]].
The capital is full of natural terraces and meadows and the southern plain drained by the Kurang River with the Margalla Hills in the north east.
==Area and population==
The city is divided into eight basic zones:
*Administrative
*Diplomatic Enclave
*Residential Areas
*Educational Sectors
*Industrial Sectors
*Commercial Areas
*Rural Areas and
*Green Areas
Each sector has its own shopping area and public park. The population of the city is around 950,000 people with an area of about 910 square kilometers. The city lies at latitudes 33° 49' north and longitudes 72° 24' east with altitudes ranging from 457 to 610 meters.
==Climate==
It offers a healthy climate, pollution free atmosphere, plenty of water and a lush green area. It is a modern and carefully planned city with wide tree-lined streets, large houses, elegant public buildings and well-organised bazars/markets/shopping centres.
The average humidity level is 55% with an average rainfall of 1150 millimeters each year. The city is quite moderate when it comes to its weather. The maximum average temperature is 29 °C and goes down to average minimum of around 14 °C.
==Education==
Islamabad has some of the fine educational institutes of [[Pakistan]], including Quaid-e-Azam University, International Islamic University and National University of Science and Technology.
[[Quaid-e-Azam]] University offers courses in a number of subjects. The institute is located in a semi hilly area, east of the Secretariat buildings and near the base of Margala Hills. This Post-Graduate institute is spread over 1500 acres (6 km²).
Major buildings of the campus have been designed in such a way as to form an axial spine with the library in the center. Quaid-e-Azam University now occupies an enviable position in the academic world.
==Shah Faisal mosque==
The enormous [[Shah Faisal Mosque]] sits at the foot of the Margalla Hills. It represents an eight-faceted desert 'tent' supported on four giant concrete girders and surrounded by four 90-metre high concrete minuets. The central 'tent' is faced in white marble and decorated inside with mosaics and a spectacular chandelier.
The mosque was designed by the Turkish architect [[Vedat Dalokay]], and largely financed by donations from [[Saudi Arabia]]. About 15,000 people fit inside, with room for another 85,000 in the courtyard.
==External links==
*[http://www.itspakistan.net/pakistan/islamabad.aspx Read More About Islamabad on itsPakistan]
*[http://www.itspakistan.net/pakistan/gallery_isb.aspx Picture Gallery of Islamabad on itsPakistan]
{{Territorial_Capitals_in_Pakistan}}
[[Category:Subdivisions of Pakistan]]
[[de:Islamabad Hauptstadtterritorium]]
[[ko:이슬라마바드 수도권]]
Intelligent Design
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2005-09-27T23:06:31Z
Kazrak
215642
rvv
#REDIRECT [[Intelligent design]]
Indian ink
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2006-02-25T01:34:07Z
Fuhghettaboutit
665998
prefered--->preferred
{{Otheruses4|the ink|the play by Tom Stoppard|Indian Ink (play)}}
'''Indian ink''' (or '''India ink''' in [[American English]]) is a simple black [[ink]] once widely used for writing and printing, and now more commonly used for [[drawing]], especially when inking [[comics]].
Early treatises on the arts refer to black carbon ink that was prepared by the ancient [[history of China|Chinese]] and [[Ancient Egypt|Egyptians]]. The basis of the ink was a black carbon pigment in an aqueous [[glue]] or binding medium. Sometime before the [[12th century]], [[Eraclius]], in his De Coloribus et Artibus Romanorum, presented a set of directions for making several types of carbon inks, including one similar to the Indian ink of China, made from the [[soot]] of burning resin or wood. Different types of wood will create different-colored inks. In an [[England|English]] volume on [[handwriting]] of [[1581]], [[Theophilus]] presented a recipe for a carbon ink:
:To make Inke in haste.
:In hast, for a shift when ye have a great neede,<br>
:Take woll, or wollen to stand you in steede,<br>
:Which burnt in the fyre, the powder beate small:<br>
:With vinegar, or water make Inke withall.
As the recipe shows, no [[binder material]] is necessary: the carbon molecules are in [[colloid|colloidal]] suspension and form a waterproof layer after drying; often waterproof [[shellac]] is added though.
Indian ink replaced the previously widespread [[Iron-gall nut ink]] in the opening years of the [[20th century]].
Caution: Indian ink is usually not suitable for [[fountain pen]]s: it will readily clog the pen. An exception to this is [[Pelikan]] Fount India, which does not contain shellac.
See also: [[pen and ink]].
Indian ink can also be used for home made tattoos, by drawing on the preferred design and then stabbing over the ink with a sharp sewing pin.
== See also ==
[[Sumi]]
[[Category:Inks]]
[[es:Tinta china]]
[[fr:Encre de Chine]]
[[it:Inchiostro cinese]]
[[nl:Oost-indische inkt]]
[[vi:Mực tầu]]
I think, therefore I am
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2002-03-26T12:17:19Z
Uriyan
64
*
#REDIRECT[[Cogito ergo sum]]
Integrin
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40190441
2006-02-18T21:22:05Z
66.75.253.147
/* Attachment of cell to the ECM */
An '''integrin''', or '''integrin receptor''', is an [[integral membrane protein]] in the [[plasma membrane]] of [[cell (biology)|cell]]s. It plays a role in the attachment of a cell to the [[extracellular matrix]] (ECM) (especially in [[growth cone]] [[axon guidance]]) and in [[signal transduction]] from the ECM to the cell. There are many different types of integrin and many cells have multiple types on their surface. Integrins are of vital importance to most multicellular organisms from humans to sponges.
[[Mutations]] in the [[gene]]s encoding for integrin can be found in certain types of [[cancer]], for instance [[breast cancer]]. A failure of integrin to anchor a cell to the ECM can play a role in the [[metastasis]] of certain cancer cells.
Other types of [[protein]] that play a role in cell-cell/cell-matrix interaction and communication are [[cadherin]]s, [[NCAM]]s and [[selectin]]s.
==Structure==
Integrins are obligate [[heterodimer]]s containing two distinct chains, termed the α (alpha) and β (beta) subunits. About 18 α and 8 β subunits have been found.. In addition, variants of many of the subunits are formed by differential splicing, for example 4 variants of the beta-1 subunit exist. Through different combinations of these alpha and beta subunits, some 24 unique integrins are generated. The subunits each penetrate the plasma membrance, and in general have very short cytoplasmic domains within the cell (40-70 amino acids), the exception being the beta-4 subunit which has one of the largest known cytoplasmic domains of any membrane protein, 1088 amino acids. Outside the cell plasma membrane, the chains lie close together along a length of about 23 [[Nanometre|nm]], the final 5 [[Nanometre|nm]] of each chain form a ligand-binding region for the ECM. The [[molecular mass]] of the subunits varies from about 100,000 to 140,000 in different integrins. β subunits have four [[cysteine]]-rich repeated sequences. α subunits bind several [[divalent]] [[cation]]s. X-ray crystal structure has been obtained for the complete extracellular regions of one integrin, and this shows the molecule to be folded into an inverted V-shape which brings the ligand-binding sites close to the cell membrane. The current hypothesis, is that integrin function involves changes in shape to move the ligand binding site into a more accessible position away from the cell surface, and this shape change also triggers intracellular signalling.
==Function==
Two main functions of integrins are:
*Attachment of the cell to the ECM.
*Signal transduction from the ECM to the cell.
However, they are also involved in a wide range of other biological activities. These include: binding of viruses, including adenovirus, Echo viruses, Hanta viruses, foot and mouth disease viruses, to cells; immune patrolling. Cell migration.
=== Attachment of cell to the ECM===
Integrins couple the ECM outside a cell to the [[cytoskeleton]] (in particular the [[microfilaments]]) inside the cell. Which ligand in the ECM the integrin can bind to is mainly decided by which α and β subunits the integrin is made of. Among the [[ligand]]s of integrins are [[fibronectin]], [[collagen]], and [[laminin]]. The connection between the cell and the ECM enables the cell to endure pulling forces without being ripped out of the ECM. The ability of a cell to create this kind of bond is also of vital importance in [[ontogeny]].
The connections between integrin and the ligands in the ECM and the microfilaments inside the cell are indirect: they are linked via scaffolding proteins like talin, paxillin and alpha-actinin. These act by regulating [[kinase]]s like FAK ([[focal adhesion kinase]])and Src kinase family members to phosphorylate substrates such as p130CAS thereby recruiting signaling adaptors such as Crk.
Cell attachment to the ECM is a basic requirement to built a multicellular organism. Integrins are not simply hooks, but give the cell critical signals about the nature of its surroundings. Together with signals arising from receptors for soluble growth factors like [[VEGF]], [[EGF]] and many others, they enforce a cellular decision on what biological action to take, be it attachment, movement, death or differentiation. Thus integrins lie at the heart, both literally and figuratively, of cellular biological processes.
===Signal transduction===
Integrins play an important role in cell signaling. Connection with ECM molecules can cause a signal to be relayed into the cell through protein [[kinase]]s that are connected with the intracellular end of the integrin molecule.
The signals the cell receives through the integrin can have relation to:
*[[cell growth]]
*[[cell division]]
*cell survival
*[[cellular differentiation]]
*[[apoptosis|apoptosis (programmed cell death)]] .
[[Category:Membrane biology]]
[[Category:Integral membrane proteins]]
[[Category:Cell adhesion proteins]]
[[de:Integrin]]
[[fr:Intégrine]]
[[ja:インテグリン]]
Ion channel
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2006-02-23T15:22:09Z
Sayeth
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/* History */ link to patch clamp
''Another, unrelated ion channeling process is part of [[ion implantation]].''
'''Ion channels''' are [[pore]]-forming [[protein]]s that help establish the small [[voltage]] [[gradient]] that exists across the [[membrane]] of all living [[cell (biology)|cell]]s (see [[cell potential]]), by allowing the flow of [[ion]]s down their electrochemical gradient. They are present in the [[cell membrane|membrane]]s that surround all [[cell (biology)|biological cell]]s.
== Basic features ==
An ion channel is an [[integral membrane protein]] or more typically an assembly of several proteins. Such "multi-[[protein subunit|subunit]]" assemblies usually involve a circular arrangement of identical or [[homologous|related]] proteins closely packed around a water-filled pore through the plane of the membrane or [[lipid bilayer]]{{ref|general}}. While large-pore channels permit the passage of ions more or less indiscriminately, the archetypal channel pore is just one or two atoms wide at its narrowest point. It conducts a specific species of ion, such as [[sodium]] or [[potassium]], and conveys them through the membrane single file--nearly as quickly as the ions move through free fluid. In some ion channels, access to the pore is governed by a "gate," which may be opened or closed by chemical or electrical signals, temperature, or mechanical force, depending on the variety of channel.
== Biological role ==
Because "voltage-gated" channels underlie the [[nerve impulse]] and because "transmitter-gated" channels mediate conduction across the [[synapse]]s, channels are especially prominent components of the [[nervous system]]. Indeed, most of the offensive and defensive toxins that organisms have evolved for shutting down the nervous systems of predators and prey (e.g., the venoms produced by spiders, scorpions, snakes, fish, bees, sea snails and others) work by plugging ion channel pores. But ion channels figure in a wide variety of biological processes that involve rapid changes in cells. In the search for new drugs, ion channels are a favorite target.
=== Diversity and activation ===
*[[Voltage-gated ion channel|''Voltage-gated'' channels]] open or close, depending on the [[transmembrane potential]]. Examples include the [[sodium ion channel|sodium]] and [[potassium channel|potassium]] voltage-gated channels of nerve and muscle, that are involved in the propagation of the [[action potential]], and the voltage-gated calcium channels that control [[neurotransmitter]] release in [[synapse|pre-synaptic endings]].
*[[Ligand-gated ion channel|''Ligand-gated'' channels]] open in response to a specific ligand molecule on the external face of the membrane in which the channel resides. Examples include the [[Acetylcholine receptor|"nicotinic" Acetylcholine receptor]], [[AMPA receptor]] and other [[neurotransmitter]]-gated channels.
*[[Cyclic nucleotide-gated ion channel|''Cyclic nucleotide-gated'' channels]], ''Calcium-activated'' channels and others open in response to internal solutes and mediate cellular responses to [[second messenger]]s.
*[[Stretch-activated ion channel|''Stretch-activated'' channels]] open or close in response to mechanical forces that arise from local stretching or compression of the membrane around them; for example when their cells swell or shrink. Such channels are believed to underlie touch sensation and the transduction of acoustic vibrations into the sensation of sound.
*[[G-protein-gated ion channel|''G-protein-gated'' channels]] open in response to [[G protein]]-activation via its receptor.
*[[Inward-rectifier potassium ion channel|''Inward-rectifier K'' channels]] allow potassium to flow into the cell in an inwardly rectifying manner, i.e, potassium flows into the cell but not out of the cell. They are involved in important physiological processes such as the pacemaker activity in the heart, insulin release, and potassium uptake in glial cells.
*[[Light-gated channels]] like [[channelrhodopsin]] are directly opened by the action of light
*[[Resting channel|''Resting'' channels]] remain open at all times.
Certain channels respond to multiple influences. For instance, the [[NMDA receptor]] is partially activated by interaction with its ligand, [[glutamate]], but is also voltage-sensitive and conducts only when the membrane is depolarized. Some calcium-sensitive potassium channels respond to both calcium and depolarization, with an excess of one apparently being sufficient to overcome an absence of the other.
== Detailed structure ==
Channels differ with respect to the ion they let pass (for example, Na<sup>+</sup>, K<sup>+</sup>, Cl<sup>−</sup>), the ways in which they may be regulated, the number of subunits of which they are composed and other aspects of structure. Channels belonging to the largest class, which includes the voltage-gated channels that underlie the nerve impulse, consists of four subunits with six [[transmembrane helix|transmembrane helices]] each. On activation, these helices move about and open the pore. Two of these six helices are separated by a loop that lines the pore and is the primary determinant of ion selectivity and conductance in this channel class and some others. The channel subunits of one such other class, for example, consist of just this "P" loop and two transmembrane helices. The determination of their molecular structure by [[Roderick MacKinnon]] using [[crystallography|X-ray crystallography]] won a share of the 2003 [[Nobel Prize in Chemistry]].
Because of their small size and the difficulty of crystallizing integral membrane proteins for X-ray analysis, it is only very recently that scientists have been able to directly examine what channels "look like." Particularly in cases where the crystallography required removing channels from their membranes with detergent, many researchers regard images that have been obtained as tentative. An example is the long-awaited crystal structure of a voltage-gated potassium channel, which was reported in May 2003. One inevitable ambiguity about these structures relates to the strong evidence that channels change conformation as they operate (they open and close, for example), such that the structure in the crystal could represent any one of these operational states. Most of what researchers have deduced about channel operation so far they have established through [[electrophysiology]], [[biochemistry]], [[gene]] sequence comparison and [[mutagenesis]].
==Diseases of Ion Channels==
There are a number of chemicals and genetic disorders which disrupt normal functioning of ion channels and have disastrous consequences for the organism.
'''Chemicals'''
* [[Tetrodotoxin]] (TTX), used by [[puffer fish]] and some types of [[newts]] for defense. It is a sodium channel blocker.
* [[Saxitoxin]], produced by a [[dinoflagellate]] also known as [[red tide]]. It blocks voltage dependent sodium channels.
* [[Conotoxin]], which is used by [[cone snails]] to hunt prey.
* [[Lidocaine]] and [[Novocaine]] belong to a class of [[local anesthetics]] which block sodium ion channels.
* [[Dendrotoxin]] is produced by a [[mamba]] [[snakes]] which blocks potassium channels.
'''Genetic'''
* [[Shaker gene]] mutations cause a defect in the volatage gated ion channels, slowing down the repolarization of the cell.
* [[Equine hyperkalaemic periodic paralysis]] as well as [[Human hyperkalaemic periodic paralysis]] (HyperPP) are caused by a defect in voltage dependent sodium channels.
* [[Paramyotonia congenital]] (PC) and [[potassium aggravated myotonias]] (PAM)
* [[Generalized epilepsy with febrile seizures]] (GEFS)
* [[Episodic Ataxia Type-1]] (EA1)
* [[Familial hemiplegic migraine]] (FHM)
== History ==
The existence of ion channels was hypothesized by the British [[biophysics|biophysicist]]s [[Alan Hodgkin]] and [[Andrew Huxley]] as part of their [[Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine|Nobel Prize]]-winning theory of the nerve impulse, published in 1952. The existence of ion channels was confirmed in the [[1970s]] with an [[electrophysiology|electrical recording technique]] known as the "[[patch clamp]]," which led to a Nobel Prize to [[Erwin Neher]] and [[Bert Sakmann]], the technique's inventors. Hundreds if not thousands of researchers continue to pursue a more detailed understanding of how these proteins work.
In recent years the development of [[planar patch clamp|automated patch clamp]] [[Port-a-Patch|devices]] helped to increase the throughput in ion channel screening significantly.
==References==
# {{note|general}} Two textbooks that discuss ion channels are: ''Neuroscience'' (2nd edition) Dale Purves, George J. Augustine, David Fitzpatrick, Lawrence. C. Katz, Anthony-Samuel LaMantia, James O. McNamara, S. Mark Williams, editors. Published by Sinauer Associates, Inc. (2001) [http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/bv.fcgi?rid=neurosci.chapter.227 online textbook] and ''Basic Neurochemistry: Molecular, Cellular, and Medical Aspects'' (6th edition) by George J Siegel, Bernard W Agranoff, R. W Albers, Stephen K Fisher and Michael D Uhler published by Lippincott, Williams & Wilkins (1999): [http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/bv.fcgi?rid=bnchm.chapter.421 online textbook]
==See also==
* [[action potential]]
* [[active transport]]
* [[channelopathy]]
* [[neurotoxin]]
* [[passive transport]]
* [[transmembrane receptor]]
==External links==
*[http://physrev.physiology.org/cgi/content/full/80/2/555 The Voltage Sensor in Voltage-Dependent Ion Channels]
*[http://www.cellbio.wustl.edu/faculty/huettner/69.pdf X-ray crystal structure of a potassium channel]
*[http://www.ionchannels.org Ion Channel, Biophysics and Electrophysiology Resources]
[[Category:Biochemistry]]
[[Category:Ion channels]]
[[de:Ionenkanal]]
[[fi:Ionikanava]]
[[fr:Canal ionique]]
[[ja:イオンチャンネル]]
[[nl:Ionkanaal]]
IDE
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2006-02-21T13:45:57Z
193.125.78.210
/* See also */
Meanings of '''IDE''':
* Integrated Drive Electronics - the more commonly-used name for the [[Advanced Technology Attachment]] interface standard.
* [[Integrated development environment|Integrated Development Environment]]
* Integrated Desktop Environment
* Investigational Device Exemption - A [[Food and Drug Administration|FDA]] regulatory status which permits the human use of an unapproved medical device
Meanings of '''Ide''':
* [[Ide]] - a fish (''Leuciscus idus'' in [[Latin]])
* A time of the [[month]], as in ''[[Ides of March]]''
* [[Ide, Devon]] -a village to the south of [[Exeter]], [[Devon]], [[England]].
* Means "'''here'''" in [[Hungarian]]
IDE was also the [[KGB|KGB's]] codename for [[Samuel Krafsur]] mentioned in the [[Venona]] decryptions.
==See also==
*[[IDDE]]
{{TLAdisambig}}
[[ca:IDE]]
[[cs:IDE]]
[[de:IDE]]
[[fr:IDE]]
[[it:IDE]]
[[he:IDE]]
[[lt:IDE]]
[[nl:IDE]]
[[ja:IDE]]
[[pl:IDE]]
[[uk:IDE]]
[[zh:IDE]]
Integrated development environment
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41648782
2006-02-28T20:03:04Z
S0crates9
425649
/* See also */
An '''integrated development environment''' ('''IDE'''), also known as '''integrated design environment''' and '''integrated debugging environment''', is a type of [[computer software]] that assists [[programmer|computer programmers]] to develop software.
IDEs normally consist of a [[source code editor]], a [[compiler]] and/or [[Interpreter (computing)|interpreter]], build-automation tools, and (usually) a [[debugger]]. Sometimes a [[version control system]] and various tools to simplify the construction of a [[GUI]] are integrated as well. Many modern IDEs also integrate a [[class browser]], an [[object inspector]] and a [[class hierarchy diagram]], for use with [[object oriented]] software development. Although some multiple-language IDEs are in use, such as the [[Eclipse (computing)|Eclipse]] IDE, [[NetBeans]] or [[Microsoft Visual Studio]], typically an IDE is devoted to a specific [[programming language]], as in the [[Visual Basic programming language|Visual Basic]] IDE.
==History==
IDEs initially became necessary when doing development in front of console or terminal. Early languages did not have one, since they were prepared using flowcharts, coding forms, and keypunches before being submitted to a compiler. [[Dartmouth BASIC|BASIC]] was the first language to be created with an IDE (and was also the first to be designed for use while sitting in front of a console or terminal). Its IDE (part of the [[Dartmouth Time Sharing System]]) was command-based, and therefore didn't look much like the menu-driven, graphical IDEs of today. However it seamlessly integrated editing, file management, compilation, debugging and execution in the manner characteristic of modern IDE
Today, the term "IDE" is a contrast to unrelated command-line tools, such as [[vi]], [[emacs]], or [[make]]. While one ''could'' think of [[Unix]] as an IDE, most developers think of an IDE as being (or having the appearance of) a single program in which all development is done. This program provides typically large numbers of features for authoring, modifying, compiling, deploying and debugging software. The idea being that the IDE abstracts the configuration necessary to piece together command line utilities in a cohesive unit, which theoretically reduces the time to learn a language, and increases developer productivity. It is also thought that the tight integration of various development tasks can lead to further productivity increases (for example, code can be compiled while being written, providing instant feedback on syntax errors). While most modern IDEs are graphical, IDEs in use before the advent of windowing systems (such as [[Microsoft Windows]] or [[X11]]) were text-based, using function keys or [[hotkeys]] to perform various tasks ([[Turbo Pascal]] is a common example).
An interesting development is the emergence and popularization of [[Open Source]] IDE such as [[Eclipse]] and [[NetBeans]] in recent years. The combination of the Open Source philosophy with an open, extensible framework, encourages the creation of a community of people to extend the capabilities of the IDE, allowing even exotic languages and applications to be supported by the environment.
==Visual programming==
There is also growing interest in [[visual programming]] (not to be confused with [[Visual Basic]] or [[Visual C++]]). These IDEs allow users to create new applications by moving programming building blocks or code nodes to create flowcharts or structure diagrams which are then compiled or interpreted. These flowcharts often are based on the [[Unified Modeling Language]].
This interface has been popularized with the [[Lego Mindstorms|LEGO Mindstorms]] system, and is being actively pursued by a number of companies wishing to capitalize on the power of custom browsers like those found at [[Mozilla]] and the power of [[distributed programming]] (cf. [[LabVIEW]] software). One of the first Visual Programming systems, [[Max]], was modelled after analog [[synthesizer]] design and has been used to develop real-time music performance software since the 1980s.
This approach is also used in specialist software such as [[Openlab]], where the end users want the flexibility of a full programming language, without the traditional learning curve associated with one.
A semi-free and Open Source alternative is the visual programing language Mindscript, with extended functionallity for cryptology, interfacing databases, etc.
==Arguments==
Many [[Linux]] programmers argue that the existing [[command-line]] [[GNU]] tools are in themselves an IDE, though with a different style of interface and under the Linux environment, many programmers still use [[makefile]]s and their derivatives. But even on Linux, graphical IDEs are becoming increasingly popular, although almost all of them are built on top of the text-based utilities (which makes them more compatible with each other somehow). Linux programs that use the standard GNU tools are easily ported to other operating systems, including [[Microsoft Windows|Windows]] and [[Mac OS X]], because most of these tools have been ported, using [[Cygwin]] or some other method like [[MinGW]] on Windows. Similarly, many Linux programmers use [[Emacs]] or [[Vim (text editor)|Vim]] (an advanced text editor that seeks to provide the power of the Unix editor [[Vi]]), which integrates support for many of the standard Unix/Linux build tools in what its users believe is an extremely elegant manner. [[Data Display Debugger]] is intended to be an advanced graphical front-end for many text-based [[Debugger|debugger standard tools]], even if Emacs itself has many plug-ins for debugging.
Under Windows, command-line tools for development are not well known, probably because Windows emphasises a graphical approach. As a result, there are multiple commercial and non-commercial solutions, but each of them has a different design and as a result they tend to have compatibility problems. That said, all the major compiler vendors for Windows provide free copies of their command-line tools, including [[Microsoft]] ([[Visual C Plus Plus|Visual C++]] free version, [[Platform SDK]], Microsoft [[.NET Framework]] SDK, [[nmake]] utility), [[Borland]] ([[bcc32]] compiler, [[make]] utility), and [[GNU]] ([[GNU Compiler Collection|gcc]], [[gdb]], GNU [[make]]).
IDEs have always been popular on the Mac, going back to [[Macintosh Programmer's Workshop]], [[Turbo Pascal]] and [[THINK C]] environments in the mid-[[1980s]].
==See also==
*[[List of integrated development environments]]
*[[Comparison of integrated development environments]]
*[[Software development kit]] (SDK)
*[[Utility program]]
*[[Software engineering]]
*[[List of software engineering topics]]
*[[Computer-aided software engineering]]
*[[IDDE]]
*[[Rapid application development]]
*[[Read Eval Print Loop]]
*[[Sybase]]
==External Links==
*'''[http://www.sybase.com/products/developmentintegration/workspace Sybase Workspace]'''
[[Category:Integrated development environments|*]]
[[ca:Entorn integrat de desenvolupament]]
[[cs:Vývojové prostředí]]
[[de:Integrierte Entwicklungsumgebung]]
[[es:Entorno integrado de desarrollo]]
[[fr:Environnement de développement intégré]]
[[ko:통합 개발 환경]]
[[id:IDE]]
[[it:Integrated development environment]]
[[lt:Integruota kūrimo aplinka]]
[[nl:Integrated Development Environment]]
[[ja:統合開発環境]]
[[pl:Zintegrowane środowisko programistyczne]]
[[ru:Среда разработки программного обеспечения]]
[[fi:Ohjelmointiympäristö]]
[[uk:Інструментальна система]]
[[zh:集成开发环境]]
Integrated Drive Electronics
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Ian McKellen
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/* Youth and early career */
[[Image:Ian McKellen.jpg|thumb|right|thumb|Sir Ian McKellen at the premiere of ''[[The Lord of the Rings: The Return of the King (film)|The Return of the King]]'' in [[Wellington, New Zealand]], [[December 1]], [[2003 in film|2003]]]]
'''Sir Ian Murray McKellen''', [[Order of the British Empire|CBE]] (born [[May 25]], [[1939]]) is a highly acclaimed [[Academy Award|Oscar]] nominated [[actor]] on both [[theatre|stage]] and [[film|screen]]. His roles have spanned genres from serious [[Shakespeare]]an and modern theatre to popular action movies. He is also known as an activist for the [[gay rights|rights]] of [[gay]]s and [[lesbian]]s.
==Youth and early career==
McKellen was born in [[Burnley]], [[Lancashire]], [[England]], shortly before the outbreak of [[World War II]], and has indicated that this had some impact on him. In an interview with ''[[The Advocate]]'' magazine ([[December 25]], [[2001]]), when an interviewer remarked that he seemed quite calm in the aftermath of the [[September 11, 2001 Terrorist Attack|September 11]] terrorist attack, he said: "Well, darling, you forget — I slept under a steel plate <nowiki>[</nowiki>during the [[Battle of Britain]]<nowiki>]</nowiki> until I was four years old." (Quotes in this article are from the Advocate interview unless otherwise noted.)
McKellen's father, Denis Murray McKellen, a [[civil engineer]], was a [[laity|lay]] preacher, and both of his grandfathers were preachers as well. His home environment was strongly [[Christianity|Christian]], but non-orthodox. "My upbringing was of low nonconformist Christians who felt that you led the Christian life in part by behaving in a Christian manner to everybody you met." When he was 12, his mother, Margery Lois McKellen (née Sutcliffe) died; his father died when he was 24.
When he [[Coming out|came out]] of the closet to his stepmother, Gladys McKellen, who was a [[Religious Society of Friends|Friend]] (Quaker): "Not only was she not fazed, but as a member of a society which declared its indifference to people's sexuality years back, I think she was just glad for my sake that I wasn't lying any more."
McKellen's acting career started while he was still a boy. He won a scholarship to [[St Catharine's College, Cambridge|St. Catharine's College]], [[University of Cambridge]], when he was 18, where he developed an intense crush on [[Derek Jacobi]]. He has characterized it as "a passion that was undeclared and unrequited." McKellen made his stage début in [[Coventry]] in [[1961]] and his [[West End]] début in [[1964]]. He was already a major name in the theatre before establishing himself as a television and film actor.
He and his first serious partner, Brian Taylor, began their relationship in [[1964]]. It was a relationship that was to last for eight years, ending in [[1972]]. They lived in [[London]], where McKellen continued to pursue his career as an actor. For over a decade he has lived in a five-story Victorian conversion in [[Narrow Street]], [[Limehouse]], [[London]].
==First major stage roles==
The role that made McKellen famous was his [[1969]] portrayal of King [[Edward II of England]] in the [[Prospect Theatre Company]]'s touring production of [[Marlowe]]'s ''[[Edward II (play)|Edward II]]''. The production was controversial for its explicit torture scenes and implicit homosexuality. He later reprised the role for the [[BBC]]. In [[1972]], he founded the [[Actors' Company]] with his friend [[Edward Petherbridge]], and this was the beginning of his reputation as a spokesman for actors and the British theatre in general. Between [[1974]] and [[1978]], he enhanced his reputation with leading roles in [[Royal Shakespeare Company]] productions such as ''[[Romeo and Juliet]]'' (in which he played opposite [[Francesca Annis]]) and ''[[Macbeth]]'' (opposite [[Judi Dench]]).
In [[1978]] he met his second lover, [[Sean Mathias]], at the [[Edinburgh Festival]]. According to Mathias, the love affair was tempestuous, with conflicts over McKellen's success in acting versus Mathias' somewhat less-successful career. Mathias said that "in those days, the world was far more [[homophobia|homophobic]], and me being the young, pretty boy — people wouldn't take me seriously as an actor, being Ian's boyfriend." Mathias was 22 when they met; McKellen 39. However, Mathias also says McKellen "did nothing but help me" in his career.
==Award-winning successes==
McKellen starred on [[Broadway theatre|Broadway]] in ''[[Bent (play)|Bent]]'', a play about gay men in [[Nazi]] [[extermination camp|death camps]], starting in 1979. Despite his role in this ground-breaking play, which brought to public view for the first time in a widespread way the persecution of [[homosexuality|gay]] people in [[Nazi Germany]], McKellen was not yet out publicly. At first, he was unsure whether he dared to take the role. "As impressed as I was by it, I thought 'My God! Do I dare be in this?' And Sean read it and said, 'Well you have to do it'," he said.
''Bent'' proved to be of great significance to McKellen. Since starring in the original Broadway production of ''Bent'', he has been involved in two other productions of the play. In [[1990]] he starred in the revival at the [[Royal National Theatre|National Theatre]] in London directed by Mathias, and also made a supporting appearance in the movie version, also directed by Mathias, which was released in [[1997 in film|1997]].
McKellen's talents won him successively more important and visible parts, until eventually in 1980 he won the role of [[Salieri]] in the [[Broadway theatre|Broadway]] production of ''[[Amadeus]]''. He was awarded the [[Tony Award]] for his performance, the most prestigious award given to actors in live theatre in the [[United States]]. His appearance as ''Walter'', a mentally-retarded adult, in a [[1982 in television|1982]] television play, won him a new following; but he was still a relative unknown to much of the U.S. public.
In the 1990s, McKellen began to branch into major American film and television roles. In [[1993 in film|1993]], McKellen had a supporting role as a South African tycoon in the [[sleeper hit]] ''[[Six Degrees of Separation]]'', in which he starred with [[Stockard Channing]], [[Donald Sutherland]], and [[Will Smith]]. In the same year, he was also exposed to North American audiences in minor roles in the television [[miniseries]] ''[[Tales of the City]]'' (based on the novel by his friend [[Armistead Maupin]]) and the movie ''[[Last Action Hero]]'', in which he played [[Death]]. Also in 1993, McKellen played a large role in the TV movie ''[[And the Band Played On]],'' about the discovery of the [[AIDS]] virus. In [[1995 in film|1995]], he played the title role in ''[[Richard III (1995 movie)|Richard III]]''. The performance was critically acclaimed, and he was nominated for [[Golden Globe]] and [[BAFTA]] awards, and won the [[European Film Awards|European Film Award]] for best actor.
His breakthrough role for mainstream American audiences came with the modestly-acclaimed ''[[Apt Pupil]],'' based on a story by [[Stephen King]]. McKellen portrayed an old Nazi officer, living under a [[Pseudonym|false name]] in the U.S., who was befriended by a curious teenager ([[Brad Renfro]]) who threatened to expose him unless he told his story in detail.
[[Elizabeth II of the United Kingdom|Queen Elizabeth II]] appointed him a [[Order of the British Empire|CBE]] in 1979 and knighted him in 1990 for his outstanding work and contributions to the theatre, becoming Sir Ian McKellen.
In 1994 McKellen put together a one man show, ''[[A Knight Out]]''. The show was very successful and he still performs it today. He considers it a perpetual "work in progress".
[[Image:GandalfPoster.jpg|thumb|150px|right|Sir Ian McKellen played the [[wizard]] [[Gandalf]] in ''[[The Lord of the Rings: The Fellowship of the Ring (film)|The Lord of the Rings: The Fellowship of the Ring]]'', for which he earned an [[Academy Award]] nomination.]]
He was nominated for the [[Academy Award for Best Actor]] for his role in the 1998 film ''[[Gods and Monsters]]'', where he played [[James Whale]], gay director of ''[[Show Boat]]'' (1936) and ''[[Frankenstein (1931 film)|Frankenstein]]''.
More recently, McKellen has become a major global star by playing leading roles in blockbuster films. First he played [[Magneto (comics)|Magneto]] in ''[[X-Men (film)|X-Men]]'' and its sequel ''[[X2 (film)|X2]]''. He followed that performance with the role of [[Gandalf]] in the three films that comprise the screen adaptation of ''[[The Lord of the Rings]]'' (''[[The Lord of the Rings: The Fellowship of the Ring (film)|The Fellowship of the Ring]]'', ''[[The Lord of the Rings: The Two Towers (film)|The Two Towers]]'', and ''[[The Lord of the Rings: The Return of the King (film)|The Return of the King]]''). For ''The Fellowship of the Ring'' he was nominated for the [[Academy Award for Best Supporting Actor]]. He will reprise the role of Magneto in the upcoming [[As of 2006|2006]] sequel ''[[X-Men: The Last Stand]]''.
In April and May 2005, he played the role of Mel Hutchwright in [[Granada Television]]'s long running soap opera, [[Coronation Street]].
==Work for gay rights==
While McKellen was always out to his co-actors, his public persona was another matter. It was not until [[1988]] that he came out to the general public. A controversial amendment was under consideration in the [[United Kingdom]] [[Parliament of the United Kingdom|Parliament]]: [[Section 28]] of the Local Government Bill proposed to prohibit local authorities from promoting homosexuality 'as a kind of pretended family relationship'. The drafting was open to several interpretations and the actual impact of the amendment was uncertain. McKellen became active in fighting the proposed law, and declared himself gay in a debate with the conservative journalist [[Peregrine Worsthorne]] which was aired by the [[BBC]]. "My own participating in that campaign was a focus for people [to] take comfort that if Ian McKellen was on board for this, perhaps it would be all right for other people to be as well, gay and straight," he said. Section 28 was, however, enacted and remained on the statute books until 2003. McKellen continued to fight for its repeal and criticised [[British Prime Minister]] [[Tony Blair]] for failing to concern himself with the issue.
[[Image:Section28.jpg|thumb|200px|Sir Ian McKellen with [[Michael Cashman]] at the Gay Rights March on Manchester in protest of [[Section 28]] in 1988.]]
By the time he came out, McKellen's ten-year relationship with Mathias had also ended. He has stated that being free of the additional concern of what effect his coming out would have on his partner's career made the choice easier, as did the advice and support of his friends, among them noted gay author [[Armistead Maupin]].
In 1994, he made a bit of a splash at the closing ceremony of the [[Gay Games]], where he stood before a crowd of gay athletes and their supporters and fans to say, "I'm Sir Ian McKellen, but you can call me Serena." (This nickname had been circulating within the gay community since McKellen's knighthood was conferred).
McKellen has continued up to the present to be very active in [[gay rights movement|gay rights]] efforts. He is a co-founder of [[Stonewall (UK)|Stonewall]], a gay rights lobby group in the United Kingdom. The group is named after the [[Stonewall riots]].
==Selected stage and screen credits==
===Theatre===
*''[[Much Ado About Nothing]]'', [[Royal National Theatre]], [[Old Vic]], London, 1965
*''[[Trelawney of the "Wells"]]'', National Theatre, London & [[Chichester Festival Theatre|Chichester Festival]], 1965
*''[[The Promise]]'', [[West End theatre|West End]]; [[Broadway theatre|Broadway]], 1967
*''[[Edward II (play)|Edward II]]'' (in title role), [[Edinburgh Festival]] & West End, 1969
*''[[Hamlet]]'' (title role), UK/European Tour, 1971
*''[[Tis Pity She's a Whore|'Tis Pity She's a Whore]]'', UK Tour, 1972
*''[[The Tragical History of Doctor Faustus|Dr Faustus]]'' (title role), [[Royal Shakespeare Company]], Edinburgh Festival & Aldwych Theatre (London), 1974
*''[[King John]]'', RSC, 1975
*''[[Romeo and Juliet]]'' (as Romeo), RSC, Stratford-upon-Avon & London, 1976
*''[[The Winter's Tale]]'', RSC, Stratford-upon-Avon, 1976
*''[[Macbeth]]'' (title role), RSC, Stratford-upon-Avon & [[Young Vic]] (London), 1976-1977
*''[[The Alchemist (play)|The Alchemist]]'', RSC, Stratford-upon-Avon & London, 1977
*''[[Every Good Boy Deserves Favour]]'', RSC, [[Barbican Arts Centre]] (London), 1977
*''[[Three Sisters (play)|Three Sisters]]'', RSC, UK Tour, 1978
*''[[Bent]]'', West End, 1979
*''[[Coriolanus]]'' (title role), National Theatre, 1984
*''[[Wild Honey]]'', National Theatre, 1984 (& Broadway, 1986)
*''[[The Cherry Orchard]]'' (as Lopakhin), National Theatre, 1985
*''[[The Duchess of Malfi]]'', National Theatre, 1985
*''[[The Real Inspector Hound]]'', National Theatre, London & Paris, 1985
*''[[Othello]]'' (as Iago), RSC, London & Stratford-upon-Avon, 1989
*''[[Richard III (play)|Richard III]]'' (title role), National Theatre, world tour, 1990 & US tour, 1992
*''[[Uncle Vanya]]'' (title role), National Theatre, 1992
*''[[Peter Pan]]'' (as Mr. Darling/Captain Hook), National Theatre, 1997
*''[[An Enemy of the People]]'', National Theatre, 1997 & [[Ahmanson Theatre]] (Los Angeles), 1998
*''[[Present Laughter]]'', [[West Yorkshire Playhouse]] (Leeds, England), 1998
*''[[Aladdin (play)|Aladdin]]'', Old Vic, 2004
*''[[Aladdin]],'' Old Vic, 2005
===Film===
[[Image:IanMcKellen.0051.jpg|thumb|right|180px|Sir Ian McKellen takes a day out at [[Universal Studios]], Hollywood, April 2000. Although a veteran performer on both stage and screen, he has only recently taken up serious [[Hollywood]] roles. Photo by [[Keith Stern]].]]
*''[[The Keep]]'', (1983)
*''[[Plenty (film)|Plenty]]'', (1985)
*''[[Scandal]]'' (as [[John Profumo]]), (1989)
*''[[Six Degrees of Separation]]'', (1993)
*''[[Last Action Hero]]'', (1993)
*''[[The Shadow]]'', (1994)
*''[[Restoration (film)|Restoration]]'', (1995)
*''[[Richard III (1995 movie)|Richard III]]'', (1995)
*''[[Cold Comfort Farm]]'', (1996)
*''[[Bent]]'', (1997)
*''[[Apt Pupil]]'', (1998)
*''[[Gods and Monsters]]'', (1998)
*''[[X-Men (film)|X-Men]]'', (2000)
*''[[The Lord of the Rings: The Fellowship of the Ring (film)|The Lord of the Rings: The Fellowship of the Ring]]'', (2001)
*''[[The Lord of the Rings: The Two Towers (film)|The Lord of the Rings: The Two Towers]]'', (2002)
*''[[The Lord of the Rings: The Return of the King (film)|The Lord of the Rings: The Return of the King]]'', (2003)
*''[[X2 (film)|X2: X-Men United]]'', (2003)
*''[[Emile]]'', (2005)
*''[[Asylum]]'', (2005)
*''[[Flushed Away]]'', (2006)
*''[[X-Men 3]]'', (2006)
*''[[The Da Vinci Code (movie)|The Da Vinci Code]]'', (2006)
===Television===
*''[[David Copperfield]]'' (title role), (1966)
*''[[Hay Fever]]'', (1968)
*''[[Keats]]'' (as [[John Keats]]), (1970)
*''[[Edward II (play)|Edward II]]'', (1970)
*''[[Richard II (play)|The Tragedy of King Richard II]]'', (1970)
*''[[Hedda Gabler]]'', (1972)
*''[[Macbeth]]'', (1979)
*''[[The Scarlet Pimpernel]]'', (1982)
*''[[Walter]]'', (1982)
*''[[And the Band Played On]]'', (1993)
*''[[Tales of the City]]'', (1993)
*''[[Rasputin]]'' (as [[Tsar Nicholas II]]), (1996)
*''[[Coronation Street]]'' (2005)
==References==
* Quotes used in this article are from an interview conducted by ''[[The Advocate]]'', [[December 11]], [[2001]].
* Information about his home taken from [[The Times]], August 2005.
==External links==
{{commons|Ian McKellen}}
* [http://www.mckellen.com/ Home page]
* [http://www.mckellen.com/cinema/lotr/index.htm McKellen's personal pages on the Lord of the Rings movie, features a diary and answers to questions by fans.]
* [http://www.overstuffed-closet.net/ian The Ian McKellen Fanlisting]
* [http://www.ibdb.com/person.asp?ID=6425 Ian McKellen at the Internet Broadway Database]
*{{imdb name|id=0005212|name=Ian McKellen}}
[[Category:1939 births|McKellen, Sir Ian]]
[[Category:Alumni of St. Catharine's College, Cambridge|McKellen, Ian]]
[[Category:Atheists|McKellen, Sir Ian]]
[[Category:Best Supporting Actor Oscar Nominee|McKellen, Ian]]
[[Category:Commanders of the British Empire|McKellen, Sir Ian]]
[[Category:Coronation Street actors|McKellen, Ian]]
[[Category:British film actors|McKellen, Ian]]
[[Category:British stage actors|McKellen, Ian]]
[[Category:English film actors|McKellen, Ian]]
[[Category:English stage actors|McKellen, Ian]]
[[Category:Gay actors|McKellen, Ian]]
[[Category:LGBT rights activists|McKellen, Ian]]
[[Category:Living people|McKelln, Ian]]
[[Category:Natives of Lancashire|McKellen, Ian]]
[[Category:The Lord of the Rings film series actors|McKellen, Ian]]
[[Category:Vegetarians|McKellen, Sir Ian]]
[[Category:X-Men actors|McKellen, Ian]]
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{{featured article}}
Intellivision
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{{CVG system| title = Intellivision
|logo =
|image = [[Image:intellivision.jpg|230px|]]
|manufacturer = [[Mattel]]
|type = [[Video game console]]
|generation = [[History of video games (second-generation systems)|Second generation]]
|lifespan = [[1980]]
|media = [[Cartridge (electronics)|Cartridge]]
|onlineservice =
|topgame =
}}
The '''Intellivision''' is a [[video game console]] released by [[Mattel]] in [[1980]]; development of the console began in 1978 (less than a year after the introduction of its main competitor, the legendary [[Atari 2600]] aka the Atari VCS).
==Rapid popularity==
The Intellivision was developed by Mattel Electronics, a subsidiary of Mattel formed expressly for the development of electronic games. The console was test marketed in [[Fresno, California|Fresno]], [[California]], in [[1979]] with a total of four games available, and went nationwide in [[1980]] with a price tag of $299 and a pack-in game: ''[[Las Vegas, Nevada|Las Vegas]] [[Blackjack]]''. Though not the first system to challenge [[Atari]] (systems from [[Fairchild Semiconductor]], [[Bally]], and [[Magnavox]] were already on the market), it was the first to pose a serious threat to Atari's dominance. A series of ads featuring [[George Plimpton]] were produced which mercilessly attacked the Atari 2600's lesser capabilities with side-by-side game comparisons.
One of the slogans of the television advertisements stated that Intellivision was "the closest thing to the real thing"; one example in an advertisement compared golf games - the others had a blip sound and cruder graphics, while Intellivision featured a realistic swing sound and striking of the ball, and graphics that suggested a more 3D look, although undoubtedly crude when compared with modern game consoles.
Like [[Atari]], Mattel marketed their console to a number of retailers as a rebadged unit. These models include the [[Radio Shack]] [[Tandyvision]], the [[GTE-Sylvania]] Intellivision, and the [[Sears]] [[Super Video Arcade]]. (The Sears model was a particular coup for Mattel, as Sears was already selling a rebadged [[Atari 2600]] unit, and in doing so making a huge contribution to Atari's success.)
In that first year Mattel sold 175,000 Intellivision consoles, and the library grew to 19 games. At this point in time, all Intellivision games were developed by an outside firm, [[APh]]. The company recognized that what had been seen as a secondary product line might be a big business. Realizing that potential profits are much greater with first party software, Mattel formed its own in-house software development group.
The original five members of that Intellivision team were manager [[Gabriel Baum]], [[Don Daglow]], [[Rick Levine]], [[Mike Minkoff]] and [[John Sohl]]. Levine and Minkoff (a long-time Mattel Toys veteran) both came over from the hand-held Mattel games engineering team. To keep these programmers from being hired away by rival Atari, their identity and work location was kept a closely guarded secret. In public, the programmers were referred to collectively as the [[Blue Sky Rangers]].
By [[1982]] sales were soaring. Over two million Intellivision consoles had been sold by the end of the year, earning Mattel a $100,000,000 profit. This was a big year for Mattel. Third party Atari developers [[Activision]], and [[Imagic]] began releasing games for the Intellivision, as did hardware rivals Atari and [[Colecovision]]. Mattel created ''[[M Network]]'' branded games for Atari and Coleco's systems. The most popular titles sold over a million units each.
The original 5-person Mattel game development team had grown to 110 people under now-Vice President Baum, while Daglow led Intellivision development and top engineer Minkoff directed all work on all other platforms.
==Keyboard Component==
Many users waited patiently for the promised release of the "Keyboard Component", an add-on computer upgrade unit touted by Mattel as "coming soon" even when the original console was first shipped. The unit featured a built-in cassette tape drive for loading and saving data. The Keyboard Component would plug into the cartridge slot on the Intellivision, and had an additional cartridge slot of its own to allow regular Intellivision games to be played in the usual way.
The upgrade had proven too expensive to develop and produce, so Mattel had repeatedly sent the engineers "back to the drawing board" to attempt to increase reliability and reduce cost. Mattel was subsequently investigated by the [[Federal Trade Commission]] (FTC) for failing to produce the promised upgrade, and eventually ordered to pay $10,000 a day (about $25,000 in 2005 when adjusted for inflation) until it was released. Finally, Mattel offered the Keyboard Component for sale via mail order.
Four thousand units were sold; many were later returned for a full refund when Mattel recalled the unit in 1983 due to various support problems, especially that the then-innovative cassette tape unit never proved to be reliable. According to the Blue Sky Rangers web site, users who opted to keep theirs were made to sign a waiver absolving Intellivision of all future responsibility for technical support. [http://www.intellivisionlives.com/bluesky/hardware/index.html] In addition, the Keyboard Component could be modified into a development platform for the Intellivision, and such units were used internally for game development during the latter portion of the system's lifespan.
By this time, Mattel had set up competing internal engineering teams, each trying to either fix the Keyboard Component or replace it. The rival Mattel engineers had come up with a much less expensive keyboard alternative. The [[Entertainment Computer System]] (ECS), was much smaller, sleeker, and easier to produce than the original Keyboard Component. Unfortunately, while the original Keyboard Component had some advantages over the small computers of its day, the new Keyboard Component was designed to be inexpensive, not functional, and was far less powerful than emerging machines like the Commodore 64. The two keyboard units were incompatible, but owners of the older unit were offered a new ECS.
To maintain secrecy in a [[toy]] industry where [[industrial espionage]] was a way of life, many projects had code names, so documents and casual discussion did not reveal company secrets. With the video games business already staggering by the time the new Keyboard Component was planned, Daglow suggested the new device be code-named LUCKI (for "Low User Cost Keyboard Interface.") The name stuck but the good fortune did not: the cheaply manufactured ECS keyboard add-on was a retail failure.
==IntelliVoice==
[[Image:Intellivision1.jpg|thumb|right|315px|Intellivision II featuring the game ''[[Burger Time]]'' and the [[voice synthesis]] module.]]
In [[1983]] Mattel introduced a new [[peripheral]] innovative for the time: [[IntelliVoice]], a [[voice synthesis]] device which produced speech when used with certain games, most of which would not work without the add-on component. Top Mattel programmers including [[Bill Fisher]], [[Steve Roney]], [[Gene Smith]] and John Sohl were diverted to the project, slowing the previous initiative to counter Atari with new arcade-style games. Voice titles included:
* ''[[Bomb Squad (game)|Bomb Squad]]''
* ''[[B-17 Bomber (game)|B-17 Bomber]]''
* ''[[Intellivision World Series Baseball]]'' (IntelliVoice optional since the game already required the ECS keyboard)
* ''[[Space Spartans]]''
* ''[[TRON Solar Sailer]]''
==Intellivision II==
In addition to the IntelliVoice module, 1983 also saw the introduction of a redesigned model, called the [[Intellivision II]] (featuring detachable controllers and sleeker case), the [[System Changer]] (which played [[Atari 2600]] games on the Intellivision II), and a music keyboard add-on for the ECS.
Like the ECS, Intellivision II was designed first and foremost to be inexpensive to manufacture. Among other things, the raised bubble keypad of the original hand controller was replaced by a flat [[membrane keyboard]] surface. Unfortunately, many Intellivision games had been designed for users to play by feeling the buttons without looking down, and many games were far less playable on Intellivision II.
==Competition and market crash==
:''See also:'' [[Video game crash of 1983]]
Amid the flurry of new hardware, there was trouble for the Intellivision. New game systems ([[Colecovision|ColecoVision]], [[Atari 5200]], and [[Vectrex]], all in [[1982]]) were further subdividing the market, and the [[video game crash of 1983|videogame crash]] began to put pressure on the entire industry. The Intellivision team rushed to finish a major new round of games, including [[Burger Time]] and the ultra-secret [[3D glasses]] game [[Hover Force]]. Unfortunately, although Burger Time was one of the best games on the Intellivision and was programmed by Blue Sky Ranger [[Ray Kaestner]] in record time, the five-month manufacturing cycle meant that the game did not appear until the late spring of 1983, after the video game crash had severely damaged game sales.
In the spring of 1983 Mattel went from aggressively hiring game programmers to laying them off within a two week period. By August there were massive layoffs, and the price of the Intellivision II (which launched at $150 earlier that year) was lowered to $69. Mattel Electronics posted a $300 million loss. Early in 1984, the division was closed - the first high profile victim of the crash.
Intellivision game sales continued when a liquidator purchased all rights to the Intellivision and its software from Mattel, as well as all remaining inventory. After much of the existing software inventory had been sold, former Mattel Marketing executive [[Terry Valeski]] bought all rights to Intellivision and started a new venture. The new company, INTV Corp., continued to sell old stock via retail and mail order. When the old stock of Intellivision II consoles ran out, they introduced a new console dubbed [[INTV III]]. This unit was actually a cosmetic rebadge of the original Intellivision console (this unit was later renamed the [[Super Pro System]].) In addition to manufacturing new consoles, INTV Corp. also continued to develop new games, releasing a few new titles each year. Eventually, the system was discontinued in [[1991]].
Intellivision games became readily available again when Keith Robinson, an early Intellivision programmer responsible for the game [http://www.intellivisionlives.com/bluesky/games/credits/voice2.shtml#solar_sailer TRON Solar Sailer] purchased the software rights and founded a new company, Intellivision Productions. As a result, games originally designed for the Intellivision are available on modern-day consoles including the [[PlayStation 2]], [[Xbox]], [[Nintendo GameCube]] and [[Nintendo DS]], in the ''[[Intellivision Lives!]]'' package.
==Statistics==
*Over 3 million Intellivision consoles were sold during its 12 year run.
*There were a total of 125 Intellivision games released.
==Innovations==
*Intellivision was the first [[16-bit]] game console, though some people have mistakenly referred to it as a 10-bit system because the [[central processing unit|CPU]]'s instruction set and game cartridges are 10 bits wide. A 10-bit chunk of data is called a "decle". The [[processor register|registers]] in the [[microprocessor]], where the mathematical logic is processed, were 16 bits wide.
*The Intellivision was also the first system to feature downloadable games (though without a storage device the games vanished once the machine was turned off). In 1981, [[General Instrument]] (manufacturer of the Intellivision's CPU) teamed up with Mattel to roll out the [[PlayCable]], a device that allowed the downloading of Intellivision games via cable TV.
*Intellivision was the second game console to provide real-time human and robot voices in the middle of gameplay, courtesy of the IntelliVoice module. The first was Magnavox's voice module for the Odyssey2.
*[[Intellivision World Series Baseball]], designed by [[Don Daglow]] and [[Eddie Dombrower]] and released in 1983, was the first video game to use the concept of displaying the action in simulated 3D through "camera angles" that emulated those used in TV sports coverage. Prior games always showed a single fixed or scrolling camera view of the field. Daglow and Dombrower went on to create the [[Earl Weaver Baseball]] games at [[Electronic Arts]] in [[1987]].
*It was also the first console to feature a controller with a directional pad that allowed 16 directions, which was handy for sports games. However, the ergonomics of the disc-shaped pad, and particularly the "action" buttons on the side of the controller, were poor. This turned off some gamers. Along with cost, this was one of the factors in making the Intellivision less popular than the Atari 2600. However, it is interesting to note that the method of controlling movement on the Intellivision (with the thumb) is not too different from the popular home video game controllers we see now (from the NES to today). The joystick style controller is much more rare on modern consoles.
== Trivia ==
*During the early 80s, [[New York]] based television station [[WPIX]] ran a very popular telephone interactive game called TV-PIXX (The PIXX being derived from the TV station's call letters). It was aired during the traditional weekday afternoon slot of children's programming as an interlude during whatever show was being aired. Participants would be called at home to play a videogame that appeared on their screen. Two of the Earliest games featured on the segment were simple games such as Tic Tac Toe and a Breakout type game called Moving Target. Intellivision's Football, Baseball, Basketball, and Space Battle were later featured as the TV segment got more popular. Participants would say the word "PIXX" in order to affect a game action such as passing the ball, swinging the bat, or firing the laser. Based on the score, Kids could win prizes such as T-shirts and $10 Dollar U.S. [[Savings Bonds]]. They could double their prize or win a bonus prize (such as advance tickets to see upcoming films) by answering a Trivia question. For a chance at playing, kids could send a postcard with their name, address, and phone number to TV PIXX c/o WPIX TV, New York, NY. TV Pixx lasted until 1982 when the Intellivision system became a popular home game system but for many New York viewers, this TV segment was their first glimpse of the Intellivison home game system.
*A similar syndicated show ran in the Los Angeles area at the same time, with callers saying ''POW!'' to interface with the system. The show was sabotaged by prank callers calling in to the station after telling an operator the call was an emergency, which caused the operator to interrupt the live program with a "I have an emergency call for 555-1212" message.
*Intellivision is short for ''Intelligent Television''.
== Screenshots ==
<gallery>
Image:Intv_Armor_Battle.png|''[[Armor Battle]]''<br>Mattel/APh (1979)
Image:Intv_Auto_Racing.png|''Auto Racing''<br>Mattel/APh (1980)
Image:Intv_Major_League_Baseball.png|''Major League Baseball''<br>Mattel/APh (1980)
Image:Intv_NHL_Hockey.png|''NHL Hockey''<br>Mattel/APh (1980)
Image:Intv_Donkey_Kong.png|''[[Donkey Kong (arcade game)|Donkey Kong]]''<br>[[Coleco]] ([[1982]])
Image:Intv_Frog_Bog.png|''Frog Bog''<br>Mattel/APh (1982)
Image:Intv_[[Lock_'n'_Chase]].png|''Lock'n'Chase''<br>Mattel (1982)
Image:Intv_QBert.png|''[[QBert|Q*Bert]]''<br>[[Parker Brothers]] ([[1983]])
</gallery>
More screenshots can be found in the [[Intellivision/Screenshots|Screenshot Gallery]].
==Technical specifications==
*General Instrument CP1610 16-bit microprocessor [[central processing unit|CPU]] running at 894.886 [[kilohertz|kHz]] (i.e., slightly less than 1 MHz)
*1352 [[byte]]s of [[random-access memory|RAM]]:
**240 × 8-bit Scratchpad Memory
**352 × 16-bit (704 bytes) System Memory
**512 × 8-bit Graphics RAM
*7168 bytes of [[read-only memory|ROM]]:
**4096 × 10-bit (5120 bytes) Executive ROM
**2048 × 8-bit Graphics ROM
*160 [[pixel]]s wide by 196 pixels high (5×4 TV pixels make one Intellivision pixel)
*16 color palette, all of which can be on the screen at once
*8 [[sprite (computer graphics)|sprite]]s of size 8×8 or 8×16
**Can be stretched horizontally (2×) or vertically (2×, 4× or 8×)
**Can be mirrored horizontally or vertically
*3 channel sound, with 1 noise generator ([[sound chip|audio chip]]: GI AY-3-8914)
==Game controller specs==
*Twelve-button [[numeric keypad]] (0–9, Clear, and Enter)
*"Four" side-located "action buttons" (where the top two are actually electronically the same, giving three distinct buttons)
*"Directional Disk", capable of detecting 16 directions of movement
*"Overlays" that would slide into place as an extra layer on the keypad to show game-specific key functions
Fans of the game recall that an [[:Category:overuse injuries|overuse injury]] was possible when playing for extended periods of time due to the pressure needed to use the keypad and especially the side buttons. This was a phenomenon similar to [[BlackBerry Thumb]] today. The problem was worsened significantly when the cost-reduced Intellivision II changed from solid rubber side buttons to plastic ones with a hollow center, leaving a rectangular imprint on players' thumbs and causing pain after even short periods of play. The change was apparently made to fractionally reduce the materials cost of the units, and was never play-tested for usability due to the rush to bring the system to market in the early days of the Video game crash of 1983.
==External links==
*[http://www.intellivisionlives.com/home.shtml Intellivision retrogaming company homepage], run by Keith Robinson and The Blue Sky Rangers (the original Intellivision game programmers)
*[http://intelliwiki.kylesblog.com/ Intellivision Technical Wiki], put together by modern day Intellivision enthusiasts
*[http://sdk-1600.spatula-city.org/ SDK-1600], a development kit for the Intellivision
*[http://www.intelligentvision.org/ IntelligentVision], a group releasing cartridge versions of homebrew Intellivision games
*[http://www.thedoteaters.com/play3sta3.htm Article at The Dot Eaters], an extensive history of the Intellivision console and its development
*[http://www.intellivisionworld.com/ IntellivisionWorld], The more up to date Intellivision related web site, working on development of new cartridges
==See also==
{{Dedicated video game consoles}}
[[List of Intellivision games]]
[[Category:Second-generation video game consoles]]
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{{creationism2}}
{{Intelligent Design}}
'''Intelligent design''' ('''ID''') is the concept that "certain features of the [[universe]] and of [[life|living things]] are best explained by an [[Argument from design|intelligent cause]], not an undirected process such as [[natural selection]]."{{ref|id_def}} Its leading proponents, all of whom are affiliated with the [[Discovery Institute]]{{ref|proponents_affiliated}}, say that intelligent design is a [[Science|scientific]] [[theory]] that stands on equal footing with, or is superior to, current scientific theories regarding the [[origin of life]].{{ref|intro_meyer}}
An overwhelming majority{{ref|overwhelming}} of the [[scientific community]] views intelligent design not as a valid [[scientific theory]] but as [[pseudoscience]] or [[junk science]].{{ref|id_junkscience_1}} The [[United States National Academy of Sciences|U.S. National Academy of Sciences]] has stated that intelligent design "and other claims of [[supernatural]] intervention in the origin of life" are not science because they cannot be tested by [[scientific experiment|experiment]], do not generate any predictions and propose no new [[hypothesis|hypotheses]] of their own.{{ref|nas_id_creationism_1}}
[[United States federal courts]] have ruled as unconstitutional a public school district requirement endorsing intelligent design as an alternative to evolution in science classes, on the grounds that its inclusion violates the [[Establishment Clause]] of the [[First Amendment to the United States Constitution|First Amendment]]. In ''[[Kitzmiller v. Dover Area School District]]'' (2005). United States federal court judge [[John E. Jones III]] [[Wikisource:Kitzmiller v. Dover Area School District 6: curriculum, conclusion#H. Conclusion|ruled that]] intelligent design is not science and is essentially religious in nature.
==Intelligent design in summary==
Intelligent design is presented as an alternative to purely [[naturalism (philosophy)|naturalistic]] explanations for [[evolution]]. The stated{{ref|id_goal_putative}} purpose is to investigate whether or not existing [[empiricism|empirical evidence]] implies that life on [[Earth]] must have been designed by an [[intelligence (trait)|intelligent]] agent or agents. [[William Dembski]], one of intelligent design's leading proponents, has stated that the fundamental claim of intelligent design is that "there are natural systems that cannot be adequately explained in terms of undirected natural forces and that exhibit features which in any other circumstance we would attribute to intelligence."{{ref|dembski_adequately_explained}}
Proponents of intelligent design look for [[scientific evidence|evidence]] of what they term ''"signs of intelligence"'' — [[physical properties]] of an object that they assert necessitate design. The most commonly cited signs include [[irreducible complexity]], [[information]] mechanisms, and [[specified complexity]]. Design proponents argue that living systems show one or more of these, from which they infer that some aspects of life have been designed. This stands in opposition to mainstream [[Biology|biological science]], which relies on experiment and collection of uncontested data to explain the natural world exclusively through observed impersonal physical processes such as [[mutations]] and [[natural selection]]. Intelligent design proponents say that while evidence pointing to the nature of an "intelligent cause or agent" may not be directly [[observation|observable]], its effects on nature can be detected. Dembski, in ''Signs of Intelligence'', states: "Proponents of intelligent design regard it as a scientific research program that investigates the effects of intelligent causes. Note that intelligent design studies the ''effects'' of intelligent causes and not intelligent causes ''per se''." In his view, one cannot test for the identity of influences exterior to a closed system from within, so questions concerning the identity of a designer fall outside the realm of the concept.
===Origins of the concept===
For millennia, philosophers have argued that the complexity of nature indicates the existence of a purposeful natural or supernatural designer/creator. The first recorded arguments for a natural designer come from [[Ancient Greece|Greek]] philosophy. The philosophical concept of the "[[Logos]]" is typically credited to [[Heraclitus]] (c. 535–c.475 [[Common era|BCE]]), a Pre-Socratic philosopher, and is briefly explained in his extant fragments.{{ref|heraclitus}} [[Plato]] (c. 427–c. 347 BCE) posited a natural "[[demiurge]]" of supreme wisdom and intelligence as the creator of the cosmos in his work ''[[Timaeus (dialogue)|Timaeus]]''. [[Aristotle]] (c. 384–322 BCE) also developed the idea of a natural creator of the cosmos, often referred to as the "[[Cosmological argument|Prime Mover]]" in his work ''[[Metaphysics (Aristotle)|Metaphysics]]''. In his ''de Natura Deorum'' (On the Nature of the Gods) [[Cicero]] (c. 106–c. 43 BCE) stated, "The divine power is to be found in a principle of reason which pervades the whole of nature."{{ref|natura_deorum}}
The use of this line of reasoning as applied to a supernatural designer has come to be known as the [[teleological argument]] for the existence of [[God]]. The most notable forms of this argument were expressed by [[Thomas Aquinas]] in his ''[[Summa Theologiae]]''{{ref|five_ways}} (thirteenth century), design being the fifth of Aquinas' five proofs for God's existence, and [[William Paley]] in his book ''Natural Theology'' (1802), where he uses the [[watchmaker analogy]], which is still used in intelligent design arguments. In the early [[19th century]] such arguments led to the development of what was called [[Natural theology]], the study of [[biology]] as a search to understand the "mind of God". This movement fueled the passion for collecting fossils and other biological specimens that ultimately led to [[Charles Darwin|Darwin's]] theory of [[Origin of Species|the origin of species]].
Intelligent design in the late 20th century can be seen as a modern reframing of natural theology. As [[evolutionary theory]] has expanded to explain more phenomena, so the examples held up as evidence of design have changed, but the essential argument remains the same: complex systems imply a designer. In the past, examples that have been offered included the eye (optical system) and the feathered wing; current examples are mostly [[biochemical]]: protein functions, blood clotting, and bacteria flagella (see [[irreducible complexity]]).
Intelligent design deliberately does not try to identify or name the specific [[intelligent designer|agent of creation]] – it merely states that one (or more) must exist. While intelligent design itself does not name the designer, the personal view of many proponents is that the designer is the Christian god. Whether this was a genuine feature of the concept or just a posture taken to avoid alienating those who would separate religion from science-teaching has been a matter of great debate between supporters and critics of intelligent design. The [[Kitzmiller v. Dover Area School District]] court ruling held the latter to be the case.
===Origins of the term===
Though unrelated to the current use of the term, the phrase "intelligent design" can be found in an 1847 issue of ''Scientific American'', in an 1868 geography textbook{{ref|1868}}, and in an address to the 1873 annual meeting of the [[British Association for the Advancement of Science]] by Paleyite botanist [[George James Allman]]:
<blockquote>No physical hypothesis founded on any indisputable fact has yet explained the origin of the primordial protoplasm, and, above all, of its marvellous properties, which render evolution possible—in heredity and in adaptability, for these properties are the cause and not the effect of evolution. For the cause of this cause we have sought in vain among the physical forces which surround us, until we are at last compelled to rest upon an independent volition, a far-seeing intelligent design.{{ref|times1873}}</blockquote>
The phrase was coined again in ''Humanism'', a 1903 book by [[Ferdinand Canning Scott Schiller]]: "It will not be possible to rule out the supposition that the process of evolution may be guided by an intelligent design," and was resurrected in the early 1980s by Sir [[Fred Hoyle]] as part of his promotion of [[panspermia]].{{ref|times1982}}
The term was again resurrected when the [[Supreme Court of the United States]], in the case of [[Edwards v. Aguillard]] (1987), ruled that [[creationism]] is unconstitutional in public school science curricula. [[Stephen C. Meyer]], cofounder of the [[Discovery Institute]] and vice president of the [[Center for Science and Culture]], reports that the term came up in 1988 at a conference he attended in [[Tacoma, Washington]], called ''Sources of Information Content in DNA''.{{ref|safire2005}} He attributes the phrase to [[Charles Thaxton]], editor of ''[[Of Pandas and People]]''. In drafts of the book ''Of Pandas and People'', the word 'creationism' was subsequently changed, almost without exception to ''intelligent design''. The book was published in 1989 and is considered to be the first intelligent design book.{{ref|first_id_book}} The term was promoted more broadly by the retired legal scholar [[Phillip E. Johnson]] following his 1991 book ''[[Darwin on Trial]]'' which advocated redefining science to allow claims of supernatural creation. Johnson, considered the "father" of the [[intelligent design movement]], went on to work with Meyer, becoming the program advisor of the Center for Science and Culture in forming and executing the [[wedge strategy]].
==Concepts==
The following are summaries of key concepts of intelligent design, followed by summaries of criticisms. Counter-arguments against such criticisms are often proffered by intelligent design proponents, as are counter-counter-arguments by critics, etc.
===Irreducible complexity===
{{main article|[[Irreducible complexity]]}}
In the context of intelligent design, irreducible complexity was put forth by [[Michael Behe]], who defines it as:
<blockquote>...a single system which is composed of several well-matched interacting parts that contribute to the basic function, wherein the removal of any one of the parts causes the system to effectively cease functioning. (Behe, Molecular Machines: Experimental Support for the Design Inference) </blockquote>
Behe uses the mousetrap as an illustrative example of this concept. A mousetrap consists of several interacting pieces — the base, the catch, the spring, the hammer — all of which must be in place for the mousetrap to work. The removal of any one piece destroys the function of the mousetrap. Intelligent design advocates assert that natural selection could not create irreducibly complex systems, because the selectable function is only present when all parts are assembled. Behe's original examples of alleged{{ref|MillerIC}} irreducibly complex biological mechanisms also include the bacterial [[flagellum]] of ''[[E. coli]]'', the [[blood clotting]] cascade, [[cilia]], and the adaptive [[immune system]].
Critics point out that the irreducible complexity argument assumes that the necessary parts of a system have always been necessary, and therefore could not have been added sequentially. They argue that something which is at first merely advantageous can later become necessary, as other components change. Furthermore, they argue that evolution often proceeds by altering preexisting parts or by removing them from a system, instead of by adding them; this is sometimes referred to as the "scaffolding objection" by an analogy with scaffolding which can support a (irreducibly complex) building until it is complete and able to stand on its own.
===Specified complexity===
{{main article|[[Specified complexity]]}}
The intelligent design concept of '''specified complexity''' was developed by mathematician, philosopher, and theologian [[William Dembski]]. Dembski states that when something exhibits specified complexity (i.e., is both complex and specified, simultaneously), one can infer that it was produced by an intelligent cause (i.e., that it was designed) rather than being the result of natural processes. He provides the following examples: "A single letter of the alphabet is specified without being complex. A long sentence of random letters is complex without being specified. A [[Shakespearean]] [[sonnet]] is both complex and specified."{{ref|sc_intdes_p47}} He states that details of living things can be similarly characterized, especially the "patterns" of molecular sequences in functional biological molecules such as [[DNA]].
Dembski defines complex specified information as anything with a less than 1 in 10<sup>150</sup> chance of occurring by (natural) chance. Critics say that this renders the argument a [[tautology]]: Complex specified information (CSI) cannot occur naturally because Dembski has defined it thus, so the real question becomes whether or not CSI actually exists in nature.
The conceptual soundness of Dembski's specified complexity/CSI argument is strongly disputed by the scientific community.{{ref|time_nowak}} Specified complexity has yet to be shown to have wide applications in other fields as Dembski claims. John Wilkins and [[Wesley R. Elsberry|Wesley Elsberry]] characterize Dembski's "explanatory filter" as ''eliminative'', because it eliminates explanations sequentially: first regularity, then chance, finally defaulting to design. They argue that this procedure is flawed as a model for scientific inference because the asymmetric way it treats the different possible explanations renders it prone to making false conclusions of design.{{ref|wilkins_elsberry}}
===Fine-tuned universe===
{{main article|[[Fine-tuned universe]]}}
One of the arguments of intelligent design proponents that includes more than just biology is that we live in a fine-tuned universe, with many features that make life possible that cannot be attributed to chance. These features include the values of physical constants, the strength of nuclear forces, and many others. Intelligent design proponent and [[Center for Science and Culture]] fellow Guillermo Gonzalez argues that if any of these values were even slightly different, the universe would be dramatically different, with many [[chemical elements]] and features of the universe like [[galaxies]] being impossible to form.{{ref|Gonzalez}} Thus, they argue, an intelligent designer of life was needed to ensure that the requisite features were present to achieve that particular outcome. Other scientists respond that the argument cannot be tested, is not quantifiable, and is poorly supported by existing evidence.{{ref|PandaGonzo}}
Critics of both intelligent design and the weak form of [[anthropic principle]] argue that they are essentially a [[tautology]]; in their view, these arguments amount to the claim that life is able to exist because the universe is able to support life. The claim of the improbability of a life-supporting universe has also been criticized as an [[argument by lack of imagination]] for assuming no other forms of life are possible; life as we know it may not exist if things were different, but a different sort of life might exist in its place. They also suggest that many of the stated variables appear to be interconnected, and that calculations made by mathematicians and physicists suggest that the emergence of a universe similar to ours is quite probable.
===The designer or designers===
{{main article|[[Intelligent designer]]}}
Intelligent design arguments are formulated in secular terms and intentionally avoid identifying the intelligent agent they posit. They do not state that God is the designer, but the designer is often implicitly hypothesized to have intervened in a way that only a God could intervene. Intelligent design proponents, such as Dembski, have implied that an alien culture could fulfill these requirements, but since the authoritative description of intelligent design{{ref|discovery_id_def}} explicitly states that the ''universe'' displays features of having been designed, Dembski concludes that "no intelligent agent who is strictly physical could have presided over the origin of the universe or the origin of life."{{ref|dembski_ftu}} Furthermore, the leading proponents have made statements to their supporters that they believe the designer to be the [[Christianity|Christian]] [[God]], to the exclusion of all other religions, and thus there exists a well-established link to [[Genesis]] and Creationism.
Critics argue that existing evidence makes the design hypothesis appear unlikely. For example, Jerry Coyne, of the [[University of Chicago]], asks why a designer would "give us a pathway for making vitamin C, but then destroy it by disabling one of its enzymes" and why he or she wouldn't "stock oceanic islands with reptiles, mammals, amphibians, and freshwater fish, despite the suitability of such islands for these species." Critics of intelligent design point to the fact that "the flora and fauna on those islands resemble that of the nearest mainland, even when the environments are very different" as evidence that species were not placed there by a designer.{{ref|Coyne}} Behe argued in ''[[Darwin's Black Box]]'' that we are simply incapable of understanding the designer's motives, so such questions cannot be answered definitively. Odd designs could, for example, "have been placed there by the designer... for artistic reasons, to show off, for some as-yet undetectable practical purpose, or for some unguessable reason." Coyne responds that in light of the evidence, "either life resulted not from intelligent design, but from evolution; or the intelligent designer is a cosmic prankster who designed everything to make it look as though it had evolved."
Asserting the need for a designer of complexity also raises the question, "what designed the designer?" Intelligent design proponents say that the question is irrelevant to or outside the scope of intelligent design,{{ref|wdd3}} but Richard Wein counters that the unanswered questions a theory creates "must be balanced against the improvements in our understanding which the explanation provides. Invoking an unexplained being to explain the origin of other beings (ourselves) is little more than [[Begging the question|question-begging]]. The new question raised by the explanation is as problematic as the question which the explanation purports to answer."{{ref|wein_designer}} Critics see the claim that the designer need not be explained not as a contribution to knowledge but as a [[thought-terminating cliché]]. Answering "what designed the designer?" leads to an [[turtles all the way down|infinite regression]] from which intelligent design proponents can only escape by resorting to religious creationism or logical contradiction.
==Intelligent design as a movement==
{{main article|[[Intelligent design movement]]}}
[[Image:Time evolution wars.jpg|thumb|[[Time magazine]] cover, August 15, 2005]] The '''intelligent design movement''' arose out of an organized [[Neo-Creationism|neocreationist]] campaign directed by the [[Discovery Institute]] to promote a religious agenda calling for broad social, academic and political changes employing intelligent design arguments in the public sphere, primarily in the [[United States]]. Leaders of the movement say intelligent design exposes the limitations of scientific orthodoxy and of the [[secular]] philosophy of [[Naturalism (philosophy)|Naturalism]]. Intelligent design proponents allege that science shouldn't be limited to naturalism, and shouldn't demand the adoption of a naturalistic [[Philosophy of science|philosophy]] that dismisses any explanation that contains a supernatural cause out of hand.
[[Phillip E. Johnson]], considered the father of the intelligent design movement, stated that the goal of intelligent design is to cast [[creationism]] as a scientific concept.{{ref|johnson_id_neocreationism}} All leading intelligent design proponents are fellows or staff of the Discovery Institute and its [[Center for Science and Culture]].{{ref|discovery_fellows}} Nearly all intelligent design concepts and the associated movement are the products of the Discovery Institute which guides the movement and follows its [[wedge strategy]] while conducting its adjunct [[Teach the Controversy]] campaign.
Leading intelligent design proponents have made conflicting statements regarding intelligent design. In statements directed at the general public they state that intelligent design is not religious, while they state that intelligent design has its foundation in the [[Bible]]{{ref|johnson_john1_2}} when addressing conservative Christian supporters.
[[Barbara Forrest]], an expert who has written extensively on the movement, describes this as being due to the Discovery Institute obfuscating its agenda as a matter of policy. She has written that the movement's "activities betray an aggressive, systematic agenda for promoting not only intelligent design creationism, but the religious world-view that undergirds it."{{ref|forrest_wedge}}
===Religion and leading proponents===
Intelligent design arguments are carefully formulated in [[secular]] terms and intentionally avoid positing the identity of the designer. Phillip E. Johnson has stated that cultivating ambiguity by employing secular language in arguments which are carefully crafted to avoid overtones of [[theism|theistic]] [[creationism]] is a necessary first step for ultimately reintroducing the Christian concept of God as the designer. Johnson emphasizes "the first thing that has to be done is to get the [[Bible]] out of the discussion" and that "after we have separated [[scientific materialism|materialist]] [[prejudice]] from scientific fact ... only then can 'biblical issues' be discussed."{{ref|johnson_bible_out}} Johnson explicitly calls for intelligent design proponents to obfuscate their religious motivations so as to avoid having intelligent design identified "as just another way of packaging the [[evangelical Christian|Christian evangelical]] message."{{ref|johnson_evangelical_message}} The principal intelligent design advocates, including [[Michael Behe]], [[William Dembski]], [[Jonathan Wells]] (actually a member of the [[Unification Church]], headed by [[Reverend Moon]]), and [[Stephen C. Meyer]], are Christians and have stated that in their view the designer of life is [[God]]. The vast majority of leading intelligent design proponents are [[Evangelism|evangelical]] [[Protestantism|Protestants]].
The conflicting claims made by leading intelligent design advocates as to whether or not intelligent design is rooted in religious conviction are the result of their [[wedge strategy|strategy]]. For example, William Dembski in his book ''The Design Inference''{{ref|intro_dembski}} lists a [[god]] or an "[[extraterrestrial life|alien life force]]" as two possible options for the identity of the designer. However, in his book ''Intelligent Design: the Bridge Between Science and Theology'' Dembski states that "Christ is indispensable to any scientific theory, even if its practitioners don't have a clue about him. The pragmatics of a scientific theory can, to be sure, be pursued without recourse to Christ. But the conceptual soundness of the theory can in the end only be located in Christ."{{ref|dembski_id_christ}} Dembski also stated "ID is part of God's [[general revelation]]..." "Not only does intelligent design rid us of this ideology ([[materialism]]), which suffocates the human spirit, but, in my personal experience, I've found that it opens the path for people to come to Christ."{{ref|dembski_morris}}
The two leading intelligent design proponents, Phillip Johnson and William Dembski, cite the Bible's [[Book of John]] as the foundation of intelligent design.{{ref|dembski_logos_john}}{{ref|johnson_john1}} Barbara Forrest contends that such statements reveal that leading proponents see intelligent design as essentially religious in nature, as opposed to a scientific concept that has implications with which their personal religious beliefs happen to coincide.{{ref|forrest_dembski_johnson_def}}
==Intelligent design controversy==
A key strategy of the intelligent design movement is in convincing the general public that there is a debate among scientists about whether life evolved, seeking to convince the public, politicians, and cultural leaders that schools should "[[teach the controversy]]."{{ref|Seattle}} However, there is no such controversy; the scientific consensus is that life evolved.{{ref|nabt_statement}}
The intelligent design controversy centers on three issues:
#Whether the definition of science is broad enough to allow for theories of origins which incorporate the acts of an intelligent designer
#Whether the evidence supports such theories
#Whether the teaching of such theories is appropriate and legal in public education
[[Natural science]] uses the [[scientific method]] to create ''[[a posteriori]]'' knowledge based on observation alone (sometimes called [[empiricism|empirical science]]). Intelligent design proponents seek to change this definition{{ref|forrest_redef}} by eliminating "[[methodology|methodological]] [[naturalism (philosophy)|naturalism]]" from science{{ref|johnson_reason_balance}} and replacing it with what the leader of the intelligent design movement, [[Phillip E. Johnson]], calls "[[theistic realism]]",{{ref|johnson_theistic_realism}} and what critics call "methodological supernaturalism," which means belief in a transcendent, non-natural dimension of reality inhabited by a transcendent, non-natural deity. Intelligent design proponents argue that naturalistic explanations fail to explain certain phenomena, and that supernatural explanations provide a very simple and intuitive{{ref|id_intuitive}} explanation for the origins of life and the universe. Proponents say that evidence exists in the forms of [[irreducible complexity]] and [[specified complexity]] that cannot be explained by natural processes.
Supporters also hold that religious neutrality requires the teaching of both evolution and intelligent design in schools, saying that teaching only evolution unfairly discriminates against those holding creationist beliefs. [[teach the controversy|Teaching both]], intelligent design supporters argue, allows for the possibility of religious belief, without causing the state to actually promote such beliefs. Many intelligent design followers believe that "[[Scientism]]" is itself a religion that promotes [[secularism]] and [[materialism]] in an attempt to erase [[theism]] from public life, and view their work in the promotion of intelligent design as a way to return religion to a central role in education and other public spheres. Some allege that this larger debate is often the subtext for arguments made over intelligent design, though others note that intelligent design serves as an effective proxy for the religious beliefs of prominent intelligent design proponents in their efforts to advance their religious point of view within society.{{ref|belz_est}}{{ref|johnsone_reality_of_god}}{{ref|buell_hearn}}
According to critics, intelligent design has not presented a credible scientific case, and is an attempt to teach religion in public schools, which the [[United States Constitution]] forbids under the [[Establishment Clause of the First Amendment|Establishment Clause]]. They allege that intelligent design has substituted public support for scientific research.{{ref|giberson_bigbang}} Furthermore, if one were to take the proponents of "equal time for all theories" at their word, there would be no logical limit to the number of potential "theories" to be taught in the public school system, including admittedly silly ones like the [[Flying Spaghetti Monster]] "theory." There are innumerable mutually-incompatible supernatural explanations for complexity, and intelligent design does not provide a mechanism for discriminating among them. Furthermore, intelligent design is neither observable nor repeatable, which critics argue violates the scientific requirement of [[falsifiability]]. Indeed, intelligent design proponent [[Michael Behe]] concedes "You can't prove intelligent design by experiment."{{ref|behe_time}}
Even though evolution theory does not explain [[abiogenesis]], the generation of life from nonliving matter, intelligent design proponents cannot ''infer'' that an intelligent designer is behind the part of the process that is not understood scientifically, since they have not shown that anything supernatural has occurred. The inference that an intelligent designer (a god or an alien life force){{ref|dembski_aliens}} created life on Earth has been compared to the ''[[a priori]]'' claim that aliens helped the ancient Egyptians build the pyramids.{{ref|pyramids_comp}}{{ref|dembski_goblins_built_pyramids}} In both cases, the effect of this outside intelligence is not repeatable, observable, or falsifiable, and it violates [[Occam's Razor]]. From a strictly [[empiricism|empirical]] standpoint, one may list what is known about Egyptian construction techniques, but must admit ignorance about exactly how the Egyptians built the pyramids. <!--paraphrasing [http://www.prospect.org/print/V13/22/mooney-c.html]: "intelligent design advocates don't always articulate precisely what sort of intelligence they think is the designer, but God – defined in a very nebulous way – generally out-polls ''extraterrestrials'' as the leading candidate."-->
Many religious people do not condone the teaching of what is considered unscientific or questionable material, and support [[theistic evolution]] which does not conflict with scientific theories. An example is [[Christoph Cardinal Schönborn|Cardinal Schönborn]] who sees "purpose and design in the natural world" yet has "no difficulty... with the theory of evolution [within] the borders of scientific theory".
===Can intelligent design be defined as science?===
The [[scientific method]] is based on an approach known as [[methodological naturalism]] to study and explain the natural world, without assuming the existence or nonexistence of the supernatural. Intelligent design proponents have often said that their position is not only scientific, but that it is even more scientific than evolution, and want a redefinition of science to allow "non-naturalistic theories such as intelligent design".{{ref|science_redef}} This presents a [[demarcation problem]], which in the [[philosophy of science]] is about how and where to draw the lines around science. For a theory to qualify as scientific it must be:
:* '''Consistent''' (internally and externally)
:* '''Parsimonious''' (sparing in proposed entities or explanations, see [[Occam's Razor]])
:* '''Useful''' (describes and explains observed phenomena)
:* '''Empirically testable & falsifiable''' (see [[Falsifiability]])
:* '''Based upon multiple observations,''' often in the form of controlled, repeated experiments
:* '''Correctable & dynamic''' (changes are made as new data are discovered)
:* '''Progressive''' (achieves all that previous theories have and more)
:* '''Provisional''' or tentative (admits that it might not be correct rather than asserting certainty)
For any theory, hypothesis or conjecture to be considered scientific, it must meet most, but ideally all, of the above criteria. The fewer criteria that are met, the less scientific it is; and if it meets only a couple or none at all, then it cannot be treated as scientific in any meaningful sense of the word. Typical objections to defining intelligent design as science are that it lacks consistency,{{ref|id_consistency}} violates the principle of parsimony,{{ref|id_parsimony}} is not falsifiable,{{ref|id_not_falsifiable}} is not empirically testable,{{ref|id_testable}} and is not correctable, dynamic, tentative or progressive.{{ref|id_correctable}}
In light of its apparent failure to adhere to scientific standards, in September 2005 38 [[Nobel_prize|Nobel laureates]] issued a statement saying "intelligent design is fundamentally unscientific; it cannot be tested as scientific theory because its central conclusion is based on belief in the intervention of a supernatural agent."{{ref|nobellaureates_id}} And in October 2005 a coalition representing more than 70,000 Australian scientists and science teachers issued a statement saying "intelligent design is not science" and called on "all schools not to teach Intelligent Design (ID) as science, because it fails to qualify on every count as a scientific theory."{{ref|au_scientists}}
Intelligent design critics also say that the intelligent design doctrine does not meet the criteria for scientific evidence used by most courts, the [[Daubert Standard]]. The Daubert Standard governs which evidence can be considered scientific in United States federal courts and most state courts. The four [[Daubert Standard|Daubert criteria]] are:
:* The theoretical underpinnings of the methods must yield testable predictions by means of which the theory could be falsified.
:* The methods should preferably be published in a [[peer review|peer-reviewed]] journal.
:* There should be a known rate of [[error]] that can be used in evaluating the results.
:* The methods should be generally accepted within the relevant scientific community.
In deciding ''[[Kitzmiller v. Dover Area School District]]'' on [[December 20]], [[2005]], Judge [[John E. Jones III]] [[Wikisource:Kitzmiller v. Dover Area School District 6: curriculum, conclusion#H. Conclusion|ruled that]] "we have addressed the seminal question of whether ID is science. We have concluded that it is not, and moreover that ID cannot uncouple itself from its creationist, and thus religious, antecedents."
====Peer review====
The failure to follow the procedures of scientific discourse, and the failure to submit work to the scientific community which withstands scrutiny, have weighed very heavily against intelligent design being considered valid science. To date, the intelligent design movement has yet to have an article published in a peer-reviewed [[scientific journal]].
Intelligent design, by appealing to a supernatural agent, conflicts with the naturalistic orientation of science. Dembski, Behe and other intelligent design proponents claim bias by the scientific community is to blame for the failure of their research to be published. Intelligent design proponents believe that the merit of their writings is rejected for not conforming to purely naturalistic non-supernatural mechanisms rather than on grounds of their research not being up to "journal standards". This claim is described as a [[conspiracy theory]] by some scientists.{{ref|conspiracy_theory}} The issue that the [[scientific method]] is based on [[methodological naturalism]] and so does not accept [[supernatural]] explanations became a sticking point for intelligent design proponents in the 1990's, and is addressed in [[The Wedge Strategy|"The Wedge" strategy]] as an aspect of science that must be challenged before intelligent design could be accepted by the broader scientific community.
The debate over whether intelligent design produces new research, as any scientific field must, and has legitimately attempted to publish this research, is extremely heated. Both critics and advocates point to numerous examples to make their case. For instance, the [[John Templeton Foundation|Templeton Foundation]], a former funder of the Discovery Institute and a major supporter of projects seeking to reconcile science and religion, says that they asked intelligent design proponents to submit proposals for actual research, but none were ever submitted. Charles L. Harper Jr., foundation vice president, said that "From the point of view of rigor and intellectual seriousness, the intelligent design people don't come out very well in our world of scientific review."{{ref|templeton}} At the [[Wikisource:Kitzmiller v. Dover Area School District 4: whether ID is science#Page 88 of 139|Kitzmiller trial the judge found]] that intelligent design features no scientific research or testing.
The only article published in a peer-reviewed scientific journal that made a case for intelligent design was quickly withdrawn by the publisher for having circumvented the journal's peer-review standards. Written by the Discovery Institute's Center for Science & Culture Director [[Stephen C. Meyer]], it appeared in the peer-reviewed journal ''Proceedings of the Biological Society of Washington'' in August [[2004]]. The article was [[Literature_review|literature review]], which means that it did not present any new research, but rather culled quotes and claims from other papers to argue that the [[Cambrian explosion]] could not have happened by naturalistic processes. The choice of venue for this article was also considered problematic, because it was so outside the normal subject matter. (see [[Sternberg peer review controversy]])
In the [[Wikisource:Kitzmiller v. Dover Area School District 4: whether ID is science#Page 88 of 139|Kitzmiller trial]], intelligent design proponents referenced just one paper, on simulation modeling of evolution by Behe and Snoke, that mentioned neither irreducible complexity nor intelligent design and that Behe admitted did not rule out known evolutionary mechanisms. Dembski has written that "Perhaps the best reason [to be skeptical of his ideas] is that intelligent design has yet to establish itself as a thriving scientific research program."{{ref|dembski_research}} In a 2001 interview Dembski said that he stopped submitting to peer-reviewed journals because of their slow time-to-print and that he makes more money from publishing books.{{ref|dembski_pr}}
In sworn testimony at the Kitzmiller trial Behe stated that "there are no peer reviewed articles by anyone advocating for intelligent design supported by pertinent experiments or calculations which provide detailed rigorous accounts of how intelligent design of any biological system occurred."{{ref|behe_peer_review}} Further, as summarized by the judge, Behe conceded that there are no peer-reviewed articles supporting his claims of intelligent design or irreducible complexity. Despite this, the Discovery Institute continues to claim that a number of intelligent design articles have been published in peer reviewed journals,{{ref|di_peer_review}} including in their list the two articles mentioned above. Critics, largely members of the scientific community, reject this claim, pointing out that no established scientific journal has yet published an intelligent design article, and that intelligent design proponents have set up their own journals with "peer review" that consists entirely of intelligent design supporters which lack [[rigor]].
===Intelligence as an observable quality===
The phrase ''intelligent'' design makes use of an assumption of the quality of an observable [[intelligence (trait)|intelligence]], a concept that has no [[scientific consensus]] definition. William Dembski, for example, has written that "Intelligence leaves behind a characteristic signature." Such characteristics of intelligent agency are assumed to be [[observation|observable]] without intelligent design specifying what the criteria for the [[measurement]] of intelligence should be. Dembski, instead, asserts that "in special sciences ranging from [[forensics]] to [[archaeology]] to [[SETI]] (the Search for Extraterrestrial Intelligence), appeal to a designing intelligence is indispensable."{{ref|Dembski_nat}} How this appeal is made and what this implies as to the definition of intelligence are topics left largely unaddressed. [[Seth Shostak]], a researcher with the [[SETI Institute]], refutes Dembski's claim, saying that intelligent design advocates base their inference on complexity — the argument being that some biological systems are too complex to have been made by natural processes — while SETI researchers are looking primarily for artificiality.{{ref|seti_id}}
Critics say that the design detection methods proposed by proponents are radically different from conventional design detection, undermining the key elements that make it possible as legitimate science. Intelligent design proponents, they say, are proposing both searching for a designer without knowing anything about that designer's abilities, parameters, or intentions (which scientists do know when searching for the results of human intelligence) as well as denying the very distinction between natural/artificial design that allows scientists to compare complex designed artifacts against the background of the sorts of complexity found in nature.
As a means of criticism, certain [[scientific skepticism|skeptics]] have pointed to a challenge of intelligent design derived from the study of [[artificial intelligence]]. The criticism is a counter to intelligent design claims about what makes a design intelligent, namely that "no preprogrammed device can be truly intelligent, that intelligence is irreducible to natural processes."{{ref|edis}} In particular, while there is an implicit assumption that supposed "intelligence" or [[creativity]] of a [[computer program]] was determined by the capabilities given to it by the computer [[programmer]], artificial intelligence need not be bound to an inflexible system of rules. Rather, if a computer program can access [[randomness]] as a function, this effectively allows for a flexible, creative, and adaptive intelligence. [[Evolutionary algorithms]], a subfield of machine learning (itself a subfield of artificial intelligence), have been used to mathematically demonstrate that randomness and selection can be used to "evolve" complex, highly adapted structures that are not explicitly designed by a programmer. Evolutionary algorithms use the Darwinian metaphor of random mutation, selection and the survival of the fittest to solve diverse mathematical and scientific problems that are usually not solvable using conventional methods. Furthermore, forays into such areas as [[quantum computing]] seem to indicate that real probabilistic functions may be available in the future. Intelligence derived from randomness is essentially indistinguishable from the "innate" intelligence associated with biological organisms and poses a challenge to the intelligent design conception of whence intelligence itself is derived (namely from a designer). [[Cognitive science]] continues to investigate the nature of intelligence to that end, but the intelligent design community for the most part seems to be content to rely on the assumption that intelligence is readily apparent as a fundamental and basic property of complex systems.
===Arguments from ignorance===
[[Eugenie Scott]], along with Glenn Branch and other critics, has argued that many points raised by intelligent design proponents are [[Argument from ignorance|arguments from ignorance]].{{ref|ncseweb_02}} In the argument from ignorance, one claims that the lack of evidence for one view is evidence for another view. Scott and Branch say that intelligent design is an argument from ignorance because it relies upon a lack of knowledge for its conclusion: lacking a natural explanation, we assume intelligent cause. They contend most scientists would reply that unexplained is not unexplainable, and that "we don't know yet" is a more appropriate response than invoking a cause outside of science.{{ref|ncseweb_03}} Particularly, [[Michael Behe]]'s demands for ever more detailed explanations of the historical evolution of molecular systems seem to assume a [[dichotomy]] where either evolution or design is the proper explanation, and any perceived failure of evolution becomes a victory for design. In scientific terms, "absence of [[evidence]] is not evidence of absence" for naturalistic explanations of observed traits of living [[organisms]]. Scott and Branch also contend that the supposedly novel contributions proposed by intelligent design proponents have not served as the basis for any productive scientific research.
Intelligent design has also been characterized as a "[[God of the gaps]]" argument, which has the following form:
:*There is a gap in scientific knowledge.
:*The gap is filled with acts of God (or [[Intelligent designer]]) and therefore proves the existence of God (or [[Intelligent designer]]).
A [[God-of-the-Gaps]] argument is the [[theological]] version of an [[argument from ignorance]]. The key feature of this type of argument is that it merely answers outstanding questions with explanations (often [[supernatural]]) that are unverifiable and ultimately themselves subject to unanswerable questions.
====Improbable versus impossible events====
In "Innumeracy: Mathematical Illiteracy and its Consequences", [[John Allen Paulos]] suggests that the apparent improbability of a given scenario cannot necessarily be taken as an indication that this scenario is therefore more unlikely than any other potential one: "Rarity by itself shouldn't necessarily be evidence of anything. When one is dealt a bridge hand of thirteen cards, the probability of being dealt that particular hand is less than one in 600 billion. Still, it would be absurd for someone to be dealt a hand, examine it carefully, calculate that the probability of getting it is less than one in 600 billion, and then conclude that he must not have been dealt that very hand because it is so very improbable."
This argument can be seen as a rebuttal to those advocates of intelligent design who claim that only a sentient creator could have arranged the universe in such a way as to be conducive to life (see for example [[Intelligent Design#Specified complexity|specified complexity arguments]] or [[Intelligent design#Fine-tuned universe|fine-tuning arguments]]). In this context, the probability of life "evolving" rather than having been "created" may appear unlikely at first sight, but the evidence that this is the case could be argued to be so widespread, deep, and heavily scrutinized that it would be illogical to conclude that any other (and arguably less scientifically compelling) hypothesis should take its place as the primary theory.
==See also==
{{col-begin}}
{{col-2}}
* [[Argument from evolution]]
* [[Argument from poor design]]
* [[Clockmaker hypothesis]]
* [[Cosmological argument]]
* [[Creation science]]
* [[Creationism]]
* [[Flying Spaghetti Monsterism]]
* [[Evolutionary algorithm]]
{{col-2}}
* [[Incompetent design]]
* [[Intelligent design movement]]
* [[Intelligent falling]]
* [[List of works on intelligent design]]
* [[Natural theology]]
* [[Neo-Creationism]]
* [[Teleological argument]]
{{col-end}}
* [[Wikisource:Kitzmiller v. Dover Area School District et. al.|Kitzmiller v. Dover Area School District summing up (introduction)]], [[Wikisource:Kitzmiller v. Dover Area School District 2: context|2: context]], [[Wikisource:Kitzmiller v. Dover Area School District 3: disclaimer|3: disclaimer]], [[Wikisource:Kitzmiller v. Dover Area School District 4: whether ID is science|4: whether ID is science]], [[Wikisource:Kitzmiller v. Dover Area School District 5: promoting religion|5: promoting religion]], [[Wikisource:Kitzmiller v. Dover Area School District 6: curriculum, conclusion|6: curriculum, conclusion]].
==Notes and references==
<div style="font-size: 85%">
<!-- Intro -->
# {{note|id_def}} Discovery Institute, Center for Science and Culture. Questions about Intelligent Design: What is the theory of intelligent design? "''The theory of intelligent design holds that certain features of the universe and of living things are best explained by an intelligent cause, not an undirected process such as natural selection.'' "[http://www.discovery.org/csc/topQuestions.php#questionsAboutIntelligentDesign]
#{{note|proponents_affiliated}} "Q. Has the Discovery Institute been a leader in the intelligent design movement? A. Yes, the Discovery Institute's Center for Science and Culture. Q. And are almost all of the individuals who are involved with the intelligent design movement associated with the Discovery Institute? A. All of the leaders are, yes." [[Barbara Forrest]], 2005, testifying in the [[Kitzmiller v. Dover Area School District]] trial. [http://www.talkorigins.org/faqs/dover/day6pm.html]
# {{note|intro_meyer}} Stephen C. Meyer, 2005. ''The Scientific Status of Intelligent Design: The Methodological Equivalence of Naturalistic and Non-Naturalistic Origins Theories''. Ignatius Press. [http://www.discovery.org/scripts/viewDB/index.php?command=view&id=1780]. See also [[Darwin's Black Box]].
# {{note|overwhelming}} See [[Wikisource:Kitzmiller v. Dover Area School District 4: whether ID is science#Page 83 of 139|Kitzmiller v. Dover page 83]]. The Discovery Institute's [http://www.dissentfromdarwin.org/ Dissent From Darwin Petition] has been signed by about 500 scientists. The AAAS, the largest association of scientists in the U.S., has 120,000 members, and [http://www.aaas.org/news/releases/2002/1106id2.shtml firmly rejects ID]. More than 70,000 Australian scientists and educators [http://www.science.unsw.edu.au/news/2005/intelligent.html condemn teaching of intelligent design in school science classes]. [http://www.ncseweb.org/resources/articles/8408_statements_from_scientific_and_12_19_2002.asp List of statements from scientific professional organizations] on the status intelligent design and other forms of creationism.
#{{note|id_junkscience_1}}[http://www.newyorker.com/fact/content/articles/050530fa_fact Devolution—Why intelligent design isn't.] H. Allen Orr. Annals of Science. New Yorker May 2005. Also, [[Robert T. Pennock]] ''Tower of Babel: The Evidence Against the New Creationism'' ISBN 026216180X, ISBN 0262661659.
#{{note|nas_id_creationism_1}} "[http://www.nap.edu/books/0309064066/html/25.html Creationism, Intelligent Design, and other claims of supernatural intervention in the origin of life or of species are not science]" In ''Science and Creationism: A View from the National Academy of Sciences, Second Edition'' National Academy of Sciences, 1999
<!-- In summary -->
#{{note|id_goal_putative}} "ID's rejection of naturalism in any form logically entails its appeal to the only alternative, supernaturalism, as a putatively scientific explanation for natural phenomena. This makes ID a religious belief. In addition, my research reveals that ID is not science, but the newest variant of traditional American creationism. With only a few exceptions, it continues the usual complaints of creationists against the theory of evolution and comprises virtually all the elements of traditional creationism." [[Barbara Forrest]] April 2005 Expert Witness Report. ''[[Kitzmiller v. Dover Area School District]]''. [http://www2.ncseweb.org/kvd/experts/FORREST_EXPERT_REPORT.pdf]
#{{note|dembski_adequately_explained}} Dembski. The Design Revolution. pg. 27 2004
<!-- Origin of concept -->
# {{note|heraclitus}} Heraclitus of Ephesus, The G.W.T. Patrick translation [http://classicpersuasion.org/pw/heraclitus/herpatu.htm#2]
# {{note|natura_deorum}} [http://www.thelatinlibrary.com/cicero/nd.shtml The Latin Library, Cicero]
# {{note|five_ways}} Thomas Aquinas, 1265-1272. ''Summa Theologiae''. "[http://www.faithnet.org.uk/AS%20Subjects/Philosophyofreligion/fiveways.htm Thomas Aquinas' 'Five Ways']" In ''faithnet.org.uk'', He [[Wikisource:Kitzmiller v. Dover Area School District 2: context#Page 24 of 139|framed the argument as a syllogism]]: Wherever complex design exists, there must have been a designer; nature is complex; therefore nature must have had an intelligent designer.
<!-- Origin of term -->
# {{note|1868}} ''Elements of Physical Geography'', by John Brocklesby
#{{note|times1873}} 'The British Association', ''The Times'', Saturday, 20 September, 1873; pg. 10; col A.
#{{note|times1982}} 'Evolution according to Hoyle: Survivors of disaster in an earlier world', By Nicholas Timmins, ''The Times'', Wednesday, 13 January, 1982; pg. 22; Issue 61130; col F.
#{{note|safire2005}} William Safire. 'On Language: Neo-Creo.' ''The New York Times.'' August 21, 2005.[http://www.nytimes.com/2005/08/21/magazine/21ONLANGUAGE.html?position=&ei=5090&en=f2de0d764cc7e0e8&ex=1282276800&adxnnl=1&partner=rssuserland&emc=rss&pagewanted=print&adxnnlx=1132902202-gyP0H4EZfG7IeNHPMWlcBw]
#{{note|first_id_book}} [http://www.nabt.org/sub/evolution/panda1.asp National Association of Biology Teachers: A Reader's Guide to Of Pandas and People] [http://www.ncseweb.org/resources/articles/8442_1_introduction_iof_pandas__11_23_2004.asp National Center for Science Education: Of Pandas and People, the foundational work of the 'Intelligent Design' movement]
<!-- IC -->
#{{note|MillerIC}} Irreducible complexity of these examples is disputed, see Kitzmiller p 76-78, or see part 39:30--51:20 of this [http://www.pandasthumb.org/archives/2006/01/ken_miller_webc.html video presentation by Ken Miller]
<!-- SC -->
#{{note|sc_intdes_p47}} Dembksi. <cite>Intelligent Design</cite>, p. 47
#{{note|time_nowak}} Nowak quoted. Claudia Wallis. Evolution Wars. Time Magazine, [[15 August]] [[2005]] edition, page 32 [http://www.time.com/time/archive/preview/0,10987,1090909,00.html]
#{{note|wilkins_elsberry}} John S. Wilkins and Wesley R. Elsberry, "The Advantages of Theft over Toil: The Design Inference and Arguing from Ignorance." ''Biology and Philosophy'' '''16:''' 711-724 (2001). [http://www.springerlink.com/openurl.asp?genre=article&id=doi:10.1023/A:1012282323054]
<!-- Fine tuned -->
#{{note|Gonzalez}} Guillermo Gonzalez, ''[[The Privileged Planet]],'' ISBN 0895260654
#{{note|PandaGonzo}} [http://www.pandasthumb.org/pt-archives/000390.html The Panda's Thumb review of The Privileged Planet].
<!-- Designer -->
#{{note|discovery_id_def}} "''The theory of Intelligent Design holds that certain features of the universe and of living things are best explained by an intelligent cause, not an undirected process such as natural selection.''" Discovery Institute. What is Intelligent Design? [http://www.discovery.org/csc/topQuestions.php#questionsAboutIntelligentDesign]
#{{note|dembski_ftu}} Dembski. The Act of Creation: Bridging Transcendence and Immanence [http://www.leaderu.com/offices/dembski/docs/bd-the_ac.html]
#{{note|Coyne}} Jerry Coyne, "The Case Against Intelligent Design," ''[[The New Republic]]'', [[August 22]] [[2005]].[http://www.tnr.com/docprint.mhtml?i=20050822&s=coyne082205]
#{{note|wdd3}}"One need not fully understand the origin or identity of the designer to determine that an object was designed. Thus, this question is essentially irrelevant to intelligent design theory, which merely seeks to detect if an object was designed... Intelligent design theory cannot address the identity or origin of the designer--it is a philosophical / religious question that lies outside the domain of scientific inquiry. Christianity postulates the religious answer to this question that the designer is God who by definition is eternally existent and has no origin. There is no logical philosophical impossibility with this being the case (akin to [[Aristotle]]'s 'unmoved mover') as a religious answer to the origin of the designer..." FAQ: Who designed the designer? IDEA [http://www.ideacenter.org/contentmgr/showdetails.php/id/1147]
#{{note|wein_designer}} Richard Wein. 2002.''Not a Free Lunch But a Box of Chocolates'' [http://www.talkreason.org/articles/choc_nfl.cfm#unembodied]
<!-- Movement -->
# {{note|johnson_id_neocreationism}} Phillip Johnson: "''Our strategy has been to change the subject a bit so that we can get the issue of Intelligent Design, which really means the reality of God, before the academic world and into the schools.''" Johnson 2004. Christianity.ca. [http://www.christianity.ca/news/social-issues/2004/03.001.html Let's Be Intelligent About Darwin]. "''This isn't really, and never has been a debate about science. It's about religion and philosophy.''" Johnson 1996. World Magazine. [http://www.leaderu.com/pjohnson/world2.html Witnesses For The Prosecution]. "''So the question is: "How to win?" That's when I began to develop what you now see full-fledged in the [[Wedge strategy|"wedge" strategy]]: "Stick with the most important thing"—the mechanism and the building up of information. Get the Bible and the Book of Genesis out of the debate because you do not want to raise the so-called Bible-science dichotomy. Phrase the argument in such a way that you can get it heard in the secular academy and in a way that tends to unify the religious dissenters. That means concentrating on, "Do you need a Creator to do the creating, or can nature do it on its own?" and refusing to get sidetracked onto other issues, which people are always trying to do.''" Johnson 2000. Touchstone magazine. [http://www.touchstonemag.com/docs/issues/15.5docs/15-5pg40.html Berkeley's Radical An Interview with Phillip E. Johnson] "''I have built an intellectual movement in the universities and churches that we call The Wedge, which is devoted to scholarship and writing that furthers this program of questioning the materialistic basis of science."..."Now the way that I see the logic of our movement going is like this. The first thing you understand is that the Darwinian theory isn't true. It's falsified by all of the evidence and the logic is terrible. When you realize that, the next question that occurs to you is, well, where might you get the truth?"..."I start with John 1:1. In the beginning was the word. In the beginning was intelligence, purpose, and wisdom. The Bible had that right. And the materialist scientists are deluding themselves.''" Johnson 1999. Reclaiming America for Christ Conference. [http://www.coralridge.org/specialdocs/evolutiondebate.asp How the Evolution Debate Can Be Won]
#{{note|discovery_fellows}} [http://www.discovery.org/fellows/ Discovery Institute fellows and staff] [http://www.discovery.org/csc/fellows.php Center for Science and Culture fellows and staff]
#{{note|johnson_john1_2}} "''Now the way that I see the logic of our movement going is like this. The first thing you understand is that the Darwinian theory isn't true. It's falsified by all of the evidence and the logic is terrible. When you realize that, the next question that occurs to you is, well, where might you get the truth? ... I start with John 1:1. 'In the beginning was the word...' In the beginning was intelligence, purpose, and wisdom. The Bible had that right.''" Johnson, 1999. Reclaiming America for Christ Conference. [http://www.coralridge.org/specialdocs/evolutiondebate.asp How the Evolution Debate Can Be Won]
# {{note|forrest_wedge}} Barbara Forrest, 2001. "[http://www.infidels.org/library/modern/barbara_forrest/wedge.html The Wedge at Work]." from ''Intelligent Design Creationism and Its Critics''. MIT Press.
<!-- Religion -->
#{{note|johnson_bible_out}} "...the first thing that has to be done is to get the Bible out of the discussion. ...This is not to say that the biblical issues are unimportant; the point is rather that the time to address them will be after we have separated materialist prejudice from scientific fact." Phillip Johnson. [http://www.arn.org/docs/johnson/le_wedge.htm "The Wedge," Touchstone: A Journal of Mere Christianity]. July/August 1999.
#{{note|johnson_evangelical_message}} "Intelligent Design is an intellectual movement, and the Wedge strategy stops working when we are seen as just another way of packaging the Christian evangelical message. ... The evangelists do what they do very well, and I hope our work opens up for them some doors that have been closed." Phillip Johnson. "Keeping the Darwinists Honest," an interview with Phillip Johnson. In Citizen Magazine. April 1999.
# {{note|intro_dembski}} William Dembski, 1998. ''The Design Inference''. Cambridge University Press
#{{note|dembski_id_christ}} Dembski. 1999. Intelligent Design; the Bridge Between Science and Theology. ''"Christ is indispensable to any scientific theory, even if its practitioners don't have a clue about him. The pragmatics of a scientific theory can, to be sure, be pursued without recourse to Christ. But the conceptual soundness of the theory can in the end only be located in Christ."'' p. 210
#{{note|dembski_morris}} Dembski. 2005. Intelligent Design's Contribution to the Debate Over Evolution: A Reply to Henry Morris.[http://www.designinference.com/documents/2005.02.Reply_to_Henry_Morris.htm]
#{{note|dembski_logos_john}} "Intelligent design is just the Logos theology of John's Gospel restated in the idiom of information theory," William Dembski. Touchstone Magazine. Volume 12, Issue4. July/August, 1999 [http://touchstonemag.com/archives/issue.php?id=49]
#{{note|johnson_john1}} "Now the way that I see the logic of our movement going is like this. The first thing you understand is that the Darwinian theory isn't true. It's falsified by all of the evidence and the logic is terrible. When you realize that, the next question that occurs to you is, well, where might you get the truth? When I preach from the Bible, as I often do at churches and on Sundays, I don't start with Genesis. I start with John 1:1. 'In the beginning was the word...' In the beginning was intelligence, purpose, and wisdom. The Bible had that right. And the materialist scientists are deluding themselves." Phillip E. Johnson. 1999 <cite>How the Evolution Debate Can Be Won</cite> Reclaiming America for Christ Conference" 1999. [http://www.coralridge.org/specialdocs/evolutiondebate.asp] at [http://www.reclaimamerica.org/ ReclaimAmerica.org]
#{{note|forrest_dembski_johnson_def}} "What I am talking about is the essence of intelligent design, and the essence of it is theistic realism as defined by Professor Johnson. Now that stands on its own quite apart from what their motives are. I'm also talking about the definition of intelligent design by Dr. Dembski as the Logos theology of John's Gospel. That stands on its own." ... "Intelligent design, as it is understood by the proponents that we are discussing today, does involve a supernatural creator, and that is my objection. And I am objecting to it as they have defined it, as Professor Johnson has defined intelligent design, and as Dr. Dembski has defined intelligent design. And both of those are basically religious. They involve the supernatural." Barbara Forrest. Expert Testimony. ''[[Kitzmiller v. Dover Area School District]]'' trial transcript, Day 6 (October 5)
<!-- Debate -->
#{{Note|Seattle}} [http://seattletimes.nwsource.com/html/localnews/2002225932_design31m.html Does Seattle group "teach controversy" or contribute to it?] [[Seattle Times]], March 31, 2005.
#{{note|nabt_statement}} [http://www.nabt.org/sub/position_statements/evolution.asp National Association of Biology Teachers Statement on Teaching Evolution]
#{{note|forrest_redef}} Barbara Forrest, 2000. "[http://www.infidels.org/library/modern/barbara_forrest/naturalism.html Methodological Naturalism and Philosophical Naturalism: Clarifying the Connection]." In ''Philo'', Vol. 3, No. 2 (Fall-Winter 2000), pp. 7-29.
#{{note|johnson_reason_balance}} Phillip E. Johnson in his book "Reason in the Balance: The Case Against Naturalism in Science, Law and Education" (InterVarsity Press, 1995), positions himself as a "theistic realist" against "methodological naturalism."
#{{note|johnson_theistic_realism}} "My colleagues and I speak of 'theistic realism'-- or sometimes, 'mere creation' -- as the defining concept of our [the ID] movement. This means that we affirm that God is objectively real as Creator, and that the reality of God is tangibly recorded in evidence accessible to science, particularly in biology." Phillip Johnson. [http://www.arn.org/docs/johnson/ratzsch.htm Starting a Conversation about Evolution]
#{{note|id_intuitive}} "We are taking an intuition most people have and making it a scientific and academic enterprise," Johnson said. In challenging Darwinism with a God-friendly alternative theory, the professor, who is a Presbyterian, added, "We are removing the most important cultural roadblock to accepting the role of God as creator." Phillip E. Johnson. 2001. ''Enlisting Science to Find the Fingerprints of a Creator: Believers in 'intelligent design' try to redirect evolution disputes along intellectual lines''. By Teresa Watanabe. Los Angeles Times (Sunday Front page) March 25, 2001.[http://www.discovery.org/scripts/viewDB/index.php?programs=CSCstories&command=view&id=613]
#{{note|belz_est}} Joel Belz, 1996. World Magazine. [http://www.leaderu.com/pjohnson/world2.html Witnesses For The Prosecution]
#{{note|johnsone_reality_of_god}} "Our strategy has been to change the subject a bit so that we can get the issue of Intelligent Design, which really means the reality of God, before the academic world and into the schools." Phillip E. Johnson. [[January 10]] [[2003]] on American Family Radio [http://www.christianity.ca/news/social-issues/2004/03.001.html] In www.christianity.ca
# {{note|buell_hearn}} Jon Buell & Virginia Hearn (eds), 1992. "[http://ebd10.ebd.csic.es/pdfs/DarwSciOrPhil.pdf Proceedings of a Symposium entitled: Darwinism: Scientific Inference of Philosophical Preference?]" ([[PDF]])
#{{note|giberson_bigbang}} Karl Giberson . [http://www.stnews.org/Commentary-2439.htm ''Intelligent design’s long march to nowhere''] Science & Theology News, December 5, 2005
#{{note|behe_time}} Claudia Wallis. Evolution Wars. Time Magazine, [[15 August]] [[2005]] edition, page 32 [http://www.time.com/time/archive/preview/0,10987,1090909,00.html]
#{{note|dembski_aliens}} William Dembski in ''The Design Inference" (see [[#Further reading|further reading]]) cited extraterrestrials as a possible designer [http://www.wired.com/wired/archive/12.10/evolution.html].
#{{note|pyramids_comp}} Michael J. Murray, n.d. [http://server1.fandm.edu/departments/Philosophy/staticpages/Murray/Providence.pdf "Natural Providence (or Design Trouble)]" ([[PDF]])
#{{note|dembski_goblins_built_pyramids}} William Dembski defends Intelligent Design from "silly claim" that "ancient technologies could not have built the pyramids, so goblins must have done it." [http://puffin.creighton.edu/NRCSE/NRCSEPosReID.html]
<!-- As science -->
#{{note|science_redef}} Stephen C. Meyer, 2005. ''The Scientific Status of Intelligent Design: The Methodological Equivalence of Naturalistic and Non-Naturalistic Origins Theories'' [http://www.discovery.org/scripts/viewDB/index.php?command=view&id=1780]
#{{note|id_consistency}} Intelligent design is generally only internally consistent and logical within the framework in which it operates. Criticisms are that this framework has at its foundation an unsupported, unjustified assumption: That complexity and improbability must entail design, but the identity and characteristics of the designer is not identified or quantified, nor need they be. The framework of Intelligent Design, because it rests on a unquantifiable and unverifiable assertion, has no defined boundaries except that complexity and improbability require design, and the designer need not be constrained by the laws of physics.
#{{note|id_parsimony}} Intelligent design fails to pass Occam's razor. Adding entities (an intelligent agent, a designer) to the equation is not strictly necessary to explain events.
#{{note|id_not_falsifiable}} The designer is not falsifiable, since its existence is typically asserted without sufficient conditions to allow a falsifying observation. The designer being beyond the realm of the observable, claims about its existence can neither be supported nor undermined by observation, hence making Intelligent Design and the argument from design analytic a posteriori arguments.
#{{note|id_testable}} That Intelligent Design is not empirically testable stems from the fact that Intelligent Design violates a basic premise of science, naturalism.
#{{note|id_correctable}} Intelligent design professes to offer an answer that does not need to be defined or explained, the intelligent agent, designer. By asserting a conclusion that need not be accounted for, the designer, no further explanation is necessary to sustain it, and objections raised to those who accept it make little headway. Thus Intelligent Design is not a provisional assessment of data which can change when new information is discovered. Once it is claimed that a conclusion that need not be accounted for has been established, there is simply no possibility of future correction. The idea of the progressive growth of scientific ideas is required to explain previous data and any previously unexplainable data.
#{{note|nobellaureates_id}} The Elie Wiesel Foundation for Humanity Nobel Laureats Initiative. Intelligent design cannot be tested as a scientific theory "because its central conclusion is based on belief in the intervention of a supernatural agent." [http://media.ljworld.com/pdf/2005/09/15/nobel_letter.pdf]
#{{note|au_scientists}} Intelligent Design is not Science - Scientists and teachers speak out. Faculty of Science, University of New South Wales. 20 October, 2005. [http://www.science.unsw.edu.au/news/2005/intelligent.html]
<!-- Peer review -->
#{{note|conspiracy_theory}} {{Web reference |author=Hawks, John |title=The President and the teaching of evolution |url=http://johnhawks.net/weblog/topics/creation/bush_intelligent_design_2005.html |publishyear=2005 |date=November 23 |year=2005}}
#{{note|templeton}} Laurie Goodstein. ''Intelligent Design Might Be Meeting Its Maker'' December 4, 2004. The New York Times. [http://www.nytimes.com/2005/12/04/weekinreview/04good.html?ex=1291352400&en=feb5138e425b9001&ei=5088&partner=rssnyt&emc=rss]
#{{note|dembski_research}} William A. Dembski [http://www.designinference.com/documents/2001.03.ID_as_nat_theol.htm . <cite>Is Intelligent Design a Form of Natural Theology? </cite>] From Dembski's designinference.com
#{{note|dembski_pr}} Beth McMurtrie, 2001. "[http://chronicle.com/free/v48/i17/17a00801.htm Darwinism Under Attack]." ''The Chronicle Of Higher Education''.
#{{note|behe_peer_review}} ''[[Kitzmiller v. Dover Area School District]]'', October 19, 2005, AM session [http://www.talkorigins.org/faqs/dover/day12am.html]
#{{note|di_peer_review}} Discovery Institute. [http://www.discovery.org/scripts/viewDB/index.php?command=view&id=2640&program=CSC%20-%20Scientific%20Research%20and%20Scholarship%20-%20Science]
<!-- Observable intelligence -->
#{{note|Dembski_nat}} William Dembski. Intelligent Design? a special report reprinted from Natural History magazine April 2002. [http://www.actionbioscience.org/evolution/nhmag.html]
#{{note|seti_id}} "In fact, the signals actually sought by today’s SETI searches are not complex, as the ID advocates assume. ... If SETI were to announce that we’re not alone because it had detected a signal, it would be on the basis of artificiality." Shostak. SETI and Intelligent Design, space.com [http://www.space.com/searchforlife/seti_intelligentdesign_051201.html]
#{{note|edis}} Taner Edis. ''Darwin in Mind: ''Intelligent Design'' Meets Artificial Intelligence.'' ''Skeptical Inquirer'' Magazine, March/April 2001 issue. [http://www.csicop.org/si/2001-03/intelligent-design.html]
<!-- Ignorance -->
#{{note|ncseweb_02}} Eugenie C. Scott and Glenn Branch, [http://www.ncseweb.org/resources/articles/996_intelligent_design_not_accep_9_10_2002.asp "Intelligent Design" Not Accepted by Most Scientists], National Center for Science Education website, September 10, 2002.
#{{note|ncseweb_03}} ibid. [http://www.ncseweb.org/resources/articles/996_intelligent_design_not_accep_9_10_2002.asp "Intelligent Design" Not Accepted by Most Scientists]
</div>
==External links==
'''ID perspectives'''
*[http://www.arn.org/ Access Research Network]
*[http://www.designinference.com Design Inference: The website of William A. Dembski]
*[http://www.discovery.org Discovery Institute] (Largest promoter of Intelligent Design)
**[http://www.discovery.org/csc/ Discovery Institute, Center for Science and Culture]
*[http://www.intelligentdesignnetwork.org/ Intelligent Design Network]
*[http://www.iscid.org/ International Society for Complexity, Information, and Design (ISCID)]
'''Non-ID perspectives'''
*[http://www.intelligent-forces.com/intelligent-design-criticism.htm A Criticism of Intelligent Design] Article analyzing the main arguments put forward by ID Theory.
*[http://www.naturalhistorymag.com/darwinanddesign.html Intelligent Design?] special feature in the Natural History Magazine
*[http://www.iep.utm.edu/d/design.htm Internet Encyclopedia of Philosophy: Design Arguments for the Existence of God]
*[http://www.ncseweb.org/article.asp?category=8 National Center for Science Education articles and other resources about Intelligent Design]
*[http://www.aaas.org/news/releases/2002/1106id2.shtml Resolution from the American Association for the Advancement of Science]
*[http://www.nap.edu/openbook/0309064066/html/index.html Science and Creationism: A View from the National Academy of Sciences] Second Edition (1999)
*[http://www.talkorigins.org Talk Origins Archive] (Archive of a UseNet discussion group)
*[http://www.pamd.uscourts.gov/kitzmiller/kitzmiller_342.pdf 139 page in-depth analysis of intelligent design, irreducible complexity, and the book "Of Pandas and People"] by the Kitzmiller v. Dover Area School District judge
*[http://jurist.law.pitt.edu/forumy/2005/12/kitzmiller-intelligent-ruling-on.php Kitzmiller: An Intelligent Ruling on 'Intelligent Design'], [[JURIST]]
*[http://www.pandasthumb.org/archives/2006/01/ken_miller_webc.html Ken Miller on Intelligent Design (2 hour video)]
*[http://www.csicop.org/intelligentdesignwatch/differences.html ID and Creationism]
*[http://philosophy.wisc.edu/sober/design%20argument%2011%202004.pdf The Design Argument] Elliot Sober, 2004.
'''Media articles'''
*[http://www.cjr.org/issues/2005/5/mooney.asp How the media have covered ID] ([[Columbia Journalism Review]])
*[http://www.washingtonpost.com/wp-dyn/content/article/2005/12/20/AR2005122000591.html Judge Rules Against Pa. Biology Curriculum] ([[Associated Press]])
*[http://www.csmonitor.com/2005/1221/p01s01-ussc.html Banned in biology class: intelligent design] ([[Christian Science Monitor]])
*[http://www.newyorker.com/fact/content/articles/050530fa_fact Devolution] ([[The New Yorker]])
*[http://www.nytimes.com/pages/science/sciencespecial2/ The Evolution Debate] ([[The New York Times]])
*[http://www.npr.org/templates/story/story.php?storyId=5014428 Debating Evolution in the Classroom] ([[National Public Radio|NPR]])
*[http://www.time.com/time/health/article/0,8599,1142672,00.html Darwin Victorious] ([[Time (magazine)|Time]])
*[http://www.justicetalking.org/viewprogram.asp?progID=506 Intelligent Design: Scientific Inquiry or Religious Indoctrination?] "Justice Talking" debate recorded 19-Apr-2005
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[[Category:Issue in the Culture Wars]]
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Imperialism
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/* Modern imperialism */ Added Iran in the list of countries which suffered from US-backed coups.
{{dablink|For the computer strategy game released in 1997, see [[Imperialism (game)]].}}
'''Imperialism''' is a policy of extending control or authority over foreign entities as a means of acquisition and/or maintenance of [[empire]]s, either through direct [[territory|territorial]] conquest or through indirect methods of exerting control on the [[politics]] and/or [[Economics|economy]] of other countries. The term is often used to describe the policy of a country in maintaining [[colony|colonies]] and dominance over distant lands, regardless of whether the country calls itself an empire.
Insofar as 'imperialism' might be used to refer to an intellectual position, it would imply the belief that the acquisition and maintenance of empires is a positive good, probably combined with an assumption of cultural or other such superiority inherent to imperial power (see [[The White Man's Burden]]).
Imperialism draws heavy criticism on the grounds that historically it has been frequently employed for economic [[exploitation]] in which the imperialist power makes use of other countries as sources of raw materials and cheap labor, shaping their economies to suit its own interests, and keeping their people in [[poverty]]. When imperialism is accompanied by overt military conquest, it is also seen as a violation of [[freedom (political)|freedom]] and [[human rights]].
In recent years, there has also been a trend to criticize imperialism not at an economic or political level, but at a simply cultural level, particularly the widespread global influence of [[American culture]] - see [[cultural imperialism]]. Some dispute this extension, however, on the grounds that it is highly subjective (to differentiate between mutual interaction and undue influence) and also applied selectively (hamburgers being imperialist and black tea not). The debate continues.
== Etymology ==
The Latin root is ''imperium'' (command or supreme power). The original meaning of ''imperialist'' was "an adherent of an emperor". Its current meaning dates from the late 19th century in relation to the actions of the [[British Empire]]; it subsequently grew to apply to any historical or contemporary instance of a greater power acting, or perceived to be acting, at the expense of a lesser power. Imperialism is therefore not only used to describe bona fide empire-building policies, such as those of the Romans, the Spanish or the British, but it is also used controversially and/or disparagingly, for example by both sides in communist and anti-communist propaganda, or to describe actions of the United States since its acquisition of overseas territory during the [[Spanish American War]], to its present-day position as the world's only superpower.
== Modern imperialism ==
[[Image:US-UK-power.jpg|right|thumb|Political caricature illustrating U.S. and U.K. as world leaders.]]
{{mergefrom|Modern Western Imperialism}}
There is a contemporary debate surrounding the [[United States]] and whether the power it exerts upon much of the world and its policy amounts to imperialism — hence sometimes the U.S. is referred to as the "[[American Empire (term)|American Empire]]." This is because, with the collapse of the [[Soviet Union]] and the end of the [[Cold War]], the [[United States]] is now the dominant power in the world. Furthermore, the U.S. has, many times over the past century, used both military intervention and economic or political influence to shape the countries within the [[Western Hemisphere]]. Opinions vary greatly within the U.S.: there are those who regard the active use of military force abroad as a part of the nation's responsibility or [[national interest]], and there are others who argue for [[United States non-interventionism|non-interventionism]], and many shades of opinion in between.
The term ''American Empire'' is naturally controversial, since ''empire'' is largely limited to descriptions of history (rather than contemporary events) and likewise the historical examples of empire tend to be more familiar and evocative of the concept. As such, modern examples of coercion and [[militarism]] may be viewed differently.
The United States has also only had very few years of status as sole [[superpower]], without the [[Soviet Union]] as its dominant political, military, and ideological foe. The [[Cold War]] battle for [[geopolitics|geopolitical]] supremacy tends to be cast in terms of 'freedom versus repression,' thereby diminishing the imperial aspects of both powers. Further, as "imperialism" tends to have negative connotations of [[tyranny]] and [[Political repression|repression]], such a claimed empire's "subjects" may be naturally disinclined to use it in any reference to themselves.
In the early 21st Century, the U.S. has turned military, political, and economic resources towards oil-rich countries in [[Central Asia]] and the [[Middle East]]. Beginning with the end of [[World War II]], the U.S. largely took over from the [[UK]] certain roles by which it exerted influence in the [[Middle East]]. Through [[United States]]-instigated and assisted assassinations and coups, several Middle Eastern nations have felt the strong influence of Western societies: [[Egypt]], [[Iran]], [[Iraq]], [[Saudi Arabia]], [[Syria]], [[Lebanon]], and [[Israel]] have been directly or otherwise substantially influenced by U.S. policy.
(This does not include prior or continuing [[British Empire]] holdings of the time — notably in [[India]] and [[Pakistan]].)
As there are few other countries with such a capability, it has been said by some that U.S. military actions are partly or mostly acts of militarist imperialism. Others simply believe that such allegations are used as groundless criticism against the U.S. whenever it takes a military action. Two uncontroversial facts are that the U.S. currently has a much larger and more sophisticated military than any other country — operating over 100 bases in every part of the world. The U.S. has also used its military to control its interests. It is debatable whether these things alone constitute imperialism, or whether such "imperialism" adequately resembles past incarnations — Roman, British, German or otherwise.
==Marxist theory of Imperialism==
[[Karl Marx]] never published a theory of imperialism, although he referred to [[colonialism]] in [[Das Kapital]] as an aspect of the prehistory of the [[capitalist mode of production]]. In various articles he also analysed British colonial rule in Ireland and India.
[[Marxism|Marxists]] use the term ''imperialism'' as [[Lenin]] defined it: "the highest stage of capitalism", specifically the era in which monopoly finance capital becomes dominant, forcing nations and corporations to compete amongst themselves increasingly for control over resources and markets all over the world. Such control may take the form of geopolitical machinations, military adventures, or financial maneuvers. This usage of the term "imperialism" is in some ways inaccurate, since imperialism is historically implicated in the very origins of capitalism - although historians differ in their assessment of its economic importance.
The essential feature of the Marxist theories of imperialism, or related theories such as [[dependency theory]], is their focus on the [[economic]] relation between countries, rather than the formal [[political]] relationship. Imperialism thus consists not necessarily in the direct control of one country by another, but in the economic [[exploitation]] of one region by another, or of a group by another. This Marxist usage contrasts with many people's understanding of the connotation of the word 'imperialism', which they think of as relating to the era when countries ''directly'' controlled vast empires, rather than the ''economic'' domination that some parts of the world have over others today - this popular view is a conflation of imperialism with [[colonialism]], the establishment of overseas colonies.
As noted above, the Marxist theory of imperialism is not founded on the works of [[Karl Marx]], but on those of [[Vladimir Lenin]]. Nevertheless, the theory is accepted today by the majority of Marxists, even those who are not [[Leninism|Leninists]]. It states that imperialism allows the [[capitalism|capitalists]] from developed (rich) countries to extract a [[superprofit]] from the [[working class]] of undeveloped (poor) countries. The majority of this superprofit is kept by the capitalists themselves, but some of it is shared with the working class of the developed countries (in the form of higher standards of living, cheaper consumer goods, etc.), in order to placate that working class and avoid revolution at home.
The [[Soviet Union]], which claimed to follow Leninism, proclaimed itself the foremost enemy of imperialism and supported many independence movements throughout the [[Third World]]. However, at the same time, it asserted its dominance over the countries of [[Eastern Europe]]. This has led many to accuse the Soviet Union of [[hypocrisy]], and it is often used as an argument for the idea that the Soviet Union did not, in fact, follow Leninist principles.
New developments in the Marxist study of imperialism stem from the ground-breaking study ''The Age of Imperialism'', written by [[Harry Magdoff]] in 1969. [[Globalization]] is generally viewed as the latest incarnation of imperialism among Marxists.
==Name dualism==
One thing to note in some allegedly imperialistic countries is the "melting" between the name — and in many times, the sense of [[National identity|national identity]] — of the titular nation and the other territories controlled by this nation including the titular nation itself. Some examples are:
*[[Ottoman Empire]] / [[Turkey]]
*[[British Empire]] / [[England]]
*[[German Empire]] / [[Prussia]]
*[[Soviet Union]] / [[Russia]]
*[[Yugoslavia]] / [[Serbia]]
==Quotes==
*"The term “imperialism” is no more precise, and its overuse and recent abuse is making it nearly meaningless as an analytical concept....“imperialism” is “more often the name of the emotion that reacts to a series of events than a definition of the events themselves. Where Colonization finds analysts and analogies, imperialism must contend with crusaders for and against."--Benevolent Assimilation The American Conquest of the Philippines, 1899-1903, --Stuart Creighton Miller, (Yale University Press, 1982): page 3, quoting Professor Archibald Paton Thorton author of the book ''Doctrines of Imperialism''.
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[[sl:Imperializem]]
[[fi:Imperialismi]]
[[sv:Imperialism]]
[[th:ลัทธิจักรวรรดินิยม]]
[[zh:帝国主义]]
[[Category:Imperialism|*]]
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IPv4
15317
42080240
2006-03-03T18:11:57Z
Cburnett
140084
/* Addressing */ Note
{{IPstack}}
'''IPv4''' is version 4 of the [[Internet Protocol]] (IP) and it is the first version of the Internet Protocol to be widely deployed.
IPv4 is the dominant [[network layer]] protocol on the [[internet]] and when ignoring its successor — [[IPv6]] — it is the only protocol used on the [[internet]].
It is described in [[IETF]] RFC 791 (September 1981) which obsoleted RFC 760 (January 1980).
IPv4 is a data-oriented protocol to be used on a [[packet switched]] [[internetwork]] (e.g., [[Ethernet]]). It is a [[best effort delivery|best effort]] protocol in that it doesn't guarantee delivery. It doesn't make any guarantees on the correctness of the data; it may result in duplicated packets and/or packets out-of-order. All of these things are addressed by an upper layer protocol (e.g., [[Transmission Control Protocol|TCP]], [[User Datagram Protocol|UDP]]).
==Addressing==
<!-- Note: [[IP address]] points to this heading so if you rename this then fix that link -->
IPv4 uses 32-[[bit]] (4 [[byte]]) addresses which limits the [[address space]] to 4,294,967,295 possible unique addresses.
However, many are reserved for special purposes such as [[private network]]s (~18 million addresses) or [[multicast]] addresses (~1 million addresses). This reduces the number of addresses that can be allocated as public Internet addresses and as the number of addresses available is consumed, an [[#Exhaustion|IPv4 address shortage]] appears to be inevitable in the long run.
This limitation has helped stimulate the push towards [[IPv6]], which is currently in the early stages of deployment and is currently the only contender to replace IPv4.
===Address representations===
When writing IPv4 addresses in strings the most common notation is the [[dot-decimal notation]]. There are other notations based on the values of the [[octet (computing)|octet]]s of the IP address.
For example, the IPv4 address for <tt>www.wikipedia.org</tt> is <tt>207.142.131.235</tt> in the dot-decimal notation which comprises four octets in [[decimal]] separated by periods. This is the base format used in the conversion in the following table:
{| class="wikitable"
|-
! Notation !! Value !! Conversion from dot-decimal
|-
| [[Dot-decimal notation]]
| <tt>207.142.131.235</tt>
| N/A
|-
| Dotted Hexadecimal
| <tt>0xCF.0x8E.0x83.0xEB</tt>
| Each octet is individually converted to hex
|-
| Dotted Octal
| <tt>0317.0216.0203.0353</tt>
| Each octet is individually converted into octal
|-
| [[Hexadecimal]]
| <tt>0xCF8E83EB</tt>
| Concatenation of the octets from the dotted hexadecimal
|-
| [[Decimal]]
| <tt>3482223595</tt>
| The hexadecimal form converted to decimal
|-
| [[Octal]]
| <tt>031743501753</tt>
| The hexadecimal form converted to octal
|}
All/most of these formats should work in all browsers.
Additionally, in dotted format, each octet can be of the different bases.
For example, <tt>207.0x8E.0203.235</tt> is a valid (though unconventional) equivalent to the above addresses.
A final form is not really a notation since it is rarely written in an ASCII string notation. That form is a binary form of the hexadecimal notation in binary. This difference is merely the representational difference between the string "0xCF8E83EB" and the 32-bit integer value 0xCF8e83EB. This form is used in both the source and destination fields.
===Allocation===
Originally, the IP address was divided into two parts:
* network number – first octet
* rest – last three octets
This created an upper limit of 256 networks and led to the creation of [[classful network]]s.
Under classful networking, 5 classes were created (A, B, C, D, & E) with 3 created (A, B, & C) with different lengths of network number and rest fields to change the number of IPs in each range: few networks with lots of addresses and numerous networks with only a few addresses.
Class D was for [[multicast]] addresses and class E is reserved.
Around [[1993]], the classful networks were replaced with a [[Classless Inter-Domain Routing]] (CIDR) scheme.
CIDR's primary advantage is to allow subdivision of networks to let entities sub-allocate IPs (e.g., an [[Internet service provider|ISP]] to a customer).
The actual assignment of an address is not arbitrary.
The fundamental principle of [[routing]] is that address encodes information about a device's location within a network.
This implies that an address assigned to one part of a network will not function in another part of the network.
A hierarchical structure, created by CIDR and overseen by the [[Internet Assigned Numbers Authority]] (IANA) and its [[Regional Internet Registry|Regional Internet Registries]] (RIRs), manages the assignment of Internet address worldwide.
Each RIR maintains a publically searchable [[WHOIS]] database that provides information about IP address assignments; information from these databases plays a central role in numerous tools which attempt to locate IP addresses geographically.
{| class="wikitable"
|+ '''Reserved address blocks'''
|-
! [[Classless Inter-Domain Routing|CIDR]] address block || Description || Reference
|-
| 0.0.0.0/8 || Current network (only valid as source address) || RFC 1700
|-
| 10.0.0.0/8 || [[Private network]] || RFC 1918
|-
| 14.0.0.0/8 || Public data network || RFC 1700
|-
| 39.0.0.0/8 || Reserved || RFC 1797
|-
| 127.0.0.0/8 || [[Localhost]] || RFC 1700
|-
| 128.0.0.0/16 || Reserved ||
|-
| 169.254.0.0/16 || [[Private network]] || RFC 3927
|-
| 172.16.0.0/12 || [[Private network]] || RFC 1918
|-
| 191.255.0.0/16 || ||
|-
| 192.0.0.0/24 || ||
|-
| 192.0.2.0/24 || Test network || RFC 3330
|-
| 192.88.99.0/24 || [[IPv6]] to [[IPv4]] relay || RFC 3068
|-
| 192.168.0.0/16 || [[Private network]] || RFC 1918
|-
| 198.18.0.0/15 || Network benchmark tests || RFC 2544
|-
| 223.255.255.0/24 || Reserved || RFC 3330
|-
| 224.0.0.0/4 || [[Multicast|Multicasts]] (former Class D network) || RFC 3171
|-
| 240.0.0.0/4 || Reserved (former Class E network) || RFC 1700
|-
| 255.255.255.255 || Broadcast ||
|-
|}
===Private networks===
Of the 4+ billion addresses allowed in IPv4, three ranges of address are reserved for [[private network]]ing use only.
These ranges are not routable outside of private network and private machines cannot directly communicate with public networks.
They can, however, do so through [[network address translation]].
The following are the three ranges reserved for private networks:
{| class="wikitable"
! Name !! IP address range !! number of IPs
! ''[[classful network|classful]]'' description !! largest [[Classless Inter-Domain Routing|CIDR]] block
|-
| 24-bit block || 10.0.0.0 – 10.255.255.255 || 16,777,215 || single class A || 10.0.0.0/8
|-
| 20-bit block || 172.16.0.0 – 172.31.255.255 || 1,048,576 || 16 contiguous class Bs || 172.16.0.0/12
|-
| 16-bit block || 192.168.0.0 – 192.168.255.255 || 65,535 || 256 continguous class Cs || 192.168.0.0/16
|}
===Localhost===
{{main|localhost}}
In addition to private networking, the IP range 127.0.0.0 – 127.255.255.255 (or 127.0.0.0/8 in [[Classless Inter-Domain Routing|CIDR]] notation) is reserved for [[localhost]] communication.
Any address within this range should never appear on an actual network and any packet sent to this address should loopback as an incoming packet to the same machine.
===Resolving===
{{main|Domain Name System}}
The [[internet]] is most publicly known not by IP addresses but by names (e.g., www.wikipedia.org, www.whitehouse.gov).
The routing of IP packets across the internet is oblivious to such names.
This requires translating (or resolving) names to IP address.
The [[Domain Name System]] (DNS) provides such a system to convert names to IP address(es) and IP addresses to names.
Much like CIDR addressing, the DNS naming is also hierarchial and allows for subdelegation of name spaces to other DNS servers.
===Exhaustion===
A concern that has spanned decades to the [[1980s]] is the exhaustion of available IP addresses.
This was the driving factor in [[classful network]]s and then later in the creation of [[Classless Inter-Domain Routing|CIDR]] addressing.
Today, there are several driving forces to the next address allocation solution:
* mobile devices — [[laptop computer]]s, [[personal digital assistant|PDA]]s, [[mobile phone]]s
* always-on devices — [[Asymmetric Digital Subscriber Line|ADSL]]s, [[cable modem]]s
* rapidly growing number of internet users
The most visible solution is to migrate to [[IPv6]] since the address size jumps dramatically from 32-bit to 128-bit which would allow about 18 [[quintillion]] people their own set of 18 quintillion addresses (3.4e18 total addresses). However, migration has proved to be a challenge in itself, and total internet adoption of IPv6 is unlikely to occur for many years.
Some things that can be done to mitigate the IPv4 address exhaustion are (not mutually exclusive):
* [[network address translation]]
* use of [[private network]]s
* [[Dynamic Host Configuration Protocol]]
* [[virtual hosting]]
* tighter control by [[Regional Internet Registry|Regional Internet Registries]] on the allocation of addresses to Local Internet Registries
* network renumbering to reclaim large blocks of address space allocated in the early days of the internet
[[As of 2004]], predictions for the exhaustion of the IPv4 address space range from [[2016]] (for unallocated pool exhaustion) to [[2023]] (for complete exhaustion of the address space).
Historically, though, forward predictions for the date of address exhaustion have been unreliable; predictions from the late [[1980s]] have not been borne out in practice.
==Network address translation==
{{main|Network address translation}}
One method to increase both address utilization and security is to use [[network address translation]] (NAT).
By assigning one IP to a public machine as an [[internet]] [[Gateway (telecommunications)|gateway]] and using a [[private network]] for an organization's computers allows for considerable address savings.
This also increases security by making all of the computers on a private network not directly accessible to the public network.
==Virtual private networks==
{{main|Virtual private network}}
Since private address ranges are deliberately ignored by all public routers, it is not normally possible to connect two private networks (e.g., two branch offices) via the public Internet. [[Virtual private network]]s (VPNs) solve this problem.
VPNs work by inserting an IP packet (encapsulated packet) directly into the data field of another IP packet (encapsulating packet) and using a publicly routable address in the encapsulating packet. Once the VPN packet is routed across the public network and reaches the endpoint, the encapsulated packet is extracted and then transmitted on the private network just as if the two private networks were directly connected.
Optionally, the encapsulated packet can be encrypted to secure the data while over the public network (see VPN article for more details).
==Address Resolution Protocol==
{{main|Address Resolution Protocol}}
Since IP is an upper layer protocol to the [[data link layer]] there arises a problem of when a computer with IP address A wants to communicate with IP address B.
In order to send a packet from A to B then A needs to know the hardware address of B.
This discover is done through [[Address Resolution Protocol]] (ARP).
==Reverse Address Resolution Protocol/DHCP==
{{main articles|[[Reverse Address Resolution Protocol]], [[BOOTP]], [[Dynamic Host Configuration Protocol]]}}
Unlike the situation outlined for ARP, the case arises when a computer knows its [[data link layer]] address but not its IP address.
This is a common scenario in [[private network]]s and [[Digital Subscriber Line]] (DSL) connections when the IP address of the machines are irrelevant.
This is usually the case for [[work station]]s but not [[server (computing)|servers]].
RARP is an obsoleted method for answering this question: This is my hardware address, what is my IP address?
RARP was replaced by [[BOOTP]] which, in turn, was replaced by [[Dynamic Host Configuration Protocol]] (DHCP).
In addition to sending the IP address, DHCP can also send the [[Network Time Protocol|NTP]] server, [[Domain Name System|DNS]] servers, and more.
==Packet structure==
An IP packet consists of two sections:
* header
* data
The header consists of 13 fields and, of which, only 12 are required. The 13<sup>th</sup> field is optional (red background in table) and aptly named: options.
===Header===
{| border="0" align="right"
|-
|
{| class="wikitable" style="margin: 0 auto; text-align: center; width: 50em;"
|-
! colspan="1"|+
! colspan="4" width="13%"|Bits 0 - 3
! colspan="4" width="13%"|4 - 7
! colspan="8" width="25%"|8 - 15
! colspan="3" width="10%"|16 - 18
! colspan="13" width="39%"|19 - 31
|-
! colspan="1"|0
| colspan="4"|Version
| colspan="4"|Header length
| colspan="8"|Type of Service<br />(now [[Differentiated services|DiffServ]] and [[Explicit Congestion Notification|ECN]])
| colspan="16"|Total Length
|-
! colspan="1"|32
| colspan="16"|Identification
| colspan="3"|Flags
| colspan="13"|Fragment Offset
|-
! colspan="1"|64
| colspan="8"|Time to Live
| colspan="8"|Protocol
| colspan="16"|Header Checksum
|-
! colspan="1"|96
| colspan="32"|Source Address
|-
! colspan="1"|128
| colspan="32"|Destination Address
|-
! colspan="1"|160
| colspan="32" bgcolor="#FFDDDD"|Options
|-
! colspan="1"|160/192+
| colspan="32"| <br />Data<br />
|}
|}
; Version : The first header field in an IP [[packet]] is the 4-bit version field. For IPv4, this has a value of 4 (hence the name IPv4).
; Internet Header Length (IHL) : The second field is a 4-bit Internet Header Length (IHL) telling the number of 32-bit [[Word (computer science)|words]] in the header. Since an IPv4 header may contain a variable number of options, this field specifies the size of the header which coincides with the offset to the data. The minimum header size is 20 bytes, so the minimum value for this field is 5 (5×4 = 20 bytes). Being a 4-bit field the maximum length is 15 words or 60 bytes.
; Type of Service (ToS) : In RFC 791, the following 8 bits were allocated to a Type of Service (ToS) field:
:* bits 0-2: precedence
:* bit 3: 0 = Normal Delay, 1 = Low Delay
:* bit 4: 0 = Normal Throughput, 1 = High Throughput
:* bit 5: 0 = Normal Reliability, 1 = High Reliability
:* bits 6-7: Reserved for future use
:This field is now used for [[Differentiated services|DiffServ]] and [[Explicit Congestion Notification|ECN]]. The original intention was for a sending host to specify a preference for how the datagram would be handled as it made its way through an internetwork. For instance, one host could set its IPv4 datagrams' ToS field value to prefer low delay, while another might prefer high reliability. In practice, the ToS field has not been widely implemented. However, a great deal of experimental, research and deployment work has focused on how to make use of these eight bits. These bits have been redefined, most recently through [[DiffServ]] working group in the IETF and the [[Explicit Congestion Notification]] codepoints (see RFC 3168). New technologies are emerging that require real-time data streaming and therefore will make use of the ToS field. An example is [[Voice over IP]] (VoIP) that is used for interactive data voice exchange.
; Total Length : This field defines the entire datagram size, including header and data, in bytes. The minimum-length datagram is 20 bytes (20 bytes header + 0 bytes data) and the maximum is 65,535 — the maximum value of a 16-bit word. The minimum size datagram which any host is '''required''' to be able to handle is 576 bytes, but most modern hosts handle much larger packets. Sometimes [[subnetwork]]s impose further restrictions on the size, in which case datagrams must be [[Fragmentation (computer)|fragmented]]. Fragmentation is handled in either the host or packet switch in IPv4 (''see [[#Fragmentation and reassembly]]'').
; Identification : This field is an identification field and is primarily used for uniquely identifying fragments of an original IP datagram. Some experimental work has suggested using the ID field for other purposes, such as for adding packet tracing information to datagrams in order to help trace back datagrams with spoofed source addresses.
; Flags : A 3-bit field follows and is used to control or identify fragments. They are (in order, from high order to low order):
:* Reserved, must be zero
:* Don't Fragment (DF)
:* More Fragments (MF)
:If the DF flag is set and fragmentation is required to route the packet then the packet will be dropped. This can be used when sending packets to a host that does not have sufficient resources to handle fragmentation.
:When a packet is fragmented, all fragments have the MF flag set except the last fragment which does not have the MF flag set. The MF flag is also not set on packets which are not fragmented — clearly an unfragment packet can be considered the last fragment.
; Fragment Offset : The fragment offset field is 13-bits long and allows a receiver to determine the place of a particular fragment in the original IP datagram, measured in units of 8-byte blocks. This method allows for a maximum packet length of 65,528 ((2^13 - 1)*8 which exceeds the maximum IP packet length of 65,535.
; Time To Live (TTL) : An 8-bit [[time to live]] (TTL) field helps prevent datagrams from persisting (e.g. going in circles) on an internetwork. Historically the TTL field limited a datagram's lifetime in seconds, but has come to be a [[hop count]] field. Each packet switch (or [[router]]) that a datagram crosses decrements the TTL field by one. When the TTL field hits zero, the packet is no longer forwarded by a packet switch and is discarded. Typically, an [[Internet Control Message Protocol|ICMP]] message (specifically the [[ICMP Time Exceeded|time exceeded]]) is sent back to the sender that it has been discarded. The reception of these ICMP messages is at the heart of how [[traceroute]] works.
; Protocol : This field defines the protocol used in the data portion of the IP datagram. The [[Internet Assigned Numbers Authority]] maintains a list of Protocol numbers and were originally defined in RFC 790. Common protocols and their decimal values are shown below (''see [[#Data]]'').
; Header Checksum : The 16-bit [[checksum]] field is used for error-checking of the header. At each hop, the checksum of the header must be compared to the value of this field. If a header checksum is found to be mismatched, then the packet is discarded. Note that errors in the data field are up to the encapsulated protocol to handle — indeed, both [[User Datagram Protocol|UDP]] and [[Transmission Control Protocol|TCP]] have internet checksum fields.
: Since the TTL field is decremented on each hop and fragmentation is possible at each hop then at each hop the checksum will have to be recomputed. The method used to compute the checksum is defined within RFC 791:
:: ''The checksum field is the 16 bit one's complement of the one's complement sum of all 16 bit words in the header. For purposes of computing the checksum, the value of the checksum field is zero.''
: In other words, all 16-bit words are summed together using [[one's complement]] (with the checksum field set to zero). The sum is then one's complemented. This final value is then inserted as the checksum field.
; Source address : An [[IP address]] is a group of 4 8-bit octets for a total of 32 bits. The value for this field is determined by taking the binary value of each octet and concatenating them together to make a single 32-bit value.
: For example, the address 10.9.8.7 (00001010.00001001.00001000.00000111 in binary) would be 00001010000010010000100000000111.
: This address is the address of the sender of the packet. Note that this address may not be the "true" sender of the packet due to [[network address translation]]. Instead, the source address will be translated by the NATing machine to its own address. Thus, reply packets sent by the receiver are routed to the NATing machine, which translates the destination address to the original sender's address.
; Destination address : Identical to the source address field but indicates the receiver of the packet.
; Options : Additional header fields (called ''options'') may follow the destination address field, but these are not often used. Note that the value in the IHL field must include enough extra 32-bit words to hold all the options (plus any padding needed to ensure that the header contains an integral number of 32-bit words). The list of options may be terminated with an EOL (End of Options List) option; this is only necessary if the end of the options would not otherwise coincide with the end of the header.
: The use of the LSSR and SSRR options (Loose and Strict Source and Record Route) is discouraged because they create security concerns; packets with them are therefore usually blocked by routers.
===Data===
The last field is not apart of the header and, consequently, not included in the checksum field.
The contents of the data field are specified in the protocol header field and can be any one of the [[transport layer]] protocols.
Some of the most commonly used protocols are listed below including their value used in the protocol field:
* [[Internet Control Message Protocol]] (ICMP) – 1
* [[Internet Group Management Protocol]] (IGMP) – 2
* [[Open Shortest Path First]] (OSPF) – 89
* [[Real-time Transport Protocol]] (RTP)
* [[Stream Control Transmission Protocol]] (SCTP) – 132
* [[Transmission Control Protocol]] (TCP) – 6
* [[User Datagram Protocol]] (UDP) – 17
See [[List of IPv4 protocol numbers]] for a complete list.
==Fragmentation and reassembly==
To make IPv4 more tolerant of different networks the concept of [[fragmentation (computer)|fragmentation]] was added so that, if necessary, a device could break up the data into smaller pieces.
This is necessary when the [[MTU (networking)|maximum transmission unit]] (MTU) is smaller than the packet size.
For example, the maximum size of an IP packet is 65,535 bytes while the typical MTU for [[ethernet]] is 1,500 bytes.
Since the IP header consumes 20 bytes (without options) of the 1,500 bytes, that leaves 1,480 bytes of IP data per ethernet frame (this leads to an MTU for IP of 1,480 bytes).
Therefore, a 65,535 byte data payload would require 45 packets (65535/1480 = 44.28).
Fragmentation was chosen to occur at the IP layer is that IP is the first layer that connects hosts instead of machines.
If fragmentation were performed on higher layers (TCP, UDP, etc.) then this would make fragmentation/reassembly be redundantly implemented (once per protocol); if fragmentation were performed on a lower layer (ethernet, ATM, etc.) then this would require fragmentation/reassembly be performed on each hope (could be quite costly) and redundantly implemented (once per link layer protocol).
So doing fragmentation at the IP layer is the most efficient layer for this to be done.
===Fragmentation===
When a device receives an IP packet it examines the destination address and determines the outgoing interface to use.
This interface an associated MTU that dictates the maximum data size for its payload.
If the MTU is smaller than the data size then the device must fragment the data.
The device then segments the data into segments where each segment is less-than-or-equal-to the MTU less the IP header size (20 bytes minimum; 60 bytes maximum).
Each segment is that put into it's own IP packet with the following changes:
* The ''total length'' field will be adjusted to the segment size
* The ''more fragments'' (MF) flag is set for all segments except the last one
* The ''fragment offset'' field is set accordingly based on the offset of the segment in the original data payload
For example, for an IP header of length 20 bytes and an ethernet MTU of 1,500 bytes the fragment offsets would be: 0, 1480, 2960, 4440, 5920, etc.
By some chance if a packet changes link layer protocols or the MTU reduces then these fragments would be fragmented again.
For example, if a 4,500 byte data payload is inserted into an IP packet with no options (thus total length is 5,020 bytes) and is transmitted over a link with an MTU of 2,500 bytes then it will be broken up into two fragments:
{| class="wikitable"
|-
!rowspan="2"| # !!colspan="2" width="200"| Total length !!rowspan="2"| More fragments (MF)<BR>flag set? !!rowspan="2"| Fragment offset
|-
!width="100"| Header !!width="100"| Data
|-
|rowspan="2" align="center"| 1 ||colspan="2" align="center"| 2500 ||rowspan="2" align="center" {{yes}} ||rowspan="2" align="center"| 0
|-
| align="center"| 20 || align="center"| 2480
|-
|rowspan="2" align="center"| 2 ||colspan="2" align="center"| 2040 ||rowspan="2" align="center" {{no}} ||rowspan="2" align="center"| 2480
|-
| align="center"| 20 || align="center"| 2020
|}
Now, let's say the MTU drops to 1,500 bytes. Each fragment will individually be split up into two more fragments each:
{| class="wikitable"
|-
!rowspan="2"| # !!colspan="2" width="200"| Total length !!rowspan="2"| More fragments (MF)<BR>flag set? !!rowspan="2"| Fragment offset
|-
!width="100"| Header !!width="100"| Data
|-
|rowspan="2" align="center"| 1 ||colspan="2" align="center"| 1500 ||rowspan="2" align="center" {{yes}} ||rowspan="2" align="center"| 0
|-
| align="center"| 20 || align="center"| 1480
|-
|rowspan="2" align="center"| 2 ||colspan="2" align="center"| 1020 ||rowspan="2" align="center" {{yes}} ||rowspan="2" align="center"| 1480
|-
| align="center"| 20 || align="center"| 1000
|-
|rowspan="2" align="center"| 3 ||colspan="2" align="center"| 1500 ||rowspan="2" align="center" {{yes}} ||rowspan="2" align="center"| 2480
|-
| align="center"| 20 || align="center"| 1480
|-
|rowspan="2" align="center"| 4 ||colspan="2" align="center"| 560 ||rowspan="2" align="center" {{no}} ||rowspan="2" align="center"| 3960
|-
| align="center"| 20 || align="center"| 540
|}
Indeed, the amount of data has been preserved — 1480 + 1000 + 1480 + 540 = 4500 — and the last fragment offset plus data — 3960 + 540 = 4500 — is also the total length.
Note that fragments 3 & 4 were dervied from the original fragment 2. When a device must fragment the last fragment then it must set the flag for all but the last fragment it creates (fragment 3 in this case).
===Reassembly===
When a receiver detects an IP packet where either of the following is true:
* "more fragments" flag set
* "fragment offset" field is non-zero
then the receiver knows it is the packet is a fragment.
The receiver then stores the data with the identification field, fragment offset, and the more fragments flag.
When the receiver recives a fragment with the more fragments flag not set then it knows the length of the original data payload since the fragment offset plus the data length is equivalent to the original data payload size.
Using the example above, when the receiver receives fragment #4 the fragment offset (3960) and the data length (540) added together yield 4500 — the original data length.
Once it has all the fragments then it can reassemble the data in proper order (by using the fragment offsets) and pass it up the stack for further processing.
==See also==
* [[Classful network]]
* [[Classless Inter-Domain Routing]]
* [[Internet Assigned Numbers Authority]]
* [[IPv6]]
* [[List of assigned Class A IP addresses]]
* [[List of IP protocol numbers]]
* [[Regional Internet Registry]]
==External links==
* RFC 791 - Internet Protocol
* http://www.iana.org – Internet Assigned Numbers Authority (IANA)
* http://www.ipnow.org – IPv4 and Other IP Address Formats Detector
===Address exhaustion===
* [http://www.ripe.net/rs/news/ipv4-ncc-20031030.html RIPE report on address consumption as of October 2003]
* [http://www.iana.org/assignments/ipv4-address-space Official current state of IPv4 /8 allocations, as maintained by IANA]
* [http://bgp.potaroo.net/ipv4/ Dynamically generated graphs of IPv4 address consumption with predictions of exhaustion dates]
* [http://www.whatsmyipaddy.com/ Display your IP Address, Browser Information, and more]
* [http://www.ripe.net/info/info-services/ipv4/index.html Article on IPv4 Exhaustion - "Running Out of Time?"]
* [http://www.rfc-editor.org/rfc.html Internet RFC database] and [http://www.rfcsearch.org/ Internet RFCs in HTML format]
* [http://www.apnic.net/news/hot-topics/internet-gov/ip-china.html APNIC hot topics - IP addressing in China and the myth of address shortage]
[[Category:Internet protocols]]
[[Category:Internet standards]]
[[Category:Internet architecture]]
[[da:IPv4]]
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[[es:IPv4]]
[[fr:IPv4]]
[[ko:IPv4]]
[[it:IPv4]]
[[ja:IPv4]]
[[nl:Internet Protocol Version 4]]
[[no:IPv4]]
[[pl:IPv4]]
[[pt:Protocolo IP]]
[[sk:IPv4]]
[[fi:IPv4]]
[[tr:IPv4]]
[[zh:IPv4]]
IPv6
15318
41646186
2006-02-28T19:43:08Z
63.109.22.7
/* Spelling fix "Tunnelling" to Tunneling */
{{IPstack}} <!-- Edit the stack image at: Template:IPstack -->
'''Internet Protocol version 6''' ('''IPv6''') is a [[network layer]] standard used by electronic devices to exchange data across a [[packet]]-switched [[internetwork]]. It follows [[IPv4]] as the second version of the [[Internet Protocol]] to be formally adopted for general use.
IPv6 is intended to provide more addresses for networked devices, allowing, for example, each cell phone and mobile electronic device to have its own address. IPv4 supports 4.3×10<sup>9</sup> (4.3 billion) addresses, which is inadequate to give one to every living person. IPv6 supports 3.4×10<sup>38</sup> addresses, or 5×10<sup>28</sup> for each of the roughly 6.5 billion people alive today.
Invented by [[Steve Deering]] and [[Craig Mudge]] at [[Xerox PARC]], IPv6 was adopted by the [[Internet Engineering Task Force]] in [[1994]], when it was called "IP Next Generation" (IPng). (Incidentally, [[IPv5]] was not a successor to IPv4, but an experimental flow-oriented [[streaming media|streaming]] protocol intended to support video and audio.)
As of December 2005, IPv6 accounts for a tiny percentage of the live addresses in the publicly-accessible Internet, which is still dominated by IPv4. The adoption of IPv6 has been slowed by the introduction of [[network address translation]] (NAT), which partially alleviates address exhaustion. The [[Federal government of the United States|U.S. Government]] has specified that all federal agencies must deploy IPv6 by [[2008]].
It is expected that IPv4 will be supported alongside IPv6 for the foreseeable future.
==Features of IPv6==
To a great extent, IPv6 is a conservative extension of IP. Most transport- and application-layer protocols need little or no change to work over IPv6; exceptions are applications protocols that embed network-layer addresses (such as [[File_Transfer_Protocol|FTP]] or [[Network_Time_Protocol|NTPv3]]).
===Larger address space===
The main feature of IPv6 is the larger address space: addresses in IPv6 are 128 bits long.
The larger address space allows to avoid the potential exhaustion of the IPv4 address space without the need for NAT and other devices that break the end-to-end nature of Internet traffic.
128 bits might seem overkill to achieve that goal. However, since IPv6 addresses are plentiful, it is reasonable to allocate addresses in large blocks, which makes administration easier and avoids fragmentation of the address space, which in turn leads to smaller routing tables. The current allocation policies allocate 64 bits of address space to an end-user, and 96 bits or more to an organization.
Another advantage of the larger address space is that it makes scanning certain IP blocks for vulnerabilities significantly more difficult than in IPv4, which makes IPv6 more tolerant against malicious traffic.
===Stateless autoconfiguration of hosts===
IPv6 hosts can configure automatically when connected to a routed IPv6 network. When first connected to a network, a host sends a link-local [[multicast]] ([[Broadcasting_(networks)|broadcast]]) request for its configuration parameters; if configured suitably, routers respond to such a request with a ''router advertisement'' packet.
If IPv6 autoconfiguration is not suitable, a host can use stateful autoconfiguration ([[Dynamic_Host_Configuration_Protocol|DHCPv6]]) or be configured manually.
Stateless autoconfiguration is only suitable for hosts; routers must be configured manually or by other means.
===Multicast===
[[Multicast]] (both on the local link and across routers) is part of the base protocol suite in IPv6. This is in opposition to IPv4, where multicast is optional and only rarely deployed across routers.
IPv6 does not have a link-local broadcast facility; the same effect can be achieved by multicasting to the all-hosts group with a hop count of one.
===Jumbograms===
In IPv4, packets are limited to 64KB of payload. When used over suitable link layers, IPv6 has support for packets over this limit, affectionately known as ''jumbograms''. Use of jumbograms might improve performance over high-throughput networks. For example, on [[Myrinet]] the MTU is effectively unlimited and IPv6-over-Myrinet could use Jumbograms to send very large payloads.
===Faster routing===
By using a simpler and more systematic header structure, IPv6 was supposed to improve the performance of routing. Recent advances in router technology, however, may have made this improvement obsolete.
===Network-layer security===
[[IPsec]] — the protocol for IP network-layer encryption and authentication — is an integral part of the base protocol suite in IPv6. It is, however, not yet deployed widely except for securing BGP traffic between IPv6 routers.
==Addressing==
===128-bit length===
<!--IPv4 supports 4,294,967,296 address -->
The primary change from IPv4 to IPv6 is the length of network addresses. IPv6 addresses are 128 bits long (as defined by [[Request for Comments|RFC 2373]] and [[Request for Comments|RFC 2374]]).
IPv6 addresses are typically composed of two logical parts: a 64-bit network prefix, and a 64-bit host part, which is either automatically generated from the interface's [[MAC address]] or assigned sequentially.
===Notation===
IPv6 addresses are normally written as eight groups of four [[hexadecimal]] digits. For example, <small>2001:0db8:85a3:08d3:1319:8a2e:0370:7334</small> is a valid IPv6 address.
If a four-digit group is 0000, the zeros may be omitted. For example, <small>2001:0db8:85a3:0000:1319:8a2e:0370:7344</small> can be shortened as <small>2001:0db8:85a3::1319:8a2e:0370:7344</small>. Following this rule, any group of consecutive 0000 groups may be reduced to two colons, as long as there is only one double colon used in an address. Thus, the lines below are all valid and equivalent.
2001:0DB8:0000:0000:0000:0000:1428:57ab
2001:0DB8:0000:0000:0000::1428:57ab
2001:0DB8:0:0:0:0:1428:57ab
2001:0DB8:0::0:1428:57ab
2001:0DB8::1428:57ab
Having more than one double-colon abbreviation in an address is invalid as it would make the notation ambiguous.
Leading zeros in a group can be omitted. Thus <small>2001:0DB8:02de::0e13</small> may be shortened to <small>2001:DB8:2de::e13</small>.
A sequence of 4 bytes at the end of an IPv6 address can also be written in decimal, using dots as separators. This notation is often used with compatibility addresses (see below). Thus, ::ffff:1.2.3.4 is the same address as ::ffff:102:304.
Additional information can be found at RFC 3513 - IP Version 6 Addressing Architecture.
===Network notation===
IPv6 networks are written using [[Classless_Inter-Domain_Routing#CIDR_notation|CIDR notation]].
An IPv6 network (or subnet) is a contiguous group of IPv6 addresses the size of which must be a power of two; the initial bits of addresses which are identical for all hosts in the network are called the network's prefix.
A network is denoted by the first address in the network and the size in bits of the prefix, separated with a slash. For example, <small>2001:1234:5678:9ABC::/64</small> stands for the network with addresses <small>2001:1234:5678:9ABC::</small> through <small>2001:1234:5678:9ABC:FFFF:FFFF:FFFF:FFFF</small>.
Because a single host can be seen as a network with a 128-bit prefix, you will sometimes see host addresses written followed with <small>/128</small>.
===Special addresses===
There are a number of addresses with special meaning in IPv6:
* ::/128 – the address with all zeroes is used to specify any address, and is only to be used in software.
* ::1/128 – the [[loopback]] address is a localhost address. If an application in an host sends packets to this address, the IPv6 stack will loop these packets back to the same host (corresponding to [[127.0.0.1]] in IPv4).
* ::/96 – the zero prefix was used for [[IPv4-compatible address]]es (see ''Transition mechanisms'' below)
* ::ffff:0:0/96 – this prefix is used for [[IPv4 mapped address]]es (see ''Transition mechanisms'' below)
* fc00::/7 – Unique Local IPv6 Unicast Addresses are only routable within a set of cooperating sites. They were defined in RFC 4193 as a replacement for site-local addresses (see below). The addresses include a 40-bit [[pseudorandom]] number that minimizes the risk of conflicts if sites merge or packets somehow leak out.
* fe80::/10 – The link-local prefix specifies that the address only is valid in the local physical link. This is analogous to the Autoconfiguration IP address 169.254.x.x in v4.
* fec0::/10 – The site-local prefix specifies that the address is only valid inside the local organisation. Its use has been deprecated in September 2004 by RFC 3879 and future systems must not implement any support for this special type of address anymore.
* ff00::/8 – The multicast prefix is used for [[multicast]] addresses.
There are no address ranges reserved for broadcast in IPv6 — applications are supposed to use multicast to the ''all-hosts'' group instead.
==IPv6 packet==
[[Image:IPv6 header rv1.png|right|thumb|400px|The structure of an IPv6 packet header.]]
The IPv6 packet is composed of two main parts: the header and the payload.
The header is in the first 40 octets of the packet and contains both source and destination addresses (128 bits each), as well as the version (4-bit IP version), traffic class (8 bits, Packet Priority), flow label (20 bits, [[Quality of service|QoS]] management), payload length (16 bits), next header (8 bits), and hop limit (8 bits, [[Time to Live|time to live]]). The payload can be up to 64k in size in standard mode, or larger with a "jumbo payload" option.
[[IPv4#Fragmentation and reassembly|Fragmentation]] is handled only in the sending host in IPv6: routers never fragment a packet, and hosts are expected to use [[PMTU]] discovery.
In IPv6, options move out of the standard header and are specified by the Next Header field, similar in function to IPv4's Protocol field. A [[handwaving]] example: in IPv4 one would add a [[Strict Source and Record Routing]] (SSRR) option to the IPv4 header itself in order to enforce a certain route for the packet, but in IPv6 one would make the Next Header field indicate that a Routing header comes next. The Routing header would then specify the additional routing information for the packet, and then indicate that, for example, the TCP header comes next. This is analogous to the handling of AH and ESP in [[IPsec]] for IPv4 (which applies to IPv6 as well, of course).
==IPv6 and the Domain Name System==
IPv6 addresses are represented in the [[Domain Name System]] by ''AAAA records'' (so-called quad-A records) for forward lookups; [[reverse DNS lookup|reverse lookup]]s take place under <tt>ip6[[.arpa]]</tt> (previously <tt>ip6[[.int]]</tt>), where address space is delegated on [[nibble]] boundaries. This scheme, which is a straightforward adaptation of the familiar [[A record]] and ''in-addr.arpa'' schemes, is defined in RFC 3596.
The AAAA scheme was one of two proposals at the time the IPv6 architecture was being designed. The other proposal would have had ''A6 records'' for the forward lookup and a number of other innovations such as ''bit-string labels'' and ''DNAME records''. It is defined in the experimental RFC 2874 and its references (with further discussion of the pros and cons of both schemes in RFC 3364).
==IPv6 deployment==
In February 1999, The IPv6 Forum was founded by the IETF Deployment WG to drive deployment worldwide creating by now over 30 IPv6 Country Fora and IPv6 Task Forces [http://www.ipv6forum.org IPv6 FORUM].
On [[20 July]] [[2004]] [[ICANN]] announced[http://icann.org/announcements/announcement-20jul04.htm] that the root [[DNS]] servers for the Internet had been modified to support both IPv6 and IPv4.
A global view into the IPv6 routing tables which displays also which ISP's are already deploying IPv6 can be found by looking at the [http://www.sixxs.net/tools/grh/dfp/all/ SixXS Ghost Router Hunter] pages, these pages display a list of all allocated IPv6 prefixes and giving colors to the ones that are actually being announced in [[Border Gateway Protocol|BGP]]. When a prefix is announced that means that the ISP at least can receive IPv6 packets for their prefix. They might then actually also offer IPv6 services, maybe even to end users/sites directly.
==Transition mechanisms==
Until IPv6 completely supplants IPv4, which is not likely to happen in the foreseeable future, a number of so-called ''transition mechanisms'' are needed to enable IPv6-only hosts to reach IPv4 services and to allow isolated IPv6 hosts and networks to reach the IPv6 Internet over the IPv4 infrastructure.
===Dual stack===
Since IPv6 is a conservative extension of IPv4, it is relatively easy to write a network stack that supports both IPv4 and IPv6 while sharing most of the code. Such an implementation is called a ''dual stack'', and a host implementing a dual stack is called a ''dual-stack host''. This approach is described in RFC2893[http://www.ietf.org/rfc/rfc2893.txt?number=2893].
Most current implementations of IPv6 use a dual stack. Some early experimental implementations used independent IPv4 and IPv6 stacks. There are no known implementations that implement IPv6 only.
===Tunneling===
In order to reach the IPv6 Internet, an isolated host or network must be able to use the existing IPv4 infrastructure to carry IPv6 packets. This is done using a technique somewhat misleadingly known as ''[[tunneling_protocol|tunnelling]]'' which consists in encapsulating IPv6 packets within IPv4, in effect using IPv4 as a link layer for IPv6.
IPv6 packets can be directly encapsulated within IPv4 packets using a protocol number of 41. They can also be encapsulated within UDP packets e.g. in order to cross a router or NAT device that block protocol 41 traffic. They can of course also use generic encapsulation schemes, such as [[AYIYA]] or [[Generic_Routing_Encapsulation|GRE]].
====Automatic tunneling====
''Automatic tunneling'' refers to a technique where the tunnel endpoints are automatically determined by the routing infrastructure. The recommended technique for automatic tunneling is [[6to4]][http://www.ietf.org/rfc/rfc3056.txt] tunneling, which uses protocol 41 encapsulation. Tunnel endpoints are determined by using a well-known IPv4 anycast address on the remote side, and embedding IPv4 address information within IPv6 addresses on the local side. 6to4 is widely deployed today.
''[[Teredo_tunneling|Teredo]]'' [http://www.ietf.org/rfc/rfc4380.txt] is an automatic tunneling technique that uses UDP encapsulation and is claimed to be able to cross multiple NAT boxes. Teredo is not widely deployed today, but an experimental version of Teredo is installed with the default Windows XP SP2 IPv6 stack.
====Configured tunneling====
''Configured tunneling'' is a technique where the tunnel endpoints are configured explicitly, either by a human operator or by an automatic service known as a [[Tunnel Broker]][http://www.ietf.org/rfc/rfc3053.txt]. Configured tunneling is usually more deterministic and easier to debug than automatic tunneling, and is therefore recommended for large, well-administered networks.
Configured tunneling typically uses either protocol 41 (recommended) or raw UDP encapsulation.
=== Proxying and translation ===
When an IPv6-only host needs to access an IPv4-only service (for example a web server), some form of translation is necessary. The one form of translation that actually works is the use of a dual-stack [[Proxy_server|application-layer proxy]], for example a web proxy.
Techniques for application-agnostic translation at the lower layers have also been proposed, but they have been found to be too unreliable in practice due to the wide range of functionality required by common application-layer protocols, and are commonly considered to be obsolete. See for example NAT-PT[http://www.ietf.org/rfc/rfc2766.txt], [[TCP-UDP Relay]][http://www.ietf.org/rfc/rfc3142.txt], Socks-based Gateway[http://www.ietf.org/rfc/rfc3089.txt], [[Bump-in-the-Stack]] or [[Bump-in-the-API]][http://www.ietf.org/rfc/rfc2767.txt].
==Major IPv6 announcements==
*In [[2003]], [[Nihon Keizai Shimbun]] (as cited in CNET Asia Staff, 2003) reported that [[Japan]], [[China]], and [[South Korea]] claimed to have made themselves determined to become the leading nations in internet technology, which would partially take the form of jointly developing IPv6, and completely adopting IPv6 starting in 2005.
*[[ICANN]] announced on [[20 July]] [[2004]] that the IPv6 AAAA records for the Japan (.jp) and Korea (.kr) country code Top Level Domain (ccTLD) nameservers became visible in the [[DNS root server]] zone files with serial number 2004072000. The IPv6 records for France (.fr) were added a little later. This made IPv6 operational in a public fashion.
==Related IETF working groups==
* [http://www.ietf.org/html.charters/OLD/6bone-charter.html 6bone] IPv6 Backbone
* [http://www.ietf.org/html.charters/OLD/ipngwg-charter.html ipng] IP Next Generation (concluded)
* [http://www.ietf.org/html.charters/ipv6-charter.html ipv6] IP Version 6
* [http://www.ietf.org/html.charters/OLD/ipv6mib-charter.html ipv6mib] IPv6 MIB (concluded)
* [http://www.ietf.org/html.charters/multi6-charter.html multi6] Site Multihoming in IPv6
* [http://www.ietf.org/html.charters/shim6-charter.html shim6] Site Multihoming by IPv6 Intermediation
* [http://www.ietf.org/html.charters/v6ops-charter.html v6ops] IPv6 Operations
==Further reading==
=== Core specifications ===
* RFC 1924: A Compact Representation of IPv6 Addresses
* RFC 2374: An IPv6 Aggregatable Global Unicast Address Format
* RFC 2460: Internet Protocol, Version 6 (IPv6) Specification (obsoletes RFC 1883)
* RFC 2463: Internet Control Message Protocol (ICMPv6) for the IPv6 Specification
* RFC 2464: Transmission of IPv6 Packets over Ethernet Networks
* RFC 3513: Internet Protocol Version 6 (IPv6) Addressing Architecture (obsoletes RFC 2373)
=== Stateless autoconfiguration ===
* RFC 2461: Neighbor Discovery for IP Version 6 (IPv6)
* RFC 2462: IPv6 Stateless Address Autoconfiguration
=== Programming ===
* RFC 3493: Basic Socket Interface Extensions for IPv6 (obsoletes RFC 2553)
** see [[Getaddrinfo#Protocol_Independent_Programming|<tt>getaddrinfo</tt>]] for an example of client/server programming in an IPv4/IPv6 independent manner using some of RFC 3493 extensions
* RFC 3542: Advanced Sockets Application Program Interface (API) for IPv6 (obsoletes RFC 2292)
* RFC 4038: Application Aspects of IPv6 Transition
=== Books ===
There are a number of IPv6 books:
* ISBN 1590595270 [http://www.runningipv6.net Running IPv6] (2006)
* ISBN 0596009348 [http://www.oreilly.com/catalog/ipv6na/ IPv6 Network Administration] (2005)
* ISBN 3952294209 [http://www.sunny.ch/publications/f_ipv6SE.htm IPv6 - Grundlagen, Funktionalität, Integration]] by Silvia Hagen (German Edition, 2004)
* ISBN 0596001258 [http://www.sunny.ch/publications/f_ipv6.htm IPv6 Essentials]] by Silvia Hagen (English, 2002)
* IPv6, théorie et pratique, by Gisèle Cizault (in French). This is available online [http://livre.point6.net/].
* ISBN 013241936X [http://www.huitema.net/ipv6.asp IPv6: The New Internet Protocol] by Christian Huitema (1998) (The original IPv6 bible)
==External links==
=== Misc ===
* [http://www.ipv6tf.org The IPv6 Portal] - All the IPv6 News and Info
* [http://www.sixxs.net SixXS] - IPv6 Deployment & Tunnel Broker
* [http://tb.ipv6.btexact.com BT Exact] - Free IPv6 Tunnel Broker
* [http://www.moonv6.org/ Moonv6]
* [http://www.ipv6.bieringer.de Display Connection information of IPv6 Clients] (IPv6 only)
* [http://www.govexec.com/dailyfed/0605/062905tdpm2.htm Federal gov to deploy IPv6 by 2008]
* [http://bgp.potaroo.net/iso3166/v4cc.html Dominance of IPv4 in current market]
* [http://bgp.potaroo.net/iso3166/v6cc.html Percentage of current market]
* [http://linuxreviews.org/features/ipv6/ Why you want IPv6]
* [http://cr.yp.to/djbdns/ipv6mess.html The IPv6 mess], a critique of the IPv6 transition plan, by D. J. Bernstein
=== Address Space ===
* [http://www.iana.org/assignments/ipv6-address-space IANA Address Assignments]
* [http://www.sixxs.net/tools/grh/ GRH] SixXS's Ghost Route Hunter (Looking Glass + Address Usage overview)
* [http://www.cisco.com/en/US/about/ac123/ac147/archived_issues/ipj_8-3/ipv4.html A Pragmatic Report on IPv4 Address Space Consumption]
* [http://bgp.potaroo.net/ipv4/ Exhaustion of IP resources]
* [http://www.3com.com/other/pdfs/infra/corpinfo/en_US/501302.pdf Understanding IP Addressing Everything You Ever Wanted To Know] Detailed explanation of IPv4/6 implementation.
* [http://www.hznet.de/tools/generate-rfc4193-addr A tool to generate uniq local IPv6 unicast addresses] (In conformance with RFC4193)
=== Software (Operating Systems + Applications) ===
* [http://www.kame.net/ KAME] BSD IPv6 Stack
* [http://www.linux-ipv6.org/ USAGI] Linux IPv6 Stack
* [http://www.deepspace6.net/docs/ipv6_status_page_apps.html DeepSpace6] - Current Status of Applications supporting IPv6 / Linux IPv6 Info
* [http://playground.sun.com/pub/ipng/html/INET-IPng-Paper.html Overview of IPng/IPv6] (provided by one of the co-chairs of the SIPP [[working group]])
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Inca Empire
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42078560
2006-03-03T17:57:19Z
RexNL
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Reverted edits by [[Special:Contributions/68.153.36.3|68.153.36.3]] ([[User talk:68.153.36.3|talk]]) to last version by Huhsunqu
:''For other meanings of "Inca", see [[Inca (disambiguation)]].''
{{History of Peru}}
[[Image:Machu-Picchu.jpg|thumbnail|290px|right|A view of [[Machu Picchu]], "the [[Lost city|Lost City]] of the Incas," now an [[archaeological site]].]]The '''Inca Empire''' ('''Tawantin Suyu''' in [[Quechuan and Aymaran spelling shift|Quechua modern orthography]], or '''Tahuantinsuyo''' in [[Quechuan and Aymaran spelling shift|Hispanicized Quechua orthography]]; ''The Four United Regions''), was an empire centered in what is now [[Peru]] from [[Anno Domini|AD]] [[1438]] to AD [[1533]]. Over that period, the Inca used conquest and peaceful assimilation to incorporate in their empire a large portion of western South America, centred on the [[Andes|Andean]] mountain ranges. The Inca empire proved short-lived: by AD [[1533]], [[Atahualpa]], the last Inca emperor, called a [[Sapa Inca]], was killed on the orders of the [[conquistador]] [[Francisco Pizarro]], marking the beginning of Spanish rule.
''Tawantinsuyu'', the indigenous name of the empire, derives from the [[Quechua]] "tawa" (''four'') , to which the suffix "-ntin" (''together'' or ''united'') is added, followed by "suyu" (''region'' or ''province''), which roughly renders as "''The land of the four parts together''". The empire was divided into four ''suyu''s, whose corners - according to Inca mythology - met at the "Navel of the World" (''Qosqo''), where their capital [[Cusco]] was located, now in modern-day [[Peru]].
The official language of the empire was [[Quechua language|Quechua]], although over seven hundred local languages were spoken. The Inca leadership encouraged the worship of their [[Deity|gods]], the foremost of which was [[Inti]], the [[Solar deity|sun god]].
== Origin stories ==
''See also: [[Inca mythology]]''
The Inca had two main origin myths. In one, Tici Viracocha of Colina de las Ventanas in [[Pacaritambo]] sent forth his four sons and four daughters to establish a village. Along the way, [[Sinchi Roca]] was born to [[Manco Capac|Manco]] and [[Mama Ocllo|Ocllo]], and Sinchi Roca is the person who finally led them to the valley of Cuzco where they founded their new village. There Manco became their leader and became known as [[Manco Capac]].
In the other origin myth, the sun god [[Inti]] ordered Manco Capac and [[Mama Ocllo]] to emerge from the depths of [[Lake Titicaca]] and found the city of Cuzco. They traveled by means of underground caves until reaching Cuzco where they established [[Sapa Inca|Hurin Cuzco]], or the first dynasty of the Kingdom of Cuzco.
The knowledge of these myths is due to oral tradition, since the Incas did not have writing. There probably did exist a Manco Capac who became the leader of his tribe. The archeological evidence seems to indicate that the Inca were a relatively unimportant tribe until the time of Sinchi Roca, also called Cinchi Roca, who is the first figure in Inca mythology whose existence can be supported historically.
== Emergence and expansion ==
[[Image:Inca-expansion.png|thumb|350px|right|Inca expansion (1438 - 1527 CE)]]
The Inca people began as a tribe in the Cuzco area around the [[12th century]] CE. Under the leadership of [[Manco Capac]], they formed the small city-state of Cuzco ([[Quechua]] ''Qosqo''), shown in red on the map.
In [[1438]] CE, under the command of [[Sapa Inca]] (paramount leader) [[Pachacuti]], whose name literally meant "world-shaker", they began a far-reaching expansion. The land Pachacuti conquered was about the size of the [[Thirteen Colonies]] of the [[United States]] in [[1776]], and consisted of nearly the entire [[Andes]] mountain range.
Pachacuti reorganized the kingdom of Cuzco into an empire, the Tahuantinsuyu, a [[federation|federalist system]] which consisted of a central government with the Inca at its head and four provincial governments with strong leaders: [[Chinchasuyu]] (NW), [[Antisuyu]] (NE), [[Contisuyu]] (SW), and [[Collasuyu]] (SE). Pachacuti is also thought to have built [[Machu Picchu]], either as a family home or as a [[Camp David]]-like retreat.
Pachacuti would send spies to regions he wanted in his empire who would report back on their political organization, military might and wealth. He would then send messages to the leaders of these lands extolling the benefits of joining his empire, offering them presents of luxury goods such as high quality textiles, and promising that they would be materially richer as subject rulers of the Inca. Most accepted the rule of the Inca as a ''[[List of French phrases used by English speakers#D .E2.80.93 H|fait accompli]]'' and acquiesced peacefully. The ruler's children would then be brought to Cuzco to be taught about Inca administration systems, then return to rule their native lands. This allowed the Inca to indoctrinate the former ruler's children into the Inca nobility, and, with luck, marry their daughters into families at various corners of the empire.
It was traditional for the Inca's son to lead the army; Pachacuti's son [[Túpac Inca]] began conquests to the north in [[1463]], and continued them as Inca after Pachucuti's death in [[1471]]. His most important conquest was the Kingdom of [[Chimor]], the Inca's only serious rival for the coast of Peru. Túpac Inca's empire stretched north into modern day Ecuador and Colombia.
Túpac Inca's son [[Huayna Cápac]] added significant territory to the south. At its height, Tahuantinsuyu included [[Peru]] and [[Bolivia]], most of what is now [[Ecuador]], a large portion of modern-day [[Chile]], and extended into corners of [[Argentina]] and [[Colombia]].
Tahuantinsuyu was a patchwork of languages, cultures and peoples. The components of the empire were not all uniformly loyal, nor were the local cultures all fully integrated. For instance, the [[Chimú]] used money in their commerce, while the Inca empire as a whole had an economy based on exchange and taxation of luxury goods and labour (it is said that Inca tax collectors would take the head lice of the [[disability|lame]] and old as a symbolic tribute). The portions of the [[Chachapoya]] that had been conquered were almost openly hostile to the Inca, and the Inca nobles rejected an offer of refuge in their kingdom after their troubles with the Spanish.
==Spanish conquest and Vilcabamba==
''Main article: [[Spanish conquest of the Inca Empire]]''
Spanish [[conquistadors]] led by [[Francisco Pizarro]] explored south from Panama, reaching Inca territory by [[1526]]. It was clear that they had reached a wealthy land with prospects of great treasure, and after one more expedition ([[1529]]), Pizarro travelled to Spain and received royal approval to conquer the region and be its viceroy.
At the time they returned to Peru, in [[1532]], a war of succession between Huayna Capac's sons [[Huascar]] and [[Atahualpa]] and unrest among newly-conquered territories-- and perhaps more importantly, [[smallpox]], which had spread from Central America-- had considerably weakened the empire.
Pizarro did not have a formidable force; with just 180 men, 1 cannon and only 27 horses, he often needed to talk his way out of potential confrontations that could have easily wiped out his party. Their first engagement was the [[battle of Puná]], near present-day [[Guayaquil]], [[Ecuador]]; Pizarro then founded the city of [[Piura]] in July [[1532]]. [[Hernando de Soto]] was sent inland to explore the interior, and returned with an invitation to meet the Inca, Atahualpa, who had defeated his brother in the civil war and was resting at [[Cajamarca]] with his army of 80,000 troops.
Pizarro met with the Inca, who had brought only a small retinue, and through interpreters demanded that he convert to Christianity. Atahualpa was handed a Bible and threw it on the floor, which the Spanish interpreted as adequate reason for war, though some chroniclers suggest that Atahualpa simply didn't understand the notion of a book. The Spanish attacked the Inca's retinue (see [[Battle of Cajamarca]]), capturing Atahualpa.
Atahualpa offered the Spaniards enough gold to fill the room he was imprisoned in, and twice that amount of silver. The Incas fulfilled this ransom, but Pizarro refused to release the Inca. During Atahualpa's imprisonment Huascar was assassinated. The Spanish maintained that this was at Atahualpa's orders; this was one of the charges used against Atahualpa when the Spanish finally decided to put him to death, in August [[1533]].
The Spanish installed his brother [[Manco Inca Yupanqui]] in power; for some time Manco cooperated with the Spanish, while the Spanish fought to put down resistance in the north. Meanwhile an associate of Pizarro's, [[Diego de Almagro]], attempted to claim [[Cusco]] for himself. Manco tried to use this intra-Spanish feud to his advantage, recapturing Cusco ([[1536]]), but the Spanish retook the city.
Manco Inca then retreated to the mountains of [[Vilcabamba]], where he and his successors ruled for another 36 years, sometimes raiding the Spanish or inciting revolts against them. In [[1572]] the last Inca stronghold was discovered, and the last ruler, [[Túpac Amaru]], Manco's son, was captured and executed, bringing the Inca empire to an end.
== After the Spanish conquest ==
After the fall of Tahuantinsuyu, the new Spanish rulers brutally repressed the people and their traditions. Many aspects of Inca culture were systematically destroyed, including their sophisticated farming system. The Spanish used the Inca [[Mita (Inca)|mita]] (mandatory public service) system to literally work the people to death. One member of each family was forced to work in the gold and silver mines, the foremost of which was the titanic silver mine at [[Potosí]]. When one family member died, which would usually happen within a year or two, the family would be required to send a replacement.
The major languages of the empire, [[Quechua language|Quechua]] and [[Aymara language|Aymara]], were employed by the [[Catholic Church]] to evangelize in the [[Andean]] region. In some cases, these languages were taught to peoples who had originally spoken other indigenous languages. Today, Quechua and Aymara remain the most widespread [[Amerindian language]]s.
The legend of the Inca has served as inspiration for resistance movements in the region. These include the [[1780]] rebellion led by [[Tupac Amaru II]] against the Spanish, as well as contemporary the [[guerrilla warfare|guerrilla]] movements [[Túpac Amaru Revolutionary Movement]] (MRTA) and [[Shining Path|Sendero Luminoso]] in Peru and [[Tupamaros]] in [[Uruguay]].
Tawantinsuyu has a modern [[rainbow flag]] which is displayed throughout Peru.
== Society ==
=== Political organization of the empire ===
[[Image:Ollantaytambo.jpg|thumb|200px|''[[Ollantaytambo]]'' constituted an administrative, religious, agricultural and military complex for the Incas]]
The most powerful figure in the empire was the [[Sapa Inca]] ('the unique Inca'). When a new ruler was chosen, his subjects would build his family a new royal dwelling. The former royal dwelling would remain the dwelling of the former Inca's family. Only descendants of the original Inca tribe ever ascended to the level of Inca. Most young members of the Inca's family attended [[Inca education|Yachayhuasis]] (houses of knowledge) to obtain their education.
The Tahuantinsuyu was a [[federation|federalist system]] which consisted of a central government with the Inca at its head and four provinces: [[Chinchaysuyu]] (NW), [[Antisuyu]] (NE), [[Qontisuyu]] (SW), and [[Qollasuyu]] (SE). The four corners of these provinces met at the center, Cuzco. Each province had a governor who oversaw local officials, who in turn supervised agriculturally-productive river valleys, cities and mines. There were separate chains of command for both the military and religious institutions, which created a system of partial checks and balances on power. The local officials were responsible for settling disputes and keeping track of each family's contribution to the [[Mita (Inca)|mita]] (mandatory public service).
The four provincial governors were called ''apos''. The next rank down, the ''tukuyrikuq'' (local leaders), numbered about 90 in total and typically managed a city and its hinterlands. Below them were four levels of administration:
{|
|- align=right
!Level name !!Mita payers
|- align=right
|Hunu kuraqa ||10,000
|- align=right
|Waranqa kuraqa ||1,000
|- align=right
|Pachaka Kuraqa ||100
|- align=right
|Chunka kamayuq ||10
|}
Every five ''waranqa curaca'', ''pachaka curaca'', and ''chunka kamayuq'' had an intermediary to the next level called, respectively, ''picqa waranqa curaca'', ''picqa pacaka curaca'', and ''picqa conka kamayoq''. This means that the middle managers managed either two or five people, while the ''conka kamayoq'' (at the worker manager level) and the ''apos'' and ''t'oqrikoq'' (in upper management) each had about 20 people reporting to them.
The descendants of the original Inca tribe were not numerous enough to administer their empire without help. To cope with the need for leadership at all levels the Inca established a [[civil service]] system. Boys at age of 13 and girls at age of first menstruation had their intelligence tested by the local Inca officials. If they failed, their [[ayllu]] (extended family group) would teach them one of many trades, such as farming, gold working, weaving, or military skills. If they passed the test, they were sent to Cuzco to attend school to become administrators. There they learned to read the [[quipu]] (knotted cord records) and were taught Inca [[iconography]], leadership skills, religion, and, most importantly, [[mathematics]]. The graduates of this school constituted the nobility and were expected to marry within that nobility.
While some workers were held in great esteem, such as royal [[goldsmith]]s and [[weaver]]s, they could never themselves enter the ruling classes. The best they could hope for was that their children might pass the exam as adolescents to enter the civil service. Although workers were considered the lowest social class, they were entitled to a modicum of what today we call [[due process]], and all classes were equally subject to the [[rule of law]]. For example, if a worker was accused of stealing and the charges were proven false, the local official could be punished for not doing his job properly.
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=== Childhood ===
Inca childhood was harsh by modern standards. When a baby was born, the Inca would wash the child in cold water and wrap it in a blanket. Soon after, the baby was put in a pit dug in the ground like a playpen. By about age one, they expected the baby to crawl and walk independently. At age two, the child was ceremonially named and were considered to have left infancy. From then on, boys and girls were expected to help around the house. Misbehaving during this time could result in very severe punishment. At age fourteen, boys received a loincloth in a [[ceremony]] to mark their [[manhood]]. Boys from noble families were subjected to many different tests of endurance and knowledge. After the test, they received earplugs and a weapon, whose color represented rank in [[society]].
This doesn't really fit into this article at the moment [[User:Zenyu|Zenyu]] 18:15, Dec 7, 2004 (UTC)
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=== Arts ===
The Inca were a conquering society, and their expansionist assimilation of other cultures is evident in their artistic style. The artistic style of the Inca utilized the vocabulary of many regions and cultures, but incorporated these themes into a standardized imperial style that could easily be replicated and spread throughout the empire. The simple abstract geometric forms and highly stylized animal representation in ceramics, wood carvings, textiles and metalwork were all part of the Inca culture. The motifs were not as revivalist as previous empires. No motifs of other societies were directly used with the exception of [[Huari]] and [[Tiwanaku]] arts.
====Architecture====
:''Main article: [[Incan architecture]]
[[Architecture]] was by far the most important of the Inca arts, with pottery and textiles reflecting motifs that were at their height in architecture. The stone temples constructed by the Inca used a mortarless construction process first used on a large scale by the [[Tiwanaku]]. The Inca imported the stoneworkers of the Tiwanaku region to Cusco when they conquered the lands south of Lake Titicaca. The rocks used in construction were sculpted to fit together exactly by repeatedly lowering a rock onto another and carving away any sections on the lower rock where the dust was compressed. The tight fit and the concavity on the lower rocks made them extraordinarily stable in the frequent earthquakes that strike the area. The Inca used straight walls except on important religious sites and constructed whole towns at once.
The Inca also sculpted the natural surroundings themselves. One could easily think that a rock along an [[Inca road system|Inca trail]] is completely natural, except if one sees it at the right time of year when the sun casts a stunning shadow, betraying its synthetic form. The [[Inca rope bridge]]s were also used to transport messages and materials by [[Chasqui]] running messengers. The Inca also adopted the terraced agriculture that the previous [[Huari]] civilization had popularized. But they did not use the terraces solely for food production. At the Inca ''tambo'', or inn, at [[Ollantaytambo]] the terraces were planted with flowers, extraordinary in this parched land.
The terraces of Moray were left unirrigated in a desert area and seem to have been solely decorative. The Inca provincial thrones were often carved into natural outcroppings, and there were over 360 natural springs in the areas surrounding Cusco, such as the one at Tambo Machay. At Tambo Machay the natural rock was sculpted and stonework was added, creating alcoves and directing the water into fountains. These pseudo-natural carvings functioned to show both the Inca's respect for nature and their command over it.
==== Clothing ====
[[Image:Tupa-inca-tunic.png|thumb|300px|Inca tunic]]
Inca officials wore stylized [[tunic]]s that indicated their status. The tunic displayed here is the highest status tunic known to exist today. It contains an amalgamation of motifs used in the tunics of particular officeholders. For instance, the black and white [[checkerboard]] pattern topped with a red triangle is believed to have been worn by soldiers of the Inca army. Some of the motifs make reference to earlier cultures, such as the stepped diamonds of the [[Huari]] and the three step stairstep motif of the [[Moche]]. In this royal tunic, no two squares are exactly the same.
Cloth was divided into three classes. ''Awaska'' was used for household use, having an approximate [[threadcount]] of about 120 [[threads per inch]]. Finer cloth, ''qunpi'', was divided into two classes: The first, woven by male ''qunpikamayuq'' (keepers of fine cloth), was collected as tribute from throughout the country and was used for trade, to adorn rulers and to be given as gifts to political allies and subjects to cement loyalty. The other class of ''qunpi'' ranked highest. It was woven by ''aqlla'' (female virgins of the sun god temple) and used solely for royal and religious use. These had threadcounts of 600 or more per inch, unsurpassed anywhere in the world, until the [[Industrial Revolution]] of the 19th century.
Aside from the tunic, a person of importance wore a ''[[llawt'u]]'', a series of cords wrapped around the head. To establish his importance, the Inca [[Atahualpa]] commissioned a ''llawt'u'' woven from vampire bat hair. The leader of each [[ayllu]], or extended family, had its own headdress.
In conquered regions, traditional clothing continued to be worn, but the finest weavers, such as those of [[Chan Chan]], were transferred to Cusco and kept there to weave ''qunpi''. (The [[Chimu|Chimú]] had previously transferred these same weavers to Chan Chan from [[Sican]].)
The wearing of [[jewellery]] was not uniform throughout the empire. Chimú [[artisan]]s, for example, continued to wear [[earrings]] after their integration into the empire, but in many other regions, only local leaders wore them.
==== Ceramics and metalwork ====
Ceramics were for the most part utilitarian in nature, but also incorporated the imperialist style that was prevalent in the Inca textiles and metalwork. In addition, the Inca played drums and on woodwind instruments including [[flute]]s, [[pan-pipe]]s and [[trumpet]]s made of shell and ceramics.
The Inca made beautiful objects of gold. But precious metals were in much shorter supply than in earlier Peruvian cultures. The Inca metalworking style draws much of its inspiration from [[Chimú]] art and in fact the best metal workers of [[Chan Chan]] were transferred to Cusco when the Kingdom of [[Chimor]] was incorporated into the empire. Unlike the Chimú, the Inca do not seem to have regarded metals to be as precious as fine cloth. When the Spanish first encountered the Inca they were offered gifts of ''qunpi'' cloth.
=== Education ===
[[Image:Quipu.png|thumb|200px|Representation of an Incan quipu]]
''Main article: [[Inca education]]''
The Inca used [[quipu]], knotted cords, for accounting and census purposes. Most of the information on the quipus has been shown to be numeric data; some numbers seem to have been used as mnemonic labels, and the color, spacing, and structure of the quipu carried information as well. Since it isn't known how to interpret the coded or non-numeric data, some scholars still hope to find that the quipu recorded language.
Like the [[Aztec]], they also depended largely on oral transmission as a means of maintaining the preservation of their culture. Inca education was divided into two distinct categories: vocational education for common Inca and highly formalized training for the nobility.
=== Religion ===
''Main article: [[Inca religion]]''
''Other article: [[Inca mythology]]''
The [[Tahuantinsuyu, Religion|Incan religion]] was polytheistic (sun god, earth goddess, corn god, etc.). Subjects of the empire were allowed to worship their ancestral gods as long as they accepted the supremacy of [[Inti]], the sun god, which was the most important god worshipped by the Inca leadership. Consequently, [[ayllu]]s (extended families) and [[city-state]]s integrated into the empire were able to continue to worship their ancestral gods, though with reduced status.
Much of the contact between the upper and lower classes was religious in nature and consisted of intricate ceremonies that sometimes lasted from sunrise to sunset.
=== Medicine ===
The Inca made many discoveries in medicine. They performed successful [[Trephinning in pre-Columbian Mesoamerica|skull surgery]], which involved cutting holes in the skull to release pressure from head wounds. [[Coca]] leaves were used to lessen hunger and pain, as they still are in the Andes. The [[Chasqui]] (messengers) chewed coca leaves for extra energy to carry on their tasks as runners delivering messages throughout the empire. Recent research by Erasmus University and Medical Center workers Sewbalak and Van Der Wijk showed that, contrary to popular belief, the Inca people were not addicted to coca. Another remedy was to cover boiled bark from a pepper tree and place it over a wound while still warm. The Inca also used guinea pigs not only for food but for a so-called well-working medicine.
=== Burial practices ===
The Inca believed in [[reincarnation]]. Those who obeyed the Incan moral code — ''ama suwa, ama llulla, ama quella'' (do not steal, do not lie, do not be lazy) — went to live in the Sun's warmth. Others spent their eternal days in the cold earth.
The Inca also believed in [[mummy|mummifying]] prominent personages. The mummies would be provided with an assortment of objects which were to be taken into the [[pacarina]]. Upon reaching the pacarina, the mummies or [[mallqui]] would be able to converse with the area's other ancient ancestors, the [[huacas]]. The mallquis were also used in various rituals or celebrations. The deceased were generally buried in a sitting position. One such example was the 500-year-old mummy [[Mummy Juanita|"Juanita the Ice Maiden"]], a girl very well-preserved in ice that was discovered at 20,000 feet, near the summit of [[Mt. Ampato]] in Southern Peru. Her burial included many items left as offerings to the Inca gods.
=== Other practices ===
The Inca practiced '''cranial deformation'''. They achieved this by wrapping tight cloth straps around the heads of newborns in order to alter the shape of their still-soft skulls. These deformations did not result in brain damage. Researchers from [http://www.fieldmuseum.org/machupicchu/ The Field Museum] believe that the practice was used to mark different ethnicities across the Inca Empire.[http://www.fieldmuseum.org/machupicchu/ongoing.html]
=== Food and farming ===
[[Image:Peruvian potatoes.jpg|left|thumb|200px|Around 200 varieties of Peruvian potatoes were all first cultivated by the Incas and their predecessors]]
It is estimated that the Inca cultivated around seventy crop species. The main crops were [[potato|potatoes]], [[sweet potato|sweet potatoes]], [[maize]], [[Chile pepper|chili peppers]], [[cotton]], [[tomato|tomatoes]], [[peanut|peanuts]], an edible root called [[oca]], and grains known as [[quinoa]] and [[amaranth]]. The many important crops developed by the Inca and preceding cultures makes South America one of the historic centers of crop diversity (along with the [[Middle East]], [[India]], [[Mesoamerica]], [[Ethiopia]], and the [[Far East]]). Many of these crops were widely distributed by the Spanish and are now important crops worldwide.
[[Image:Peruvian corn.jpg|thumb|200px|Many varieties of Peruvian maize (corn) were well-known to the Incas for centuries]]
The Inca cultivated food crops on dry Pacific coastlines, high on the slopes of the Andes, and in the lowland [[Amazon rainforest]]. In mountainous Andean environments, they made extensive use of [[Terrace (agriculture)|terraced]] fields which not only allowed them to put to use the mineral-rich mountain soil which other peoples left fallow, but also took advantage of micro-climates conducive to a variety of crops being cultivated throughout the year. Agricultural tools consisted mostly of simple [[digging stick]]s.
The Inca also raised [[llama]]s and [[alpaca]]s for their wool and meat and to use them as pack animals, and captured wild [[vicuña]]s for their fine hair.
The [[Inca road system]] was key to farming success as it allowed distribution of foodstuffs over long distances. The Inca also constructed vast storehouses, which allowed them to live through [[El Niño]] years in style while neighboring civilizations suffered.
Inca leaders kept records of what each ''ayllu'' in the empire produced, but did not tax them on their production. They instead used the ''mita'' for the support of the empire.
The Inca diet consisted primarily of fish and vegetables, supplemented less frequently with the meat of [[guinea pig|cuy]]es (guinea pigs) and camelids. In addition, they hunted various animals for meat, skins and feathers. Maize was used to make [[chicha]], a fermented [[beverage]].
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=== Currency ===
Inca society was based on a [[barter]] system. Workers got labor credit, which was work paid for in goods or food. It was well used in their day. It was a very good system for their needs
W don't know this, we have yet to decipher their accounting system. But its very existence makes barter seem quaint; They may very well have had a credit based system. ...
[[User:Zenyu|Zenyu]] 18:42, Dec 7, 2004 (UTC) -->
== References in popular culture ==
* The Disney movie ''[[The Emperor's New Groove]]'' follows the adventures of a greedy emperor of a fictitious mountainous [[South American]] empire. While no direct reference is made to the Incas, the Emperor, Sun Symbols (signifying sun worship), architecture, [[fountain]]s, road/bridge system, and llamas as beast of burden are all indicative of the Incan Empire. Also, the Emperor's name is '''Kuzco''', an alternate spelling of Cuzco or Cusco, and the other main character, a wise farmer, is named '''Pacha''', which is Quechua for earth or land.
==Notes==
*{{fnb|1}} Before the official orthography, during the use of hispanic spellings, it was written as ''tahuantinsuyo''. See: [[Quechuan and Aymaran spelling shift]]
*{{fnb|2}} '''Tawantin suyu''' derives from the Quechua "tawa" (''four'') , to which the sufix "-ntin" (''together'' or ''united'') is added, followed by "suyu" (''region'' or ''province''), which roughly renders as "''The land of the four parts together''".
== See also ==
* [[Cultural periods of Peru]]
* [[History of Peru]]
* [[Spanish conquest of Peru]]
* [[El Inca Garcilaso de la Vega]]
* [[Guaman Poma | Felipe Guaman Poma de Ayala]]
== References ==
* {{cite book
| title = Andean Worlds
| first = Kenneth | last = Andrien
| authorlink = Kenneth Andrien
| year = 2001
}}
* {{cite book
| title = Conquest of the Incas
| first = John | last = Hemming
| authorlink = John Hemming (explorer)
| year = 1970
}}
* {{cite book
| title = Art of the Andes, from Chavin to Inca
| first = Rebecca | last = Stone-Miller
| authorlink = Rebecca Stone-Miller
| year = 1995
}}
== External links ==
*[http://www.geocities.com/architecture_aztec_america/america_inca_1.htm Inca Architecture]
*[http://www.kb.dk/elib/mss/poma/ Nueva corónica y buen gobierno] by Guaman Poma (published 1615 CE)
*[http://www.kellscraft.com/IncaLand/incalandscontents.html Inca Land] by [[Hiram Bingham III|Hiram Bingham]] (published 1912-1922 CE)
*[http://www.jqjacobs.net/andes/tupac_amaru.html Tupac Amaru], the Life, Times, and Execution of the Last Inca.
*[http://www.destination360.com/peru/machu-picchu.php Inca Artifacts, Peru, and Machu Picchu] 360 degree movies of inca artifacts and peruvian landscapes.
*[http://www.lost-civilizations.net/ancient-civilizations.html Inca civilization] and other ancient civilizations by Genry Joil.
*[http://www.davideandrea.com/personal/ideas/inca_stones/index.html Inca stone cutting techniques]: theory on how the Inca walls fit so perfectly.
*[http://www.projectshum.org/Ancient/inca.html Ancient Civilizations - Inca] Great research site for kids.
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*'''[[Sapa Inca]]''' (or "Inka") was the title of the main ruler of [[Tawantinsuyu]], or [[Inca Empire]].
*[[Inca, Spain]] is a town on the [[island]] of [[Majorca]] in the [[Mediterranean Sea]].
*[http://www.inca.org.br/ INCA] is a [[Brazil]]ian association against [[cancer]].
*'''[[Inca Kola]]''' is popular carbonated [[soft drink]] in [[Peru]]. It is fluorescent yellow and flavored with lemon grass.
*[[Inca (game)|Inca]] is an adventure game by [[Coktel Vision]] published by [[Sierra Entertainment]].
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{{IPstack}}
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The '''Internet Protocol''' ('''IP''') is a data-oriented protocol used by source and destination [[server|hosts]] for communicating data across a [[packet-switched]] [[internetwork]].
Data in an IP internetwork are sent in blocks referred to as [[packet]]s or [[datagram]]s (the terms are basically synonymous in IP). In particular, in IP no setup of "path" is needed before a host tries to send packets to a host it has previously not communicated with.
The Internet Protocol provides an ''unreliable'' datagram service (also called ''best effort''); i.e. it makes almost no guarantees about the packet. The packet may arrive damaged, it may be out of order (compared to other packets sent between the same hosts), it may be duplicated, or it may be dropped entirely. If an [[application software|application]] needs reliability, it is provided by other means, typically by upper level protocols transported on top of IP.
Internetwork [[router]]s forward IP datagrams across interconnected [[layer 2]] networks. The lack of any delivery guarantees means that the design of packet switches is made much simpler. (Note that if the network does drop, reorder or otherwise damage a lot of packets, the performance seen by the user will be poor, so most network elements do try hard to not do these things - hence the ''best effort'' term. However, an occasional error will produce no noticeable effect.)
IP is the common element found in today's public [[Internet]]. The current and most popular network layer protocol in use today is [[IPv4]]; this version of the protocol is assigned version 4. [[IPv6]] is the proposed successor to IPv4: the Internet is slowly running out of IPv4 addresses, as IPv4 uses 32 bits for addressing (giving ~4 billion addresses); IPv6 uses 128 bits for the source and destination addresses, providing a maximum of ~3.4×10<sup>38</sup> addresses (though see the IPv6 article for details). Versions 0 through 3 were either reserved or unused. Version 5 was used for an experimental stream protocol. Other version numbers have been assigned, usually for experimental protocols, but have not been widely used.
== IP addressing and routing ==
Perhaps the most complex aspects of IP are addressing and [[routing]]. Addressing refers to how end hosts become assigned [[IP address]]es and how subnetworks of IP host addresses are divided and grouped together. IP routing is performed by all hosts, but most importantly by internetwork routers, which typically use either [[interior gateway protocol]]s (IGPs) or [[external gateway protocol]]s (EGPs) to help make '''IP datagram''' forwarding decisions across IP connected networks.
== See also ==
* [[Connectionless protocol]]
* [[Internet protocol suite]]
* [[IPv4]]
* [[IPv6]]
* [[IP address]]
* [[Packet#IP_packets|IP packet]]
* [[TCP and UDP port numbers]]
* [[IANA]]
== External links ==
* RFC 791, [http://www.rfcsearch.org/rfcview/RFC/791.html RFC791 in html]
* [http://www.iana.org Internet Assigned Numbers Authority (IANA)]
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:''This article is about the concept of impeachment of political figures; for the concept of casting doubt on the testimony of a [[witness]] at [[trial (law)|trial]], see [[Witness impeachment]]''.
[[Image:3a05488v.jpg|thumb|300px|Depiction of the impeachment trial of [[Andrew Johnson]], then President of the [[United States]], in 1868.]]
'''Impeachment''' is the process by which a legislative body formally levels charges against a high official of [[government]]. Impeachment does not necessarily mean removal from office; it comprises only a formal statement of charges, akin to an [[indictment]] in [[criminal law]], and thus is only the first step towards possible removal. Once an individual is impeached, he or she must then face the possibility of conviction via legislative vote, which then entails the removal of the individual from office.
Conviction of officials involves an overturning of the normal [[constitution]]al procedures by which individuals achieve high office, whether by [[election]], [[ratification]] or [[appointment]], and because it generally requires a [[supermajority]], typically only those deemed to have seriously abused their offices will suffer impeachment.
One tradition of impeachment has its origins in the [[English law | law of England and Wales]], where the procedure last took place in [[1806]]. Impeachment exists under constitutional law in many nations around the world, including the [[United States]], [[Brazil]], [[Russia]], the [[Philippines]] and the [[Republic of Ireland]].
Etymologically, the word "impeachment" derives from Latin roots expressing the idea of becoming caught or entrapped, and has analogues in the modern French verb ''empêcher'' (to prevent) and the modern English ''impede''. Mediaeval popular etymology also associated it (wrongly) with derivations from the Latin ''impetere'' (to attack). Impeachment of a [[witness]] means challenging his or her honesty or credibility.
==United Kingdom==
===Procedure===
In the [[United Kingdom]], the [[British House of Commons|House of Commons]] holds the power of initiating an impeachment. Any member may make accusations of [[high treason]] or [[high crimes and misdemeanours]]. The member must support the charges with evidence and [[motion (democracy)|move]] for impeachment. If the Commons carries the motion, the mover receives orders to go to the bar at the [[House of Lords]] and to impeach the accused "in the name of the House of Commons, and all the commons of the United Kingdom."
The mover must tell the Lords that the House of Commons will, in due time, exhibit particular articles against the accused, and make good the same. The Commons then usually selects a committee to draw up the charges and create an "Article of Impeachment" for each. (In the case of [[Warren Hastings]], however, the drawing up of the articles preceded the formal impeachment.) Once the committee has delivered the articles to the Lords, replies go between the accused and the Commons via the Lords. If the Commons have impeached a peer, the Lords take custody of the accused, otherwise custody goes to [[Black Rod]]. The accused remains in custody unless the Lords allow bail. The Lords set a date for the trial while the Commons appoints managers, who act as prosecutors in the trial. The accused may defend by [[counsel]].
The [[House of Lords]] hears the case, with the [[Lord Chancellor]] presiding (or the [[Lord High Steward]] if the impeachment relates to a [[peerage|peer]] accused of high treason.) The hearing resembles an ordinary trial: both sides may call witnesses and present evidence. At the end of the hearing the Lord Chancellor puts the question on the first article to each member in order of seniority, commencing with the most junior peer, and ending with himself, and after all have voted, proceeds to deal with any remaining articles similarly. Upon being called, a Lord must rise and declare upon his honour, "Guilty" or "Not Guilty". After voting on all of the articles has taken place, and if the Lords find the defendant guilty, the Commons may move for judgment; the Lords may not declare the punishment until the Commons have so moved. The Lords may then provide whatever punishment they find fit, within the law. A Royal [[Pardon]] cannot excuse the defendant from trial, but a Pardon may reprieve a convicted defendant.
===History===
Parliament has held the power of impeachment since mediæval times. Originally, the House of Lords held that impeachment could only apply to members of the [[peerage]] (nobles), as the nobility (the Lords) would try their own peers, while commoners ought to try ''their'' peers (other commoners) in a [[jury]]. However, in 1681, the Commons declared that they had the right to impeach whomsoever they pleased, and the Lords have respected this resolution.
After the reign of [[Edward IV of England | Edward IV]], impeachment fell into disuse, the [[bill of attainder]] becoming the preferred form of dealing with undesirable subjects of the Crown. However, during the reign of [[James I of England|James I]] and thereafter, impeachments became more popular, as they did not require the assent of the Crown, while bills of attainder did, thus allowing Parliament to resist royal attempts to dominate Parliament. The most recent cases of impeachment dealt with [[Warren Hastings]], Governor-General of India between 1773 and 1786 (impeached in 1788; the Lords found him not guilty in 1795), and [[Henry Dundas, 1st Viscount Melville]], [[First Lord of the Admiralty]], in 1806 (acquitted). The last attempted impeachment occurred in [[1848]], when [[David Urquhart]] accused [[Viscount Palmerston]] of having signed a secret treaty with [[Imperial Russia]] and of receiving monies from the [[Nicholas I of Russia |Tsar]]. Palmerston survived the vote in the Commons; the Lords did not hear the case.
===Impeachment in modern politics===
The procedure has, over time, become rarely used and some legal authorities (such as [[Halsbury's Laws of England]]) consider it to be probably obsolete. The principles of "responsible government" require that the [[Prime Minister of the United Kingdom|Prime Minister]] and other executive officers answer to Parliament, rather than to the Sovereign. Thus the Commons can remove such an officer without a long, drawn-out impeachment. However, it is argued by some that the remedy of impeachment remains as part of British constitutional law, and that legislation would be required to abolish it. Furthermore, impeachment as a means of punishment for wrongdoing, as distinct from being a means of removing a minister, remains a valid reason for accepting that is continues to be available, at least in theory.
In April 1977 the [[Young Liberals]]' annual conference unanimously passed a motion to call on the [[Liberal Party (UK) | Liberal]] leader ([[David Steel]]) to move for the impeachment of [[Ronald King Murray]] QC, the [[Lord Advocate]]. Mr. Steel did not call the motion but Murray (now Lord Murray, a former [[List of Senators of the College of Justice|Senator of the College of Justice]] of Scotland) agrees that the Commons still have the right to initiate an impeachment motion. On [[25 August]] [[2004]], [[Plaid Cymru]] MP [[Adam Price]] announced his [[Impeach Blair campaign|intention to move for the impeachment]] of [[Tony Blair]] for his role in involving Britain in the [[2003 invasion of Iraq]]. In response [[Peter Hain]], the [[Leader of the House of Commons|Commons Leader]], insisted that impeachment was obsolete, given modern government's responsibility to parliament. Ironically, [[Peter Hain]] had served as president of the Young Liberals when they called for the impeachment of Mr. Murray in 1977.
In 2006 [[General]] [[Sir]] [[Hugh Michael Rose|Michael Rose]] revived the call for the impeachment of [[British]] [[Prime Minister]] [[Tony Blair]] for leading the country into the [[invasion of Iraq]] in 2003 under false pretenses.''''''
==United States==
{{main|Impeachment in the United States}}
[[Image:Senate in session.jpg|thumb|300px|The impeachment trial of [[Bill Clinton|President Bill Clinton]] in 1999, [[William H. Rehnquist|Chief Justice William H. Rehnquist]] presiding. The House managers are seated beside the quarter-circular tables on the left and the president's personal counsel on the right, much in the fashion of President Andrew Johnson's trial.]]
In the [[United States]], impeachment can occur both at the federal and state level. At the federal level, both the [[executive branch]] and the [[judiciary]] may be impeached, though different standards apply. For the executive branch, only those who have allegedly committed "[[treason]], [[bribery]], or other high crimes and misdemeanors" may be impeached. Although treason and bribery are obvious, the [[United States Constitution|Constitution]] is silent on what constitutes a "high crime." Several commentators have suggested that [[Congress]] alone may decide for itself what constitutes an impeachable offense.
The standard for impeachment among the judiciary is much broader. Article III of the Constitution states that judges remain in office "during good behavior," implying that Congress may remove a judge for bad behavior.
Members of Congress themselves are not subject to impeachment. However, the House of Representatives and the Senate have the authority to discipline and expel their own members.
The procedure is in two steps. The [[United States House of Representatives|House of Representatives]] must first pass "articles of impeachment" by a simple majority. All fifty state legisatures as well as the [[District of Columbia]] city council may also pass articles of impeachment. The articles of impeachment constitute the formal allegations. Upon their passage, the defendant has been "impeached."
Next, the [[United States Senate|Senate]] tries the accused. In the case of the impeachment of a President, the [[Chief Justice of the United States]] presides over the proceedings. Otherwise, the [[Vice President of the United States|Vice President]], in his capacity of President of the Senate, or the [[President Pro Tempore of the United States Senate|President ''pro tempore'' of the Senate]] presides. This would include the impeachment of the Vice President him- or herself. In order to convict the accused, a [[two-thirds majority]] of the senators present is required.
Following conviction, the Senate may vote to punish the individual only by removing him from office, or by barring him from holding future office, or both. Alternatively, it may impose no punishment. However in the case of executive officers, removal follows automatically upon conviction. The defendant remains liable to criminal prosecution. It is possible to impeach someone even after the accused has vacated his office in order to disqualify the person from such emoluments of office as a pension.
Congress regards impeachment as a power to be used only in extreme cases; the House has initiated impeachment proceedings only 62 times since [[1789]] (most recently Bill Clinton), and only the following 16 federal officers have been impeached. Many mistakenly assume [[Richard Nixon]] was impeached, but he resigned prior to the House's action in the face of the near certainty of both his impeachment by the House of Representatives and his conviction by the Senate:
* [[Associate Justice]] [[Samuel Chase]] in 1804
* [[President Bill Clinton]] was [[impeached]] on [[December 19]], [[1998]] by the [[United States House of Representatives|House of Representatives]] on grounds of [[perjury]] to a [[grand jury]] (by a 228-206 vote) and [[obstruction of justice]] (by a 221-212 vote). Two other articles of impeachment failed — a second count of [[perjury]] in the Jones case (by a 205-229 vote), and one accusing Clinton of [[abuse of power]] (by a 148-285 vote) was acquitted by the Senate.
* [[President Andrew Johnson]] in [[1868]]. President Johnson was acquitted of all charges by a single vote in the [[Senate]].
* one [[cabinet]] officer
* one [[Senator]]
* eleven other [[federal judge]]s.
==Republic of Ireland==
In the [[Republic of Ireland]] formal impeachment can apply only to the [[President of Ireland|President]]. Article 12 of the [[Constitution of Ireland]] provides that, unless judged to be "permanently incapacitated" by the [[Irish Supreme Court|Supreme Court]], the president can only be removed from office by the houses of the [[Oireachtas]] (parliament) and only for the commission of "stated misbehaviour". Either house of the Oireachtas may impeach the president, but only by a resolution approved by a majority of at least two-thirds of its total number of members; and a house may not consider a proposal for impeachment unless requested to do so by at least thirty of its number.
Where one house impeaches the president, the remaining house either investigates the charge or commissions another body or committee to do so. The investigating house can remove the president if it decides, by at least a two-thirds majority of its members, both that she is guilty of the charge of which she stands accused, and that the charge is sufficiently serious as to warrant her removal. To date no impeachment of an Irish president has ever taken place. The president holds a largely ceremonial office, the dignity of which is considered important, so it is likely that a president would resign from office long before undergoing formal conviction or impeachment.
The Republic's constitution and law also provide that only a joint resolution of both houses of the Oireachtas may remove a judge. Although often referred to as the 'impeachment' of a judge, this procedure does not technically involve impeachment.
==Other jurisdictions==
*'''Austria''': The [[President of Austria|Austrian Federal President]] can be impeached by the [[Federal Assembly of Austria|Federal Convention]] (''Bundesversammlung'') before the Constitutional Court. The constitution also provides for the recall of the president by a [[referendum]]. Neither of these courses has ever been taken.
*'''Brazil''': The President of Federative Republic of [[Brazil]] can be impeached. This happened to [[Fernando Collor de Mello]], due to evidences of bribery and misappropriation.
*'''Germany''': The [[President of Germany|Federal President of Germany]] can be impeached by the [[Bundestag]] for willfully violating German law. Once the Bundestag impeaches the president, the Federal Constitutional Court decides whether to remove him or her from office. No such case has yet occurred.
*'''Norway''': Members of government, representatives of the national assembly (Stortinget) and Supreme Court judges can be impeached for criminal offences tied to their duties and committed in office, according to th Constitution of 1814, §§ 86 and 87. The procedural rules were modelled on the US rules and are quite similar to them. Impeachment has been used 8 times since 1814, last in 1927. Many argue that impeachment has fallen into [[desuetude]].
===Presidents, who were removed from office following impeachment===
* [[Fernando Collor de Mello]], president of [[Brazil]] was impeached in [[1992]], and this led to his resignation.
* [[Carlos Andrés Pérez]], president of [[Venezuela]], was impeached in [[1993]].
* [[Raúl Cubas Grau]], president of [[Paraguay]], was impeached in [[1999]].
* [[Joseph Estrada]], president of the [[Philippines]], was impeached on [[November 13]], [[2000]] and led to his resignation on [[January 20]], [[2001]].
* [[Roh Moo-hyun]], president of [[South Korea]], was impeached on [[March 12]], [[2004]]; Korea's Constitutional Court overturned the decision on [[May 14]], [[2004]].
* [[Rolandas Paksas]], president of [[Lithuania]], was impeached on [[April 6]], [[2004]].
[[Category:Constitutional law]]
[[bg:Импийчмънт]]
[[ca:Moció de censura]]
[[de:Impeachment]]
[[es:Impeachment]]
[[fr:Impeachment]]
[[id:Impeachment]]
[[it:Impeachment]]
[[nl:Impeachment]]
[[ja:弾劾裁判]]
[[ko:탄핵]]
[[pl:Impeachment]]
[[pt:Impeachment]]
[[th:การถอดถอนจากตำแหน่ง]]
Information Technology
15330
15912807
2002-02-25T15:51:15Z
Conversion script
Automated conversion
#REDIRECT [[Information_technology]]
Information space
15331
35490004
2006-01-17T03:00:24Z
Babajobu
125012
expand template
{{expand}}
{{importance}}
An '''information space''' is the application of a [[space|spatial]] [[metaphor]] to [[information]].
==See also==
*[[Cartography]]
*[[Cluster analysis]]
*[[Cyberspace]]
*[[Factor analysis]]
*[[Knowledge representation]]
*[[Semantic network]]
*[[Virtual reality]]
==External links==
*[http://www.cybergeography.org/atlas/info_spaces.html An Atlas of Cyberspaces: Three-Dimensional Information Spaces]
*[http://www.cybergeography.org/atlas/info_maps.html An Atlas of Cyberspaces: Information Space Maps]
{{tech-stub}}
[[Category:Metaphors]]
Institutional mode of representation
15333
15912809
2002-07-27T19:13:55Z
Koyaanis Qatsi
90
#REDIRECT [[Institutional Mode of Representation]]
Ibizan Hound
15334
40926787
2006-02-23T22:53:27Z
70.121.75.17
/* Appearance */
<!-- Begin Infobox Dogbreed. The text of the article should go AFTER this section. See: -->
<!-- http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:WikiProject_Dog_breeds#Infobox_Dogbreed_template -->
<!-- for full explanation of the syntax used in this template. -->
{{Infobox Dogbreed
| akcgroup = Hound
| akcstd = http://www.akc.org/breeds/ibizan_hound/index.cfm
| altname = Ibizan Podenco<br>Ibizan Warren Hound<br>Podenco Ibicenco<br>Ca Eivissenc
| ankcgroup = Group 4 (Hounds)
| ankcstd = http://www.ankc.aust.com/ibizan.html
| ckcgroup = Group 2 - Hounds
| ckcstd = ?
| country = [[Spain]]
| fcigroup = 5
| fcinum = 89
| fcisection = 7
| fcistd = http://www.google.com/search?q=cache:bvtX45643r0J:www.fci.be/uploaded_files/089gb2000_en.doc+site:www.fci.be+%2289+/+04.+02.+2000%22&hl=en&ie=UTF-8
| image = Ibizanhoundsit.jpg
| image_caption = ''Podenco Ibicenco'', or the ''Ibizan Hound'', believed to have originated in [[Ancient Egypt]], may actually be a more recent breed.
| kcukgroup = Hound
| kcukstd = http://www.the-kennel-club.org.uk/discoverdogs/hound/h784.htm
| name = Ibizan Hound
| nzkcgroup = Hounds
| nzkcstd = http://www.nzkc.org.nz/br474.html
| ukcgroup = Sighthounds and Pariah Dogs
| ukcstd = http://www.ukcdogs.com/breeds/sighthoundspariahs/ibizanhound.std.shtml
}}
<!-- End Infobox Dogbreed info. Article Begins Here -->
The '''Ibizan Hound''', also called '''Podenco Ibicenco''' in Spanish or '''Ca Eivissenc''' in Catalan, is an agile, deer-like [[dog]] of the [[sighthound]] family. There are three hair types of the [[dog breeds|breed]]: smooth, long, and wire, of which the most common is the smooth-haired. Long-haired Ibizans are considered rare.
== Appearance ==
The Ibizan Hound has no black on its body; they are either red or white or a combination of red and white. Its nose is flesh coloured, as is its ears. Its eyes are a striking [[amber (color)|amber]] colour.
The Ibizan may range in height from 24 to 29 inches and weigh from 45 to 60 pounds. The breed has a pronounced sensitivity to cold, their hair providing little in the way of insulation.
==History==
For many years, this breed was considered one of the oldest dog breeds. It was believed the Ibizan Hound originated in ancient [[Egypt]], as pictures that appear to be of Ibizan hounds have been seen on the walls of ancient [[pyramid]]s.
However, according to [[Dr. Elaine Ostrander]], a geneticist at the [[Fred Hutchinson Cancer Research Center]] and [[University of Washington]], recent [[DNA analysis]] reveals that this breed is actually a recent construction, bred to resemble an older form.
In a study directed by Dr. Ostrander, with the aid of her colleague, Dr. Leonid Kruglyak, "they have found genetic variations that allow them to distinguish among 85 dog breeds and to identify an individual dog's breed with 99 percent accuracy," according to Mark Derr, a science writer for the New York Times.
"We can assign a dog to a breed, but we can't tell what behavior it will have," asserts Ostrander. "There is huge variation in behavior between dogs within breeds." The results of the study, published in May 2004 in ''Science'' magazine, may help in the study of disease, both canine and human, because certain breeds are prone to some of the same genetic diseases as humans.[http://www.nytimes.com/2004/05/21/science/21dog.html?ex=1400472000&en=6b49c839cde80d81&ei=5007&partner=USERLAND]
Wherever it may have actually originated, the breed were used to hunt [[rabbit]]s and other small game in [[Ibiza]]. The Ibizan Hound is a fast dog that can hunt on all types of terrain, working by sight, sound, and scent. Spanish hunters run these dogs in mostly female packs, with perhaps a male or two, as the female is the better hunter. This breed is similar to the [[Pharaoh Hound]], but the Ibizan Hound is larger and can have a multicolored hair pattern. The Ibizan Hound was fully recognized by the AKC in 1979.
<!--- en:Ibizan Hound --->
[[Category:Dog breeds]]
[[Category:Sight hounds]]
[[de:Podenco Ibicenco]]
[[no:Podenco ibicenco]]
[[pl:Podenco z Ibizy]]
Irish Wolfhound
15335
41014664
2006-02-24T14:16:22Z
169.139.224.10
<!-- Begin Infobox Dogbreed. The text of the article should go AFTER this section. See: -->
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{{Infobox Dogbreed
| akcgroup = Hound
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| ckcgroup = Group 2 (Hound)
| ckcstd = http://www.irishwolfhoundclubofcanada.ca/handbook/standard.shtml
| country = [[Ireland]]
| fcigroup = 10
| fcinum = 160
| fcisection = 2
| fcistd = http://www.fci.be/uploaded_files/160A2001_en.doc
| image = IrishWolfhoundPair.jpg
| image_caption = A pair of Irish Wolfhounds
| kcukgroup = Hound
| kcukstd = http://www.the-kennel-club.org.uk/discoverdogs/hound/h785.htm
| name = Irish Wolfhound
| nzkcgroup = Hound
| nzkcstd = http://www.nzkc.org.nz/br476.html
| ukcgroup = Sighthounds and Pariah Dogs
| ukcstd = http://www.ukcdogs.com/breeds/sighthoundspariahs/irishwolfhound.std.shtml
}}
<!-- End Infobox Dogbreed info. Article Begins Here -->
The '''Irish Wolfhound''' is a breed of [[hound]] (a [[sighthound]]), bred to hunt. The name originates from its purpose rather than from its appearance: To hunt [[wolf|wolves]].
==Appearance==
These [[dog]]s are the tallest [[dog breed|breed]], with a swift pace and good sight. They have a rough coat (gray, brindle, red, black, pure white, or fawn), a large arrow-shaped head, and a long, muscular neck.
The Irish Wolfhound features in Gaelic mythology with Cuchaillin having a nice big dog.
The Irish Wolfhound is usually known as the tallest dog in the world, averaging up to 86 cm (34 inches) at the [[withers]], a fact that sometimes
is its biggest disadvantage when attracting owners who have no concern for its special needs. As with all breeds, the ideal and accepted measurements vary somewhat from one standard to another, and there will always be individuals whose size falls outside these standards. However, generally breeders aim for a height averaging 32 to 34 inches (81 cm to 86 cm) in male dogs, two to four inches (5 to 10 cm) less for bitches. Acceptable weight minimums range from 105 lb (48 kg) for bitches to 120 lb (54 kg) for males.
==Temperament==
In temperament, they are considered gentle and friendly, very calm in the house, enjoying long sleeps but energetic when taken for walks. Despite their great size and sometimes intimidating appearance, wolfhounds are sensitive and should be corrected firmly but without anger. They should be socialized from a young age so that they have a chance to gather experience.
While historically Wolfhounds should show a strong guarding instinct, most modern Irish Wolfhounds are not temperamentally suited to be a guard dog.
[[Image:Wolfhound_mascot_wb.jpg|thumb|left|200px|Irish Guards mascot in parade dress]]
==Health==
Wolfhounds should not receive additional supplements when a good dog chow is used. It is generally accepted that they should be fed a large breed puppy food until 18 months of age and then change to a large breed adult food.
By the age of 8 months, the dogs appear adult, and many owners start stressing them too much. Outstretched limbs and irreparable damage are the result. Wolfhounds need at least 18 months to be ready for [[lure coursing]], running as a sport, and other strenuous activities.
[[Heart disease]] and [[osteosarcoma|bone cancer]] are the leading cause of death and like all deep-chested dogs, [[gastric torsion]] (bloat) is always a possibility. Otherwise they are generally a healthy dog with few if any breed specific illnesses. The average lifespan is around 6 to 7 years, though breeders are doing their best to increase this, with some animals now reaching 10 years or more.
==History==
The breed is very old, possibly from the [[1st century BC]] or earlier, bred as war dogs by the ancient [[Celts]], who called them ''Cú Faoil''. The [[Gael (Ancient people)|Irish]] continued to breed them for this purpose, as well as to guard their homes and protect their stock. Regular references of Irish Wolfhounds being used in dog fights are found in many historical sagas - [[Cuchulain]]'s favourite, Luath was slain by a southern chief's hound, Phorp.
While many modern texts state Irish wolfhounds were used for coursing deer, contemporary pre-revival accounts such as Animated Nature ([[1796]]) by Oliver Goldsmith are explicit that the original animal was a very poor coursing dog. Their astonishing size, speed, and intelligence made them ideal hunting animals for both wild boar and wolves, and many were exported for this purpose. They were perhaps too ideal, as the wolf is now extinct in [[Ireland]]. The Irish Wolfhound has been recorded as being exhibited in [[Ancient Rome]] to some excitement, and mention is made that they so amazed and terrified the Romans that it was seen fit to only transport them in cages. There exists stories that in the arena, the original Wolfhound was the equal of a lion.
During times of conflict with England, it was not uncommon for Wolfhounds to be trained to take armored knights off of their horses. Thus allowing an infantry man to move in and finish the kill if the Wolfhound has not done so already.
Due to a massive export into various countries as a gift for royalty and a ban that allowed only royalty to own such a dog, the breed almost vanished in the middle of the [[19th century]]. Captain Graham rebred the Irish Wolfhound with the [[Deerhound]], [[Great Dane]], Borzoi and other breeds; this saved the breed, but had the inevitable effect of altering its appearance.
The ancient breed (often referred to as the Irish Wolfdogge in contemporary accounts) was available in both a smooth and rough coated variety. Descriptions of its appearance and demeanor, as well as the method of its use place it closer to the flock guardians in appearance than the modern breed. The historical variety was famed for its loyalty, discernment, grave nature and aggression. In terms of temperament the modern breed has been greatly mellowed.
==Miscellaneous==
An Irish Wolfhound serves as the regimental mascot to the [[Irish Guards]] in [[England]] and accompanies the regiment in all of its parades.
The skulls of several Irish Wolfhounds were recovered in excavations of the ruins of [[Emain Macha]]. These skulls are now in the possession of the Royal Irish Academy. No reconstruction appears to have been done to establish the appearance of these progenitors of the breed.
==Famous Wolfhounds==
*Centaur Pendragon, pet of [[Rudolph Valentino]]
*The mascot for the London Irish Rugby team.
==External links==
*[http://www.irishwolfhounds.org/mascots.htm Regimental mascot]
[[Category:Dog breeds]]
[[Category:Sight hounds]]
<!--- en:Irish Wolfhound --->
[[de:Irish Wolfhound]]
[[eo:Irlanda lupohundo]]
[[fr:Lévrier irish wolfhound]]
[[no:Irsk ulvehund]]
[[pl:Wilczarz irlandzki]]
[[sr:Ирски вучји хрт]]
[[sv:Irländsk varghund]]
[[he:וולפהאונד אירי]]
Italian Greyhound
15336
40246174
2006-02-19T05:26:17Z
Elf
40082
rv - "lithe" is correct
<!-- Begin Infobox Dogbreed. The text of the article should go AFTER this section. See: -->
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{{Infobox Dogbreed
| akcgroup = Toy
| akcstd = http://www.akc.org/breeds/italian_greyhound/index.cfm
| altname = Piccolo Levriero Italiano
| ankcgroup = Group 1 (Toys)
| ankcstd = http://www.ankc.aust.com/italgrey.html
| ckcgroup = Group 5 - Toys
| ckcstd = http://www.ckc.ca/Default.aspx?tabid=137&Breed_Code=IAG
| country = [[Italy]]
| fcigroup = 10
| fcinum = 200
| fcisection = 3
| fcistd = http://www.google.com/search?q=cache:41SXaj9RDzkJ:www.fci.be/uploaded_files/200gb98.doc+site:www.fci.be+%22200+/+17.+06.+1998%22&hl=en&ie=UTF-8
| image = Italian greyhund.jpg
| image_caption = Italian Greyhound
| kcukgroup = Toy
| kcukstd = http://www.the-kennel-club.org.uk/discoverdogs/toy/y909.htm
| name = Italian Greyhound
| nzkcgroup = Toy
| nzkcstd = http://www.nzkc.org.nz/br128.html
| ukcgroup = Companion Breeds
| ukcstd = http://mail.ukcdogs.com/UKCweb.nsf/80de88211ee3f2dc8525703f004ccb1e/366ff10ca6c35fec85257044004f7008?OpenDocument
}}
<!-- End Infobox Dogbreed info. Article Begins Here -->
The '''Italian Greyhound''' is a small [[dog breed|breed]] of [[dog]], specifically a member of the [[sight hound]] family and member of the [[toy dog|toy]] group.
==Appearance==
[[Image:ItalianGreyhound.jpg|left|]]
The Italian Greyhound is the smallest of the sight hounds, typically weighing 3 to 5 kg. They look like miniature [[Greyhound]]s.
The colour of the coat is a subject of much discussion. In [[United_Kingdom|England]], the [[United States|USA]], and [[Australia]], white spotted Italians are accepted, while the FCI standards adhered to in [[Europe]] allows white spots only on the chest and paws.
The modern Italian Greyhound's appearance is a result of breeders throughout [[Europe]], particularly [[Austria]]n, [[Germany|German]], [[Italy|Italian]], and [[France|French]] breeders, making great contributions to the forming of this [[breed]].
The Italian Greyhound should resemble a small [[Greyhound]], or rather a [[Sloughi]]. It is important that the dogs are significantly more elegant and graceful than these breeds, though.
==Temperament==
The Italian Greyhound is considered a good companion dog, as they are very affectionate.
The Italian Greyhound's apparent lack of wide appeal is possibly because of their fragile appearance, with their spindly legs. The reality of the breed is quite contrary to the appearance, though, as they are frequently described as a 'big' dog in a small package. They also have a realatively loud bark. In fact, the breed will be equally at home in a city and in the country, and it does not require as much exercise as larger breeds. The Italian Greyhound is hardy, rarely ill, intelligent and easy to teach.
Sometimes, IG's will make a resonably good guard-dog and bark at things that aren't usually in the street. They may also bark at passers by.
IG's often get along with cats so if you already have a cat and you are looking for a suitable dog which won't chase your beloved kitty all day long, IG's can be recommended.
IG's despise the wind, wet and cold and will sometimes refuse to do their " business " outside if it is raining so some recommend having some old newspaper on the floor near the exit.
This breed, like most dogs, is not a fussy eater and will eat almost anything, including the month-old scraps from your garden. Most will eat enthusiastically, but some get more picky about their food as they age.
IGs are good with kids but their thin bones are fragile and can be hurt by rough play from young children.
Dogs of this breed have an almost odour-free, easily managed coat. Although the coat is incredibly short, it can shed. The breed simply loves the company of people, and will promptly occupy your lap if you let it. In fact, many owners of this breed have them sleeping with them in their beds.
The young dog will often be particularly active, and this high level of activity sometimes lead them to try to 'fly' from furniture or stairs. It is important to keep a close eye on the dogs in this initial phase as their young bones are still fragile. The first year of life is the most accident-prone, although the graceful legs often seem to withstand incredible punishment they are not invulnerable.
IGs love to run as fast as they possibly can, and, like all dogs, it's important that they have an opportunity to run full out at least once daily, either in the back yard or under supervision and control in a larger area.
Like most dogs they enjoy digging and, if left to their own devices for entertainment and exercise, might resort to digging or other destructive behavior.
Like most smaller breeds, the Italian Greyhound can be difficult to [[housebreak]]. This will normally come along with patience and training, but at a slower pace than most other breeds. Patience is the only way to help the training along, and remember that the breed is small and as such the dog will have a small bladder.
==Health==
Members of this breed might love the sunlight, so owners need to ensure that they don't become overheated, and they do get sunburned (particularly on their heads and bellies), so it's recommended to use [[sunscreen]] on them.
The breed is relatively free of disease, but the following ailments do occur:
* [[Epilepsy in animals|Epilepsy]]
* [[Perthes disease|Legg-Perthes disease]] (degeneration of the hip)
* [[luxating patella|Patellar Luxation]] (slipped stifles)
* [[Osteoporosis]]
* [[Von Willebrand disease|von Willebrand disease]] (vWD) (Bleeding disorder)
* [[Progressive retinal atrophy]] (PRA)
Broken bones are common as well. The tails of the Italian Greyhound are delicate and fragile. Be careful when handling a dog such as the Italian Greyhound and always supervise children who are playing with this breed.
==History==
The name of the breed is a reference to the breed's popularity in [[renaissance]] [[Italy]]. [[Mummy|Mummified]] dogs very similar to the Italian Greyhound (or small Greyhounds) have been found in Egypt, and pictorials of small Greyhounds have been found in [[Pompeii]], and they were probably the only accepted companion-dog there. As an amusing aside the expression 'Cave Canem' (Beware of the dog) was a warning to visitors, not that the dogs would attack but to beware of damaging the small dogs.
Although the small dogs are mainly companionship dogs they have in fact been used for [[hunting]] purposes, often in combination with hunting [[falcon]]s.
==Miscellaneous==
The grace of the breed has prompted several artists to include the dogs in paintings, among others [[Velasquez]], [[Pisanello]] and [[Giotto_di_Bondone|Giotto]]. The breed has been popular with [[royal family|royalty]] throughout, among the best known [[royal]] aficionados were [[Mary I of Scotland|Mary Stuart]], [[Anne_I_of_the_United_Kingdom|Queen Anne]], [[Victoria of the United Kingdom|Queen Victoria]], [[Catherine_II_of_Russia|Catherine The Great]], [[Frederick II of Prussia|Frederick the Great]] and the [[Norway|Norwegian]] [[Maud,_Queen_of_Norway|Queen Maud]].
==Activities==
Some Italian Greyhounds enjoy [[dog agility]]. The breed's lithe body and its love of action enable it to potentially do well at this sport, although not many IGs participate and their natural inclination is for straight-out racing rather than for working tightly as a team with a handler on a technical course.
[[Lure coursing]] is another activity well-fitted to the Italian Greyhound, and they seem to enjoy it tremendously. Although the Italian Greyhound is a very fast dog, it is not as well suited to racing as its larger cousin.
[[Category:Dog breeds]]
[[Category:Sight hounds]]
<!--- FCI (10/3/200) Italy --->
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Information technology
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Revert to revision 41831674 using [[:en:Wikipedia:Tools/Navigation_popups|popups]]
{{portal}}
'''Information technology''' (IT) or '''Information and communication(s) technology''' (ICT) is a broad subject concerned with [[technology]] and other aspects of [[information processing|managing and processing information]], especially in large [[organization]]s.
In particular, IT deals with the use of [[electronics|electronic]] [[computer]]s and [[computer software]] to [[convert]], [[store]], [[protect]], [[process]], [[Transmission (telecommunications)|transmit]], and retrieve [[information]]. For that reason, computer professionals are often called '''IT specialists''', and the division of a company or university that deals with software technology is often called the '''IT department'''. Other names for the latter are [[information systems|information service]]s (IS) or [[management information system|management information service]]s (MIS). managed service provider (MSP) Such as Virtual IT Solution http://www.virtualitsolution.com.
==Topics==
* [[Information technology audit]]
** [[IT audit resources]]
** [[Computer security audit]]
* [[Computing]]
* [[Computer science]]
* [[Information science]]
* [[Information security]]
* [[World Wide Web]]
* [[Digital library]]
* [[Pattern recognition]]
* [[Data management]]
** [[Data processing]]
** [[RFID]]
** [[Data mining]]
** [[Data drilling]]
** [[Metadata (computing)|Metadata]]
* [[Data storage]]
** [[Database]]
** [[Data networking]]
* [[Technology assessment]]
* [[Cryptography]]
* [[Information Technology Infrastructure Library]]
* [[Information technology governance]]
* [[Telematics]]
==External links==
*{{dmoz|Business/Information_Technology/|{{PAGENAME}}}}
{{wikibooks}}
{{Technology}}
[[Category:Information technology| ]]
[[af:Inligtingstegnologie]]
[[da:Informationsteknologi]]
[[de:Informationstechnik]]
[[es:Tecnologías de la información]]
[[fa:فناوری اطلاعات]]
[[fr:Technologies de l'information et de la communication]]
[[gl:Tecnoloxías da información]]
[[ko:정보통신기술]]
[[id:Teknologi informasi]]
[[it:ICT]]
[[ka:საინფორმაციო ტექნოლოგია]]
[[lv:Informācijas tehnoloģijas]]
[[hu:Informatika]]
[[ml:ഇന്ഫര്മേഷന് ടെക്നോളജി]]
[[ms:Teknologi maklumat]]
[[nl:Informatie- en Communicatietechnologie]]
[[ja:情報技術]]
[[pt:Tecnologia da informação]]
[[ro:Tehnologia informaţiei]]
[[ru:Информационные технологии]]
[[fi:Ohjelmistotekniikka]]
[[sv:IT]]
[[ta:தகவல் தொழில்நுட்பம்]]
[[th:เทคโนโลยีสารสนเทศ]]
[[vi:Công nghệ thông tin]]
[[uk:Інформаційні технології]]
[[zh:信息技术]]
[[pl:IT]]
Into the Woods
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/* Plot summary */
{| class="toccolours" style="float:right; margin:0 0 0.5em 1em; width:25em;"
|-
|colspan=2 style="text-align:center;" | '''''[[Broadway_theatre|Broadway]]'' Show'''
|-
|colspan=2 style="text-align:center;" |
|-
!colspan=2 style="font-size: larger; background-color:{{{bgcolor}}}; color:{{{fgcolor}}};" | ''Into the Woods''
|-
|'''Theatre''' || [[Al Hirschfeld Theatre|Martin Beck Theatre]] ([[1987]] - [[1989]])
|-
|'''Opening Night''' || [[5 November]] [[1987]]
|-
|'''Author(s)''' || Music & lyrics by [[Stephen Sondheim]]; Book by [[James Lapine]]
|-
|'''Director''' || [[James Lapine]]
|-
|'''Leading Original Cast Members''' || [[Bernadette Peters]], [[Joanna Gleason]], [[Chip Zien]], Kim Crosby, Robert Westenberg, Danielle Ferland
|-
|'''Closing Night''' || [[3 September]] [[1989]]
|-
|}
'''''Into the Woods''''' is an award-winning [[Musical_theatre|musical]] featuring a score by [[Stephen Sondheim]] and book by [[James Lapine]]. It debuted in [[San Diego]] at the Old Globe Theatre in 1986, and premiered on [[Broadway_theatre|Broadway]] in 1987. [[Bernadette Peters]]' performance as the Witch, and [[Joanna Gleason]]'s portrayal of the Baker's Wife, brought acclaim to the production during its original Broadway run, and in a year dominated by [[The Phantom of the Opera]], "Into the Woods" won several [[Tony]] awards, including best score. Although not a large part, The Witch has attracted numerous "name" actresses in major productions, including [[Ellen Foley]], [[Phylicia Rashad]], [[Nancy Dussault]], and [[Vanessa Lynn Williams | Vanessa Williams]].
Inspired by [[Bruno Bettelheim]]'s ''The Uses of Enchantment'', the musical intertwines a collection of uncensored versions of 18th century [[Brothers Grimm]] [[Fairy tale|Fairy tales]]. An original story involving a Baker and his Wife's quest to begin a family ties together the stories of [[Little Red Riding Hood|Little Red Ridinghood]], Jack of [[Jack and the Beanstalk]], [[Rapunzel]], and [[Cinderella]].
Act I opens with a wish, a witch, and a curse. Each separate tale intertwines throughout the story, each depending on a weakness or strength of another. The play's conflicts are motivated by selfish wishes, made for the betterment of individual characters.
Act II explores what happens after "happily ever after," when these wishes have come true. The land is ravaged by a giant, whose husband was killed when Jack chopped down the beanstalk. The show explores the consequences of actions taken in the first act, and the need for community in order to survive "the Woods". Among the many messages expressed in the musical, one of the strongest is that unless people are gathering for one mission, the mission cannot be accomplished, as long as each is egocentric.
Notable songs in the musical include "Into the Woods", "Hello, Little Girl", "I Know Things Now", "Giants in the Sky", "It Takes Two", "Agony", "Stay With Me", "On the Steps of the Palace", "Ever After", "Happy", "Moments in the Woods", "Your Fault", "The Last Midnight", "No More", "No One Is Alone", and "Children Will Listen".
The musical makes heavy use of [[Syncopation|syncopated]] speech. In many instances, the characters' lines are delivered with a fixed beat that follows natural speech rhythms, but is also purposely composed in eighth, sixteenth, and quarter note rhythms as part of a spoken song. Like many Sondheim/Lapine productions, the songs contain thought-process narrative, where characters converse or think aloud. See ''[[Into_the_Woods#Lyric_Examples|Lyric Examples]]'' for detail.
==Plot summary==
{{spoiler}}
'''Act I'''<br>
In Act I, the major characters are introduced by the Narrator, along with their respective wishes. Cinderella wishes to attend the King's festival, Jack wishes for his pet cow, Milky-White, to give milk, and the Baker and his Wife wish for a child. Cinderella's Stepsisters mock her desire to attend the ball, and Jack's Mother insists that Jack must sell his beloved cow. The Baker and his Wife are visited by Little Red Ridinghood, who purchases bread to bring to her Granny in the woods. Shortly after, the Witch from next door appears, and informs the Baker and his Wife that she has cursed his lineage with infertility in retaliation for the Baker's father having stolen "greens" from her garden many years ago. The Witch reveals that the Baker's father was fetching greens to satisfy his pregnant wife's cravings. The Witch punished the Baker's parents by claiming the child for her own, a girl who is later revealed to be Rapunzel. The Baker's father also stole magic beans from the Witch's garden, and it is for this crime that she cursed his lineage. The Witch grants them a way to reverse their barren fate, sending them into the forest to fetch four ingredients for a certain potion: "The cow as white as milk, the cape as red as blood, the hair as yellow as corn, and the slipper as pure as gold". They spend the rest of Act I on a quest to locate these items.
Meanwhile, Cinderella and Rapunzel are each pursued by a Prince; a Mysterious Man roams the woods, harassing Jack and the Baker; and Little Red Ridinghood encounters a seemingly-friendly Wolf on the path to Granny's. The Wolf persuades Little Red Ridinghood to tarry on her way, and he races ahead to her Granny's house. The Baker and his Wife encounter Jack, and persuade him to trade his cow in exchange for the magic beans stolen from the Witch. The Baker also encounters Little Red Ridinghood, and after she refuses to give him her cape, he attempts to steal it, but is rebuffed by her loud tantrum. Little Red Ridinghood reaches her destination to find her Granny has been replaced and devoured by the Wolf, who then eats her. Fortunately, the Baker is at hand, and kills the wolf, freeing Little Red Ridinghood and her Granny. In exchange for rescuing her, Little Red Ridinghood gives the Baker her red cloak. Jack's Mother throws away the magic beans, which grow into a large beanstalk. Jack then climbs the beanstalk, retrieving many riches from the home of the Giants. Eventually he cuts down the beanstalk, felling the Giant. The Baker's Wife encounters Cinderella, who is attempting to escape from the Prince. She notices Cinderella's golden slippers, eventually persuading Cinderella to part with them. She also encounters Rapunzel's Prince visiting her tower, and by observing him, learns the secret of retrieving Rapunzel's corn-yellow hair. After escaping with a section of the hair, she reunites with her husband, and with some difficulty the potion is created, the spell is lifted. The Mysterious Man is revealed to be the Baker's father, who then dies, and the Witch regains the youth and beauty that she lost on the night that the beans were stolen from her, but at the cost of losing her powers. Cinderella and Rapunzel eventually get their Princes, Jack gets his cow back, and the Act ends with everyone elated at the granting of their wishes, with the exception of Cinderella's Stepsisters, who have been blinded by birds.
'''Act II'''<br>
In Act II, sheer fairy-tale chaos ensues. The wife of the slain Giant is rampaging the land, searching for Jack. She storms through the Baker's village, destroying the Witch's garden. Little Red Ridinghood arrives at the Baker's house shortly thereafter, announcing that her mother was killed when their house was destroyed. The Witch, young and beautiful again, but lacking her former powers, joins with them to search the forest and stop the Giantess. Jack, too, sets off, as he feels responsible for the onset of terror. Cinderella, who has found contentment with the Prince, learns from the birds that something has happened to her mother's grave, and she goes to investigate. All the characters are once again out in the woods, but for a different purpose: this journey is motivated by a desire to repair damage done by the original, selfish wishes. Gradually, each character realizes that wishes made for one's own purpose and benefit quickly turn against expectations.
Lack of unity amongst the characters causes several violent and unexpected deaths. Rapunzel is crushed by the Giant after she runs towards her in hysterics of post partem depression after bearing twins to her Prince. Jack's Mother is killed by a blow to the head from the royal Steward, who is attempting to stop her from further angering and antagonizing the Giant. Even the Narrator is pulled into the story and thrown to the Giant. Cinderella's Father, Stepmother, Stepsisters, and the Steward, Little Red Ridinghood, Jack, the Witch, the Baker, and his Wife cluster together for safety. The royal family leaves, claiming to know a far away kingdom to escape to. Meanwhile, the two Princes, who seemingly should be working to save everyone, are instead singing of two new women whom they wish to pursue, [[Snow White]] and [[Sleeping Beauty]].
The survivors consider their options, deciding to split up in order to search for Jack. The Baker's Wife encounters Cinderella's Prince, who seduces her. Shortly after he leaves, she is crushed to death by a falling tree knocked astray by the Giant. All reconvene, quickly discovering their diminishing numbers. A fight ensues, each attempting to place blame on anyone but themselves. Eventually, they decide that the Witch is to blame, for raising the beans that grew the beanstalk to the Giants' world. The Witch, after chastising them for being unable to accept that they are ''all'' responsible, disappears in a puff of smoke, leaving them alone as her final curse. The Baker, overcome with grief, leaves Little Red, Cinderella, and Jack and tries to run away from the woes of the Woods. He encounters his father, who explains how life becomes even harder when you run. With renewed resolve, the Baker finds the rest of the group again.
With only Jack, Little Red Ridinghood, Cinderella, the Baker, and his child left alive, they concoct a scheme to slay the Giant, using what they have learned in their journey. Little Red Riding Hood spreads pitch on the ground to trap the Giant, as the Prince had done to Cinderella on the stairs at the ball. Jack waits with the Baker in a tree with a club, as he had done to kill the Giant's husband. While waiting for the Giant to return, Little Red and Jack realize that they are alone; their mothers are both dead. The Baker and Cinderella comfort the two children with the essential thesis of the show: no one is alone. When the Giant comes looking for Jack, Little Red Ridinghood calls attention to herself, sending the Giant toward Jack's supposed hiding place. Cinderella stands by with the Baker's child and calls to her bird friends, who peck out the Giant's eyes, and Jack slays her. In the end, they resolve to make a new life, void of violence and selfishness, but remain haunted by the memories of their loved ones. It seems that everyone has learned that wishes can be dangerous. However, after the very last note, Cinderella steps forward from the ensemble and sings "I Wish!", indicating that humanity may be unable to exist apart from its dreams and wishes.
==Productions==
''Into the Woods'' opened on [[Broadway theatre|Broadway]] at the Martin Beck Theatre on [[November 5]], [[1987]], and played 804 performances. It starred [[Bernadette Peters]], [[Joanna Gleason]], [[Chip Zien]], Kim Crosby, Ben Wright, [[Danielle Ferland]], and [[Robert Westenberg]]. The original production won the [[1988]] Drama Critic's [[Circle Award]] and the [[Drama Desk Award]] for Best Musical, and the Original Cast Recording won a [[Grammy Award]].
The show was revived on Broadway in [[2002]] with [[Vanessa Lynn Williams |Vanessa Williams]] as the Witch, the recorded voice of [[Judi Dench]] as the Giant, and other cast members including [[John McMartin]], [[Stephen DeRosa]], [[Gregg Edelman]], and [[Christopher Sieber]]. The plot was retooled, with a subplot added involving ''[[The Three Little Pigs]]'' restored from the earlier San Diego production. Critics were kind to the show, but loyal fans put it down, stressing that the important adult messages of the original production were now undermined with a seeming sense of flippancy. The revival had a 280-performance run.
==Musical Numbers==
'''Act I'''
* Act One Prologue: Into the Woods
* Cinderella At the Grave
* Hello, Little Girl
* I Guess This Is Goodbye / Maybe They're Magic
* Our Little World
* I Know Things Now
* A Very Nice Prince / First Midnight / Giants In the Sky
* Agony
* It Takes Two
* Stay With Me
* On The Steps of the Palace
* Ever After
'''Act 2'''
* Act Two Prologue: So Happy
* Agony (Reprise)
* Lament
* Any Moment / Moments in the Woods
* Your Fault
* Last Midnight
* No More
* No One is Alone
* Finale: Children Will Listen
==Lyric Examples==
{{wikiquote}}
*"On the Steps of the Palace" (Cinderella)
''He's a very smart prince<br>
''He's a prince who prepares<br>
''Knowing this time I'd run from him<br>
''He spread pitch on the stairs<br>
''I was caught unawares<br>
''And I thought, 'Well, he cares,<br>
''This is more than just malice<br>
''Better stop and take stock
''While you're standing here stuck to the steps of the palace.''
*"Moments in the Woods" (Baker's Wife)
''Oh if life were made of moments,<br>
''Even now and then a bad one,<br>
''But if life were only moments,<br>
''Then you'd never know you'd had one!
*"I Know Things Now" (Little Red Ridinghood)
''And I know things now, many valuable things<br>
''That I hadn't known before<br>
''Do not put your faith in a cape and a hood<br>
''They will not protect you the way that they should<br>
''And take extra care with strangers<br>
''Even flowers have their dangers<br>
''And though scary is exciting<br>
''Nice is different than good.
*"No One Is Alone" (Cinderella)
"Sometimes people leave you halfway through the woods.<br>
Do not let it grieve you, no one leaves for good.<br>
You are not alone, believe me.<br>
No one is alone."
==Samples==
*[[Media:EverAfter.ogg|Download sample]] of "Ever After"
[[Category:Musicals]]
Isaac Klein
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'''Isaac Klein''' ([[1905]]-[[1979]]). During [[World War II]] [[Rabbi]] Klein served as a chaplain in the U.S. Army, and later served as a Conservative rabbi in [[Buffalo, New York]]. He was one of the outstanding halakhists of the movement, was president of the [[Rabbinical Assembly]] from 1958-1960, a leading member of the Committee on Jewish Law and Standards from 1948 until his death in 1979.
As a leading authority on [[halakha]] he authored many important [[Responsa|teshuvot (responsa)]], many of which were published in his influential "[[Responsa]] and Halakhic Studies". From the 1950s to 1970s, he wrote a comprehensive guide to [[halakha|Jewish law]] which was used to teach halakha at the [[Jewish Theological Seminary]] of America. In [[1979]] he assembled this into "A Guide to [[Jew]]ish Religious Practice", which is used by laypeople within [[Conservative Judaism]].
{{Judaism-bio-stub}}
==External links==
*[http://emanuelnyc.org/bulletin/archive/05.html About Klein's "A Guide to Jewish Religious Practice"]
*[http://learn.jtsa.edu/topics/diduknow/jrpguide/ Excerpts from "A Guide to Jewish Religious Practice"]
*[http://www.jbuff.com/ikle.htm Isaac Klein]
[[Category:1905 births|Klein, Isaac]]
[[Category:1979 deaths|Klein, Isaac]]
[[Category:Conservative rabbis|Klein, Isaac]]
[[Category:People from Buffalo, New York]]
Intron
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[[Image:Gene.png|right|thumbnail|270px|Diagram of the location of introns and exons within a gene.]]
[[Image:Exon-intron.jpg|right|thumbnail|350px|Simple illustration of exons and introns.]]
'''Introns''' (for intragenic regions) are sections of [[DNA]] within a [[gene]] that do not encode part of the [[protein]] that the gene produces, and are [[splicing (genetics)|spliced]] out of the [[mRNA]] that is [[transcription|transcribed]] from the gene before it is [[translation (genetics)|translated]]. Introns exist mainly in [[eukaryote|eukaryotic]] [[cell (biology)|cells]]. The regions of a gene that remain in the spliced mRNA are called [[exon]]s. The number and length of introns varies widely among [[species]]. For example, the [[pufferfish]] ''Takifugu rubripes'' has little intronic DNA. Mammals and flowering plants, on the other hand, have numerous introns, which are often much longer than the nearby exons.
Introns sometimes allow for [[alternative splicing]] of a gene, so that several different proteins that share some sections in common can be produced from a single gene. The control of mRNA splicing, and hence of which alternative is produced, is performed by a wide variety of signal molecules.
Introns also sometimes contain "old code," sections of a gene that were probably once translated into protein but which are now discarded.
While most of the sequence in any given intron is [[junk DNA]] with no known function, several short sequences that are important for efficient splicing are known. The exact mechanism for these ''intronic splicing enhancers'' is not well understood, but it is thought that they serve as binding sites on the transcript for proteins that stabilize the [[spliceosome]]. It is also possible that RNA [[secondary structure]] formed by intronic sequences may have an effect on splicing.
The discovery of introns lead to the [[Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine]] in [[1993]] for [[Phillip Allen Sharp]] and [[Richard J. Roberts]].
Some introns such as Group I and Group II introns are actually [[ribozyme]]s that are capable of [[catalysis|catalyzing]] their own splicing out of the primary RNA transcript. This self splicing was discovered by [[Thomas Cech]] who shared the [[1989]] [[Nobel Prize in Chemistry]] with [[Sidney Altman]] for the discovery of the catalytic properties of RNA.
==Intron evolution==
There are two competing theories as to the [[evolution]]ary origin of introns, which is usually studied in a highly conserved family of genes such as the [[actin]]s. In the introns-early model ancestral genes are believed to have included a large number of introns, some of which have been lost over evolutionary time, leading to the different but similar intron patterns in related genes of different species. The introns-late model suggests instead that introns occur in the same location in variants of a given gene because the location is in some way predisposed to the introduction of an intron, and therefore that a similar intron pattern may arise in two different species by a form of [[convergent evolution]].
==See also==
*[[Selfish DNA]]
*[[Noncoding DNA]]
*[[Intein]]
*[[alternate splicing]]
==Reference==
#[[Walter Gilbert]] (1978 Feb 9) "Why Genes In Pieces?" ''Nature'' '''271''' (5645):501.
[[Category:Gene expression]]
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Institute of National Remembrance
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'''Institute of National Remembrance''' ({{lang-pl|Instytut Pamięci Narodowej}}; '''IPN''') is a [[Poland|Polish]] [[organization|institution]] created by the [[IPN Act]] in [[18 December]] [[1998]].
Its main purpose is investigating [[Nazi]] and [[Communist]] crimes, taking care of documentation about them, providing this documentation to the public, prosecuting those who committed such crimes and educating the public in this respect. The main focus of the Institute are crimes omitted by the communist authorities of Poland prior to [[1989]].
The first president of the IPN was [[Leon Kieres]], elected by the [[Sejm]] for 5 years in [[8 June]] [[2000]].
The second president is Janusz Kurtyka, elected on 9th of December, 2005.
The IPN is divided into:
* Committee for the Prosecution of Crimes Against the Polish Nation (Komisja Ścigania Zbrodni Przeciwko Narodowi Polskiemu)
* Bureau of Provision and Archivization of Documents (Biuro Udostępniania i Archiwizacji Dokumentów)
* Bureau of Public Education (Biuro Edukacji Publicznej)
* Local chapters
The most widely reported case investigated by the IPN thus far is the [[Jedwabne Pogrom]]. Other cases include: [[Salomon Morel]]
{{gov-stub}}
{{Poland-stub}}
==External links==
* [http://www.ipn.gov.pl/index_eng.html IPN Home Page] (English)
[[Category:Polish organizations]]
[[category:History of Poland (1989–present)]]
[[de:Institut für Nationales Gedenken]]
[[fr:Instytut Pamięci Narodowej]]
[[pl:Instytut Pamięci Narodowej]]
Intelligence
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'''Intelligence''' has several different meanings:
* [[Intelligence (trait)]] is the ability to solve problems
** [[Animal intelligence]]
** [[Artificial intelligence]]
** ''[[Intelligence (journal)]]'', a scientific journal dealing with intelligence and psychometrics
* [[Intelligence (information gathering)]], often including espionage
** [[Business intelligence]]
** [[Criminal intelligence]]
** [[Military intelligence]]
{{disambig}}
[[da:Intelligent]]
[[de:Intelligenz]]
[[es:Inteligencia (desambiguación)]]
[[it:Intelligenza]]
[[pl:Inteligencja]]
[[zh:智力]]
Intelligent
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Intelligence Test
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Identical particles
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'''Identical particles''', or '''indistinguishable particles''', are [[particle]]s that cannot be distinguished from one another, even in principle. Species of identical particles include [[elementary particle]]s such as [[electron]]s, as well as composite microscopic particles such as [[atom]]s.
There are two main categories of identical particles: [[boson]]s, which can share [[quantum state]]s, and [[fermion]]s, which are forbidden from sharing quantum states (this property of fermions is known as the [[Pauli exclusion principle]].) Examples of bosons are [[photon]]s, [[gluon]]s, [[phonon]]s, and [[helium|helium-4]] atoms. Examples of fermions are [[electron]]s, [[neutrino]]s, [[quark]]s, [[proton]]s and [[neutron]]s, and [[helium-3]] atoms.
The fact that particles can be identical has important consequences in [[statistical mechanics]]. Calculations in statistical mechanics rely on probabilistic arguments, which are sensitive to whether or not the objects being studied are identical. As a result, identical particles exhibit markedly different statistical behavior from distinguishable particles. For example, the indistinguishability of particles has been proposed as a solution to Gibb's [[mixing paradox]].
== Distinguishing between particles ==
There are two ways in which one might distinguish between particles. The first method relies on differences in the particles' intrinsic physical properties, such as [[mass]], [[electric charge]], and [[spin (physics)|spin]]. If differences exist, we can distinguish between the particles by measuring the relevant properties. However, it is an empirical fact that microscopic particles of the same species have completely equivalent physical properties. For instance, every electron in the universe has exactly the same electric charge; this is why we can speak of such a thing as "[[Elementary charge|the charge of the electron]]".
Even if the particles have equivalent physical properties, there remains a second method for distinguishing between particles, which is to track the trajectory of each particle. As long as we can measure the position of each particle with infinite precision (even when the particles collide), there would be no ambiguity about which particle is which.
The problem with this approach is that it contradicts the principles of [[quantum mechanics]]. According to quantum theory, the particles do not possess definite positions during the periods between measurements. Instead, they are governed by [[wavefunction]]s that give the probability of finding a particle at each position. As time passes, the wavefunctions tend to spread out and overlap. Once this happens, it becomes impossible to determine, in a subsequent measurement, which of the particle positions correspond to those measured earlier. The particles are then said to be ''indistinguishable''.
== Quantum mechanical description of identical particles ==
=== Symmetrical and antisymmetrical states ===
We will now make the above discussion concrete, using the formalism developed in the article on the [[mathematical formulation of quantum mechanics]].
For simplicity, consider a system composed of two identical particles. As the particles possess equivalent physical properties, their state vectors occupy mathematically identical [[Hilbert space]]s. If we denote the Hilbert space of a single particle as ''H'', then the Hilbert space of the combined system is formed by the [[tensor product]] ''H×H''.
Let ''n'' denote a complete set of (discrete) quantum numbers for specifying single-particle states (for example, for the [[particle in a box]] problem we can take ''n'' to be the quantized [[wave vector]] of the wavefunction.) Suppose that one particle is in the state ''n''<sub>1</sub>, and another is in the state ''n''<sub>2</sub>. What is the quantum state of the system? We might guess that it is
:<math> |n_1\rang |n_2\rang </math>
which is simply the canonical way of constructing a basis for a tensor product space from the individual spaces. However, this expression implies that we can identify the particle with ''n''<sub>1</sub> as "particle 1" and the particle with ''n''<sub>2</sub> as "particle 2", which conflicts with the ideas about indistinguishability discussed earlier.
Actually, it is an empirical fact that identical particles occupy special types of multi-particle states, called '''symmetric states''' and '''antisymmetric states'''. Symmetric states have the form
:<math> |n_1, n_2; S\rang \equiv \mbox{constant} \times \bigg( |n_1\rang |n_2\rang + |n_2\rang |n_1\rang \bigg) </math>
Antisymmetric states have the form
:<math> |n_1, n_2; A\rang \equiv \mbox{constant} \times \bigg( |n_1\rang |n_2\rang - |n_2\rang |n_1\rang \bigg) </math>
Note that if ''n''<sub>1</sub> and ''n''<sub>2</sub> are the same, our equation for the antisymmetric state gives the zero ket, which cannot be a state vector as it cannot be normalized. In other words, in an antisymmetric state the particles cannot occupy the same single-particle states. This is known as the [[Pauli exclusion principle]], and it is the fundamental reason behind the [[chemistry|chemical]] properties of atoms and the stability of [[matter]].
=== Exchange symmetry ===
The importance of symmetric and antisymmetric states is ultimately based on empirical evidence. It appears to be a fact of Nature that identical particles do not occupy states of a mixed symmetry, such as
:<math> |n_1, n_2; ?\rang = \mbox{constant} \times \bigg( |n_1\rang |n_2\rang + i |n_2\rang |n_1\rang \bigg) </math>
There is actually an exception to this rule, which we will discuss later. On the other hand, we can show that the symmetric and antisymmetric states are in a sense special, by examining a particular symmetry of the multiple-particle states known as '''exchange symmetry'''.
Let us define a linear operator ''P'', called the exchange operator. When it acts on a tensor product of two state vectors, it exchanges the values of the state vectors:
:<math>P \bigg(|\psi\rang |\phi\rang \bigg) \equiv |\phi\rang |\psi\rang </math>
''P'' is both [[Hermitian]] and [[Unitary matrix|unitary]]. Because it is unitary, we can regard it as a [[symmetry (quantum mechanics)|symmetry operator]]. We can describe this symmetry as the symmetry under the exchange of labels attached to the particles (i.e., to the single-particle Hilbert spaces).
Clearly, ''P² = 1'' (the identity operator), so the [[eigenvalue]]s of ''P'' are +1 and −1. The corresponding [[eigenvector]]s are the symmetric and antisymmetric states:
:<math>P|n_1, n_2; S\rang = + |n_1, n_2; S\rang</math>
:<math>P|n_1, n_2; A\rang = - |n_1, n_2; A\rang</math>
In other words, symmetric and antisymmetric states are essentially unchanged under the exchange of particle labels: they are only multiplied by a factor of +1 or −1, rather than being "rotated" somewhere else in the Hilbert space. This indicates that the particle labels have no physical meaning, in agreement with our earlier discussion on indistinguishability.
We have mentioned that ''P'' is Hermitian. As a result, it can be regarded as an observable of the system, which means that we can, in principle, perform a measurement to find out if a state is symmetric or antisymmetric. Furthermore, the equivalence of the particles indicates that the [[Hamiltonian (quantum mechanics)|Hamiltonian]] can be written in a symmetrical form, such as
:<math>H = \frac{p_1^2}{2m} + \frac{p_2^2}{2m} + U(|x_1 - x_2|) + V(x_1) + V(x_2) </math>
It is possible to show that such Hamiltonians satisfy the [[Commutator|commutation relation]]
:<math>\left[P, H\right] = 0</math>
According to the [[Heisenberg picture|Heisenberg equation]], this means that the value of ''P'' is a constant of motion. If the quantum state is initially symmetric (antisymmetric), it will remain symmetric (antisymmetric) as the system evolves. Mathematically, this says that the state vector is confined to one of the two eigenspaces of ''P'', and is not allowed to range over the entire Hilbert space. Thus, we might as well treat that eigenspace as the actual Hilbert space of the system. This is the idea behind the definition of [[Fock space]].
=== Fermions and bosons ===
The choice of symmetry or antisymmetry is determined by the species of particle. For example, we must always use symmetric states when describing [[photon]]s or [[helium|helium-4]] atoms, and antisymmetric states when describing [[electron]]s or [[proton]]s.
Particles which exhibit symmetric states are called [[boson|bosons]]. As we will see, the nature of symmetric states has important consequences for the statistical properties of systems composed of many identical bosons. These statistical properties are described as [[Bose-Einstein statistics]].
Particles which exhibit antisymmetric states are called [[fermion|fermions]]. As we have seen, antisymmetry gives rise to the [[Pauli exclusion principle]], which forbids identical fermions from sharing the same quantum state. Systems of many identical fermions are described by [[Fermi-Dirac statistics]].
[[Parastatistics]] are also possible.
In certain two-dimensional systems, mixed symmetry can occur. These exotic particles are known as [[anyon|anyons]], and they obey [[fractional statistics]]. Experimental evidence for the existence of anyons exists in the [[quantum Hall effect|fractional quantum Hall effect]], a phenomenon observed in the two-dimensional electron gases that form the inversion layer of [[MOSFET]]s. There is another type of statistic, known as [[braid statistics]], which are associated with particles known as [[plekton]]s.
The [[spin-statistics theorem]] relates the exchange symmetry of identical particles to their [[spin (physics)|spin]]. It states that bosons have integer spin, and fermions have half-integer spin. Anyons possess fractional spin.
=== ''N'' particles ===
The above discussion generalizes readily to the case of ''N'' particles. Suppose we have ''N'' particles with quantum numbers ''n''<sub>1</sub>, ''n''<sub>2</sub>, ..., n<sub>N</sub>. If the particles are bosons, they occupy a '''totally symmetric state''', which is symmetric under the exchange of ''any two'' particle labels:
:<math>|n_1 n_2 \cdots n_N; S\rang = \sqrt{\frac{\prod_j N_j!}{N!}} \sum_p |n_{p(1)}\rang |n_{p(2)}\rang \cdots |n_{p(N)}\rang </math>
Here, the sum is taken over all possible [[permutation]]s ''p'' acting on ''N'' elements. The square root on the right hand side is a [[normalizing constant]]. The quantity ''N<sub>j</sub>'' stands for the number of times each of the single-particle states appears in the ''N''-particle state.
In the same vein, fermions occupy '''totally antisymmetric states''':
:<math>|n_1 n_2 \cdots n_N; A\rang = \frac{1}{\sqrt{N!}} \sum_p \mathrm{sgn}(p) |n_{p(1)}\rang |n_{p(2)}\rang \cdots |n_{p(N)}\rang\ </math>
Here, sgn(''p'') is the [[Symmetric group|signature]] of each permutation (i.e. +1 if ''p'' is composed of an even number of transpositions, and −1 if odd.) Note that we have omitted the ''Π<sub>j</sub>N<sub>j</sub>'' term, because each single-particle state can appear only once in a fermionic state.
These states have been normalized so that
:<math> \lang n_1 n_2 \cdots n_N; S | n_1 n_2 \cdots n_N; S\rang = 1, \qquad \lang n_1 n_2 \cdots n_N; A | n_1 n_2 \cdots n_N; A\rang = 1. </math>
=== Measurements of identical particles ===
Suppose we have a system of ''N'' bosons (fermions) in the symmetric (antisymmetric) state
:<math>|n_1 n_2 \cdots n_N; S/A \rang</math>
and we perform a measurement of some other set of discrete observables, ''m''. In general, this would yield some result ''m<sub>1</sub>'' for one particle, ''m<sub>2</sub>'' for another particle, and so forth. If the particles are bosons (fermions), the state after the measurement must remain symmetric (antisymmetric), i.e.
:<math>|m_1 m_2 \cdots m_N; S/A \rang</math>
The probability of obtaining a particular result for the ''m'' measurement is
:<math>P_{S/A}(n_1, \cdots n_N \rightarrow m_1, \cdots m_N) \equiv \bigg|\lang m_1 \cdots m_N; S/A \,|\, n_1 \cdots n_N; S/A \rang \bigg|^2 </math>
We can show that
:<math> \sum_{m_1 \le m_2 \le \dots \le m_N} P_{S/A}(n_1, \cdots n_N \rightarrow m_1, \cdots m_N) = 1 </math>
which verifies that the total probability is 1. Note that we have to restrict the sum to ''ordered'' values of ''m<sub>1</sub>'', ..., ''m<sub>N</sub>'' to ensure that we do not count each multi-particle state more than once.
=== Wavefunction representation ===
So far, we have worked with discrete observables. We will now extend the discussion to continuous observables, such as the [[position]] ''x''.
Recall that an eigenstate of a continuous observable represents an infinitesimal ''range'' of values of the observable, not a single value as with discrete observables. For instance, if a particle is in a state |ψ>, the probability of finding it in a region of volume ''d³x'' surrounding some position ''x'' is
:<math> |\lang x | \psi \rang|^2 \; d^3 x </math>
As a result, the continuous eigenstates |''x''> are normalized to the [[delta function]] instead of unity:
:<math> \lang x | x' \rang = \delta^3 (x - x') </math>
We can construct symmetric and antisymmetric multi-particle states out of continuous eigenstates in the same way as before. However, it is customary to use a different normalizing constant:
:<math>|x_1 x_2 \cdots x_N; S\rang = \frac{\prod_j N_j!}{N!} \sum_p |x_{p(1)}\rang |x_{p(2)}\rang \cdots |x_{p(N)}\rang </math>
:<math>|x_1 x_2 \cdots x_N; A\rang = \frac{1}{N!} \sum_p \mathrm{sgn}(p) |x_{p(1)}\rang |x_{p(2)}\rang \cdots |x_{p(N)}\rang </math>
We can then write a many-body [[wavefunction]],
<table>
<tr>
<td><math>\Psi^{(S)}_{n_1 n_2 \cdots n_N} (x_1, x_2, \cdots x_N)</math></td>
<td><math>\equiv \lang x_1 x_2 \cdots x_N; S | n_1 n_2 \cdots n_N; S \rang</math></td>
</tr><tr><td></td>
<td><math>= \sqrt{\frac{\prod_j N_j!}{N!}} \sum_p \psi_{p(1)}(x_1) \psi_{p(2)}(x_2) \cdots \psi_{p(N)}(x_N)</math></td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td><math>\Psi^{(A)}_{n_1 n_2 \cdots n_N} (x_1, x_2, \cdots x_N) </math></td>
<td><math>\equiv \lang x_1 x_2 \cdots x_N; A | n_1 n_2 \cdots n_N; A \rang</math></td>
</tr><tr><td></td>
<td><math>= \frac{1}{\sqrt{N!}} \sum_p \mathrm{sgn}(p) \psi_{p(1)}(x_1) \psi_{p(2)}(x_2) \cdots \psi_{p(N)}(x_N)</math></td>
</tr>
</table>
where the single-particle wavefunctions are defined, as usual, by
:<math>\psi_n(x) \equiv \lang x | n \rang </math>
The most important property of these wavefunctions is that exchanging any two of the coordinate variables changes the wavefunction by only a plus or minus sign. This is the manifestation of symmetry and antisymmetry in the wavefunction representation:
:<math>
\Psi^{(S)}_{n_1 \cdots n_N} (\cdots x_i \cdots x_j\cdots) =
\Psi^{(S)}_{n_1 \cdots n_N} (\cdots x_j \cdots x_i \cdots)
</math>
:<math>
\Psi^{(A)}_{n_1 \cdots n_N} (\cdots x_i \cdots x_j\cdots) = -
\Psi^{(A)}_{n_1 \cdots n_N} (\cdots x_j \cdots x_i \cdots)
</math>
The many-body wavefunction has the following significance: if the system is initially in a state with quantum numbers ''n''<sub>1</sub>, ..., n<sub>N</sub>, and we perform a position measurement, the probability of finding particles in infinitesimal volumes near ''x''<sub>1</sub>, ''x''<sub>2</sub>, ..., ''x''<sub>N</sub> is
:<math> N! \; \left|\Psi^{(S/A)}_{n_1 n_2 \cdots n_N} (x_1, x_2, \cdots x_N) \right|^2 \; d^{3N}\!x </math>
The factor of ''N''! comes from our normalizing constant, which has been chosen so that, by analogy with single-particle wavefunctions,
:<math> \int\!\int\!\cdots\!\int\; \left|\Psi^{(S/A)}_{n_1 n_2 \cdots n_N} (x_1, x_2, \cdots x_N)\right|^2 d^3\!x_1 d^3\!x_2 \cdots d^3\!x_N = 1 </math>
Because each integral runs over all possible values of ''x'', each multi-particle state appears ''N''! times in the integral. In other words, the probability associated with each event is evenly distributed across ''N''! equivalent points in the integral space. Because it is usually more convenient to work with unrestricted integrals than restricted ones, we have chosen our normalizing constant to reflect this.
Finally, it is interesting to note that that antisymmetric wavefunction can be written as the [[determinant]] of a [[Matrix (mathematics)|matrix]], known as a [[Slater determinant]]:
:<math>\Psi^{(A)}_{n_1 \cdots n_N} (x_1, \cdots x_N)
= \frac{1}{\sqrt{N!}} \left|
\begin{matrix}
\psi_{n_1}(x_1) & \psi_{n_1}(x_2) & \cdots & \psi_{n_1}(x_N) \\
\psi_{n_2}(x_1) & \psi_{n_2}(x_2) & \cdots & \psi_{n_2}(x_N) \\
\cdots & \cdots & \cdots & \cdots \\
\psi_{n_N}(x_1) & \psi_{n_N}(x_2) & \cdots & \psi_{n_N}(x_N) \\
\end{matrix}
\right|
</math>
== Statistical properties ==
=== Statistical effects of indistinguishability ===
The indistinguishability of particles has a profound effect on their statistical properties. To illustrate this, let us consider a system of ''N'' distinguishable, non-interacting particles. Once again, let ''n<sub>j</sub>'' denote the state (i.e. quantum numbers) of particle ''j''. If the particles have the same physical properties, the ''n<sub>j</sub>'''s run over the same range of values. Let ''ε''(''n'') denote the [[energy]] of a particle in state ''n''. As the particles do not interact, the total energy of the system is the sum of the single-particle energies. The [[partition function (statistical mechanics)|partition function]] of the system is
:<math> Z = \sum_{n_1, n_2, \cdots n_N} \exp\left\{ -\frac{1}{kT} \left[ \epsilon(n_1) + \epsilon(n_2) + \cdots \epsilon(n_N) \right] \right\} </math>
where ''k'' is [[Boltzmann's constant]] and ''T'' is the [[temperature]]. We can [[factorization|factorize]] this expression to obtain
:<math> Z = \xi^N </math>
where
:<math> \xi = \sum_n \exp\left[ - \frac{\epsilon(n)}{kT} \right] </math>
If the particles are identical, this equation is incorrect. Consider a state of the system, described by the single particle states [''n<sub>1</sub>'', ..., ''n<sub>N</sub>'']. In the equation for ''Z'', every possible permutation of the ''n'''s occurs once in the sum, even though each of these permutations is describing the same multi-particle state. We have thus over-counted the actual number of states.
If we neglect the possibility of overlapping states, which is valid if the temperature is high, then the number of times we count each state is approximately ''N''!. The correct partition function is
:<math> Z = \frac{\xi^N}{N!} </math>
Note that this "high temperature" approximation does not distinguish between fermions and bosons.
The discrepancy in the partition functions of distinguishable and indistinguishable particles was known as far back as the [[19th century]], before the advent of quantum mechanics. It leads to a difficulty known as the [[Gibbs paradox]]. [[Willard Gibbs|Gibbs]] showed that if we use the equation ''Z = ξ<sup>N</sup>'', the [[entropy (thermodynamics)|entropy]] of a classical [[ideal gas]] is
:<math>S = N k \ln \left(V\right) + N f(T)</math>
where ''V'' is the [[volume]] of the gas and ''f'' is some function of ''T'' alone. The problem with this result is that ''S'' is not [[Extensive variable|extensive]] - if we double ''N'' and ''V'', ''S'' does not double accordingly. Such a system does not obey the postulates of [[thermodynamics]].
Gibbs also showed that using ''Z'' = ξ<sup>''N''</sup>/''N''! alters the result to
:<math>S = N k \ln \left(\frac{V}{N}\right) + N f(T)</math>
which is perfectly extensive. However, the reason for this correction to the partition function remained obscure until the discovery of quantum mechanics.
=== Statistical properties of bosons and fermions ===
There are important differences between the statistical behavior of bosons and fermions, which are described by [[Bose-Einstein statistics]] and [[Fermi-Dirac statistics]] respectively. Roughly speaking, bosons have a tendency to clump into the same quantum state, which underlies phenomena such as the [[laser]], [[Bose-Einstein condensate|Bose-Einstein condensation]], and [[superfluid|superfluidity]]. Fermions, on the other hand, are forbidden by the Pauli exclusion principle from sharing quantum states, giving rise to systems such as the [[Fermi gas]].
We can illustrate the differences between the statistical behavior of fermions, bosons, and distinguishable particles using a system of two particles. Let us call the particles A and B. Each particle can exist in two possible states, labelled |0> and |1>, which have the same energy.
We let the composite system evolve in time, interacting with a noisy environment. Because the |0> and |1> states are energetically equivalent, neither state is favored, so this process has the effect of randomizing the states. (This is discussed in the article on [[quantum entanglement]].) After some time, the composite system will have an equal probability of occupying each of the states available to it. We then measure the particle states.
If A and B are distinguishable particles, then the composite system has four distinct states: |0>|0>, |1>|1>, |0>|1>, and |1>|0>. The probability of obtaining two particles in the |0> state is 0.25; the probability of obtaining two particles in the |1> state is 0.25; and the probability of obtaining one particle in the |0> state and the other in the |1> state is 0.5.
If A and B are identical bosons, then the composite system has only three distinct states: |0>|0>, |1>|1>, and 2<sup>−1/2</sup>(|0>|1> + |1>|0>). When we perform the experiment, the probability of obtaining two particles in the |0> state is now 0.33; the probability of obtaining two particles in the |1> state is 0.33; and the probability of obtaining one particle in the |0> state and the other in the |1> state is 0.33. Note that the probability of finding particles in the same state is relatively larger than in the distinguishable case. This demonstrates the tendency of bosons to "clump."
If A and B are identical fermions, there is only one state available to the composite system: the totally antisymmetric state 2<sup>−1/2</sup>(|0>|1> - |1>|0>). When we perform the experiment, we inevitably find that one particle is in the |0> state and the other is in the |1> state.
The results are summarized in Table 1:
<center> <table border=1> <caption>Table 1: Statistics of two particles</caption> <tr> <th>Particles</th> <th>Both 0</th> <th>Both 1</th> <th>One 0 and one 1</th> </tr> <tr> <td>Distinguishable</td> <td align=center>0.25</td> <td align=center>0.25</td> <td align=center>0.5</td> </tr> <tr> <td>Bosons</td> <td align=center>0.33</td> <td align=center>0.33</td> <td align=center>0.33</td> </tr> <tr> <td>Fermions</td> <td align=center>0</td> <td align=center>0</td> <td align=center>1</td> </tr> </table> </center>
As can be seen, even a system of two particles exhibits different statistical behaviors between distinguishable particles, bosons, and fermions. In the articles on [[Fermi-Dirac statistics]] and [[Bose-Einstein statistics]], these principles are extended to large number of particles, with qualitatively similar results.
==The [[homotopy class]]==
To understand why we have the statistics that we do for particles, we first have to note that particles are point localized excitations and that particles that are spacelike separated do not interact. In a flat d-dimensional space M, at any given time, the configuration of two identical particles can be specified as an element of M × M. If there is no overlap between the particles, so that they do not interact (at the same time, we are not referring to time delayed interactions here, which are mediated at the speed of light or slower), then we are dealing with the space [M × M]/{coincident points}, the subspace with coincident points removed. (x,y) describes the configuration with particle I at x and particle II at y. (y,x) describes the interchanged configuration. With identical particles, the state described by (x,y) ought to be indistinguishable (which ISN'T the same thing as identical!) from the state described by (y,x). Let's look at the [[homotopy class]] of continuous paths from (x,y) to (y,x). If M is '''R'''<sup>d</sup> where <math>d\geq 3</math>, then this homotopy class only has one element. If M is '''R'''<sup>2</sup>, then this homotopy class has countably many elements (i.e. a counterclockwise interchange by half a turn, a counterclockwise interchange by one and a half turns, two and a half turns, etc, a clockwise interchange by half a turn, etc). In particular, a counterclockwise interchange by half a turn is NOT [[homotopic]] to a clockwise interchange by half a turn. Lastly, if M is '''R''', then this homotopy class is empty. Obviously, if M is not isomorphic to '''R'''<sup>d</sup>, we can have more complicated homotopy classes...
What does this all mean?
Let's first look at the case <math>d\geq 3</math>. The [[universal covering space]] of [M × M]/{coincident points}, which is none other than [M × M]/{coincident points} itself, only has two points which are physically indistinguishable from (x,y), namely (x,y) itself and (y,x). So, the only permissible interchange is two swap both particles. Performing this interchange twice gives us (x,y) back again. If this interchange results in a multiplication by +1, then we have Bose statistics and if this interchange results in a multiplication by -1, we have Fermi statistics.
Now how about '''R'''<sup>2</sup>? The universal covering space of [M × M]/{coincident points} has infinitely many points which are physically indistinguishable from (x,y). This is described by the infinite [[cyclic group]] generated by making a counterclockwise half-turn interchange. Unlike the previous case, performing this interchange twice in a row does not lead us back to the original state. So, such an interchange can generically result in a multiplication by exp(iθ) (its absolute value is 1 because of [[unitarity]]...). This is called [[anyon]]ic statistics. In fact, even with two DISTINGUISHABLE particles, even though (x,y) is now physically distinguishable from (y,x), if we go over to the universal covering space, we still end up with infinitely many points which are physically indistinguishable from the original point and the interchanges are generated by a counterclockwise rotation by one full turn which results in a multiplication by exp(iφ). This phase factor here is called the [[mutual statistics]].
As for '''R''', even if particle I and particle II are identical, we can always distinguish between them by the labels "the particle on the left" and "the particle on the right". There is no interchange symmetry here and such particles are called plektons.
The generalization to n identical particles doesn't give us anything qualitatively new because they are generated from the exchanges of two identical particles.
[[Category:Particle physics]]
[[Category:Permutations]]
[[es:Partículas idénticas]]
[[sk:Nerozlíšiteľné častice]]
Interstitial cystitis
15354
40907834
2006-02-23T20:42:12Z
84.174.140.81
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eMedicineSubj = med |
eMedicineTopic = 2866 |
DiseasesDB = 30832 |
}}
'''Interstitial cystitis''' (commonly abbreviated to "IC") is a [[urinary bladder]] [[disease]] of unknown cause characterised by pelvic and intense bladder pain, urinary frequency (as often as every 10 minutes), and pain with [[urination]]. It is not unusual for patients to experience [[nocturia]] and pain with [[sexual intercourse]]. IC is also known as painful bladder syndrome (PBS), particularly outside of the USA.
IC affects men and women of all cultures, socioeconomics and ages. Previously believed to be a condition of [[menopause|menopausal]] women, growing numbers of men and women are being diagnosed in their twenties and younger. IC is not a rare condition. Recent research suggests that IC prevalence ranges from 1 in 100,000 to 5.1 in 1,000 of the general population. New epidemiological data for the United States should be released in 2006.
It is not unusual for patients to have beeen misdiagnosed with a variety of other conditions, including: overactive bladder, [[urethritis]], [[urethral syndrome]], [[trigonitis]], [[prostatitis]] and other generic terms used to describe frequency/urgency symptoms in the urinary tract.
==Causes==
The cause of [[interstitial]] cystitis is unknown, though several theories have been put forward (these include [[autoimmune]], [[neurologic]], [[allergic]] and [[genetics|genetic]]). Regardless of the origin, it is clear that IC patients struggle with a damaged mucin, aka the GAG layer, aka bladdering lining. When this protective coating is damaged (perhaps via a UTI, excessive consumption of coffees or sodas, traumatic injury, etc.), urinary chemicals can "leak" into surrounding tissues causing pain, inflammation and urinary symptoms. Oral medications like [[Elmiron]] and medications which are placed directly into the bladder via a [[catheter]] work to repair and hopefully rebuild this damaged/wounded lining, allowing for a reduction in symptoms.
Recent work by the [[University of Maryland, Baltimore]] indicates that genetics are a factor in, and may even (in some cases) be the cause of IC. Two genes, [http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/dispomim.cgi?id=606146 FZD8] and [http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/dispomim.cgi?id=167870 PAND], are associated with the syndrome. FZD8, at gene map locus 10p11.2, is assocated with an antiproliferative factor secreted by the bladders of IC patients which "profoundly inhibits bladder cell proliferation," thus causing the missing bladder lining. PAND, at gene map locus 13q22-q32, is associated with a constellation of disorders (a "pleiotropic syndrome") including IC and other bladder and kidney problems, thyroid diseases, serious headaches/migraines, panic disorder, and mitral valve prolapse.
==Symptoms==
It may well be that the symptoms of interstitial cystitis have multiple causes, and IC is actually several syndromes which will eventually be discerned. For example, patients with [[Hunner's Ulcers]] are believed to be the most advanced cases. They have larger "wounds" in the bladder that are much more difficult to treat. It is estimated that only 5 to 10% of patients have these ulcers. Far more patients may experience a very mild form of IC, in which they have no visible [[wounds]] in their bladder, yet struggle with symptoms of frequency, urgency and/or pain. Still other patients may have discomfort only in their [[urethra]], while others struggle with pain in the entire pelvis. Some patients may experience [[pelvic floor]] tightness and [[dysfunction]], while others have normal muscle tone.
Often the symptoms of IC are misdiagnosed as a "common" bladder infection ([[cystitis]]), however unlike cystitis, IC has not been conclusively proven to be a [[bacterial infection]] and the mis-prescribed treatment of [[antibiotics]] is ineffective. The symptoms of IC may also initially be attributed to [[prostatitis]] and [[epididymitis]] (in men) and [[endometriosis]] and [[uterine fibroids]] (in women).
==Diagnosis==
Diagnosis has been greatly simplied in recent years with the development of two new methodologies. The Pelvic Pain Urgency/Frequency (PUF) Patient Survey, created by C. Lowell Parsons, is a short questionnaire that will help doctors identify if pelvic pain could be coming from the bladder. The KCL Test, aka the Potassium Sensitivity Test, uses a mild [[potassium]] solution to test the integrity of the bladder wall. Though the latter is not specific for IC, it has been determined to be helpful in predicting the use of compounds, such as [[pentosan]], which are designed to help repair the GAG layer. The previous "gold standard" test for IC was the use of hydrodistention with cystoscopy. Researchers, however, determined that this visual examination of the bladder wall after stretching the bladder was also not specific for IC and that the test, itself, can contribute to the development of small [[glomerulations]] (aka [[petechial]] hemorrhages) often found in IC. Thus, a diagnosis of IC is one of [[diagnosis of exclusion|exclusion]], as well as a review of clinical symptoms.
==Treatment==
===Diet===
The foundation of therapy is a modification of diet to help patients avoid those foods which can will further irritate the damaged bladder wall. Common offenders include [[coffee]]s, [[tea]]s, herbal teas, [[green tea]]s, all [[soda]]s (particularly diet), concentrated [[fruit juice]]s, [[vitamin|multivitamins]], [[monosodium glutamate]], [[chocolate]], and potassium-rich foods such as [[bananas]]. Patients who continue to consume daily coffee are those which appear to struggle the most with symptoms, particularly pain. Most IC support groups and many urology clinics have diet lists available.
The problem with diet triggers is that they vary from person to person: the best way for a person to discover his or her own triggers is to use an '''elimination diet'''. This is where someone cuts out all foods except the basics (e.g. potatoes, bread, rice, water) and then introduces new foods one at a time. Trying to discover which foods are one's own triggers without the use of an elimination diet is like trying to do a scientific [[experiment]] whilst altering 10 variables all at once.
===Bladder coatings===
As recently as a decade ago, treatments available were limited to the use of [[astringent]] instillations, such as [[clorpactin]] or [[silver nitrate]], designed to kill infection and/or strip off the bladder lining. In 2005, our understanding of IC has improved dramatically and these therapies are now no longer done. Rather, IC therapy is typically multi-modal, including the use of a bladder coating, an [[antihistamine]] to help control [[mast cell]] activity and a low dose [[antidepressant]] to fight [[neuroinflammation]].
The two US FDA approved therapies for IC have had recent setbacks in various research studies. Oral [[Elmiron]] (aka [[pentosan polysulfate]]) is believed to provide a protective coating in the bladder, however data released in late 2005 by [[Alza Pharmaceuticals]] suggests that 84% of Elmiron is eliminated, intact, in [[feces]]. Another 6% is excreted via [[urine]]. Reference: Metabolism of [3H]pentosan polysulfate sodium (PPS) in healthy human volunteers. Xenobiotica. 2005 Aug;35(8):775-84. In addition, the NIH funded ICCTG study of pentosan revealed results only slightly better than placebo.
[[DMSO]], a wood pulp extract, is the only approved bladder instillation for IC yet it is much less frequently used in urology clinics. Research studies presented at recent conferences of the American Urological Association by C. Subah Packer have demonstrated that the FDA approved dosage of a 50% solution of DMSO had the potential of creating irreversible muscle contraction. However, a lesser solution of 25% was found to be reversible. Long term use is questionable, at best, particularly given the fact that the method of action of DMSO is not fully understood.
More recently, the use of a "rescue instillation" composed of [[elmiron]] or [[heparin]], cystistat, [[lidocaine]] and [[sodium bicarbonate]], has generated considerable excitement in the IC community because it is the first therapeutic intervention that can be used to reduce a flare of symptoms. Published studies report a 90% effectiveness in reducing symptoms.
Another bladder coating treatment is that of Cystistat(TM) which consists primarily of [[sodium hyaluronate]]. It is believed to replace the deficient GAG layer on the bladder wall. Like most other [[intravesical]] bladder treatments, this treatment requires the patient to lie for 20 - 40 minutes, turning over every ten minutes, to allow the chemical to 'soak in' and give a good coating, before it is passed out with the urine.
===Pelvic floor treatments===
[[Pelvic floor]] dysfunction may also be a contributing factor thus most major IC clinics now evaluate the pelvic floor and/or refer patients directly to a physical therapist for a prompt treatment of pelvic floor muscle tension or weakness.
===Pain control===
Pain control is usually necessary in the IC treatment plan. The pain of IC has been rated equivalent to cancer pain and should not be ignored to avoid [[central sensitization]]. The use of a variety of traditional pain medications, including [[opiate]]s, is often necessary to treat the varying degrees of pain. [[alternative medicine|Complementary therapies]] such as [[acupuncture]], [[massage]], and [[biofeedback]] are also beneficial to some patients. Even children with IC should be appropriately addressed regarding pelvic pain, and receive necessary treatment to manage it.
Electronic pain-killing options include [[TENS]] (a machine connected to sticky pads which one palces on their body at certain pressure points; the tens machine sends electrical impulses to the skin, using the human body as an 'earth'). [[Percutaneous Tibial Nerve Stimulation (PTNS)|PTNS]] stimulators have also been used, with varying degrees of success. This is similar to a TENS treatment, except a needle is used rather than sticky pads.
===Other treatments===
Bladder distentions (a procedure which stretches the bladder [[capacity]], done under [[general anaesthetic]]) have shown remarkable success in giving pain relief to patients. However, many experts still cannot understand precisely ''how'' this can cause pain relief. Unfortunately, the relief achieved by bladder distentions is only temporary (weeks or months) and consequently, it is not really viable as a long-term treatment for Interstitial Cystitis: it is generally only used in extreme cases.
[[Surgical]] interventions are rarely used for IC. Neurostimulation techniques are not FDA approved for IC.
==Links to other conditions==
It is important to note that some people with IC also develop other medical conditions such as [[Anxiety disorder]] (usually because of the nature of the symptoms), and other conditions that may have the same etiology as IC. These include: [[irritable bowel syndrome]] (IBS), [[Fibromyalgia]], [[Endometriosis]] and [[Multiple chemical sensitivity|chemical sensitivities]].
==References==
* ''The Interstitial Cystitis Survival Guide: Your Guide to the Latest Treatment Options and Coping Strategies'' ISBN 1572242108
* "A Taste of the Good Life: A Cookbook for an IC Diet" ISBN 096657060X
* "Confident Choices" ISBN 097672460X
* "Patient to Patient: Managing IC and Related Conditions" ISBN 0970559003
* "ICN Meet the IC Expert Guest Lecture Series"
== External links ==
*[http://www.americanbladder.org American Bladder & Pelvic Pain Association, Inc.]
*[http://www.canadaic.com Canada IC & Overactive Bladder Resource Center]
*[http://www.interstitialcystitis.co.uk/ Cystitis & Overactive Bladder Foundation (UK)]
*[http://kidney.niddk.nih.gov/kudiseases/pubs/interstitialcystitis/ IC section of the NKUDIC]
*[http://www.ichelp.org Interstitial Cystitis Association]
*[http://www.ic-network.com Interstitial Cystitis Network (ICN)]
*[http://icresearch.umaryland.edu/ Unviversity of Maryland Interstitial Cystitis Center] The leading academic research center for interstitial cystitis.
*[http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?CMD=search&DB=omim OMIM ''interstitial cystitis'']
* {{MedlinePlusOverview|interstitialcystitis}}
* {{GPNotebook|-449511390}}
[[Category:Ailments of unknown etiology]]
[[Category:Urology]]
[[de:Interstitielle Zystitis]]
ICI
15355
36484865
2006-01-24T10:33:11Z
Jheald
141421
disambig Phoenix
'''ICI''' is a [[TLA|three-letter abbreviation]] or acronym which can refer to:
* [[Imperial Chemical Industries]] PLC
* the [[ICI programming language]]
* the [[Investment Company Institute]]
* the [[Internet Computer Integration]] project
* [[Inter-Channel-Interference]].
* [[Ici (magazine)|Ici]], an [[alternative weekly]] newspaper in [[Montreal]].
* the International Commerce Institute, a high school in [[Phoenix, Arizona| Phoenix]], [[Az]].
{{TLAdisambig}}
Imperial Chemical Industries
15356
41030714
2006-02-24T16:34:07Z
Catapult
792235
[[Wikipedia:Categories for deletion/Log/2006 February 18|CFD]]: renaming category[[user:freakofnurture|...]]
{{Infobox Company
| company_name = Imperial Chemical Industries plc
| company_logo = [[Image:ICI.png|center|180px|ICI's logo]]
| company_type = [[Public company|Public]] ({{lse|ICI}})
| foundation = 1926
| location = [[London]], [[United Kingdom]]
| key_people = Peter Ellwood (Chairman) <br>John McAdam (CEO)
| industry = Chemicals
| products = Paints & speciality chemicals
| revenue = £5.6 billion GBP (2004)
| num_employees = 33,820 (2004)
| homepage = http://www.ici.com
}}
'''Imperial Chemical Industries''' ('''ICI''') is a British chemical company, based in [[London]]. It produces paints and specialty products (including ingredients for foods, specialty polymers, electronic materials, fragrances and flavours). It employs around 35,000 people and had a turnover of just over £5.6 billion in 2004.
For much of the 20th century ICI was generally regarded as the leading company in the United Kingdom. The phrase "the chairman of ICI" became a colloquialism for the top person in British business. However ICI's status has fallen steadily in recent decades, and its unique prestige is now dissipated. Today ICI is simply a medium sized player in the global chemical industry, which is an unfashionable industry with low margins and weak growth prospects. It is now one of the smaller constituents of the [[FTSE 100 Index]], much smaller than its own offspring [[AstraZeneca]].
==History==
ICI was founded in December 1926 from the merger of four companies - [[Brunner Mond]], [[Nobel Industries|Nobel Explosives]], the United Alkali Company and British Dyestuffs Corporation. Competing with [[DuPont]] and [[IG Farben]] (later [[BASF]]), the new company produced [[explosive]]s, [[fertiliser]]s, [[insecticide]]s, [[dye]]stuffs, industrial chemicals, printing materials, and paints. In its first year turnover was £27m.
ICI played a key role in the development of new products, including the pigment [[phthalocyanine]] (1929), the acrylic plastic ''[[Polymethyl_methacrylate|Perspex]]'' (1932), Dulux paints (1932, co-developed with DuPont), [[Polythene]] (1937), sulfamethazine (the first [[sulfonamide]] [[antibiotic]]), paludrine (1940s, an anti-[[malaria]]l drug), [[halothane]] (1951, an anaesthetic agent), Inderal (1965, a [[beta-blocker]]), [[tamoxifen]] (1978, a frequently used drug for [[breast cancer]]), and [[PEEK]] (1979, a high performance [[thermoplastic]]) . Because of their success in the pharmaceutical industry, ICI formed ICI Pharmaceuticals in 1957.
One of the main plants was at [[Billingham]], [[County Durham]].
From 1971 to 1988 ICI operated a small [[General Atomics]] [[TRIGA]] Mark I [[nuclear reactor]] at its Billingham factory.
In 1993 the company decided to demerge its chemical business from the pharmaceutical bioscience divisions. Pharmaceuticals, agrochemicals, specialities, seeds and biological products were placed into a new and independent company called Zeneca Group (which merged with Astra AB in 1999 to form [[AstraZeneca]] PLC, one of the largest pharmaceutical companies in the world). The company also moved away from bulk and industrial chemicals towards specialty chemicals during the 1990s in the hope of making its income less dependent on the business cycle, earning higher profit margins, and developing businesses with long term growth potential. However its financial performance so far in the 21st century has been erratic.
ICI sold its Australian subsidiary, ICI Australia, in 1997 and the following year it changed its name to [[Orica]].
==External links==
* [http://www.ici.com Official site]
* [http://www.nationalstarch.com National Starch and Chemical Company] ICI subsidsiary.
* [http://uk.finance.yahoo.com/q/pr?s=ICI.L Yahoo! profile]
* [http://www.orica.com.au Orica]
[[Category:Chemical companies of the United Kingdom]]
[[Category:Companies listed on the London Stock Exchange]]
Imperial Airways
15357
40364477
2006-02-20T01:58:53Z
Rich Farmbrough
82835
External links per MoS.
{| align=right
| [[image:Speedbird logo.gif|220px|right|thumb|Imperial Airways Speedbird logo]]
|-
| {{British Airways}}
|}
'''Imperial Airways''' was an early British commercial air transport company, operating from [[1924]] to [[1939]].
Created following the advice of the government [[Hambling Committee]] in 1923 — that the main existing aircraft companies should be merged to create a company which would be strong enough to develop Britain's external air services — and offered a £1m subsidy over ten years if they merged. Imperial Airways Limited was formed in March 1924 from the British Marine Air Navigation Company Ltd (three aircraft), the Daimler Airway (five aircraft), Handley-Page Transport Ltd (three aircraft) and the Instone Air Line Ltd (two aircraft). The land operations were based at [[Croydon Airport]].
The first commercial flight was in April [[1924]], when a daily [[London]]-[[Paris]] service was opened. Additional services to other European destinations were started throughout the summer. The first new airliner was commissioned by Imperial Airways in November 1924. In the first year of operation the company carried 11,395 passengers and 212,380 letters.
The extension of service to the [[British Empire]] (Empire Services) was not begun until [[1927]] when, with the addition of six new aircraft, a service was instituted from [[Cairo]] to [[Basra]]. but the first service from London for [[Karachi]] did not start until [[1929]] using newly purchased [[Short S.8 Calcutta]] flying boats, even then the passengers were transported by train from [[Paris]] to the [[Mediterranean]] where the Short flying boats were. In February [[1931]] a weekly service between London and [[Tanganyika]] was started as part of the proposed route to [[Cape Town]] and in April an experimental London-[[Australia]] air mail flight took place; the mail was transferred at the [[Netherlands East Indies]], and took 26 days in total to reach [[Sydney]]. The purchase of eight [[Handley Page 42]] four-engined airliners boosted the range of services, in 1932 the service to Africa was extended to Cape Town.
In Australia in [[1934]] Imperial and [[Qantas]] (Queensland and Northern Territory Aerial Services Ltd) formed Qantas Empire Airways Limited to extended services in [[Southeast Asia]]. But it was not until [[1937]] with the [[Short Empire]] flying boats that Imperial could offer an 'all air' service from [[Southampton]] to the Empire. The journey to the Cape consisted of flights to [[Marseille]], [[Rome]], [[Brindisi]], [[Athens]], [[Alexandria]], [[Khartoum]], [[Port Bell]], [[Kisumu]] and onwards by land-based craft to [[Nairobi]], [[Mbeya]] and eventually [[Cape Town]]. Survey flights were also made across the Atlantic and to [[New Zealand]]. By mid-1937 Imperial had completed its thousandth service to the Empire.
[[Image:Speed Wingows Over the World - Eric Broadbent - London.jpg|thumb|303px|left|''Speed Wings Over the World'', statue on a portal above the Empire Terminal's main entrance; by Eric Broadbent]]
The Empire Air Mail Programme began in July 1937, delivering anywhere for 1½ d./oz. By mid-1938 a hundred tons of mail had been delivered to India and a similar amount to Africa. In the same year, construction was started on the Empire Terminal in [[Victoria Station (London)|Victoria, London]], designed by A. Lakeman and with a statue by Eric Broadbent, ''Speed Wings Over the World'' gracing the portal above the main entrance. The terminal provided train connections to flying boats at [[Southampton]] and to the since closed Croydon Airport. The terminal operated as recently as [[1980]].
Compared to other operators ([[Air France]], [[KLM]], [[Lufthansa|Deutsche Luft Hansa]]) it was lagging behind in Europe and it was suggested that all European operations be handed over to [[British Airways Ltd]] (founded in 1935) which had more modern aircraft and better organization. However in November 1939 both Imperial and British Airways Ltd were merged into a new state-owned national carrier: [[British Overseas Airways Corporation]] ([[BOAC]]). The new carrier adopted the Imperial [[Speedbird]] logo, which has evolved into the present [[British Airways]] ''Speedmarque'', and the term continues to be used as BA's [[call sign]].
==External links==
* [http://www.imperial-airways.com Imperial Airways enthusiasts' website]
{{airlistbox}}
[[Category:Defunct airlines of the United Kingdom]]
[[Category:Airlines of the United Kingdom]]
[[Category:1924 establishments]]
[[de:Imperial Airways]]
[[fr:Imperial Airways]]
Insanity defense
15358
41364133
2006-02-26T21:46:54Z
150.199.103.245
/* Psychosis and schizophrenia */
{{CrimDef}}
In a [[criminal trial]], the '''insanity''' defenses are possible [[defense (legal)|defense]]s by [[excuse]], via which [[defendant|defendants]] may argue that they should not be held [[crime|criminally]] [[liability|liable]] for breaking the [[law]], as they were mentally ill or mentally incompetent at the time of their allegedly "criminal" actions. The insanity defense is still in use in the United States, while most [[Commonwealth]] countries have moved to a [[mental disorder defence]].
The insanity defense is available in most jurisdictions that respect [[human rights]] and have a [[rule of law]], though the extent to which it can or should be applied may differ widely between jurisdictions, e.g. as in cases involving the [[battered woman syndrome]] where [[Self-defense (theory)|self-defense]] is not available, a defendant may be forced to choose between an insanity defense and [[provocation (legal)|provocation]].
This defense is based on a principle that [[punishment]] is only reasonable if the defendant is capable of distinguishing right and [[evil|wrong]]. A defendant making this argument might be said to be pleading "'''not guilty by reason of insanity'''" ('''NGRI''').
==Psychiatric treatment==
Those found to have been not guilty by reason of insanity are generally then required to undergo [[psychiatry|psychiatric]] treatment; except in the case of '''temporary insanity''' (see below). Defendants found not guilty by reason of insanity are generally placed in a mental institution. Unlike defendants who are found guilty of a crime, they are not institutionalized for a fixed period, but rather they are held within the institution until authorities determine that they are no longer a threat. Authorities making this decision tend to be cautious; as a result, defendants can often spend more time there than they would have in prison (had they been convicted). In ''[[Foucha v. Louisiana]]'' ([[1992]]) the [[Supreme Court of the United States|Supreme Court]] ruled that a person could not be held "indefinitely".
===Psychosis and schizophrenia===
In practice, a finding of "not guilty by reason of insanity" almost always requires that the defendant have been in a state of active [[psychosis]] (at the time the law was broken) and usually such findings involve a [[diagnosis]] of [[paranoia|paranoid]] [[schizophrenia]]. The use of the insanity defense in cases of [[psychopathy]] is rare and almost uniformly unsuccessful.
===Incompetency, intoxication, and mental illness===
The concept of insanity is different from the concept of incompetency. Incompetency denotes the inability of a defendant to understand the charges against them and to participate in their defense, and relates to the defendant's state of mind at the time of trial. A trial cannot proceed if a defendant has been found incompetent, unless the defendant later becomes competent.
In the [[United States]], a trial in which the insanity defense is invoked typically involves the testimony of [[psychiatrist]]s who will argue that the defendant is or is not insane. If there is agreement between the prosecution and defense that the defendant is insane then typically a jury trial is waived and a trial occurs in front of a judge in which evidence is presented and a judgment rendered. If there is disagreement between the prosecution and defense, each will typically present expert witnesses to a jury which will decide whose witnesses to believe.
The legal concept of insanity is different from the [[psychiatry|psychiatric]] concept of [[mental illness]]. Frequently, a person whose mental illness is not under dispute will be determined sane as the court will argue that despite a "mental illness" the defendant should still be held responsible; such a ruling is known as either a '''Guilty but Mentally Ill''' ('''GBMI''') or a '''Guilty but Insane''' verdict. [[Michigan]] ([[1975]]) was the first state to pass a GBMI verdict. Sometimes a person without mental illness can be found to be insane; for example, a person who is acting under the influence of a drug that was involuntarily administered (though voluntary intoxication has been rejected by most jurisdictions as a defence to crime). (See: [[involuntary intoxication]])
==History of the insanity defense==
The concept of defense by insanity has existed since [[ancient history|ancient]] [[ancient Greece|Greece]] and [[Roman Empire|Rome]]. The first complete transcript of an insanity trial dates [[1724]]. [[Edward II of England|Edward II]], under English Common law, declared that a person was insane if their mental capacity was no more than that of a "Wild Beast". However, in the United States, the pioneer in the insanity defense could be credited to New Hampshire Chief Justice, Charles Cogswell Doe. In ''[[Ford v. Wainwright]]'' ([[1975]]) the [[Supreme Court of the United States|US Supreme Court]] ruled that insane [[prison]]ers cannot be [[execution (legal)|executed]]. The insanity plea was legalized in the [[United States]] with the [[M'Naghten Rules]], which came as a direct result of the attempted assassination of [[Britain|British]] [[Prime Minister]] [[Robert Peel]] in [[1843]]. The insanity plea can be used if "at the time of the commission of the acts constituting the offense, the defendant as a result of a severe mental disease or defect, was unable to appreciate the nature and quality of the wrongfulness of his acts." The key is that the defendant could not appreciate the nature of his actions ''during'' the commission of the crime, not before or after.
One novel use of the insanity defense occurred in the case of [[Lee Boyd Malvo]] who plead not guilty by reason of insanity in the [[Beltway sniper shootings]]. Many legal experts believe that the purpose of raising the defense was not to gain an acquittal but to allow the defense to introduce otherwise inadmissible evidence about Malvo's upbringing, his relationship with [[John Allen Muhammad]], and his mental state. This evidence was intended to gain the jury's sympathy so that they would not invoke the [[death penalty]], and was successful at doing so.
==Controversy over the insanity defense==
There are many different interpretations of "insane" and many different notions of how to deal with insane individuals.
In the US ([[1982]]), the insanity defense came under increasing criticism following the acquittal of [[John Hinckley, Jr.]], who attempted to assassinate [[Ronald Reagan|President Reagan]]. Critics of the defense argue that it relies too much on opinion and/or "permits" behavior by one group which is forbidden to another. “If you commit a big crime then you are crazy, and the more heinous the crime, the crazier you must be. Therefore you are not responsible, and nothing is your fault”
Some opponents of the insanity defense, including [[Thomas Szasz]], believe that psychiatry itself emerged as a way to justify mercy, of making persons "exceptional" and thus not deserving of the harsh punishment we would as a society wish to dole out to people who had extremely selfish or widely shared rationales for their actions. Since extreme selfishness ("self-absorption") or broadly shared resentments (e.g. envy of the rich, hatred of another ethnic group) are somewhat infectious behaviors, some argue that [[schizophrenia]] and other "mental illness" were defined into existence to protect those whose motives and behaviors were not so infectious, and whose offenses were thus unlikely to be repeated by others. The cost of this system of mercy, however, was to classify the [[psychiatrist]] and [[patient]] in an ongoing [[unequal-power relationship]]. See [[myth of mental illness]] and [[antipsychiatry]]).
In ancient Rome, Latin tribes held various religious beliefs that included considering the insane to be divinely blessed, and therefore beyond the reach of human jurisdiction. It is alleged that insanity as an excuse was introduced in the ancient Roman legal system based upon this tradition. Some modern critics claim that this precedent precludes the insanity defense's validity in a modern secular state like the [[United States]] with a [[Constitutional]] doctrine of [[Separation of church and state]].
The public tends to believe that the insanity defense is used more often than it actually is, possibly because insanity-defense cases tend to be of a high-profile nature. The insanity plea is used in the U.S Criminal Justice System in less than 1% of all [[criminal]] cases, and only one fourth of those defendants are found "not guilty by reason of insanity". 60-70% of all insanity pleas are not in [[murder]] cases.
Some US courts have begun to ban the use of the insanity defense and a [[1994]] [[United States Supreme Court|Supreme Court]] ruling upheld the right of [[Montana]] to do so. [[Idaho]] and [[Utah]] have also banned this defense.
==Rules of appreciation==
In this section, various rules applied in [[United States]] jurisdiction with respect to insanity defenses are discussed.
===The M'Naghten Rules===
The ''[[M'Naghten Rules]]'' (1843) 10 C & F 200, state, ''inter alia'', that a person may be "insane" if "...at the time of the committing of the act, the party accused was labouring under such a defect of reason, arising from a disease of the mind, as not to know the nature and quality of the act he was doing, or, if he did know it, that he did not know what he was doing was wrong." These rules are, [[as of 2005]], in force in the majority of [[common law]] jurisdictions.
===The irresistible impulse===
There is also an idea of an [[irresistible impulse]], which argues that a person may have known an act was illegal; but, because of a mental impairment, they couldn't control their actions. In [[1994]], [[Lorena Bobbitt]] was found not guilty of the felony of "malicious wounding" (the equivalent of [[mayhem]]), when her defense argued that an irresistible impulse led her to cut off her husband's penis. In the late nineteenth century some states and federal courts in the United States, dissatisfied with the M'Naghten rule, adopted the irrestible impulse test. This test, which had first been used in Ohio in 1834, emphasized the inablility to control one's actions. A person who committed a crime during an uncontrollable "fit of passion" was considered insane and not guility under this test.
===The Durham rule===
The ''Durham Rule'' or "product test" was set forth by the [[United States Court of Appeals for the District of Columbia Circuit]] in [[1954]] and states that "... an accused is not criminally responsible if her unlawful act was the product of mental disease or defect". After the [[1970s]], US jurisdictions have tended to not recognize this argument as it places emphasis on "mental disease or defect" and thus on testimony by psychiatrists and is argued to be somewhat ambiguous.
===The Insanity Defense Reform Act (US)===
The Insanity Defense Reform Act, enacted by Congress in 1984 in response to the verdict in the Hinckley trial, and codified at Title 18, U.S. Code, Section 17, states that a person accused of a crime can be adjudged not guilty by reason of insanity if "the defendant, as a result of a severe mental disease or defect, was unable to appreciate the nature and quality or the wrongfulness of her acts."
===The Substantial Capacity Test===
The [[Substantial Capacity Test]] was defined by the [[American Law Institute]], in its [[Model Penal Code]]. This argues that insanity should be defined as a lack of substantial capacity to control one's behavior. Substantial capacity is defined as: "the mental capacity needed to understand the wrongfulness of [an] act, or to conform...behavior to the...law." This is related to the M'Naghten Rule and the idea of 'irresistible impulse'.
===The Brawner rule===
The Brawner Rule ([[1972]]) argues that insanity should be decided by a [[jury]]. Under this proposal, juries are allowed to decide the "insanity question" as they see fit.
===Temporary insanity===
The notion of '''temporary insanity''' argues that a defendant was insane, but is now sane. A defendant found to have been temporarily insane will often be released without any requirements of psychiatric treatment. This defense was first used by [[United States House of Representatives|U.S. Congressman]] [[Daniel Sickles]] of [[New York]] in [[1859]] after he had killed his wife's lover, [[Philip Barton Key (1818-1859)|Philip Barton Key]], but was most used during the [[1940s]] and [[1950s]]. Since then, it has not been as successful.
==Scottish law==
The Scottish Law Commission in its Discussion Paper No 122 on Insanity and Diminished Responsibility (2003) [http://www.scotlawcom.gov.uk/downloads/dp122_insanity.pdf] pp.16/18 confirms that the law has not substantially changed from the position stated in Hume's Commentaries:
:We may next attend to the case of those unfortunate persons, who have plead the miserable defence of idiocy or insanity. Which condition, if it is not an assumed or imperfect, but a genuine and thorough insanity, and is proved by the testimony of intelligent witnesses, makes the act like that of an infant, and equally bestows the privilege of an entire exemption from any manner of pain; ''Cum alterum innocentia concilii tuetur, alterum fati infelicitas excusat''. I say, where the insanity is absolute, and is duly proved: For if reason and humanity enforce the plea in these circumstances, it is no less necessary to observe a caution and reserve in applying the law, as shall hinder it from being understood, that there is any privilege in a case of mere weakness of intellect, or a strange and moody humour, or a crazy and capricious or irritable temper. In none of these situations does or can the law excuse the offender. Because such constitutions are not exclusive of a competent understanding of the true state of the circumstances in which the deed is done, nor of the subsistence of some steady and evil passion, grounded in those circumstances, and directed to a certain object. To serve the purpose of a defence in law, the disorder must therefore amount to an absolute alienation of reason, ''ut continua mentis alienatione, omni intellectu careat'' - such a disease as deprives the patient of the knowledge of the true aspect and position of things about him - hinders him from distinguishing friend from foe - and gives him up to the impulse of his own distempered fancy.
The phrase "absolute alienation of reason" is still regarded as at the core of the defence in the modern law (see ''HM Advocate v Kidd'' 1960 JC 61 and ''Brennan v HM Advocate'' (1977) JC 38).
== External links ==
* [http://www.uchastings.edu/plri/spring95/tmpinsan.html The Temporary Insanity Defense in California]
* [http://samvak.tripod.com/insanitydefense.html Cultural and medical considerations in the concept of insanity defense]
* [http://www.washingtonpost.com/wp-srv/local/longterm/aron/qa227.htm The Insanity Defense: A Closer Look]
==References==
*Bienstock, ''Mothers Who Kill Their Children and Postpartum Psychosis'', (2003) Vol. 32, No. 3 Southwestern University Law Review, 451.
*Dressler, Joshua, ''Reaffirming the Moral Legitimacy of the Doctrine of Diminished Capacity: A Brief Reply to Professor Morse'', (1984) Vol. 75 Journal of Criminal Law & Criminology, 953.
*Keram, ''The Insanity Defense and Game Theory: Reflections on Texas v.Yates'', (2002) Vol. 30, No. 4 Journal of the American Academy of Psychiatry and the Law, 470.
*Schopp, Robert F. (1991) ''Automatism, Insanity, and the Psychology of Criminal Responsibility'', Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, ISBN 052140150X.
*Schopp, Robert F. (2001) ''Competence, Condemnation, and Commitment: An Integrated Theory of Mental Health Law'', American Psychological Assn., ISBN 1557987459.
*Slobogin, ''An End to Insanity: Recasting the Role of Mental Disability in Criminal Cases'', (2000) Vol. 86 Virginia Law Review, 1199.
[[Category:Criminal defenses]]
[[Category:Mental health law]]
[[Category:Ethics]]
[[Category:Pleas]]
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Ice age
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[[Image:Vostok-ice-core-petit.png|thumb|300px|Variations in CO2, temperature and dust from the [[Vostok, Antarctica|Vostok]] ice core over the last 400 000 years]]
An '''ice age''' is a period of long-term downturn in the [[temperature]] of [[Earth]]'s [[climate]], resulting in an expansion of the continental [[ice sheet]]s, polar ice sheets and mountain [[glacier]]s ("[[glaciation]]"). [[Glaciology|Glaciologically]], ''ice age'' is often used to mean a period of ice sheets in the northern and southern hemispheres; by this definition we are still in an ice age (because the [[Greenland]] and [[Antarctic]] ice sheets still exist). More colloquially, when speaking of the last few million years, ''ice age'' is used to refer to colder periods with extensive ice sheets over the [[North America]]n and [[Europe]]an continents: in this sense, the last ice age ended about 10,000 years ago. This article will use the term ''ice age'' in the former, glaciological, sense; and use the term 'glacial periods' for colder periods during ice ages and 'interglacial' for the warmer periods.
During the last few million years, there have been many glacial periods, occurring initially at 40,000-year frequency but more recently at 100,000-year frequencies. These are the best studied. There have been four major ice ages in the further past.
== Origin of ice age theory ==
The idea that, in the past, glaciers had been far more extensive was folk knowledge in some alpine regions of Europe (Imbrie and Imbrie, p25, quote a woodcutter telling [[Jean de Charpentier]] of the former extent of the [[Switzerland|Swiss]] Grimsel glacier). No single person invented the idea [http://academic.emporia.edu/aberjame/histgeol/agassiz/glacial.htm]. Between 1825 and 1833, Charpentier assembled evidence in support of this idea. In 1836 Charpentier convinced [[Jean Louis Rodolphe Agassiz|Louis Agassiz]] of the theory, and Agassiz published it in his book ''Étude sur les glaciers'' of [[1840]].
At this early stage of knowledge, what were being studied were the glacial periods within the past few hundred thousand years, during the current ice age. The far earlier ice ages' very existence was unsuspected.
== Major ice ages ==
There have been at least four major ice ages in the Earth's past.
The earliest hypothesized ice age is believed to have occurred around 2.7 to 2.3 [[billion]] (10<sup>9</sup>) years ago during the early [[Proterozoic]] Age.
:''Main article: [[Snowball Earth]]''.
The earliest well-documented ice age, and probably the most severe of the last 1 billion years, occurred from 800 to 600 million years ago (the [[Cryogenian]] period) and it has been suggested that it produced a [[Snowball Earth]] in which permanent sea ice extended to or very near the equator. It has been suggested that the end of this ice age was responsible for the subsequent [[Cambrian Explosion]], though this theory is recent and controversial.
A minor ice age occurred from 460 to 430 million years ago, during the [[Late Ordovician]] Period.
There were extensive polar [[ice cap]]s at intervals from 350 to 260 million years ago, during the [[Carboniferous]] and [[Permian|early Permian]] Periods, associated with the [[Karoo Ice Age]].
[[Image:Five_Myr_Climate_Change.png|thumb|400px|right|Sediment records showing the fluctuating sequences of glacials and interglacials during the last several million years.]]
The present ice age began 40 million years ago with the growth of an ice sheet in Antarctica, but intensified during the [[Pleistocene]] (starting around 3 million years ago) with the spread of ice sheets in the Northern Hemisphere. Since then, the world has seen cycles of glaciation with ice sheets advancing and retreating on 40,000 and 100,000 year time scales. The last glacial period ended about 10,000 years ago.
The timing of ice ages throughout geologic history is in part controlled by the position of the continental plates on the surface of the Earth. When landmasses are concentrated near the polar regions, there is an increased chance for snow and ice to accumulate. Small changes in solar energy can tip the balance between summers in which the winter snow mass completely melts and summers in which the winter snow persists until the following winter. Due to the positions of Greenland, Antarctica, and the northern portions of Europe, Asia, and North America in polar regions, the Earth today is considered prone to ice age glaciations.
Evidence for ice ages comes in various forms, including rock scouring and scratching, [[glacial moraines]], [[drumlins]], valley cutting, and the deposition of [[till]] or tillites and [[glacial erratic]]s. Successive glaciations tend to distort and erase the geological evidence, making it difficult to interpret. It took some time for the current theory to be worked out. Analyses of ice cores and ocean sediment cores unambiguously show the record of glacials and interglacials over the past few million years.
== Interglacials ==
[[Image:Ice Age Temperature.png|right|thumb|300px|Shows the pattern of temperature and ice volume changes associated with recent glacials and interglacials]]
In between ice ages, there are multi-million year periods of more temperate, almost tropical, climate, but also within the ice ages (or at least within the last one), temperate and severe periods occur. The colder periods are called 'glacial periods', the warmer periods 'interglacials', such as the [[Eemian interglacial era]].
We are in an interglacial period now, the last retreat ending about 10,000 years ago. There appears to be a folk wisdom that "the typical interglacial period lasts ~12,000 years" but this is hard to substantiate from the evidence of ice core records. For example, an article in ''Nature'' [http://www.nature.com/cgi-taf/DynaPage.taf?file=/nature/journal/v429/n6992/abs/nature02599_fs.html] argues that the current interglacial might be most analogous to a previous interglacial that lasted 28,000 years. Nonetheless, fear of a new glacial period starting soon does exist (See: [[global cooling]]). However, many now believe that anthropogenic (manmade) forcing from increased "[[greenhouse gas]]es" would outweigh any [[Milankovitch cycles|Milankovitch]] (orbital) forcing; and some recent considerations of the orbital forcing have even argued that in the absence of human perturbations the present interglacial could potentially last 50,000 years.
== Causes of ice ages ==
The cause of ice ages remains controversial for both the large-scale ''ice age'' periods and the smaller ebb and flow of ''glacial/interglacial'' periods within an ice age. The general consensus is that it is a combination of up to three different factors: atmospheric composition (particularly the fraction of [[carbon dioxide|CO<sub>2</sub>]] and [[methane]]), changes in the Earth's orbit around the [[Sun]] known as [[Milankovitch cycles]] (and possibly the Sun's orbit around the [[galaxy]]), and the arrangement of the continents.
The first of these three factors is probably responsible for much of the change, especially for the first ice age. The "[[Snowball Earth]]" hypothesis maintains that the severe freezing in the late [[Proterozoic]] was both caused and ended by changes in CO<sub>2</sub> levels in the atmosphere. However, the other two factors do matter.
An abundance of land within the Arctic and Antarctic Circles appears to be a necessity for an ice age, probably because the landmasses provide space on which snow and ice can accumulate during cooler times and thus trigger positive feedback processes like [[albedo]] changes. The Earth's orbit does not have a great effect on the long-term causation of ice ages, but does seem to dictate the pattern of multiple freezings and thawings that take place within the current ice age. The complex pattern of changes in [[Earth]]'s orbit and the change of [[albedo]] may influence the occurrence of glacial and interglacial phases — this was first explained by the theory of [[Milutin Milankovic]].
[[Image:Yosemite_1_bg_090504.jpg|thumb|left|180px|A glacier carried away the missing half of [[Half Dome]] in [[Yosemite Valley]].]]
The present ice ages are the most studied and best understood, particularly the last 400,000 years, since this is the period covered by [[ice core]]s that record atmospheric composition and proxies for temperature and ice volume. Within this period, the match of glacial/interglacial frequencies to the Milankovic orbital forcing periods is so good that orbital forcing is the generally accepted explanation. The combined effects of the changing distance to the sun, the precession of the Earth's axis, and the changing tilt of the Earth's axis can change and significantly redistribute the sunlight received by the Earth. Of particular importance are changes in the tilt of the Earth's axis, which impact the intensity of [[seasons]]. For example, the amount of solar influx in July at 65 degrees north [[latitude]] is calculated to vary by as much as 25% (from 400 [[watt|W]]/m<sup>2</sup> to 500 W/m<sup>2</sup>, see graph at [http://www.museum.state.il.us/exhibits/ice_ages/insolation_graph.html]). It is widely believed that ice sheets advance when summers become too mild to melt all of the accumulated snowfall from the previous winter. Some workers believe that the strength of the orbital forcing appears to be too small to trigger glaciations, but feedback mechanisms like CO<sub>2</sub> may explain this mismatch.
While Milankovic forcing predicts that cyclic changes in the Earth's [[Orbit#Orbital_parameters|orbital parameters]] can be expressed in the glaciation record, additional explanations are necessary to explain which cycles are observed to be most important in the timing of glacial/interglacial periods. In particular, during the last 800 thousand years, the dominant inter/glacial oscillation has been 100 thousand years, which corresponds to changes in Earth's [[eccentricity (orbit)|eccentricity]] and orbital [[inclination]], and yet is by far the weakest of the three frequencies predicted by Milankovic. During the period 3.0 — 0.8 million years ago, the dominant pattern of glaciation corresponded to the 41 thousand year period of changes in Earth's [[obliquity]] (tilt of the axis). The reasons for preferring one frequency to another are poorly understood and an active area of current research, but the answer probably relates to some form of resonance in the Earth's climate system.
The "traditional" Milankovitch explanation struggles to explain the dominance of the 100,000-year cycle over the last 8 cycles. [[Richard A. Muller]] and Gordon J. MacDonald [http://www.pnas.org/cgi/content/full/94/16/8329] [http://muller.lbl.gov/pages/glacialmain.htm]
[http://muller.lbl.gov/papers/sciencespectra.htm] and others have pointed out that those calculations are for a two-dimensional orbit of Earth but the three-dimensional orbit also has a 100 thousand year cycle of orbital inclination. They proposed that these variations in orbital inclination lead to variations in insolation, as the earth moves in and out of known dust bands in the solar system. Although this is a different mechanism to the traditional view, the "predicted" periods over the last 400,000 years are nearly the same. The Muller and MacDonald theory, in turn, has been challenged by Rial [http://pangea.stanford.edu/Oceans/GES290/Rial1999.pdf].
Another worker, Ruddiman has suggested a plausible model that explains the 100,000 cycle by the modulating effect of eccentricity (weak 100,000 year cycle) on precession (23,000 year cycle) combined with greenhouse gas feedbacks in the 41,000 and 23,000-year cycles. Yet another theory has been advanced by Peter Huybers who argued that the 41,000-year cycle has always been dominant, but that the Earth has entered a mode of climate behavior where only the 2nd or 3rd cycle triggers an ice age. This would imply that the 100,000-year periodicity is really an illusion created by averaging together cycles lasting 80 and 120 thousand years. This theory is consistent with the existing uncertainties in dating, but not widely accepted at present (Nature 434, 2005, [http://web.mit.edu/~phuybers/www/Doc/Obliquity_HuybersWunsch.pdf]).
== Recent glacial and interglacial phases ==
[[Image:Pleistocene north ice map.jpg|thumb|right|The maximum extent of glacial ice in the north polar area during [[Pleistocene]] time]]
See ''[[Timeline of glaciation]]''.
== Glaciation in North America ==
The Wisconsinan glaciation has had a considerable effect on the landscape of the Northern Hemisphere. In North America, the [[Great Lakes (North America)|Great Lakes]] and the [[Finger Lakes]] were carved by ice's deepening of old valleys, and most of the lakes in Minnesota and Wisconsin were gouged out by glaciers, to be filled with water later when the glaciers melted. The old [[Teays River]] drainage system was radically altered and largely reshaped into the [[Ohio River]] drainage system. Other rivers were dammed and diverted to new channels, such as the [[Niagara Falls|Niagara]], which formed a dramatic waterfall and gorge, when the waterflow encountered a limestone escarpment. Another similar waterfall near [[Syracuse, New York]] is now dry. [[Long Island]] was formed from glacial till, and the watersheds of [[Canada]] were so severely disrupted that they are still sorting themselves out — the plethora of lakes on the [[Canadian Shield]] in northern Canada can be almost entirely attributed to the action of the ice. As the ice retreated and the rock dust dried, winds carried the material hundreds of miles, forming beds of [[loess]] many dozens of feet thick in the [[Missouri River|Missouri Valley]]. [[Isostatic rebound]] continues to reshape the [[Great Lakes]] and other areas formerly under the weight of the ice sheets.
The [[Driftless Zone]], around the junction of [[Wisconsin]], [[Minnesota]], and [[Iowa]], was not covered by glaciers.
==Reference==
*Imbrie, John and Katherine Palmer Imbrie. ''Ice ages: Solving the Mystery''. Cambridge, Massachusetts: Harvard University Press, 1979, 1986 (reprint). ISBN 089490020X; ISBN 0894900153; ISBN 0674440757.
==See also==
* [[Geology]]
* [[Timeline of glaciation]]
*[[Cryogenian|Cryogenian period]]
*[[Glacial erratic]]
*[[Glacial striations]]
*[[Glacier]]
* [[Little Ice Age]]
* [[Genesee River: Glacial Geology]] — Relief maps of some glacial landforms and drainage alterations in western NY.
==External links==
* [http://www.pbs.org/wgbh/nova/ice/ Cracking the Ice Age] from PBS
*http://www.globalchange.umich.edu/globalchange1/current/lectures/samson/climate_patterns/
[[Category:Glaciology]]
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Irving Langmuir
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[[Image:Langmuir.jpg|right|right|thumb|Irving Langmuir -- chemist and physicist]]
'''Irving Langmuir''' ([[January 31]], [[1881]] in [[Brooklyn, New York]] - [[August 16]], [[1957]] in [[Woods Hole, Massachusetts]]) was an [[United States|American]] [[chemistry|chemist]] and [[physics|physicist]]. While at G.E., from 1909-1950, Langmuir advanced several basic fields of [[physics]] and [[chemistry]], invented the gas filled [[incandescent lamp]], the hydrogen welding technique, and was awarded the 1932 [[Nobel Prize/Chemistry|Nobel Prize for Chemistry]] for his work in [[surface chemistry]].
==Early years==
Irving Langmuir was born in [[Brooklyn]], [[New York]] on January 31, 1881. He was the third child (out of four) of Charles Langmuir and Sadie, née Comings. During his childhood, Langmuir's parents actively encouraged him to carefully observe nature and to keep a detailed record of his various observations. When Irving was eleven, it was discovered that he had rather poor eyesight. When this problem was corrected, details and observations that had previously eluded him were revealed. Because of this, his interest in nature and the various complications of nature was heightened.
During his childhood, Langmuir was greatly influenced by his older brother Arthur Langmuir. Arthur was a research chemist who also encouraged Irving to be curious about nature and how things work. Arthur helped Irving set up his first chemistry lab in the corner of his bedroom and he was always there to answer the myriad of questions that Irving would pose to him (which most of the time were on rather trivial matters).
He attended his early education at various schools and institutes in the US and in Paris (1892-1895).
[[Image:Tycho-supernova-xray.jpg|right|right|thumb|'''Tycho's Supernova Remnant''' (a huge ball of exploding [[Plasma (physics)|plasma]]) Langmuir coined the name ''plasma'' because of its similarity to blood plasma, and [[Hannes Alfvén]] noted its cellular nature.]]
He graduated with a B.S. from the [[Columbia University]] [[Columbia University School of Mines|School of Mines]] in 1903 and did postgraduate work in chemistry under Nobel laureate [[Walther Nernst]] in [[Göttingen]] and earned his Ph.D. degree in 1906. Langmuir then taught at [[Stevens Institute of Technology]] in [[Hoboken, New Jersey]], until 1909, when he began working at the [[General Electric]] research laboratory ([[Schenectady, New York]]).
Langmuir married Marion Mersereau in 1912. They had a son, Kenneth, and a daughter, Barbara.
His initial contributions to science came from his study of light bulbs (which was a continuation of his Ph.D. work). First, his improvement of vacuum techniques led to the invention of the high-[[vacuum tube]]. A year later he and colleague [[Lewi Tonks]] discovered that the lifetime of a [[tungsten]] filament was greatly lengthened by filling the bulb with an inert gas, such as [[argon]], which is an important part of the modern day [[incandescent light bulb]].
As he continued to study filaments in vacuum and different gas environments he began to study the emission of charged particles from hot filaments ([[thermionic emission]]). He was one of the first scientists to work with [[Plasma (physics)|plasma]]s and was the first to call these ionized gases by that name, because they reminded him of blood plasma [http://www.plasmacoalition.org/what.htm Ref].
He introduced the concept of [[Plasma (physics)#Temperatures|electron temperature]] and in [[1924]] invented the diagnostic method for measuring both temperature and [[Plasma (physics)#Densities|density]] with an electrostatic probe, now called a [[Langmuir probe]] and commonly used in plasma physics. The current of a biased probe tip is measured as a function of bias voltage to determine the local plasma temperature and density.
He also discovered atomic [[hydrogen]], which he put to use by inventing the atomic hydrogen welding process.
==Later years==
[[Image:Langmuirtime.jpeg|thumb|''[[Time Magazine]]'', [[August 28]], [[1950]]]]
Following [[World War I]] Langmuir contributed to atomic theory and the understanding of atomic structure by defining the modern concept of [[valence shells]] and [[isotope]]s.
He joined [[Katherine Blodgett]] to study thin films and surface adsorption. They introduced the concept of a [[monolayer]] (a layer of material one molecule thick) and the two dimensional physics which describes such a surface. In 1932 he received the [[Nobel Prize/Chemistry|Nobel Prize for Chemistry]] "for his discoveries and investigations in [[surface chemistry]]."
In 1938, Langmuir refuted the claim of entomologist [[Charles H. T. Townsend]] that the [[deer botfly]] flew at speeds in excess of 800 miles per hour. Langmuir estimated the fly's true speed at 25 miles per hour.
During [[World War II]] Langmuir worked to develop protective smoke screens and methods for de-icing aircraft wings. This research led him to discover that the introduction of [[dry ice]] and [[iodide]] into a sufficiently moist cloud of low temperature could induce precipitation ([[cloud seeding]]), allowing some degree of [[weather control]].
In 1953 Langmuir presented a colloquium of [[Pathological science]].
==Patents==
* Langmuir, {{US patent|1244217}}, "''Electron-discharge apparatus and method of operating the same''"
* Langmuir, {{US patent|1251388}}, "''Method of and apparatus for controlling x-ray tubes''"
==External links and references==
* [http://pubs3.acs.org/journals/langd5/index.html Langmuir Journal] ACS Chemistry Journal of Surfaces and Colloids
* "''[http://www.infoplease.com/ipa/A0767167.html Langmuir, Irving]''" Infoplease.com.
* "'' [http://www.amasci.com/freenrg/balllg1.html Irving Langmuir's Ball Lightning Tube]''". Ball Lightning Page. [http://www.amasci.com/ Science Hobbyist].
* [http://www.aip.org/history/esva/catalog/esva/Coolidge_David.html William David Coolidge, Irving Langmuir, Joseph John Thomson] ([http://store.aip.org/OA_MEDIA/esva/langmuir_c4.jpg Photo] ([[JPG]])) [aip.org].
* "''[http://www.harvardsquarelibrary.org/unitarians/images/WHITNEY6.JPG Irving Langmuir] shows Whitney one of his inventions, the Pliotron tube. ca. 1920.''". [http://www.harvardsquarelibrary.org/unitarians/whitney.html Willis Rodney whitney]: the "Father of basic research in industry".
*[http://www.cs.princeton.edu/~ken/Langmuir/langmuir.htm "Pathological Science"] - "famous" lecture of [[1953]] [[December 18]] at GE Labs
[[Category:1881 births|Langmuir, Irving]]
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International Association of Travel Agents Network
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'''IATAN''' stands for the '''International Association of Travel Agents Network'''. They are an industry association designed to represent the interests of their member companies.
In addition, they (along with the [[IATA]]) are the body responsible for the standard international codes for airlines, airports, hotels, cities, and car rental firms (for example, the three-digit codes that designate [[London Heathrow Airport]] as LHR).
{{org-stub}}
==See also==
* [[IATA airport code]]
* [[list of airports]]
* [[travel agent]]
==External links==
* [http://www.iatan.org/ Official web site]
[[Category:Industry trade groups]]
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'''Inheritance tax''', also known in some countries outside the United States as a '''death [[duty (economics)|duty]]''' and referred to as an '''estate tax''' within the U.S, is a form of [[tax]] imposed upon the transfer of the property of the [[Estate (law)|estate]] of a deceased person that is left to a living person or organisation.
Supporters of the inheritance tax argue that it is not a death tax per se, but simply a tax on a transfer of wealth. Opponents argue that the tax is applied to the full estate, and not merely the amount transferred, which arguably increases the effective transfer tax rate. In the United States, the tax is imposed only on the "taxable estate," which is generally less than the value of the full estate.
If an asset is left to a spouse or a charitable organization, some countries do not apply the tax. The tax is also imposed on other transfers of property made as an incident of the death of the owner, such as a transfer of property from an [[intestate]] estate or trust, or the payment of certain [[life insurance]] benefits or financial account sums to beneficiaries.
''For UK Inheritance tax, see [[Inheritance Tax (United Kingdom)]].
==United States==
In the United States, estate and/or inheritance taxes may be imposed at both the national (Federal) level and the state level.
===Federal estate tax===
The Federal ''estate tax'' is imposed "on the transfer of the taxable estate of every decedent who is a citizen or resident of the United States." See {{usc|26|2001(a)}}.
====The "gross estate"====
The "gross estate" for Federal estate tax purposes often includes more property than that included in the "probate estate" under the property laws of the state in which the decedent lived at the time of death. The starting point for the calculation of the estate tax is the value of the "gross estate" defined at {{usc|26|2031}} and {{usc|26|2033}}, as modified by certain other statutory provisions. The gross estate (before the modifications) may be considered to be the value of all the property interests of the decedent at the time of death. To these interests are added the following property interests generally not owned by the decedent at the time of death:
*the value of property to the extent of an interest held by the surviving spouse as a "dower or curtesy" (see {{usc|26|2034}});
*the value of certain items of property in which the decedent had, at any time, made a transfer during the three years immediately preceding the date of death (i.e., even if the property was no longer owned by the decedent on the date of death), other than certain gifts, and other than property sold for full value (see {{usc|26|2035}});
*the value of certain property transferred by the decedent before death for which the decedent retained a "life estate," or retained certain "powers" (see {{usc|26|2036}});
*the value of certain property in which the recipient could, through ownership, have possession or enjoyment only by surviving the decedent (see {{usc|26|2037(a)(1)}});
*the value of certain property in which the decedent retained a "reversionary interest," the value of which exceeded five percent of the value of the property (see {{usc|26|2037(a)(2)}});
*the value of certain property transferred by the debtor before death where the transfer was revocable (see {{usc|26|2038}});
*the value of certain annuities (see {{usc|26|2039}});
*the value of certain jointly owned property (see {{usc|26|2040}});
*the value of certain "powers of appointment" (see {{usc|26|2041}});
*the amount of proceeds of certain life insurance policies (see {{usc|26|2042}}).
The above list of modifications is not comprehensive.
As noted above, life insurance benefits may be included in the gross estate (even though the proceeds arguably were not "owned" by the decedent and were never received by the decedent). Life insurance proceeds are generally included in the gross estate if the benefits are payable to the estate, or if the decedent was the owner of the life insurance policy or had any "incidents of ownership" over the life insurance policy (such as the power to change the beneficiary designation). Similarly, bank accounts or other financial instruments which are "payable on death" or "transfer on death" are usually included in the taxable estate, even though such assets are not subject to the [[probate]] process under state law.
====Deductions, the taxable estate, and the tentative tax====
Once the value of the "gross estate" is determined, the law provides for various "deductions" (in Part IV of Subchapter A of Chapter 11 of Subtitle B of the [[Internal Revenue Code]] in arriving at the value of the "taxable estate." Deductions include but are not limited to:
*Funeral expenses, administration expenses, and claims against the estate (see {{usc|26|2053}});
*Certain [[charity|charitable]] contributions (see {{usc|26|2055}});
*Certain items of property left to the surviving spouse (see {{usc|26|2056}}).
After subtracting the deduction amounts from the gross estate amount to arrive at the "taxable estate" amount, the tax rate is imposed on the value of the "taxable estate" to compute the tentative tax.
====Tax credit, the exemption equivalent, and the tax====
However, the law then provides for a credit against the tentative tax. The credit may be thought of as providing, in effect, for an "exemption equivalent" or [[tax exemption|exempted value]] with respect to the value of the property. For a person dying during 2005, an estate with a value less than $1,500,000 would not pay a federal estate tax and most likely would not have to file a federal estate tax return. The applicable exclusion amount increases to $2,000,000 for decedents dying in the years 2006, 2007 and 2008. The amount increases to $3,500,000 for 2009. According to the Econonic Growth and Tax Relief Reconciliation Act of 2001, the federal estate tax disappears for the year 2010, but the tax returns in 2011 at the 2001 level.
====Requirements for filing return and paying tax====
For estates larger than the current federally exempted amount, any estate tax due is paid by the [[executor]] or other person responsible for administering the estate. That person is also responsible for filing a Form 706 return with the [[Internal Revenue Service]]. The return must contain detailed information as to the valuations of the estate assets and the exemptions claimed, to ensure that the correct amount of tax is paid.
====Criticisms of the Federal estate tax====
Many of its opponents refer to the estate tax as the "[[death tax]]" and have called for its abolition. Since 2003, the top rate has dropped from 50% by one percent per year; it is scheduled to drop to 45% in 2009, thence to 0% in 2010, but [[as of 2006]], if no further changes in the law are enacted, the tax will be reimposed at a top rate of 50% in 2011. It is possible, however, that Congress could act in the interim and extend the abolition of the estate tax indefinitely, and legislation has been introduced to this effect.
====Exemptions and tax rates====
<div style="float:left; width:55%;">
As noted above, a certain amount of each estate is exempted from taxation by the federal government. Below is a table of the amount of exemption by year an estate would expect. Estates above these amounts would be subject to estate tax, but only for the amount above the exemption.
For example, assume an estate of $3.5 million in 2005. There are two beneficiaries who will each receive equal shares of the estate. The maximum allowable credit is $1.5 million for that year, so the taxable value is therefore $2 million. Since it is 2005, the tax rate on that $2 million is 47%, so the total taxes paid would be $940,000. Each beneficiary will receive $750,000 of untaxed inheritance and $530,000 from the taxable portion of their inheritance for a total of $1,280,000. This means that they would have paid (or, more precisely, the estate would have paid) a taxable rate of 26.9%.
</div><div style="float:right; width:40%; margin: 0.5em; padding: 0.5em; border: 1px solid #8888aa; ">
<table border="0" cellpadding="2" cellspacing="0">
<tr>
<td rowspan="2">Year
</td>
<td><br></td>
<td colspan="2" rowspan="2">
<p align="center">Max. Estate<br>Tax Credit
</p>
</td>
<td colspan="2" rowspan="2">
<p align="center">Marginal Tax<br>
Rate</p>
</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td> </td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td>2002</td>
<td><br></td>
<td >$1 million</td>
<td><br></td>
<td >50%</td>
<td><br>
</td>
<td><br></td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td>2003</td>
<td><br></td>
<td>$1 million</td>
<td><br>
</td>
<td>49%</td>
<td><br>
</td>
<td><br></td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td>2004</td>
<td><br></td>
<td>$1.5 million</td>
<td><br></td>
<td>48%</td>
<td><br></td>
<td><br></td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td>2005</td>
<td><br></td>
<td>$1.5 million</td>
<td><br>
</td>
<td>47%</td>
<td><br></td>
<td><br></td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td>2006</td>
<td><br></td>
<td>$2 million</td>
<td><br></td>
<td>46%</td>
<td><br></td>
<td><br></td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td>2007</td>
<td><br></td>
<td>$2 million</td>
<td><br></td>
<td>45%</td>
<td><br></td>
<td><br></td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td>2008</td>
<td><br></td>
<td>$2 million</td>
<td><br></td>
<td>45%</td>
<td><br></td>
<td><br></td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td>2009</td>
<td><br></td>
<td>$3.5 million</td>
<td><br></td>
<td>45%</td>
<td><br></td>
<td><br></td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td>2010</td>
<td><br></td>
<td>repealed</td>
<td><br></td>
<td>N/A</td>
<td><br></td>
<td><br></td>
</tr>
</table>
</div><br clear="all">
===Inheritance tax at the state level===
Many U.S. states also impose their own estate or inheritance taxes (see [[Ohio estate tax]] for an example). Some states "piggyback" on the federal estate tax law in regard to estates subject to tax (i.e., if the estate is exempt from federal taxation, it is also exempt from state taxation). Some states' estate taxes, however, operate independently of federal law, so it is possible for an estate to be subject to state tax while exempt from federal tax.
===Debate===
The propriety of the estate tax has been debated extensively. Opponents argue that the Federal estate tax rate is effectively higher as a percentage of the amount actually transferred to heirs. For example, an estate worth $3.5 million paid $940,000 federal estate tax in order to transfer $1,280,000 to each heir, suggesting an effective transfer tax rate of 36.7%. Similarly, at the limit, the top federal tax rate of 50% on the estate value would imply a transfer tax rate of 100% of the amount transferred to heirs. The high effective transfer tax rate has prompted many wealthy benefactors to make sizable gifts during their lifetime, paying a [[gift tax]] on the amount transferred, rather than allow the whole amount to be taxed at the estate level.
Some argue that the estate tax creates a potential for double taxation, that is, taxation on assets which have already been taxed. Double taxation occurs on earned income, but not the unrealized capital appreciation of [[houses]], [[farms]], [[stock]]s, [[bond]]s, [[real estate]], and [[collecting|collectibles]] such as works of art. [[FactCheck.org]] cites a 2000 study of 1998 estate taxation, which determined that unrealized capital gains made up 36.3% of the value of all estates in 1998, and 56.4% of estates worth more than $10 million (but without taking into account yearly increases of inflation).
<div style="float:left; width:48%;">
The debate sometimes revolves around which estates are affected by current law. The effects of the law on small business owners and family-owned farms (entities which, conservatives argue, are hardest hit by the estate tax) was studied in an analysis undertaken by the [[Tax Policy Center]]. A study of the 18,800 taxable estates taxed in 2004 found 7,090 which had any farm or business income. Of those, there were 440 estates in which half or more of its assets were the value of farms and/or businesses. The effective tax rate on the 440 estates studied in detail never averaged more than 23%.
Proponents of the estate tax argue that it serves to prevent the perpetuation of wealth, free of tax, in wealthy families and that it is necessary to a system of [[progressive taxation]]. Proponents point out that the estate tax only affects estates of considerable size and provides numerous credits (including the unified credit) that allow a significant portion of even large estates to escape taxation. Regarding the tax's effect on farmers, proponents counter that this criticism is misguided as there is an exemption built into the law that is specifically designed for family-owned farms.
</div><div style="float:right; width:48%; margin: 0.5em; padding: 0.5em; border: 1px solid #8888aa; ">
<table border="0" cellpadding="2" cellspacing="0">
<tr>
<td rowspan="2">Estate value
</td>
<td><br></td>
<td colspan="2" rowspan="2">
<p align="center">Number of <br>
returns</p>
</td>
<td colspan="2" rowspan="2">
<p align="center">Average tax<br>
(in thousands)</p>
</td>
<td colspan="2" rowspan="2">
<p align="center">Effective<br>
tax rate</p>
</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td> </td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td>< $1 million</td>
<td><br></td>
<td >0</td>
<td><br></td>
<td >$0</td>
<td><br>
</td>
<td>0.0%</td>
<td><br></td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td>$1 - $2 million</td>
<td><br></td>
<td>190</td>
<td><br>
</td>
<td>$26</td>
<td><br>
</td>
<td>1.6%</td>
<td><br></td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td>$2 - $3.5 million</td>
<td><br></td>
<td>60</td>
<td><br></td>
<td>$190</td>
<td><br></td>
<td>7.5%</td>
<td><br></td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td>$3.5 - $5 million</td>
<td><br></td>
<td>40</td>
<td><br>
</td>
<td>$449</td>
<td><br></td>
<td>12.0%</td>
<td><br></td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td>$5 - $10 million</td>
<td><br></td>
<td>80</td>
<td><br></td>
<td>$1,322</td>
<td><br></td>
<td>19.3%</td>
<td><br></td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td>$10 - $20 million</td>
<td><br></td>
<td>50</td>
<td><br></td>
<td>$2,832</td>
<td><br></td>
<td>22.9%</td>
<td><br></td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td>> $20 million</td>
<td><br></td>
<td>30</td>
<td><br></td>
<td>$23,442</td>
<td><br></td>
<td>22.2%</td>
<td><br></td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td>All</td>
<td><br></td>
<td>440</td>
<td><br></td>
<td>$2,238</td>
<td><br></td>
<td>19.9%</td>
<td><br></td>
</tr>
</table>
</div><br clear="all">
Furthermore, supporters argue that many large fortunes do not represent taxed income or savings, that wealth is not being taxed but merely the transfer of that wealth, and that many large fortunes represent unrealized capital gains which with a [[step up in basis]], will never be taxed as capital gains under the federal income tax. Some even go further and suggest all transfers should be taxed, and that the large bequests to family foundations or private charities should be taxed and more heavily regulated.
===Related taxes===
The US also imposes a gift tax, assessed in a manner similar to the estate tax. One obvious purpose is to prevent a person from easily avoiding paying estate tax by giving away all of their assets during their lifetime. However, an exemption is available for transfers of up to $11,000 per person per year. A single donor can make gifts up to this amount to as many people as they wish each year, so if they have enough people they wish to give assets to and/or enough time, they may be able to reduce their estate enough to avoid estate tax.
Furthermore, transfers (whether by bequest, gift, or inheritance) in excess of $1 million may be subject to a [[generation-skipping transfer tax]] if certain other criteria are met.
==Further reading==
* Ian Shapiro and Michael J. Graetz, ''Death By A Thousand Cuts: The Fight Over Taxing Inherited Wealth'', Princeton University Press (February, 2005), hardcoveer, 372 pages, ISBN 0691122938
*William H. Gates, Sr. and Chuck Collins, with forward by former Federal Reserve Chairman Paul Volcker, ''Wealth and Our Commonwealth: Why America Should Tax Accumulated Fortunes'', Beacon Press (2003)
==External links==
* [http://www.lrb.co.uk/v27/n11/runc01_.html "Tax Breaks for Rich Murderers"], a June 2005 article from the ''[[London Review of Books]]'' by David Runciman
* [http://www.taxpolicycenter.org/TaxModel/tmdb/TMTemplate.cfm?DocID=734&topic2ID=40&topic3ID=41&DocTypeID= Gross Estate and Net Estate Tax on Farms and Businesses in 2004], from the [[Tax Policy Center]] website
* [http://www.factcheck.org/article328m.html ...Ads exaggerate what the tax costs farmers, small businesses...], a June 2005 article from [[FactCheck.org]]
[[Category:Taxation]]
[[de:Erbschaftsteuer]]
[[fr:Droits de succession]]
[[he:מס ירושה]]
[[ru:Налог на наследство]]
[[nl:Schenkingsrecht]]
Insider trading
15368
41921085
2006-03-02T17:05:14Z
Smallbones
612302
intro
'''"Insider trading"''' is a term often used to refer to a practice, which is illegal in many jurisdictions, in which an investor trades [[security (finance)|securities]] of a company (''e.g.'', [[stock]]s, [[bond]]s or [[stock option]]s) based on material non-public information which was obtained by an officer, manager, or other corporate insider, during the performance of his duties at the corporation. More formally, it is simply the trading of corporate securities by corporate insiders, which is often perfectly legal. All insider trades, whether legal or illegal, must be reported in the US. Many investors follow the summaries of insider trades, published by the Securities and Exchanges Commission (SEC), in the hope that mimicking these trades will be profitable. Legal "insider trading" may not be based on material non-public information. Illegal insider trading in the US requires the participation (perhaps indirectly) of a corporate insider or other person who is violating his fiduciary duty to corporate shareholders by trading on or secretly relaying the corporation's information. In some other countries an "outsider" who illegally obtains non-public information (which may constitute a separate offence of spying on trade secrets), might also be considered an illegal "inside trader."
== Trading by "insiders" of a corporation ==
According to the U.S. SEC, corporate insiders are a company's officers, directors and any beneficial owners of more than ten percent of a class of the company's equity securities.
Since insiders are required to report their trades, others often track these traders, and there is a school of investing which follows the lead of insiders. This is of course subject to the risk that an insider is making a buy specifically to increase investor confidence, or making a sell for reasons unrelated to the health of the company (e.g. a desire to diversify or buy a house).
As of December 2005 companies are required to announce times to their employees as to when they can safely trade without being accused of trading on inside information.
== Trading on material, non-public information ==
There are rules against this type of "''insider trading''" in most jurisdictions around the world, though the details and the efforts to enforce them vary considerably. In the [[United States]], for example, there is no general federal law directly prohibiting insider trading. Authority to prosecute cases of insider trading came from the [[Supreme Court of the United States]]' interpretation of Section 10(b) of the [[Securities Exchange Act of 1934]], and in particular of [[SEC Rule 10b-5]], prohibiting fraud in connection with the purchase or sale of securities (see ''Securities & Exch. Comm'n v. Texas Gulf Sulphur Co.'', 258 F. Supp. 262 (S.D.N.Y. 1966)). Insider trading has been outlawed in the U.S. since the 1960's.
The reasoning is that a corporate insider has made a contract with the shareholders to put the shareholders' interests before their own, in matters related to the corporation. When the insider buys based upon company owned information, he is violating his contract with the shareholders.
Liability for insider trading violations cannot be avoided by passing on the information in a "I scratch your back, you scratch mine" arrangement, as long as the person receiving the information knew or should have known that the information was company property.
An example of illegal insider trading may be that you, as an assistant to the [[chief executive officer]], learn that your company is going to be taken over before it is officially disclosed publicly. Knowing that such a move is likely to cause the price to rise, you buy shares in the company and subsequently profit from the transaction. A less dramatic (but still potentially lucrative) example would be trading on the quarterly earnings/losses shortly before they are announced.
In practice, [[prosecution]]s for insider trading tend to be rare and difficult to win for a variety of reasons. It can be difficult to prove what the accused actually knew at the time the trades were made -- and people may not even be told directly but merely advised to buy or sell with a nudge and wink. Proving that someone has been responsible for a trade can also be difficult, because a clever trader can hide behind a variety of nominees, companies, and [[proxy|proxies]], perhaps located offshore in jurisdictions that do not cooperate with the local authorities. Insider trading is usually performed by the already wealthy, who can afford the best lawyers available and have the resources to drag a case out and cost the prosecutors millions along the way. Finally, the details of insider trading can be highly confusing to non-experts and convincing a randomly-selected [[jury]], many with no experience of share trading, that a crime has been committed can be difficult. The complexity may be because the transactions are inherently complicated, because the transactions were made so to evade prosecution, or as Brian Doherty claims in ''Reason'' magazine, because the regulations are "designed, like most law, to be understood by trained professionals, not the citizens who have to live under it" [http://reason.com/hod/bd062502.shtml].
== Arguments in favour of insider trading ==
Although insider trading is often illegal, there are arguments in its favour. Insider trading amounts to a consensual act between adults, i.e. a victimless act. A willing buyer and a willing seller agree to trade property which they rightfully own, with no prior contract having been made between the parties to refrain from trading if equal knowledge is not possessed. Hence, it is maintained that since traders willingly take the risk that the party on the others side of the trade is more knowledgeable, no one's rights are violated.
Many argue that insider trading is not "fair." However, those in favor of legalizing the practice hold that making money by having superior information is what trading is "all about": A trader does not sell his stock unless he believes he knows information that is more indicative of the future move of a stock than his buyer, and vice versa. In effect, the same thing is happening whether the knowledge is "inside information" or not: someone always has superior knowledge than someone else. Hence, the stock market by nature is not "fair" whether insider trading is legal or not.
Insider trading can make markets more efficient by increasing the amount of information that is known about the company, and can motivate outsiders such as analysts to increase their knowledge about the company. The costs of complying with anti-insider-trading laws are also thus avoided. Nobel prize-winning economist [[Milton Friedman]] says: "You want more insider trading, not less. You want to give the people most likely to have knowledge about deficiencies of the company an incentive to make the public aware of that." Friedman does not believe that the trader should be required to make his trade known to the public (to reveal his identity or the reason for his trade), but says that the buying or selling pressure itself is information for the market. A practical counter-argument to this, however, might be empirical research purporting to show that those markets with strongly enforced laws against insider trading tend to have lower costs of capital for security issuers. (See, for example, "The World Price of Insider Trading" by Utphal Bhattacharya and Hazem Daouk in the Journal of Finance, Vol. LVII, No. 1 (Feb. 2002). [http://faculty.fuqua.duke.edu/~charvey/Teaching/BA453_2005/BD_The_world.pdf]) In other words, where certain individuals are permitted to buy and sell shares based on inside information, other investors will be more wary and demand a premium for their investment. This, in turn, raises the cost of capital for all issuers.
Some of those who favour regulations against insider trading assert that market liquidity comes from confidence that all participants have equal access to information. A counter-argument to this is that a significant motivation of trading is the belief on the part of a trader that he has better knowledge than others do in the market and that therefore a stock is improperly priced. If a stock was always accurately priced, there would no point in speculative trading, which would result in decreased liquidity in the market.
Advocates of legalisation sometimes also make free speech arguments. Punishment for telling someone else about a development pertinent to the next day's likely stock moves would seem, [[prima facie]], to be one of prohibited speech, i.e. an act of censorship [http://www.walterblock.com/publications/information_privilege.pdf]. A counter-argument is that information being conveyed is akin to proprietary information and that a corporate insider, if he has contracted to not expose it, has no more of a free speech right to tell another individual about confidential information that insider acquired by ways of his or her position than to tell others about the company's new product designs, formulas, or bank account passwords. However, communicating inside information is illegal even if it's not by a corporate insider.
Also, there is the question of why what amounts to insider trading is legal in other markets, such as real estate, but not in the stock market. For example, if a geologist knows there is a high likelihood of the discovery of petroleum under Farmer Smith's land, he is entitled to make Smith an offer for the land, and buy it, without first telling Farmer Smith, or competing potential buyers, of the geological data and reasoning that justify his interest. If the value of the hidden oil can be acquired in such a manner in real estate transactions, some ask: why not unlock hidden values in the stock market through the same mechanism?
Also, although on one hand there are no laws against insider trading in the commodities markets, on the other many activities such as [[front running]] are illegal. For example, a commodity broker can be charged with fraud if he or she receives a large purchase order from a client (one likely to affect the price of that commodity) and then purchases that commodity before executing the client's order in order to benefit from the anticipated price increase. Likewise, an individual employed by the U.S. Agricultural Department, for example, could be charged with fraud if he or she were to receive a draft of the Department's crop report before it is released to the public and then buy or sell commodities or futures contracts based on this non-public information. (This situation was implicit in the [[Eddie Murphy]] movie [[Trading Places]].)
== Legal differences among jurisdictions ==
The US and the UK vary in the way the law is interpreted and applied with regard to insider trading.
In the UK, the relevant laws are the [[Financial Services Act 1986]] and the [[Financial Services and Markets Act 2000]], which defines an offence of Market Abuse.
It is not illegal to fail to trade based on inside information (whereas without the inside information the trade would have taken place), since from a practical point of view this is too difficult to enforce.
It is often legal to deal ahead of a takeover bid, where a party deliberately buys shares in a company in the knowledge that it will be launching a takeover bid.
Japan enacted its first law against insider trading in 1988. Roderick Seeman says: "Even today many Japanese do not understand why this is illegal. Indeed, previously it was regarded as common sense to make a profit from your knowledge." [http://www.japanlaw.info/law2004/JAPANBIZLAWLITE4GAIJIN_INSIDER_TRADING.html] Insider trading was made illegal in England in 1985. [http://www.cato.org/research/articles/reynolds-021024.html]
== References ==
Stephen M. Bainbridge, Securities Law: Insider Trading (1999)
ISBN: 1566627370
==External links==
=== General Information ===
*[http://www.sec.gov/answers/insider.htm Insider Trading Informational page from the U.S. Security and Exchange Commission (SEC)]
*[http://www.sec.gov/news/speech/speecharchive/1998/spch221.htm Insider Trading – A U.S. Perspective, Speech by SEC Staff at the 16th International Symposium on Economic Crime, Jesus College, Cambridge, England ]
*[http://www.sec.gov/answers/form345.htm SEC Forms 3, 4 and 5]
===Articles and Opinions ===
*[http://www.capmag.com/article.asp?ID=3933 An opinion on Why Insider Trading Should be Legal] [[Larry Elder]] Interviews Henry Manne
*[http://www.mayin.org/ajayshah/MEDIA/1998/insider.html Why forbid insider trading?] by Ajay Shah, consultant to the Ministry of Finance, India
*[http://www.walterblock.com/publications/information_privilege.pdf ''Information, Privilege, Opportunity and Insider Trading] by Robert W. Mcgee and Walter E. Block — a scholarly work that opposes regulations against insider trading
*[http://www.townhall.com/columnists/thomassowell/ts20040422.shtml Criminalizing business] by [[Thomas Sowell]], argues against making insider trading a crime
*[http://www.secform4.com/training.htm Quick Insider Trading Guide]
*[http://www.investopedia.com/articles/02/061202.asp Uncovering Insider Trading]
*[http://reason.com/hod/bd062502.shtml ''Free Samuel Waksal''] argues that businessman's insider trading should not be considered a crime
*[http://moneycentral.msn.com/content/CNBCTV/Articles/TVReports/P42951.asp CNBC Interview with Milton Friedman] the Nobel prize-winning economist says that insider trading is good
===Data===
*[http://www.insidernewswire.com/company.php Daily Top Ten Companies (by dollar value) traded by insiders]
*[http://www.insidernewswire.com/industry.php Daily Top Ten Industries (by dollar value) traded by insiders]
*[http://www.insidercow.com/ Insidercow.com] Free search insider trading by stock symbol
*[http://www.secform4.com/ Insider Trading Data], a Free Real Time Insider Trading Monitoring System
*[http://insider.thomsonfn.com/tfn/tearsheet/market.asp?linkcode=7rdcg6divt9fsuu5awkj&tfnHeader=insider Tearsheets — Company]
== See also ==
[[List of insider traders]]
[[Category:Stock market]]
[[Category:Crimes]]
[[de:Insiderhandel]]
[[fr:Délit d'initié]]
[[ja:内部者取引]]
[[nl:handel met voorkennis]]
International Brigades
15369
42082180
2006-03-03T18:29:41Z
Mistereamonn
1018666
/* The battle of [[Jarama]] */
[[Image:International Brigades medal.PNG|thumbnail|150px|right|Blason of the International Brigades]]
:''"Fifteenth International Brigade" redirects here. For the song, see [[Fifteenth International Brigade (song)]]''
The '''International Brigades''' were [[Second Spanish Republic|Republican]] [[military]] units in the [[Spanish Civil War]], formed of many non-state sponsored volunteers of different countries who travelled to [[Spain]], to fight for the legitimate, elected government in the [[Spanish Civil War]] between [[1936]] and [[1939]]. They fought against Spanish [[Nationalist]] forces, who were led by General [[Francisco Franco]] and assisted by [[Nazi]] [[Nazi Germany|German]] and [[fascist]] [[Fascist Italy |Italian]] forces.
The Brigades recruited 40,000 men and women. As many as 10,000 of them never returned. More than 50 nationalities were represented in the Brigades: during the [[Battle of Madrid]] alone, the XIIth Brigade counted representatives from no fewer than 17 nationalities in its ranks.
== Constitution of the Brigades ==
[[Image:International Brigades poster3.jpg|thumbnail|right|Republican propaganda poster featuring the International Brigades. The text reads : "Internationals, united with the Spanish people, we fight the invader". ]]
The idea to use foreign [[Communist party |Communist Parties]] to recruit volunteers (both Communist and non-Communists -- a non-Communist volunteer would first have an interview with an agent of the [[NKVD]]) to come to the aid of the [[Spanish Republic]] was proposed in [[Moscow]] in September 1936 by [[Willi Münzenberg]], who was the chief of [[Comintern]] propaganda for Western Europe (perhaps at the suggestion by [[Maurice Thorez]]). By the end of September, the [[Italy|Italian]] and [[France|French]] Communist Parties had decided to set up a column. [[Luigi Longo]], ex-leader of the Italian [[Communist Youth]], was charged to make the necessary arrangements with the Spanish government. The [[Soviet Union|Soviet]] Ministry of Defense also helped, since they had experience of dealing with corps of international volunteers (there had been precedents of such corps during the Russian Civil War). At first, the idea was opposed by [[Largo Caballero]], but after the first setbacks of the war, he changed his mind, and finally agreed to the operation on [[22 October]]. However, the [[Soviet Union]] did not withdraw from the [[Non-Intervention Committee]], probably to avoid diplomatic conflict with [[France]] and [[United Kingdom|Britain]].
[[Image:International Brigades poster2.jpg|thumbnail|165px|right|Republican propaganda poster. The text reads : "The International Brigades, in the heart of the popular army, help to defend your wealth and land". Notice the arm-band which features the emblem of the International Brigades, a three-pointed red star.]]
The main recruitment centre was in [[Paris]], under the supervision of [[Poland|Polish]] communist colonel [[Karol Swierczewski|Karol "Walter" Swierczewski]]. On [[17 October]] [[1936]], an open letter by [[Stalin]] to [[José Díaz]] was published in ''Mundo Obrero'', arguing that liberation for Spain was a matter not only for Spaniards, but also for the whole of "progressive Humanity"; in a matter of days, support organisations for the Spanish Republic were founded in most countries, all more or less controlled by the [[Comintern]].
Paths were arranged for volunteers: for instance, Josip Broz, who would became famous as Marshal [[Tito]], was in Paris to provide assistance, money and passports for the volunteers from [[Eastern Europe]]. Volunteers were sent by train or ship from France to Spain, and sent to the base at [[Albacete]]. However, many of them also went by themselves to Spain. The volunteers were under no contract, nor defined engagement period, which would later prove a problem.
[[Image:International Brigades training.jpg|thumbnail|250px|left|American Brigadists in training]]
Many Italians, Germans, and people from other countries with repressive governments joined the movement, with the idea that combat in Spain was a first step to restore democracy or advance a revolutionary cause in their own country. There were also many unemployed workers (especially from France), and adventurers. Finally, some 500 Communists who had been exiled to Russia were sent to Spain (among them, experienced military leaders from the [[World War I|First World War]] like [["Kléber" Stern]], [[Wilhelm Zaisser|"Gomez" Zaisser]], [[Mate Zalka|"Lukacs" Zalka]] and "Gal" Galicz, who would prove invaluable in combat).
The operation was met by Communists with enthusiasm, but by [[Anarchist]]s with scepticism, at best. At first, the Anarchists who controlled the borders with France were told to refuse Communist volunteers, and reluctantly allowed their passage after protests.
The first group of 500 men (mainly French, with a few exiled Poles and Germans) arrived in [[Albacete]] on [[14 October]] [[1936]]. They were met by international volunteers who had already been fighting in Spain: the surviving Germans from the Thälmann-Batallion, Italians from Gastone Sozzi and French from Commune de Paris. (Amongst these men was [[Britain|British]] poet [[John Cornford]]). Men were sorted according to their experience and origin, and dispatched to units.
Albacete base was under the command of [[André Marty]], a French Communist whose obsession for plots and spies would trigger massive purges ([[Ernest Hemingway]] would draft a ferocious portrait of Marty in ''[[For Whom the Bell Tolls]]''). Marty was essentially incompetent and owed his position to the friendship with [[Stalin]]. He was seconded by better leaders, who set up training for Cavalry, Artillery and Infantry, and hospitals.
The [[French Communist Party]] provided uniforms for the Brigades. Discipline was extreme. For several months, the Brigades were locked in their base while their strict military training was under way.
== First Engagements: the Battle of Madrid ==
The first International Brigade, the XIth Brigade (numbered XI, next to the ten [[mixed brigades]] of the Spanish regular army), under command of [["Kléber" Stern | Kléber]], was engaged during the [[Battle of Madrid]], occupying its positions on [[8 November]] [[1936]]. There were the ''Edgard André'' (German), ''Commune de Paris'' (French), and ''Jarosław Dąbrowski'' (Polish) battalions, and a section of British machine-gunners, totalling around 1900 men. The XIIth brigade took its positions on the [[13 November]] [[1936]], with 1550 men.
[[Image:International Brigades poster1.jpg|thumbnail|200px|left|Republican propaganda poster featuring the International Brigades. The text reads: "All the people of the world are in the International Brigades at the side of the Spanish People". The three figures are those of a "yellow", "black" and "white" soldier, as to represent the whole humanity.]]
The Battle of Madrid was a major success for the Republic, and the role of the International Brigades in this victory was generally recognised, sometimes even beyond reality (the British Ambassador, Sir Henry Childon, declared that there were no Spaniards in the Army which had defended Madrid). Even though the International Brigades did not win the battle by themselves, nor significantly change the situation, they certainly did provide an example by their superb fight, and improved the morale of the population by demonstrating the concern of other nations in the fight.
[[Image:International Brigades casa del campo.jpg|thumbnail|250px|right|Brigadists at ''Casa del Campo'' on the western outskirts of Madrid.]]
One of the strategic positions in Madrid was the [[Casa del Campo]]. There the Nationalist troops were [[Arab]]s commanded by [[General Varela]]. They were excellent fighters in the open, but were ill-trained for urban warfare, a role which the Republicans mastered from the early days of the war. They were thus stopped by the IIIrd and IVth Brigades of the regular Republican Army.
On [[9 November]] [[1936]], the whole XIth Brigade was at the Casa del Campo. In the evening [["Kléber" Stern | Kléber]] launched an assault on the Nationalist positions, which lasted for the whole night and part of the next morning. At the end of the fight, the Nationalist troops had been forced to retreat, abandoning all hopes of a direct assault on Madrid by Casa del Campo, while the XIth Brigade had lost a third of its men.
On the 12th, as the battle was raging on, the XIIth Brigade, under General "[[Lukacs]]", took its positions on the [[Valencia]]-[[Madrid]] road, with battalions ''Thälmann'' (Germans and Scandinavians), ''André Marty''(French and Belgians) and ''Garibaldi'' (Italians). The XIIth launched an attack on Nationalist positions on the hill ''Corro de los Angeles'', which was unsuccessful (languages and communication problems, command issues, lack of rest, bad links with armoured units and insufficient artillery support seem to have contributed to the failure).
On the 16th, Anarchist units of the Republican Army were forced to retreat, and the University City was taken by Nationalist troops -- Arab troops and legionnaires covered by the Nazi [[Condor Legion]]. The XIth Brigade was sent to defend the City. The battle was extremely bloody, a mix of artillery and aerial bombardments with bayonet and grenade fights, room by room. Anarchist leader [[Durruti]] was shot there on the [[19 November]] [[1936]], and died the next day. The battle in the University went on until 3/4 of the City was under nationalist control. Both sides then started setting up trenches and fortifications. It was then clear that any assault from either side would be far too costly; the nationalist leaders had to renounce the idea of a direct assault on Madrid, and ready for a [[siege]] of the capital.
On [[13 December]] [[1936]], 18,000 nationalist troops attempted an attack to close the encirclement of Madrid at [[Guadarrama]]. The Republicans sent a Soviet armoured unit (under General [[Dmitry Pavlov]], whose experience in Spain would make him a future hero of the [[Second World War]]) and both XIth and XIIth International Brigades. Violent combat resulted in stopping the Nationalist advance.
An attack was then launched by the Republic on the [[Córdoba, Spain|Cordoba]] front. The battle ended in a form of stale-mate (a communication was issued, saying: "Today, our advance continued without loss of land"). Poets [[Ralph Fox (disambiguation)|Ralph Fox]] and [[John Cornford]] were killed. Eventually, the Nationalists advanced, taking the hydro-electric station at ''El Campo''. [[André Marty]] accused the commander of the ''Marseillaise'' Battalion, [[Gaston Delasalle]], of espionage and treason and had him executed (it is doubtful that Delasalle would have been a spy for Francisco Franco; he was denounced by his own second-in-command, [[André Heussler]], who might have been a traitor himself and was later executed for treason by the French Resistance during the Second World War).
Further Nationalist attempts after Christmas to encircle Madrid met with failure, not without extremely violent combat. On [[6 January]] [[1937]], the ''Thaelmann'' Battalion arrived at ''[[Las Rozas]]'' and held its positions virtually to the last man. On the 9th, only ten kilometers had been lost to the Nationalists, when the XIIth and XIVth International Brigades and the 1st British Company arrived in Madrid. Violent Republican assaults were launched in attempt to retake the land, but with little success. On the 15th, trenches and fortifications were built by both sides, resulting in a stalemate.
The Nationalists did not retake Madrid until the very end of the war.
== The battle of [[Jarama]] ==
On the [[6 February]] [[1937]], following the fall of [[Málaga]], the nationalists launched an attack on the [[Madrid]]-[[Andalusia]] road, south of Madrid. The Nationalists quickly advanced on the little town [[Ciempozuelos]], held by the XVth International Brigade, which was composed by the ''Saklatvala'' Battalion (British), the ''Dimitrov'' battalion (miscellaneous [[Balkan]] nationalities), the ''6 Février'' Battalion ([[Belgium|Belgians]] and French) and the ''[[Abraham Lincoln]]'' battalion (550 [[United States|Americans]], many of them [[African-American]]).
There was also a sub unit of Irish men in this battle known as the [[Connolly Column]]. This group suffered heavy blows as there was only around 80 Irish men to begin with, these Irish men were made up of southern irish and northern Irish. The northern Irish comrades came from Belfast, Derry and other Counties and were: Charlie Donnelly, Eddie O'Flaherty, Paul Burns, Jackie Hunt, Bill Henry, Bill Beattie, Paddy McLaughlin, Bill Henry, Peter O'Connor, Peter Power, Johnny Power, Liam Tumilson, Jim Straney, Willie O'Hanlon, Ben Murray and Fred McMahon.From County Derry came Eamonn Mc Grotty an ex Christian Brother and fluent Irish speaker who taught his classes through the medium of Irish, he died fighting alongside Bob Hillard from County Kerry, a Church of Ireland Pastor who was wounded in the same battle and would later die from the injuries he recieved.This particular instance shows the diverse backgrounds of those in the International Brigades, one an ex Catholic Christian Brother, the other an ordained Church of Ireland Clergyman, fighting and dying on the same side.
On the [[11 February]] [[1937]], all sentries of the ''André Marty'' battalion of the XIVth Brigade were stabbed and a Nationalist brigade crossed the Jarama. The ''Garibaldi'' Battalion stopped the advance with heavy fire. At another point, the same tactic allowed the Nationalists to deploy their troops past the river.
The British ''Saklatvala'' Battalion took most of the attack, on the 12th. It defended its positions under heavy artillery fire for 7 hours. The place became known as "Suicide Hill". At the end of the day, 225 men remained of the 600 of the British battalion. A company was made prisoner by ruse (Nationalists advanced amongst their ranks singing ''[[The Internationale]]'').
On the 17th, the Republican Army struck back. The 23rd and the 27th, the International Brigades were engaged, but with little success. The ''Abraham Lincoln'' battalion was put under great pressure, with no artillery support. There were 120 killed and 175 wounded. Amongst the dead was the [[Ireland|Irish]] poet [[Charles Donelly]] [http://www.ajoderse.com/varios/red/red.htm].
As in Madrid, the fight resulted in a stalemate, since both sides had consolidated their positions to the point were no useful assault could be undertaken.
On the [[22 February]], [[1937]] the [[League of Nations]] Non-Intervention Committee ban on foreign national "volunteers" went into effect.
==The [[Battle of Guadalajara]] ==
After the failed assault on the Jarama, the Nationalists attempted another assault on Madrid, from the North-East this time. The objective was the town of [[Guadalajara, Spain|Guadalajara]], 50 kilometers from Madrid. The whole Italian expeditionary corps (35,000 men, with 80 battle tanks and 200 field artillery) was deployed, as [[Mussolini]] wanted the victory to be credited to Italy. On [[9 March]] [[1937]], the Italians made a breach in the Republican lines, but did not properly exploit the advance. However, the rest of the Nationalist army was advancing, and the situation appeared critical for the Republicans. A mixture of the best available units of the Republican army was quickly set up, among them the XIth and XIIth International Brigades.
At dawn on [[10 March]] [[1937]] the Nationalists closed in, and by noon, the ''Garibaldi'' Battalion made its move. Some confusion arose from the fact that the sides were not aware of each other's moves, and that both sides spoke Italian; this resulted in scouts from both sides exchanging information without realising they were enemies. The Republican lines advanced and made contact with the XIth International Brigade. Fascist battle tanks were shot at and infantry patrols came into action (there took place the incident in which a fascist officer asked why Italian soldiers were shooting at his party, and was responded ''Noi siamo Italiani di Garibaldi'', at which point the Fascists surrendered). The action went on as some sort of Italian civil war in foreign land. The common language was taken advantage of when the Republicans used loudspeakers to broadcast propaganda messages and airplanes to drop messages promising to pay Fascist deserters.
On the 11th, the Fascists broke the front of the Republican army. The ''Thälmann'' Brigade suffered heavy losses but succeeded in holding the [[Trijueque]]-[[Torija]] road. ''Garibaldi'' also held its positions. On the 12th, Republican planes and tanks attacked. The ''Thaelmann'' Brigade attacked [[Trijuete]] with bayonets and re-took the town, capturing numerous prisoners.
== Composition of International Brigade units ==
The first brigades to be formed were mostly composed from [[France|French]], [[Belgium|Belgian]], [[Italy|Italian]] and [[Germany|German]] volunteers, and were numbered as the XI, XII and XIII mixed brigades (according to the re-organisation of the Spanish army, which was consituted in ten ''mixed Brigades'' immediately after the failed ''coup''; these brigades mixed experienced soldiers with volunteers who had just joined but had no experience of combat).
There were nearly 40,000 volunteers, of whom 9,000 to 10,000 were French, for the defense of the Spanish Republic. Most of them were workers, and half of them were from Paris. They included a large number of veterans of the First World War, which made them efficient fighters. The first engagements fought by the International Brigades during the [[Battle of Madrid]] demonstrated their military value.
The International Brigades were mainly Communists, or under Communist authority. Some were involved in the fighting in [[Barcelona]] against Republican opponents of the Communists: the [[POUM]] (''Partido Obrero de Unificación Marxista'', an anti-[[Stalinist]] Marxist party) and anarchists. However overseas volunteers from anarchist, socialist, liberal and other political positions also served with the brigades.
The battalions were often constituted by speakers of a particular nationality or language, so as to ease understanding of orders. They were named, formally at least, after heroes of the left among the predominant nationalities in each unit.
Later in the war, there was a tightening of military discipline amongst the Spanish Republican military, and learning Spanish became mandatory.
===Non-Spanish Battalions===
* [[Abraham Lincoln Battalion]] Predominantly volunteers from the [[United States]]. The battalion was the first American military unit to be racially-integrated and was at one point commanded by [[Oliver Law]], who became the first black man to lead white American combat troops.
* [[André Marty Battalion]]: Predominantly [[France|French]] and [[Belgium|Belgian]].
* [[Checo-Balcánico Battalion]]: [[Czechoslovakia]]n and [[Balkan]] volunteers.
* [[Commune de Paris Battalion]]: Predominantly French.
* [[Deba Blagoiev Battalion]]: Predominantly [[Bulgaria]]n unit, later merged into [[Dajakovich Battalion]].
* Dajakovich Battalion: Predominantly Bulgarian unit.
* [[Dimitrov Battalion]]: Volunteers from [[Greece]], [[Yugoslavia]], Bulgaria, Czechoslovakia, [[Hungary]] and [[Romania]]. Named after [[Georgi Dimitrov]].
* [[Dombrowski Battalion]]: Mostly [[Poland|Polish]] and Hungarian volunteers. Also Czechoslovakian, [[Ukraine|Ukrainian]], Bulgarian and [[British Mandate of Palestine|Palestinian Jews]].
* [[Edgar André Battalion]]: Mostly [[Germany|German]]. Also [[Austria]]n, Yugoslavian, Bulgarian, [[Albania]]n, Romanian, [[Denmark|Danish]], [[Sweden|Swedish]], [[Norway|Norwegian]] and [[Netherlands|Dutch]] volunteers.
* [[Español Battalion]]: [[Mexico|Mexicans]], [[Cuba|Cubans]], [[Puerto Rico|Puerto Ricans]], [[Chile]]ans, [[Argentina|Argentinians]] and [[Bolivia]]ns.
* [[Figlio Battalion]]: mostly [[Italy|Italian]] unit; later merged with [[Garibaldi Battalion]].
* Garibaldi Battalion: mostly Italian. Also some Albanians and Yugoslavs.
* [[George Washington Battalion]]: the second US battalion. After heavy casualties at Jarama and Brunete, it was merged with the Lincoln Battalion, to form the '''Lincoln-Washington Battalion'''.
* [[Hans Beimler Battalion]]: Mostly German unit; later merged with [[Thaelmann Battalion]].
* [[Henri Barbusse Battalion]]: Predominantly French unit.
* [[Henri Vuillemin Battalion]]: Predominantly French unit.
* [[Italoespañol Battalion]]: Italian and Spanish volunteers.
* [[Louise Michel Battalion]]: French and Belgian unit, named after [[Louise Michel]] a hero of the 1871 [[Paris Commune]])
* [[Louise Michel II Battalion]]: Predominantly French, later merged with Henri Vuillemin Battalion.
* [[Mackenzie-Papineau Battalion]]: Predominantly [[Canada|Canadian]] unit, named after two leaders of an 1837 revolt against the [[British Empire]]. Also known as the Canadian battalion and "the MacPaps".
* [[Marsellaise Battalion]]: Predominantly French, also some British.
* [[Mathis Rakosi Battalion]]: Predominantly Hungarian.
* [[Adam Mickiewicz Battalion]]: Predominantly voluneers from Poland.
* [[Palafox Battalion]]: Voluneers from Yugoslavia, Poland, Czechoslovakia, Hungary and France.
* [[Pierre Brachet Battalion]]: Mostly French.
* [[Radford Battalion]]: Mostly British.
* [[Rakosi Battalion]]: Mainly Hungarian, also including volunteers from Czechoslovakia, Ukraine, Poland, [[China]], [[Mongolia]] and Palestinian Jews.
* [[Saklatava Battalion]]: Named after a British Communist MP of [[India]]n descent. The name was not widely used and the Battalion's banner identified it as the "'''British Battalion'''". However, a significant proportion of its personnel were actually from [[Ireland]], [[Australia]], [[New Zealand]], [[South Africa]] and other [[Commonwealth of Nations|Commonwealth countries]].
* [[Sans nons o Des Neuf Nationalités Battalion]]: French, Belgian, Italian, German, Austrian, Dutch, Danish, [[Switzerland|Swiss]] and Polish.
* [[Six Février Battalion]]: French, Belgian, [[Morocco|Moroccan]], [[Algeria|Algerian]], [[Libya|Libyan]], [[Syria|Syrian]], [[Iran|Iranian]], [[Iraq|Iraqi]], Chinese, [[Japan|Japanese]], [[India]]n and Palestinian Jewish volunteers.
* Thaelmann Battalion: predominantly German, named after German communist leader [[Ernst Thaelmann]], leader of the German Communist Party.
* [[Thomas Masaryk Battalion]]: Mostly Czechoslovakian.
* [[Tschapaiew Battalion]]: Personnel from Ukraine, Poland, Czechoslovakia, Bulgaria, Yugoslavian, [[Turkey]], Italy, Germany, Austria, Finland, Sweden, Norway, Denmark, Belgium, France, Greece, Albania, Netherlands, Switzerland and the [[Baltic countries]].
* [[Vaillant-Couturier Battalion]]: French, Belgian, Czechoslovakian, Bulgarian, Swedish, Norwegian and Danish volunteers.
* [[Veinte Battalion]]: Italian, Yugoslavian and Bulgarian volunteers.
* [[Henri Vuillemin Battalion]]: Mostly French.
* [[Zwölfte Februar Battalion]]: Mostly Austrian.
* ''Sub-battalion units''
** [[Connolly Column]]: a group of about 80 Irish volunteers, named after [[Irish republicanism|Irish republican]] hero, [[James Connolly]] and led by [[Frank Ryan (Irish republican)|Frank Ryan]].
== Status of the Brigades after the war ==
[[Image:International Brigades monument berlin.jpg|thumbnail|The monument which honours the German brigadists in Berlin]]
[[Image:25 anni int brigades.jpg|thumb|Czechoslovak poster celebrating the 25th anniversary of establishing the International Brigades.]]
[[Image:Perelachaise-BrigadesInternationales-p1000377.jpg|thumb|The monument honouring the French Brigadists in [[Père Lachaise]] cemetery.]]
Since the Civil War was eventually won by the Nationalists, the Brigadists were initially on the "wrong side" of History, especially since most of their home countries had a right-wing government (in France, for instance, the [[Popular Front]] was not in power anymore). However, since most of these countries found themselves at war with the very powers which had been fought in Spain, the Brigadists gained some prestige as the first guard of the democracies, having fought a prophetical combat. Retrospectively, it was clear that the war in Spain was as much a Spanish Civil war as a precursor of the coming [[Second World War]]. Some glory was therefore accredited to the volunteers (a great deal of the survivors having also fought gallantly during the World War), but this soon faded in the fear that it would promote (by association) communism. Also, the ambiguous stance viz. Germany of the Communist Parties in the West, during the period between the Hitler-Stalin pact and the German invasion of the Soviet Union, contributed to widespread uneasiness when evaluating the Brigadists' role in the politics of the Nazi era. Since the fall of the Soviet bloc, the International Brigades have been quite unanimously regarded as anti-Fascist heroes, and the legitimacy of their fight has, for the most part, washed away the stain of summary executions and Stalinist manipulation, despite being non-governmental combatants.
=== Swiss Brigadists ===
766 [[Switzerland|Swiss]] went to fight for the Republic, while only 40 went on the other side. It is interesting to note that the pro-republicans were later prosecuted for breaking the Swiss neutrality laws, which prohibit Swiss nationals from fighting for foreign countries, while the pro-fascists were never prosecuted. This might be explained on one hand by the anti-communism of the Swiss government at the time, but also because the Swiss living in Spain at the time (nearly 4000) were very much afraid of what was perceived as a communist movement. The Republican fighters were re-habilitated in the 1990s.
Interestingly, it has been noted that the punishments of those prosecuted were very variable (ranging from 15 days to 4 months in prison) but that the French-speaking tribunals had been as a rule much more lenient than the German-speaking ones. This is very much corellated to the openly pro-fascist sentiment of the elite in those parts at the time.
=== Recognition of former Brigadists ===
On [[26 January]] [[1996]] the Spanish government gave Spanish citizenship to the Brigadists. At the time, roughly 600 remained. By the end of 1938, Prime Minister [[Juan Negrin]] had promised Spanish citizenship to the Brigadists, a promise which had not been kept since the Republic had lost the war.
==Misc==
=== Symbolism and Heraldic ===
[[Image:Flag of the International Brigades.svg|150px|left|Flag of the International Brigades]]
The International Brigades were inheritors of a Communist aesthetic, which explains the numerous very stylised posters about the subject.
The flags featured the colours of the Spanish Republic : Red, Yellow and Purple, often along with Communist symbols (Red flags, [[hammer and sickle]], fist,...). The emblem of the brigades themselves was the three-pointed red star, which is often featured.
[[Image:International Brigades flags1.jpg|thumb|300px|left|Flags of the Brigades]]
[[Image:International Brigades flags2.jpg|thumb|300px|left|Flags of the Brigades]]
<br style="clear: left"/>
=== Personalities involved in the International Brigades ===
* George Aitken, (father of [[Ian Aitken]], who was later to be political editor of [[the Guardian]])
* [[Norman Bethune]] - A Canadian doctor who served with the Canadian, [[Mackenzie-Papineau Battalion]] or Mac-Paps and developed many brilliant medical tactics.
* [[Willy Brandt]] - West German Chancellor from 1969-1974.
* John Cornford
* "Gal" Galicz
* [[Pierre Georges]] dit Colonel Fabien
* [[David Guest]]
* [[Ernest Hemingway]] (although he was in Spain officially only as a reporter, Hemingway did not balk at lending a hand in the small arms training of the recruits)
* [[Oliver Law]]
* [[Laurie Lee]]
* [[Luigi Longo]]
* [[André Marty]]
* [[George Orwell]] -- joined the POUM rather than the communist-run International Brigades
* [[Abe Osheroff]] (American activist and director of 1974 documentary: ''Dreams and Nightmares'')
* [[Ezekias Papaioannou]] later general secretary of [[AKEL]]
* [[Henri Rol-Tanguy]]
* [[Frank Ryan (Irish republican)|Frank Ryan]]
* [[Mehmet Shehu]]
* [[Stephen Spender]]
* [["Kléber" Stern]]
* [[Simone Weil]]
* [[Wilhelm Zaisser|"Gomez" Zaisser]]
* [[Mate Zalka|"Lukacs" Zalka]]
* Žikica Jovanović - Španac ([[Serb]], who later started uprising in [[Serbia]] in [[1941]])
==References==
===Books===
[[Image:Sierra de Terruel poster.jpg|thumbnail|250px|right|Poster for the film ''Sierra de Teruel'', by [[André Malraux]] ]]
* ''Spanish Civil War'', Hugh Thomas
*[[Nancy Mitford]]'s novel ''[[The Pursuit of Love]]'' ([[1945 in literature|1945]])
*''British Volunteers For Liberty'', Bill Alexander
*''Book of the 15th Brigade'', edited by Frank Ryan
*''Britons in Spain'', Bill Rust
*''Connolly Column'', [[Michael O'Riordan]], Dublin, New Books, 1979 (an account of the contribution of the Irish members of the Brigades)
*''Homage To Catalonia'', George Orwell, (an account of his time fighting with the POUM)
*''A Moment of War''. Laurie Lee
*''For Whom the Bell Tolls'', Ernest Hemingway
=== Internet pages ===
*[http://www.international-brigades.org.uk/ IBMT the international brigade memorial trust]
*[http://www.international-brigades.org.uk/british_volunteers/farewell.htm Farewell to the International Brigades ]
*[http://www.alba-valb.org/ Abraham Lincoln Brigade Archives]
*[http://www.spartacus.schoolnet.co.uk/SPinternational.htm Spartacus Educational]
*[http://www.geocities.com/roav1945/inter.html The International Brigades (Veterans' Stories)]
=== Photographs ===
* [http://asso.acer.free.fr/photos/galeriephotos.htm asso.acer.free.fr]
* [http://www.english.uiuc.edu/maps/scw/photessay.htm english.uiuc.edu]
=== Films ===
* [http://www.imdb.com/title/tt0114671/ Land and Freedom], by [[Ken Loach]] although the subject of the film is not the International Brigades, it portrays international volunteers, and the actual International Brigades are indeed featured. Loach is, however, not sympathetic to the Brigades and this is apparent in their portrayal in the film.
* [http://us.imdb.com/title/tt0037680/ Sierra de Teruel ] by [[André Malraux]] (features the International bomber squadron in margin of the Brigades)
=== Audio streams ===
*[http://www.bbc.co.uk/bbcfour/audiointerviews/realmedia/gellhornm/gellhornm3.ram [[Martha Gellhorn]] talks about the [[Spanish Civil War]] ] ([[BBC Radio 4]] audio stream).
*[http://www.bbc.co.uk/radio4/history/inourtime/inourtime_20030403.shtml The Spanish Civil War - causes and legacy] part of the [[BBC Radio 4]] [[In Our Time]] series.
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*Two [[duke]]s, both [[military officer]]s, were nicknamed the "'''Iron Duke'''" during their lifetimes:
**[[Arthur Wellesley, 1st Duke of Wellington]]
**[[Fernando Álvarez de Toledo, Duke of Alva]]
*[[HMS Iron Duke|HMS ''Iron Duke'']] is also the name of three ships in the [[British Navy|Royal Navy]], one of which is still in active service (a [[frigate]]).
*[[Iron Duke (engine)|Iron Duke]] is also the nickname given to a 2.5 litre [[internal combustion engine]] used in many 1980s-era [[General Motors]] [[front-wheel drive]] automobiles.
*[[GWR Iron Duke Class|Iron Duke]] was also the name of a famous class of [[locomotive]] built by the [[Great Western Railway]] in [[England]].
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'''Food irradiation''' is the process of exposing food to [[ionizing radiation]] in order to disinfest, [[sterilization (microbiology)|sterilize]], or [[food preservation|preserve]] [[food]]. It is, like most technology involving ionizing radiation, the subject of some controversy regarding its safety. [[Irradiation]] is used on other things as well, such as medical hardware. Largely to avoid consumer fear of the term "radiation", it is often called '''cold pasteurization''' or '''electronic pasteurization''' to emphasize its similarity to the process of [[pasteurization]].
== Food irradiation ==
[[Image:Radura-Symbol.svg|thumb|220px|The radura logo, used to show a food has been treated with radiation]]
By irradiating food, depending on the dose, some or all of the [[microbe]]s and [[insect]]s present are [[kill]]ed. This prolongs the life of the food in cases where microbial spoilage is the limiting factor in shelf life. Some foods (e.g., [[herb]]s and [[spice]]s) are irradiated at such high doses (5 [[gray (unit)|kilograys]] or more) that they are partially sterilized. It has also been shown that irradiation can delay the ripening or sprouting of [[fruit]]s and [[vegetable]]s and replace the need for [[pesticide]]s. Irradiation may also create new chemicals in food that are unique to this process - chemicals that would not be created by cooking or other standard food processing techniques.
The [[United Nations Environmental Program]] passed the [[Montreal Protocol|Montreal Protocol on Substances that deplete the Ozone Layer]] banning amongst other substances all non-critical uses of [[Methyl bromide|methyl bromide]], the most common [[fumigant]] for post-[[harvest]] [[quarantine]] treatment of fruit. Although in theory still permitted for quarantine applications, prices of the fumigant have increased dramatically as a consequence. Some governments and corporations think that irradiation is a legitimate replacement for such fumigants and in consequence some large agricultural nations of the world are currently building irradiation facilities for fresh fruit, although the food industry has been slow to adopt this technology on any large scale.
The United States [[Department of Agriculture]] has approved irradiation technology as an alternative treatment for fruits and vegetables that are considered hosts to a number of [[Tephritidae|fruit flies]] and seed [[weevil]]s. [[Food and agriculture organization of the United Nations|The United Nations Food and Agricultural Organization]] (FAO) have passed a motion to support this step committing the member states to implement this technology for their national [[Sanitary and Phytosanitary Agreement|phytosanitary]] programs.
== Processes ==
While the term irradiation pertains to all forms of treating food products with ionizing radiation, specific types of radiation treatments are used in the food industry today.
===Radurization===
Radurization is the process of pasteurization by the use of radiation. It primarily used to treat foods that have a high moisture content and a high [[pH]]. The microbes that are targeted are mainly spoilage organisms. Meat and fish are the foods for which this process is mainly used. For dryer, acidic foods, [[yeast]]s and [[mold]]s can be denatured. The treatment dose for radurization is approximately 1 kGy.
===Radicidation===
The process of radicidation is used to eliminate [[pathogen]]s. This process kills vegetative cells only, meaning that it will not kill [[spore]]s. Also, certain radiation-resistant vegetative cells can survive, including some strains of the bacterium [[Salmonella]] which have been found to be radiation-resistant. [[Refrigeration]] is required for the product post-treatment. The dose for radicidation ranges from 2.5 - 5.0 kGy. At this level some physical and chemical changes may be detected, depending on the type of food. For example, leafy vegetables such as lettuce are more sensitive to irradiation than foods with a tougher consistency.
===Radappertization===
Radappertization involves treating the product to levels of radiation of approximately 30 kGy. This high level of radiation kills all vegetative cells and also destroys spores from organisms such as [[Clostridium botulinum]]. Such levels are generally deemed suffcient for clinical sterility, but not usually employed on food items. Based on recommendations of the International Consultative Group on Food Irradiation that was formed by the joint FAO/IAEA division many national legislation limit applicable doses to 10kGy for many food items.
== Technologies ==
===Electron beam irradiation===
Electron beam irradiation uses [[electron]]s accelerated in an [[electric field]] to a velocity close to the speed of light. International and national regulations limit the energy of the beam to guarantee that no [[Induced radioactivity|induced radioactivity]] occurs. Electrons have [[cross-section]]s many times larger than photons, so that they do not penetrate the product beyond a few inches, making it necessary to treat fruit and vegetables individually; on the other hand, treatment times are only a few seconds. Electron facilities rely on substantial concrete shields to protect workers and the environment from radiation exposure.
===Gamma radiation===
[[Gamma radiation]] is radiation of [[photon]]s in the gamma part of the [[Electromagnetic spectrum|spectrum]]. The radiation is obtained through the use of [[radioisotope]]s, generally [[cobalt]] 60 or in very few cases [[cesium]] 137. It is the most cost-effective technology and is preferred by many processors because the good penetration enables administering treatment to entire industrial pallets or totes, greatly reducing the need for material handling. A pallet or tote is typically exposed for several minutes depending on dose. The environment is protected by a large concrete shield. With most designs the radioisotope can be lowered into a water storage pool in order to allow maintenance personnel to enter the radiation shield. In this mode the water in the pool absorbs practically all radiation providing a safe working environment for plant personnel. Other not commonly used designs feature dry storage by providing movable shields that eliminate radiation levels in areas of the irradiation chamber.
One variant of gamma irradiators keeps the cobalt 60 under water at all times and lowers the product to be irradiated under water in hermetic bells. No shielding is required for such designs.
===X-Ray irradiation===
Similar to gamma radiation, [[x-ray]]s are a lower-energy substitute for the former. These systems are scalable and have good penetration, with the added benefit of using an electronic source that stops radiating when switched off. They also permit very good dose uniformity. However these systems require a great deal of electrical energy when operating, and exposure times are longer than with gamma rays. Like most other types of facilities, X-Ray systems rely on concrete shields to protect the environment from radiation.
== Public perception==
The effects of food irradiation have been studied for over 60 years. Under certain circumstances some research suggests that irradiation forms new chemicals in food, some of which are uniquely [[Radiolyse|radiolytic]] products. However, the levels of these compounds produced in irradiated foods have been deemed too low to present a meaningful risk to consumers. At very high doses, e.g. >6 [[Gray (unit)|kilogray]], irradiation can reduce the [[vitamin]]s and other [[essential nutrient]]s; and negatively impact the [[flavor]], [[odor]] and [[texture]] of food. At the doses typically used in irradiation treatment of food, e.g. <3.5 kilogray, these changes appear minimal. Independent scientific research on the subject has been extensive leading to endorsement of food irradiation by the [[US Food and Drug Administration]], the [[United States Department of Agriculture]] and the U.N. [[World Health Organization]] as a safe, effective process.
Concerns have been expressed by public health groups that irradiation, by killing all [[bacteria]] in food, can serve to disguise poor food-handling procedures that could lead to other kinds of [[contamination]]. However, processors of irradiated food are subject to all existing regulations, inspections and potential penalties regarding plant safety and sanitization, including fines, recalls and criminal prosecutions.
Others are concerned with the safety of irradiation plants and accidents that have occurred previously. The three recorded accidents on file at the IAEA in the history of irradiation facilities in the world were suffered by individual employees who entered the radiation chamber, disabling all available safety measures.
Based on the intrinsic inability of the techniques used for food irradiation to induce radioactivity into the targets it is impossible for an irradiation facility to release radioactive material into the environment with the processed items. Any problems that might occur are therefore contained in the radiation zone of the installation. Radioactive sources used in irradiators are thermally hot, and the repeated cycling of the source in and out of the shielding pool can cause thermal shocks that may eventually cause breakage of the cladding around the radioactive materials. Although this risk has been eliminated by modern source configuration, this is not commonly a major problem as by far the most common isotope employed is cobalt 60 which is not water soluble making a clean-up relatively simple. An irradiator in the [[Atlanta, Georgia]] area, however, had to be closed after the storage pool became radioactive after a leak of the water-soluble Cesium 137 isotope sources. As a result, the US NRC has banned cesium 137 for in water storage. These concerns do not apply to electron beam, or x-ray irradiators or the most common cobalt 60 facilities, in which the radiation is gone as soon as the source is switched off or in the case of cobalt 60 stored in water.
Activist websites frequently quote the unknown cancer risk of radiolytic byproducts such as 2-dodecylcyclobutanone or 2DCB as a source of concern citing mainly the work of Henry Delincee and Beatrice-Luise Pool Zobel. On several occasions has Dr. Delincee clarified that he does not agree with the interpretation of such activists[http://www.mnbeef.org/opinion_on_the_expert_affidavit_.htm],[http://www.fda.gov/ohrms/dockets/dockets/99f4372/99f-4372-bkg0001-Tab-56-Delincee.pdf]. Furthermore it has been established by the World Health Organization that sufficient research has been conducted to conclude that "based on the current scientific evidence, including the long-term feeding studies, 2-DCB and 2-alkylcyclobutanones in general do not appear to pose a health risk to consumers."[http://www.cidrap.umn.edu/cidrap/files/32/who2003.pdf]Lastly any specific findings are specific to foods that contain triglycerides excluding many foods commonly irradiated from such concerns altogether. FDA has asked for repeated and conclusive testing of mutagenicity of 2DCBs in irradiated meat and the study performed by Sommers, C.H. and published in October 2005 under the title "Toxicology Testing of the Unique Radiolytic Product 2-Dodecylcyclobutanone" concluding that "No 2-DCB induced mutagenesis was observed in any of the test systems, both with and without exogenous metabolic activation" confirming previous findings [http://www.ars.usda.gov/research/publications/Publications.htm?seq_no_115=185057].
== Labeling ==
Labeling laws differ from country to country. In the US as in many other countries labeling regulations require the usage of the Radura symbol at the point of sale together with usage of the word "irradiated" or "treated by irradiation". However, the meaning of the label is not consistent. The amount of irradiation used can vary and since there are no published standards, the amount of pathogens effected by irradiation can be variable as well. In addition, there are no regulations regarding the levels of pathogen reduction that must be achieved. Food that is processed as an ingredient by a restaurant or food processor is exempt from the labeling requirement.
== Economics ==
Widespread food irradiation is credited for some economic benefits. Some foods, particularly fruits and vegetables, are naturally restricted from sale on the global market, unless they are irradiated to prolong quality for transportation. Less spoilage at the receiving end means less discards, lowering the unit cost Irradiation has also been used to reduce bacteria counts in seafood that is shipped over long distance.
Critics point out that the greatest food losses occur in warm, moist, lesser-developed countries, where the capital is lacking for existing storage technologies such as refrigeration, and other atmospheric controls. It might therefore be questionable if the most affected countries possess the resources to employ this technology. According to the IAEA registry, however, more and more facilities are licenced in such regions.
Food irradiation does not provide a convenient total solution to food safety, it is in fact one alternative in a variety of food processing techniques; Furthermore irradiation can not undo the effects of spoilage that has already occurred prior to treatment. Most national regulations therefore do not permit a decrese in higenic standards in food handling if product is to be irradiated, but rather demand the same high quality prior to treatment. Food irradiation therefore can add to the complexity and cost of food processing if it does not replace any more costly alternative process. It should also be noted that irradiation does not prevent re-infestation or contamination of a product if exposed to the pathogen after treatment.
Insect pests can have a devastating effect on crop production. They can also transmit diseases that destroy crops and kill livestock and people. But, heavy reliance on pesticides raises environmental concerns and problems of pest adaptation and resistance. Hence, in many countries, minimizing insecticide use through the application of environmentally friendly and cost effective irradiation techniques has been given a priority.
== Alternatives ==
There are many alternative methods of [[Food preservation|food preservation]], such as [[Ultra-high temperature processing]], [[Vacuum Packing]] and [[Flash freezing]] however none can be so uniformly applied to such a wide range of foods as irradiation. Critics have stated that changes in Western dietary habits, and a seasonal availability of fresh produce could eliminate the need for irradiation.
Irradiation is sometimes used to facilitate the long distance shipments of food that, as with most other food, may contain bacteria which could eventually cause spoilage if the food is not sold quickly. In that sense it is feared by some critics that irradiation may negatively contribute in the effects of [[globalization]] claiming that a local and seasonal production may be a more effective, safer approach toward food safety.
== References ==
*Sipher, A.T. Food Irradiation: An FDA Report. FDA Papers, Oct. 1968
*Delincee, H. and Pool-Zobel, B. Genotoxic properties of 2-dodecylcyclobutanone, a compound formed on irradiation of food containing fat. Radiation Physics and Chemistry
*WHO Statement on 2-Dodecylcyclobutanone and Related Compounds
Sommers, C.H. 2005. Toxicology Testing Of The Unique Radiolytic Product 2-Dodecylcyclobutanone
== See also ==
*[[Deinococcus radiodurans]]
*[[irradiated mail]]
== External links ==
*[http://www.phytosan.com/en/faq.php Irradiation FAQ provided by PHYTOSAN S.A. de C.V.(www.phytosan.com)]
*[http://www.phytosan.com/en/technology.php Irradiation technology provided by PHYTOSAN S.A. de C.V. (www.phytosan.com)]
*[http://www.mnbeef.org/opinion_on_the_expert_affidavit_.htm Comment by Dr. Henry Delincee on an Affidavit misrepresenting the conclusions of his study on unique radiolytical byproducts.]
*[http://www.fda.gov/ohrms/dockets/dockets/99f4372/99f-4372-bkg0001-Tab-56-Delincee.pdf Comment by Dr. Henry Delincee on Activists interpretations of work on 2-dodecyclcyclobutaneone]
*[http://www.mnbeef.org/statement_to%20public%20citizen.delincee.htm Comment by Dr. Henry Delincee towards public citizen publications]
*[http://www.cidrap.umn.edu/cidrap/files/32/who2003.pdf WHO Statement on 2-Dodecylcyclobutanone and Related Compounds]
*[http://www.ars.usda.gov/research/publications/Publications.htm?seq_no_115=185057 Sommers, C.H. 2005. Toxicology Testing Of The Unique Radiolytic Product 2-Dodecylcyclobutanone.]
[[Category:Food preservation]]
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Internal Revenue Service
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:''This is the most common use of IRS. For other uses, see [[IRS (disambiguation)]]''.
[[image:IRSSeal.JPG|thumb|Seal of the Internal Revenue Service]]
The '''Internal Revenue Service''' ('''IRS''') is the [[United States]] [[government agency]] that collects [[tax]]es and enforces the [[tax law]]s. It is a bureau of the [[United States Department of the Treasury|Department of the Treasury]].
==History==
In 1862, during the [[American Civil War|Civil War]], [[President of the United States|President]] [[Abraham Lincoln|Lincoln]] and [[Congress of the United States|Congress]] created the [[Commissioner of Internal Revenue]] and enacted an [[income tax]] to pay [[war]] expenses. The Commissioner is the head of the Internal Revenue Service.
The agency created to enforce these taxes was named for the internal revenue to be collected (and was formerly called the "Bureau of Internal Revenue"), in contrast to U.S. government institutions that collected external revenue through [[duty|duties]] and [[tariff]]s. The income tax was repealed 10 years later. In 1894, Congress revived the income tax, but the following year the [[United States Supreme Court]] ruled, in ''[[Pollock v. Farmers' Loan & Trust Co.]],'' that taxes on [[capital gains]], [[dividends]], [[interest]], [[Economic_rent|rent]]s and the like were direct taxes on property, and that the statute in question was unconstitutional because it had not apportioned the direct taxes among the states according to population. In 1913, however, the states ratified the [[Sixteenth Amendment to the United States Constitution|16th Amendment]], which removed the requirement that income taxes (whether considered direct or indirect taxes) be apportioned by population.
In 1918, to finance [[World War I]], the top rate of the income tax rose to 77%. During the post-war years, the top rate was lowered to 24%, but rose again during the [[Great Depression]]. During [[World War II]], Congress introduced [[payroll withholding]] and quarterly tax payments, ostensibly as an emergency measure.
In the 1950s, career professional [[Employment|employees]] replaced the [[patronage]] system. Currently, only the IRS Commissioner and Chief Counsel are selected by the President and confirmed by the Senate. The Bureau of Internal Revenue name also was changed to the Internal Revenue Service to emphasize "service" to taxpayers.
As a by-product of the ''[[Internal Revenue Service Restructuring and Reform Act of 1998]]'', Pub. L. No. 105-206, 112 Stat. 685 (July 22, 1998), the IRS now functions under four major operating divisions: Large & Mid-Size Business (LMSB), Small Business / Self-Employed (SB/SE), Wage and Investment (W&I), and Tax Exempt & Government Entities (TE/GE).
[[Image:IRS building on constitution avenue in DC.jpg|frame|right|IRS building on [[Constitution Avenue]] in [[Washington, D.C.]].]]
The main headquarters of the IRS is located at 1111 [[Constitution Avenue, N.W.]] in [[Washington, D.C.]]
Summary of Collections before Refunds by Type of Return, Fiscal Year 2003:
{| class="wikitable"
! Type of Return || Number of Returns || Gross Collections (Millions of [[United States dollar|US$]])
|-
| Individual Income Tax || 130,728,360 || 987,209
|-
| Corporate Income Tax || 5,890,821 || 194,146
|-
| Employment Taxes || 29,916,033 || 695,976
|-
| Gift Tax || 287,456 || 1,939
|-
| Excise Taxes || 812,483 || 52,771
|-
| Estate Tax || 91,679 || 20,888
|}
In fiscal year 2004, the IRS collected $43.1 billion in enforcement revenue. This is $5.5 billion or a 15 percent increase from fiscal 2003.
Recently, the IRS has altered its policies. The current Service plus Enforcement equals Compliance motto has led to more investigations of abusive tax schemes.
The current Commissioner of Internal Revenue is [[Mark W. Everson]], who was confirmed by the U. S. Senate on May 1, 2003.
==See also==
* [[Taxation in the United States]]
* [[Non-profit corporation]]
* [[United States of America non-profit laws]]
* [[501(c)(3)]]
* [[527 group]]
==Further reading==
*Davis, Shelley L., and Mary Matalin. ''Unbridled Power: Inside the Secret Culture of the IRS''. New York: Harper Collins, (ISBN 0887308295)
*[[David Cay Johnston|Johnston, David Cay]]. ''[[Perfectly Legal]]: The Covert Campaign to Rig Our Tax System to Benefit the Super Rich - and Cheat Everybody Else''. New York: Portfolio, 2003. (ISBN 1591840198)
*Rossotti, Charles O. ''Many Unhappy Returns: One Man's Quest To Turn Around The Most Unpopular Organization In America''. Cambridge: Harvard Business School Press, 2005. (ISBN 1591394414)
*[[William Roth|Roth, William V., Jr.]], and William H. Nixon. ''The Power to Destroy''. New York: Atlantic Monthly Press, 1999. (ISBN 0871137488)
==External links==
*[http://www.irs.gov/ Internal Revenue Service] Official website
*[http://www.neo-tech.com/irs-class-action/ IRS Abuse Reports] Claimed accounts of abuses against U.S. citizens by the IRS
*[http://evans-legal.com/dan/tpfaq.html Tax Protester FAQ] by Dan Evans rebuts claims of the illegitimacy of the income tax and the IRS
*[http://www.fairtax.org/ Americans for Fair Tax] argues for the replacement of the income tax with a consumption tax
*[http://tswrobel-law.com/nonprofit_resources/nonprofit_services.htm/ Helpful Resources on Tax Exempt Status - Links, Information, and Assistance]
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Intrauterine device
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An '''intrauterine device''' (''intra'' meaning within, and ''uterine'' meaning of the [[uterus]]) is a [[birth control]] device also known as an '''IUD''' or a '''coil''' (this colloquialism is based on the coil-shaped design of early IUDs). It is a device placed in the uterus and is the world's most widely used and inexpensive method of reversible birth control. The device has to be fitted inside or removed from the uterus by a doctor or qualified medical practitioner. It remains in place the entire time contraception is desired. Depending on the type, IUDs can usually remain effective for 2, 5 or 10 years.
==Types of IUDs==
There are many types of IUDs worldwide, but only two types currently available in the United States: the copper-T intrauterine device (IUD) and the levonorgestrel-releasing intrauterine system (LNG IUS).
[[Image:IUDCPCopperT380A.gif|thumb|left|Photo of copper-T IUD]]
The copper-T IUD is marketed as ParaGard T 380A by [[FEI Women’s Health LLC]]. It was approved by the Food and Drug Administration (FDA) in 1984 and became available for use in 1988. The device consists of a T-shaped polyethylene frame that is wound with copper wire around the vertical stem and has copper bands on the lateral arms. The ParaGard T 380A is approved for up to 10 years of use, although limited data support its effectiveness for at least 12 years.
[[Image:IUDCPMirena.gif|thumb|Photo of LNG IUS]]
The LNG IUS, marketed by [[Berlex Laboratories]] as Mirena, consists of a T-shaped polyethylene frame with a reservoir around the vertical stem that contains [[levonorgestrel]]. It was approved for use by the FDA in 2000. Initially the LNG IUS releases levonorgestrel at a rate of 20 µg per day.[http://www.mirena-us.com/physician/whatis.html] This rate decreases to approximately half that rate by five years. It is indicated for up to five years of use, although limited data support its effectiveness for at least seven years.
==Effectiveness==
The hormonal IUD is as effective as the [[contraceptive pill]] at preventing pregnancy; and the copper IUDs effectiveness ranges from 98% to over 99% depending on the brand. IUDs can not protect from [[STDs]], and if an infection is caught whilst using an IUD it may be more likely to spread to the [[uterus]].
==Side-effects==
Copper IUDs may make [[menstrual periods]] heavier or more painful in some women, especially for the first few months after they are inserted, but modern types such as the [[GyneFix]] have been designed so that they usually do not affect periods (compare with [[IUS]]).
IUDs have remained unpopular in the USA since the [[Dalkon Shield]] IUD (which had a multi-filiment string) was banned after being linked to several deaths (the thick woven string hosted bacteria, which could spread to cause reproductive tract infections and occasionally fatalities). IUDs with monofiliment strings (including all modern IUDs) are much safer and complications are very rare<!-- how rare? -->.
It is commonly believed IUDs cause a greater risk of an [[ectopic pregnancy]]. However, recent studies have shown that women with IUDs actually have fewer ectopic pregnancies than women using no contraception. However, in the rare cases that a pregnancy occurs with an IUD in place that is not removed, it is more likely to be ectopic.
IUDs are not recommended for women who are suffering from a [[pelvic inflammatory disease]].
== Common misconceptions about IUDs ==
{{citation needed}}
* Primary method of pregnancy prevention is abortifacient
*: IUDs work by prompting the release of leukocytes and prostaglandins by the [[endometrium]]. These substances are hostile to both sperm and eggs; the presence of copper increases this spermicidal effect. Although the only experimentally demonstrated effect is spermicidal/ovicidal, it is possible the IUD may rarely prevent the development of embryos{{ref|FHI-report}}{{ref|FHI-report2}}.
* Causes [[ectopic pregnancy|ectopic pregnancies]]
*: The risk of ectopic pregnancy to a woman using an IUD is lower than the risk of ectopic pregnancy to a woman using no form of birth control. Of the tiny number of pregnancies that do occur, a higher than expected percentage is ectopic.
* Causes [[pelvic inflammatory disease]] (PID)
*: PID is primarily caused by certain [[sexually transmitted disease]]s (STDs). While IUDs do not protect against STDs like barrier methods do, they also do not cause the infections. In women who have STDs, however, use of an IUD increases the risk the infection will progress to PID.
* Needs to be removed for PID treatment
* Causes [[infertility]]
*: As mentioned previously, certain women may increase their risk of PID or ectopic pregnancy by choosing to use an IUD. PID and ectopic pregnancy may adversely affect a woman's fertility. However, women not at risk of PID will not increase their risk of infertility by using an IUD.
* Cannot be used in nulliparous women
* Needs to be removed if actinomyces-like organisms are seen on Pap test
==Use as emergency contraception==
Intrauterine devices can be used as [[emergency contraception]] to prevent pregnancy up to 5 days after unprotected [[sexual intercourse]], or sexual intercourse during which the primary contraception is believed to have failed (e.g. a [[condom]] was used, but it broke). Insertion of a copper-T IUD as emergency contraception is more than 99% effective, making it more effective than [[morning-after pill|Emergency contraceptive pill]]s ('''ECP''' or 'morning-after pill').
IUDs may also be used where ECPs are less appropriate:
*ECP are contraindicated in those with severe [[liver]] disease or the very rare condition of [[porphyria]].
*ECP are currently licensed for only 3 days (72 hours) after coitus
*ECP will be ineffective if currently suffering from diarrhea or vomiting
*The effectiveness of ECP may be reduced by the herbal preparation [[St John's wort]] and enzyme-inducing drugs (e.g. [[antiepileptics]] or [[rifampicin]]).
== See also ==
* [[Vas-occlusive contraception]]
== References ==
#{{note|FHI-report}} [http://www.ghi.org Family Health International] "Mechanisms of the Contraceptive Action of Hormonal Methods and Intrauterine Devices (IUDs)" [http://www.fhi.org/en/RH/Pubs/factsheets/mechact.htm Report]
#{{note|FHI-report2}} [http://www.fhi.org/en/RH/Pubs/Network/v16_2/nt1623.htm IUDs Block Fertilization]. Family Health International. Network: Winter 1996, Vol. 16, No. 2.
== External links ==
* [http://www.arhp.org/healthcareproviders/resources/contraceptionresources/ Association of Reproductive Health Professionals Contraception Resource Center]
* [https://www.arhp.org/healthcareproviders/cme/onlinecme/IUDCP/TOC.cfm/ Association of Reproductive Health Professionals' Clinical Proceedings: New Developments in Intrauterine Contraception]
* [http://www.plannedparenthood.org/bc/iud.html Planned Parenthood: Understanding IUDs]
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Isle Royale National Park
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{{Infobox_protected_area | name = Isle Royale National Park
| iucn_category = Ib
| image = US_Locator_Blank.svg
| caption =
| locator_x = 175
| locator_y = 27
| location = [[Michigan]], [[United States|USA]]
| nearest_city = [[Duluth, Minnesota|Duluth, MN]]
| lat_degrees = 48
| lat_minutes = 6
| lat_seconds = 0
| lat_direction = N
| long_degrees = 88
| long_minutes = 33
| long_seconds = 0
| long_direction = W
| area = 571,790 acres<br>(2,314 km²)
| established = [[April 3]], [[1940]]
| visitation_num = 17,276
| visitation_year = 2004
| governing_body = [[National Park Service]]
}}
'''Isle Royale National Park''' is a [[U.S. National Park]] in the state of [[Michigan]]. [[Isle Royale]], the largest island in [[Lake Superior]], is over 45 miles (72 km) in length and 9 miles (14 km) wide at its widest point{{ref|dimensions}}; the park is made of Isle Royale itself and multiple smaller islands, along with all water up to 2.5 miles beyond the outer islands. Isle Royale National Park was established on [[April 3]], [[1940]], was designated as a [[Wilderness Area]] in [[1976]], and as an [[International Biosphere Reserve]] in [[1980]]. It is a relatively small national park at 894 square miles ([[1 E9 m²|2314 km²]]), with only 209 square miles ([[1 E8 m²|542 km²]]) above water.
==Human history==
The island was once the site of a fishing industry, native copper mining and a resort community. Because numerous small islands surround Isle Royale, ships were once guided through the area by [[lighthouse]]s at [[Passage Island Lighthouse|Passage Island]], [[Rock Harbor Lighthouse|Rock Harbor]], [[Rock of Ages Lighthouse|Rock of Ages]], and [[Isle Royale Lighthouse]] on Menagerie Island.
==Natural history==
[[Image:IsleRoyaleMap.jpg|thumb|right|275px|Official map of Isle Royale National Park courtesy of NPS]]
===Ecology===
Isle Royale National Park is known for its [[wolf]] and [[moose]] populations which are studied by scientists investigating [[Predation|predator-prey relationships]] in a closed environment. There are usually around 25 wolves and 1000 moose on the island but the numbers change greatly year to year. In rare years with very hard winters, animals can travel over the frozen lake from the [[Canada|Canadian]] mainland. To protect the wolves from canine diseases, dogs are not allowed in any part of the park, including the adjacent waters.
===Geology===
Isle Royale greenstone ([[chlorastrolite]], a form of Pumpellyite) is found here, as well as on the [[Upper Peninsula of Michigan]]. It is the official Michigan state gemstone.
==Recreation==
[[Image:Isle Royale aerial.jpg|thumb|right|275px|An aerial view of Isle Royale]]
The Greenstone Ridge is a high ridge in the center of the island and carries the longest trail in the park, the Greenstone Ridge trail, which runs 40 miles (60 km) from one end of the island to the other. This is generally done as a 4 or 5 day hike. A boat shuttle can carry hikers back to their starting port. In total there are 165 miles of hiking trails. There are also canoe/kayak routes, many involving portages, along coastal bays and inland lakes.
==Services==
The park has two developed areas—Windigo, at the southwest end of the island (docking site for the ferries from Minnesota), with a campstore, showers, campsites, and boat dock; and [[Rock Harbor]] on the south side of the northeast end (docking site for the ferries from Michigan), with a campstore, showers, restaurant, lodge, campsites, and boat dock.
Sleeping accommodations at the park are limited to the lodge at Rock Harbor, and 36 designated wilderness campsites. Some campgrounds are accessible only by private boat; other campgrounds away from the lakeshore are accessible only by trail or by [[canoe]]/[[kayak]] on the interior lakes. The campsites vary in capacity, but typically include a small number of three-sided wood shelters (the fourth wall is screened) with floors and roofs, and a number of individual sites suitable for pitching a small tent. Some tent sites with space for groups of up to 10 are available, and require a special permit. The only amenities at the campsites are pit toilets. Campfires are not permitted; gas camp stoves are recommended. Drinking and cooking water must be drawn from local water sources (Lake Superior and inland lakes) and filtered to avoid parasites. Hunting is not permitted, but fishing is, and edible berries may be picked from the trail.
==Access==
The park is accessible by floatplane and by ferry during the summer months from [[Grand Portage, Minnesota]] and [[Houghton, Michigan|Houghton]] and [[Copper Harbor, Michigan|Copper Harbor]] in Michigan. Private boats travel to the island mainly from [[Thunder Bay, Ontario]], the closest city to the park.
Isle Royale is not popular with day-trippers because of the scheduling constraints of transportation to and from the park; with a round-trip travel time of 6-8 hours, the ferries that make this voyage on a daily basis have only a 2-3 hour layover at the island. These ferries may delay - and in some situations cancel - trips during heavy weather.
The ''Ranger III'' is a 165-foot (50 m) boat operated by the National Park Service. It is claimed to be the largest piece of equipment in the National Park system. It carries 125 passengers, and canoes and kayaks, and operates out of [[Houghton, Michigan]], a six-hour trip from the park, so it only travels one way each day, overnighting at the island. Currently it makes the crossing there and back only twice a week, June to mid-September. The ''Isle Royale Queen'' out of [[Copper Harbor, Michigan]] and the ''Wenonah'', out of [[Grand Portage, Minnesota]] operate round-trips daily in peak season, less frequently in spring and autumn. The ''Voyager'', also out of Grand Portage, circles the island with an overnight at Rock Harbor, providing water taxi service for lakeside campgrounds.
Due to the difficulty of travel and the hazards of wilderness survival during the winter months, it is the only major [[National Park Service]] park to close entirely for the season. Because of the relative difficulty of reaching the park and its seasonal closing, only some 20,000 people a year visit Isle Royale, fewer than visit the most popular national parks in a single day.
==List of islands within or adjacent to Isle Royale National Park==
*Amygdaloid Island - has a ranger station
*Beaver Island - has a campground
*Belle Isle - has a campground
*Caribou Island - has a campground
*Grace Island
*Johns Island
*Long Island
*Menagerie Island - has a lighthouse
*Mott Island - summer park headquarters
*Passage Island - has a lighthouse and short trail
*Raspberry Island - has a nature trail
*Rock of Ages - has a lighthouse
*Ryan Island (Siskiwit Lake) - the largest island in the largest lake on the largest island in the largest lake in the world
*Tookers Island - has a campground
*Washington Island - has a campground
*Wright Island
==References==
# {{note|dimensions}} {{Web reference | title=Isle Royal National Park | work=National Park Service | URL=http://www.nps.gov/isro/index.htm | date=October 13 | year=2005}}
==External links==
* Official site: [http://www.nps.gov/isro/ Isle Royale National Park]
* [http://www.isle.royale.national-park.com/info.htm Isle Royale National Park info page]
{{National parks of the United States}}
[[Category:1940 establishments]]
[[Category:Michigan landmarks]]
[[Category:National Parks of the United States]]
[[Category:Upper Peninsula of Michigan]]
[[de:Isle-Royale-Nationalpark]]
[[fr:Isle Royale National Park]]
INADS
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SimonP
1591
'''INADS''' can refer to:
*[[Centre for Inadmissible Passengers]]
*[[Initialization and Administration System]]
*[[Integrated Naval Air Defense Simulation]]
*[[Integrated NATO Air Defense System]]
*[[Investigational New Animal Drugs]]
{{disambig}}
Integrated NATO Air Defense System
15381
15912857
2005-02-06T17:07:59Z
SimonP
1591
[[Category:NATO]]
'''Integrated [[NATO]] Air Defense System''' or '''INADS''' was the NATO response to the [[Russia]]n development of long range [[bomber]]s in the [[1950s]]. The need to maintain a credible deterrence when early warning and intercept times were massively reduced led to the development of an improved air defense (AD) system.
Development was approved by the [[NATO Military Committee]] in December 1955. The system was to be based on four air defense regions (ADRs) coordinated by [[Supreme Allied Commander|SACEUR]] (Supreme Allied Commander Europe). Starting from [[1956]] early warning coverage was extended across [[Western Europe]] using eighteen radar stations. This part of the system was completed by [[1962]]. Linked to existing national radar sites the coordinated system was called the [[NATO Air Defense Ground Environment]] ([[NADGE]]). By [[1972]] NADGE consisted of 84 radar stations and associated control and reporting centers (CRC). The current system is Air Command and Control System (ACCS).
From [[1960]] NATO countries agreed to place all their air defense forces under the command of SACEUR in the event of war. These forces included command and control systems, radar installations, and Surface-to-Air (SAM) missile units as well as interceptor fighters.
[[Category:NATO]]
Invisible balance
15382
15912858
2005-05-06T00:45:57Z
SimonP
1591
[[Category:International trade]]
The '''invisible balance''' is that part of the [[balance of trade]] figures that refers to services and commercial [[money]] transfer that does not result in the transfer of physical objects. Examples include consulting services, tourism, and patent license revenues. This figure is usually generated by [[tertiary industry]].
In countries with more developed economies, this is a very important part of the figure, as a more developed economy is liable to import basic goods and food owing to the cheaper costs of production (especially labour) abroad. In order to get the balance of trade positive, the invisible balance must be greater than the negative effect of the visible balance.
[[Category:International trade]]
[[fr:Balance des invisibles]]
Isotopic tracer
15383
35433960
2006-01-16T19:24:22Z
Eskimbot
477460
robot Adding: fr
An '''isotopic tracer''', (also "isotopic marker" or "isotopic label"), is used in [[chemistry]] and [[biochemistry]] to help understand chemical [[Chemical reaction|reactions]] and interactions. In this technique, one or more of the [[atom]]s of the [[molecule]] of interest is substituted for an atom of the same [[chemical element]], but of a different (often [[radioactive]], such as in [[Radioactive tracer|radioactive tracing]]) [[isotope]]. Because the atom has the same number of protons, it will behave in almost exactly the same way chemically as other atoms in the compound, and with few exceptions will not interfere with the reaction under investigation. The difference in the number of [[neutron]]s, however, means that it can be detected separately from the other atoms of the same element.
[[Nuclear magnetic resonance|NMR]] typically uses this type of technique to investigate the mechanisms of chemical reactions (basically trying to find out which starting atom ends up where after a reaction), because NMR detects not only isotopic differences, but also gives an indication of the position of the atom.
[[Mass_spectrometer|Mass spectrometry]] can also be used with this technique, since mass spectra recorded with sufficiently high resolution can distinguish among isotopes based on the different masses resulting from the different number of neutrons.
Autoradiograms of gels in [[gel electrophoresis]] can also take advantage of this approach. In this technique, radioactive isotopes are used. The radiation emitted by compounds containing the radioactive isotopes darkens a piece of [[photographic film]], recording the position of these compounds relative to one another in the gel.
==See also==
*[[Radionuclide#Uses|Uses of radionuclides]]
[[Category:Physical chemistry]]
[[Category:Biochemistry]]
[[fr:Traceur isotopique]]
Irreducible complexity
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2006-03-03T13:50:05Z
Peter Grey
268253
/* Criticisms of irreducible complexity */
{{creationism2}}
'''Irreducible complexity''' is a controversial concept invoked in support of [[intelligent design]] which claims that the generally accepted [[scientific theory]] that [[life]] evolved through biological [[evolution]] by [[natural selection]] is incomplete and flawed and that some additional mechanism is required to explain the origins of life. An '''[[Irreducible (philosophy)|irreducibly]] [[Complexity|complex]]''' system is defined as one that could not possibly have been formed by successive, slight modifications to a functional precursor system.
The concept was popularized by [[Lehigh University]] [[biochemist]] and Fellow of the [[Discovery Institute]] [[Michael Behe]] in his [[1996]] book ''[[Darwin's Black Box]]'', wherein Behe argued that there are biochemical systems which are "irreducibly complex" because he saw no way in which these systems could be broken down into smaller functioning systems. With this argument, the book in effect supports what is known as [[intelligent design]], a form of the [[argument from design]], which is one of the arguments for the existence of a [[supernatural]] [[deity]].
In 2001, [[Michael Behe]] admitted that his work had a "defect" and does not actually address "the task facing natural selection."{{ref|behe_reply}} Furthermore, the concept of irreducible complexity is ignored or rejected by the majority of the [[scientific community]]. This rejection stems from the following: the concept utilises an [[argument from ignorance]], Behe fails to provide a testable [[hypothesis]], and there is a lack of [[evidence]] in support of the concept. As such, irreducible complexity is seen by the supporters of [[evolutionary theory]] as an example of [[creationist]] [[pseudoscience]], amounting to a [[God of the gaps]] argument.
In the 2005 [[Kitzmiller v. Dover Area School District|Kitzmiller v. Dover Area School District trial]] Behe testified under oath that irreducible complexity did not rule out known evolutionary mechanisms and that there are no peer-reviewed articles supporting his argument that certain complex molecular structures are "irreducibly complex." [http://en.wikisource.org/wiki/Kitzmiller_v._Dover_Area_School_District_4:_whether_ID_is_science#Page_88_of_139] The result of the trial was the [[Wikisource:Kitzmiller v. Dover Area School District 6: curriculum, conclusion#H. Conclusion|ruling]] that intelligent design is not science and is essentially religious in nature.
==Irreducible complexity (IC) ==
An early concept of irreducibly complex systems comes from [[Ludwig von Bertalanffy]], a 20th Century Austrian biologist, though he never used the term 'irreducible complexity' in his works{{ref|Bertalanffy}}. He believed that complex systems must be examined as complete, [[irreducible (philosophy)|irreducible]] systems in order to fully understand how they work. He extended his work on biological complexity into a general theory of systems in a book titled ''[[Systems theory|General Systems Theory]]''.
After [[James D. Watson|James Watson]] and [[Francis Crick]] published the structure of [[DNA]] in the early 1950s, General Systems Theory lost many of its adherents in the physical and biological sciences. [[Jacques Monod]]'s ''Chance and Necessity'' provides a good discussion of the "triumph" of the mechanistic view in biochemistry. Systems theory remained popular among social sciences long after its demise in the physical and biological sciences.
[[Michael Behe]] uses the term "irreducible complexity" in his 1996 book ''[[Darwin's Black Box]]'', to refer to certain complex biochemical [[Cell (biology)|cellular]] systems. He posits that evolutionary mechanisms cannot explain the development of such 'irreducibly complex' systems. Notably, Behe credits philosopher [[William Paley]] for the original concept, not Von Bertalanffy, and suggests that his application of the concept to biological systems is entirely original.
Intelligent design advocates argue that irreducibly complex systems must have been deliberately engineered by some form of intelligence.
According to the theory of evolution, genetic variations occur without specific design or intent. The environment "selects" the variants that have the highest fitness, which are then passed on to the next generation of organisms. Change occurs by the gradual operation of natural forces over time, perhaps slowly, perhaps more quickly (see [[punctuated equilibrium]]). This process is able to "create" complex structures from simpler beginnings, or convert complex structures from one function to another (see [[spandrel]]). Most intelligent design advocates accept that evolution occurs through mutation and natural selection at the "micro level," such as changing the relative frequency of various beak lengths in finches, but assert that it cannot account for irreducible complexity, because none of the parts of an irreducible system would be functional or advantageous until the entire system is in place.
Behe uses the mousetrap as an illustrative example of this concept. A mousetrap consists of several interacting pieces—the base, the catch, the spring, the hammer—all of which must be in place for the mousetrap to work. The removal of any one piece destroys the function of the mousetrap. Likewise, biological systems require multiple parts working together in order to function. Intelligent design advocates claim that natural selection could not create from scratch those systems for which science is currently not able to find a viable evolutionary pathway of successive, slight modifications, because the selectable function is only present when all parts are assembled. Behe's original examples of irreducibly complex mechanisms included the bacterial [[flagellum]] of ''[[E. coli]]'', the [[blood clotting]] cascade, [[cilia]], and the adaptive [[immune system]].
===Criticism===
The irreducible complexity argument also assumes that the necessary parts of a system have always been necessary, and therefore could not have been added sequentially. But something which is at first merely advantageous can later become necessary. For example, one of the clotting factors that Behe listed as a part of the clotting cascade was later found to be absent in whales,{{ref|whale_clotting}} demonstrating that it is not essential for a clotting system. Many purportedly irreducible structures can be found in other organisms as simpler systems that utilize fewer parts. These systems may have had even simpler precursors that are now extinct.
Perhaps most importantly, potentially viable evolutionary pathways have been proposed for allegedly irreducibly complex systems such as blood clotting, the immune system{{ref|evolving_immunity}} and the flagellum,{{ref|matzke_flag}} which were the three examples Behe used. Even his example of a mousetrap was shown to be reducible by John H. McDonald.{{ref|mcdonald_mousetrap}} If irreducible complexity is an insurmountable obstacle to evolution, it should not be possible to conceive of such pathways—Behe has remarked that such plausible pathways would defeat his argument.
Niall Shanks and Karl H. Joplin have shown that systems satisfying Behe's characterization of irreducible biochemical complexity can arise naturally and spontaneously as the result of self-organizing chemical processes.{{ref|shanks_joplin}} They also assert that what evolved biochemical and molecular systems actually exhibit is redundant complexity—a kind of complexity that is the product of an [[evolution|evolved]] biochemical process. They claim that Behe overestimated the significance of irreducible complexity because his simple, linear view of biochemical reactions results in his taking snapshots of selective features of biological systems, structures and processes, while ignoring the redundant complexity of the context in which those features are naturally embedded and an overreliance of overly simplistic metaphors such as his mousetrap. In addition, it has been claimed that computer simulations of evolution demonstrate that it is possible for irreducible complexity to evolve naturally.{{ref|nature_complex}}
It is illustrative to compare a mousetrap with a cat, in this context. Both normally function so as to control the mouse population. The cat has many parts that can be removed leaving it still functional; for example, its tail can be bobbed or it can be spayed. Evolution has endowed it with redundant eyes, so if one eye goes blind, the cat can still catch mice. Comparing the cat and the mousetrap, then, one sees that the mousetrap (which is not alive) offers better evidence, in terms of irreducible complexity, for intelligent design than the cat.
== Definitions ==
{{Intelligent Design}}
The term "irreducible complexity" was originally defined by Behe as:
: ''A single system which is composed of several interacting parts that contribute to the basic function, and where the removal of any one of the parts causes the system to effectively cease functioning''". (''[[Darwin's Black Box]]'' p9)
Supporters of intelligent design use this term to refer to biological systems and organs that they [[belief|believe]] could not have come about by any series of small changes. They argue that anything less than the complete form of such a system or organ would not work ''at all'', or would in fact be a ''detriment'' to the organism, and would therefore never survive the process of natural selection. Although they accept that some complex systems and organs ''can'' be explained by evolution, they claim that organs and biological features which are ''irreducibly complex'' cannot be explained by current models, and that an intelligent designer must have created life or guided its evolution. Accordingly, the debate on irreducible complexity concerns two questions: whether irreducible complexity can be found in nature, and what significance it would have if it did exist in nature.
A second definition given by Behe (his "evolutionary definition") is as follows:
:''An irreducibly complex evolutionary pathway is one that contains one or more unselected steps (that is, one or more necessary-but-unselected mutations). The degree of irreducible complexity is the number of unselected steps in the pathway.
Intelligent design advocate [[William Dembski]] gives this definition:
:''A system performing a given basic function is irreducibly complex if it includes a set of well-matched, mutually interacting, nonarbitrarily individuated parts such that each part in the set is indispensable to maintaining the system's basic, and therefore original, function. The set of these indispensable parts is known as the irreducible core of the system. (No Free Lunch, 285)
== Stated examples ==
Behe and others have suggested a number of biological features that they believe may be irreducibly complex.
=== Flagella ===
The [[flagella]] of certain bacteria constitute a [[molecular motor]] requiring the interaction of about 40 complex protein parts, and the absence of any one of these proteins causes the flagella to fail to function. Behe holds that the flagellum "engine" is irreducibly complex because if we try to reduce its complexity by positing an earlier and simpler stage of its evolutionary development, we get an organism which functions improperly. Mainstream scientists regard this argument as having been largely disproved in the light of fairly recent research [http://www.millerandlevine.com/km/evol/design2/article.html]. The basal body of the [[flagella]] has been found to be similar to the Type III secretion system (TTSS), which many bacteria use to secrete [[toxin]]s. This example of cooption is regarded as strong evidence against Behe's most developed example of irreducible complexity.
However, a genetic study of ''[[Yersinia pestis]]'' bacteria has shown their TTSS is a degenerated flagellum. The bacteria have lost the ability to completely build the flagellum, though they own the complete set of genes for it.
Additionally, the argument regarding the complexity of the flagellum is being disproven by additional scientific experiments. Kenneth Miller, a professor of cell biology at [[Brown University]] and other evolutionary researchers have noticed that the flagellum resembled a needle-like structure that bacteria such as salmonella use to inject toxins into living cells. The needle's base has many elements in common with the flagellum, but it is missing most of the proteins that make a flagellum work. Thus, this system seems to negate the claim that taking away any of the flagellum's parts would render it useless. It also suggests how the marvelously complex flagellum could have evolved from simpler forms. This has caused miller to note that, "The parts of this supposedly irreducibly complex system actually have functions of their own.”{{ref|flag_not}}
This topic is discussed in the article on the [[Evolution of flagella]].
=== Blood clotting cascade ===
The [[coagulation|blood clotting cascade]] in vertebrates is another complex biological pathway that is given as an example of irreducible complexity. For a detailed discussion see the article "Behe and the Blood Clotting Cascade" by George Acton [http://www.talkorigins.org/origins/postmonth/feb97.html].
== Forerunners ==
The argument from irreducible complexity is a descendant of the [[teleological argument]] for God (the argument from design or argument from complexity). This states that because certain things in nature are very complicated, they must have been designed, just as the existence of a watch implies the existence of a watchmaker (in [[William Paley]]'s [[watchmaker_analogy|famous argument]] of [[1802]]). This argument has a long history and can be traced back at least as far as [[Cicero]]'s ''De natura deorum'', ii. 34 (see Hallam, Literature of Europe, ii. 385, note).
While he did not originate the term, [[Charles Darwin]] identified the argument as a [[Falsifiability|testable]] prediction of the theory of [[evolution]] at the outset. In [[The Origin of Species]], he wrote, "If it could be demonstrated that any complex organ existed, which could not possibly have been formed by numerous, successive, slight modifications, my theory would absolutely break down. But I can find out no such case."
Darwin's theory of evolution challenges the teleological argument by postulating an alternative explanation to that of an intelligent designer: namely evolution by natural and sexual selection. The argument from irreducible complexity attempts to demonstrate that certain biological features cannot be purely the product of Darwinian evolution.
== Criticisms of irreducible complexity ==
There has been much scientific opposition to the irreducible complexity, with one science writer calling it a "full-blown intellectual surrender strategy." [http://www.sciam.com/article.cfm?articleID=00022DE1-0C15-11E6-B75283414B7F0000] It may be that irreducible complexity does not actually exist in nature: that the examples given by Behe and others are not in fact irreducibly complex, but can be explained in terms of simpler precursors. Thus they would either be merely ''very complex'', or they would be misunderstood or misrepresented.
The precursors of complex systems, when they are not useful in themselves, may be useful to perform other, unrelated functions. Evolutionary biologists argue that evolution often works in this kind of blind, haphazard manner in which the function of an early form is not necessarily the same as the function of the later form. The [[mammal]]ian ear (derived from a jawbone) and the [[Giant Panda|panda]]'s thumb (derived from a wrist bone spur) are considered classic examples. A current article in ''Nature'', Vol. '''439''', pp. 318-321 (Jan 19, 2006) by M. Brazeau and P. Ahlberg demonstrates intermediate states leading toward the development of the ear in a [[Devonian]] fish (about 360 million years ago). Furthermore, recent research shows that viruses play a heretofore unexpectedly great role in evolution by mixing and matching genes from various hosts.
Evolution can act to simplify as well as to complicate. This raises the possibility that apparently irreducibly complex biological features may have been achieved with a period of increasing complexity, followed by a period of simplification. By analogy, stone arches are irreducibly complex — if you remove any stone the arch will collapse — yet we build them easily enough, one stone at a time, by building over scaffolding that is removed afterward. Similarly, naturally occurring arches of stone are formed by weathering away bits of stone from a large concretion that has formed previously.
Behe has been accused of using an [[Argument from ignorance|argument by lack of imagination]], or constructing a "[[God of the gaps]]." Behe himself acknowledges that simply because scientists cannot currently see how an "irreducibly complex" organism could evolve, it does not prove that there is no possible way for it to have occurred.
Niall Shanks and Karl H. Joplin, both of [[East Tennessee State University]], have shown that systems satisfying Behe's characterization of irreducible biochemical complexity can arise naturally and spontaneously as the result of self-organizing chemical processes [http://www.asa3.org/ASA/topics/Apologetics/POS6-99ShenksJoplin.html]. They also assert that what evolved biochemical and molecular systems actually exhibit is redundant complexity \u2014 a kind of complexity that is the product of an [[evolution|evolved]] biochemical process. They argue that Behe overestimates the significance of irreducible complexity because his simple, linear view of biochemical reactions results in his taking snapshots of selective features of biological systems, structures and processes, while ignoring the redundant complexity of the context in which those features are naturally embedded and an over-reliance of overly-simplistic metaphors such as his mousetrap.
There has also been a theory that challenges irreducible complexity called [[facilitated variation]]. The theory has been presented by [[Marc W. Kirschner]], a professor and chair of Department of Systems Biology at [[Harvard Medical School]], and [[John C. Gerhart]], a professor in the Graduate School, [[University of California, Berkeley]]. In their theory they describe how certain mutation and changes can cause apparent irreducible complexity. Their book was published in 2005.
=== Gradual replacement ===
Arguments for irreducibility often assume that things started out the same way they ended up (as we see them now). However, that may not necessarily be the case.
Regarding Behe's '''antibody example''', we have the "marker" substance and the "killer" substance, that together hunt and kill marked invaders. Behe is saying that by themselves, the marker and the killer are useless, and thus must have been made at the same time. The killer cannot kill what it cannot find and the marker has no ability to kill even if it can find a target.
However, under gradual replacement, a different marker may have started out as an independent hunter AND killer. After a while, a helper killer joined this army because it had some nice specialties. However, this second killer still depended on the first one to find the target. Thus the first killer served as both a marker and a killer, and the second killer is just a killer, relying on the first to hunt.
Perhaps over time it is more efficient to have the 2nd killer specialize in killing and the first specialize in marking, and so the first killer is replaced by a similar substance that is merely a marker (perhaps a better marker than the first dual-purpose one).
Thus, each step is an advantage, yet the final result is a dependent pair that does not resemble the proto-killer. This example can be laid out as:
:A = original killer and marker
:K = second killer
:M = replacement marker
:# A
:# AK
:# AMK
:# MK
All we see today is "MK". Opponents of irreducible complexity state that Behe erroneously assumes that if the structure ended up MK, then it must have started out as M or K by themselves.
=== Handicaps and sexual selection ===
According to critics, another overlooked source of "irreducibly complex" features in a sexually reproducing organism is the [[Handicap principle]]. [[Sexual selection]] often favors those who can demonstrate to their mates a surplus of energy by maintaining a feature or behavior that is unnecessary for basic survival — sometimes even a hindrance. Examples include certain horns and antlers, display feathers, skin or hair colors and patterns, bony structure, scents, songs, symmetry, and elaborate ritualistic behavior. It is not unreasonable to imagine a handicapping feature eventually developing a useful purpose in a changing environment or for two or more handicapping features to become useful when combined. Conversely, a useful feature may evolve to become a handicapping feature, but through sexual selection the feature is passed through generations to again become useful in a completely different context. In this new context it may seem impossible to us that it was naturally selected to its purpose.
Imagine that a spontaneous hole formed in a pre-bird lizard's lung and quickly became a demonstration to potental mates that it has "energy to burn" because it was successful despite its handicap. Perhaps it evolved as a mating display because it made a distinctive sound like a frog's mating display. That feature could have been maintained by sexual selection long enough to have evolved into the modern bird lung we see today.
However, this objection accounts for relatively few of the virtually unlimited potential intermediate stages of evolving features.
=== Falsifiability and experimental evidence ===
Some critics, such as [[Jerry Coyne]] (professor of [[evolutionary biology]] at the [[University of Chicago]]) and [[Eugenie Scott]] (a [[physical anthropology|physical anthropologist]] and executive director of the [[National Center for Science Education]]) have argued that the concept of irreducible complexity, and more generally, the theory of [[intelligent design]] is not [[falsifiable]], and therefore, not [[scientific]].
Behe argues that the theory that irreducibly complex systems could not have been evolved can be falsified by an experiment where such systems are evolved. For example, he posits taking bacteria with no [[flagella]] and imposing a selective pressure for mobility. If, after a few thousand generations, the bacteria evolved the bacterial flagellum, then Behe believes that this would refute his theory.
Other critics take a different approach, pointing to experimental evidence that they believe falsifies the argument for Intelligent Design from irreducible complexity. For example, [[Kenneth Miller]] cites the lab work of Barry Hall on [[E. coli]], which he asserts is evidence that "Behe is wrong."
=== Behe's own Criticisms ===
In his "Reply to My Critics"{{ref|behe_reply}}, Behe admitted that there was a "defect" in his view of irreducible complexity because, while it purports to be a challenge to natural selection, it does not actually address "the task facing natural selection". Behe specifically explained that the "current definition puts the focus on removing a part from an already functioning system", but the "difficult task facing Darwinian evolution, however, would not be to remove parts from sophisticated pre-existing systems; it would be to bring together components to make a new system in the first place." In that article, Behe wrote that he hoped to "repair this defect in future work". However, such work has not yet been published.
===God and Irreducible Complexity===
The most basic philosophical criticism of irreducible complexity is that it defeats its own purpose. Namely, that either God is irreducibly complex and hence requires a further creator-of-God ([[ad infinitum]]) to create God, or that God is not irreducibly complex, and can be reduced to naturalistic explanation.
== Claimed significance ==
Behe argues that organs and biological features which are irreducibly complex cannot be wholly explained by current models of [[evolution]]. He argues that:
: ''An irreducibly complex system cannot be produced directly (that is, by continuously improving the initial function, which continues to work by the same mechanism) by slight, successive modifications of a precursor system, because any precursor to an irreducibly complex system that is missing a part is by definition nonfunctional.''
Irreducible complexity is not an argument that evolution does not occur, but rather an argument that it is incomplete. In the last chapter of [[Darwin's Black Box]], Behe goes on to explain his view that irreducible complexity is evidence for [[intelligent design]].
Mainstream critics however argue that irreducible complexity, as defined by Behe, can be generated by known evolutionary mechanisms. Behe's claim that there is no scientific literature on the evolution of biochemical systems is demonstrably false.
While testifying at the [[Kitzmiller v. Dover Area School District|Kitzmiller v. Dover Area School District trial]] Behe conceded that there are no peer-reviewed papers supporting his claims that complex molecular systems, like the bacterial flagellum, the blood-clotting cascade, and the immune system, were intelligently designed nor are there any peer-reviewed articles supporting his argument that certain complex molecular structures are "irreducibly complex." [http://en.wikisource.org/wiki/Kitzmiller_v._Dover_Area_School_District_4:_whether_ID_is_science#Page_88_of_139]
Irreducible complexity is at root an argument against evolution. If truly irreducible systems were found, the implication is that [[intelligent design]] is the correct explanation for their existence. However, this conclusion is based on the assumption that that current [[evolution]]ary theory and intelligent design are the only two valid models to explain life.
==See also==
* [[Intelligent design]]
* [[Specified complexity]]
==External links==
* Himma, Kenneth Einar. [http://www.iep.utm.edu/d/design.htm Design Arguments for the Existence of God]. ''Internet Encyclopedia of Philosophy''.
=== In support ===
*[http://www.arn.org/authors/behe.html Michael J. Behe home page]
*[http://www.icr.org/newsletters/afdec03.html Institute for Creation Research]
*[http://www.iscid.org/papers/Dembski_IrreducibleComplexityRevisited_011404.pdf Irreducible Complexity Revisited]
*[http://www.iscid.org/papers/Behe_ReplyToCritics_121201.pdf Behe's Reply to his Critics]
*[http://www.amasci.com/freenrg/newidea1.html Dr. Thomas Gold] opines about new scientific ideas.
*[http://www.answersingenesis.org/home/area/re2/chapter10.asp Argument: 'Irreducible complexity']
*[http://www.origins.org/menus/design.html Origins - Intelligent Design]
=== In opposition ===
*[http://www.epicidiot.com/evo_cre/vr_unlocking_the_mystery_of_life.htm, "Unlocking the Mystery of Life" - The bacterial motor video review]
*[http://www.philoonline.org/library/shanks_4_1.htm Behe, Biochemistry, and the Invisible Hand]
*[http://yalepress.yale.edu/yupbooks/book.asp?isbn=0300108656 Facilitated Variation]
*[http://www.bostonreview.net/br21.6/orr.html Darwin vs. Intelligent Design (again), by H. Allen Orr (review of Darwin's Black Box)]
*[http://www.talkorigins.org Talk.origins archive] (see [[talk.origins]])
**[http://www.talkorigins.org/faqs/behe.html Irreducible Complexity and Michael Behe: Do Biochemical Machines Show Intelligent Design?]
**[http://www.talkorigins.org/faqs/behe/review.html Darwin's Black Box: Irreducible Complexity or Irreproducible Irreducibility?] by Keith Robinson
**[http://www.talkorigins.org/faqs/behe/icsic.html Is the Complement System Irreducibly Complex?] by Mike Coon
**[http://www.talkorigins.org/faqs/genalg/genalg.html Genetic Algorithms] (Genetic algorithms have produced irreducibly complex solutions to real problems.)
**[http://www.talkorigins.org/faqs/bombardier.html Discussion of the Bombardier Beetle] at Talk.origins
*[http://www.talkdesign.org TalkDesign.org] (sister site to talk.origins archive on [[intelligent design]])
**[http://www.talkdesign.org/faqs/icdmyst/ICDmyst.html Irreducible complexity demystified] by Pete Dunkelberg.
*[http://www.millerandlevine.com Professor Kenneth R. Miller's textbook website]
**[http://www.millerandlevine.com/km/evol/DI/clot/Clotting.html A Darwinian explanation of the blood clotting cascade]
*[http://www.millerandlevine.com/km/evol/design2/article.html "The Flagellum Unspun: The Collapse of "Irreducible Complexity"] by Professor Miller
*[http://udel.edu/~mcdonald/mousetrap.html A reducibly complex mousetrap] (graphics-intensive, requires [[JavaScript]])
*[http://www.berteig.org/mishkin/IrreducibleComplexity.html A rigorous mathematical analysis of the concept of irreducible complexity] by Mishkin Berteig.
*[http://www.pamd.uscourts.gov/kitzmiller/kitzmiller_342.pdf PDF. 139 page in-depth analysis of Intelligent Design, Irreducible Complexity, and the book "Of Pandas and People" by a judge and based on expert testimony]
*[http://www.newyorker.com/fact/content/articles/050530fa_fact Devolution: Why intelligent design isn't] ([[The New Yorker]])
*[http://www.chicagotribune.com/technology/chi-0602130210feb13,1,1538105.story?page=1&ctrack=1&cset=true Unlocking cell secrets bolsters evolutionists] ([[Chicago Tribune]])
== References ==
# {{note|behe_reply}} Behe, Michael (2001). [http://www.ingentaconnect.com/content/klu/biph/2001/00000016/00000005/00353967 Reply to My Critics]. See also [http://www.talkorigins.org/faqs/dover/day12am2.html Behe's testimonial in Kitzmiller v. Dover]
#{{note|Bertalanffy}} Ludwig von Bertalanffy (1952). ''Problems of Life: An Evaluation of Modern Biological and Scientific Thought, pg 148'' ISBN 1131792424.
# {{note|whale_clotting}} Semba U, Shibuya Y, Okabe H, Yamamoto T., 1998. "[http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=pubmed&dopt=Abstract&list_uids=9678675 Whale Hageman factor (factor XII): prevented production due to pseudogene conversion]." ''Thromb Res.'' 1998 [[1 April]];90(1):31-7.
# {{note|matzke_flag}} Nic J. Matzke, 2003. "[http://www.talkdesign.org/faqs/flagellum_background.html Evolution in (Brownian) space: a model for the origin of the bacterial flagellum]." In ''TalkDesign.org''.
# {{note|mcdonald_mousetrap}} John H. McDonald [http://udel.edu/~mcdonald/mousetrap.html A reducibly complex mousetrap].
# {{note|shanks_joplin}} Niall Shanks and Karl H. Joplin. Redundant Complexity:A Critical Analysis of Intelligent Design in Biochemistry. East Tennessee State University. [http://www.asa3.org/ASA/topics/Apologetics/POS6-99ShenksJoplin.html]
# {{note|nature_complex}} Lenski RE, Ofria C, Pennock RT, Adami C., 2003. "[http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=PubMed&list_uids=12736677&dopt=Abstract The evolutionary origin of complex features]." ''Nature''. [[May 8]] [[2003]];423(6936):139-44.
# {{note|flag_not}} [http://www.chicagotribune.com/technology/chi-0602130210feb13,1,1538105.story?page=1&ctrack=1&cset=true Unlocking cell secrets bolsters evolutionists]
# {{note|evolving_immunity}} Matt Inlay, 2002. "[http://www.talkdesign.org/faqs/Evolving_Immunity.html Evolving Immunity]." In ''TalkDesign.org''.
* Behe, Michael (1996). ''[[Darwin's Black Box]]''. New York: The Free Press. ISBN 0684834936
* Denton, Michael (1996). ''Evolution: A Theory in Crisis''. Adler & Adler.
* Mcnab, Robert M. (2004). ''Type III flagellar protein export and flagellar assembly'' Biochim Biophys Acta. '''1694'''(1-3):207-17. Review. PMID: 15546667
* Ruben, J.A.; Jones, T.D.; Geist, N.R.; & Hillenius, W.J. ([[November 14]], [[1997]]). Lung Structure and Ventilation in Theropod Dinosaurs and Early Birds. ''Science'' '''278''' (5341) 1267–1270.
* Sunderland, Luther D. (March 1976). Miraculous Design in Woodpeckers. ''Creation Research Society Quarterly''.
* [http://www.carlzimmer.com/articles/2005/articles_2005_Avida.html Testing Darwin] [[Discover Magazine]] [http://www.discover.com/issues/feb-05/cover/ Vol. 26 No. 02] | February 2005
[[de:Nichtreduzierbare Komplexität]]
[[Category:Creationism]]
[[Category:Intelligent design]]
[[Category:Intelligent design movement]]
Arabian mythology
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Toira
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The garamantes were not Arabs.
{{Fertile Crescent myth (Arabian)}}
'''Arabian mythology''' is the ancient beliefs of the [[Arab]]s. Prior to the arrival and initial codification of [[Islam]] on the [[Arabian Peninsula]] in [[622]] CE, year one of the [[Islamic calendar]], the physical centre of Islam, the [[Kaaba]] of [[Mecca]], did not hold only the single symbol of "the [[God]]" as it does now. The Kaaba was instead covered in symbols representing the myriad [[demon]]s, [[Genie|djinn]], [[demigod]]s and other assorted creatures which represented the profoundly [[polytheistic]] environment of pre-Islamic Arabia. We can infer from this [[plurality]] an exceptionally broad context in which [[mythology]] could flourish.
==See also==
*[[Babylonian mythology]]
==Sources==
*''Gods, Demons and Symbols of Ancient Mesopotamia'' by Jeremy Black and Anthony Green (ISBN 0292707940)
{{Asia-myth-stub}}
{{MEast-hist-stub}}
[[pt:Mitologia Islâmica]]
[[Category:Islamic mythology]]
[[Category:Mythology by culture]]
[[Category:Arabic culture]]
Irish Mythology
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#REDIRECT [[Irish_mythology]]
Imperial Conferences
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Hu
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Direct link for [[Commonwealth of Nations]]
'''Imperial Conferences''' were gatherings of [[British Empire]] government leaders in [[London]] in [[1887]], [[1897]], [[1902]], [[1907]], [[1911]], [[1921]], [[1923]], [[1926]], [[1930]] and [[1937]]. The 1907 conference changed the name from "Colonial Conference" and agreed that the meetings should henceforth be regular rather than taking place while overseas statesmen were visiting London for royal occasions (jubilees, coronations).
The conferences were a key forum for [[Dominions|Dominion]] governments to assert the desire for removing the remaining vestiges of their colonial status. The conference of [[1926]], by [[Balfour Declaration 1926|Balfour Declaration]], marked the acknowledgement that the Dominions would henceforth rank as equals to the [[United Kingdom]], as members of British Commonwealth of Nations. The conference of [[1930]] came to conclusion to remove the legislative supremacy of the British Parliament as it was expressed through the [[Colonial Laws Validity Act]], and recommended a declaratory enactment of the United Kingdom Parliament, passed with the consent of the Dominions. The [[Statute of Westminster 1931]] was enacted by the imperial Parliament in pursuance of that recommendation.
After [[World War II]], with the transformation of the British Empire into the [[Commonwealth of Nations]], Imperial Conferences were replaced by biennial [[Commonwealth Heads of Government Meeting]].
==See also==
*[[Imperial War Cabinet]]
[[Category:British Empire]]
Interpreter
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Reverted edits by [[Special:Contributions/81.79.149.242|81.79.149.242]] ([[User talk:81.79.149.242|talk]]) to last version by RoySmith
'''Interpreter''' can mean one of the following:
*[[Interpreter (communication)]], a person who facilitates dialogue between parties who use different languages.
*[[Interpreter (computing)]], a program designed to run other non-executable programs directly.
*[[Interpreter (history)]], a person who acts the role of a historical character in a living museum.
*[[The Interpreter]], a 2005 movie starring Nicole Kidman and Sean Penn.
----
{{disambig}}
International Refugee Organization
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Rich Farmbrough
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External links per MoS.
The '''International Refugee Organization''' (IRO) was founded in [[1946]] to deal with the massive refugee problem created by [[World War II]]. It was a [[United Nations]] [[specialized agency]] and took over many of the functions of the earlier [[United Nations Relief and Rehabilitation Administration]]. In [[1952]] its operations ceased, and it was replaced by the Office of the [[United Nations High Commissioner for Refugees]] (UNHCR). It is the only specialized agency to have ever gone out of existence.
It was established by the Constitution of the International Refugee Organization, adopted by the [[United Nations General Assembly]] on December 15, 1952.
'''IRO''' is also the abbreviation for the International Ragnarok Online server, servicing Ragnarok Players of North America.
==External links==
* [http://www.yale.edu/lawweb/avalon/decade/decad053.htm Constitution of the International Refugee Organization]
[[Category:United Nations specialized agencies]]
[[Category:1946 establishments]]
IRO
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#REDIRECT [[International Refugee Organization]]
IBAN
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#REDIRECT [[International Bank Account Number]]
Irrealism in music
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Michael Snow
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merged
#REDIRECT [[Irrealism]]
Isabella d'Este
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2006-03-03T18:19:09Z
205.147.242.4
Corrected typos.
[[image:Isabella_d'Este.jpg|right|200px|thumb|Isabella d'Este]]
One of the leading women of the [[Italy|Italian]] [[Renaissance]], '''Isabella d'Este''' ([[18 May]] [[1474]] - [[13 February]] [[1539]]) was a major cultural and political figure.
She was a daughter of [[Ercole d'Este I|Ercole I d'Este]], Duke of [[Ferrara]], and [[Eleonora Of Aragon]], daughter of [[Ferdinand I of Aragon]] and [[Isabel de Claremont]]. Her younger sister was the equally famous [[Beatrice d'Este]], Duchess of [[Milan]] as consort to [[Lodovico Sforza]]. She was related by birth or marriage to almost every ruler in Spain and is known as "The First Lady Of The Renaissance".
Isabella d'Este was very well-educated in her youth, as her voluminous correspondence from [[Mantua]] reveals. The [[Este]] sisters were exposed to many of the new Renaissance ideas: later Isabella became a passionate, even greedy collector of Roman sculpture and commissioned modern sculptures in the antique style. At the age of 16 she was married to [[Francesco II of Gonzaga | Francesco Gonzaga]], Marquis of [[Mantua]]. They were [[Ariosto]]'s patrons while he was writing ''[[Orlando Furioso]]'' and both she and her husband were greatly influenced by [[Baldassare Castiglione]], author of [[The Book of the Courtier | ''Il Cortigiano'' ('The Courtier')]] a model for aristocratic decorum for two hundred years, and it was at his suggestion that [[Giulio Romano]] was summoned to Mantua to enlarge the Castello and other buildings. Under her auspices the court of Mantua became one of the most cultured in Europe. Among the other important artists, writers, thinkers, and musicians being drawn to it were [[Raffaello Santi|Raphael]], [[Andrea Mantegna]], and the composers [[Bartolomeo Tromboncino]] and [[Marchetto Cara]]. Her court sculptor was [[Pier Jacopo Alari Bonacolsi]], who re-interpreted works of antiquity in small finely-finished and often partly gilded bronzes that earned him the nickname "L'Antico". She was painted twice by [[Titian]], (see illustration at right), and [[Leonardo da Vinci]]'s portrait drawing of her is at the [[Musee du Louvre|Louvre]]. She was a keen musician herself, who considered stringed instruments, such as the [[lute]], superior to winds, which were associated with vice and strife; she also considered poetry incomplete until it was set to music, and sought the most skilled composers of the day to complete the task.
After the death of her husband, Isabella ruled Mantua as regent for her child. She began to play an important role in Italian politics, steadily advancing Mantua's position. Her many important accomplishments include advancing Mantua to a Duchy and also obtaining a [[Cardinal (Catholicism)|cardinal]]ate for her younger son. She also showed great diplomatic and political skill in her negotiations with [[Cesare Borgia]], who had dispossessed [[Guidobaldo da Montefeltre]], duke of [[Urbino]], the husband of her sister-in-law and intimate friend.
[[Elisabetta Gonzaga]] (1502).
[[Category:1474 births|d'Este, Isabella]]
[[Category:1539 deaths|d'Este, Isabella]]
[[Category:Italian nobility|d'Este, Isabella]]
[[de:Isabella d'Este]]
[[fr:Isabella d'Este]]
[[it:Isabella d'Este]]
[[ja:イザベラ・デステ]]
International standard
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/* See also */
[[standardization|Standard]]s are produced by many organizations, some for internal usage only, others for use by a groups of people, groups of companies, or a subsection of an industry. A problem arises when different groups come together, each with a large user base doing some well established thing that between them is mutually incompatible. Establishing international standards is one way of preventing or overcoming this problem.
There are many national and regional standards organisations, but the three [[international organization]]s having the highest international recognition are the [[International Organization for Standardization]] (ISO), the [[International Electrotechnical Commission]] (IEC), and the [[International Telecommunication Union]] (ITU). All three of these have existed for more than 50 years (founded in 1947, 1906, and 1865, respectively) and they are all based in [[Geneva]], [[Switzerland]]. They have established tens of thousands of standards covering almost every conceivable topic. Many of these are then adopted worldwide replacing various incompatible 'homegrown' standards. Many of these standards are naturally evolved from those designed in-house within an industry, or by a particular country, whilst others have been built from scratch by groups of experts who sit on various Technical Committees.
In addition to these organizations, there exist literally thousands of [[standards organizations]] that set standards within some more limited context, such as [[IETF]], [[W3C]] or [[IEEE]].
==See also==
*[[International Organization for Standardization]] (ISO) and [[List of ISO standards]]
*[[International Electrotechnical Commission]] (IEC) and [[List of IEC standards]]
*[[International Telecommunication Union]] (ITU) and [[:Category:ITU-T recommendations]]
*[[British Standards]] (formerly British Standards Institute, BSI)
*[[ASTM International]]
*[[Open standard]]
*[[Standardisation]]
*[[Standards Organizations]]
==External links==
*[http://www.iso.ch/ The ISO Web Site]
*[http://www.iec.ch/ The IEC Web Site]
*[http://www.itu.ch/ The ITU Web Site]
*[http://www.astm.org/ The ASTM Web Site]
*[http://www.bsi-global.com/ The BSI Web Site]
*[http://www.beuth.de/ The DIN Web Site]
*[http://www.bis.org.in/ The BIS Web Site]
*[http://www.ipc.org/ The IPC Web Site]
*[http://www.sae.org/ The SAE Web Site]
*[http://www.aiag.org/ The AIAG Web Site]
*[http://www.ieee.org/ The IEEE Web Site]
[[Category:Standards]]
[[fi:Standardi]]
ISO 4217
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Octothorn
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'''ISO 4217''' is the [[international standard]] describing three letter codes (also known as the '''currency code''') to define the names of [[currency|currencies]] established by the [[International Organization for Standardization]] (ISO). The ISO 4217 code list is the established norm in [[banking]] and [[business]] all over the world for defining different currencies, and in many countries the codes for the more common currencies are so well known publicly, that [[exchange rate]]s published in newspapers or posted in [[bank]]s use only these to define the different currencies, instead of translated currency names or ambiguous [[currency symbol]]s.
The first two letters of the code are the two letters of [[ISO 3166-1 alpha-2]] [[country codes]] (which are similar to those used for [[Country code top-level domain|national top-level domains]] on the [[Internet]]) and the third is usually the initial of the currency itself. So [[Japan]]'s currency code becomes '''JPY'''—JP for Japan and Y for [[yen]]. This eliminates the problem caused by the names [[Dollar|dollar]], [[Franc|franc]] and [[Pound (currency)|pound]] being used in dozens of different countries, each having significantly differing values. Also, if a currency is revalued, the currency code's last letter is changed to distinguish it from the old currency. In some cases, the third letter is the initial for "new" in that country's language, to distinguish it from an older currency that was revalued; the code often long outlasts the usage of the term "new" itself. Examples of this include the [[Mexican peso]] ('''MXN''') and the [[Turkish lira]] ('''TRY'''). Other changes can be seen, however; the Russian [[ruble]], for example, changed from '''RUR''' to '''RUB''', where the B comes from the third letter in the word "ruble".
There is also a three-digit code number assigned to each currency, in the same manner as there is also a three-digit code number assigned to each country as part of [[ISO 3166]].
The standard also defines the relationship between the major currency unit and any minor currency unit. Often, the minor currency unit has a value that is 1/100 of the major unit, but 1/10 or 1/1000 are also common. Some currencies do not have any minor currency unit at all. In others, the major currency unit has so little value that the minor unit is no longer generally used (e.g. the Japanese ''sen'', 1/100th of a yen). [[Mauritania]] does not use a decimal division of units, setting 1 [[Mauritanian ouguiya|ouguiya]] (UM) = 5 [[khoums]], and [[Madagascar]] has 1 [[ariary]] = 5 [[iraimbilanja]].
ISO 4217 includes codes for not only currencies, but also codes for precious metals ([[gold]], [[silver]], [[palladium]] and [[platinum]]; by definition expressed per one [[troy ounce]], as compared to "1 USD") and certain other entities used in international finance, e.g. [[Special Drawing Rights]]. There are also special codes allocated for testing purposes ('''XTS'''), and to indicate no currency transactions (XXX). These codes all begin with the letter "X". The precious metals use "X" plus the metal's [[chemical symbol]]; silver, for example, is '''XAG'''. ISO 3166 never assigns country codes beginning with "X", so ISO 4217 can use "X" codes for non-country-specific currencies without risk of clashing with future country codes.
Supranational currencies, such as the [[East Caribbean dollar]], the [[CFP franc]], the [[CFAF|CFA franc]] BEAC and the CFA franc BCEAO are normally also represented by codes beginning with an "X". However, the [[Euro]] is represented by the code '''EUR'''; although EU is not an [[ISO 3166-1]] country code, it was used anyway, and in order to do so EU was added to the [[ISO 3166-1]] reserved codes list to represent the [[European Union]]. The predecessor to the Euro, the [[European Currency Unit]], had the code XEU.
== History ==
In 1973, the ISO Technical Committee 68 decided to develop codes for the representation of currencies and funds for use in any application of trade, commerce or banking. At the 17th session (February 1978) of the related [[UN]]/[[United_Nations_Economic_Commission_for_Europe|ECE]] Group of Experts agreed that the three letter alphabetic codes for International Standard ISO 4217, "Codes for the representation of currencies and funds", would be suitable for use in international trade.
Over time, new currencies are created and old currencies are discontinued. Frequently, these changes are due to new governments (through war or a new constitution), treaties between countries standardizing on a currency, or revaluation of the currency due to excessive inflation. As a result, the list of codes must be updated from time to time. The ISO 4217 maintenance agency (MA), the [[British Standards Institution]], is responsible for maintaining the list of codes.
== Active codes (sorted by code) ==
These are listed in the form: <nowiki><code> <official ISO 4217 currency name> (<location>)</nowiki>
# AED [[UAE Dirham]] ([[United Arab Emirates]])
# AFN [[Afghani]] ([[Afghanistan]])
# ALL [[Lek]] ([[Albania]])
# AMD [[Armenian Dram]] ([[Armenia]])
# ANG [[Netherlands Antillian Guilder]] ([[Netherlands Antilles]]) <!--(assuming Guikder is a typo) (it surely is)-->
# AOA [[Kwanza]] ([[Angola]])
# ARS [[Argentine Peso]] ([[Argentina]])
# AUD [[Australian Dollar]] ([[Australia]])
# AWG [[Aruban Guilder]] ([[Aruba]])
# AZN [[Azerbaijanian Manat]] ([[Azerbaijan]])
# BAM [[Convertible Marks]] ([[Bosnia and Herzegovina]])
# BBD [[Barbados Dollar]] ([[Barbados]])
# BDT [[Taka]] ([[Bangladesh]])
# BGN [[Bulgarian Lev]] ([[Bulgaria]])
# BHD [[Bahraini Dinar]] ([[Bahrain]])
# BIF [[Burundian Franc]] ([[Burundi]])
# BMD [[Bermudian Dollar]] (customarily known as [[Bermuda Dollar]]) ([[Bermuda]])
# BND [[Brunei Dollar]] ([[Brunei]])
# BOB [[Boliviano]] ([[Bolivia]])
# BOV Bolivian Mvdol (Funds code) ([[Bolivia]])
# BRL [[Brazilian Real]] ([[Brazil]])
# BSD [[Bahamian Dollar]] ([[Bahamas]])
# BTN [[Ngultrum]] ([[Bhutan]])
# BWP [[Pula]] ([[Botswana]])
# BYR [[Belarussian Ruble]] ([[Belarus]])
# BZD [[Belize Dollar]] ([[Belize]])
# CAD [[Canadian Dollar]] ([[Canada]])
# CDF [[Franc Congolais]] ([[Democratic Republic of Congo]])
# CHF [[Swiss Franc]] ([[Switzerland]])
# CLF [[Unidades de formento]] (Funds code) ([[Chile]])
# CLP [[Chilean Peso]] ([[Chile]])
# CNY [[Yuan Renminbi]] ([[People's Republic of China]])
# COP [[Colombian Peso]] ([[Colombia]])
# COU [[Unidad de Valor Real]] ([[Colombia]])
# CRC [[Costa Rican Colon]] ([[Costa Rica]])
# CSD [[Serbian Dinar]] ([[Serbia]])
# CUP [[Cuban Peso]] ([[Cuba]])
# CVE [[Cape Verde Escudo]] ([[Cape Verde]])
# CYP [[Cyprus Pound]] ([[Cyprus]])
# CZK [[Czech Koruna]] ([[Czech Republic]])
# DJF [[Djibouti Franc]] ([[Djibouti]])
# DKK [[Danish Krone]] ([[Denmark]], [[Faroe Islands]])
# DOP [[Dominican Peso]] ([[Dominican Republic]])
# DZD [[Algerian Dinar]] ([[Algeria]])
# EEK [[Kroon]] ([[Estonia]])
# EGP [[Egyptian Pound]] ([[Egypt]])
# ERN [[Nakfa]] ([[Eritrea]])
# ETB [[Ethiopian Birr]] ([[Ethiopia]])
# EUR [[Euro]] ([[Andorra]], [[Austria]], [[Belgium]], [[Finland]], [[France]], [[French Guiana]], [[French Southern Territories]], [[Germany]], [[Greece]], [[Guadeloupe]], [[Ireland]], [[Italy]], [[Luxembourg]], [[Martinique]], [[Mayotte]], [[Monaco]], [[Montenegro]], [[Netherlands]], [[Portugal]], [[Reunion]], [[Saint Pierre and Miquelon]], [[San Marino]], [[Spain]], [[Vatican City]])
# FJD [[Fiji Dollar]] ([[Fiji]])
# FKP [[Falkland Islands Pound]] ([[Falkland Islands]])
# GBP [[Pound Sterling]] ([[United Kingdom]])
# GEL [[Lari]] ([[Georgia (country)|Georgia]])
# GHC [[Cedi]] ([[Ghana]])
# GIP [[Gibraltar Pound]] ([[Gibraltar]])
# GMD [[Dalasi]] ([[Gambia]])
# GNF [[Guinea Franc]] ([[Guinea]])
# GTQ [[Guatemalan quetzal|Quetzal]] ([[Guatemala]]
# GYD [[Guyana Dollar]] ([[Guyana]])
# HKD [[Hong Kong Dollar]] ([[Hong Kong]])
# HNL [[Lempira]] ([[Honduras]])
# HRK [[Croatian Kuna]] ([[Croatia]])
# HTG [[Haiti Gourde]] ([[Haiti]])
# HUF [[Forint]] ([[Hungary]])
# IDR [[Rupiah]] ([[Indonesia]])
# ILS [[New Israeli Shekel]] ([[Israel]])
# INR [[Indian Rupee]] ([[Bhutan]], [[India]])
# IQD [[Iraqi Dinar]] ([[Iraq]])
# IRR [[Iranian Rial]] ([[Iran]])
# ISK [[Iceland Krona]] ([[Iceland]])
# JMD [[Jamaican Dollar]] ([[Jamaica]])
# JOD [[Jordanian Dinar]] ([[Jordan]])
# JPY [[Yen]] ([[Japan]])
# KES [[Kenyan Shilling]] ([[Kenya]])
# KGS [[Som]] ([[Kyrgyzstan]])
# KHR [[Riel]] ([[Cambodia]])
# KMF [[Comoro Franc]] ([[Comoros]])
# KPW [[North Korean Won]] ([[North Korea]])
# KRW [[Won]] ([[South Korea]])
# KWD [[Kuwaiti Dinar]] ([[Kuwait]])
# KYD [[Cayman Islands Dollar]] ([[Cayman Islands]])
# KZT [[Tenge]] ([[Kazakhstan]])
# LAK [[Kip]] ([[Laos]])
# LBP [[Lebanese Pound]] ([[Lebanon]])
# LKR [[Sri Lanka Rupee]] ([[Sri Lanka]])
# LRD [[Liberian Dollar]] ([[Liberia]])
# LSL [[Loti]] ([[Lesotho]])
# LTL [[Lithuanian Litas]] ([[Lithuania]])
# LVL [[Latvian Lats]] ([[Latvia]])
# LYD [[Libyan Dinar]] ([[Libya]])
# MAD [[Moroccan Dirham]] ([[Morocco]], [[Western Sahara]])
# MDL [[Moldovan Leu]] ([[Moldova]])
# MGA [[Malagasy Ariary]] ([[Madagascar]])
# MKD [[Denar]] ([[Macedonia]])
# MMK [[Kyat]] ([[Myanmar]])
# MNT [[Tugrik]] ([[Mongolia]])
# MOP [[Pataca]] ([[Macau]])
# MRO [[Ouguiya]] ([[Mauritania]])
# MTL [[Maltese Lira]] ([[Malta]])
# MUR [[Mauritius Rupee]] ([[Mauritius]])
# MVR [[Rufiyaa]] ([[Maldives]])
# MWK [[Kwacha]] ([[Malawi]])
# MXN [[Mexican Peso]] ([[Mexico]])
# MXV [[Mexican Unidad de Inversion]] (UDI) (Funds code) ([[Mexico]])
# MYR [[Malaysian Ringgit]] ([[Malaysia]])
# MZM [[Metical]] ([[Mozambique]]) (assuming merical is a typo)
# NAD [[Namibian Dollar]] ([[Namibia]])
# NGN [[Naira]] ([[Nigeria]])
# NIO [[Cordoba Oro]] ([[Nicaragua]])
# NOK [[Norwegian Krone]] ([[Norway]])
# NPR [[Nepalese Rupee]] ([[Nepal]])
# NZD [[New Zealand Dollar]] ([[Cook Islands]], [[New Zealand]], [[Niue]], [[Pitcairn]], [[Tokelau]])
# OMR [[Rial Omani]] ([[Oman]])
# PAB [[Balboa]] ([[Panama]])
# PEN [[Nuevo Sol]] ([[Peru]])
# PGK [[Kina]] ([[Papua New Guinea]])
# PHP [[Philippine Peso]] ([[Philippines]])
# PKR [[Pakistan Rupee]] ([[Pakistan]])
# PLN [[Zloty]] ([[Poland]])
# PYG [[Guarani]] ([[Paraguay]])
# QAR [[Qatari Rial]] ([[Qatar]])
# RON [[New Leu]] ([[Romania]])
# RUB [[Russian Ruble]] ([[Russia]])
# RWF [[Rwanda Franc]] ([[Rwanda]])
# SAR [[Saudi Riyal]] ([[Saudi Arabia]])
# SBD [[Solomon Islands Dollar]] ([[Solomon Islands]])
# SCR [[Seychelles Rupee]] ([[Seychelles]])
# SDD [[Sudanese Dinar]] ([[Sudan]])
# SEK [[Swedish Krona]] ([[Sweden]])
# SGD [[Singapore Dollar]] ([[Singapore]])
# SHP [[Saint Helena Pound]] ([[Saint Helena]])
# SIT [[Tolar]] ([[Slovenia]])
# SKK [[Slovak Koruna]] ([[Slovakia]])
# SLL [[Leone]] ([[Sierra Leone]])
# SOS [[Somali Shilling]] ([[Somalia]])
# SRD [[Surinam Dollar]] ([[Suriname]])
# STD [[Dobra]] ([[São Tomé and Príncipe]])
# SYP [[Syrian Pound]] ([[Syria]])
# SZL [[Lilangeni]] ([[Swaziland]])
# THB [[Baht]] ([[Thailand]])
# TJS [[Somoni]] ([[Tajikistan]])
# TMM [[Manat]] ([[Turkmenistan]])
# TND [[Tunisian Dinar]] ([[Tunisia]])
# TOP [[Pa'anga]] ([[Tonga]])
# TRY [[New Turkish Lira]] ([[Turkey]])
# TTD [[Trinidad and Tobago Dollar]] ([[Trinidad and Tobago]])
# TWD [[New Taiwan Dollar]] ([[Taiwan]])
# TZS [[Tanzanian Shilling]] ([[Tanzania]])
# UAH [[Hryvnia]] ([[Ukraine]])
# UGX [[Uganda Shilling]] ([[Uganda]])
# USD [[US Dollar]] ([[American Samoa]], [[British Indian Ocean Territory]], [[Ecuador]], [[El Salvador]], [[Guam]], [[Haiti]], [[Marshall Islands]], [[Micronesia]], [[Northern Mariana Islands]], [[Palau]], [[Panama]], [[Palau]], [[East Timor]], [[Turks and Caicos Islands]], [[United States]], [[Virgin Islands]], [[Western Samoa]])
# UYU [[Peso Uruguayo]] ([[Uruguay]])
# UZS [[Uzbekistan Som]] ([[Uzbekistan]])
# VEB [[Bolivar]] ([[Venezuela]])
# VND [[Dong]] ([[Vietnam]])
# VUV [[Vatu]] ([[Vanuatu]])
# WST [[Tala]] ([[Samoa]])
# XAF [[CFA Franc BEAC]] ([[Cameroon]], [[Central African Republic]], [[Congo]], [[Chad]], [[Equatorial Guinea]], [[Gabon]])
# XAG [[Silver]] (one [[Troy ounce]])
# XAU [[Gold]] (one [[Troy ounce]])
# XBA [[European Composite Unit]] (EURCO) (Bonds market unit)
# XBB [[European Monetary Unit]] (E.M.U.-6) (Bonds market unit)
# XBC [[European Unit of Account 9]] (E.U.A.-9) (Bonds market unit)
# XBD [[European Unit of Account 17]] (E.U.A.-17) (Bonds market unit)
# XCD [[East Caribbean Dollar]] ([[Anguilla]], [[Antigua and Barbuda]], [[Dominica]], [[Grenada]], [[Montserrat]], [[Saint Kitts and Nevis]], [[Saint Lucia]], [[Saint Vincent and the Grenadines]])
# XDR [[Special Drawing Rights]] ([[International Monetary Fund|IMF]])
# XFO [[Gold-franc]] (Special settlement currency)
# XFU [[UIC franc]] (Special settlement currency)
# XOF [[CFA Franc BCEAO]] ([[Benin]], [[Burkina Faso]], [[Côte d'Ivoire]], [[Guinea-Bissau]], [[Mali]], [[Niger]], [[Senegal]], [[Togo]])
# XPD [[Palladium]] (one [[Troy ounce]])
# XPF [[CFP franc]] ([[French Polynesia]], [[New Caledonia]], [[Wallis and Futuna]])
# XPT [[Platinum]] (one [[Troy ounce]])
# XTS Code reserved for testing purposes
# XXX No currency
# YER [[Yemeni Rial]] ([[Yemen]])
# ZAR [[Rand]] ([[Lesotho]], [[Namibia]], [[South Africa]])
# ZMK [[Kwacha]] ([[Zambia]])
# ZWD [[Zimbabwe Dollar]] ([[Zimbabwe]])
==Currency Numeric Codes==
ALPHABETIC CODE NUMERIC CODE
ADP 20
AED 784
AFA 4
ALL 8
AMD 51
ANG 532
AON 24
AOR 982
ARS 32
ATS 40
AUD 36
AWG 533
AZM 31
AZN 944
BAM 977
BBD 52
BDT 50
BEF 56
BGL 100
BGN 975
BHD 48
BIF 108
BMD 60
BND 96
BRL 986
BSD 44
BTN 64
BWP 72
BYR 974
BZD 84
CAD 124
CDF 976
CHF 756
CLF 990
CLP 152
CNY 156
COP 170
CRC 188
CUP 192
CVE 132
CYP 196
CZK 203
DEM 276
DJF 262
DKK 208
DOP 214
DZD 12
ECS 218
ECV 983
EEK 233
EGP 818
ERN 232
ESP 724
ETB 230
EUR 978
FIM 246
FJD 242
FKP 238
FRF 250
GBP 826
GEL 981
GHC 288
GIP 292
GMD 270
GNF 324
GRD 300
GTQ 320
GWP 624
GYD 328
HKD 344
HNL 340
HRK 191
HTG 332
HUF 348
IDR 360
IEP 372
ILS 376
INR 356
IQD 368
IRR 364
ISK 352
ITL 380
JMD 388
JOD 400
JPY 392
KES 404
KGS 417
KHR 116
KMF 174
KPW 408
KRW 410
KWD 414
KYD 136
KZT 398
LAK 418
LBP 422
LKR 144
LRD 430
LSL 426
LTL 440
LUF 442
LVL 428
LYD 434
MAD 504
MDL 498
MGF 450
MKD 807
MMK 104
MNT 496
MOP 446
MRO 478
MTL 470
MUR 480
MVR 462
MWK 454
MXN 484
MXV 979
MYR 458
MZM 508
NAD 516
NGN 566
NIO 558
NLG 528
NOK 578
NPR 524
NZD 554
OMR 512
PAB 590
PEN 604
PGK 598
PHP 608
PKR 586
PLN 985
PTE 620
PYG 600
QAR 634
ROL 642
RUB 643
RUR 810
RWF 646
SAR 682
SBD 90
SCR 690
SDD 736
SEK 752
SGD 702
SHP 654
SIT 705
SKK 703
SLL 694
SOS 706
SRG 740
STD 678
SVC 222
SYP 760
SZL 748
THB 764
TJR 762
TJS 972
TMM 795
TND 788
TOP 776
TPE 626
TRL 792
TTD 780
TWD 901
TZS 834
UAH 980
UGX 800
USD 840
USN 997
USS 998
UYU 858
UZS 860
VEB 862
VND 704
VUV 548
WST 882
XAF 950
XAG 961
XAU 959
XBA 955
XBB 956
XBC 957
XBD 958
XCD 951
XDR 960
XFO Nil
XFU Nil
XOF 952
XPD 964
XPF 953
XPT 962
XTS 963
XXX 999
YER 886
YUM 891
ZAL 991
ZAR 710
ZMK 894
ZRN 180
ZWD 716
==Without currency code==
A number of territories are not included in ISO 4217, because their currencies are not ''per se'' an independent currency, but a variant of another currency. In the case of the [[Channel Islands]] and the [[Isle of Man]], they have no [[ISO 3166-1 alpha-2]] [[country codes]] and hence there is no corresponding currency code. These currencies are:
# [[Faroese króna]] (dependent on the [[Danish krone]])
# [[Guernsey pound]] (dependent on the [[Pound sterling]]; no ISO 3166-1 alpha-2 country code)
# [[Jersey pound]] (dependent on the [[Pound sterling]]; no ISO 3166-1 alpha-2 country code)
# [[Isle of Man pound]] (dependent on the [[Pound sterling]]; no ISO 3166-1 alpha-2 country code)
# [[Tuvaluan dollar]] (dependent on the [[Australian dollar]]).
== Obsolete currency codes ==
Note that the currency names used below may not match the currency names used in the ISO standard itself, but the codes do match.
===Replaced by Euro===
# ADP [[Andorran Peseta]]
# ATS Austrian [[Schilling]]
# BEF [[Belgian Franc]]
# DEM [[Deutsche Mark]]
# ESP Spanish [[Peseta]]
# FIM Finnish [[Markka]]
# FRF [[French franc|French Franc]]
# GRD Greek [[Drachma]]
# IEP [[Irish Pound]]
# ITL [[Italian Lira]]
# LUF [[Luxembourg Franc]]
# NLG Dutch [[Dutch Gulden|Guilder]]
# PTE [[Portuguese Escudo]]
# XEU [[European Currency Unit]] (ECU)
===Replaced for other reasons===
# AFA [[Afghani (currency)|Afghani]] (replaced by AFN)
# ALK Albanian old lek (replaced by ALL)
# AON Angolan New Kwanza (replaced by AOA)
# AOR Angolan Kwanza Readjustado (replaced by AOA)
# ARP Peso Argentino (replaced by ARS)
# ARY Argentine peso (replaced by ARS)
# AZM [[Azerbaijan]]i [[Azerbaijani manat|manat]] (replaced by AZN)
# BEC [[Belgian Franc]] (convertible)
# BEL Belgian Franc (financial)
# BGJ Bulgarian lev A/52 (replaced by BGN)
# BGK Bulgarian lev A/62 (replaced by BGN)
# BGL Bulgarian lev A/99 (replaced by BGN)
# BOP Bolivian peso (replaced by BOB)
# BRB Brazilian cruzeiro (replaced by BRL)
# BRC Brazilian cruzado (replaced by BRL)
# CNX Chinese People's Bank dollar (replaced by CNY)
# CSJ [[Czechoslovakia|Czechoslovak]] koruna A/53
# CSK [[Czechoslovakia|Czechoslovak]] koruna (replaced by CZK and SKK)
# DDM mark der DDR (East Germany) (replaced by DEM)
# ECS Ecuador [[Sucre (currency)|sucre]] (replaced by USD)
# ECV Ecuador [[Unidad de Valor Constante]] (Funds code) (discontinued)
# EQE Equatorial Guinean ekwele (replaced by XAF)
# ESA Spanish peseta (account A)
# ESB Spanish peseta (account B)
# GNE Guinean syli (replaced by XOF)
# GWP Guinea peso (replaced by XOF)
# ILP Israeli pound (replaced by ILR)
# ILR Israeli old shekel (replaced by ILS)
# ISJ Icelandic old krona (replaced by ISK)
# LAJ Lao kip - Pot Pol (replaced by LAK)
# MAF Mali franc (replaced by XOF)
# MGF [[Madagascar|Malagasy]] [[franc]] (replaced by MGA)
# MKN Macedonian denar A/93 (replaced by MKD)
# MVQ Maldive rupee (replaced by MVR)
# MXP Mexican peso (replaced by MXN)
# PEH Peruvian sol (replaced by PEN)
# PLZ Polish złoty A/94 (replaced by PLN)
# ROK Romanian leu A/52 (replaced by ROL)
# ROL [[Romania]]n [[Romanian leu|leu]] A/05 (replaced by RON)
# RUR Russian ruble (replaced by RUB)
# SRG Suriname guilder (replaced by SRD)
# SUR Soviet Union ruble (replaced by RUB)
# SVC [[El Salvador|Salvadoran]] [[Colón (currency)|colón]] (replaced by USD)
# TPE Timor escudo
# TRL [[Lira|Turkish lira]] A/05 (replaced by TRY)
# UGW Ugandan old shilling (replaced by UGX)
# UYN Uruguay old peso (replaced by UYU)
# VNC Vietnamese old dong (replaced by VND)
# YDD South Yemeni dinar (replaced by YER)
# YUD New Yugoslavian Dinar (replaced by CSD)
# YUM Yugoslavian Dinar (replaced by CSD)
# ZAL South African [[financial rand]] (Funds code) (discontinued)
# ZRN New Zaire (replaced by CDF)
# ZRZ Zaire (replaced by CDF)
# ZWC Zimbabwe Rhodesian dollar (replaced by ZWD)
== See also ==
*[[List of circulating currencies]]
*[[Currency]]
*[[Table of historical exchange rates]]
*[[List of international trade topics]]
*[[Society for Worldwide Interbank Financial Telecommunication|SWIFT]] and [[List of SWIFT codes]]
== External links ==
* [http://www.iso.org/iso/en/prods-services/popstds/currencycodeslist.html The official list of ISO-4217 alphabetic and numeric codes]
*[http://www.unece.org/cefact/recommendations/rec09/rec09_ecetrd203.pdf An older list of ISO-4217 alphabetic codes that contains some history of ISO-4217] ([[PDF]] file)
*[http://fx.sauder.ubc.ca/currency_table.html Another list of numeric and alphabetic ISO 4217 currency codes]
<!--
*[http://www.bsi-global.com/Portfolio+of+Products+and+Services/Books+Guides/Consumer/th42090.xalter] – ISO 4217 Maintenance Authority at the British Standards Institute – includes list of currency codes (not up-to-date).
*[http://www.unece.org/cefact/rec/cocucod.htm] – [[United Nations Economic Commission for Europe]] (UNECE) – Country and Currency Codes [http://www.unece.org/cefact/rec/cocucod.htm] (up-to-date):
-->
* Currency conversion:
** [http://coinmill.com/ Calculator for Currency Rate Exchange]
**http://www.xe.com/ucc/
**http://www.oanda.com/convert/classic
*[http://www.fx4business.com/services/EasyReference.html Travelex Country and Currency Guide]
[[Category:Currency]]
[[Category:Encodings]]
[[Category:International economics]]
[[Category:International trade]]
[[ast:ISO 4217]]
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Intrauterine Device
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Conversion script
Automated conversion
#REDIRECT [[Intrauterine device]]
Indo-Germanic
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Angr
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#REDIRECT [[Indo-European]]
Irgun
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2006-03-01T20:13:59Z
Guy Montag
144804
[[Image:Irgun1.jpg|thumb|right|Irgun poster showing their view of the Land of Israel]] '''Irgun''' (ארגון), shorthand for '''Irgun Tsvai Leumi''' (ארגון צבאי לאומי, also spelled '''Irgun Zvai Leumi'''), [[Hebrew language|Hebrew]] for "National Military Organization", was a militant [[Zionism|Zionist]] group that operated in the [[British Mandate of Palestine]] from 1931 to 1948. In Israel, this group is commonly referred to as '''Etzel''' (אצ"ל), an acronym of the Hebrew initials. In the time in which the Irgun operated, often people referred to the Irgun as 'הגנה ב or ההגנה הלאומית. The Irgun was classified by [[Britain|British]] authorities as a [[terrorism|terrorist]] organization and regularly described as such by many, but others considered it to be a [[resistance movement|liberation movement]]. Its political association with [[Revisionist Zionism]] rendered it a predecessor movement to modern Israel's [[right-wing]] [[Likud]] party/coalition.
===Founding, development and key events===
The group was an offshoot of the [[Haganah]] in protest both against its policy of restraint and [[socialist]] leanings. Based on the premises formulated by [[Ze'ev Jabotinsky]] that "every [[Jew]] had the right to enter [[British Mandate of Palestine|Palestine]]; only active retaliation would deter the [[Arab]]s; only Jewish armed force would ensure the Jewish state," (Howard Sachar: A ''History of the State of Israel'', pps 265-266) the group made retaliation against Arab attacks a central part of their initial efforts. The [[Jewish Agency]] denounced the existence, strategy, and tactics of the group from the very outset, leading to a full-fledged confrontation in 1948 that led to the dissolution of the group.
Irgun was founded in 1931 by [[Avraham Tehomi]], following a largely political and ideological split with the [[Haganah]] after he had assumed leadership over the district of [[Jerusalem]]. Irgun differentiated itself from the Haganah by disassociating from the socialist ideology and the prevalent strategy of ''Havlagah'', or restraint. Throughout its history Irgun advocated a more decisive use of force in the defense of Jews in Mandate Palestine and in advancing the formation of a Jewish state.
While the strategy, tactics, and operational methods of the organization changed through the years, its primary goals were to:
* Provide a non-Socialist alternative to the leading Zionist organizations;
* Eliminate or reduce the threat of Arab attacks on Jewish targets by assured and harsh retaliation for such attacks;
* Bring to an end the British mandatory rule, which they considered in violation of international law
From its inception, the group went through several phases in its short lifespan.
* From 1931 to 1937 it was a small, renegade group that undertook scattered attacks against Arab targets. This phase ended when the group itself split, with some of its leaders, including the original founder, Tehomi, returning to the Haganah; and the group formally identifying itself as "Etzel" (Irgun).
* During the [[Great Uprising]] (1936-1939), in which about 320 [[Jew]]s were killed in Arab attacks, Irgun resumed its reprisal attacks against Arabs. Following the killing of five Jews at [[Kibbutz Kiryat Anavim]] on [[November 9]], [[1937]], Irgun launched a [[List of Irgun attacks during the 1930's|series of attacks]] which lasted until the beginning of [[World War II]], in which more than 250 Arab civilians were killed.
* These attacks coincided roughly with Irgun's campaign of facilitating immigration of European Jews who faced discrimination, murder and pogroms in Europe. The first vessel arrived on [[April 13]], [[1937]], and the last on [[February 13]], [[1940]]. All told, about 18,000 Jews escaped [[genocide]] in Europe in this way.
* Upon the publication of the [[1939 White Paper|White Paper]] in May of 1939, Irgun concentrated all its efforts against the British.
* From 1940 through 1943, Irgun declared a truce against the British, and supported Allied efforts against Nazi forces and their allies in the area by enlisting its members in British forces and the [[Jewish Brigade]]. A small group lead by [[Avraham Stern]], who insisted on continuing to fight the British, broke off and formed an independent group, [[Lehi]]. In 1941, the Irgun leader, [[David Raziel]] volunteered for a dangerous British military mission in [[Iraq]] to capture or kill [[Amin al-Husayni]], but was killed by a [[Luftwaffe|German bomber]] before the operation could be finished.
* In February of 1944, under the new leadership of [[Menachem Begin]], Irgun resumed hostilities against the British authorities. The purpose of these attacks was to increase the cost of British mandatory rule and influence British public opinion so as to encourage British withdrawal. It included attacks on prominent symbols of the British administration, including the [[British army|British military]], police, and civil headquarters at the [[King David Hotel bombing|King David Hotel]] and the British prison in [[Acre]]. Although these attacks were largely successful, several Irgun operatives were captured, convicted, and hanged. Refusing to accept the jurisdiction of the British courts, those accused refused to defend themselves. The Irgun leadership ultimately responded to these executions by hanging two British sergeants, which effectively brought the executions to an end.
* Following the assassination of [[Lord Moyne]] by [[Lehi (group)|Lehi]], the [[Yishuv]] and [[Jewish Agency]] initiated "[[The Hunting Season]]" on Irgun and the Lehi group, facilitating the arrest of some 1000 members of those organizations who were interned in British camps. The British deported 251 of them to camps in [[Africa]].
* From about October of 1945 until July 1946, Irgun was in an alliance with the Haganah and Lehi called the [[Jewish Resistance Movement]] (תנועת המרי העברי), organized to fight British restrictions on Jewish immigration. This alliance ended when Irgun bombed British military, police, and civil headquarters at the King David Hotel as a retaliation for [[Operation Agatha]].
* From July 1946 until June 1948, Irgun fought as irregulars against the British mandate and Arab forces, informally in coordination with Haganah forces. Their participation in alleged [[war crimes]] at [[Deir Yassin]] has been widely discussed and documented. Their largest single operation was a successful assault on [[Jaffa, Israel|Jaffa]] (an Arab enclave according to the UN partition plan) starting on May 25.
* In 1948, the group was formally dissolved and its members integrated into the newly formed [[Israeli Defense Forces]]. This integration largely coincided with the sinking of the [[Altalena Affair|Altalena]], a ship with fighters Irgun had recruited and arms Irgun had acquired for the Israeli forces.
===Legacy of Irgun===
Leaders within the mainstream [[Jewish Agency]], [[Haganah]], [[Histadrut]], as well as British authorities, routinely condemned (publicly at least; privately the Haganah kept a dialogue with the dissident groups) Irgun operations as [[Terrorism|terrorist]] and branded it an illegal organization, as a result of the groups attacks on civilian targets. In their defense, former Irgun leaders assert that:
* The premises for their founding and strategy were vindicated by subsequent events. Arab violence against Jews in the mandate of Palestine could only be deterred through retaliation; the British authorities only ended their restrictions on Jewish immigration when pressured by force; and unrestricted Jewish immigration was a matter of saving lives, both during the [[Shoah]] and during post-World War II [[pogrom]]s in [[Poland]] and [[Ukraine]].
* Operations that are usually characterized as "terrorist" had another character. The [[King David Hotel bombing]] was considered a legitimate military target, being the British military headquarters; the attack on [[Deir Yassin]] was part of a campaign to control the road between Jerusalem and Tel Aviv; the attack on the Acre prison was to release prisoners the British intended to hang.
<!-- * At least one of the attacks plainly made against civilians was unauthorized by the Irgun.-->
===Radio station===
The Irgun had, from 1939, a [[Radio station]]: [[Kol TSion HaLokhemet]].
===See also===
* [[Lehi (group)]] (also known as Stern gang)
* [[List of Irgun attacks during the 1930s]]
* [[List of Irgun attacks during the 1940s]]
==Further reading==
*J. Bowyer Bell, ''Terror Out of Zion: Irgun Zvai Leumi, Lehi, and the Palestine Underground, 1929-1949'', (Avon, 1977), ISBN 0-380393964
==External links==
* [http://www.etzel.org.il/english/index.html Official History of Irgun]
* [http://www.us-israel.org/jsource/History/irguntoc.html History of Irgun by an American Jewish Organization]
* [http://www.britannica.com/ebc/article?eu=393481 Encyclopedia Britannica Entry on Irgun]
[[Category:History of Israel]]
[[Category:Israel Defense Forces]]
[[Category:Militant Zionist groups]]
[[Category:National liberation movements]]
[[Category:Terrorism]]
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Isuroku Yamamoto
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#REDIRECT [[Isoroku Yamamoto]]
Isoroku Yamamoto
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/* Preparing for war, 1920s and 1930s -- added an accent aigu to 'attache' */
{{cleanup-date|December 2005}}
[[Image:Admiral Isoroku Yamamoto.jpg|thumb|260px|Admiral Isoroku Yamamoto]]
'''Isoroku Yamamoto''' ([[:ja:山本五十六|山本五十六]] ''Yamamoto Isoroku'', [[April 4]] [[1884]] – [[April 18]] [[1943]]) was the commander of the [[Imperial Japanese Navy]] for the first four years of [[World War II]]. He is generally regarded to be Japan's greatest naval strategist of the war, and among the greatest naval strategists in history.
==Family background==
Yamamoto was born ''Isoroku Takano'' (高野 五十六 ''Takano Isoroku'') in [[Nagaoka, Niigata|Nagaoka]] in [[Niigata prefecture|Niigata]]. His father was ''Takano Sadayoshi'' (高野 貞吉 ''Takano Sadayoshi''), a lower-ranking [[samurai]] of Nagaoka-[[Han (Japan)|han]]. "Isoroku" is an old Japanese term meaning "56"; the name referred to his father's age at Isoroku's birth.
In 1916, Isoroku was adopted into the Yamamoto family and took the Yamamoto name. It was a common practice for Japanese families lacking sons to adopt suitable young men in this fashion to carry on the family name. In 1918, Isoroku married a woman named Reiko with whom he sired four children: two sons and two daughters.
==Early naval career==
Yamamoto enrolled at the [[Naval Academy]] at [[Etajima]], [[Hiroshima, Japan|Hiroshima]] in [[1901]], graduating in [[1904]]. In [[1905]] during the [[Russo-Japanese War]], he saw action as an ensign on the cruiser ''[[Nisshin]]'' at the [[Battle of Tsushima]] against the [[Russian Baltic Fleet]]. At that engagement, he lost two [[finger]]s on his left hand (see picture on the right). After the war, served in various shipboard assignments for several years.
In 1911 he took the "B" course at the Naval Staff College, and later the "A" course in 1916 on an obvious track for higher command. While studying in the United States at [[Harvard University]] (1919-1921) he was hired to plant a garden and several trees, on a farm in Dartmouth, Massachusetts. He served as executive officer of the light cruiser ''Kitakami'', toured Europe and America as an admiral's aide (1923-1924), and then moved into the realm of Naval Aviation in 1924 as the executive officer of a naval air station.
He served attaché duty in Washington, D.C. (1925-1928), then returned to naval aviation, commanding in succession, the [[aircraft carrier]] [[Japanese aircraft carrier Akagi|Akagi]] (1928), the Naval Aviation Department's Technical Bureau (1930-1933) and the First Carrier Division (1933). After serving as a delegate to the London Naval Conference, he commanded the Naval Aviation Department (1935).
Yamamoto received appointment as the Navy Vice Minister in 1936, holding that post until his assignment as Commander-in-Chief of the Combined Fleet. He also held the Naval Aviation Department command concurrently (1938-1939).
Yamamoto was promoted to Rear Admiral in 1929, Vice Admiral in 1934, and Admiral in 1940.
:''Reference: Evans & Peattie (1997).''
==Preparing for war, 1920s and 1930s==
[[Image:Yamamoto.jpg|thumb|right|260px|Admiral Yamamoto]]
Although a political dove and fundamentally opposed to war with the United States by virtue of studies in the U.S., his tour of the nation as an admiral's aide, and his attaché duty in Washington D.C., Yamamoto was inevitably drawn into war preparations by circumstance and his devotion to duty. His participation in the second [[London Naval Conference]] of 1930 made him a marked man for radical militarists in his service, as the continuing limitation of Japan's naval armaments was wildly unpopular with them.
Yamamoto systematically opposed the invasion of [[Manchuria]] in [[1931]], the subsequent land war with China (1937), and the alliance with [[Nazi Germany]]. He further enraged militarist sentiments by personally apologizing to U.S. Ambassador Joseph C. Grew for the bombing of the gunboat U.S.S. Panay in December 1937. As Japan slid progressively toward war, the militarists marked Yamamoto for assassination and he was prudently reassigned from the Navy Ministry to sea as Commander-in-Chief of the Combined Fleet ([[30 August]] [[1939]]), in part to make him harder for assassins to reach. He was promoted to Admiral, [[15 November]] [[1940]]. Yamamoto warned Premier [[Konoe Fumimaro]] to avoid war with the United States: "If I am told to fight... I shall run wild for the first six months... but I have utterly no confidence for the second or third year." He was proven uncannily correct as the June 1942 [[Battle of Midway]] (generally considered the key turning point in the Pacific conflict) occurred almost six months to the day after the bombing of [[Attack on Pearl Harbor|Pearl Harbor]].
In naval matters, Yamamoto opposed the building of the super-battleships [[Japanese battleship Yamato|Yamato]] and [[Japanese battleship Musashi|Musashi]]. He believed their construction a strain on Japan's limited resources and their utility questionable. Uninformed observers have criticized Yamamoto as being somehow latently "battleship-centric" for later employing both ships as flagships, but these selections were probably driven by the mundane demands of having adequate accommodations for the Combined Fleet staff personnel, and sufficient radio facilities for command and control. Ultimately, Yamamoto was proven correct about the super-battleships' limited usefulness as they spent much of the war at anchor and never successfully came to grips with their American counterparts, instead being sunk by massed air attack.
Yamamoto was responsible for a number of innovations in Japanese Naval Aviation. Although remembered for his association with aircraft carriers due to Pearl Harbor and Midway, Yamamoto did more to influence the development of land-based naval aviation, particularly the [[G3M]] and [[G4M]] medium bombers. His demand for great range and the ability to carry a torpedo was intended to conform to Japanese conceptions of attriting the American fleet as it advanced across the Pacific in war. The planes did achieve truly remarkable range, but at the price of outstripping the range of any potential fighter escorts while also being so lightly constructed and so loaded with fuel that they were tragically vulnerable to enemy fire. This earned the G4M the sardonic nick-name "the Flying Cigarette Lighter" and Yamamoto ironically died in one of these aircraft.
The range of the G3M and G4M contributed to a demand for great range in a fighter aircraft. This partly drove the requirements for the [[A6M Zero]] which was as noteworthy for its astonishing range as for its legendary maneuverability. Both qualities were again purchased at the expense of light construction and flammability that later contributed to the A6M's downfall as the war progressed.
As Japan moved toward war during 1940, Yamamoto gradually moved toward strategic as well as tactical innovation, again with mixed results. Prompted by talented young officers such as Minoru Genda, Yamamoto approved the reorganization of Japanese carrier forces into the First Air Fleet, a consolidated striking force that gathered Japan's six largest carriers into one unit. This innovation gave great striking capacity, but also concentrated the vulnerable carriers into a compact target; both boon and bane would be realized in war. Yamamoto also oversaw the organization of a similar large land-based organization in the 11th Air Fleet, which would later use the G3M and G4M to neutralize American air forces in the [[Philippines]] and sink the British Force "Z."
In January 1941, Yamamoto went even farther and proposed a radical revision of Japanese naval strategy. For two decades, the Naval General Staff had planned in terms of Japanese light surface forces, submarines and land-based air units whittling down the American Fleet as it advanced across the Pacific until engaging in a climactic "Decisive Battle" in the northern Philippine Sea between the Ryukyu Islands on the west and the [[Marianas Islands]] on the east. This battle was intended to take place when the American forces had finally been worn down to parity with the Japanese Navy.
Correctly citing that this plan had never worked even in Japanese wargames, and painfully aware of American strategic advantages in military productive capacity, Yamamoto proposed instead to seek a decision with the Americans by first reducing their forces with a preemptive strike, and then following that with a "Decisive Battle" that would be sought offensively, rather than defensively. Yamamoto hoped, but probably did not believe, that if the Americans could be dealt such terrific blows early in the war, they might be willing to negotiate an end to the conflict. All hope of such vanished when he became aware that the note breaking diplomatic relations with the United States was delivered late and he correctly perceived the Americans would be resolved upon revenge. Yamamoto's thoughts on this matter were later dramatically encapsulated in the apocryphal "[[Isoroku Yamamoto's sleeping giant quote|sleeping giant]]" quote uttered in the movie "[[Tora! Tora! Tora!]]"
The Naval General Staff proved reluctant to go along and Yamamoto was eventually driven to capitalize on his popularity in the fleet by threatening to resign to get his way. Admiral Osami Nagano and the Naval General Staff eventually caved in to this pressure, but only insofar as approving the Pearl Harbor Raid. Surprise attacks were a Japanese military tradition when starting a war and they could see their way clear to supporting such to give themselves six months to secure the resources of the Netherlands East Indies without the interference of the American navy.
The First Air Fleet commenced preparations for the Pearl Harbor Raid, solving a number of technical problems along the way, including how to launch torpedoes in the shallow water of Pearl Harbor and how to craft armor piercing bombs by machining down battleship gun projectiles.
:''References: Evans & Peattie (1997), Peattie (2002)''.
===The attack on Pearl Harbor, 1941===
{{main|Attack on Pearl Harbor}}
As Yamamoto had planned, the First Air Fleet of six carriers armed with about 400 planes, commenced hostilities against the Americans on [[7 December]] [[1941]], launching 353 of those aircraft against Pearl Harbor in two waves. The attack was a complete success according to the parameters of the mission which sought to sink at least four American battleships and prevent the U.S. Fleet from interfering in Japan's southward advance for at least six months. American aircraft carriers were also considered a choice target, but were not prioritized ahead of battleships as some observers have mistakenly suggested.
In fact, five American battleships were sunk, three more damaged, and ten other cruisers, destroyers and auxiliaries were sunk or seriously damaged. Although Yamamoto later lamented that First Air Fleet Commander Vice Admiral [[Chuichi Nagumo]] did not seize the initiative to seek out and destroy the American carriers that were absent from the harbor, or further bombard various strategically important facilities on Oahu, Nagumo prudently withdrew after his stunning success. The Japanese lost only 29 aircraft when they had expected to lose far more and perhaps two carriers as well. Nagumo also had absolutely no idea where the American carriers might be and risked their finding and attacking him first at a vulnerable moment. His aircraft also lacked appropriate ordnance for attacking the machine tools and [[drydock]]s of the shipyard, or even the revetted fuel tanks, whose destruction could have been far more serious losses than the fighting ships themselves. Insufficient daylight remained after recovering the aircraft from the first two waves to launch and recover a third, and Nagumo's escorting [[destroyer]]s lacked the fuel capacity for him to loiter long. Too much has been made of Yamamoto's hindsight and wishful thinking and it is instructive to note that he did not punish Nagumo in any way for his withdrawal, which was after all according to plan.
On the political level, the attack was a disaster for Japan, rousing American passions for revenge due to it being a "sneak attack". In fact, the Japanese had begun all their modern wars in this fashion and it was fully expected they would do so again - just not at Pearl Harbor. The shock of the attack coming in an unexpected place, with such devastating results and without the "fair play" of a declaration of war galvanized American determination to avenge the attack.
As a strategic blow intended to prevent American interference in the Netherlands East Indies for six months, the attack was a success, but unbeknownst to Yamamoto, a pointless one. The U.S. Navy had abandoned any intention of attempting to charge across the Pacific to the Philippines at the outset of war in 1935. In 1937, the [[U.S. Navy]] had further determined that even fully manning the U.S. Fleet to wartime levels could not be accomplished in less than six months, and myriad other logistic assets needed to execute a trans-Pacific movement simply did not exist and would require two years to construct after the onset of war. In 1940, U.S. Chief of Naval Operations, Admiral [[Harold Rainsford Stark|Harold Stark]] had penned "Plan Dog" which emphasized a defensive war in the Pacific while the U.S. concentrated on defeating Nazi Germany first, and consigned Admiral [[Husband Kimmel]]'s [[U.S. Pacific Fleet|Pacific Fleet]] to merely keeping the I.J.N. out of the eastern Pacific and away from the shipping lanes to [[Australia]].
As a tactical raid, the attack was a smashing victory, handily achieving its limited objectives at an amazingly low price of 29 aircraft (and five miniature submarines that contributed nothing of value). Hindsight and wishful thinking on the part of the Japanese regarding the attack's flaws, and American unpreparedness should not detract from the appreciation that military forces seldom achieve such complete surprise and devastation in an operation. Credit for husbanding the ambitious brain-child of his talented air subordinates to fruition is Yamamoto's.
:''References: Evans & Peattie (1997), Miller (1991), Peattie (2002)''.
==Six months of running wild, December 1941 to May 1942==
With the American Fleet largely neutralized at Pearl Harbor, Yamamoto's Combined Fleet turned to the task of executing the larger Japanese war plan devised the Army and Navy General Staffs. The First Air Fleet proceeded to make a circuit of the Pacific, striking American, Australian, Dutch and British installations from [[Wake Island]] to Australia to Ceylon (now [[Sri Lanka]]) in the [[Indian Ocean]]. The 11th Air Fleet caught the American 7th Air Force on the ground in the Philippines hours after Pearl Harbor, and then proceeded to sink the British Force "Z" (battleship [[HMS Prince of Wales (1939)|HMS Prince of Wales]] and battlecruiser [[HMS Repulse (1916)|HMS Repulse]]) underway at sea.
Under Yamamoto's able subordinates, Vice Admirals Ozawa, Kondo and Takahashi, the Japanese swept the inadequate remaining American, British, Dutch and Australian naval assets from the Netherlands East Indies in a series of amphibious landings and surface naval battles that culminated in the [[Battle of the Java Sea]] on [[27 February]] [[1942]]. With the occupation of the Netherlands East Indies, and the reduction of the remaining American positions in the Philippines to forlorn hopes on the [[Bataan Peninsula]] and [[Corregidor]] island, the Japanese had secured their oil- and rubber-rich "Southern Resources Area".
Having achieved their initial aims with surprising speed and little loss (albeit against enemies ill-prepared to resist them), the Japanese paused to consider their next moves. Since neither the British nor the Americans were willing to negotiate, thoughts turned to securing and protecting their newly seized territory, and acquiring more with an eye toward additional conquest and/or attempting to force one or more enemies out of the war.
Competing plans developed at this stage, including thrusts to the west against India, the south against Australia and the east against the United States. Yamamoto was involved in this debate, supporting different plans at different times with varying degrees of enthusiasm and for varying purposes, including "horse-trading" for support of his objectives.
Plans included ideas as ambitious as invading [[India]] or Australia, as well as seizing [[Hawaii]]. These grandiose ventures were inevitably set aside as the Army could not spare enough troops from China for the first two, and Japan lacked the shipping to support the latter two. Instead, the Imperial General Staff supported an Army thrust into [[Burma]] in hopes of linking up with Indian Nationalists revolting against British rule, and attacks in [[New Guinea]] and the [[Solomon Islands]] designed to imperil Australia's sea line of communication with the United States.
Instead, the Imperial General Staff chose to pursue elements of the western and eastern options. The Army would attack into Burma, while the Navy would extend the defensive island perimeter to the east in an effort to sever the sea line of communications between the U.S. and Australia. Yamamoto agitated for an offensive Decisive Battle in the east to finish the American fleet, but the more conservative staff officers were unwilling to risk it.
In the midst of theses debates, the [[Doolittle Raid]] struck [[Tokyo]] and the surrounding areas, galvanizing the threat posed by the American aircraft carriers that had launched it in the minds of the staff officers, and giving Yamamoto an event he could exploit to get his way. The Naval General Staff agreed to Yamamoto's Midway (MI) Operation, subsequent to the first phase of the operations against Australia's link with America.
Yamamoto rushed planning for the Midway venture and the concurrent diversionary effort against the Aleutians, while dispatching a force under Rear Admiral Takagi, including the Fifth Carrier Division (the large, new carriers [[Shokaku]] and [[Zuikaku]]), to support the effort to seize the islands of [[Tulagi]] and [[Guadalcanal (Pacific Ocean island)|Guadalcanal]] for seaplane and airplane bases, and the town of [[Port Moresby]] on Papua New Guinea's south coast facing Australia.
The Port Moresby (MO) Operation proved an unwelcome reverse. Although Tulagi and Guadalcanal were taken, the Port Moresby invasion fleet turned back when Takagi clashed with an American carrier task force in the [[Battle of the Coral Sea]] in early May. Although the Japanese sank a large American carrier in exchange for a smaller carrier, the Americans damaged the carrier Shokaku so badly she required dockyard repairs. Just as importantly, Japanese operational mishaps and American fighters and anti-aircraft fire devastated the dive-bomber and torpedo plane elements of both Shokaku's and Zuikaku's air groups. These losses side-lined the Zuikaku while she awaited replacement aircraft and replacement aircrew (and saw to the tactical integration and training of the later). These two ships would be sorely missed a month later at Midway.
:''References: Dull (1978) , Evans & Peattie (1997), Lundstrom (1984).''
==The Battle of Midway, June 1942==
Yamamoto's plan for the Midway (MI) Operation has been misunderstood and misevaluated for decades. It was not the spur-of-the-moment whim of an arrogant man. Nor was it a senselessly complex gamble or an emotional over-reaction to the Doolittle Raid. It was the logical extension of Yamamoto's efforts to knock the U.S. Pacific Fleet out of action long enough for Japan to fortify its defensive perimeter in the Pacific island chains. Yamamoto had realized from the beginning that it would be necessary to seek an early, offensive Decisive Battle to have any hope - however thin - of bringing the Americans to the negotiating table.
Yamamoto's plan was to draw American attention--and possibly carrier forces--north from Pearl Harbor by sending his Fifth Fleet (2 light carriers, 5 cruisers, 13 destroyers and 4 transports) against the [[Aleutians]], raiding [[Dutch Harbor]] on [[Unalaska Island]] and invading the more distant islands of [[Kiska]] and [[Attu Island|Attu]].
The following day, the First Mobile Force (4 carriers, 2 battleships, 3 cruisers, and 12 destroyers) would raid Midway and destroy its air force. Once Midway's air power was neutralized, the Second Fleet (1 light carrier, 2 battleships, 10 cruisers, 21 destroyers and 11 transports would land 5,000 troops to seize the [[atoll]] from the American [[United States Marine Corps|Marines]].
The seizure of Midway was expected to draw the American carriers west into a trap where the First Mobile Force would engage and destroy them. Afterward, the First Fleet (1 light carrier, 7 battleships, 3 cruisers and 13 destroyers), in conjunction with elements of the Second Fleet would mop up remaining American surface forces and complete the destruction of the Pacific Fleet.
To guard against mischance, Yamamoto initiated two security measures. The first was an aerial reconnaissance mission (Operation K) over Pearl Harbor to ascertain if the American carriers were there. The second was a picket line of submarines that would detect the movement of the American carriers toward Midway in time for the First Mobile Force, First Fleet and Second Fleet to combine against it.
The plan was well thought out, well organized and finely timed. Against 4 carriers, 2 light carriers, 11 battleships, 16 cruisers and 46 destroyers likely to be in the area of the main battle the Americans could field only 3 carriers, 8 cruisers, and 15 destroyers. The disparity appeared crushing. Only in numbers of available aircraft and submarines was there seeming parity between the two sides. Barring something extraordinary, it appeared Yamamoto held all the cards.
Unfortunately for Yamamoto, something extraordinary had happened. The worst fear of any commander is that somehow the enemy will learn his battle plan in advance, which is exactly what American [[Cryptography|cryptographers]] had discerned from breaking Japan's primary naval code. As a result, Admiral [[Chester Nimitz|Nimitz]], the Pacific Fleet commander, was able to circumvent both of Yamamoto's security measures and position his outnumbered forces in the exact position to conduct a devastating ambush.
Admiral Nimitz dispatched a destroyer to guard the intended refueling point of Operation K's [[flying boat]]s, causing the reconnaissance mission to be aborted and leaving Yamamoto ignorant of whether the Pacific Fleet was still at Pearl Harbor. He also dispatched his carriers toward Midway early, and they passed the Japanese submarine picket line before the Japanese submarines arrived, negating Yamamoto's back-up security measure. Nimitz's carriers then positioned themselves to ambush the First Mobile Force when it struck Midway. The Aleutians feint was properly ignored, and days before Yamamoto and his forces could reasonably expect American carriers to interfere in the Midway operation, they destroyed the four carriers of the First Mobile Force on [[4 June]] [[1942]] in an attack that caught the Japanese carriers at precisely their most vulnerable moment.
With his air power destroyed and his forces not yet concentrated for a fleet battle, Yamamoto was unable to maneuver his remaining units to trap the American forces when their tactical commander prudently withdrew to the east rather than risk a night surface encounter in which his carriers would be at a disadvantage. Correctly perceiving that he had lost, Yamamoto aborted the invasion of Midway and withdrew his forces from the field, having no desire to occupy a distant atoll he no longer had the capacity to support and defend. The defeat ended Yamamoto's six months of "running wild" and marked the high tide of Japanese expansion.
Yamamoto's plan for the MI Operation has been the subject of much out-of-context criticism. It has been blasted for violating the military principle of concentration of force while the value of other principles such as deception, and envelopment have been blithely waved away by critics. The complexity of the operation has been overemphasized with no regard for parallels in similar Allied operations, or the degree to which the American intelligence coup deranged the Japanese plan. Criticisms of the risk of the operation have freely ignored the pressing necessity of it to neutralize the rebounding Pacific Fleet, as well as the exceptional nature of the American cryptographic victory.
Absent the American code break-through, the MI plan would appear neither particularly complex, diffuse, or dangerous. The Aleutians feint would have drawn American attention, Operation K would have ascertained the Pacific Fleet's whereabouts, the submarine cordon would have picked up the American carriers moving toward Midway, and the First Fleet, Second Fleet and First Mobile Force would have concentrated into a lethal whole.
:''References: Dull (1978), Evans & Peattie (1997), Lundstrom (1984), Prados (2001).''
==Actions after Midway==
The [[Battle of Midway]] solidly checked Japanese momentum, but it was not actually the turning point of the Pacific War. The I.J.N. planned to resume the initiative with operations (FS) aimed at eventually taking Samoa and Fiji to cut the Australian life-line to the United States. This was expected to short-circuit the threat posed by General [[Douglas MacArthur]] and his American and Australian forces in New Guinea. To this end, development of the airfield on Guadalcanal continued and attracted the baleful eye of Yamamoto's opposite number, [[Admiral King]].
King ramrodded the American invasion of Guadalcanal and beat the Japanese to the punch, descending on the island in August 1942 and precipitating a bitter struggle that lasted until February 1943 and commenced a battle of attrition Japan could ill-afford.
Admiral Yamamoto remained in command, retained at least partly to avoid diminishing the morale of the Combined Fleet. However, he had lost face in the Midway defeat and the Naval General Staff were disinclined to indulge further gambles. This reduced Yamamoto to pursuing the classic defensive Decisive Battle strategy he had attempted to overturn.
Guadalcanal caught the Japanese over-extended and attempting to support fighting in New Guinea while guarding the Central Pacific and preparing to conduct the FS Operation. The FS Operation was abandoned and the Japanese attempted to fight in both New Guinea and Guadalcanal at the same time. Already overextended, they perpetually fell short of success for lack of shipping, lack of troops, and a disastrous inability to coordinate Army and Navy activities.
Yamamoto committed Combined Fleet units to a series of small attrition actions that stung the Americans, but suffered loses he could ill-afford in return. Three major efforts to carry the island precipitated a pair of carrier battles that Yamamoto commanded personally at the Eastern Solomons and [[Santa Cruz Islands]] in September and October, and finally a wild pair of surface engagements in November, all timed to coincide with Japanese Army pushes. The timing of each major battle was successively deranged when the Army could not hold up its end of the operation. Yamamoto's forces caused considerable loss and damage, but he could never draw the Americans into a decisive fleet action. As a result, the Japanese Navy's strength began to bleed off.
Particularly harmful were the severe losses of carrier dive-bomber and torpedo-bomber crews in the carrier battles that emasculated the carrier air groups. With Guadalcanal lost in February 1943, there was no further attempt to seek a major battle in the Solomon Islands although smaller attrition battles continued. Yamamoto shifted the load of the air battle from the depleted carriers to the land-based naval air forces. Some of these units were positioned at forward bases in the Solomon Islands, and while on an inspection trip to these positions on [[18 April]] [[1943]], Yamamoto once more fell victim -- this time personally -- to American code-breaking. A squadron of American [[P-38]] fighters ambushed his plane and its escorts.
:''References: Dull (1978).''
==Yamamoto's death==
To boost morale following Guadalcanal, Yamamoto decided to make an inspection tour throughout the South Pacific. On [[14 April]] [[1943]], the US naval intelligence effort, code-named "[[Magic (cryptography)|Magic]]", intercepted and decrypted reports of the tour.
The original message NTF131755, addressed to the commanders of Base Unit No. 1, the 11th Air Flotilla and the 26th Air Flotilla, was encoded in the Japanese Naval Cipher JN-25D (Naval Operations Code Book of the third version of RO), and was picked up by three stations of the "Magic" apparatus, including Fleet Radio Unit Pacific Fleet. The message contained specific details regarding Yamamoto's arrival and departure times and locations, as well as the number and types of planes that would transport and accompany him on the journey.
Yamamoto, the itinerary revealed, would be flying from Rabaul to Ballale Airfield, on an island near [[Bougainville]] in the [[Solomon Islands]], on [[18 April]]. He and his staff would be flying in two medium bombers ([[G4M]] Bettys of the 205th Kokutai Naval Air unit), escorted by six fighters ([[A6M]] [[Mitsubishi Zero]]s of the 204th Kokutai NAU), to depart Rabaul at 0600 and arrive at Ballale at 0800, Tokyo time.
Admiral Nimitz consulted Adm. [[William F. Halsey, Jr.]], Commander, South Pacific, then authorized the mission on [[17 April]].
===The Interception Mission===
To avoid detection by radar and Japanese [[coast-watchers]], the mission entailed an over-water flight south of the Solomons, a distance of 430 miles. This was beyond the range of the [[F4F Wildcat]] and [[F4U Corsair]] fighters then available to Navy and Marine squadrons of [[Guadalcanal (Pacific Ocean island)|Guadalcanal's]] [[Cactus Air Force]]. The mission was then given to the [[339th Fighter Squadron]] of the [[347th Fighter Group]], [[13th Air Force]], whose [[P-38 Lightning]] aircraft, equipped with [[drop tanks]], would have the range to intercept and engage.
Planning for this mission was begun by Fighter Command's deputy, Marine LtCol. Luther S. Moore, who had the P-38s fitted with a navy ship's compass at the request of Major John W Mitchell, commanding officer of the 339th. These fighters each carried a 20 mm cannon and 4 × 50-calibre (12.7 mm) machine guns and normally carried two 165-gallon (625 L) drop tanks under their wings. For this raid a limited supply of 310-gallon (1136 L) tanks were flown up from New Guinea, sufficient to provide each Lightning with one of the larger tanks. Despite the differences in size, the tanks were located close enough to the aircraft's center of gravity to negate any performance problems.
Eighteen P-38s were tasked for the mission. One flight of four was designated as the "killer" flight while the remainder, which included two spares, would climb to 18,000 feet to act as "top cover" for the expected reaction by fighters based at Kahili. A flight plan was prepared by the Command Operations Officer, Marine Major John Condon, but was discarded for one prepared by Mitchell. He calculated an intercept time of 0935, based on the itinerary, to catch the bombers descending to land over Bougainville, ten minutes out from Ballale airfield. He worked backwards from that time and drew four precisely-calculated legs, with a fifth leg added if Yamamoto took other than the directmost route. In addition to heading out over the [[Coral Sea]], the 339th would "wave-hop" all the way to Bougainville at altitudes no greater than 50 feet (15 m), maintaining radio silence en route.
Although the 339th Fighter Squadron officially flew the mission, ten of the eighteen pilots were drawn from the other two squadrons of the 347th Group. A thorough, detailed briefing included a cover story for the source of the intelligence stating that a coast-watcher had spotted an important high officer boarding an aircraft at Rabaul, but the pilots were aware that their target was Admiral Yamamoto.
The specially-fitted P-38s took off from Guadalcanal's Fighter Two airstrip beginning at 0725. The date, [[April 18]], had the significance of being the one-year anniversary of the [[Doolittle Raid]] as well as being [[Easter Sunday]]. Two of the Lightnings assigned to the killer flight dropped out of the mission at the start, one with a tire flattened during takeoff, and the second when his drop tanks would not feed fuel to the engines.
In Rabaul, despite urgings by local commanders to cancel the trip for fear of ambush, Yamamoto's planes took off as scheduled for the 315-mile trip. They climbed to 6,500 feet, with their fighter escort behind and 1,500 feet higher, split into two V-formations of three planes.
Mitchell's flight of four led the squadron "on the deck" with the killer flight, consisting of Capt. Thomas G. Lanphier, Jr., 1st Lt. Rex T. Barber, and the spares, Lt. Besby F. Holmes and Lt. Raymond K. Hine, immediately behind, fighting off drowsiness, navigating by flight plan and [[dead-reckoning]]. This proved to be the longest fighter-intercept mission of the war, and was so skillfully executed by Major Mitchell that his force arrived at the intercept point one minute early, at 0934, just as the ever-punctual Yamamoto's aircraft descended into view in a light haze. Mitchell ordered his planes to drop tanks, turned to the right to parallel the bombers, and began a full power climb.
Lt. Holmes was unable to drop his tanks and turned back to sea, followed by his wingman, Lt. Hine. Mitchell radioed Lanphier and Barber to engage and they turned to climb toward the eight aircraft. The closest escort fighters dropped their own tanks and began to dive toward the pair of P-38s. Lanphier, in a sound tactical move, immediately turned head-on and climbed towards the escorts while Barber chased the diving bomber transports. Barber banked steeply to turn in behind the bombers and momentarily lost sight of them, but when he regained contact he was immediately behind one, and began firing into its right engine, rear [[fuselage]], and [[empennage]]. Barber hit its left engine, it began to trail heavy black smoke, and the Betty rolled violently to the left, Barber narrowly avoiding a collision. Looking back he saw a column of black smoke and assumed it had crashed into the jungle. Barber headed towards the coast at treetop level, searching for the second bomber, not knowing which bomber carried Yamamoto.
Barber spotted the second bomber low over the water off Moila Point just as Holmes (whose wing tanks had finally come off) and Hine attacked it. Holmes damaged the right engine of the Betty, which began emitting a white vapor trail, then he and Hine flew over the damaged bomber, carrying Chief of Staff Vice Admiral [[Matome Ugaki]] and part of Yamamoto's staff. Barber next attacked the stricken bomber, pieces of it damaging his own aircraft, and it crash-landed in the water. Ugaki survived the crash as did two others and all were later rescued. Barber, Holmes and Hine were attacked by Zeroes, Barber's P-38 receiving 140 hits, and Holmes and Barber each claimed a Zero shot down during this meleé. The top cover briefly engaged reacting zeroes without making any kills and Major Mitchell observed the column of smoke from Yamamoto's crashed bomber. The P-38s broke off contact and returned to base, with Lt. Holmes so short of fuel that he was forced to land in the [[Russell Islands]]. Hine's Lightning was the only one missing and was never found.
As he approached Henderson Field, Lanphier radioed the Guadalcanal fighter director that "I got Yamamoto", breaching security on the mission. Immediately on landing (his plane was so short on fuel that one engine quit during landing rollout) he again put in a claim for shooting down the bomber, relating that when he turned to engage the escort Zeroes he shot the wing off one, flipped upside down as he circled back towards the bombers, and saw the lead bomber turning a circle below him. He stated he came out of his turn at a right angle to the circling bomber and fired, blowing off its right wing. He stated that he witnessed Barber shoot down another bomber which also crashed in the jungle. Holmes put in a claim for the Betty that crashed into the water, so it was assumed that three bombers had been downed. The fifteen surviving pilots were not "debriefed" after the mission because this formal interrogation did not exist in the procedures on Guadalcanal at that time, and thus it was never formally established that no one else witnessed Lanphier's claim.
Lanphier initially received credit for the kill of Yamamoto's bomber but the other pilots on the mission were immediately skeptical. Although one of the most expertly-executed missions in history, the interception was subsequently marred by controversy over who actually shot down Yamamoto, and by Navy outrage over unauthorized releases of operational details to the press, including an October 1943 issue of ''[[Time Magazine]]'' which featured articles on both the shootdown and Lanphier by name. Mitchell had been nominated for the [[Medal of Honor]] for the mission, but as a result of the security issues this was downgraded to the [[Navy Cross]], which he and all the pilots of the killer flight were subsequently awarded.
After the war it was found that none of the escorting Japanese fighters were even damaged, much less shot down, and Lanphier was stripped of his claim for a Zero shot down. Since other Zero fighters were taking off from nearby Kahili airfield, both Barber and Holmes were allowed their claims during the second combat. Also records confirmed that only two bombers had been shot down, not three, and subsequently the Air Force officially awarded "half kills" to Lanphier and Barber for the Yamamoto shootdown. A video-taped interview in 1985 with one of the escorting Zero pilots, Kenji Yanagiya, appeared to corroborate Barber's claim, but the Air Force declined to reopen the issue.
The crash site and body of Admiral Yamamoto were found the next day in the jungle north of Buin by a Japanese search and rescue party, led by Army engineer Lieutenant Hamasuna. According to Hamasuna, Yamamoto had been thrown clear of the plane's wreckage, his white-gloved hand grasping the hilt of his [[samurai]] [[sword]], still upright in his seat under a tree. Hamasuna said Yamamoto was instantly recognizable, head dipped down as deep in thought. A [[post-mortem]] of the body disclosed that Yamamoto received two wounds, one to the back of his left shoulder and one to his left lower jaw that exited above his right eye. Whether or not the admiral initially survived the crash has also been a matter of controversy in Japan.
In Japan this became known as the "Navy ''kō'' incident"(海軍甲事件). It raised morale in the States, and shocked the Japanese who were officially told about the incident only on [[21 May]] [[1943]]. To cover up the fact that the Allies were reading Japanese code, American news agencies were told the cover story originally created for briefing the 339th, that civilian coast-watchers in the Solomons saw Yamamoto boarding a bomber in the area.
Captain Watanabe and his staff cremated Yamamoto's remains at Buin, and the ashes were returned to Tokyo aboard the battleship [[Japanese battleship Musashi|''Musashi'']], Yamamoto's last flagship. Yamamoto was given a full state funeral on [[3 June]] [[1943]], where he received, posthumously, the title of Fleet Admiral and awarded the [[Order of the Chrysanthemum]], First Class. He was also the only foreigner awarded [[Nazi Germany]]'s highest military order. Part of his ashes were buried in the public cemetery in Tama in Tokyo(多摩霊園), and the remainder at his ancestral burial grounds at the Chuko-Ji Temple in Nagaoka City.
==References==
*Dull, Paul S. (1978). ''A Battle History of the Imperial Japanese Navy, 1941-1945'', Naval Institute Press. (ISBN 0870210971)
*Evans, David C. and Mark R. Peattie (1997). ''Kaigun : Strategy, Tactics, and Technology in the Imperial Japanese Navy, 1887-1941'', Naval Institute Press. (ISBN 0870211927)
*Lundstrom, John B. (1984). ''The First Team: Pacific Naval Air Combat from Pearl Harbor to Midway,'' Naval Institute Press. (ISBN 0870211897)
*Miller, Edward S. (1991). ''War Plan Orange: The U.S. Strategy to Defeat Japan, 1897-1945'', Naval Institute Press. (ISBN: 0870217593)
*Peattie, Mark R. (2002). ''Sunburst: The Rise of Japanese Naval Air Power, 1909-1941'', Naval Institute Press. (ISBN 1557504326)
* Prados, John (2001). ''Combined Fleet Decoded: The Secret History of American Intelligence and the Japanese Navy in World War II'', Naval Institute Press, 1st Naval edition. (ISBN 1557504318)
==External links==
*[http://www.spartacus.schoolnet.co.uk/2WWyamamoto.htm Yamamoto biography] From Spartacus Educational
*[http://www.ww2db.com/person_bio.php?person_id=1 World War II Database: Isoroku Yamamoto biography]
*[http://www.ww2db.com/battle_spec.php?battle_id=51 World War II Database: Death of Yamamoto]
*[http://www.history.navy.mil/photos/prs-for/japan/japrs-xz/i-yamto.htm Admiral Isoroku Yamamoto, Japanese Navy] US Naval Historical Center
*[http://www.pacificwrecks.com/aircraft/g4m/2656.html Pacific Wrecks. Place where Yamamoto Type 1 bomber crash]
==Further reading==
* Agawa, Hiroyuki; Bester, John (trans.), ''The Reluctant Admiral'', Kodansha, 1979. (ISBN 4770025394) A definitive biography of Yamamoto in English. This book explains much of the political structure and events within Japan that lead to the war.
* Hoyt, Edwin P. ''Yamamoto: The Man Who Planned Pearl Harbor'', McGraw-Hill, 1990. (ISBN 158574428X)
* ''Fading Victory: The Diary of Admiral Matome Ugaki, 1941-45'', University of Pittsburgh Press, 1991. (ISBN 0822954621) Provides a high-level view of the war from the Japanese side, from the diaries of Yamamoto's Chief of Staff, Admiral [[Matome Ugaki]]. Provides evidence of the intentions of the imperial military establishment to seize Hawaii and to operate against the British navy in the Indian Ocean. Translated by [[Masataka Chihaya]], this edition contains extensive clarifying notes from the U.S. editors derived from U.S. military histories.
* Glines, Carroll V. ''Attack on Yamamoto'', Crown (1st edition), 1990. (ISBN 0517577283). Glines documents both the mission to shoot down Yamamoto and the subsequent controversies with thorough research, including personal interviews with all surviving participants and researchers who examined the crash site.
[[Category:1884 births|Yamamoto Isoroku]]
[[Category:1943 deaths|Yamamoto Isoroku]]
[[Category:Imperial Japanese Navy admirals|Yamamoto Isoroku]]
[[Category:Japanese military leaders|Yamamoto Isoroku]]
[[Category:Japanese World War II people|Yamamoto Isoroku]]
[[Category:Attack on Pearl Harbor|Y]]
[[Category:People from Niigata Prefecture]]
[[Category:Battle of Midway]]
[[Category:Harvard alumni|Yamamoto, Isoroku]]
[[cs:Isoroku Jamamoto]]
[[de:Yamamoto Isoroku]]
[[es:Isoroku Yamamoto]]
[[fr:Isoroku Yamamoto]]
[[ms:Isoroku Yamamoto]]
[[nl:Isoroku Yamamoto]]
[[ja:山本五十六]]
[[ko:야마모토 이소로쿠]]
[[pl:Isoroku Yamamoto]]
[[pt:Isoroku Yamamoto]]
[[sv:Isoroku Yamamoto]]
[[zh:山本五十六]]
Inversion (music)
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38313861
2006-02-05T14:39:44Z
Szorko
197114
:''For non-musical meanings of inversion, see [[inversion]].''
In [[music theory]], the word '''''inversion''''' has several meanings. There are inverted ''chords'', inverted ''melodies'', inverted ''intervals'', and (in [[counterpoint]]) inverted ''voices''. The concept of inversion also plays a role in [[musical set theory]].
==Inverted chords==
An inverted [[chord (music)|chord]] is a chord which has a note other than its [[Root (chord)|root note]] as the [[bass note]]. Since [[Rameau]] (1722), chords remain equivalent when inverted, being functions rather than sonorities. However, before Rameau factors including the ''regola delle terze e seste'', "rule of sixths and thirds", which required the resolution of imperfect consonances to perfect ones, precluded the analysis of <sup>6</sup><sub>4</sub> sonorites as inversions of <sup>5</sup><sub>3</sub> sonorities.
For example, the ''[[root position]]'' of a triad of C major has the C in the bass:
[[Image:c_triad.png]]
A triad in root position, therefore, consists of the root note and a third and a fifth above it. Triads in root position are also in [[normal form]].
The ''[[first inversion]]'' of the same triad has the E, the third of the triad, in the bass:
[[Image:inv2.png]]
This means that a triad in first inversion consists of the root plus a third and a sixth above it. The ''[[second inversion]]'' has the fifth, the G, in the bass:
[[Image:inv3.png]]
A triad in second inversion, therefore, consists of the root plus a fourth and a sixth above it.
The ''third inversion'' of a triad does not really make much sense to discuss, since inverting the second inversion just leads to the tonic again, an octave higher. Chords of four notes or more, however, can be in their third inversion: the third inversion of a [[dominant seventh]] in C major, for example (made up of the notes G, B, D and F) has the seventh, F, in the bass. This gives a chord made up of the root plus a second, fourth and sixth above it.
The terms "root", "first inversion", and "second inversion" may also be applied to chords in which the notes are not closely spaced. For instance, C-G-E, where the E is a major sixth above G, is also considered to be in root position, and more generally, any C major chord in which C is the lowest note is considered to be in root position. Similarly, any C major chord with E on the bottom counts as a first inversion, any C major chord with G on the bottom counts as a second inversion; and analogously for all other chords.
===Notations for inverted chords===
There are at least four different notations for the inversions of chords.
(i) Perhaps the most commonly used method is [[figured bass]]. In this system, first inversions are normally indicated by the digit 6 and second inversions by the digits 64. A full presentation of figured bass notation is given in the Wikipedia article on this subject.
(ii) The letters a, b, c, etc., may be placed after any chord symbol to indicate the root, first and second inversion respectively. Hence the C chord below, in first inversion (i.e. with E in the bass) may be notated as Cb. (If no letter is added, the chord is assumed to be in root inversion, having the same meaning as if 'a' had been added explicitly.)
[[Image:inv2.png]]
(iii) A less common, but occasionally used, notation for chord inversion is to place the number 1, 2 or 3 etc. after a chord to indicate that it is in first, second, or third inversion respectively. Hence the C chord above, in first inversion (i.e. with E in the bass) may be notated as C1. No number is added in the case of a chord in root inversion. This notation should not be confused with a quite different meaning of the same notation, where a number is placed after a note name to indicate the octave in which a single note is to sound, e.g. C4 is often used simply to mean the single note [[middle C]].
(iv) A notation for chord inversion often used in [[popular music]] is to write the name of a chord, followed by a forward slash, and then the name of the note that is to sound in the bass. For example, the C chord above, in first inversion (i.e. with E in the bass) may be notated as C/E. Interestingly, this notation works consistently even when a note not present in a triad or other chord is to sound in the bass, e.g. F/G is a way of notating a particular approach to voicing a G13th chord. This should not be confused with notations of the "[[diatonic functionality|function]] of function" style, for instance the subdominant of the dominant is IV/V or S/D.
==Inverted intervals==
An [[interval (music)|interval]] is inverted by raising or lowering either of the notes the necessary number of [[octave]]s, so that both retain their names ([[pitch class]]) and the one which was higher is now lower and vice versa, changing the perspective or relation between the pitch classes. For example, the inversion of an interval consisting of a C with an E above it is an E with a C above it - to work this out, the C may be moved up, the E may be lowered, or both may be moved.
Under inversion, perfect intervals remain perfect, major intervals become minor and the reverse, augmented intervals become diminished and the reverse. (Double diminished intervals become double augmented intervals, and the reverse.) Traditional interval names sum to nine: seconds become sevenths and the reverse, thirds become sixes and the reverse, and fourths become fifths and the reverse. Thus a perfect fourth becomes a perfect fifth, an augmented fourth becomes a diminished fifth, and a simple interval (that is, one that is narrower than an octave) and its inversion, when added together, will equal an octave. See also [[complement (music)]].
==Inversion in counterpoint==
Contrapuntal inversion requires that two [[melody|melodies]], having accompanied each other once, do it again with the melody that had been in the high voice now in the low, and vice versa. Also called "double counterpoint" (if two voices are involved) or "triple counterpoint" (if three), themes that can be developed in this way are said to involve themselves in "invertible counterpoint."
Invertible counterpoint can occur at various intervals, usually the octave (8va), less often at the 10th or 12th. To calculate the interval of inversion, add the intervals by which each voice has moved and subtract one. For example: If motive A in the high voice moves down a 6th, and motive B in the low voice moves up a 5th, in such a way as to result in A and B having exchanged registers, then the two are in double counterpoint at the 10th (6+5)-1 = 10.
Invertible counterpoint achieves its highest expression in the four canons of J. S. Bach's [[Art of Fugue|Art of Fugue]], with the first canon at the 8va, the second canon at the 10th, the third canon at the 12th, and the fourth canon in augmentation and contrary motion. Other exemplars can be found in the fugues in [http://jan.ucc.nau.edu/~tas3/wtc/ii16.html#movie G minor] and [http://jan.ucc.nau.edu/~tas3/wtc/ii21.html#movie B-flat major] [external Shockwave movies] from Book II of Bach's [[Well-Tempered Clavier|Well-Tempered Clavier]], both of which contain invertible counterpoint at the 8va, 10th, and 12th.
==Inverted melodies==
When applied to [[melody|melodies]], the ''inversion'' of a given melody is the melody turned upside-down. For instance, if the original melody has a rising major third (see [[interval (music)|interval]]), the inverted melody has a falling major third (or perhaps more likely, in tonal music, a falling ''minor'' third, or even some other falling interval). Similarly, in [[twelve-tone technique]], the ''inversion'' of the [[tone row]] is the so-called ''prime series'' turned upside-down.
==Inversional equivalency==
'''Inversional equivalency''' or '''inversional symmetry''' is the concept that [[interval (music)|interval]]s, [[chord (music)|chord]]s, and other sets of pitches are the same when inverted. It is similar to [[enharmonic equivalency]] and [[octave equivalency]] and even [[transpositional equivalency]]. Inversional equivalency is used little in [[tonal]] theory, though it is assumed a set which may be inverted onto another are remotely in common. However, taking them to be identical or near-identical is only assumed in musical set theory.
All sets of pitches with inversional symmetry have a '''center''' or '''axis of inversion'''. For example, the set C-E-F-F#-G-B has one center at the dyad F and F# and another at the tritone, B/C, if listed F#-G-B-C-E-F. For C-Eb-E-F#-G-Bb the center is F and B if listed F#-G-Bb-C-Eb-E. (Wilson 1992, p.10-11)
==Inversion in musical set theory==
In [[musical set theory]] inversion may be usefully thought of as the compound operation ''transpositional inversion'', which is the same sense of inversion as in the [[Inversion (music)#Inverted melodies|Inverted melodies]] section above, with transposition carried out after inversion. Pitch inversion by an ordered pitch interval may be defined as:
*<math> T^p_nI = -x+n </math>
which equals
*<math> T^p_nI = n-x </math>
First invert the pitch or pitches, ''x''=-''x'', then transpose, -''x''+''n''.
[[Pitch class]] inversion by a pitch class interval may be defined as:
*<math>T_nI(x) = -x+n\ (mod 12)</math>
==Source==
*Wilson, Paul (1992). ''The Music of Béla Bartók''. ISBN 0300051115.
[[de:Umkehrung (Musik)]]
[[Category:Musical techniques]]
[[Category:Music theory]]
Iranaeus
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15912885
2002-02-25T15:43:11Z
Conversion script
Automated conversion
#REDIRECT [[Irenaeus]]
Infrared spectroscopy
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42050494
2006-03-03T13:28:19Z
131.227.185.60
[[Image:IR_spectrum_of_ethanol.gif|thumb|right|350px|IR spectrum of a thin film of liquid [[ethanol]].]]
'''Infrared spectroscopy''' (IR Spectroscopy) is a type of [[absorption spectroscopy]] that uses the [[Infrared]] part of the [[electromagnetic spectrum]].
As with [[spectroscopy | all spectroscopic techniques]], it can be used to identify a compound and to investigate the composition of a sample.
Infrared spectroscopy works because [[chemical bond]]s have specific frequencies at which they vibrate corresponding to [[energy level]]s. The [[resonant frequency|resonant frequencies]] are determined by the shape of the molecular [[potential energy surface]]s, the masses of the atoms and, eventually by the associated [[vibronic coupling]]. In order to be IR active, a molecule needs to have a changing dipole. In particular, in the [[Born-Oppenheimer approximation | Born-Oppenheimer]] and harmonic approximations, i.e. when the [[molecular Hamiltonian]] corresponding to the electronic [[ground state]] can be approximated by a [[quantum harmonic oscillator | harmonic oscillator]] in the neighborhood of the equilibrium [[molecular geometry]], the resonant frequencies are determined by the [[normal modes]] corresponding to the molecular electronic ground state potential energy surface. Nevertheless, the resonant frequencies can be in a first approach related to the length of the bond, and the [[atomic mass|mass of the atoms]] at either end of it. Thus, the frequency of the vibrations can be associated with a particular bond type. Bonds can vibrate in six different ways, '''symmetrical and asymmetrical stretching''', '''scissoring''', '''rocking''', '''wagging''' and '''twisting'''; as shown below:
<center>
{|
|[[Image:Symmetrical stretching.gif|frame|symmetrical stretching]]
|[[Image:Asymmetrical_stretching.gif|frame|asymmetrical stretching]]
|-
|[[Image:Scissoring.gif|frame|scissoring]]
|[[Image:Twisting.gif|frame|twisting]]
|-
|[[Image:Wagging.gif|frame|wagging]]
|[[Image:Rocking.gif|frame|rocking]]
|}
</center>
In order to measure a sample, a beam of [[monochromatic]] infrared light is passed through the sample, and the amount of energy absorbed is recorded. By repeating this operation across a range of interest (usually no more than 4000-5000 [[wavenumber|cm<sup>-1</sup>]] or 0.5-0.6[[eV]], a chart can be built up. When looking at a chart for a substance, an experienced user can identify the substance from the information on the chart.
This technique works almost exclusively on [[Covalent bond|covalent bonds]], and as such is of most use in [[organic chemistry]]. Clear charts (or spectra) will be produced by samples with high levels of purity of one substance. The technique has been used for the characterization of very complex mixtures however.
== Sample preparation ==
Liquid samples can be sandwiched between two plates of high purity salt (as in [[sodium chloride]], or common salt). The plates are transparent to the infrared light and will not introduce any lines onto the spectra. The plates are obviously highly soluble in water, and so the sample and washing reagents and the like must be [[anhydrous]] (without water).
Solid samples can be prepared in two major ways. The first is to crush the sample with a [[mulling agent]] (usually [[nujol]]) in a [[marble]] pestle and mortar. If the solid can be induced to dissolve, or at least be crushed into a very fine powder, then the results will be good.
The second method is to mix a quantity of the sample with a specially purified salt (usually [[potassium bromide]]). This powder mixture is then crushed in a pellet press in order to form a pellet through which the beam of the spectrometer can pass. This pellet must be crushed to high pressures in order to ensure that the pellet is translucent, but this can be achieved without powered machinery. As with the sodium chloride plates, potassium bromide does not absorb infrared light, so spectral lines will only appear from the analyte.
== Typical method ==
[[Image:IR_spectroscopy_apparatus.jpeg|thumbnail|right|400px|Typical apparatus]]
A beam of infra-red light is produced and split into two separate beams. One is passed through the sample, the other passed through a reference which is often the substance the sample is dissolved in. The beams are both reflected back towards a detector, however first they pass through a splitter which quickly alternates which of the two beams enters the detector. The two signals are then compared and a printout is obtained.
A reference is used for two reasons:
*This prevents fluctuations in the output of the source affecting the data
*This allows the effects of the solvent to be cancelled out (the reference is usually a pure form of the solvent the sample is in)
== Summary of absorptions of bonds in organic molecules ==
Absorptions listed in [[wavenumber]]s.
[[Image:IR_summary_version_2.gif|centre|frame]]
== Detailed absorptions table of bonds in organic molecules ==
{| border="1" cellpadding="2"
!Bond
!Type of bond
!Specific type of bond
!Absorption range and intensity
|-
|'''C-H'''
|alkyl
|methyl
|1380 cm<sup>-1</sup> (weak), 1460 cm<sup>-1</sup> (strong) and 2870, 2960 cm<sup>-1</sup> (both strong to medium)
|-
|
|
|[[methylene]]
|1470 cm<sup>-1</sup> (strong) and 2850, 2925 cm<sup>-1</sup> (both strong to medium)
|-
|
|
|methyne
|2890 cm<sup>-1</sup> (weak)
|-
|
|vinyl
|C=CH<sub>2</sub>
|900 cm<sup>-1</sup> (strong) and 2975, 3080 cm<sup>-1</sup> (medium)
|-
|
|
|C=CH
|3020 cm<sup>-1</sup> (medium)
|-
|
|
|monosubstituted [[alkene]]s
|900, 990 cm<sup>-1</sup> (both strong)
|-
|
|
|cis-disubstituted alkenes
|670-700 cm<sup>-1</sup> (strong)
|-
|
|
|trans-disubstituted alkenes
|965 cm<sup>-1</sup> (strong)
|-
|
|
|trisubstituted alkenes
|800-840 cm<sup>-1</sup> (strong to medium)
|-
|
|[[aromatic]]
|[[benzene]]/sub. benzene
|3070 cm<sup>-1</sup> (weak)
|-
|
|
|monosubstituted benzene
|700-750 cm<sup>-1</sup> (strong) and 700±10 cm<sup>-1</sup> (strong)
|-
|
|
|ortho-disub. benzene
|750 cm<sup>-1</sup> (strong)
|-
|
|
|meta-disub. benzene
|750-800 cm<sup>-1</sup> (strong) and 860-900 cm<sup>-1</sup> (strong)
|-
|
|
|para-disub. benzene
|800-860 cm<sup>-1</sup> (strong)
|-
|
|[[alkynes]]
|
|3300 cm<sup>-1</sup> (medium)
|-
|
|[[aldehydes]]
|
|2720, 2820 cm<sup>-1</sup> (medium)
|-
|'''C-C'''
|acyclic C-C
|monosub. alkenes
|1645 cm<sup>-1</sup> (medium)
|-
|
|
|1,1-disub. alkenes
|1655 cm<sup>-1</sup> (medium)
|-
|
|
|cis-1,2-disub. alkenes
|1660 cm<sup>-1</sup> (medium)
|-
|
|
|trans-1,2-disub. alkenes
|1675 cm<sup>-1</sup> (medium)
|-
|
|
|trisub., tetrasub. alkenes
|1670 cm<sup>-1</sup> (weak)
|-
|
|conjugated C-C
|dienes
|1600, 1650 cm<sup>-1</sup> (strong)
|-
|
|
|with benzene ring
|1625 cm<sup>-1</sup> (strong)
|-
|
|
|with C=O
|1600 cm<sup>-1</sup> (strong)
|-
|
|aromatic C=C
|
|1450, 1500, 1580, 1600 cm<sup>-1</sup> (strong to weak) - always ALL 4!
|-
|
|triple C-C
|terminal alkines
|2100-2140 cm<sup>-1</sup> (weak)
|-
|
|
|disubst. alkines
|2190-2260 cm<sup>-1</sup> (very weak, sometimes not visible)
|-
|'''C=O'''
|aldehyde/ketone
|saturated aliph./cyclic 6-membered
|1720 cm<sup>-1</sup>
|-
|
|
|α,β-unsaturated
|1685 cm<sup>-1</sup> (goes for aromatic ketones as well)
|-
|
|
|cyclic 5-membered
|1750 cm<sup>-1</sup>
|-
|
|
|cyclic 4-membered
|1775 cm<sup>-1</sup>
|-
|
|
|aldehydes
|1725 cm<sup>-1</sup> (influence of conjugation like with ketones)
|-
|
|[[carboxylic acid]]s/derivates
|saturated carboxylic acids
|1710 cm<sup>-1</sup>
|-
|
|
|unsat./aromatic carb. acids
|1680-1690 cm<sup>-1</sup>
|-
|
|
|esters and [[lactones]]
|1735 cm<sup>-1</sup> (influence of conjugation and ring size like with ketones)
|-
|
|
|anhydrides
|1760 and 1820 cm<sup>-1</sup> (both!)
|-
|
|
|[[halogenides]]
|1800 cm<sup>-1</sup>
|-
|
|
|[[amides]]
|1650 cm<sup>-1</sup> (associated amides)
|-
|
|
|[[carboxylates]] (salts)
|1550-1610 cm<sup>-1</sup> (goes for aminoacid zwitterions as well)
|-
|'''O-H'''
|alcohols, phenols
|
|3610-3670 cm<sup>-1</sup> (concentrating samples broadens the band and moves it to 3200-3400 cm<sup>-1</sup>)
|-
|
|carboxylic acids
|
|3500-3560 cm<sup>-1</sup> (concentrating samples broadens the band and moves it to 3000 cm<sup>-1</sup>)
|-
|'''N-H'''
|primary [[amines]]
|
|doublet between 3400-3500 cm<sup>-1</sup> and 1560-1640 cm<sup>-1</sup> (strong)
|-
|
|secondary amines
|
|above 3000 cm<sup>-1</sup> (medium to weak)
|-
|
|ammonium ions
|
|broad bands with multiple peaks between 2400-3200 cm<sup>-1</sup>
|-
|'''C-O'''
|alcohols
|primary
|1050±10 cm<sup>-1</sup>
|-
|
|
|secondary
|around 1100 cm<sup>-1</sup>
|-
|
|
|tertiary
|1150-1200 cm<sup>-1</sup>
|-
|
|phenoles
|
|1200 cm<sup>-1</sup>
|-
|
|ethers
|aliphatic
|1120 cm<sup>-1</sup>
|-
|
|
|aromatic
|1220-1260 cm<sup>-1</sup>
|-
|
|carboxylic acids
|
|1250-1300 cm<sup>-1</sup>
|-
|
|esters
|
|1100-1300 cm<sup>-1</sup> (two bands - distinction to ketones, which do not possess C-O!)
|-
|'''C-N'''
|aliphatic amines
|
|1020-1220 cm<sup>-1</sup> (often overlapped)
|-
|
|C=N
|
|1615-1700 cm<sup>-1</sup> (similar conjugation effects to C=O)
|-
|
|[[nitriles]] (triple C-N bond)
|
|2210-2260 cm<sup>-1</sup> (unconjugated 2250, conjugated 2230 cm<sup>-1</sup>)
|-
|
|[[isonitriles]] (R-N-C bond)
|
|2165-2110 cm<sup>-1</sup> (2140 - 1990 cm<sup>-1</sup> for R-N=C=S)
|-
|'''C-X (X=F, Cl, Br, I)'''
|[[fluoroalkane]]s
|ordinary
|1000-1100 cm<sup>-1</sup>
|-
|
|
|trifluromethyl
|two strong, broad bands between 1100-1200 cm<sup>-1</sup>
|-
|
|[[chloroalkanes]]
|
|540-760 cm<sup>-1</sup> (medium to weak)
|-
|
|[[bromoalkanes]]
|
|below 600 cm<sup>-1</sup>
|-
|
|[[iodoalkanes]]
|
|below 600 cm<sup>-1</sup>
|-
|'''N-O'''
|nitro compounds
|aliphatic
|1550 cm<sup>-1</sup> (stronger band) and 1380 cm<sup>-1</sup> (weaker band) - ALWAYS BOTH!
|-
|
|
|aromatic
|1520, 1350 cm<sup>-1</sup> (conjugation usually lowers the wave number)
|}
The absorptions in this range do not apply ''only'' to bonds in organic molecules. IR spectroscopy is useful when it comes to analysis of inorganic compounds (such as [[Metal complex|metal complexes]] or fluoromanganates) as well.
== Uses and applications ==
Techniques have been developed to assess the quality of tea-leaves using infrared spectroscopy. This will mean that highly trained experts (also called 'noses') can be used more sparingly, at a significant cost saving.
Infrared spectroscopy is widely used in both research and industry as a simple and reliable technique for measurement, quality control, and dynamic measurement. The instruments are now small, and can be transported, even for use in field trials. With increasing technology in computer filtering and manipulation of the results, samples in solution can now be measured accurately (water produces a broad absorbance across the range of interest, and thus renders the spectra unreadable without this computer treatment). Some machines will also automatically tell you what substance is being measured from a store of thousands of reference spectra held in storage.
By measuring at a specific frequency over time, changes in the character or quantity of a particular bond can be measured. This is especially useful in measuring the degree of polymerization in [[polymer]] manufacture. Modern research machines can take infrared measurements across the whole range of interest as frequently as 32 times a second. This can be done whilst simultaneous measurements are made using other techniques. This makes the observations of chemical reactions and processes quicker, more accurate, and more
== Fourier transform Infrared spectroscopy ==
'''[[Fourier transform]] infrared (FTIR) spectroscopy''' is a measurement technique for collecting infrared spectra. Instead of recording the amount of energy absorbed when the frequency of the infra-red light is varied (monochromator), the IR light is guided through an interferometer. After passing the sample the measured signal is the interferogram. Performing a mathematical Fourier Transform on this signal results in a spectrum identical to that from conventional (dispersive) infrared spectroscopy.
FTIR spectrometers are cheaper than conventional spectrometers because building of interferometers is easier than the fabrication of a monochromator. In addition, measurement of a single spectrum is faster for the FTIR technique because the information of all frequencies is collected simultaneously. This allows multiple samples to be collected and averaged together resulting in an improvement in sensitivity. Because of its various advantages, virtually all modern infrared spectrometers are of the FTIR variety.
==See also==
*[[Fourier transform spectroscopy]]
*[[Near infrared spectroscopy]]
*[[Vibrational spectroscopy]]
*[[Rotational spectroscopy]]
*[[Spectroscopy]]
==External links==
* [http://chipo.chem.uic.edu/web1/ocol/spec/IR.htm Tutorial]
* [http://www.scienceofspectroscopy.info The Science of Spectroscopy] - supported by NASA. Spectroscopy education wiki and films - introduction to light, its uses in NASA, space science, astronomy, medicine & health, environmental research, and consumer products.
* [http://www.gats-inc.com/spec_calc/spectral_calc.php Spectral calculator] - Quickly and easily calculate and plot transmission or radiance spectra.
* [http://www.gats-inc.com/hitran_browser/ High-resolution transmission molecular absorption database (HITRAN) browswer] - Browse the HITRAN 2004 database , plot absorption lines by position or intensity.
* A useful gif animation of different vibrational modes: [http://www.shu.ac.uk/schools/sci/chem/tutorials/molspec/irspec1.htm here]
[[Category:Spectroscopy]]
[[da:IR spektrometer]]
[[de:IR-Spektroskopie]]
[[es:Espectroscopia infrarroja]]
[[he:גלאי אינפרא אדום פסיבי ]]
[[ja:赤外分光法]]
[[nl:Infraroodspectroscopie]]
[[pl:Spektroskopia IR]]
[[pt:Espectroscopia de infravermelho]]
I Have a Dream
15413
41697296
2006-03-01T03:11:34Z
Antandrus
57658
Reverted edits by [[Special:Contributions/129.62.90.120|129.62.90.120]] ([[User talk:129.62.90.120|talk]]) to last version by Butros
[[Image:Martin Luther King - March on Washington.jpg|thumb|Martin Luther King, Jr. delivering his speech at the DC Civil Rights March.]]
{{otherusespar|I Have A Dream}}
"'''I Have a Dream'''" is both the identifying phrase of and popular name for [[Martin Luther King, Jr.]]'s most famous [[Public speaking|speech]], a defining moment of the [[American Civil Rights Movement]]--and often seen as one of the greatest speeches ever. The speech was delivered on the steps at the [[Lincoln Memorial]] as part of the [[March on Washington for Jobs and Freedom]] in [[Washington, D.C.]] on [[August 28]], [[1963]]. It spoke powerfully and eloquently of King's desire for a future where blacks and whites would coexist harmoniously and as equals.
==Style==
Widely hailed as a masterpiece of [[rhetoric]], King's speech resembles the style of a black Baptist [[sermon]]. It appeals to such iconic and widely-respected sources such as the Bible and U.S. Constitution. These are not so much cited (since they do not discuss the issue of desegregation) as invoked. That is, King makes use of their phrases and language for his own purposes. Rhythmic repetition is an important stylistic feature.
==Controversies==
Though widely revered posthumously, King was immensely controversial in his day. His major premise, that whites ought to allow blacks to dwell amongst them, drew criticism from whites (not only Southern) who saw this as an attack on the principle of "free association." The supremacy of the federal government over the states ([[States' Rights]]) was similarly controversial. The controversy still rages, albeit in changed form, as courts must continue to rule on such issues as [[Desegregation busing|busing]].
King's allusion to the Declaration of Independence's dictum "that all men are created equal" has been cited by opponents of [[Affirmative Action]]. A California political advertisement arguing for a proposition banning Affirmative Action would have used a clip of King's speech. It was not allowed to air after King relatives asserted their copyright claims.
This speech has been through years of court cases, in various jurisdictions, to determine whether it was ever copyrighted — the dispute was based on the fact that King had made his speech publicly to a large audience both live and televised, and only one month later did he register for copyright of his speech (as was then required by [[United States copyright law|U.S. copyright law]]). Finally, on November 5, 1999, in ''[[Estate of Martin Luther King, Jr., Inc. v. CBS, Inc.]]'', the 11th circuit of the United States Court of Appeals ruled that the public performance of his speech did not constitute "general publication" nor did it forfeit his copyright. Thus, King's [[estate]] is able to forbid redistribution of the speech or require a license fee, but they have since made the speech available to the [[Douglass Archives of American Public Address]] under terms that grant permission to "download, reprint, and/or otherwise redistribute this file, provided this distribution statement is included and appropriate point of origin credit is given to the preparer and Douglass" [http://usinfo.state.gov/usa/infousa/facts/democrac/38.htm].
== External links ==
* [http://douglassarchives.org/king_b12.htm I Have a Dream] (text of speech), ''Douglass Archives of American Public Address''.
* [http://www.worldwideschool.org/library/books/hst/northamerican/IHaveaDream/chap1.html Text of speech] : World Wide School
* [http://usinfo.state.gov/usa/infousa/facts/democrac/38.htm Text of speech] : United States Department of State
* [http://www.hpol.org/record.asp?id=72 Audio and text of speech]: History and Politics Out Loud
* [http://www.negrospirituals.com/news-song/free_at_last_from.htm Lyrics of the traditional spiritual "Free At Last"]
* [http://www.afb.org/Section.asp?SectionID=38&DocumentID=2429 Digitally synchronized audio and text version of "I Have a Dream"]: downloadable DAISY file
* [http://blog.lextext.com/blog/_archives/2006/1/15/1676937.html mp3 of the speech for download]
[[Category:1963]]
[[Category:History of African-American civil rights]]
[[Category:Martin Luther King, Jr.]]
[[Category:Speeches]]
[[ca:He tingut un somni]]
[[fr:I have a dream]]
[[it:I have a dream]]
[[he:יש לי חלום]]
[[ms:Saya Mempunyai Impian]]
[[ja:I Have a Dream]]
[[pt:Eu Tenho um Sonho]]
[[sl:I have a dream]]
Irenaeus
15414
41771644
2006-03-01T17:07:31Z
JordanBarrett
339703
copyright - see talk page
{{copyright}}
[[Image:Saint Irenaeus.jpg|right|thumb| An engraving of Saint Irenaeus ([[Circa|ca.]] [[130]]–[[202]] [[Common Era|CE]]), bishop of Lugdunum in [[Gaul]] (now [[Lyons]], [[France]]).]]
'''Saint Irenaeus''' ([[Circa|ca.]] [[130]]-[[202]] [[Common Era|CE]]) was [[bishop]] of [[Lyon|Lugdunum]] in [[Gaul]], which is now [[Lyons]], [[France]]. His writings were formative in the early development of [[Christianity|Christian]] [[theology]], and he is recognized as a [[saint]] by both the [[Eastern Orthodox Church]] and the [[Catholic Church]]; the latter considers him a [[Father of the Church]]. He was a disciple of [[Polycarp]], who himself was a disciple of [[John the Evangelist]]. His feast day is [[June 28]].
==Biography==
Irenaeus is thought to have been a [[Greek people|Greek]] from [[Polycarp]]'s own hometown of [[Smyrna]] in [[Asia Minor]], now [[Izmir]], [[Turkey]]. He was raised in a Christian family, rather than converting as an adult, and this may help explain his rigid adherence to [[orthodoxy]]. Irenaeus was one of the first Christian writers to use the principle of [[apostolic succession]] to refute his opponents.
Irenaeus is remembered as the second bishop of [[Lyons]], although there is no clear evidence that he ever officially assumed the episcopal duties there. The first bishop, [[Pothinus (Bishop)|Pothinus]], was [[martyr|martyred]] around [[177]] [[Common Era|CE]], during persecutions under [[Marcus Aurelius]], while Irenaeus was visiting [[Rome]].
Irenaeus is also remembered as a [[martyr]], although there is no evidence indicating how he died; presumably, he did so shortly after the turn of the [[third century]]. He was buried under the church of Saint John's in Lyons, which was later renamed St. Irenaeus in his honour; the tomb and his remains were destroyed in [[1562]] by the [[Calvinism|Calvinist]] [[Huguenots]]. The remains of [[Leonardo da Vinci]] and [[Johannes Kepler|Kepler]], among others, also were lost in the religious wars of those times.
==Writings==
Irenaeus wrote a number of books, but the most important that survives is the five-volume ''On the Detection and Overthrow of the So-Called [[Gnosis]]'', normally referred to by the [[Latin language|Latin]] title ''[[Adversus Haereses]]'' ("Against Heresies"). Only fragments of the original [[Greek language|Greek]] text exist, but a complete copy exists in a wooden Latin translation, made shortly after its publication in Greek, and Books IV and V are also present in a literal [[Armenian language|Armenian]] translation.
The purpose of ''Against Heresies'' was to refute the teachings of various [[gnosticism|Gnostic]] groups; apparently, several Greek merchants had begun a oratorial campaign praising the pursuit of "''[[gnosis]]''" in Irenaeus' bishopric. Until the discovery of the [[Nag Hammadi library|Library of Nag Hammadi]] in [[1945]], ''Against Heresies'' was the best surviving description of [[Gnosticism]].
In Book II, chapter 22 of his treatise, Irenaeus asserts that the ministry of [[Jesus]] lasted from when he was [[baptism|baptized]] at the age of 30 until at least until the age of 50, and that he remained among his [[disciple|disciples]] until the reign of [[Trajan]], that is, until at least the year [[98]] [[Common Era|CE]]. It is not clear from the context whether Irenaeus believed Jesus was crucified in his old age, or was crucified at around the age 50 and then remained on earth long after his resurrection:
<blockquote>[F]rom the fortieth and fiftieth year a man begins to decline towards old age, which our Lord possessed while He still fulfilled the office of a Teacher, even as the [[Gospel]] and all the elders testify; those who were conversant in [[Near East|Asia]] with [[St._John_the_Apostle|John]], the disciple of the [[God|Lord]], [affirming] that John conveyed to them that information. And he remained among them up to the times of Trajan. Some of them, moreover, saw not only John, but the other [[Twelve Apostles|apostles]] also, and heard the very same account from them, and bear testimony as to the [validity of] the statement.''</blockquote>
Elsewhere, Irenaeus asserts that:
<blockquote>they have [[apostasy|apostatized]] in their opinions from Him who is God, and imagined that they have themselves discovered more than the apostles, by finding out another god; and [maintained] that the apostles preached the [[Gospel]] still somewhat under the influence of Jewish opinions, but that they themselves are purer [in doctrine], and more intelligent, than the apostles. (Book III, ch. 12, par. 12)</blockquote>
Irenaeus cites from most of [[New Testament]] [[Biblical canon|canon]], as well as the noncanonical works the [[Epistles of Clement|1 Clement]] and [[The Shepherd of Hermas]]; however, he makes no references to [[Epistle to Philemon|Philemon]], [[2 Peter]], [[3 John]] or the [[Epistle of Jude|Jude]]. Irenaeus was the first Christian writer to list all four of the now canonical [[Gospel]]s as divinely-inspired, possibly in reaction to [[Marcion]]'s edited version of the [[Gospel of Luke]], which he (Marcion) asserted was the one and only true gospel.
Irenaeus' works were published in [[English language|English]] in [[1885]] in the [[Ante-Nicene Fathers]] collection.
==Irenaeus' Theology==
The central point of Irenaeus' [[theology]] is the unity of [[God]], in opposition to the Gnostics' division of God into a number of divine "[[Aeon]]s", and their distinction between the utterly transcendent "High God" and the inferior "[[Demiurge]]" who created the world. Irenaeus uses the [[Logos]] theology he inherited from [[Justin Martyr]], but prefers to speak of the Son and the Spirit as the "hands of God". [[Christ]], according to him, is the invisible Father made visible.
His emphasis on the unity of God is reflected in his corresponding emphasis on the unity of [[salvation]] [[history]]. Irenaeus repeatedly insists that God began the world and has been overseeing it ever since this creative act; everything that has happened is part of his plan for [[humanity]]. The essence of this plan is a process of [[maturation]]: Irenaeus believes that humanity was created immature, and God intended his creatures to take a long time to grow into or assume the divine likeness. Thus, [[Adam and Eve]] were created as children. Their [[fall (religion)|Fall]] was thus not a full-blown rebellion but a childish spat, a desire to grow up before their time and have everything with immediacy.
Everything that has happened since has therefore been planned by God to help humanity overcome this initial mishap and achieve spiritual maturity. The world has been intentionally designed by God as a difficult place, where human beings are forced to make [[moral]] decisions, as only in this way can they mature as moral agents. Irenaeus likens [[death]] to the [[whale]] that swallowed [[Jonah]]: it was only in the depths of the whale's belly that Jonah could turn to God and act according to the divine will. Similarly, death and [[suffering]] appear as [[evil|evils]], but without them we could never come to know God.
{{mergefrom|Recapitulation (Irenaeus)}}
According to Irenaeus, the high point in salvation history is the advent of [[Jesus]]. Irenaeus believes that [[Christ]] would always have been sent, even if humanity had never sinned; but the fact that they ''did'' [[sin]] determines his role as a [[savior]]. He sees Christ as the new Adam, who systematically ''undoes'' what Adam did: thus, where Adam was disobedient concerning God's edict concerning the fruit of the [[Tree of Knowledge]], Christ was obedient even to death on the wood of a tree. Irenaeus is the first to draw comparisons between Eve and [[Mary, the mother of Jesus|Mary]], contrasting the faithlessness of the former with the faithfulness of the latter. In addition to reversing the wrongs done by Adam, Irenaeus thinks of Christ as "recapitulating" or "summing up" human life. This means that Christ goes through every stage of human life, from [[infancy]] to [[old age]], and simply by living it, sanctifies it with his [[divinity]]. As a consequence, Irenaeus is therefore forced to argue that Christ did not die until he was quite old (see [[#Writings|above]]).
Irenaeus conceives of our salvation as essentially coming about through the [[incarnation]] of God as a man. He characterises the penalty for sin as death and [[corruption (philosophical concept)|corruption]]. God, however, is [[immortal]] and [[incorruptible]], and simply by becoming united to [[human nature]] in Christ he conveys those qualities to us: they spread, as it were, like a benign infection. Irenaeus therefore understands the [[atonement]] of Christ as happening through his incarnation rather than his [[crucifixion]], although the latter event is an integral part of the former.
== External links ==
*[http://www.earlychristianwritings.com/irenaeus.html Early Christian Writings Irenaeus]
*[http://www.ccel.org/fathers2/ANF-01/TOC.htm A nineteenth-century translation of Irenaeus' work]
**[http://www.ccel.org/fathers2/ANF-01/anf01-59.htm#P7011_1802900 Book II, ch. 22], where Irenaeus argues his unconventional views about the age of Jesus and the length of his ministry.
*[http://www.geocities.com/hashanayobel/christwrit/irenaeus.htm Excerpts from Irenaeus]
*[http://www.earlychurch.org.uk/irenaeus.php EarlyChurch.org.uk] Extensive bibliography.
[[Category:130 births]]
[[Category:202 deaths]]
[[category:Church Fathers]]
[[Category:Ancient Roman Christianity]]
[[Category:Gnosticism]]
[[Category:Saints]]
[[Category:Theologians]]
[[cs:Irenej z Lyonu]]
[[de:Irenäus von Lyon]]
[[es:Ireneo de Lyon]]
[[eo:Sankta Ireneo]]
[[fr:Irénée de Lyon]]
[[it:Sant'Ireneo di Lione]]
[[hu:Szent Ireneus]]
[[nl:Irenaeus van Lyon]]
[[ja:エイレナイオス]]
[[no:Ireneus av Lyon]]
[[pl:Ireneusz z Lyonu]]
[[pt:Ireneu de Lyon]]
[[sk:Irenej z Lyonu]]
[[fi:Irenaeus]]
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Involuntary commitment
15416
41618390
2006-02-28T15:34:08Z
DabMachine
922466
disambiguation from [[Doctor]] to [[Physician]] - ([[WP:DPL|You can help!]])
{{mergefrom|involuntary treatment}}
'''Involuntary commitment''' is the practice of using legal means or forms as part of a [[mental health law]] to commit a person to a [[mental hospital]], insane asylum or [[psychiatric ward]] against their will or over their protests. Many but not all countries have [[mental health law]]s governing involuntary commitment. Some, such as the [[United States]], require a court hearing if the subject of the more or less brief initial commitment (approved by a [[Physician|doctor]], [[psychologist]] or [[psychiatrist]]) protests, though in some cases this initial hearing must be immediate; while others allow involuntary commitment at the request of [[physicians]] who must follow set legal procedures. In the latter case there are then additional checks and sometimes hearings to ensure compliance with the law. It may also sometimes be possible to challenge the commitment through [[habeas corpus]].
Though involuntary commitment has long been a practice of most societies, some individuals and groups have challenged it from a [[civil liberty|civil libertarian]] perspective, particularly in countries that are part of the Anglo-American judicial tradition. There have also been allegations, many widely accepted, that at certain places and at certain times the practice of involuntary commitment has been used for the [[suppression of dissent]], or in a punitive way.
==Purposes of involuntary commitment==
Involuntary commitment has been used for a variety of purposes over the years and in different [[jurisdiction]]s. There has been considerable debate about these purposes and this has been a factor in leading to the various laws. A number of individuals and groups remain strongly opposed to either all these laws, some of these laws, or some aspects of their application.
In most jurisdictions involuntary commitment is specifically directed at people claimed or found to be suffering from a [[mental illness]] which impairs their reasoning ability to such an extent that the laws state or courts find that decisions must or should be made for them under a legal framework. This decision requires a subjective opinion and is therefore open to error or abuse, both of which have been documented as occurring at different times in various places. There have been numerous official enquiries into such matters around the world and these have often led to legal and system reforms.
Involuntary commitment is used to some degree for each of the following headings although different jurisdictions have different criteria. Some allow involuntary commitment only if the person both appears to be suffering from a mental illness and that the effects of this produce a risk to themselves or others. Other jurisdictions have much broader criteria.
===Observation===
Observation is sometimes used to determine if a person warrants involuntary commitment. It is not always clear on a relatively brief examination whether a person is [[psychosis|psychotic]] or otherwise warrants commitment and so sometimes people are admitted for a period to observe their behavior. This period of observation can be helpful in determining the actual [[diagnosis]] but can tend to produce an expectation of disease which can alter the perceptions and behavior of the staff. Rosenhan's classic paper, "[[Rosenhan experiment|On being sane in insane places]]",<sup>1</sup> demonstrated a variety of problems. In this study a number of volunteers mimicked illnesses to obtain admission to hospital and then subsequently behaved normally. The staff continued to perceive that they were exhibiting [[sign (medicine)|signs]] of the illness diagnosed on admission and treated them as such. This paper has since been criticised by Spitzer<sup>2</sup> who argued that given the initial symptoms presented that the mindset of the staff was not only understandable but that it did not invalidate an ability to diagnose conditions as Rosenhan had claimed. Rosenhan's experiment remains a cautionary tale that informs the teaching of trainee psychiatrists.
===Containment of danger===
A common reason given for involuntary commitment is to prevent danger to the individual or society. People with [[suicide|suicidal]] thoughts may act on these thoughts and harm or kill themselves. People with psychoses are occasionally driven by their [[delusion]]s or [[hallucination]]s to harm themselves or others. People with [[personality disorder]]s are occasionally violent.
This concern has found expression in the standards for involuntary commitment of a number of jurisdictions in the U.S. and other countries as the "danger to self or others" standard if someone has a "mental illness" or "mental disorder" (though sometimes explicit exceptions are made, as in [[Arizona]] law, in which "[[drug abuse]], [[alcoholism]] or [[mental retardation]]" and "[t]he declining mental abilities that directly accompany impending death" are specifically excepted), [http://www.psychlaws.org/LegalResources/StateLaws/Arizonastatute.htm] sometimes supplemented by the requirement that the danger be "imminent". However, it has come under criticism from two directions. Those who are concerned that the "danger to self or others" standard is too narrow and will not permit the commitment of those for whom it is necessary have occasionally advocated that it be replaced by the "gravely disabled" standard. There are others who are concerned that the "danger to self or others" standard is vague and not precisely defined, which could lead to abuse of involuntary commitment. However, some people find that the increasingly narrow definition of "danger to self or others" provided by statute and court rulings have to some degree mitigated these concerns.
Some of the same people who are concerned about the overbreadth of the "danger to self or others" standard are more concerned about the "gravely disabled" standard, as they find it broader still. The First District Court of Appeal in California, however, held in ''[[Conservatorship of Chambers]]'' (1977) 71 Cal.App.3d 277, 139 Cal.Rptr. 357, that the standard was not unconstitutional due to overbreadth or vagueness, and excluded commitment of people whose [[lifestyle]]s were simply eccentric or unusual. In ''In re Maricopa County'', 840 P.2d 1042, (Ariz. Ct. App. 1992), the court held that "persistently or acutely disabled" was not an unconstitutionally vague standard.
The [[Michigan]] Mental Health Code provides that a person
:''whose judgment is so impaired that he or she is unable to understand his or her need for treatment and whose continued behavior as the result of this mental illness can reasonably be expected, on the basis of competent clinical opinion, to result in significant physical harm to himself or herself or others''
may be subjected to involuntary commitment, a provision paralleled in the laws of many other jurisdictions. These types of provisions have been criticised as a sort of "heads I win, tails you lose," as if the person admits that he needs inpatient treatment, he will be voluntarily hospitalised, but if he denies that he needs treatment, this will form part of the evidence supporting his involuntary hospitalisation.
In [[Oregon]] the standard that the allegedly mentally ill person
:''[h]as been committed and hospitalized twice in the last three years, is showing symptoms or behavior similar to those that preceded and led to a prior hospitalization and, unless treated, will continue, to a reasonable medical probability, to deteriorate to become a danger to self or others or unable to provide for basic needs''
may be substituted for the danger to self or others standard.
===Treatment of illness===
Many [[psychiatric disorder]]s are treated with therapies such as [[antipsychotic]]s, [[antidepressant]]s or, more rarely, [[electroconvulsive therapy]] also known as electroshock. Many studies have shown the effectiveness of these treatments in their ability to produce a reduction in [[symptom]]s and [[sign (medicine)|signs]] of psychiatric disorders.{{fact}} These studies have been used in some jurisdictions as reasons to allow involuntary commitment solely on the basis of the person having a treatable psychiatric disorder. In those jurisdictions where danger is required for commitment, involuntary treatment is still usually allowed. Other studies have shown that psychiatric treatment is less effective than no treatment at all.{{fact}}
==Community treatment as an alternative==
There have been some criticisms of the efficacy or appropriateness of inpatient treatment. For example, the "[[Pan American Health Organization (PAHO) Caracas Declaration of 1990]]... identified inpatient psychiatric treatment as isolating individuals from the community and thus as an obstacle to recovery."[https://education.cmellc.com/html/involuntarycommitment.html] The isolation produced in the past with big asylums is now generally regarded as unhelpful. Integration into mainstream services and the community is supported by most in the treating professions and in the community.
===Deinstitutionalization===
Starting in the 1960s, there has been a worldwide movement toward deinstitutionalization of mental patients from mental hospitals into community care centers, and this has been matched with efforts at reform of involuntary commitment laws. (In the US from the [[1970s]] onwards a relatively small number of ex-mental patients and former "consumers of psychiatric services" have promoted what they call "[[psychiatric survivors movement|mad liberation]]," often calling for the abolition of involuntary commitment.) In many countries deinstitutionalization was put into practice without adequate provision or funding for community care facilities; those who described themselves as "advocates for the mentally ill" complained that deinstitutionalized former inmates of mental hospitals often ended up homeless, and others have complained that they found their way into [[jail]]s and [[prison]]s. In the US in the [[1980s]], there was a return back to institutionalization and less strict commitment laws. However, Michael L. Perlin<sup>3</sup> has claimed that throughout this entire period psychiatrists have frequently and as a practice committed [[perjury]] during commitment hearings in order to make it more likely that a patient they believe would benefit from commitment will be committed. [[E. Fuller Torrey]], a prominent proponent of involuntary commitment, has stated:
:''It would probably be difficult to find any American Psychiatrist working with the mentally ill who has not, at a minimum, exaggerated the dangerousness of a mentally ill person's behavior to obtain a judicial order for commitment . . . Thus, ignoring the law, exaggerating symptoms, and outright lying by families to get care for those who need it are important reasons the mental illness system is not even worse than it is.''
Dr. Torrey also quotes Psychiatrist Paul Applebaum as saying when "confronted with psychotic persons who might well benefit from treatment, and who would certainly suffer without it, mental health professionals and judges alike were reluctant to comply with the law," noting that in "'the dominance of the commonsense model,' the laws are sometimes simply disregarded."<sup>4</sup>
The general trend worldwide remains one of closing large mental hospitals, increasing the integration of psychiatric treatment into general hospitals and of increasing community care at times using [[outpatient commitment|involuntary community treatment]] where in the past involuntary admission would have been used. Despite this trend, and given the limitations of current treatment regimes, some involuntary admissions will continue for more severe conditions.
==United Nations==
[[United Nations]] [[UN General Assembly|General Assembly]] resolution 46/119 of [[1991]], "Principles for the Protection of Persons with Mental Illness and the Improvement of Mental Health Care" is a non-binding resolution advocating certain broadly-drawn procedures for the carrying-out of involuntary commitment. These principles have been used in many countries where local laws have been revised or new ones implemented. The UN runs programs in some countries to assist in this process.
==United States==
Involuntary commitment is governed by state law and procedures vary from state to state, under laws often called [[mental hygiene]] laws. Involuntary commitment is typically used against people diagnosed with, or alleged to have, a [[mental illness]], particularly [[schizophrenia]]. It should be noted that, at least in some [[jurisdiction]]s, laws regarding the commitment of [[juvenile]]s may vary, with what is the ''de facto'' involuntary commitment of a juvenile perhaps ''de jure'' defined as "voluntary" if his [[parents]] agree (though he may still have a right to protest and attempt to get released).
An example of involuntary commitment procedures is the [[Baker Act]] used by the state of [[Florida]]. Under this law, a person may be committed only if he or she presents a danger to himself or others. A [[police]] officer may issue an emergency commitment order which lasts for up to 72 hours. Within this time, a person must appear before a judge who can extend the commitment. The Baker Act also requires that all commitment orders be reviewed every six months in addition to insuring certain rights to the committed including the right to contact outsiders. Also, a person under an involuntary commitment order has a right to counsel and a right to have the state provide a public defender if they cannot afford a private lawyer.
===Controversy===
(Of particular concern to some civil libertarians is the acknowledged role of the [[United States Secret Service]] in obtaining involuntary psychiatric hospitalizations of those it believes to be a danger to protectees, without any claim that these "dangerous" individuals are "mentally ill.") Though few would argue that under no circumstances should a psychiatric patient be held against his will, exceptions to this have included [[Lawrence Stevens]], an attorney who has argued that involuntary commitment is a violation of [[substantive due process]] under the United States Constitution (see link at end of article); and most believers in the theory of [[reality enforcement]]; the [[Libertarian Party]] also opposes the practice in its platform.[http://www.lp.org/issues/platform/platform_all.html] [[Surrealism]] has also categorically opposed involuntary commitment, and many Western [[Marxism|Marxists]] have also opposed the practice. Dr. [[Thomas Szasz]] has also been prominent in challenging involuntary commitment (see [[anti-psychiatry]]).
A small number of individuals in the United States have opposed involuntary commitment in those cases in which the diagnosis forming the justification for the involuntary commitment rests, or the individuals say it rests, on the [[speech]] or [[writing]]s of the person committed, saying that to deprive him of liberty based in whole or part on such speech and writings violates the [[First Amendment]]. Other individuals have opposed involuntary commitment on the bases that they claim (despite the amendment generally being held to apply only to criminal cases) it violates the [[Fifth Amendment]] in a number of ways, particularly its privilege against self-incrimination, as the psychiatrically-examined individual may not be free to remain silent, and such silence may actually be used as "proof" of his "mental illness".[http://www.szasz.com/undergraduate/wadzuk.pdf] (This criticism has motivated the creation, in some jurisdictions, of a similar statutory privilege in this context.) There have also been claims that conditions in, or "treatments" commonly performed in, mental hospitals to which individuals are involuntarily committed constitute [[torture]], or are prohibited by the [[Convention Against Torture]].[http://psychrights.org/index.htm] While the overwhelming majority of this opposition has been nonviolent or even self-consciously based on the principles of [[nonviolence]], there have been isolated examples of violence, including [[sabotage]] arguably directed against involuntary commitment.
The mainstream debate has for the most part, however, regarded only the procedures of involuntary commitment. Until the [[1960s]], legal safeguards against involuntary commitment were lax and this led to a number of horror stories of people with no mental illness being trapped in an institution.
===Use with criminals===
In the [[1990s]], a novel and extremely controversial use of involuntary commitment laws known as "Mentally Abnormal Sexually Violent Predator" laws were enacted in order to hold sex offenders after their terms have expired. (This is generally referred to as "civil commitment," not "involuntary commitment," although, perhaps confusingly, involuntary commitment in general is sometimes referred to as "civil commitment".) Supporters claim that this is a valid use of involuntary commitment laws, while opponents claim that this is a potentially extremely dangerous way of bypassing the safeguards in the criminal justice system. This matter has been the subject of a number of cases before the [[Supreme Court of the United States]], most notably ''Kansas v. Hendricks'' and ''Kansas v. Crane''.
===Community based treatment===
Accompanying deinstitutionalization was the development of laws expanding the power of courts to order people to take psychiatric medication on an outpatient basis. Though the practice had occasionally occurred earlier, [[outpatient commitment]] was used for many people who would otherwise have been involuntarily committed. The court orders often specified that a person who violated the court order and refused to take the medication would be subject to involuntary commitment.
===Conservatorship===
Involuntary commitment is distinguished from [[conservatorship]], which was used by [[deprogramming|deprogrammers]] as a legal means to hold alleged [[cult]] victims against their will while talking them out of their faith. In hundreds of cases documented by attorney Jeremiah Gutman, deprogrammers were able to obtain conservatorship orders without having to bring the subject of the order before a judge.
===Advance psychiatric directives===
Advance psychiatric directives may have a bearing on involuntary commitment.[http://bipolar.about.com/gi/dynamic/offsite.htm?site=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.bazelon.org%2Fadvdir.html]
==Australia==
[[Australia]] is used as an example of a country where court hearings are not required for involuntary commitment. Mental health law is [[constitution]]ally under the state powers. Each state thus has different laws, many of which have been updated in recent years.
===Mechanisms===
The usual requirement is that a police officer or a doctor may determine that a person requires a psychiatric examination and may convey them, or have them conveyed to a [[psychiatric hospital]] for that purpose. Once at the hospital a doctor, usually a trainee psychiatrist, will either endorse this or order their release. If the person is detained in the hospital then they usually must be seen by an authorised psychiatist within a set period of time. In some states, after a further set period or at the request of the person or their representative, a tribunal hearing is held to determine whether the person should continue to be detained. In states where tribunals are not instituted, there is another form of appeal.
===Allowed reasons===
Some states require that the person is a danger to the society or themselves, other states only require that the person be suffering from a mental illness that requires treatment. The Victorian act specifies in part that:
:"(1) A person may be admitted to and detained in an approved mental health service as an involuntary patient in accordance with the procedures specified in this Act only if—
::(a) the person appears to be mentally ill; and
::(b) the person's mental illness requires immediate treatment and that treatment can be obtained by admission to and detention in an approved mental health service; and
::(c) because of the person's mental illness, the person should be admitted and detained for treatment as an involuntary patient for his or her health or safety (whether to prevent a deterioration in the person's physical or mental condition or otherwise) or for the protection of members of the public; and
::(d) the person has refused or is unable to consent to the necessary treatment for the mental illness; and
::(e) the person cannot receive adequate treatment for the mental illness in a manner less restrictive of that person's freedom of decision and action.
:(1A) Subject to sub-section (2), a person is mentally ill if he or she has a mental illness, being a medical condition that is characterised by a significant disturbance of thought, mood, perception or memory."
There are additional qualifications and restrictions but the effect of these provisions is that people who are assessed by doctors as being in need of treatment may be admitted involuntarily without the need of demonstrating a risk of danger. This then overcomes the pressure described above to exaggerate issues of violence to obtain an admission.
===Treatment===
In general, once the person is under involuntary commitment, treatment may be instituted without further requirements. Some treatments such as [[electroconvulsive therapy]] (ECT) often require further procedures to comply with the law before they may be administered involuntarily.
===Community treatment orders===
These can be used in the first instance or after a period of admission to hospital as a voluntary or involuntary patient. With the trend towards deinstitutionalization this is becoming increasingly frequent and hospital admission is restricted to people with severe mental illnesses.
==United Kingdom==
In the [[United Kingdom]], the process known in the [[United States]] as involuntary commitment is unofficially known as '''[[sectioning]]''', after the various sections of the [[Mental Health Act 1983]] (covering England and Wales), the [[Mental Health (Northern Ireland) Order 1986]] and the [[Mental Health (Care and Treatment) (Scotland) Act 2003]] that provide its legal basis.
==Reference==
<sup>1</sup> Rosenhan, D.L. (1973). ''On being sane in insane places''. Science, '''179''', 250-258.
<sup>2</sup> Spitzer, R.L. (1975). ''On pseudoscience in science, logic in remission, and psychiatric diagnosis: A critique of Rosenhan's "On being sane in insane places."'' Journal of Abnormal Psychology, '''84''', 442-452.
<sup>3</sup> Perlin, M.L. (1993/1994). ''The ADA and Persons with Mental Disabilities: Can Sanist Attitudes Be Undone?'' Journal of Law and Health,, 8 JLHEALTH 15, 33-34.
<sup>4</sup> Torrey, E. Fuller. (1997). ''Out of the Shadows: Confronting America's Mental Illness Crisis.'' New York: John Wiley and Sons.
==See also==
*[[Involuntary treatment]]
*[[Treatment Advocacy Center]]
*[[Psychiatric imprisonment]]
==External links==
* [http://www.antipsychiatry.org/due-proc.htm The views of Lawrence Stevens, J.D. who opposes involuntary commitment]
* [http://www.dms.dpc.vic.gov.au/Domino/Web_Notes/LDMS/PubLawToday.nsf?OpenDatabase Victorian legislation and parliamentary documents (Australia)] - search using "mental health act" for the latest version of the act
* [http://www.mhrb.vic.gov.au/ Mental health review board site (Victoria, Australia)] - the official site of the MHRB
* [http://www.psychlaws.org/GeneralResources/article218.htm Keys to Commitment (A Guide for Family Members) by Robert J. Kaplan, J.D.]
* [http://www.psychlaws.org/LegalResources/statechart.htm State-by-state chart of U.S. commitment laws]]
[[Category:Medical ethics]]
[[Category:Mental health law]]
[[Category:Psychosis]]
[[Category:Personality disorders]]
[[de:Unterbringung]]
[[fr:Hospitalisation sans consentement]]
Intermolecular force
15417
40055999
2006-02-17T20:36:36Z
24.61.110.85
/* Hydrogen bonding */
'''Intermolecular forces''' are electromagnetic forces which act between [[molecule|molecules]] or between widely separated regions of a [[macromolecule]]. Listed in order of decreasing strength, these forces are:
* [[ionic bonding|Ionic interactions]]
* [[hydrogen bonding|Hydrogen bonds]]
* Dipole-dipole interactions
* [[van der Waals force|London Dispersion Forces]]
==Description and strength==
These are fundamentally [[electrostatic]] interactions (ionic interactions, hydrogen bond, dipole-dipole interactions) or [[electrodynamic]] interactions (van der Waals/London forces). Electrostatic interactions are [[classical electromagnetism|classically]] described by [[Coulomb's law]]; the basic difference between them is the strength of their charge. Ionic interactions are the strongest with integer level charges, hydrogen bonds have partial charges that are about an order of magnitude weaker, and dipole-dipole interactions also come from partial charges another order of magnitude weaker.
{|border=0 cellpadding="2" cellspacing="0" style="width:300px"
|+A very approximate strength order would be:
!Bond type
!Relative strength
|-
|Ionic bonds ||<center>1000</center>
|-
|Hydrogen bonds ||<center>100</center>
|-
|Dipole-dipole||<center>10</center>
|-
|London Forces ||<center>1</center>
|-
|}
=== Ionic interactions ===
These are interactions that occur between charged species ([[ion]]s). Like charges repel, while opposite charges attract. These bonds form when the [[electronegativity|electronegativities]] between two atoms is large enough that one steals an electron from the other. The now oppositely charged ions are attracted. Ionic compounds have high melting and boiling points due to the large amount of heat required to break the forces between the charged ions. When molten they are also good conductors of heat and electricity, due to free or delocalised electrons.
=== Hydrogen bonding ===
[[Hydrogen bonding]] occurs when a [[hydrogen]] atom is [[covalent bond|covalently bound]] to a small highly [[electronegativity|electronegative]] atom such as [[nitrogen]], [[oxygen]], or [[fluorine]]. The result is a [[dipole|dipolar]] molecule. The hydrogen atom has a partial positive charge and can interact with another highly electronegative atom in an adjacent molecule (again N, O, or F). This results in a stabilizing interaction that binds the two molecules together. An important example is [[water (molecule)|water]]:
H O — H
\ /
O······H
/
H
Hydrogen bonds are found throughout nature. They give water its unique properties that are so important to life on earth. Hydrogen bonds between hydrogen atoms and nitrogen atoms of adjacent base pairs provide the intermolecular force that bind together the two strands in a molecule of [[DNA]].
The critical difference between hydrogen bonding and dipole-dipole interactions is that the hydrogen is partially transferred to the second molecule - the second molecule's lone pair of electrons forms a covalent bond and the pair becomes somewhat like:
:H<sub>2</sub>O<sup>+</sup>-H <sup>-</sup>O-H
The effect is twofold: The bonding is stronger and is directional. The directional nature of hydrogen bonding requires the two molecules to adopt a specific relative geometry.
=== Dipole-dipole interactions ===
{{mergefrom|Keesom force}}
Dipole-dipole interactions, also called Keesom interactions after [[Willem Hendrik Keesom]] who produced the first mathematical description in 1921, are the [[Keesom force|forces]] that occur between two molecules with permanent dipoles. These work in a similar manner to ionic interactions, but are weaker because only partial charges are involved. An example of this can be seen in [[hydrochloric acid]]:
(+)(-) (+) (-)<br>
H-Cl-----H-Cl
=== London dispersion forces ===
Also called London forces, instantaneous dipole effects or [[Van der Waals force]]s, these involve the attraction between temporarily induced dipoles in nonpolar molecules (often disappear within a second). This polarization can be induced either by a polar molecule or by the repulsion of negatively charged electron clouds in nonpolar molecules. An example of the former is chlorine dissolving in water:
(+)(-)(+) (-) (+)
[Permanent Dipole] H-O-H-----Cl-Cl [Induced Dipole]
An example of the second scenario is found in molecular chlorine:
(+) (-) (+) (-)
[Induced Dipole] Cl-Cl------Cl-Cl [Induced Dipole]
London Dispersion forces exist between all atoms.
===See also===
* [[Hydrophobic effect]]
* [[Polymer]]
[[Category:Chemical bonding]]
[[ar:تفاعل غير ارتباطي]]
[[da:Intermolekylær]]
[[es:Fuerza intermolecular]]
[[ja:分子間力]]
[[pl:Oddziaływania międzycząsteczkowe]]
[[pt:Força intermolecular]]
[[sl:Medmolekulska sila]]
Interatomic force
15418
15912892
2002-02-25T15:51:15Z
Conversion script
Automated conversion
#REDIRECT [[Intermolecular force]]
Internet ccTLDs
15419
15912893
2004-09-23T23:11:53Z
Joseph Dwayne
52361
REDIRECT [[country code top-level domain]]
#REDIRECT [[country code top-level domain]]
IRQ
15420
30438521
2005-12-07T05:26:00Z
Jsmethers
614213
#REDIRECT [[Interrupt request]]
List of Internet top-level domains
15422
41352558
2006-02-26T20:15:09Z
71.209.228.19
The following is a '''list of currently existing Internet Top-level domains''' '''(TLDs'''). See [[Top-level domain]] for further information, including notes on TLDs which are not based on [[ISO 3166-1]].
{| border="1px" cellspacing="0" cellpadding="2px"
|- style="background-color: #a0d0ff;"
!iTLD!!Entity!!Notes
|-
| [[.arpa]] || Address and Routing Parameter Area || This is an internet infrastructure tld.
|-
| [[.root]] || unknown || This is in root for unknown purpose, with only one entry (a TXT record).
|- style="background-color: #a0d0ff;"
![[gTLD]]!!Entity!!Notes
|-
| [[.aero]] || air-transport industry ||
|-
| [[.biz]] || business || This is an open TLD; any person or entity is permitted to register.
|-
| [[.cat]] || Catalan || This is a TLD for websites in the [[Catalan language]] or related to Catalan culture.
|-
| [[.com]] || commercial || This is an open TLD; any person or entity is permitted to register.
|-
| [[.coop]] || cooperatives || The .coop TLD is limited to cooperatives as defined by the [[Rochdale Principles]].
|-
| [[.edu]] || educational || The .edu TLD is limited to institutions of learning (mostly U.S.), such as 2 and 4-year colleges and universities.
|-
| [[.gov]] || U.S. government || The .gov TLD is limited to U.S. government entities and agencies
|-
| [[.info]] || information || This is an open TLD; any person or entity is permitted to register.
|-
| [[.int]] || international organizations || The .int TLD is strictly limited to organizations, offices, and programs which are endorsed by a treaty between two or more nations.
|-
| [[.jobs]] || companies || The .jobs TLD is designed to be added after the names of established companies with jobs to advertise. At this time, owners of a "company.jobs" domain are not permitted to post jobs of third party employers.
|-
| [[.mil]] || [[Military of the United States|United States Military]] || The .mil TLD is limited to use by the U.S. military
|-
| [[.mobi]] || mobile devices ||
|-
| [[.museum]] || museums ||
|-
| [[.name]] || individuals, by name || This is an open TLD; any person or entity is permitted to register.
|-
| [[.net]] || network || This is an open TLD; any person or entity is permitted to register.
|-
| [[.org]] || organization || This is an open TLD; any person or entity is permitted to register.
|-
| [[.pro]] || professions || Currently, .pro is reserved for licensed doctors, attorneys, and certified public accountants only. A professional seeking to register a .pro domain must provide their registrar with the appropriate credentials.
|-
| [[.travel]] || travel and travel-agency related sites ||
|-
<!--
|-
| [[.xxx]] || Adult-oriented websites ([[Pornography]]) ||
ICANN has approved this TLD in principle, but it has not been added to the root yet.
-->
|- style="background-color: #a0d0ff;"
![[ccTLD]]!!Country/dependency/region!!Notes
|-
| [[.ac]] || [[Ascension Island]] ||
|-
| [[.ad]] || [[Andorra]] ||
|-
| [[.ae]] || [[United Arab Emirates]] ||
|-
| [[.af]] || [[Afghanistan]] ||
|-
| [[.ag]] || [[Antigua and Barbuda]] ||
|-
| [[.ai]] || [[Anguilla]] ||
|-
| [[.al]] || [[Albania]] ||
|-
| [[.am]] || [[Armenia]] ||
|-
| [[.an]] || [[Netherlands Antilles]] ||
|-
| [[.ao]] || [[Angola]] ||
|-
| [[.aq]] || [[Antarctica]] || Defined as per the [[Antarctic Treaty System|Antarctic Treaty]] as everything south of latitude 60°S
|-
| [[.ar]] || [[Argentina]] ||
|-
| [[.as]] || [[American Samoa]] ||
|-
| [[.at]] || [[Austria]] ||
|-
| [[.au]] || [[Australia]] || Includes [[Ashmore and Cartier Islands]] and [[Coral Sea Islands]]
|-
| [[.aw]] || [[Aruba]] ||
|-
| [[.az]] || [[Azerbaijan]] ||
|-
| [[.ba]] || [[Bosnia and Herzegovina]] ||
|-
| [[.bb]] || [[Barbados]] ||
|-
| [[.bd]] || [[Bangladesh]] ||
|-
| [[.be]] || [[Belgium]] ||
|-
| [[.bf]] || [[Burkina Faso]] ||
|-
| [[.bg]] || [[Bulgaria]] ||
|-
| [[.bh]] || [[Bahrain]] ||
|-
| [[.bi]] || [[Burundi]] ||
|-
| [[.bj]] || [[Benin]] ||
|-
| [[.bm]] || [[Bermuda]] ||
|-
| [[.bn]] || [[Brunei|Brunei Darussalam]] ||
|-
| [[.bo]] || [[Bolivia]] ||
|-
| [[.br]] || [[Brazil]] ||
|-
| [[.bs]] || [[Bahamas]] ||
|-
| [[.bt]] || [[Bhutan]] ||
|-
| [[.bv]] || [[Bouvet Island]] || Not in use
|-
| [[.bw]] || [[Botswana]] ||
|-
| [[.by]] || [[Belarus]] ||
|-
| [[.bz]] || [[Belize]] ||
|-
| [[.ca]] || [[Canada]] ||
|-
| [[.cc]] || [[Cocos Islands|Cocos (Keeling) Islands]] ||
|-
| [[.cd]] || [[Democratic Republic of the Congo]] || Formerly [[Zaire]]
|-
| [[.cf]] || [[Central African Republic]] ||
|-
| [[.cg]] || [[Republic of the Congo]] ||
|-
| [[.ch]] || [[Switzerland]] (Confoederatio Helvetica) ||
|-
| [[.ci]] || [[Côte d'Ivoire]] ||
|-
| [[.ck]] || [[Cook Islands]] ||
|-
| [[.cl]] || [[Chile]] ||
|-
| [[.cm]] || [[Cameroon]] ||
|-
| [[.cn]] || [[People's Republic of China]] ([[mainland China|mainland]] only) || The [[special administrative region]]s of [[Hong Kong]] and [[Macau]] use separate Internet top-level domains. For the islands under the administration of the Government of the [[Republic of China|Republic of China on Taiwan]], such as [[Taiwan]], [[Quemoy]], [[Matsu]] and [[Penghu]], please refer to ".tw" .
|-
| [[.co]] || [[Colombia]] ||
|-
| [[.cr]] || [[Costa Rica]] ||
|-
| [[.cu]] || [[Cuba]] ||
|-
| [[.cv]] || [[Cape Verde]] ||
|-
| [[.cx]] || [[Christmas Island]] ||
|-
| [[.cy]] || [[Cyprus]] ||
|-
| [[.cz]] || [[Czech Republic]] ||
|-
| [[.de]] || [[Germany]] (Deutschland) ||
|-
| [[.dj]] || [[Djibouti]] ||
|-
| [[.dk]] || [[Denmark]] ||
|-
| [[.dm]] || [[Dominica]] ||
|-
| [[.do]] || [[Dominican Republic]] ||
|-
| [[.dz]] || [[Algeria]] || Not available for private use
|-
| [[.ec]] || [[Ecuador]] ||
|-
| [[.ee]] || [[Estonia]] ||
|-
| [[.eg]] || [[Egypt]] ||
|-
| [[.er]] || [[Eritrea]] ||
|-
| [[.es]] || [[Spain]] (España) ||
|-
| [[.et]] || [[Ethiopia]] ||
|-
| [[.eu]] || [[European Union]] ||
|-
| [[.fi]] || [[Finland]] ||
|-
| [[.fj]] || [[Fiji]] ||
|-
| [[.fk]] || [[Falkland Islands]] ||
|-
| [[.fm]] || [[Federated States of Micronesia]] ||
|-
| [[.fo]] || [[Faroe Islands]] ||
|-
| [[.fr]] || [[France]] ||
|-
| [[.ga]] || [[Gabon]] ||
|-
| [[.gb]] || [[United Kingdom]] || Seldom used; the primary ccTLD is [[.uk]]
|-
| [[.gd]] || [[Grenada]] ||
|-
| [[.ge]] || [[Georgia (country)|Georgia]] ||
|-
| [[.gf]] || [[French Guiana]] ||
|-
| [[.gg]] || [[Guernsey]] ||
|-
| [[.gh]] || [[Ghana]] ||
|-
| [[.gi]] || [[Gibraltar]] ||
|-
| [[.gl]] || [[Greenland]] ||
|-
| [[.gm]] || [[The Gambia]] ||
|-
| [[.gn]] || [[Guinea]] ||
|-
| [[.gp]] || [[Guadeloupe]] ||
|-
| [[.gq]] || [[Equatorial Guinea]] ||
|-
| [[.gr]] || [[Greece]] ||
|-
| [[.gs]] || [[South Georgia and the South Sandwich Islands]] ||
|-
| [[.gt]] || [[Guatemala]] ||
|-
| [[.gu]] || [[Guam]] ||
|-
| [[.gw]] || [[Guinea-Bissau]] ||
|-
| [[.gy]] || [[Guyana]] ||
|-
| [[.hk]] || [[Hong Kong]] || Hong Kong is a [[special administrative region]] of the [[People's Republic of China]]. It uses a separate internet top-level domain from the rest of China.
|-
| [[.hm]] || [[Heard Island and McDonald Islands]] ||
|-
| [[.hn]] || [[Honduras]] ||
|-
| [[.hr]] || [[Croatia]] (Hrvatska) ||
|-
| [[.ht]] || [[Haiti]] ||
|-
| [[.hu]] || [[Hungary]] ||
|-
| [[.id]] || [[Indonesia]] ||
|-
| [[.ie]] || [[Republic of Ireland|Ireland]] ||
|-
| [[.il]] || [[Israel]] ||
|-
| [[.im]] || [[Isle of Man]] ||
|-
| [[.in]] || [[India]] ||
|-
| [[.io]] || [[British Indian Ocean Territory]] ||
|-
| [[.iq]] || [[Iraq]] ||
|-
| [[.ir]] || [[Iran]] ||
|-
| [[.is]] || [[Iceland]] ||
|-
| [[.it]] || [[Italy]] || Restricted to companies and individuals in the [[European Union]]
|-
| [[.je]] || [[Jersey]] ||
|-
| [[.jm]] || [[Jamaica]] ||
|-
| [[.jo]] || [[Jordan]] ||
|-
| [[.jp]] || [[Japan]] ||
|-
| [[.ke]] || [[Kenya]] ||
|-
| [[.kg]] || [[Kyrgyzstan]] ||
|-
| [[.kh]] || [[Cambodia]] (Khmer) ||
|-
| [[.ki]] || [[Kiribati]] ||
|-
| [[.km]] || [[Comoros]] ||
|-
| [[.kn]] || [[Saint Kitts and Nevis]] ||
|-
| [[.kr]] || [[South Korea]] ||
|-
| [[.kw]] || [[Kuwait]] ||
|-
| [[.ky]] || [[Cayman Islands]] ||
|-
| [[.kz]] || [[Kazakhstan]] ||
|-
| [[.la]] || [[Laos]] ||
|-
| [[.lb]] || [[Lebanon]] ||
|-
| [[.lc]] || [[Saint Lucia]] ||
|-
| [[.li]] || [[Liechtenstein]] ||
|-
| [[.lk]] || [[Sri Lanka]] ||
|-
| [[.lr]] || [[Liberia]] ||
|-
| [[.ls]] || [[Lesotho]] ||
|-
| [[.lt]] || [[Lithuania]] ||
|-
| [[.lu]] || [[Luxembourg]] ||
|-
| [[.lv]] || [[Latvia]] ||
|-
| [[.ly]] || [[Libya]] ||
|-
| [[.ma]] || [[Morocco]] ||
|-
| [[.mc]] || [[Monaco]] ||
|-
| [[.md]] || [[Moldova]] ||
|-
| [[.mg]] || [[Madagascar]] ||
|-
| [[.mh]] || [[Marshall Islands]] ||
|-
| [[.mk]] || [[Republic of Macedonia]] ||
|-
| [[.ml]] || [[Mali]] ||
|-
| [[.mm]] || [[Myanmar]] ||
|-
| [[.mn]] || [[Mongolia]] ||
|-
| [[.mo]] || [[Macau]] || Macau is a [[special administrative region]] of the [[People's Republic of China]]. It uses a separate internet top-level domain from the rest of China.
|-
| [[.mp]] || [[Northern Mariana Islands]] ||
|-
| [[.mq]] || [[Martinique]] ||
|-
| [[.mr]] || [[Mauritania]] ||
|-
| [[.ms]] || [[Montserrat]] ||
|-
| [[.mt]] || [[Malta]] ||
|-
| [[.mu]] || [[Mauritius]] ||
|-
| [[.mv]] || [[Maldives]] ||
|-
| [[.mw]] || [[Malawi]] ||
|-
| [[.mx]] || [[Mexico]] ||
|-
| [[.my]] || [[Malaysia]] ||
|-
| [[.mz]] || [[Mozambique]] ||
|-
| [[.na]] || [[Namibia]] ||
|-
| [[.nc]] || [[New Caledonia]] ||
|-
| [[.ne]] || [[Niger]] ||
|-
| [[.nf]] || [[Norfolk Island]] ||
|-
| [[.ng]] || [[Nigeria]] ||
|-
| [[.ni]] || [[Nicaragua]] ||
|-
| [[.nl]] || [[Netherlands]] ||
|-
| [[.no]] || [[Norway]] ||
|-
| [[.np]] || [[Nepal]] ||
|-
| [[.nr]] || [[Nauru]] ||
|-
| [[.nu]] || [[Niue]] ||
|-
| [[.nz]] || [[New Zealand]] ||
|-
| [[.om]] || [[Oman]] ||
|-
| [[.pa]] || [[Panama]] ||
|-
| [[.pe]] || [[Peru]] ||
|-
| [[.pf]] || [[French Polynesia]] || With [[Clipperton Island]]
|-
| [[.pg]] || [[Papua New Guinea]] ||
|-
| [[.ph]] || [[Philippines]] ||
|-
| [[.pk]] || [[Pakistan]] ||
|-
| [[.pl]] || [[Poland]] ||
|-
| [[.pm]] || [[Saint-Pierre and Miquelon]] ||
|-
| [[.pn]] || [[Pitcairn Islands]] ||
|-
| [[.pr]] || [[Puerto Rico]] ||
|-
| [[.ps]] || [[Palestinian territories]] || [[West Bank]] and [[Gaza Strip]]
|-
| [[.pt]] || [[Portugal]] ||
|-
| [[.pw]] || [[Palau]] ||
|-
| [[.py]] || [[Paraguay]] ||
|-
| [[.qa]] || [[Qatar]] ||
|-
| [[.re]] || [[Réunion]] ||
|-
| [[.ro]] || [[Romania]] ||
|-
| [[.ru]] || [[Russia]] ||
|-
| [[.rw]] || [[Rwanda]] ||
|-
| [[.sa]] || [[Saudi Arabia]] ||
|-
| [[.sb]] || [[Solomon Islands]] ||
|-
| [[.sc]] || [[Seychelles]] ||
|-
| [[.sd]] || [[Sudan]] ||
|-
| [[.se]] || [[Sweden]] ||
|-
| [[.sg]] || [[Singapore]] ||
|-
| [[.sh]] || [[Saint Helena]] ||
|-
| [[.si]] || [[Slovenia]] ||
|-
| [[.sj]] || [[Svalbard]] and [[Jan Mayen]] Islands || Not in use
|-
| [[.sk]] || [[Slovakia]] ||
|-
| [[.sl]] || [[Sierra Leone]] ||
|-
| [[.sm]] || [[San Marino]] ||
|-
| [[.sn]] || [[Senegal]] ||
|-
| [[.so (domain name)|.so]] || [[Somalia]] ||
|-
| [[.sr]] || [[Suriname]] ||
|-
| [[.st]] || [[São Tomé and Príncipe]] ||
|-
| [[.su]] || former [[Soviet Union]] || Still in use
|-
| [[.sv]] || [[El Salvador]] ||
|-
| [[.sy]] || [[Syria]] ||
|-
| [[.sz]] || [[Swaziland]] ||
|-
| [[.tc]] || [[Turks and Caicos Islands]] ||
|-
| [[.td]] || [[Chad]] ||
|-
| [[.tf]] || [[French Southern and Antarctic Lands]] ||
|-
| [[.tg]] || [[Togo]] ||
|-
| [[.th]] || [[Thailand]] ||
|-
| [[.tj]] || [[Tajikistan]] ||
|-
| [[.tk]] || [[Tokelau]] || Also used as a free domain service to the public
|-
| [[.tl]] || [[East Timor]] || Old code .tp is still in use
|-
| [[.tm]] || [[Turkmenistan]] ||
|-
| [[.tn]] || [[Tunisia]] ||
|-
| [[.to]] || [[Tonga]] ||
|-
| [[.tp]] || [[East Timor]] || ISO code has changed to TL; .tl is now assigned but .tp is still in use
|-
| [[.tr]] || [[Turkey]] ||
|-
| [[.tt]] || [[Trinidad and Tobago]] ||
|-
| [[.tv]] || [[Tuvalu]] || Also sold as advertising domains
|-
| [[.tw]] || [[Republic of China]] ([[Free Area of the Republic of China|Taiwan area]] only) || This is only used in the area under the effective control of the Government of the [[Republic of China|Republic of China on Taiwan]], such as the islands of [[Taiwan]], [[Quemoy]], [[Matsu]] and [[Penghu]].
|-
| [[.tz]] || [[Tanzania]] ||
|-
| [[.ua]] || [[Ukraine]] ||
|-
| [[.ug]] || [[Uganda]] ||
|-
| [[.uk]] || [[United Kingdom]] ||
|-
| [[.um]] || [[United States Minor Outlying Islands]] ||
|-
| [[.us]] || [[United States|United States of America]] ||
|-
| [[.uy]] || [[Uruguay]] ||
|-
| [[.uz]] || [[Uzbekistan]] ||
|-
| [[.va]] || [[Vatican City|Vatican City State]] ||
|-
| [[.vc]] || [[Saint Vincent and the Grenadines]] ||
|-
| [[.ve]] || [[Venezuela]] ||
|-
| [[.vg]] || [[British Virgin Islands]] ||
|-
| [[.vi]] || [[U.S. Virgin Islands]] ||
|-
| [[.vn]] || [[Vietnam]] ||
|-
| [[.vu]] || [[Vanuatu]] ||
|-
| [[.wf]] || [[Wallis and Futuna]] ||
|-
| [[.ws]] || [[Samoa]] || Formerly Western Samoa
|-
| [[.ye]] || [[Yemen]] ||
|-
| [[.yt]] || [[Mayotte]] ||
|-
| [[.yu]] || [[Federal Republic of Yugoslavia|Yugoslavia]] || Now [[Serbia and Montenegro]]; ISO code has changed to CS; [[.cs]] is reserved, but has not yet been put into use.
|-
| [[.za]] || [[South Africa]] (Zuid Afrika) ||
|-
| [[.zm]] || [[Zambia]] ||
|-
| [[.zw]] || [[Zimbabwe]] ||
|}
==External links==
*[http://www.iana.org/domain-names.htm IANA's information on TLDs]
*[http://www.isc.org/ops/ds/reports/2004-01/dist-bynum.php The Internet Domain Survey]
[[Category:Top-level domains]]
[[cs:Seznam internetových TL domén]]
[[et:Tippdomeenide loend]]
[[es:Lista de dominios de Internet]]
[[fr:Liste des Internet TLD]]
[[id:TLD]]
[[nl:Lijst van top-level-domeinnamen op het Internet]]
[[ja:トップレベルドメイン一覧]]
[[no:Landskoder (internett)]]
[[pl:Lista domen najwyższego poziomu]]
[[pt:Lista de TLDs]]
[[ro:Listă de domenii internet]]
[[ru:Национальный домен верхнего уровня]]
[[sr:Списак највиших Интернет домена]]
[[tr:İnternet üst seviye alan adları listesi]]
Irgun gang
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#REDIRECT [[Irgun]]
Industrial property organizations
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#REDIRECT [[Intellectual property organization]]
Intellectual property organization
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/* Specialized organisations */ fmt
'''Intellectual property organizations''' encompass international intergovernmental organizations that involve cooperation in the area of [[copyright|copyrights]], [[trademark|trademarks]] and [[patent|patents]], and non-governmental, non-profit organizations, lobbying organizations, think thanks, as well as professional associations.
== General organisations ==
* [[World Intellectual Property Organization]] (WIPO)
* [[African Regional Intellectual Property Organization]] (ARIPO)
* ''[[Organisation Africaine de la Propriété Intellectuelle]]'' (OAPI) or African Intellectual Property Organization
== Specialized organisations ==
=== Patent offices ===
{{main article | '''[[Patent office]]'''}}
=== Patent-related organisations ===
*[[European Patent Organisation]] (EPO or EPOrg)
*[[Eurasian Patent Organization]] (EAPO)
*[[GCC Patent Office|Patent Office of the Cooperation Council for the Arab States of the Gulf]] (GCC)
=== Trademark-related organisations ===
*[[Office for Harmonization in the Internal Market]] (OHIM)
*[[Benelux Trademarks Office]]
*[[European Trademark Office]] (''?different from OHIM?'')
=== Design-related organisations ===
*[[Benelux Designs Office]] (BDO)
== Think tanks, institutes and non-profit organizations ==
* [[American Intellectual Property Law Association]] (AIPLA)
* [[International Association for the Protection of Industrial Property]] (AIPPI)
* [[Centre for International Industrial Property Studies]] (CEIPI)
* [[Center for Intellectual Property Studies]] (CIP)
* [[Institute of Patentees and Inventors]]
* [[Institute of Professional Representatives before the European Patent Office|European Patent Institute]] (epi)
* [[International Association for the Protection of Industrial Property]] (AIPPI)
* [[International Federation of Intellectual Property Attorneys]] (FICPI)
* [[International Intellectual Property Alliance]] (IIPA)
* [[International Intellectual Property Institute]] (IIPI) [http://www.iipi.org/]
* [[International Trademark Association]] (INTA)
* [[Japan Intellectual Property Association]] (JIPA)
* [[Max Planck Institute for Intellectual Property, Competition and Tax Law]]
* [[Queen Mary Intellectual Property Research Institute]]
* [[Trade Marks, Patents and Designs Federation]] (TMPDF) [http://www.tmpdf.org.uk/]
== See also ==
* [[Intellectual property]]
* [[List of organizations]]
* [[Patent attorney]]
* [[Patent clerk]]
[[Category:Intellectual property organizations| ]]
[[Category:Intellectual property]][[Category:International organizations]]
[[vi:Tổ chức sở hữu trí tuệ]]
Idealist
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#REDIRECT [[Idealism]]
Idealism
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:''This article is about the '''philosophical''' notion of Idealism. Idealism is also a term in [[Idealism in international relations theory|international relations theory]] and in [[Idealism (Christian eschatology)|Christian eschatology]].''
'''Idealism''' is an approach to [[philosophy|philosophical enquiry]]. As a basis for [[cosmology]], or an approach to understanding the existence, idealism is often contrasted with ''[[materialism]]'', both belonging to the class of [[monism|monist]] as opposed to [[dualism|dualist]] or [[pluralism|pluralist]] [[ontology|ontologies]]. The approach to idealism by western philosophers has been different from that of eastern thinkers. In western thought ''the ideal'', generally relates to direct knowledge of subjective mental ideas, or images. It is then usually juxtaposed with ''[[realism]]'' in which the real is said to have absolute existence prior to and independent of our knowledge. [[Epistemology|Epistemological]] idealists might insist that the only things which can be directly ''known for certain'' are ideas. In eastern thought, as reflected in [[Hindu idealism]], the concept of ''idealism'' takes on the meaning of [[consciousness]], essentially the living consciousness of an all-pervading ''[[God]]'', as the basis of all phenomena. A variant of [[oriental]] idealism is [[Consciousness-only|Buddhist idealism]].
==History==
'''Idealism''' names a number of philosophical positions with quite different tendencies and implications.
===Idealism in the East===
Several [[Hinduism|Hindu traditions]] and [[History of Buddhist schools|schools of Buddhism]] can be accurately characterized as idealist. Some of the Buddhist schools are called "[[Consciousness-only]]" schools as they focus on consciousness without a God or soul.
.
===Idealism in the West===
====Antiphon====
In his chief work ''Truth'', [[Antiphon]] wrote: "[[Time]] is a [[thought]] or a [[measure]], not a [[substance]]." This presents time as an ideational, internal, mental operation, rather than a real, external object.
====Plato====
{{main|Platonic idealism}}
[[Plato]] proposed an idealist theory as a solution to the [[problem of universals]]. A universal is that which all things share in virtue of having some particular property. So for example the wall, the moon and a blank sheet of paper are all white; ''white'' is the universal that all white things share. Plato argued that it is universals, [[The Forms]], or [[Platonic Ideals]] that are real, not specific individual things. Confusingly, because this idea asserts that these mental entities are ''real'', it is also called ''[[Platonic realism]]''; in this sense ''realism'' contrasts with ''[[nominalism]]'', the notion that mental abstractions are merely names without an independent existence. Nevertheless, it is a form of idealism because it asserts the primacy of the idea of universals over material things. <!-- More on maths here ? -->
====Plotinus====
[[Schopenhauer]] wrote of this [[Neoplatonist]] philosopher: "With [[Plotinus]] there even appears, probably for the first time in [[Western philosophy]], ''idealism'' that had long been current in the [[East]] even at that time, for it taught ([[Enneads]], iii, lib. vii, c.10) that the [[soul]] has made the [[world]] by stepping from [[eternity]] into [[time]], with the explanation: 'For there is for this [[universe]] no other place than the soul or [[mind]]' (neque est alter hujus universi locus quam anima), indeed the ideality of time is expressed in the words: 'We should not accept time outside the soul or mind' (oportet autem nequaquam extra animam tempus accipere)." (''Parerga and Paralipomena'', Volume I, "Fragments for the History of Philosophy," § 7)
====Malebranche====
[[Malebranche]] disagreed that if the only things that we know for certain are the ideas within our mind, then the existence of the external world would be dubious and known only indirectly. He declared instead that the real external world is actually God. All activity only appears to occur in the external world. In actuality, it is the activity of God. For Malebranche, we directly know internally the ideas in our mind. Externally, we directly know God's operations. This kind of idealism led to the pantheism of [[Spinoza]].
====George Berkeley====
[[George Berkeley|Bishop Berkeley]], in seeking to find out what we could know with certainty, decided that our knowledge must be based on our [[Perception|perceptions]]. This led him to conclude that there was indeed no "real" knowable object behind one's perception, that what was "real" was the perception itself. This [[subjective idealism]] or [[dogmatic idealism]] led to his placing the full weight of [[theory of justification|justification]] on our perceptions. This left Berkeley with the problem, common to other forms of idealism, of explaining how it is that each of us apparently has much the same sort of perceptions of an object. He solved this problem by having [[God]] intercede, as the immediate cause of all of our perceptions.
[[Schopenhauer]] wrote: "Berkeley was, therefore, the first to treat the subjective starting-point really seriously and to demonstrate irrefutably its absolute necessity. He is the father of idealism...." (''Parerga and Paralipomena'', Vol. I, "Fragments for the History of Philosophy," § 12)
====Arthur Collier====
[[Arthur Collier]] published the same assertions that were made by [[George Berkeley|Berkeley]]. However, there seemed to have been no influence between the two contemporary writers. Collier claimed that the represented image of an external object is the only knowable reality. Matter, as a cause of the representative image, is unthinkable and therefore nothing to us. An external world, as absolute matter, unrelated to an observer, does not exist for human perceivers. As an appearance in a mind, the universe cannot exist as it appears if there is no perceiving mind.
Collier was influenced by [[John Norris]]'s ([[1701]]) ''An Essay Towards the Theory of the Ideal or Intelligible World''. The idealist statements by Collier were generally dismissed by readers who were not able to reflect on the distinction between a mental idea or image and the object that it represents.
====Jonathan Edwards====
Edwards, an American theologian, went to [[Yale University]] in [[1716]] at the age of thirteen. After reading [[Locke]]'s doctrine of ideas, he kept a notebook entitled "Mind." In it, he wrote, at the age of fourteen, that the only things that are real are minds. He contended that [[matter]] exists only as an [[idea]] in a mind. Due to his theological manner of thinking, he asserted that space is God, due to its infinity. After adolescence, he never elaborated on these early idealistic notes.
====Immanuel Kant====
[[Immanuel Kant]] held that the mind shapes the world as we perceive it to take the form of space-and-time. Kant focused on the idea drawn from British [[empiricism]] (and its philosophers such as [[John Locke|Locke]], [[George Berkeley|Berkeley]], and [[David Hume|Hume]]) that all we can know is the mental impressions, or ''[[phenomena]]'', that an outside world which may or may not exist independently creates in our minds; our minds can never perceive that outside world directly. Kant's postscript to this added that the mind is not a [[blank slate]] (contra [[John Locke]]), but rather comes equipped with [[category|categories]] for organising our sense impressions. This Kantian sort of idealism opens up a world of abstractions (i.e., the universal categories minds use to understand phenomena) to be explored by reason, but in sharp contrast to Plato's, confirms uncertainties about a (un)knowable world outside our own minds. We cannot approach the ''[[noumenon]]'', the "Thing in Itself" ([[German language|German]]: ''Ding an Sich'') outside our own mental world. (Kant's idealism goes by the counterintuitive name of ''[[transcendental idealism]]''.)
====Fichte====
[[Johann Gottlieb Fichte|Johann Fichte]] denied Kant's noumenon, and made the claim that consciousness made its own foundation, that the mental ego of the self relied on no external, and that an external of any kind would be the same as admitting a real material. He was the first to make the attempt at a presuppositionless theory of knowledge, wherein nothing outside of thinking would be assumed to exist outside the initial analysis of concept. So that conception could be solely grounded in itself, and assume nothing without deduction from there first, what he called a [[Wissenschaftslehre]]. (This stand is very similar to [[Giovanni Gentile]]'s [[Actual Idealism]], except that Gentile's theory goes further by denying a ground for even an ego or self made from thinking.)
====Hegel====
[[Georg Wilhelm Friedrich Hegel|Hegel]], another philosopher whose system has been called ''idealism'', thought that history must be rational in something significantly like the way science is. His famous dictum "[[the Real is Rational]]" means that [[reason]] is the arbiter that shapes the world as it is, and gives us access to what is real. Hegel's idealism posits that since ideas about reality are products of the [[mind]], there must be a mind at work in the universe that establishes reality and gives it structure. Hegelian idealism goes by the name of ''[[absolute idealism]]''.
====Schopenhauer====
In the first volume of his ''Parerga and Paralipomena'', [[Schopenhauer]] wrote his "Sketch of a [[History]] of the Doctrine of the [[Ideal]] and the [[Real]]". He defined the ideal as being mental pictures that constitute subjective [[knowledge]]. The ideal, for him, is what can be attributed to our own minds. The images in our head are what comprise the ideal. Schopenhauer emphasized that we are restricted to our own [[consciousness]]. The [[world]] that appears there is only a [[representation]] or mental picture of objects. We directly and immediately know only representations. All objects that are external to the mind are known indirectly through the mediation of our [[mind]].
Schopenhauer's history is an account of the [[concept]] of the "ideal" in its meaning as "ideas in a subject's mind." In this sense, "ideal" means "ideational" or "existing in the mind as an image." He does not refer to the other meaning of "ideal" as being qualities of the highest perfection and excellence.
====British idealism====
[[British idealism]] enjoyed ascendancy in English-speaking philosophy in the later part of the 19th century. [[F. H. Bradley]] of [[Merton College]], [[Oxford university|Oxford]], saw reality as a [[monism|monistic]] whole, which is apprehended through "feeling", a state in which there is no distinction between the perception and the thing perceived. Bradley was the apparent target of [[G. E. Moore]]'s radical rejection of idealism.
[[J. M. E. McTaggart]] of [[University of Cambridge|Cambridge University]], argued that minds alone exist, and that they only relate to each other through love. [[Space]], [[time]] and material objects are for McTaggart unreal. He argued, for instance, in ''[[The Unreality of Time]]'' that it was not possible to produce a coherent account of a sequence of events in time, and that therefore time is an illusion.
American philosopher [[Josiah Royce]] described himself as an [[objective idealism|objective idealist]].
<!-- relationship with Husserl, phenomenology, existentialism, post modernism -->
====Karl Pearson====
In ''[[The Grammar of Science]]'', Preface to the 2nd Edition, [[1900]], [[Karl Pearson]] wrote, "There are many signs that a sound idealism is surely replacing, as a basis for natural philosophy, the crude [[materialism]] of the older physicists." This book influenced [[Albert Einstein|Einstein]]'s regard for the importance of the observer in scientific measurements. In § 5 of that book, Pearson asserted that "...science is in reality a classification and analysis of the contents of the [[mind]]...." Also, "...the field of science is much more [[consciousness]] than an external world."
===Critique of Idealism===
====G. E. Moore====
The most influential criticism of Idealism is [[G._E._Moore | Moore]]'s 1903 book, ''The Refutation of Idealism''. This was the first application of Moore's analytic philosophical method, which greatly influenced [[Analytic philosophy]].
Moore proceeds by examining the Berkeleian aphorism ''esse est percipi'': "to be is to be perceived". He examines in detail each of the three terms in the aphorism, finding that it must mean that the object and the subject are ''necessarily'' connected. So, he argues, for the idealist, "yellow" and "the sensation of yellow" are necessarily identical - to be yellow is necessarily to be experienced as yellow. But, in a move similar to the [[open question argument]], it also seems clear that there is a difference between "yellow" and "the sensation of yellow". For Moore, the idealist is in error because "that ''esse'' is held to be ''percipi'', solely because what is experienced is held to be identical with the experience of it".<!-- This could be improved by someone with a better background in Moore - please help! -->
====David Stove====
The [[Australia]]n philosopher [[David Stove]] argued in typically acerbic style that idealism rested on what he called "the worst argument in the world". He named one version of this argument, deriving from Berkeley, "the Gem". Berkeley claimed that "(the mind) is deluded to think it can and does conceive of bodies existing unthought of, or without the mind, though at the same time they are apprehended by, or exist in, itself". Stove argued that this claim proceeds from the tautology that nothing can be thought of without its being thought of, to the conclusion that nothing can exist without its being thought of. Presented in this way, the argument is not even a syllogism - hardly an argument at all.
====John Searle====
In ''The Construction of Social Reality'' [[John Searle]] offers an attack on some versions of idealism. Searle conveniently summarises two important arguments for idealism. The first is based on our perception of reality:
:''1. All we have access to in perception are the contents of our own experiences''
:''2. The only epistemic basis we can have for claims about the external world are our perceptual experiences''
therefore,
:''3. the only reality we can meaningfully speak of is the reality of perceptual experiences (''The Construction of Social Reality'' p. 172)''
Whilst agreeing with (2), Searle argues that (1) is false, and points out that (3) does not follow from (1) and (2).
The second argument for idealism runs as follows:
:''Premise: Any cognitive state occurs as part of a set of cognitive states and within a cognitive system''
:''Conclusion 1: It is impossible to get outside of all cognitive states and systems to survey the relationships between them and the reality they are used to cognize''
:''Conclusion 2: No cognition is ever of a reality that exists independently of cognition (''The Construction of Social Reality'' p. 174)''
Searle goes on to point out that conclusion 2 simply does not follow from its precedents.
===Idealism in religious thought===
Not all [[religion]] and belief in the [[supernatural]] is, strictly speaking, anti-materialist in nature. While many types of religious belief are indeed specifically idealist, for example, [[Hinduism|Hindu]] beliefs about the nature of the [[Brahman]], [[Zen]] Buddhism stands in the middle way of [[dialectics]] between idealism and materialism, and mainstream [[Christianity|Christian]] doctrine affirms the importance of the materiality of [[Christ]]'s human body and the necessity of self-restraint when dealing with the material world.
Several modern religious movements and texts, for example the organisations within the [[New Thought Movement]] (especially the [[Unity Church]]) and the book, ''[[A Course in Miracles]]'', may be said to have a particularly idealist orientation. The [[theology]] of [[Church of Christ, Scientist|Christian Science]] is explicitly idealist.
More accurately, Idealism is based on the root word "Ideal," meaning a perfect form of, and is most accurately described as a belief in perfect forms of virtue, truth, and the absolute. Idea-ism may be a more appropriate term for the definitions listed above. There is a clear distinction between an idea and an ideal (i.e. Websters Dictionary says "conforming exactly to an ideal, law, or standard: perfect.").
idealism in comparison to pragmatism
==Other uses==
In general parlance, "idealism" or "idealist" is also used to describe a person having high [[ideal (ethics)|ideals]], sometimes with the connotation that those ideals are unrealisable or at odds with "practical" life.
The word "ideal" is commonly used as an adjective to designate qualities of perfection, desirability, and excellence. This is foreign to the epistemological use of the word "idealism" which pertains to internal [[mental]] [[representations]]. These internal ideas represent objects that are assumed to exist outside of the mind.
==See also==
*[[J. M. E. McTaggart|McTaggart, John]] ''The Unreality of Time'', available at [[wikisource:The Unreality of Time]]
*[[Solipsism]], which is related to epistemological idealism.
{{Philosophy navigation}}
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Inheritance
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{{otheruses}}
'''Inheritance''' is the practice of passing on [[property]], [[title]]s, [[debt]]s, and [[obligation]]s upon the death of an individual. It has long played an extremely important role in human societies.
Both [[anthropology]] and [[sociology]] have made detailed studies in this area. Many cultures feature [[patrilineal]] succession, also known as [[gavelkind]], where only male children can inherit. Some cultures also employ [[matrilineal]] succession only passing property along the female line. Even more radical than the patrilineal succession is the practice of [[primogeniture]], under which all property goes to the eldest child, or often the eldest son (the first-born). Conversely there are also systems where everything is left to the youngest child. Some ancient societies and most modern states employ [[partible inheritance]], under which every child inherits (usually equally). There was also mixed systems:
* in Swedish culture beginning from 13th century and up until 19th century, a son inherited twice as much as his sister. This rule was introduced by the Regent [[Birger Jarl]], and it was regarded as an improvement in its era, since daughters were previously usually left without.
* among ancient [[Israelite]]s, the eldest son received twice as much as the other sons.
Many states have [[inheritance tax]]es, under which a portion of any estate goes to the [[government]], though the government technically is not an heir.
Employing differing forms of succession can effect many areas of society. Gender roles are profoundly affected by inheritance laws and traditions. Primogeniture has the effect of keeping large estates united and thus perpetuating an elite. With partible inheritance large estates are slowly divided among many descendants and great wealth is thus diluted, leaving higher opportunities to individuals to make a success. (If great wealth is not diluted, the positions in society tend to be much more fixed and opportunities to make an individual success are lower.)
Inheritance can be organized in a way that its use is restricted by the desires of someone (usually of the decedent). An inheritance may have been organized as a [[fideicommission]], which usually cannot be sold or diminished, only its profits are disposable. A fideicommission's succession can also be ordered in a way that determines it long (or eternally) also with regard to persons born long after the original decedent. Cf also [[trust (property)|trust]]. [[Royal succession]] has typically been more or less a fideicommission, the realm not (easily) to be sold and the rules of succession not to be (easily) altered by a holder (a monarch).
In more [[archaic]] days, particularly the possession of inherited [[land (economics)|land]] has been much more like a family trust than a property of an individual. Yet quite recently in many European countries, sale of the whole of or a significant portion of a farm required consent from certain heirs, and/or heirs had the intervening right to obtain the land in question with same sales conditions as in the sales agreement in question.
In [[common law]] jurisdictions an ''heir'' is a person who is entitled to receive a share of the decedent's property via the rules of inheritance in the [[jurisdiction]] where the decedent died or owned property at the time of his death. Strictly speaking, one only becomes an heir upon the death of the related person: it was improper to speak of the "heir" of a living person since the exact identity of the persons entitled to inherit would not be determined until the time of death. However, it is not totally wrong to speak about "heir" during the lifetime of the decedent at least in cases where the heir has such a position that only her/his own demise before, may prevent becoming a heir at the death (for example, if the birth of another person cannot take away the position as a heir) - this is a [[heir apparent]].
==See also==
* [[Intestacy]]
* [[Majorat]]
* [[Nobility]]
* [[Order of succession]]
* [[Probate]]
* [[Royal family]]
* [[Will (law)]]
* [[Remainderman]]
[[Category:Family law]]
[[Category:Property law]]
[[ca:Hereu]]
[[es:Heredero]]
[[he:ירושה]]
[[nl:Nalatenschap]]
ISO 6166
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/* External links */
'''[[International Organization for Standardization|ISO]] 6166''' defines the structure of an International Securities Identifying Number ([[ISIN]]). An ISIN uniquely identifies a fungible security. Securities with which ISINs can be used include debt securities, shares, options, derivatives and futures.
ISINs consist of two alphabetic characters, which are the [[ISO 3166-1]] code for the issuing country, nine alpha-numeric digits (the National Securities Identifying Number, or NSIN, which identifies the security), and one numeric check digit. The NSIN is issued by a national numbering agency (NNA) for that country. Regional substitute NNAs have been allocated the task of functioning as NNAs in those countries where NNAs have not yet been established.
ISINs are slowly being introduced worldwide. At present, many countries have adopted ISINs as a secondary measure of identifying securities, but as yet only some of those countries have moved to using ISINs as their primary means of identifying securities.
NNAs cooperate through the [[Association of National Numbering Agencies]] (ANNA). ANNA also functions as the ISO 6166 [[Maintenance agency|Maintenance Agency]] (MA).
==External links==
*[http://www.anna-web.com/ Association of National Numbering Agencies] – has more information on ISO 6166
*[http://www.pruefziffernberechnung.de/I/ISIN.shtml Prüfziffernberechnung in der Praxis] – site in German; describes in detail how to construct the ISIN from the NSIN
[[Category:ISO standards|#06166]]
[[de:ISO 6166]]
Interlingue
15433
15912907
2004-03-30T03:18:12Z
Jorge Stolfi
48742
#REDIRECT [[Occidental language]]
Isopropyl alcohol
15434
41561306
2006-02-28T03:59:24Z
Big . Joe
628532
<!-- Here is a table of data; skip past it to edit the text. -->
{| align="right" border="1" cellspacing="0" cellpadding="3" style="margin: 0 0 0 0.5em; background: #FFFFFF; border-collapse: collapse; border-color: #C0C090;"
! {{chembox header}} | {{PAGENAME}} <!-- replace if not identical with the article name -->
|-
| align="center" colspan="2" | [[Image:2-propanol.png|200px|{{PAGENAME}}]]
|-
! {{chembox header}} | General
|-
| [[IUPAC nomenclature|Systematic name]]
| Propan-2-ol
|-
| Other names
| 2-propanol, isopropanol,<br/>Isopropyl alcohol
|-
| [[Chemical formula|Molecular formula]]
| C<sub>3</sub>H<sub>8</sub>O
|-
| [[Simplified molecular input line entry specification|SMILES]]
| CC(O)C
|-
| [[Molar mass]]
| 60.10 g/mol
|-
| Appearance
| Colorless liquid
|-
| [[CAS registry number|CAS number]]
| 67-63-0
|-
! {{chembox header}} | Properties
|-
| [[Density]] and [[Phase (matter)|phase]]
| 0.78 g/cm<sup>3</sup>, liquid <!-- ? g/cm<sup>3</sup>, solid / ? g/ml, liquid / ? g/l, gas -->
|-
| [[Soluble|Solubility]] in [[Water_(molecule)|water]]
| Fully [[miscible]]
|-
| Solubility in [[brine]]
| Slightly soluble
|-
| In [[ethanol]], [[diethyl ether|ether]]<br/> In [[acetone]], [[toluene]]
| Fully miscible<br/> Soluble
|-
| [[Melting point]]
| -88 °C (185 K)
|-
| [[Boiling point]]
| 82 °C (355 K)
|-
| [[Acid dissociation constant|Acidity]] (p''K''<sub>a</sub>)
| 16.5 for H on [[hydroxyl]]
|-
| [[Viscosity]]
| 2.86 c[[Poise|P]] at 15 °C<br/>1.77 c[[Poise|P]] at 30 °C
|-
| [[Dipole#Molecular_dipoles|Dipole moment]]
| 1.66 [[Debye|D]] (gas)
|-
! {{chembox header}} | Hazards <!-- Summary only- MSDS entry provides more complete information -->
|-
| [[Material safety data sheet|MSDS]]
| [[{{PAGENAME}} chemdata supplement#Material Safety Data Sheet|External MSDS]] <!-- please replace with proper link-->
|-
| Main [[Worker safety and health|hazard]]s
| Flammable
|-
| [[NFPA 704]]
| [[Image:nfpa_h1.png]][[Image:nfpa_f3.png]][[Image:nfpa_r0.png]]
|-
| [[Flash point]]
| 12 °C
|-
| [[Risk and Safety Statements|R/S statement]]
| R: 11-36-67<br/> S: 7-16-24/25-26
|-
| [[RTECS]] number
| NT8050000
|-
! {{chembox header}} | [[{{PAGENAME}} chemdata supplement|Supplementary data page]]
|-
| [[{{PAGENAME}} chemdata supplement#Structure and properties|Structure and<br/>properties]]
| [[Refractive index|''n'']], [[Dielectric constant|''ε<sub>r</sub>'']], etc.
|-
| [[{{PAGENAME}} chemdata supplement#Thermodynamic properties|Thermodynamic<br/>data]]
| Phase behaviour<br>Solid, liquid, gas
|-
| [[{{PAGENAME}} chemdata supplement#Spectral data|Spectral data]]
| [[UV/VIS spectroscopy|UV]], [[Infrared spectroscopy|IR]], [[NMR spectroscopy|NMR]], [[Mass spectrometry|MS]]
|-
! {{chembox header}} | Related compounds
|-
| Related [[alcohol]]s
| [[1-Propanol|1-propanol]],<br/>[[ethanol]], [[2-Butanol|2-butanol]]
|-
| Other compounds
| [[acetone]], [[propylene]],<br/>
[[diisopropyl ether]],<br/>
[[2-bromopropane]]
|-
| {{chembox header}} | <small>Except where noted otherwise, data are given for<br> materials in their [[standard state|standard state (at 25°C, 100 kPa)]]<br/>[[wikipedia:Chemical infobox|Infobox disclaimer and references]]</small>
|-
|}
'''Isopropyl alcohol''' or isopropanol is a common name for '''2-propanol''', a colorless, flammable [[chemical compound]] with a strong odor. It has the [[chemical formula]] CH<sub>3</sub>CHOHCH<sub>3</sub>, and is the simplest example of a [[Alcohol#Primary.2C_secondary.2C_and_tertiary_alcohols|''secondary alcohol'']], where the alcohol carbon is attached to two other carbons. It is an [[isomer]] of [[propan-1-ol]].
==Uses==
[[Sterilization (microbiology)|Sterilizing]] pads typically contain a 60-70% [[solution]] of isopropanol in [[water (molecule)|water]]. Isopropyl alcohol is also commonly used as a [[cleaner]] and [[solvent]] in industry. It is also used as a [[gasoline]] additive for dissolving water or ice in fuel lines. Isopropanol is the main ingredient in [[rubbing alcohol]]. It is used as a [[disinfectant]], and is a common solvent.
Isopropanol is a major ingredient in "dry-gas" [[fuel additive]]. In significant quantities, [[water]] is a problem in fuel tanks as it separates from the gasoline. If the engine tried to combust the water instead of gasoline serious engine problems could result. The isopropanol does not remove the water from the gasoline. Rather, the isopropanol solubilizes the water in the gasoline. Once [[soluble]], the water does not pose the same risk as insoluble water.
It is also a very good cleaning agent and often used for cleaning [[electronics|electronic]] devices such as contact pins (like those on [[Read-only memory|ROM]] [[Cartridge (electronics)|cartridges]]), [[magnetic tape]] deck and [[floppy disk]] drive heads, the lenses of [[lasers]] in [[optical disc]] drives (e.g. [[CD]], [[DVD]]) and removing [[thermal paste]] from [[central processing unit|CPU]]s. It is also used to clean [[computer monitor]]s, and used by many music shops to give second-hand or worn [[records]] a newer looking sheen.
==Chemistry==
Isopropyl alcohol forms an [[azeotrope]] with water at 87.4% alcohol. It is impossible to dehydrate isopropanol further using non-[[azeotropic distillation]]. For this reason, more expensive means, such as using a [[drying agent]], are necessary for production of 100% isopropyl alcohol.
Being a secondary alcohol, isopropanol can be [[Redox|oxidised]] to [[acetone]]. This can be achieved using oxidising agents such as [[chromic acid]], or by [[dehydrogenation]] of isopropanol over a heated copper [[catalyst]]:
(CH<sub>3</sub>)<sub>2</sub>CH-OH → [[Acetone|(CH<sub>3</sub>)<sub>2</sub>C=O]] + [[Hydrogen|H<sub>2</sub>]]
Isopropanol may be converted to [[2-bromopropane]] using [[phosphorus tribromide]], or dehydrated to [[propylene]] by heating with [[sulfuric acid]]. With [[sodium hydroxide]] and a [[halogen]], or with [[sodium hypochlorite]], it undergoes the [[haloform reaction]]. This means it would give a positive result for an [[iodoform test]].
Isopropanol is often used as a [[hydride]] source in the [[Meerwein-Ponndorf-Verley reduction]].
Like most alcohols, isopropyl alcohol reacts with active [[metal]]s such as [[potassium]] to form [[alkoxide]]s which can be called ''isopropoxides''. The reaction with [[aluminium]] (initiated by a trace of [[Mercury_(element)|mercury]]) is used to prepare the catalyst [[aluminium isopropoxide]].
Isopropanol has a maximal [[absorbance]] at 204 nm in an [[Ultraviolet-visible spectroscopy|ultraviolet-visible]] spectrum.
==Safety==
Isopropyl alcohol is [[flammable]]. It should be kept away from heat and open flame.
Isopropyl alcohol is oxidized by the liver into [[acetone]]. [[Symptom]]s of isopropyl alcohol poisoning include [[flushing (physiology)|flushing]], [[headache]], [[dizziness]], [[Clinical depression|CNS depression]], [[nausea]], [[vomiting]], [[anesthesia]], and [[coma]]. Use in well-ventilated areas and use protective gloves while using. Poisoning can occur from ingestion, inhalation, or absorption.
==Medicine/Toxicology==
Isopropyl alcohol does NOT cause an [[anion gap]] [[acidosis]] (like [[ethanol]] or [[methanol]]). It produces an elevated [[osmolal gap]], but generally no abnormal anion gap (though this may be seen as a result of [[hypotension]] and [[lactic acidosis]]). Overdoses may cause a fruity, [[acetone]] like odor on the breath.
==External links==
* [http://www.embbs.com/cr/alc/alc5.html Isopropyl Alcohol information page]
[[Category:Alcohols]]
[[Category:Solvents]]
[[de:2-Propanol]]
[[es:Propan-2-ol]]
[[ja:イソプロパノール]]
[[lv:Izopropanols]]
[[ru:Изопропиловый спирт]]
[[fr:isopropanol]]
Ignatius of Antioch
15435
41703739
2006-03-01T04:13:52Z
209.78.16.88
add template Christian theology
[[Image:Ignatius.jpg|thumb|Icon of Ignatius being eaten by lions]]
{{Christian theology}}
'''St. Ignatius of Antioch''' (died somewhere between AD [[98]] - AD [[117]] as a martyr in Rome) was the third Bishop or [[Patriarch of Antioch]], after [[Saint Peter]] and [[Evodius]], who died around AD [[68]]. [[Eusebius]], (''Historia Eccl.'', II.iii.22) records that Ignatius succeeded Euodius. Making his apostolic succession even more immediate, [[Theodoret]] (''Dial. Immutab.'', I, iv, 33a) reported that Peter himself appointed Ignatius to the see of Antioch.
Ignatius, who also called himself '''Theophorus''' ("bearer of God"), was most likely a disciple of both [[Apostle|Apostles]] Peter and [[John the Apostle|John]].
Ignatius is generally considered to be one of the [[Apostolic Fathers]] (the earliest authoritative group of the [[Church Fathers]]) and a [[saint]] by both the [[Catholicism|Catholic]], who celebrate his feast day on [[February 1]] (pre-1970 Calendar) and [[October 17]] (post-1970 Calendar), and the [[Eastern Orthodoxy|Orthodox]] and [[Eastern Catholic]] churches, who celebrate his feast day on [[December 20]]. Ignatius based his authority on living his life in imitation of Christ.
Ignatius was arrested by the Roman authorities and transported to [[Rome]] under trying conditions:
:''"From Syria even to Rome I fight with wild beasts, by land and sea, by night and by day, being bound amidst ten leopards, even a company of soldiers, who only grow worse when they are kindly treated."'' — Ignatius to the Romans,5.
His fate: to die a martyr in the arena. The Roman authorities hoped to make an example of him and thus discourage [[Christianity]] from spreading.
Instead, he met with and encouraged Christians who flocked to meet him all along his route, and he wrote seven letters to the churches in the region (and one to a fellow bishop).
The seven authentic letters are:
*1)To the [[Ephesus|Ephesians]]
*2)To the [[Magnesia on the Maeander|Magnesians]]
*3)To the [[Tralles|Trallians]]
*4)To the [[Rome|Romans]]
*5)To the [[Amman|Philadephians]]
*6)To the [[Smyrna|Smyrnaeans]]
*7)To [[Polycarp|Polycarp, Bishop of Smyrna]]
By the 5th century, this authentic collection had been enlarged by spurious letters, and the original letters had been improved with interpolations, created to posthumously enlist Ignatius as an unwitting witness in theological disputes of that age, while the purported eye-witness account of his martyrdom is also thought to be a forgery from around the same time.
A detailed but spurious account of Ignatius' arrest and his travails and martyrdom is the material of the ''Martyrium Ignatii'' which is presented as being an eyewitness account for the church of Antioch, and as if written by Ignatius' companions, Philo of Cilicia, deacon at Tarsus, and Rheus Agathopus, a Syrian. Though [[Bishop Ussher]] regarded it as genuine, if there is any genuine nucleus of the ''Martyrium'', it has been so greatly expanded with interpolations that no part of it is without questions. Its most reliable manuscript is the 10th century Codex Colbertinus (Paris), in which the ''Martyrium'' closes the collection. The ''Martyrium'' presents the confrontation of the bishop Ignatius with [[Trajan]] at Antioch, a familiar [[trope]] of ''Acta'' of the martyrs, and many details of the long, partly overland voyage to Rome.
After Ignatius' martyrdom in the [[Colosseum|Flavian Amphitheatre]], his remains were honorably carried back to Antioch by his companions, and were first interred outside the city gates, then removed by the Emperor [[Theodosius II]] to the Tychaeum, or Temple of [[Tyche]] which was converted into a Christian church dedicated to Ignatius. In 637 the relics were translated to St Clement's, Rome.
The letters of Ignatius have proved to be important testimony to the development of Christian [[theology]], since the number of extant writings from this period of church history is very small. They bear signs of being written in great haste and without a proper plan, such as [[run-on sentence]]s and an unsystematic succession of thought. Ignatius is the first known Christian writer to put great stress on loyality to a single [[bishop]] in each city, who is assisted by both [[presbyter]]s ([[priest]]s) and [[deacon]]s. Earlier writings only mention ''either'' bishops ''or'' presbyters, and give the impression that there was usually more than one bishop per congregation.
:''"Plainly therefore we ought to regard the bishop as the Lord Himself"'' [IEph6:1] ''"your godly bishop"'' ''"the bishop presiding after the likeness of God and the presbyters after the likeness of the council of the Apostles, with the deacons also who are most dear to me, having been entrusted with the diaconate of Jesus Christ"'' ''"Therefore as the Lord did nothing without the Father, [being united with Him], either by Himself or by the Apostles, so neither do ye anything without the bishop and the presbyters."'' ''"Be obedient to the bishop and to one another, as Jesus Christ was to the Father [according to the flesh], and as the Apostles were to Christ and to the Father, that there may be union both of flesh and of spirit."'' [IMag2:1,6:1,7:1,13:2] ''"In like manner let all men respect the deacons as Jesus Christ, even as they should respect the bishop as being a type of the Father and the presbyters as the council of God and as the college of Apostles. Apart from these there is not even the name of a church."'' [ITr3:1] ''"follow your bishop, as Jesus Christ followed the Father, and the presbytery as the Apostles; and to the deacons pay respect, as to God's commandment"'' ''"He that honoureth the bishop is honoured of God; he that doeth aught without the knowledge of the bishop rendereth service to the devil"'' [ISmy8:1,9:1], [[Joseph Barber Lightfoot|Lightfoot]] translation
Ignatius stressed the value of the [[eucharist]], calling it "a medicine to immortality". The very strong desire for bloody martyrdom in the arena, which Ignatius expresses rather graphically in places, may seem quite odd to the modern reader, but an examination of his theology of [[soteriology]] shows that he regarded salvation as being from the power and fear of death. So, for him, to try to escape his martyrdom would be to fear death and place himself back under its power.
Ignatius is claimed to be the first known Christian writer to advocate replacing the [[Sabbath]] with the [[Lord's Day]]:
:''"If then those who had walked in ancient practices attained unto newness of hope, no longer observing Sabbaths but fashioning their lives after the Lord's day, on which our life also arose through Him and through His death which some men deny -- a mystery whereby we attained unto belief, and for this cause we endure patiently, that we may be found disciples of Jesus Christ our only teacher"'' — Ignatius to the Magnesians 9.1, [[Joseph Barber Lightfoot|Lightfoot]] translation.
He is also responsible for the first known use of the word "Catholic" to describe the church, saying
:''"Wherever the bishop shall appear, there let the multitude[of the people] also be; even as, wherever Jesus Christ is, there is the Catholic Church."'' (Epistle to the Smyrmaeans, Chapter VIII)
==External links==
* [http://www.earlychristianwritings.com/ignatius.html Early Christian writings]: on-line texts of Ignatius' letters
* [http://www.newadvent.org/cathen/07644a.htm ''Catholic Encyclopedia'':] St Ignatius of Antioch; the manuscript traditions and the controversy over authenticity
* [http://www.cogwriter.com/ignatius.htm Another Look at Ignatius and the Sabbath] This includes a translation and discussion of other portions of Ignatius' Letters and the Didache
* [http://www.romanity.org/htm/rom.11.en.the_ecclesiology_of_st._ignatius_of_antioch.01.htm The Ecclesiology of St. Ignatius of Antioch] by Fr. John S. Romanides
{{start box}}
{{succession box|
before=[[Saint Evodius|Evodius]]|
title=[[List of Patriarchs of Antioch|Patriarch of Antioch]]|
years=[[68]]—[[107]]|
after=[[Saint Heron]]}}
{{end box}}
[[Category:Christian martyrs]] [[Category:Ancient Roman Christianity]] [[Category:Patriarchs of Antioch]] [[Category:100s deaths]]
[[cs:Ignác z Antiochie]]
[[de:Ignatius von Antiochien]]
[[fi:Ignatios]]
[[fr:Ignace d'Antioche]]
[[hu:Antiochiai Szent Ignác]]
[[it:Sant'Ignazio di Antiochia]]
[[nl:Ignatius van Antiochië]]
[[no:Ignatius av Antiokia]]
[[pl:Ignacy Antiocheński]]
[[sk:Ignác Antiochijský]]
[[sv:Ignatios av Antiochia]]
ITU prefix
15437
40381721
2006-02-20T04:24:45Z
NinjaStrider
961119
The [[International Telecommunication Union|ITU]] allocates [[call sign]] [[prefix]]es for [[radio station|radio]] and [[television station|television]] stations of all types. These prefixes are agreed upon internationally, and are a form of [[country code]]. A call sign can be any number of letters and numerals but each country must only use call signs that begin with the characters allocated for use in that country.
A few countries do not fully comply with these rules. Australia drops the VL prefix for broadcast stations, and Canada uses Chile's CB for its own [[Canadian Broadcasting Corporation]] stations.
With regard to the second and/or third letters in the prefixes in the list below, if the country in question is allocated all callsigns with A to Z in that position, then that country can also use call signs with the digits 0 to 9 in that position. For example, the [[United States]] is assigned KA–KZ, and therefore can also use prefixes like KA1 or K5.
Many large countries in turn have internal rules on how and where specific subsets of their callsigns can be used (such as Mexico's XE for AM and XH for FM broadcasting), which are not covered here.
==Fictional call signs==
The following ranges of call signs are not used, so can be used as examples and as call signs of [[fictional country|fictional countries]]. <small>Note: List not complete.</small>
*A0–A1
*C0–C1
*D0–D1
*E0–E1
*H0–H1
*H5
*E6–E9
*Q[''anything''] (no codes beginning with '''[[Q]]''' are used—they get confused with [[Q Codes]])
*O0–O9
*J0–J1
*L0–L1
*P0–P1
*J9
*0[''anything''] (no codes beginning with '''[[zero|0]]''' are used)
*S0–S1
*T0–T1
*V0–V1
*Y0–Y1
*Z0–Z1
*X0–X9
*Z4–Z9
*1[''anything''] (no codes beginning with '''[[one|1]]''' are used)
*30–39
*40–49
*50–59
*60–69
*70–79
*80–89
*90–99
==Table of Allocation of International Call Sign Series==
[[ITU prefix/Grid chart|View as grid chart]]
{| class="wikitable"
| '''Call Sign Series'''
| '''Allocated to'''
|-
!"#CCCCCC" colspan="2"|A
|-
| AA–AL
| [[United States|United States of America]]
|-
| AM–AO
| [[Spain]]
|-
| AP–AS
| [[Pakistan]] (Islamic Republic of)
|-
| AT–AW
| [[India]] (Republic of)
|-
| AX
| [[Australia]]
|-
| AY–AZ
| [[Argentine Republic]]
|-
| A2
| [[Botswana]] (Republic of)
|-
| A3
| [[Tonga]] (Kingdom of)
|-
| A4
| [[Oman]] (Sultanate of)
|-
| A5
| [[Bhutan]] (Kingdom of)
|-
| A6
| [[United Arab Emirates]]
|-
| A7
| [[Qatar]] (State of)
|-
| A8
| [[Liberia]] (Republic of)
|-
| A9
| [[Bahrain]] (State of)
|-
!"#CCCCCC" colspan="2"|B
|-
| '''B'''
| [[China]] (People's Republic of)
|-
!"#CCCCCC" colspan="2"|C
|-
| CA–CE
| [[Chile]] (See note 5)
|-
| CF–CK
| [[Canada]]
|-|
| CL–CM
| [[Cuba]]
|-
| CN
| [[Morocco]] (Kingdom of)
|-
| CO
| [[Cuba]]
|-
| CP
| [[Bolivia]] (Republic of)
|-
| CQ–CU
| [[Portugal]]
|-
| CV–CX
| [[Uruguay]] (Eastern Republic of)
|-
| CY–CZ
| [[Canada]]
|-
| C2
| [[Nauru]] (Republic of)
|-
| C3
| [[Andorra]] (Principality of)
|-
| C4
| [[Cyprus]] (Republic of)
|-
| C5
| [[The Gambia]] (Republic of)
|-
| C6
| [[Bahamas]] (Commonwealth of the)
|-
| C7
| ''[[World Meteorological Organization]]'' (See note 1)
|-
| C8–C9
| [[Mozambique]] (Republic of)
|-
!"#CCCCCC" colspan="2"|D
|-
| DA–DR
| [[Germany]] (Federal Republic of)
|-
| DS–DT
| [[Korea]] (Republic of)
|-
| DU–DZ
| [[Philippines]] (Republic of the)
|-
| D2–D3
| [[Angola]] (Republic of)
|-
| D4
| [[Cape Verde]] (Republic of)
|-
| D5
| [[Liberia]] (Republic of)
|-
| D6
| [[Comoros]] (Islamic Federal Republic of the)
|-
| D7–D9
| [[Korea]] (Republic of)
|-
!"#CCCCCC" colspan="2"|E
|-
| EA–EH
| [[Spain]]
|-
| EI–EJ
| [[Republic of Ireland|Ireland]] (Republic of)
|-
| EK
| [[Armenia]] (Republic of)
|-
| EL
| [[Liberia]] (Republic of)
|-
| EM–EO
| [[Ukraine]]
|-
| EP–EQ
| [[Iran]] (Islamic Republic of)
|-
| ER
| [[Moldova]] (Republic of)
|-
| ES
| [[Estonia]] (Republic of)
|-
| ET
| [[Ethiopia]] (Federal Democratic Republic of)
|-
| EU–EW
| [[Belarus]] (Republic of)
|-
| EX
| [[Kyrgyzstan|Kyrgyz Republic]]
|-
| EY
| [[Tajikistan]] (Republic of)
|-
| EZ
| [[Turkmenistan]]
|-
| E2
| [[Thailand]]
|-
| E3
| [[Eritrea]]
|-
| E4
| [[Palestinian Authority]] (See note 2)
|-
| E5
| [[Cook Islands]]
|-
!"#CCCCCC" colspan="2"|F
|-
| '''F'''
| [[France]]
|-
!"#CCCCCC" colspan="2"|G
|-
| '''G'''
|[[United Kingdom of Great Britain and Northern Ireland]]
|-
!"#CCCCCC" colspan="2"|H
|-
| HA
| [[Hungary]] (Republic of)
|-
| HB
| [[Switzerland]] (Confederation of)
|-
| HB0–HB0
| [[Liechtenstein]]
|-
| HC–HD
| [[Ecuador]]
|-
| HE
| [[Switzerland]] (Confederation of)
|-
| HF
| [[Poland]] (Republic of)
|-
| HG
| [[Hungary]] (Republic of)
|-
| HH
| [[Haiti]] (Republic of)
|-
| HI
| [[Dominican Republic]]
|-
| HJ–HK
| [[Colombia]] (Republic of)
|-
| HL
| [[Korea]] (Republic of)
|-
| HM
| [[Democratic People's Republic of Korea]]
|-
| HN
| [[Iraq]] (Republic of)
|-
| HO–HP
| [[Panama]] (Republic of)
|-
| HQ–HR
| [[Honduras]] (Republic of)
|-
| HS
| [[Thailand]]
|-
| HT
| [[Nicaragua]]
|-
| HU
| [[El Salvador]] (Republic of)
|-
| HV
| [[Vatican City State]]
|-
| HW–HY
| [[France]]
|-
| HZ
| [[Saudi Arabia]] (Kingdom of)
|-
| H2
| [[Cyprus]] (Republic of)
|-
| H3
| [[Panama]] (Republic of)
|-
| H4
| [[Solomon Islands]]
|-
| H6–H7
| [[Nicaragua]]
|-
| H8–H9
| [[Panama]] (Republic of)
|-
!"#CCCCCC" colspan="2"|I
|-
| '''I'''| [[Italy]]
|-
!"#CCCCCC" colspan="2"|J
|-
| JA–JS
| [[Japan]]
|-
| JT–JV
| [[Mongolia]]
|-
| JW–JX
| [[Norway]]
|-
| JY
| [[Jordan]] (Hashemite Kingdom of)
|-
| JZ
| [[Indonesia]] (Republic of)
|-
| J2
| [[Djibouti]] (Republic of)
|-
| J3
| [[Grenada]]
|-
| J4
| [[Greece]]
|-
| J5
| [[Guine–Bissau]] (Republic of)
|-
| J6
| [[Saint Lucia]]
|-
| J7
| [[Dominica]] (Commonwealth of)
|-
| J8
| [[Saint Vincent and the Grenadines]]
|-
!"#CCCCCC" colspan="2"|K
|-
| '''K'''
| [[United States|United States of America]] (west of the [[Mississippi River]], including [[Alaska]] and [[Hawaii]])
|-
!"#CCCCCC" colspan="2"|L
|-
| LA–LN
| [[Norway]]
|-
| LO–LW
| [[Argentine Republic]]
|-
| LX
| [[Luxembourg]]
|-
| LY
| [[Lithuania]] (Republic of)
|-
| LZ
| [[Bulgaria]] (Republic of)
|-
| L2–L9
| [[Argentine Republic]]
|-
!"#CCCCCC" colspan="2"|M
|-
| '''M'''
| [[United Kingdom of Great Britain and Northern Ireland]]
|-
!"#CCCCCC" colspan="2"|N
|-
| '''N'''
| [[United States|United States of America]]
|-
!"#CCCCCC" colspan="2"|O
|-
| OA–OC
| [[Peru]]
|-
| OD
| [[Lebanon]]
|-
| OE
| [[Austria]]
|-
| OF–OJ
| [[Finland]]
|-
| OK–OL
| [[Czech Republic]]
|-
| OM
| [[Slovakia]]
|-
| ON–OT
| [[Belgium]]
|-
| OU–OZ
| [[Denmark]]
|-
!"#CCCCCC" colspan="2"|P
|-
| PA–PI
| [[Netherlands]] (Kingdom of the)
|-
| PJ
| [[Netherlands]] (Kingdom of the) — Netherlands Antilles
|-
| PK–PO
| [[Indonesia]] (Republic of)
|-
| PP–PY
| [[Brazil]] (Federative Republic of)
|-
| PZ
| [[Suriname]] (Republic of)
|-
| P2
| [[Papua New Guinea]]
|-
| P3
| [[Cyprus]] (Republic of)
|-
| P4
| [[Aruba]]
|-
| P5–P9
| [[Democratic People's Republic of Korea]]
|-
!"#CCCCCC" colspan="2"|Q
|-
!colspan="2"|There are no [[Q code|prefixes beginning Q]] (See note 3)
|-
!"#CCCCCC" colspan="2"|R
|-
| '''R'''
| [[Russian Federation]]
|-
!"#CCCCCC" colspan="2"|S
|-
| SA–SM
| [[Sweden]]
|-
| SN–SR
| [[Poland]] (Republic of)
|-
| SS
| [[Egypt]] (Arab Republic of)
|-
| SSN–ST
| [[Sudan]] (Republic of the)
|-
| SU
| [[Egypt]] (Arab Republic of)
|-
| SV–SZ
| [[Greece]]
|-
| S2–S3
| [[Bangladesh]] (People's Republic of)
|-
| S5
| [[Slovenia]] (Republic of)
|-
| S6
| [[Singapore]] (Republic of)
|-
| S7
| [[Seychelles]] (Republic of)
|-
| S8
| [[South Africa]] (Republic of)
|-
| S9
| [[São Tomé and Príncipe]] (Democratic Republic of)
|-
!"#CCCCCC" colspan="2"|T
|-
| TA–TC
| [[Turkey]]
|-
| TD
| [[Guatemala]] (Republic of)
|-
| TE
| [[Costa Rica]]
|-
| TF
| [[Iceland]]
|-
| TG
| [[Guatemala]] (Republic of)
|-
| TH
| [[France]]
|-
| TI
| [[Costa Rica]]
|-
| TJ
| [[Cameroon]] (Republic of)
|-
| TK
| [[France]]
|-
| TL
| [[Central African Republic]]
|-
| TM
| [[France]]
|-
| TN
| [[Republic of the Congo|Congo]] (Republic of the)
|-
| TO–TQ
| [[France]]
|-
| TR
| [[Gabonese Republic]]
|-
| TS
| [[Tunisia]]
|-
| TT
| [[Chad]] (Republic of)
|-
| TU
| [[Côte d'Ivoire]] (Republic of)
|-
| TV–TX
| [[France]]
|-
| TY
| [[Benin]] (Republic of)
|-
| TZ
| [[Mali]] (Republic of)
|-
| T2
| [[Tuvalu]]
|-
| T3
| [[Kiribati]] (Republic of)
|-
| T4
| [[Cuba]]
|-
| T5
| [[Somali Democratic Republic]]
|-
| T6
| [[Afghanistan]] (Islamic State of)
|-
| T7
| [[San Marino]] (Republic of)
|-
| T8
| [[Palau]] (Republic of)
|-
| T9
| [[Bosnia and Herzegovina]] (Republic of)
|-|
!"#CCCCCC" colspan="2"|U
|-
| UA–UI
| [[Russian Federation]]
|-
| UJ–UM
| [[Uzbekistan]] (Republic of)
|-
| UN–UQ
| [[Kazakhstan]] (Republic of)
|-
| UR–UZ
| [[Ukraine]]
|-
!"#CCCCCC" colspan="2"|V
|-
| VA–VG
| [[Canada]]
|-
| VH–VN
| [[Australia]]
|-
| VO
| [[Canada]] ([[Newfoundland]])
|-
| VP–VQ
| [[United Kingdom of Great Britain and Northern Ireland]]
|-
| VR
| [[China]] (People's Republic of)—[[Hong Kong]] (See note 2)
|-
| VS
| [[United Kingdom of Great Britain and Northern Ireland]]
|-
| VT–VW
| [[India]] (Republic of)
|-
| VX–VY
| [[Canada]]
|-
| VZ
| [[Australia]]
|-
| V2
| [[Antigua and Barbuda]]
|-
| V3
| [[Belize]]
|-
| V4
| [[Saint Kitts and Nevis]]
|-
| V5
| [[Namibia]] (Republic of)
|-
| V6
| [[Micronesia]] (Federated States of)
|-
| V7
| [[Marshall Islands]] (Republic of the)
|-
| V8
| [[Brunei Darussalam]]
|-
!"#CCCCCC" colspan="2"|W
|-
| '''W'''
| [[United States|United States of America]] (east of the [[Mississippi River]])
|-
!"#CCCCCC" colspan="2"|X
|-
| XA–XI
| [[Mexico]]
|-
| XJ–XO
| [[Canada]]
|-
| XP
| [[Denmark]]
|-
| XQ–XR
| [[Chile]]
|-
| XS
| [[China]] (People's Republic of)
|-
| XT
| [[Burkina Faso]]
|-
| XU
| [[Cambodia]] (Kingdom of)
|-
| XV
| [[Vietnam]] (Socialist Republic of)
|-
| XW
| [[Lao People's Democratic Republic]]
|-
| XX
| [[Portugal]]
|-
| XY–XZ
| [[Myanmar]] (Union of)
|-
!"#CCCCCC" colspan="2"|Y
|-
| YA
| [[Afghanistan]] (Islamic State of)
|-
| YB–YH
| [[Indonesia]] (Republic of)
|-
| YI
| [[Iraq]] (Republic of)
|-
| YJ
| [[Vanuatu]] (Republic of)
|-
| YK
| [[Syrian Arab Republic]]
|-
| YL
|[[Latvia]] (Republic of)
|-
| YM
| [[Turkey]]
|-
| YN
| [[Nicaragua]]
|-
| YO–YR
| [[Romania]]
|-
| YS
| [[El Salvador]] (Republic of)
|-
| YT–YU
| [[Serbia and Montenegro]]
|-
| YV–YY
| [[Venezuela]] (Republic of)
|-
| YZ
| [[Serbia and Montenegro]]
|-
| Y2–Y9
| [[Germany]] (Federal Republic of)
|-
!"#CCCCCC" colspan="2"|Z
|-
| ZA
| [[Albania]] (Republic of)
|-
| ZB–ZJ
| [[United Kingdom of Great Britain and Northern Ireland]]
|-
| ZK–ZM
| [[New Zealand]]
|-
| ZN–ZO
| [[United Kingdom of Great Britain and Northern Ireland]]
|-
| ZP
| [[Paraguay]] (Republic of)
|-
| ZQ
| [[United Kingdom of Great Britain and Northern Ireland]]
|-
| ZR–ZU
| [[South Africa]] (Republic of)
|-
| ZV–ZZ
| [[Brazil]] (Federative Republic of)
|-
| Z2
| [[Zimbabwe]] (Republic of)
|-
| Z3
| [[Republic of Macedonia]]
|-
!"#CCCCCC" colspan="2"|2
|-
| '''2'''
| [[United Kingdom of Great Britain and Northern Ireland]]
|-
!"#CCCCCC" colspan="2"|3
|-
| 3A
| [[Monaco]] (Principality of)
|-
| 3B
| [[Mauritius]] (Republic of)
|-
| 3C
| [[Equatorial Guinea]] (Republic of)
|-
| 3DA–3DM
| [[Swaziland]] (Kingdom of) (See note 4)
|-
| 3DN–3DZ
| [[Fiji]] (Republic of) (See note 4)
|-
| 3E–3F
| [[Panama]] (Republic of)
|-
| 3G
| [[Chile]]
|-
| 3H–3U
| [[China]] (People's Republic of)
|-
| 3V
| [[Tunisia]]
|-
| 3W
| [[Vietnam]] (Socialist Republic of)
|-
| 3X
| [[Guinea]] (Republic of)
|-
| 3Y
| [[Norway]]
|-
| 3Z
| [[Poland]] (Republic of)
|-
!"#CCCCCC" colspan="2"|4
|-
| 4A–4C
| [[Mexico]]
|-
| 4D–4I
| [[Philippines]] (Republic of the)
|-
| 4J–4K
| [[Azerbaijani Republic]]
|-
| 4L
| [[Georgia (country)|Georgia]] (Republic of)
|-
| 4M
| [[Venezuela]] (Republic of)
|-
| 4N–4O
| [[Serbia and Montenegro]]
|-
| 4P–4S
| [[Sri Lanka]] (Democratic Socialist Republic of)
|-
| 4T
| [[Peru]]
|-
| 4U
| ''[[United Nations]]'' (See note 1)
|-
| 4V
| [[Haiti]] (Republic of)
|-
| 4W
| [[Timor–Leste]] (East Timor)
|-
| 4X
| [[Israel]] (State of)
|-
| 4Y
| ''[[International Civil Aviation Organization]]'' (See note 1)
|-
| 4Z
| [[Israel]] (State of)
|-
!"#CCCCCC" colspan="2"|5
|-
| 5A
| [[Libya]] (Socialist People's Libyan Arab Jamahiriya)
|-
| 5B
| [[Cyprus]] (Republic of)
|-
| 5C–5G
| [[Morocco]] (Kingdom of)
|-
| 5H–5I
| [[Tanzania]] (United Republic of)
|-
| 5J–5K
| [[Colombia]] (Republic of)
|-
| 5L–5M
| [[Liberia]] (Republic of)
|-
| 5N–5O
| [[Nigeria]] (Federal Republic of)
|-
| 5P–5Q
| [[Denmark]]
|-
| 5R–5S
| [[Madagascar]] (Republic of)
|-
| 5T
| [[Mauritania]] (Islamic Republic of)
|-
| 5U
| [[Niger]] (Republic of the)
|-
| 5V
| [[Togolese Republic]]
|-
| 5W
| [[Western Samoa]] (Independent State of)
|-
| 5X
| [[Uganda]] (Republic of)
|-
| 5Y–5Z
| [[Kenya]] (Republic of)
|-
!"#CCCCCC" colspan="2"|6
|-
| 6A–6B
| [[Egypt]] (Arab Republic of)
|-
| 6C
| [[Syrian Arab Republic]]
|-
| 6D–6J
| [[Mexico]]
|-
| 6K–6N
| [[Korea]] (Republic of)
|-
| 6O
| [[Somali Democratic Republic]]
|-
| 6P–6S
| [[Pakistan]] (Islamic Republic of)
|-
| 6T–6U
| [[Sudan]] (Republic of the)
|-
| 6V–6W
| [[Senegal]] (Republic of)
|-
| 6X
| [[Madagascar]] (Republic of)
|-
| 6Y
| [[Jamaica]]
|-
| 6Z
| [[Liberia]] (Republic of)
|-
!"#CCCCCC" colspan="2"|7
|-
| 7A–7I
| [[Indonesia]] (Republic of)
|-
| 7J–7N
| [[Japan]]
|-
| 7O
| [[Yemen]] (Republic of)
|-
| 7P
| [[Lesotho]] (Kingdom of)
|-
| 7Q
| [[Malawi]]
|-
| 7R
| [[Algeria]] (People's Democratic Republic of)
|-
| 7S
| [[Sweden]]
|-
| 7T–7Y
| [[Algeria]] (People's Democratic Republic of)
|-
| 7Z
| [[Saudi Arabia]] (Kingdom of)
|-
!"#CCCCCC" colspan="2"|8
|-
| 8A–8I
| [[Indonesia]] (Republic of)
|-
| 8J–8N
| [[Japan]]
|-
| 8O
| [[Botswana]] (Republic of)
|-
| 8P–8P
| [[Barbados]]
|-
| 8Q
| [[Maldives]] (Republic of)
|-
| 8R
| [[Guyana]]
|-
| 8S
| [[Sweden]]
|-
| 8T–8Y
| [[India]] (Republic of)
|-
| 8Z
| [[Saudi Arabia]] (Kingdom of)
|-
!"#CCCCCC" colspan="2"|9
|-
| 9A
| [[Croatia]] (Republic of)
|-
| 9B–9D
| [[Iran]] (Islamic Republic of)
|-
| 9E–9F
| [[Ethiopia]] (Federal Democratic Republic of)
|-
| 9G
| [[Ghana]]
|-
| 9H
| [[Malta]]
|-
| 9I–9J
| [[Zambia]] (Republic of)
|-
| 9K
| [[Kuwait]] (State of)
|-
| 9L
| [[Sierra Leone]]
|-
| 9M
| [[Malaysia]]
|-
| 9N
| [[Nepal]]
|-
| 9O–9T
| [[Democratic Republic of the Congo]]
|-
| 9U
| [[Burundi]] (Republic of)
|-
| 9V
| [[Singapore]] (Republic of)
|-
| 9W
| [[Malaysia]]
|-
| 9X
| [[Rwandese Republic]]
|-
| 9Y–9Z
| [[Trinidad and Tobago]]
|}
*Note 1: Series allocated to an international organization.
*Note 2: Provisional allocation in accordance with No. S19.33:
(S19.33 Between radiocommunication conferences, the Secretary-General is authorized to deal with questions relating to changes in the allocation of series of call signs, on a provisional basis, and subject to confirmation by the following conference.)
*Note 3: Three letter codes beginning with Q are for communication abbreviations, the [[Q code]]s and not used as callsign prefixes.
*Note 4: Half-series allocation.
*Note 5: The [[Canadian Broadcasting Corporation]] operates the vast majority of its stations with call signs beginning with CB. This is through a special agreement{{fact}} with the government of [[Chile]], which is officially assigned the CB prefix.
[[category: call signs]]
[[ast:Llista de prefixos radiofónicos]]
[[es:Prefijo radiofónico]]
Israeli War of Independence
15438
15912912
2002-02-25T15:51:15Z
Conversion script
Automated conversion
#REDIRECT [[1948 Arab-Israeli War]]
IBM PC keyboard
15440
41370289
2006-02-26T22:21:48Z
Dbiv
55217
Reverted edits by [[Special:Contributions/213.132.254.2|213.132.254.2]] ([[User talk:213.132.254.2|talk]]) to last version by SGBailey
The '''[[IBM PC]] keyboard''' and its derivative [[computer keyboard]]s are standardized. However, during the 20 years of the PC architecture being constantly updated, several types of keyboards have been developed.
==Keyboard layouts==
The following list gives a concise overview of the PC keyboard as it has changed over the years, the changes often being made at the launch of new PC versions. For each layout, some of the most significant updates are mentioned.
* 83-key [[PC/XT]] keyboard layout – original left hand side [[function key]] (F key) columns with 10 keys F1 through F10; electronically not [[compatible]] with the later keyboard types
* 84-key [[PC/AT]] keyboard layout – the "84th key" being <[[SysRq]]> i.e. System Request; numerical block now clearly separated from main keyboard; also added indicator [[light-emitting diode|LED]]s for Caps/Scroll/Num lock
* 101-key "Enhanced" keyboard layout – additional navigation and control keys; 12 F keys in row along top, grouped F1-4, F5-8, and F9-12
* 102-key "Enhanced" keyboard layout – (additional key to the right of the left Shift key for European layouts)
* 104-key "Windows" keyboard layout – [[Windows key|Windows]](x2) and Menu keys added
* 105-key as above, but for European layouts
* 107-key "Enhanced" keyboard layout – Wake, Sleep, and Power keys added (for [[power management]])
* 124-key [[Gateway anykey]] keyboard
So-called "[[multimedia]] keyboards" may offer additional buttons to the 104 or 107 "standard" keys, often providing volume control, media player buttons, and miscellaneous user-configurable shortcuts, e.g. to email clients, web browsers, etc.
==Standard key meanings==
The PC keyboard with its various keys has a long history of evolution reaching back to [[teleprinter|teletypewriter]]s. In addition to the 'old' standard keys, the PC keyboard has accumulated several special keys over the years. Some of the additions have been inspired by the opportunity or requirement for improving user productivity with general office [[application software]], while other slightly more general keyboard additions have become de facto standards after being introduced by certain [[operating system]] or [[graphical user interface|GUI]] software vendors such as [[Microsoft]].
''See also'': [[modifier key]]
===From mechanical typewriters===
*''Shift'' selects the upper character, or select upper case of letters. The Shift key in typewriters was attached to a lever that moved the character types so that the uppercase characters could be printed in the paper.
*''Caps Lock'' selects upper case, or if shift is pressed, lower case of letters. In mechanical typewriters, it worked like the Shift key, but also used a lock to keep the Shift key depressed. The lock was released by pressing the Shift key.
*''Enter'' wraps to the next line or activates the default or selected option. ASCII keyboards had CR or "[[carriage return]]". Typewriters used a lever that, once pressed, would move the cylinder with the paper.
===From Teletype keyboards===
*''Ctrl'' shifts the value of letters and numbers from the ASCII graphics range, down into the [[ASCII]] control characters. For example, CTRL-S is XOFF (stops many programs as the print to screen) CTRL-Q is XON (resume printing stopped by CTRL-S).
*''Esc'' produces an ASCII ESC character. Older software uses it to exit menus or modes.
*''Tab'' produces an ASCII Tab character. Moves to the next tab stop.
*''~'' is a ''tilde'', an accent backspaced and printed over other letters for non-English languages. Nowadays the key does not produce a backspaceable character and is used for 'not' or 'circa'.
*''`'' is a ''grave'' accent, also formerly backspaced over letters to write non-English languages; on some systems it is used as an opening quote. The single quote ' is normally used for an acute accent.
*''^'' is a circumflex, another accent for non-English languages. Also used to indicate exponentiation where superscript is not available.
*''*'' is an asterisk, used to indicate a note, or multiplication.
*''_'' is an underline, backspaced and overprinted to add emphasis.
*| is a bar, originally used as a typographic separator for optical character recognition. Many character sets break it in the middle so it cannot be confused with the numeral "1" or the letter "l".
===Invented for the PC===
*''Windows'' is a quick way to open the "Start" menu in Windows' standard Explorer shell, and can usually be configured to behave similarly in other graphical user interfaces, for Windows and other operating systems.
*''Context menu'' brings up a context menu, similar to right-clicking.
*Function keys are the numbered keys, use varies by program, but F1 is often "help."
*Arrow keys move on the screen. When shifted, they select items.
*''Home'' moves to the start of text, usually the left side of the screen.
*''End'' moves to the end of text, usually the right-most edge of the current line.
*''Page Up'' and ''Page Down'' move through the document by pages.
*''Del'' deletes the character before the screen position, or the selected items.
*''Ins'' toggles between "insertion" and "overwrite" mode.
*''Print screen'' originally printed a text image of the screen; nowadays often takes a screenshot. In combination with Alt, it produces a different keycode, SysReq.
*''Num lock'' toggles between states for the numeric keypad. When off, it acts as arrow and navigational keys. When on, it is a 10-key similar to a standard calculator. Preferences vary so much that a favorite default for this key can often be configured in the BIOS configuration. Its continued existence on keyboards that separate out the arrow keys has mostly historical reasons.
*''Scroll lock'' is little-used. On modern software, typing text usually causes earlier text to scroll off the top of the screen or window. Some old programs could disable this and restart at the top of the window when scroll lock was pressed. The advantage is that the entire screen full of text does not shift, making it easier to read. On spreadsheets such as [[Microsoft Excel]], it locks the cell pointer on the current cell, alowing the user to use the arrow keys to move the view window around without moving the cell pointer.
*''Pause'' paused processing, and is sometimes used to pause games. In combination with Control, it produces a different keycode, for ''Break''. Ctrl-Break traditionally stopped programs in DOS. Ctrl-Break is also used to halt execution of the debugger in some programming environments such as Microsoft Visual Studio. In combintion with the Windows key, it brings up the System Properties window in Microsoft Windows environments.
*''Alt'' shifts the letters and numbers into the range above hex 0x80 where the international characters and special characters exist in the PC's standard character set.
*''Alt Gr'' works like the Ctrl+Alt key combination, often used to print special characters like the [[backslash]] on Spanish keyboards. (On the original IBM AT Enhanced keyboard the right Alt key has green letters).
*''Alt'' plus a number typed on the numeric pad produces special characters, see [[Windows Alt keycodes]].
==Connectors==
There are three types of [[connector]] used to connect a PC keyboard to the main system unit. All three are mechanically different from each other, but the first two are electrically identical (except for XT keyboards). The three connector types are listed below in descending chronological order:
* 5-pin [[DIN connector|DIN]] (DIN 41524) "[[AT]]" connector
* 6-pin "Mini-DIN" (DIN 45322) "[[PS/2]]" connector
* 4-pin [[Universal Serial Bus|USB]] connector
==External links==
*[http://www.pcguide.com/ref/kb/layout/std.htm Standard keyboard layouts] – From The PC Guide website
*[http://www-306.ibm.com/software/globalization/topics/keyboards/physical.jsp IBM.com keyboard page]
[[Category:Computer keyboards|IBM PC]]
[[Category:IBM PC compatibles|Keyboards]]
Italian battleship Giulio Cesare
15441
41932232
2006-03-02T18:39:45Z
Fdewaele
153790
{| border="1" align="right" cellpadding="2" cellspacing="0" width=300 style="margin-left:1em;margin-bottom:1em"
|-
|colspan="2" align="center"|[[image:GiulioCesare1914.jpg|300px|RN ''Giulio Cesare'', speed tests, 1914]]
|-
!style="color: white; height: 30px; background:navy;"|Career
!style="background:navy;align:right;"|[[Image:Regia Marina Ensign.png|40px|Kingdom of Italy]]
|-
|Laid down:||[[June 24]], [[1910]]
|-
|Launched:||[[October 15]], [[1911]]
|-
|Commissioned:||1915
|-
|Decommissioned:||[[18 May]] [[1928]]
|-
|Reconstructed:||1933–1937
|-
|Fate:||Given to Soviet Navy, sunk 1955
|-
|Struck:||1947
|-
!colspan="2" style="color: white; height: 30px; background:navy;"|General Characteristics (before reconstruction)
|-
|Displacement:||23,088 tons standard,
25,086 tons full load
|-
|Length:||168.9 - 176.1 m
|-
|Beam:||28 m
|-
|Draught:||9.4 m
|-
|Propulsion:||20 boilers, 4 shafts, 31,000 hp
|-
|Speed:||21.5 knots (41 km/h)
|-
|Range:||4,800 miles at 10 knots
|-
|Complement:||1,000
|-
|Armament:||13 305/46 mm,
18 120/50 mm,
16 76/50 mm,
6 76/40 mm,
3 450 mm torpedo launchers
|-
|Aircraft:||0
|-
|Protection:||max 280 mm (vertical)
111 mm (horizontal)
|-
|colspan="2" align="center"|
|-
!colspan="2" style="color: white; height: 30px; background:navy;"|General Characteristics (after reconstruction)
|-
|Displacement:||28,800 tons standard,
29,100 tons full load
|-
|Length:||168.9 - 186.4 m
|-
|Beam:||28 m
|-
|Draught:||10.4 m
|-
|Propulsion:||8 boilers, 2 shafts, 93,000 hp
|-
|Speed:||28 knots (53 km/h)
|-
|Range:||3,100 miles at 20 knots
|-
|Complement:||1,236
|-
|Armament:||10 320/44 mm,
12 120/50 mm,
8 100/47 mm,
8 37/54 mm,
12 20/65 mm
|-
|Aircraft:||0
|-
|Protection:||max 280 mm (vertical)
135 mm (horizontal)
|}
'''''Giulio Cesare'' ''' was an [[Italy|Italian]] [[Conte di Cavour class battleship|''Conte di Cavour''-class]] [[battleship]] that served in the [[Regia Marina]] in both [[World War]]s before joining the [[Soviet Navy]]. Her keel was laid down on [[June 24]], [[1910]] at Cantieri [[Ansaldo]], [[Genoa]]. She was launched [[October 15]], [[1911]], and construction was completed [[May 14]], [[1914]].
''Giulio Cesare'' ([[Italian language|Italian]] for [[Julius Caesar]], motto ''Caesar Adest'') had no active missions during [[World War I]]. In 1926 attacked the Greek island of [[Corfu]], as a reaction against the killing of Italian representatives in Jamina; later was renovated. From 1928 to 1933 she was used as an [[artillery]] training ship, then went into the yards for extensive modernization.
Between 1933 and 1937 she was completely rebuilt, changing her silhouette and increasing her combat capabilities. Length was increased by 10.3 meters, and she was given new armored decks and new propulsion machinery that uprated her to 93,000 [[horsepower]] (69 MW), and allowed a speed of 28 [[knot (nautical)|knots]] (52 km/h).
During the [[Battle of Calabria|Battle of Punta Stilo]] on [[July 9]], [[1940]], ''Giulio Cesare'' was hit by a 15 inch (381 mm) shell as [[HMS Warspite (1913)|HMS ''Warspite'']] set the record for naval gunnery against a moving target at well over 24,000 meters (26,000 yards).
''Giulio Cesare'' was assigned to covering convoys, participating in the [[First Battle of Sirte]], until 1942, when she was declared obsolete for operative missions and used for training purposes only. After [[World War II]], ''Giulio Cesare'' was ceded to the [[Soviet Union]] as compensation for war damages.
==''Novorossiysk'' ==
The Soviet Navy recommissioned the [[battleship]] as the ''Novorossiysk''. ''Novorossiysk'' was based at [[Sevastopol]] from July 1949, serving as flagship of the Black Sea Fleet and later as a gunnery training vessel. On [[October 29]], [[1955]], the ''Novorossiysk'' was moored in [[Sevastopol]] Bay, 300 meters (1000 feet) from shore and opposite a hospital. At 1:30am, an explosion estimated to be the equivalent of 1,200 kilograms of [[Trinitrotoluene|TNT]] under the bow of the ship pierced all decks from the bottom plating to the forecastle deck. In the forecastle deck there was one hole which measured 14×4 meters in size. The damage extended aft from the bow 22 meters.
The ship sank slowly from the bow, capsizing at 4:15am, 2 hours 45 minutes after the explosion, and 18 hours later became fully submerged. The capsizing resulted in the death of 608 sailors, most of whom were staying in the ship's compartments. It became the worst disaster in Soviet naval history. Because of the politics of the [[Cold War]], the fate of the ''Novorossiysk'' remained clouded in mystery until the late 1980s.
The cause of the explosion is still unclear. The official and most probable cause of the sinking is a magnetic [[naval mine]] RMH, laid by the Germans during the [[World War II|war]]. During the next two years, divers found 19 German mines on the bottom of Sevastopol Bay. Eleven of the mines were as powerful as the estimated blast under ''Novorossiysk''. There is some doubt that the blast was caused by a mine. The area where ''Novorossiysk'' sank was considered swept of mines, and other ships had used the area without triggering the mine. Some experts place the maximum battery life of the magnetic mines at 9 years, and thus contend that such a mine would be unlikely to trigger by the time of the explosion. Another problem some experts claim is that the size of the crater (1 - 2.1 m deep) was too small for such a big mine. According to some research, damage to the ship corresponded to an explosion equivalent to 5,000 kilograms of [[Trinitrotoluene|TNT]].
A more theatrical explanation was that Italian [[frogmen]] were avenging the transfer of the formerly-Italian battleship to the USSR. Covert action by the Italian special operations unit ''[[Decima Flottiglia MAS]]'' has often been surmised, and there are reports that not long thereafter a small group of Italian Navy frogmen received high military awards. However, no firm evidence exists for this hypothesis. Another theory states that explosives were hidden in the ship before she was given to the Russians. No evidence of sabotage has been found, though Soviet enquiries did not rule out the possibility because of the poor safeguarding of the fleet base on the night of the explosion. The goal of covertly destroying the battleship would be a small prize compared to the risk of provoking war if discovered, so the motive of such an Italian operation is questionable and does not support these theories. There is also a [[conspiracy theory]] that ''Novorossisyk'' was sunk by Soviet secret service divers in order to blame [[Turkey]] for the sabotage as justification to take control of [[Bosporus]] and [[Dardanelles]], and that the plan was eventually abandoned. There is no strong evidence to support this hypothesis.
The enormous loss of life was directly blamed on the incompetent actions of her captain, Fleet Commander Vice Admiral [[Victor Parkhomenko]]. Among other underestimates of the danger to his ship, he did not know the conditions of the sea bottom, believing that the ratio between the sea depth (17 meters) and the ship's beam (28 meters) would prevent capsizing. However, the bottom was soft ooze, 15 meters deep, which offered no resistance. It was also reported that the commander displayed conceit and groundless calmness during this critical situation, and had even expressed the wish to "go have some tea".
Because of the loss of ''Novorossiysk'', the First Deputy Minister of Defence and Commander-in-Chief of the Navy [[Nikolai Gerasimovich Kuznetsov]] was fired from his post in November 1955, and in February 1956 was demoted to the rank of vice admiral and sent to retirement without the right to return to active service in the Navy.
[[Category:Soviet Navy ships|Novorossiysk]]
[[Category:Conte di Cavour class battleships|Giulio Cesare]]
[[it:Giulio Cesare (corazzata)]]
INS Vikrant
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The '''INS ''Vikrant''''' (formerly the [[HMS Hercules (R49)|'''HMS ''Hercules'' (R49)''']]) was a [[Majestic class aircraft carrier|''Majestic''-class]] light [[aircraft carrier]] of the [[Royal Navy]]. Her [[keel]] was laid down [[November 12]], [[1943]] by [[Vickers-Armstrong]] of [[Tyne, England]], and she was launched on [[September 22]], [[1945]]. Construction was suspended after [[World War II]] and she was laid up for possible future use. In January [[1957]] she was sold to [[India]], and construction was completed at [[Harland and Wolff]] with an extensively modernized design, including an angled deck with [[steam catapult]]s, a modified [[island]], and many other improvements.
The Indian high commissioner to the [[United Kingdom]], [[Vijayalakshmi Pandit]], commissioned her as '''INS ''Vikrant''''' on [[4 March]] [[1961]] while she was still at [[Belfast]], [[Northern Ireland]]. Captain Pritam Singh was the first commanding officer of the carrier. She formally joined the Indian fleet at [[Mumbai|Bombay]] on [[November 3]], [[1961]], when she was received at Ballard Pier by Prime Minister [[Jawaharlal Nehru]] and other high-ranking dignitaries.
The <i>Vikrant</i>'s initial airwing consisted of British [[Hawker Sea Hawk]] [[fighter-bomber]]s and a [[France|French]] [[Breguet Alize|Alize]] [[Anti-submarine weapon|anti-submarine]] aircraft. On [[May 18]], [[1961]], the first jet landed on board, piloted by Lieutenant (later Admiral) R H Tahiliani.
In [[1965]], [[Pakistan]] claimed that it had sunk the ''Vikrant''. At the time, however, the ship was under refit in [[dry dock]].
Despite a crack in a [[boiler]], she saw real combat against Pakistan in the [[1971]] [[Liberation War of Bangladesh]]. She was considered important enough by the [[Pakistan Navy]] that they sent the [[submarine]] [[PNS Ghazi|''Ghazi'']] all the way to the [[Bay of Bengal]] to [[naval mine|mine]] the [[Visakhapatnam]] [[harbor]] in an unsuccessful attempt to sink the ''Vikrant''; the Ghazi itself falling prey to INS Rajput. The ''Vikrant'' played an instrumental role in sinking several Pakistani [[patrol boat]]s and naval vessels. During the war the crew of ''Vikrant'' earned two [[Mahavir Chakra]]s and 12 [[Vir Chakra]]s.
''Vikrant'' was given an extensive refit, including new engines and modernization between [[1979]] and [[January 3]], [[1982]]. Between December 1982 and February [[1983]] she was refitted again to enable her to operate [[BAE Sea Harrier|Sea Harriers]]. After the retirement of the [[Breguet Alizé|Alize]] [[propeller]]-driven anti-submarine planes from carrier service in [[1989]], she received a '[[ski jump]]' for more efficient use of her [[BAE Sea Harrier|Sea Harriers]].
''Vikrant'' was India's only carrier for over 20 years, but by the early [[1990s]] she was effectively out of service because of her poor condition. Even following major overhauls she was rarely put to sea. She was formally decommissioned [[January 31]], [[1997]] and is preserved as a museum at [[Mumbai]].
The name ''Vikrant'' was taken from [[Sanskrit]] ''vikrānta'' = "stepped beyond", i.e. "courageous", "victorious".
[[Image:INS_Vikrant_Stamp.jpg |thumb|Indian Postal Stamp of INS Vikrant]]
=== General characteristics ===
* Displacement: 15,700 tons standard, 19,500 tons full load
* Length: 192 m (630 ft) waterline, 213.3 m (700 ft) extreme
* Beam: 24.4 m (80 ft) waterline, 39 m (128 ft) extreme
* Draft: 7.3 m (24 ft)
* Propulsion: Parsons geared steam turbines, 4 Admiralty three-drum boilers, 2 shafts, 40,000 hp (30 MW), 23 knots (43 km/h)
* Range 12,000 miles (19,000 km) at 14 knots (26 km/h)
* Crew: 1075 usual, 1340 wartime
* Armor: none
* Armament: 16 x 40 mm Bofors antiaircraft guns, later reduced to eight
* Aircraft:
** 6 Westland Sea King Mk42B
** 3 Westland Sea King Mk42C
** Fixed Wing 6 BAe Sea Harriers FRS.51
{{Majestic class aircraft carrier}}
[[Category:Museum ships|Vikrant]]
[[Category:Cold War aircraft carriers of India|Vikrant]]
[[Category:Majestic class aircraft carriers|Vikrant]]
[[Category:Visitor attractions in Mumbai]]
[[Category:Indian Navy aircraft carriers]]
[[ja:ヴィクラント (空母)]]
Imperialism in Asia
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/* References and further reading */
Western '''imperialism in Asia''' traces its roots back to the late [[15th century]] with a series of voyages that sought a sea passage to [[South Asia]] in the hope of establishing direct trade between Europe and Asia in [[spices]]. Before [[1500]] European economies were largely self-sufficient, only supplemented by minor trade with Asia and Africa. Within the next century, however, European and Asian economies were slowly becoming integrated through the rise of new global trade routes; and the early thrust of European political power, commerce, and culture in Asia gave rise to a growing trade in lucrative [[commodity|commodities]]—a key development in the rise of today's modern world [[capitalism|capitalist]] economy.
In the [[16th century]], the [[Portuguese Empire|Portuguese]] established a monopoly over trade between Asia and Europe by managing to prevent rival powers from using the water routes between Europe and the Indian Ocean. However, with the rise of the rival [[Dutch East India Company]], Portuguese influence in Asia was gradually eclipsed. Dutch forces first established independent bases in the East (most significantly [[Batavia, Dutch East Indies|Batavia]], the heavily fortified headquarters of the Dutch East India Company) and then between [[1640]] and [[1660]] wrestled [[Malacca]], [[Ceylon]], most southern Indian ports, and the lucrative [[Japan]] trade from the Portuguese. Later, the English and the French established settlements in India and established a trade with China; and their own acquisitions would gradually surpass those of the Dutch. Following the end of the [[Seven Years War]] in [[1763]], the British eliminated French influence in India and established the [[British East India Company]] as the most important political force on the [[Indian subcontinent]].
Before the [[Industrial Revolution]] in the mid-to-late [[19th century]], demand for oriental goods remained the driving force behind European imperialism, and (with the important exception of British East India Company rule in India) the European stake in Asia remained confined largely to trading stations and strategic outposts necessary to protect trade. Industrialization, however, dramatically increased European demand for Asian raw materials; and the severe [[Long Depression]] of the [[1870s]] provoked a scramble for new markets for European industrial products and financial services in Africa, the Americas, Eastern Europe, and especially in Asia. This scramble coincided with a new era in global colonial expansion known as "the [[New Imperialism]]," which saw a shift in focus from trade and [[indirect rule]] to formal colonial control of vast overseas territories ruled as political extensions of their mother countries. Between the 1870s and the beginning of the [[First World War]] in [[1914]], Britain, France, and the Netherlands—the established colonial powers in Asia—added to their empires vast expanses of territory in the Middle East, South Asia, and Southeast Asia. In the same period, [[Japan]], following the [[Meiji Restoration]]; [[German Empire|Germany]], following the end of the [[Franco-Prussian War]] in [[1871]]; [[Imperial Russia|Tsarist Russia]]; and the [[United States]], following the [[Spanish-American War]] in [[1898]] quickly emerged as new imperialist powers in East Asia and in the Pacific.
In Asia, World War I and [[World War II]] were played out as struggles among several key imperialist powers—conflicts involving the European powers along with Russia and the rising American and Japanese powers. None of the colonial powers, however, possessed the resources to withstand the strains of both world wars and maintain their direct rule in Asia. Although nationalist movements throughout the colonial world led to the political independence of nearly all of the Asia's remaining colonies, [[decolonization]] was intercepted by the [[Cold War]]; and Southeast Asia, South Asia, the Middle East, and East Asia remained embedded in a world economic, financial, and military system in which the great powers compete to extend their influence. However, the rapid postwar economic development of the [[East Asian Tigers]] and the [[People's Republic of China]], along with the collapse of the [[Soviet Union]], have loosensed European and North American influence in Asia, generating speculation today about the possible reemergence of China and Japan as regional powers.
==Asian empires before European contact==
''To be inserted upon completion''
==Early European penetration of Asia==
===Medieval European exploration of Asia===
[[Image:Marco Polo traveling.JPG|thumb|Illustration of Marco Polo's arrival in a Chinese city]]
In the [[13th century|13th]] and [[14th century|14th centuries]], a number of Europeans, many of them Christian [[missionary|missionaries]], had sought to penetrate China. The most famous of these travelers was [[Marco Polo]]. But these journeys had little permanent effect on East-West trade because of a series of political developments in Asia in the last decades of the 14th century, which put an end to further European exploration of Asia. The [[Yuan dynasty]] in China, which had been receptive to European missionaries and merchants, was overthrown, and the new [[Ming dynasty|Ming]] rulers were found to be inward oriented and unreceptive to foreign religious proselytism. Meanwhile, Muslim Turks consolidated control over the eastern [[Mediterranean Sea| Mediterranean]], closing off key overland trade routes. Thus, until the 15th century, only minor trade and cultural exchanges between Europe and Asia continued at certain terminals controlled by Muslim traders.
===The search for new East-West trade routes===
The three existing major routes by which trade flowed from South and East Asia to Europe dated back to [[Ancient Rome|Roman times]]. The northern one cut across Central Asia and the Caspian and Black Seas to [[Constantinople]]; the middle route went by sea along the coasts of India and Persia through the [[Persian Gulf]] and [[Euphrates]] valley to [[Antioch]]; and the southern route charted across the Indian Ocean and up the [[Red Sea]] to [[Alexandria]] in Egypt.
The search by Europeans for new routes began in earnest in the 15th century, a period of rapid growth in the westward flow of commerce and wealth, despite the expansion of the Turks, which greatly hampered the flow of people and capital between East and West. The most important imports into Europe were [[spices]], including [[cinnamon]], [[cloves]], [[ginger]], [[black pepper|pepper]], and [[nutmeg]], which rapidly became [[commodity|commodities]] in Europe highly valued primarily as [[preservative]]s for foods, and secondarily as condiments. Chinese silk, Indian [[cotton]] cloth, and various precious minerals and metals were also commodities in increasingly high demand in Europe.
The Mediterranean carrying trade in oriental goods was in the hands of [[Venice]] and other Italian city-states, which wielded an extensive and lucrative monopoly. Since the Arabs held a similar monopoly east of the Mediterranean, South and East Asian goods were sold in Europe for many times the price to produce them in Asia. As the demand for the products of the East increased during the latter half of the 15th century, the rulers of the new nations of Western Europe, particularly Spain and Portugal, following the increasingly influential economic doctrine of [[mercantilism]], became aware that their adverse [[balance of trade]] was draining their coined money away to Mediterranean trade monopolies and merchants.
===Oceanic voyages to Asia===
Western European rulers determined to find new trade routes of their own. The Portuguese spearheaded the drive to find oceanic routes that would provide cheaper and easier access to South and East Asian goods. This chartering of oceanic routes between East and West began with the unprecedented voyages of Portuguese and Spanish sea captains. Their voyages were influenced by medieval European adventurers, who had journeyed overland to the Far East and contributed to geographical knowledge of parts of Asia upon their return.
In [[1488]] [[Bartholomew Diaz]] rounded the southern tip of Africa under the sponsorship of Portugal's [[John II of Portugal|John II]], from which point he noticed that the coast swung northeast. Although his crew forced him to turn back, he was pleased with the prospect of soon finding a sea route to India. Later, starting in [[1497]], Portuguese navigator [[Vasco da Gama]] made the first open voyage from Europe to India. In 1520 [[Ferdinand Magellan]], a Portuguese navigator in the service of Spain, found a sea route into the [[Pacific Ocean]].
==Portuguese and Spanish trade and colonization in Asia==
''For further detail see [[Portuguese Empire]].''
===Portuguese monopoly over trade in the Indian Ocean===
[[Image:afonso_albuquerque3.jpg|thumb|left|Early in the 16th century [[Afonso de Albuquerque]] (above) emerged as the Portuguese colonial viceroys most instrumental in consolidating Portugal's holdings in Africa and in Asia. He understood that Portugal could wrest commercial supremacy from the Arabs only by force, and therefore devised a plan to establish forts at strategic sites which would dominate the trade routes and also protect Portuguese interests on land. In 1510 he sized [[Goa]] in India, which enabled him to gradually consolidate control of most of the commercial traffic between Europe and Asia, and even between India and the Far East.]]
In Asia, European powers initially exploited the discoveries of their explorers largely through trade; Europeans started to carry on trade from forts, acting as foreign merchants rather than as settlers. In contrast, early European expansion in the "[[West Indies]]," (later known to Europeans as a separate continent from Asia that they would call the "[[Americas]]") following the 1492 voyage of [[Christopher Columbus]], involved heavy settlement in colonies that were treated as political extensions of the mother countries, which sought to transplant European civilization to a new environment.
Lured by the potential of high profits from another expeditions, the Portuguese established a permanent base south of the Indian trade port of [[Calicut]] in the early 15th century. In [[1510]] the Portuguese seized [[Goa]] on the coast of India, which Portugal held until [[1961]]. The Portuguese soon acquired a monopoly over trade in the Indian Ocean.
Portuguese viceroy [[Afonso de Albuquerque]] ([[1509]]-[[1515]]) resolved to consolidate Portuguese holdings in Africa and Asia, and secure control of trade with the [[East Indies]] and [[China]]. His first objective was [[Malacca]], which controlled the narrow strait through which most Far Eastern trade moved. Captured in [[1511]], Malacca became the springboard for further eastward penetration; several years later the first trading posts were established in the [[Moluccas]], or "Spice Islands," which was the source for some of the world's most hotly demanded spices. By [[1516]] the first Portuguese ships had reached [[Canton]] on the southern coasts of China. By [[1557]] the Portuguese gained a permanent base in China at [[Macao]], which they held until [[1999]]. The Portuguese, based at Goa and Malacca, had now established a lucrative maritime empire in the Indian Ocean meant to monopolize the [[spice trade]]. The Portuguese also began a channel of trade with the Japanese, becoming the first recorded Westerners to have visited Japan. This contact introduced Christianity and fire-arms into Japan.
The energies of Spain, the other major colonial power of the 16th century, were largely concentrated on the Americas, not South and East Asia. But the Spanish did establish a footing in the Far East in the [[Philippine Islands]]. After [[1565]], cargoes of Chinese goods were transported from the Philippines to Mexico and from there to Spain. By this long route, Spain reaped some of the profits of Far Eastern commerce. Spanish officials converted the island to Christianity and established some settlements, permanently establishing the Philippines as the area of East Asia most oriented toward the West in terms of culture and commerce.
===The decline of Portugal's Asian empire since the 17th century===
[[Image:2 tanga 1643 rev.jpg|thumb|A silver Indo-Portuguese coin featuring a standing figure facing right with flag struck for and minted in [[Goa]] during the reign of [[John IV of Portugal|John IV]].]]
The lucrative trade was vastly expanded when the Portuguese began to export [[Slavery|slave]] from Africa in [[1541]]; however, over time, the rise of the slave trade left Portugal over-extended, and vulnerable to competition from other Western European powers. Envious of Portugal's control of trade routes, other Western European nations—mainly Holland, France, and England—began to send in rival expeditions to Asia. In [[1642]] the Dutch drove the Portuguese out of the [[Gold Coast]] in Africa, the source of the bulk of Portuguese slave laborers, leaving this rich slaving area to other Europeans, especially the Dutch and the English.
Rival European powers began to make inroads in Asia as the Portuguese and Spanish trade in the Indian Ocean declined primarily because they had become hugely over-stretched financially due to the limitations on their investment capacity and contemporary naval technology. Both of these factors worked in tandem, making control over Indian Ocean trade extremely expensive.
The existing Portuguese interests in Asia proved sufficient to finance further colonial expansion and entrenchment in areas regarded as of greater strategic importance in nearer Africa and Brazil. Portuguese maritime supremacy was lost to the Dutch in the 17th century, and with this came serious challenges for the Portuguese. However, they still clung to Macau, and settled a new colony in [[Timor]] Island. It was as recent as the [[1960s]] and [[1970s]] that the Portuguese began to relinquish their colonies in Asia. Goa was invaded by India in [[1962]]; [[East-Timor]] was abandoned in [[1975]] and was then invaded by Indonesia; and Macau was handed over to the Chinese as per a treaty in [[1999]].
==Dutch trade and colonization in Asia==
{{main article|[[Dutch colonial empire]]}}
===The rise of Dutch control over Asian trade in the 17th century===
[[Image:Dutcheastindies.jpg|left|thumb|Dutch settlement in the East Indies. Batavia, Java (now [[Jakarta]]), c. 1665.]]
Portuguese decline in Asia was accelerated by the attacks on their commercial empire by the Dutch and the English, which began a global struggle over empire in Asia that lasted until the end of the [[Seven Years War]] in [[1763]]. The Netherlands revolt against Spanish rule facilitated Dutch encroachment of the Portuguese monopoly over South and East Asian trade. The Dutch looked on Spain's trade and colonies as potential spoils in war. When the two crowns of the Iberian peninsula were joined in [[1581]], the Dutch felt free to attack Portuguese territories in Asia.
By the [[1590s]] a number of Dutch companies were formed to finance trading expeditions in Asia. Because competition lowered their profits, and because of the doctrines of [[mercantilism]], in [[1602]] the companies united into a [[cartel]] and formed the [[Dutch East India Company]], and received from the government the right to trade and colonize territory in the area stretching from the [[Cape of Good Hope]] eastward to the [[Strait of Magellan]].
In [[1605]] armed Dutch merchants captured the Portuguese fort at [[Amboyna]] in the Moluccas, which was developed into the first secure base of the company. Over time the Dutch gradually consolidated control over the great trading ports of the East Indies. Control over the East Indies trading ports allowed the company to monopolize the world [[spice trade]] for decades. Their monpoloy over the spice trade became complete after they drove the Portuguese from [[Malacca]] in [[1641]] and [[Ceylon]] in [[1658]].
Dutch East India Company colonies or outposts were later established in Atjeh ([[Aceh]]), [[1667]]; [[Macassar]], [[1669]]; and [[Bantam]], [[1682]]. The company established its headquarters at [[Batavia, Dutch East Indies|Batavia]] (today [[Jakarta]]) on the island of [[Java (island)|Java]]. Outside the East Indies, the Dutch East India Company colonies or outposts were also established in Persia (now Iran), [[Bengal]] (now Bangladesh and part of India), Mauritius ([[1638]]-[[1658]]/[[1664]]-[[1710]]), [[Siam]] (now Thailand), [[Guangzhou]] (Canton, China), [[Taiwan]] ([[1624]]-[[1662]]), and southern India ([[1616]]-[[1795]]). In 1662, [[Zheng Chenggong]] (also known as Koxinga) expelled the Dutch from Taiwan. (''see'' [[History of Taiwan]]) Further, the Dutch East India Company trade post on [[Dejima]] ([[1641]]- [[1857]]), an artificial island off the coast of [[Nagasaki]], was for a long time the only place where Europeans could trade with Japan.
In [[1652]], [[Jan van Riebeeck]] established an outpost at the [[Cape of Good Hope]] (the southwestern tip of Africa, currently in South Africa) to restock company ships on their journey to East Asia. This post later became a fully-fledged colony, the [[Cape Colony]] ([[1652]]-[[1806]]). As Cape Colony attracted increasing Dutch and European settlement, the Dutch founded the city of Kaapstad ([[Cape Town]]).
By [[1669]], the Dutch East India Company was the richest private company in history, with a huge fleet of merchant ships and warships, tens of thousands of employees, a private army consisting of thousands of soldiers, and a reputation on the part of its stockholders for high dividend payments.
===Decline of the Dutch in Asia and the rise of Britain===
The company was in almost constant conflict with the English; relations were particularly tense following the [[Amboyna Massacre]] in [[1623]]. During the 18th century, Dutch East India Company possessions were increasingly focused on the East Indies. After the fourth war between the [[Dutch Republic|United Provinces]] and England ([[1780]]–[[1784]]), the company suffered increasing financial difficulties. In [[1799]], the company was dissolved.
The East Indies were awarded to The [[Kingdom of the Netherlands]] by the [[Congress of Vienna]] in [[1815]]. After the [[Napoleonic Wars]], the Dutch concentrated their colonial enterprise in the [[Dutch East Indies]] ([[Indonesia]]) throughout the 19th century. The Dutch lost control over the East Indies to the Japanese during the much of the Second World War. Following the war, the Dutch fought Indonesian independence forces after Tōkyō surrendered to the Allies in [[1945]].
==The British in India==
===Portuguese, French, and British competition in India (1600-1763)===
[[Image:Clive.jpg|thumb|Robert Clive, 1st Baron Clive]]
The English sought to stake out claims in India at the expense of the Portuguese dating back to the era of Queen [[Elizabeth I of England|Elizabeth I]]. In [[1600]] Elizabeth incorporated the [[British East India Company|English East India Company]] (later the British East India Company), granting it a monopoly of trade from the Cape of Good Hope eastward to the Strait of Magellan. In [[1639]] it acquired [[Madras]] on the east coast of India, where it quickly surpassed Portuguese Goa as the principal European trading center on the subcontinent.
Through bribes, diplomacy, and manipulation of weak native rulers, the company prospered in India, where it became the most powerful political force on the subcontinent, and outrivaled its Portuguese, and French competitors. For more than one hundred years English and French trading companies had fought one another for supremacy, and by the middle of the 18th century competition between the British and the French had heated up. French defeat by the British under the command of [[Robert Clive]] during the [[Seven Years War]] ([[1756]]-[[1763]]) marked the end of the French stake in the subcontinent.
===The collapse of Mughal India===
{{main article|[[Company rule in India]]}}
The British East India Company, although still in direct competition with French and Dutch interests until 1763, was able to extend its control over almost the whole of the subcontinent in the century following the subjugation of [[Bengal]] at the 1757 [[Battle of Plassey]]. The British East India Company made great advances at the expense of a [[Mughal]] dynasty, seething with corruption, oppression, and revolt, that was crumbling under the despotic rule of [[Aurangzeb]] ([[1658]]-[[1707]]).
The reign of [[Shah Jahan]] ([[1628]]-[[1658]]) had marked the height of Mughal power. However, the reign of Aurangzeb, a ruthless and fanatical man who intended to rid [[India]] of all views alien to the Muslim faith, was disastrous. By [[1690]], when Mughal territorial expansion reached its greatest extent, Aurangzeb's India encompassed the entire Indian peninsula. But this period of power was followed by one of decline. Fifty years after the death of Aurangzeb, the great Mughal empire had crumbled. Meanwhile, marauding warlords, nobles, and others bent on gaining power left the subcontinent increasingly anarchic. Although the Mughals kept the imperial title until [[1858]], the central government had collapsed, creating a power vacuum.
===From Company to Crown===
{{main article|[[British Raj]]}}
[[Image:21701760 5EastIndiaHouse.jpg|left|thumb|An 1825 painting of the British East India Company's [[East India House]], which opened in 1799]]
Aside from defeating the French, during the Seven Years' War, [[Robert Clive]], the leader of the Company in India, defeated a key Indian ruler of Bengal at the decisive [[Battle of Plassey]] ([[1757]]), a victory that ushered in the beginning of a new period in Indian history, that of informal British rule. While still nominally the sovereign, the Mughal Indian emperor became more and more of a puppet ruler, and anarchy spread until the company stepped into the role of policeman of India.
The transition to formal imperialism, characterized by [[Victoria of the United Kingdom|Queen Victoria]] being crowned "Empress of India" in the [[1870s]] was a gradual process. The first step toward cementing formal British control extended back to the late [[18th century]]. The British Parliament, disturbed by the idea that a great business concern, interested primarily in profit, was controlling the destinies of millions of people, passed acts in [[1773]] and [[1784]] that gave itself the power to control company policies and to appoint the highest company official in India, the [[governor-general]]. (This system of dual control lasted until [[1858]].) By [[1818]] the East India Company was master of India. Some local rulers were forced to accept its overlordship; others were deprived of their territories. Some portions of the subcontinent were administered by the British directly; in others native dynasties were retained under British supervision.
Until [[1858]], however, much of the subcontinent was still officially the dominion of the Mughal emperor. Anger among some social groups, however, was seething under the governor-generalship of [[James Andrew Broun-Ramsay, 10th Earl of Dalhousie|James Dalhousie]] ([[1847]]-[[1856]]), who annexed the [[Punjab region|Punjab]] ([[1849]]) after victory in the [[Second Anglo-Sikh War|Second Sikh War]], annexed seven princely states on the basis of [[lapse]], annexed the key state of [[Oudh]] on the basis of misgovernment, and upset cultural sensibilities by banning Hindu practices such as [[Sati]]. The [[1857]] [[Indian_Mutiny|Sepoy Rebellion]], or Indian Mutiny, an uprising initiated by Indian troops, called sepoys, who formed the bulk of the Company's armed forces, was the key turning point. Fortunately for the British, many areas remained loyal and quiescent, allowing the revolt to be crushed after fierce fighting. One important consequence of the revolt was the final collapse of the Mughal dynasty. The mutiny also ended the system of dual control under which the British government and the British East India Company shared authority. The government relieved the company of its political responsibilities, and in [[1858]], after 258 years of existence, the company relinquished its role. Trained civil servants were recruited from graduates of British universities, and these men set out to rule India. Lord Canning (created earl in [[1859]]), appointed governor-general of India in [[1856]], became known as "Clemency Canning" as a term of derision for his efforts to restrain revenge against the Indians during the Indian Mutiny. When the government of India was transferred from the Company to the Crown, Canning became the first [[viceroy]] of India.
===The rise of Indian nationalism===
{{main_article|[[Indian independence movement]]}}
British rule modernized India in many respects. The spread of [[railroad]]s from 1853 contributed to the expansion of business, while [[cotton]], tea and [[indigo]] [[plantation]]s drew new areas into the commercial economy. But the removal of import duties in 1883 exposed India's emerging industries to unfettered British competition, provoking another quite modern development: the rise of a [[nationalism|nationalist]] movement.
The denial of equal status to Indians was the immediate stimulus for the formation in 1885 of the [[Indian National Congress]], initially loyal to the Empire but committed from 1905 to increased self-government and by 1930 to outright independence. The "Home charges," payments transferred from India for administrative costs, were a lasting source of nationalist grievance, though the flow declined in relative importance over the decades to independence in 1947.
Although majority [[Hindu]] and minority [[Muslim]] political leaders were able to collaborate closely in their criticism of British policy into the [[1920s]], British support for a distinct Muslim political organization from [[1906]] and insistence from the [[1920s]] on separate electorates for religious minorities, is seen by many in India as having contributed to Hindu-Muslim discord and the country's eventual partition.
==France in Indochina==
{{main_article|[[French Indochina]]}}
[[Image:Frenchindochina.jpg|thumb|French soldiers appear with local residents at a military post in French Indochina in the early 1900s.]]
France, which had lost its empire to the British by the end of the eighteenth century, had little geographical or commercial basis for expansion in Southeast Asia. After the [[1850s]] French imperialism was initially impelled by a nationalistic need to rival Britain and was supported intellectually by the concept of the superiority of French culture and France's special ''[[mission civilisatrice]]''—the civilizing of the native through assimilation to French culture. The immediate pretext for French expansionism in Indochina was the protection of French religious missions in the area, coupled with a desire to find a southern route to [[China]] through [[Tonkin]], the northern region of northern [[Vietnam]].
French religious and commercial interests were established in Indochina as early as the seventeenth century, but no concerted effort at stabilizing the French position was possible in the face of British strength in the [[Indian Ocean]] and [[Napoleonic Wars|French defeat]] in Europe at the end of the eighteenth and beginning of the nineteenth centuries. A mid-nineteenth century religious revival under the [[Second Empire]] provided the atmosphere within which interest in Indochina grew. Anti-Christian persecutions in the Far East provided the immediate cause. In [[1856]] the Chinese executed a French missionary in southeastern China, and in [[1857]] the Vietnamese emperor, faced with a domestic crisis, tried to destroy foreign influences in his country by executing the Spanish bishop of [[Tonkin]]. Under [[Napoleon III]], France decided that [[Catholicism]] would be eliminated in the Far East if France did not go to its aid, and accordingly the French joined the British against [[China]] in the [[Second Opium War]] from [[1857]] to [[1860]] and took action against [[Vietnam]] as well. By [[1860]] the French occupied [[Saigon]].
By a Franco-Vietnamese treaty in [[1862]], the Vietnamese emperor ceded France outright the three provinces of [[Cochin China]] in the south; France also secured trade and religious privileges in the rest of Vietnam and a protectorate over Vietnam's foreign relations. Gradually French power spread through exploration, the establishment of protectorates, and outright annexations. Their seizure of [[Hanoi]] in [[1882]] led directly to war with [[China]] ([[1883]]-[[1885]]), and the French victory confirmed French supremacy in the region. [[France]] governed [[Cochin China]] as a direct colony, and [[Annam]] (central [[Vietnam]]), [[Tonkin]], and [[Cambodia]] as protectorates in one degree or another. [[Laos]] too was soon brought under French "protection."
By the beginning of the twentieth century France had created an empire in Indochina nearly 50 percent larger than the mother country. A governor-general in [[Hanoi]] ruled [[Cochin China]] directly and the other regions through a system of residents. Theoretically, the French maintained the precolonial rulers and administrative structures in [[Annam]], [[Tonkin]], [[Cambodia]], and [[Laos]], but in fact the governor-generalship was a centralized fiscal and administrative regime ruling the entire region. Although the surviving native institutions were preserved in order to make French rule more acceptable, they were almost completely deprived of any independence of action. The ethnocentric French colonial administrators sought to assimilate the upper classes into France's "superior culture." While the French improved public services and provided commercial stability, the native standard of living declined and precolonial social structures eroded. Indochina, which had a population of over eighteen million in [[1914]], was important to France for its [[tin]], [[black pepper|pepper]], [[coal]], [[cotton]], and [[rice]]. It is still a matter of debate, however, whether the colony was commercially profitable.
==Russia and "The Great Game"==
{{main article|[[The Great Game]]}}
[[Imperial Russia|Tsarist Russia]] is often not regarded as a colonial power such as Britain or France because of the manner of Russian expansions: unlike Britain, which expanded overseas, the Russian empire grew from the center outward by a process of accretion. In the 19th century Russian expansion took the form of a struggle of an effectively landlocked country for access to a warm water port.
While the British were consolidating their hold on India, Russian expansion had moved steadily eastward to the Pacific, then toward the Middle East, and finally to the frontiers of [[Iran|Persia]] and [[Afghanistan]] (both territories adjacent to British holdings in India). In response, the defense of India's land frontiers and the control of all sea approaches to the subcontinent via the [[Suez Canal]], the [[Red Sea]], and the [[Persian Gulf]] became preoccupations of British foreign policy in the 19th century.
Anglo-Russian rivalry in the Middle East and Central Asia led to a brief confrontation over [[Afghanistan]] in the [[1880]]s. In Persia (now [[Iran]]), both nations set up banks to extend their economic influence. Britain went so far as to invade Tibet, a land under nominal Chinese suzerainty, in 1904, but withdrew when it became clear that Russian influence was insignificant and when Chinese resistance proved tougher than expected.
In [[1907]] Britain and Russia signed an agreement which—on the surface—ended their rivalry in Central Asia. (''see'' [[Anglo-Russian Entente]]) As part of the entente, Russia agreed to deal with the sovereign of Afghanistan only through British intermediaries. In turn Britain would not annex or occupy Afghanistan. Chinese suzerainty over Tibet also was recognized by both Russia and Britain, since nominal control by a weak China was preferable to control by either power. Persia was divided into Russian and British spheres of influence and an intervening "neutral" zone. Britain and Russia chose to reach these uneasy compromises because of growing on the part of both powers of German expansion in strategic areas of China and Africa.
Following the entente, Russia increasingly intervened in Persian domestic politics and suppressed nationalist movements that threatened both Moscow and London. After the [[Russian Revolution of 1917|Russian Revolution]], Russia gave up its claim to a sphere of influence, though Soviet involvement persisted alongside Britain's until the [[1940s]].
In the [[Middle East]], a German company built a railroad from [[Constantinople]] to [[Baghdad]] and the [[Persian Gulf]]. [[Germany]] wanted to gain economic influence in the region and then, perhaps, move on to Iran and India. This was met with bitter resistance by Britain, Russia, and France who divided the region among themselves.
==Imperialism in China==
===Imperialist penetration of China===
[[Image:China_imperialism_cartoon.jpg|left|200px|thumb|A shocked mandarin in [[Manchu]] robe in the back, with [[Victoria of the United Kingdom|Queen Victoria]] ([[United Kingdom|UK]]), [[Wilhelm II of Germany|Wilhelm II]] ([[Germany]]), [[Nicholas II of Russia|Nicholas II]] ([[Russia]]), [[Marianne]] ([[France]]), and a [[samurai]] ([[Japan]]) stabbing into a plate with ''Chine'' ("[[China]]" in [[French language|French]]) written on it]]
''See [[European Enclaves in China]]''
During the 18th century merchants from Western Europe came to China in increasing numbers. However, merchants were confined to Guangzhou and the Portuguese colony of Macao, as they had been since the 16th century. European trades were increasingly irritated by what they saw as the relatively high customs duties they had to pay and by the attempts to curb the growing import trade in [[opium]]. By 1800 its importation was forbidden by the imperial government. However, the opium trade continued to boom. Private vessels sailing from many countries, including the United States, made huge profits from the growing number of Chinese opium addicts.
Early in the 19th century serious internal weaknesses developed in the [[Qing dynasty|Manchu empire]] that left China vulnerable to Western, Japanese, and Russian imperialism. In [[1839]] China found itself fighting the [[First Opium War]] with Britain. China was defeated, and in [[1842]] agreed to the provisions of the [[Treaty of Nanjing]]. [[Hong Kong]] was ceded to Britain, and certain ports, including [[Shanghai]] and [[Guangzhou]], were opened to British trade and residence. In [[1856]] the [[Second Opium War]] broke out. The Chinese were again defeated, and now forced to the terms of the [[1858]] [[Treaty of Tientsin]]. The treaty opened new ports to trade and allowed foreigners to travel in the interior. Christians gained the right to propagate their religion—another means of Western penetration. The United States and Russia later obtained the same prerogatives in separate treaties.
Toward the end of the 19th century, China appeared on the way to territorial dismemberment and economic vassalage—the fate of India’s rulers that played out much earlier. Several provisions of these treaties caused long-standing bitterness and humiliation among the Chinese: [[extraterritoriality]] (meaning that in a dispute with a Chinese, a Westerner had the right to be tried in a court under the laws of his own country), customs regulation, and the right to station foreign warships in Chinese waters.
The rise of Japan since the [[Meiji Restoration]] as an imperialist power led to further subjugation of China. In a dispute over China's longstanding claim of suzerainty in [[Korea]], war broke out between China and Japan, resulting in humiliating defeat for China. By the [[Treaty of Shimonoseki]] ([[1895]]), China was forced to recognize effective Japanese rule of Korea and [[Taiwan]].
China's defeat at the hands of Japan was another trigger for future aggressive actions by Western powers. In [[1897]] Germany demanded and was given a set of exclusive mining and railroad rights in [[Shandong]] province. Russia obtained access to [[Dairen]] and [[Port Arthur]] and the right to build a railroad across Manchuria, thereby achieving complete domination over a large portion of northwestern China. Britain and France also received a number of concessions at this time. At this time much of China was divided up into "spheres of influence": Germany dominated [[Jiaozhou Bay|Jiaozhou (Kiaochow) Bay]], [[Shandong]], and the [[Huang He]] (Hwang-Ho) valley; Russia dominated the [[Liaodong Peninsula]] and [[Manchuria]]; Britain dominated [[Weihaiwei]] and the [[Yangtze River|Yangtze]] Valley; and France dominated the [[Guangzhou Bay]] and several other southern provinces.
China continued to be divided up into spheres of influence until the United States, which had no sphere of influence, grew alarmed at the possibility of its businessmen being excluded from Chinese markets. In [[1899]] [[Secretary of State]] [[John Hay]] asked the major powers to agree to a policy of equal trading privileges. In 1900 several powers agreed to the U.S.-backed scheme, giving rise to the "[[Open Door]]" policy, denoting freedom of commercial access and non-annexation of Chinese territory. In any event, it was in the European powers' interest to have a weak but independent Manchu government. The privileges of the Europeans in China were guaranteed in the form of treaties with the Qing government. In the event that the Qing government totally collapsed, each power risked losing the privileges that it already had negotiated. As such, nor was it in the interest of the Europeans to have an overly strong government in China, with the ability to control Westerners and renegotiate treaties.
The erosion of Chinese sovereignty contributed to a spectacular anti-foreign outbreak in June, [[1900]], when the "[[Boxers]]" (properly the society of the "righteous and harmonious fists") attacked European legations in [[Beijing]], provoking a rare display of unity among the powers, whose troops landed at [[Tianjin]] and marched on the capital. German forces were particularly severe in exacting revenge for the killing of their ambassador, while Russia tightened its hold on [[Manchuria]] in the northeast until its crushing defeat by Japan in the war of [[1904]]-[[1905]].
Although extraterritorial jurisdiction was abandoned by Britain and America in [[1943]], foreign political control of parts of China only finally ended with the incorporation of [[Hong Kong]] and the small Portuguese territory of [[Macau]] into the [[People's Republic of China]] in [[1997]] and [[1999]] respectively.
===Chinese territorial expansion===
While China was under attack in the 19th century by the Europeans, during the 18th century the Qing government had expanded its western borders to include areas such as [[Xinjiang]] and [[Tibet]] that had historically rarely been under direct Chinese control. Indeed the name ''Xinjiang'' itself is Chinese for ''new territory''.
The ability of Qing China to project power into [[Central Asia]] came about because of two changes, one social and one technological. The social change was that under the Qing dynasty, from [[1616]], China came under the control of the [[Manchu]]s who organized their military forces around cavalry which was more suited for [[power projection]] than traditional Chinese infantry. The technological change was advances in [[cannon]] and [[artillery]] which negated the military advantage that the people of the [[steppe]] had with their cavalry.
Qing actions in Central Asia were aided by the preference of most local rulers (particularly in Tibet) for the relative light touch of Manchu control over the heavy-handedness of Russia or the British. The Manchus were from Central Asia themselves and ruled China with the support of many people from Mongolia, Tibet and Xinjiang. The Manchu ruling family, like most Mongols, was a supporter of Tibetan Buddhism and so many of the ruling groups were linked by religion. China most of the time had little ambitions to conquer or establish colonies, not even during its golden years during the [[Tang Dynasty]] or when it had the world's strongest and biggest fleet during the [[Ming Dynasty]]. Rather, Chinese immigrated overseas to areas outside the control of their government. For instance, numerous southern Chinese emigrants settled in areas of Southeast Asia outside Chinese political control; to this day their descendants remain an economic elite, especially in [[Malaysia]] and [[Singapore]]. A state founded by Chinese immigrants in South-east Asia, the [[Lanfang Republic]], was arguably the first [[republic]] in [[Asia]].
==U.S. Imperialism in the Pacific==
{{main article|[[History of United States overseas expansion]]}}
[[Image:Filipinoinsurgents.jpg|thumb|1899 photo of Filipino insurgents killed in the [[Philippine-American War]]]]
As the United States emerged as a new imperialist power in the Pacific, one of the two oldest Western imperialist powers in the region—Spain—was finding it increasingly difficult to maintain control of territories it had held in the region since the 16th century. In [[1896]] a widespread revolt against Spanish rule broke out in the Philippines. Meanwhile, the recent string of U.S. territorial gains in the Pacific perhaps posed an even greater threat to Spain's remaining colonial holdings.
In [[1867]] the [[Midway Islands]] were occupied by the U.S. and [[Alaska]] was purchased from Russia. The next advance was in the [[Hawaiian Islands]], where Europeans had earlier set up a lucrative [[plantation]] economy exporting sugar. In the 19th century U.S. capital poured into the islands' sugar industry; and Hawaii came increasingly under the effective control of U.S. corporations. The U.S. consolidated its influence in Hawaii in 1893, when [[U.S. Marines]] engineered a revolt that deposed the Hawaiian queen and set up a new U.S.-backed regime. Five years later, the U.S. scrapped the republic and annexed the islands.
As the U.S. continued to expand its economic and military power in the Pacific, it declared war against Spain in [[1898]]. During the [[Spanish-American War]], U.S. Admiral Dewey destroyed the Spanish fleet at [[Manila]], and U.S. troops landed in the Philippines. Spain later agreed by treaty to cede the Philippines and [[Guam]] in the Pacific. In the Caribbean, Spain ceded [[Puerto Rico]] to the U.S. The war also marked the end to Spanish rule in Cuba, which was to be granted nominal independence but in practice be treated as de-facto U.S. colony. One year following its treaty with Spain, the U.S. occupied the small Pacific outpost of [[Wake Island]].
Some of the Filipino nationalists who has assisted U.S. troops against the Spanish did not wish to see one colonial master changed with another. In 1899 fighting broke out; and it took the U.S. three years to crush the rebellion. The U.S. sent seventy thousand troops and suffered thousands of casualties. For the Filipinos the death rate was considerably higher, both from battle casualties, extra-judicial executions and disease.
U.S. attacks into the countryside often included scorched earth campaigns where entire villages were burned and destroyed, tortured, and concentrated into camps known as "protected zones." Many of these civilian casualties resulted from disease and famine. Reports of the execution of U.S. soldiers taken prisoner by the Filipinos led to disproportionate reprisals by American forces. Many U.S. officers and soldiers called the war a "[[nigger_(word)|nigger]] killing business."
In [[1914]], [[Dean C. Worcester]], U.S. Secretary of the Interior for the Philippines ([[1901]]-[[1913]]) described "the regime of civilization and improvement which started with American occupation and resulted in developing naked savages into cultivated and educated men." Nevertheless, some Americans deeply opposed American involvement in the Philippines, leading to the abandonment of attempts to construct a permanent naval base and using it as an entry point to the Chinese market. In [[1916]] Congress guaranteed the independence of the Philippines by 1945.
The consequences of U.S. Imperialism in the Pacific were to become a major and costly facet of U.S. life in the 20th century, with massive conflicts with Japan, Korea, and Vietnam laying in the future. Whether such involvement was essential to U.S. national interests became a poignant and at times painful dialogue in the late [[1960s]].
==World War I: Changes in Imperialism==
World War I brought about the fall of several empires in Europe. This had repercussions around the world. The defeated[[Central Powers]] included [[Germany]] and the Turkish [[Ottoman Empire]]]. [[Germany]] lost all of its colonies in Asia. German New Guinea, a part of [[Papua New Guinea]], became administered by [[Australia]]. German possessions and concessions in [[China]], including [[Qingdao]], became the subject of a controversy during the [[Paris Peace Conference, 1919|Paris Peace Conference]] when the [[Beiyang Army|Beiyang]] government in China agreed to cede these interests to [[Japan]], to the anger of many Chinese people. Although the Chinese diplomats refused to sign the agreement, these interests were ceded to [[Japan]] with the support of the [[United States]] and [[Britain]].
[[Turkey]] gave up her [[Arab]] provinces; [[Syria]], [[Palestine (region)|Palestine]], and [[Mesopotamia]] (now [[Iraq]]) came under French and British control as [[League of Nations Mandates]]. The discovery of [[petroleum]] first in [[Iran]] and then in the Arab lands in the interbellum provided a new focus for activity on the part of Britain, France, and the [[United States]].
==Japan==
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In [[1641]], all Westerners were thrown out of Japan. For the next two centuries, Japan was free from Western influence, except for at the port of [[Nagasaki]], which Japan allowed Dutch merchant vessels to enter on a limited basis.
Japan's freedom from Western penetration ended on [[July 8]], [[1853]], when [[Commodore Perry]] of the [[U.S. Navy]] sailed a squadron of black-hulled war ships into Edo (modern Tokyo) harbor. The Japanese told Perry to sail to Nagasaki but he refused. Perry sought to present a letter from U.S. President [[Millard Fillmore]] to the emperor which demanded concessions from Japan. Japanese authories responded by stating that they could not present the letter directly to the emperor, but scheduled a meeting on [[July 14]] with a representative of the emperor. On July 14, the squadron sailed towards the shore, giving a demonstration of their cannon's firepower thirteen times. Perry landed with a large detachment of Marines and presented the emperor's representative with Fillmore's letter. Perry said he would return, and did so, this time with even more war ships. The U.S. show of force led to Japan's concession to the [[Convention of Kanagawa]] on [[March 31]], [[1854]]. These events made Japanese authorities aware of the fact that the country had fallen behind the Western powers technologically and needed to industrialize in order to keep their autonomy. This realization ultimately led to the [[Meiji Restoration]].
The Meiji Restoration of 1868 led to administrative modernization and subsequent rapid economic development. Japan had little natural resources of her own and needed both overseas markets and sources of raw materials, fuelling a drive for imperial conquest which began with the defeat of China in 1895.
Taiwan, ceded by the Qing Empire, became the first Japanese colony. In 1899 Japan won agreement from the [[great powers]]' to abandon extra-territoriality, and an alliance with Britain established it in 1902 as an international power. Its spectacular defeat of Russia in 1905 gave it the southern portion of the island of [[Sakhalin]], the former Russian lease of the [[Liaodong Peninsula]] with Port Arthur ([[Lüshunkou]]), and extensive rights in [[Manchuria]] (see the [[Russo-Japanese War]]). In 1910, Korea was annexed to the Japanese empire.
Japan was now one of the most powerful forces in the [[Far East]], and in 1914 it entered [[World War I]] on the side of Britain, seizing German-occupied [[Jiaozhou Bay|Kiaochow]] and subsequently demanding Chinese acceptance of Japanese political influence and territorial acquisitions ([[Twenty-One Demands]], 1915). [[May Fourth Movement|Mass protests in Peking]] in 1919 coupled with Allied (and particularly U.S.) opinion led to Japan's abandonment of most of the demands and Jiaozhou's return (1922) to China.
Japan's rebuff was perceived in Tokyo as only temporary, and in 1931 Japanese army units based in Manchuria seized control of the region; full-scale war with China followed in 1937, drawing Japan toward an overambitious bid for Asian hegemony ([[Greater East Asia Co-Prosperity Sphere]]), which ultimately led to defeat and the loss of all its overseas territories after World War II (see [[Japanese expansionism]] and [[Japanese nationalism]]).
==Postwar era==
{{cleanup-date|November 2005}}
===Decolonization and the rise of nationalism in Asia===
In the aftermath of the Second World War, European colonies, controlling more than one billion people throughout the world, still ruled most of the Middle East, Southeast Asia, and South Asia. However, the image of European preeminence was shattered by the wartime Japanese occupations of large portions of British, French, and Dutch territories in the Pacific. The destabilization of European rule led to the rapid growth of nationalist movements in Asia—especially in [[Indonesia]], [[Malaya]], [[Burma]], and French Indochina.
The war, however, only accelerated forces already in existence undermining Western imperialism in Asia. Throughout the colonial world, the processes of urbanization and capitalist investment created professional merchant classes that emerged as new Westernized elites. While imbued with Western political and economic ideas, these classes increasingly grew to resent their unequal status under European rule.
====The British in South Asia and the Middle East====
{{sect-stub}}
In India, the westward movement of Japanese forces toward Bengal had led to major concessions on the part of British authorities to Indian nationalist leaders. In [[1947]], Britain, devastated by war and embroiled in economic crisis at home, granted the subcontinent its independence as two nations: [[India]] and [[Pakistan]]. The following year independence was granted to Burma and [[Ceylon]].
In the Middle East, Britain granted independence to [[Jordan]] in [[1946]] and two years later ended its mandate of Palestine, an action that led to the creation of the state of [[Israel]] and decades of bitter wars between this new nation and the Arab world continuing to this day. (''see'' [[Arab-Israeli conflict]])
====The Dutch East Indies ====
Following the end of the war, nationalists in [[Indonesia]] demanded complete independence from the Netherlands. A brutal conflict ensued, and finally, in 1949, through [[United Nations]] mediation, the Dutch East Indies achieved independence, becoming the new nation of Indonesia. Dutch imperialism molded this new multi-ethnic state comprising roughly 3,000 islands of the Indonesian archipelago with a population at the time of over 100 million.
The end of Dutch rule opened up latent tensions between the roughly 300 distinct ethnic groups of the islands, with the major ethnic fault line being between the [[Javanese]] and the non-Javanese.
====The United States in the Pacific====
In the Philippines, the U.S. remained committed to its previous pledges to grant the grant the islands their independence, but on its own terms. The Philippines remained under pressure to adopt a political and economic system derived from their old imperial masters.
This aim was greatly complicated by the rise of new political forces. During the war, the ''[[Hukbalahap]]'' (People's Army), which had strong ties to the [[Communist Party of the Philippines]] (PKP), fought against the Japanese occupation of the Philippines and won strong popularity among many sectors of the Filipino working class and peasantry. In [[1946]], the PKP participated in elections as part of the Democratic Alliance. But with the onset of the [[Cold War]], its growing political strength drew a reaction from the ruling government and the United States, resulting in the repression of the PKP and its associated organizations. In [[1948]], the PKP began organizing an armed struggle against the government and continued U.S. military presence. In [[1950]], the PKP created the People's Liberation Army (''Hukbong Mapagpalaya ng Bayan''), which mobilized thousands of troops throughout the islands. The insurgency lasted until [[1956]], when the PKP gave up armed struggle.
In [[1968]], the PKP underwent a split, and in 1969 the [[Maoist]] faction of the PKP created the [[New People's Army]]. Maoist rebels re-launched an armed struggle against the government and the U.S. military presence in the Philippines, which continues to this day.
====France in Indochina====
=====Postwar resistance to French rule=====
France remained determined to retain its control of Indochina. However, in [[Hanoi]], in 1945, a broad front of nationalists and socialists led by [[Ho Chi Minh]] established an independent Republic of Vietnam, commonly referred to as the [[Vietminh]] regime by Western outsiders. France, seeking to regain control of Vietnam, countered with a vague offer of self-government under French rule. France's offers were unacceptable to Vietnamese nationalists; and in December [[1946]] war broke out between France and the Vietminh. Meanwhile, the French managed to set up a puppet regime in [[Saigon]] in 1950. The U.S. then recognized the regime in Saigon, and provided the French military effort massive military aid.
The French were also forced to deal with resistance in Cambodia. In 1945, Cambodia declared gained its independence as the [[Kingdom of Kampuchea]], with [[Sihanouk]] installed as monarch and [[Son Ngoc Thanh]] acting as prime minister. The French wanted to reassert control, but were unable to act at the time. Braitain supported France's efforts to reassert its control of Cambodia, but were unable to act. Britain supported Frence's attempts to reassert its influence in Cambodia. On [[October 8]], [[1945]], the British arrived in [[Phnom Penh]] with a detachment of [[Nepal]]i [[Gurkhas]]. Thanh was arrested; and the government was overthrown, with the French put back in charge.
Later, anticolonial militants retreated into the countryside and formed armed groups known as the ''[[Khmer Issarak]]'' ("Khmer Independence"). They operated initially along the border with [[Thailand]] and were assisted by the Thai government. In the countryside, French forces fought the Khmer Issarak. However, the French were not able to fully regain their control of Cambodia. On [[April 17]], [[1950]] the first national conference of the Khmer resistance was held and the [[United Issarak Front]] was created, with [[Son Ngoc Minh]] at the head. Sihanouk demanded sovereignty from the French and on [[November 9]], [[1953]], Cambodia was granted independence.
Meanwile, in Vietnam, the French's war against the Vietminh regime, begun in 1946, continued for nearly eight years. The French were gradually worn down by guerrilla and jungle fighting. The turning point for France occurred at [[Dien Bien Phu]] in [[1954]], which resulted in the surrender of ten thousand French troops. Paris was forced to accept a political settlement that year at the [[Geneva Conference]], which led to a precarious set of agreements regarding the future political status of Laos, Cambodia, and Vietnam.
=====Postcolonialism and the Vietnam War=====
{{sect-stub}}
As France washed its hands of Indochina, the U.S. moved into France's old role in supporting the pro-Western Saigon regime.
=====Postcolonialism and war in Cambodia=====
The U.S. also became involved in Cambodia's domestic politics. The U.S. became increasingly unhappy with Sihanouk because of his [[Non-Aligned Movement|non-aligned]] stance in the [[Cold War]] and the war between the Saigon and Hanoi regimes in Vietnam.
The U.S. supported a coup by [[Lon Nol]] against Sihanouk in [[1970]]. U.S. armed forces then entered Cambodia from the Vietnam-Cambodia border. However, massive protest by students and workers in the U.S. forced the US to withdraw its land forces from Cambodia. Sihanouk declared Lon Nol's government illegitimate and formed a government-in-exile in [[Beijing]] known as the [[Royal Government of the National Union of Kampuchea]] (GRUNK) and a political coalition in Cambodia known as the [[National United Front of Kampuchea]] (FUNK), which in turn was aligned with the [[Cambodian People's National Liberation Armed Forces]] (CPNLAF). The U.S. Air Force attacked the base of the CPNLAF, the Cambodian countryside, dropping hundreds of thousands of tons of bombs, killing many people. By [[1975]], the CPNLAF had defeated Lon Nol's army and on [[April 17]], 1975 the CPNLAF entered Phnom Penh and ousted Lon Nol's regime. However, the loose coalition behind CPNLAF proved unable to establish itself as a stable postcolonial regime; the ensuring [[Cambodian Civil War]] resulted in decades of politcal turmoil and the emergence of the [[Khmer Rouge]], making Cambodia the stage to one of the bloodiest conflicts in the [[20th century]].
==List of European colonial acquisitions in Asia==
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*[[India]] - French, Dutch and British before British expanded control in [[1757]].
*[[Sri Lanka]]- conquered by [[Portugal]] ([[1505]]), The [[Netherlands]] (1644), and then [[Kingdom of Great Britain|Britain]] ([[1796]]). It had [[tea]] and [[rubber]].
*[[Macau]] - Portuguese colony, first European colony in China ([[1557]]-[[1999]]).
*[[Taiwan]]- Portuguese, Dutch (1624 - 1662).
*[[Hong Kong]] - British colony from [[1841]] to [[1997]].
*[[Malaya]]- Portuguese, then Dutch (1644-1824), then British; rich in tin and rubber.
*[[Singapore]] - British since [[1819]].
*[[Burma]] - merged with [[India]] by the British from 1886 to 1937. In 1880, the French built a railroad from [[Tonkin]] to [[Mandalay]]: fearing a French conquest, the British went to war with Burma. The Burmese king was captured and sent to India during the war.
*[[Indonesia]] Dutch colony from 1602 - 1949. (Netherlands New Guinea; 1962)
*[[Indo-China]] - French; including [[Laos]], [[Cambodia]], and [[Vietnam]]; successive revolts were "pacified". Granted independence in 1954.
*[[Thailand]] - nominally independent, but subject to British and French influence.
*[[Philippines]] - Spanish until revolt of 1896, then acquired by the U.S. after the [[Spanish-American War]] of 1898 for $20 million.
*[[Korea]] - Subject to Russian influence until [[1905]] (See Russo-Japanese War).
==See also==
* [[Imperialism]]
* [[New Imperialism]]
* [[Colonialism]]
==References and further reading==
* Erik Ringmar, [http://ringmar.net/europeanfury/ ''Fury of the Europeans: Liberal Barbarism and the Destruction of the Emperor's Summer Palace'']
[[Category:History of Asia]]
[[Category:New Imperialism]]
[[th:ลัทธิจักรวรรดินิยมในเอเชีย]]
Information entropy
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2006-02-28T22:53:53Z
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/* Basic concept */
[[Image:Binary entropy plot.png|thumbnail|right|200px|Entropy of a [[Bernoulli trial]] as a function of success probability.]]
'''Entropy''' is a concept in [[thermodynamics]] (see [[thermodynamic entropy]]), [[statistical mechanics]] and [[information theory]]. The concepts of information and entropy have deep links with one another, although it took many years for the development of the theories of [[statistical mechanics]] and [[information theory]] to make this apparent. This article is about '''information entropy''', the information-theoretic formulation of [[entropy]]. Information entropy is occasionally called '''Shannon's entropy''' in honor of [[Claude E. Shannon]].
==Basic concept==
The basic concept of entropy in [[information theory]] has to do with how much [[randomness]] (or, alternatively, 'uncertainty') there is in a signal or random event. An alternative way to look at this is to talk about how much information is carried by the signal.
As an example consider some [[English language|English]] text, encoded as a string of [[letter (alphabet)|letters]], spaces, and [[punctuation]] (so our signal is a string of characters). Since some characters are not very likely (e.g. 'z') while others are very common (e.g. 'e') the string of characters is not really as random as it might be. On the other hand, since we cannot predict what the next character will be: it is, to some degree, 'random'. Entropy is a measure of this randomness, suggested by Shannon in his [[1948]] paper [http://cm.bell-labs.com/cm/ms/what/shannonday/paper.html A Mathematical Theory of Communication].
Shannon offers a definition of entropy which satisfies the assumptions that:
* The measure should be proportional (continuous) - i.e. changing the value of one of the probabilities by a very small amount should only change the entropy by a small amount.
* If all the outcomes (letters in the example above) are equally likely then increasing the number of letters should always increase the entropy.
* We should be able to make the choice (in our example of a letter) in two steps, in which case the entropy of the final result should be a weighted sum of the entropies of the two steps.
(Note: Shannon/Weaver make reference to [[Tolman]] ([[1938]]) who in turn credits [[Pauli]] ([[1933]]) with the definition of entropy that is used by Shannon. Elsewhere in statistical mechanics, the literature includes references to [[von Neumann]] as having derived the same form of entropy in [[1927]], so it was that von Neumann favoured the use of the existing term 'entropy'. )
==Formal definitions==
[[Claude E. Shannon]] defines entropy in terms of a discrete random event ''x'', with possible states (or outcomes) 1..''n'' as:
::<math>H(x)=\sum_{i=1}^np(i)\log_2 \left(\frac{1}{p(i)}\right)=-\sum_{i=1}^np(i)\log_2 p(i).\,\!</math>
That is, the entropy of the event ''x'' is the sum, over all possible outcomes ''i'' of ''x'', of the product of the probability of outcome ''i'' times the log of the inverse of the probability of ''i'' (which is also called ''i'''s ''[[surprisal]]'' - the entropy of ''x'' is the expected value of its outcome's surprisal). We can also apply this to a general [[probability distribution]], rather than a discrete-valued event.
Shannon shows that any definition of entropy satisfying his assumptions will be of the form:
::<math>-K\sum_{i=1}^np(i)\log p(i).\,\!</math>
where ''K'' is a constant (and is really just a choice of measurement units).
Shannon defined a measure of entropy (''H'' = − ''p<sub>1</sub>'' log<sub>2</sub> ''p<sub>1</sub>'' − … − ''p<sub>n</sub>'' log<sub>2</sub> ''p<sub>n</sub>'') that, when applied to an information source, could determine the minimum channel capacity required to reliably transmit the source as encoded binary digits. The formula can be derived by calculating the mathematical expectation of the ''amount of information'' contained in a digit from the information source. Shannon's entropy measure came to be taken as a measure of the uncertainty about the realization of a random variable. It thus served as a proxy capturing the concept of information contained in a message as opposed to the portion of the message that is strictly determined (hence predictable) by inherent structures. For example, redundancy in language structure or statistical properties relating to the occurrence frequencies of letter or word pairs, triplets etc. See [[Markov chain]].
Shannon's definition of entropy is closely related to [[thermodynamic entropy]] as defined by physicists and many chemists. [[Ludwig Boltzmann|Boltzmann]] and [[Willard Gibbs|Gibbs]] did considerable work on statistical thermodynamics, which became the inspiration for adopting the word ''entropy'' in information theory. There are relationships between thermodynamic and informational entropy. In fact, in the view of [[Edwin Thompson Jaynes|Jaynes]] ([[1957]]), thermodynamics should be seen as an ''application'' of Shannon's information theory: the thermodynamic entropy is interpreted as being an estimate of the amount of further Shannon information (needed to define the detailed microscopic state of the system) that remains uncommunicated by a description solely in terms of the macroscopic variables of classical thermodynamics. (See article: ''[[MaxEnt thermodynamics]]''). Similarly, [[Maxwell's demon]] reverses thermodynamic entropy with information; but if it is itself bound by the laws of thermodynamics, getting rid of that information exactly balances out the thermodynamic gain the demon would otherwise achieve.
It is important to remember that entropy is a quantity defined in the context of a probabilistic model for a data source. Independent fair coin flips have an entropy of 1 bit per flip. A source that always generates a long string of A's has an entropy of 0, since the next character will always be an 'A'.
The entropy rate of a data source means the average number of [[bit]]s per symbol needed to encode it. Empirically, it seems that entropy of English text is between 1.1 and 1.6 bits per character, though clearly that will vary from text source to text source. Experiments with human predictors show an information rate of 1.1 or 1.6 bits per character, depending on the experimental setup; the [[PPM compression algorithm]] can achieve a compression ratio of 1.5 bits per character.
From the preceding example, note the following points:
# The amount of entropy is not always an integer number of bits.
# Many data bits may not convey information. For example, data structures often store information redundantly, or have identical sections regardless of the information in the data structure.
Entropy effectively bounds the performance of the strongest lossless (or nearly lossless) compression possible, which can be realized in theory by using the [[typical set]] or in practice using [[Huffman coding| Huffman]], [[LZW|Lempel-Ziv]] or [[arithmetic coding]]. The performance of existing data compression algorithms is often used as a rough estimate of the entropy of a block of data.
A common way to define entropy for text is based on the [[Markov model]] of text. For an order-0 source (each character is selected independent of the last characters), the binary entropy is:
:<math>H(\mathcal{S}) = - \sum p_i \log_2 p_i, \,\!</math>
where ''p''<sub>''i''</sub> is the probability of ''i''. For a first-order [[Markov chain|Markov source]] (one in which the probability of selecting a character is dependent only on the immediately preceding character), the '''entropy rate''' is:
:<math>H(\mathcal{S}) = - \sum_i p_i \sum_j \ p_i (j) \log_2 p_i (j), \,\!</math>
where ''i'' is a state (certain preceding characters) and <math>p_i(j)</math> is the probability of <math>j</math> given <math>i</math> as the previous character (s).
For a second order Markov source, the entropy rate is
:<math> H(\mathcal{S}) = -\sum_i p_i \sum_j p_i(j) \sum_k p_{i,j}(k)\ \log \ p_{i,j}(k). \,\!</math>
In general the '''<i>b</i>-ary entropy''' of a source <math>\mathcal{S}</math> = (''S'',''P'') with [[source alphabet]] ''S'' = {''a''<sub>1</sub>, …, ''a<sub>n</sub>''} and [[discrete probability distribution]] ''P'' = {''p''<sub>1</sub>, …, ''p<sub>n</sub>''} where ''p<sub>i</sub>'' is the probability of ''a<sub>i</sub>'' (say ''p<sub>i</sub>'' = ''p''(''a<sub>i</sub>'')) is defined by:
:<math> H_b(\mathcal{S}) = - \sum_{i=1}^n p_i \log_b p_i \,\!</math>
Note: the ''b'' in "''b''-ary entropy" is the number of different symbols of the "ideal alphabet" which is being used as the standard yardstick to measure source alphabets. In information theory, two symbols are [[necessary and sufficient]] for an alphabet to be able to encode information, therefore the default is to let ''b'' = 2 ("binary entropy"). Thus, the entropy of the source alphabet, with its given empiric probability distribution, is a number equal to the number (possibly fractional) of symbols of the "ideal alphabet", with an optimal probability distribution, necessary to encode for each symbol of the source alphabet. Also note that "optimal probability distribution" here means a [[uniform distribution]]: a source alphabet with ''n'' symbols has the highest possible entropy (for an alphabet with ''n'' symbols) when the probability distribution of the alphabet is uniform. This optimal entropy turns out to be <math> log_b \, n </math>.
Another way to define the entropy function ''H'' (not using the [[Markov model]]) is by proving that ''H'' is uniquely defined (as earlier mentioned) [[iff]] ''H'' satisfies 1) - 3):
1) ''H''(''p''<sub>1</sub>, …, ''p<sub>n</sub>'') is [[defined]] and [[continuous function|continuous]] [[for all]] ''p''<sub>1</sub>, …, ''p<sub>n</sub>'' where ''p<sub>i</sub>'' <math>\in</math>[0,1] [[for all]] ''i'' = 1, …, ''n'' and ''p''<sub>1</sub> + … + ''p<sub>n</sub>'' = 1. (Remark that the function solely depends on the probability distribution, not the alphabet.)
2) [[For all]] [[positive integers]] ''n'', ''H'' satisfies
:<math>
H\underbrace{\left(\frac{1}{n}, \ldots, \frac{1}{n}\right)}_{n\ \mathrm{arguments}} < H\underbrace{\left(\frac{1}{n+1}, \ldots, \frac{1}{n+1}\right).}_{n+1\ \mathrm{arguments}}
</math>
3) For [[positive integers]] ''b<sub>i</sub>'' where ''b''<sub>1</sub> + … + ''b<sub>k</sub>'' = ''n'', ''H'' satisfies
:<math>
H\underbrace{\left(\frac{1}{n}, \ldots, \frac{1}{n}\right)}_n = H\underbrace{\left(\frac{b_1}{n}, \ldots, \frac{b_k}{n}\right)}_k + \sum_{i=1}^k \frac{b_i}{n} H\underbrace{\left(\frac{1}{b_i}, \ldots, \frac{1}{b_i}\right)}_{b_i}.
</math>
==Efficiency==
A source alphabet encountered in practice should be found to have a probability distribution which is less than optimal. If the source alphabet has ''n'' symbols, then it can be compared to an "optimized alphabet" with ''n'' symbols, whose probability distribution is uniform. The ratio of the entropy of the source alphabet with the entropy of its optimized version is the efficiency of the source alphabet, which can be expressed as a [[percentage]].
This implies that the efficiency of a source alphabet with ''n'' symbols can be defined simply as being equal to its ''n''-ary entropy.
==Derivation of Shannon's entropy==
Since the entropy was given as a definition, it does not need to be derived. On the other hand, a "derivation" can be given which gives a sense of the motivation for the definition as well as the link to thermodynamic entropy.
'''Q.''' Given a [[roulette]] with ''n'' pockets which are all equally likely to be landed on by the ball, what is the probability of obtaining a distribution (''A<sub>1</sub>'', ''A<sub>2</sub>'', …, ''A<sub>n</sub>'') where ''A<sub>i</sub>'' is the number of times pocket ''i'' was landed on and
:<math> P = \sum_{i=1}^n A_i \,\!</math>
is the total number of ball-landing events?
'''A.''' The probability is a [[multinomial distribution]], viz.
:<math> p = {\Omega \over \Tau} = {P! \over A_1! \ A_2! \ A_3! \ \dots \ A_n!} \left(\frac1n\right)^P \,\!</math>
where
:<math> \Omega = {P! \over A_1! \ A_2! \ A_3! \ \dots \ A_n!} \,\!</math>
is the number of possible combinations of outcomes (for the events) which fit the given distribution, and
:<math> \Tau = n^P \ </math>
is the number of all possible combinations of outcomes for the set of ''P'' events.
'''Q.''' And what is the entropy?
'''A.''' The entropy of the distribution is obtained from the [[logarithm]] of Ω:
:<math> H = \log \Omega = \log \frac{P!}{A_1! \ A_2! \ A_3! \dots \ A_n!} \,\!</math>
::<math> = \log P! - \log A_1! - \log A_2! - \log A_3! - \dots - \log A_n! \ </math>
::<math> = \sum_i^P \log i - \sum_i^{A_1} \log i - \sum_i^{A_2} \log i - \dots - \sum_i^{A_n} \log i \,\!</math>
The summations can be approximated closely by being replaced with integrals:
:<math> H = \int_1^P \log x \, dx - \int_1^{A_1} \log x \, dx - \int_1^{A_2} \log x \, dx - \dots - \int_1^{A_n} \log x \, dx. \,\!</math>
The integral of the logarithm is
:<math> \int \log x \, dx = x \log x - \int x \, {dx \over x} = x \log x - x. \,\!</math>
So the entropy is
:<math> H = (P \log P - P + 1) - (A_1 \log A_1 - A_1 + 1) - (A_2 \log A_2 - A_2 + 1) - \dots - (A_n \log A_n - A_n + 1) </math>
::<math> = (P \log P + 1) - (A_1 \log A_1 + 1) - (A_2 \log A_2 + 1) - \dots - (A_n \log A_n + 1) </math>
::<math> = P \log P - \sum_{x=1}^n A_x \log A_x + (1 - n) \,\!</math>
Change ''A<sub>x</sub>'' to ''p<sub>x</sub> = A<sub>x</sub>/P'' and change ''P'' to ''1'' (in order to measure the "bias" or "unevenness", in the probability distribution of the pockets for a single event), then
:<math> H = (1 - n) - \sum_{x=1}^n p_x \log p_x \,\!</math>
and the term (1 − ''n'') can be dropped since it is a constant, independent of the ''p<sub>x</sub>'' distribution. The result is
:<math> H = - \sum_{x=1}^n p_x \log p_x \,\!</math>.
Thus, the Shannon entropy is a consequence of the equation
:<math> H = \log \Omega \ </math>
which relates to Boltzmann's definition,
:<math> \mathcal{S} = K \ln \Omega </math>,
of thermodynamic entropy.
==Properties of Shannon's information entropy==
We write ''H''(''X'') as ''H<sub>n</sub>''(''p<sub>1</sub>'',...,''p<sub>n</sub>''). The Shannon entropy satisfies the following properties:
* For any ''n'', ''H<sub>n</sub>''(''p<sub>1</sub>'',...,''p<sub>n</sub>'') is a continuous and symmetric function on variables ''p<sub>1</sub>'', ''p<sub>2</sub>'',...,''p<sub>n</sub>''.
* Event of probability zero does not contribute to the entropy, i.e. for any ''n'',
:<math>H_{n+1}(p_1,\ldots,p_n,0) = H_n(p_1,\ldots,p_n)</math>.
* Entropy is maximized when the probability distribution is uniform. For all ''n'',
:<math>H_n(p_1,\ldots,p_n) \leq H_n\Big(\frac{1}{n},\ldots,\frac{1}{n} \Big)</math>.
Following from the Jensen inequality,
:<math>H(X) = E\Big[\log_b \Big( \frac{1}{p(X)}\Big) \Big] \leq \log_b \Big( E\Big[ \frac{1}{p(X)} \Big] \Big) = \log_b(n)</math>.
* If <math>p_{ij}, 1\leq i \leq m, 1\leq j \leq n</math> are non-negative real numbers summing up to one, and <math>q_i = \sum_{j=1}^n p_{ij}</math>, then
:<math>H_{mn}(p_{11},\ldots, p_{mn}) = H_m(q_1,\ldots,q_m) + \sum_{i=1}^m q_i H_n\Big(\frac{p_{i1}}{q_i},\ldots, \frac{p_{in}}{q_i} \Big)</math>.
If we partition the ''mn'' outcomes of the random experiment into ''m'' groups with each group containing ''n'' elements, we can do the experiment in two steps: first, determine the group to which the actual outcome belongs to; then, find the outcome in that group. The probability that you will observe group ''i'' is ''q<sub>i</sub>''. The conditional probability distribution function for group ''i'' is ''p<sub>i1</sub>''/''q<sub>i</sub>'',...,''p<sub>in</sub>''/''q<sub>i</sub>''). The entropy
:<math>H_n\Big(\frac{p_{i1}}{q_i},\ldots, \frac{p_{in}}{q_i} \Big)</math>
is the entropy of the probability distribution conditioned on group ''i''. This property means that the total information is the sum of the information gained in the first step, ''H<sub>m</sub>''(''q<sub>1</sub>'',..., ''q<sub>n</sub>''), and a weighted sum of the entropies conditioned on each group.
Khinchin in 1957 showed that the only function satisfying the above assumptions is of the form
:<math>H_n(p_1,\ldots,p_n) = -k \sum_{i=1}^n p_i \log p_i</math>,
where ''k'' is a positive constant representing the desired unit of measurement.
==Deriving continuous entropy from discrete entropy: the Boltzmann entropy==
The Shannon entropy is restricted to finite sets. It seems that the formula
:<math>h[f] = -\int_{-\infty}^{\infty} f(x) \log f(x) dx</math>, (*)
where ''f'' denotes a [[probability density function]] on the real line, is analogous to the Shannon entropy and could thus be viewed as an extension of the Shannon entropy to the domain of real numbers. Formula (*) is usually referred to as the '''Boltzmann entropy''', '''continuous entropy''', or [[differential entropy]]. Although the analogy between both functions is suggestive, the following question must be set: is the Boltzmann entropy a valid extension of the Shannon entropy? To answer this question, we must establish a connection between the two functions:
We wish to obtain a generally finite measure as the [[bin size]] goes to zero. In the discrete case, the bin size is the (implicit) width of each of the ''n'' (finite or infinite) bins whose probabilities are denoted by ''p<sub>n</sub>''. As we generalize to the continuous domain, we must make this width explicit.
To do this, start with a continuous function ''f'' discretized as shown in the figure.
<!-- Figure: Discretizing the function $ f$ into bins of width $ \Delta$
\includegraphics[width=\textwidth]{function-with-bins.eps} -->
As the figure indicates, by the mean-value theorem there exists a value ''x<sub>i</sub>'' in each bin such that
:<math>f(x_i) \Delta = \int_{i\Delta}^{(i+1)\Delta} f(x) dx</math>
and thus the integral of the function ''f'' can be approximated (in the Riemannian sense) by
:<math>\int_{-\infty}^{\infty} f(x) dx = \lim_{\Delta \to 0} \sum_{i = -\infty}^{\infty} f(x_i) \Delta</math>
where this limit and ''bin size goes to zero'' are equivalent.
We will denote
:<math>H^{\Delta} :=- \sum_{i=-\infty}^{\infty} \Delta f(x_i) \log \Delta f(x_i)</math>
and expanding the logarithm, we have
:<math>H^{\Delta} = - \sum_{i=-\infty}^{\infty} \Delta f(x_i) \log \Delta f(x_i)</math>
:<math> = - \sum_{i=-\infty}^{\infty} \Delta f(x_i) \log f(x_i) -\sum_{i=-\infty}^{\infty} f(x_i) \Delta \log \Delta</math>
As <math>\Delta \to 0</math>, we have
:<math>\sum_{i=-\infty}^{\infty} f(x_i) \Delta \to \int f(x) dx = 1</math>
and so
:<math>\sum_{i=-\infty}^{\infty} \Delta f(x_i) \log f(x_i) \to \int f(x) \log f(x) dx</math>.
But note that <math>\log \Delta \to -\infty</math> as <math>\Delta \to 0</math>, therefore we need a special definition of the differential or continuous entropy:
:<math>h[f] = \lim_{\Delta \to 0} \left[H^{\Delta} + \log \Delta\right] = -\int_{-\infty}^{\infty} f(x) \log f(x) dx</math>,
which is, as said before, referred to as the '''Boltzmann entropy'''. This means that the Boltzmann entropy ''is not'' a limit of the Shannon entropy for <math>n \to 0</math> and, consequently is not a measure of uncertainty and information.
{{planetmath|id=968|title=Shannon's entropy}}
== See also ==
* [[Entropy encoding]]
* [[Kolmogorov-Sinai entropy]] in [[dynamical system]]s
* [[Theil index]]
== External links ==
* [http://www.lecb.ncifcrf.gov/~toms/information.is.not.uncertainty.html Information is not entropy, information is not uncertainty !] - a discussion of the use of the terms "information" and "entropy".
* [http://www.ccrnp.ncifcrf.gov/~toms/bionet.info-theory.faq.html#Information.Equal.Entropy I'm Confused: How Could Information Equal Entropy?] - a similar discussion on the bionet.info-theory FAQ.
* [http://random.hd.org/ Java "entropy pool" for cryptographically-secure unguessable random numbers]
* [http://www.rheingold.com/texts/tft/6.html Description of information entropy from "Tools for Thought" by Howard Rheingold]
[[Category:Entropy]]
[[Category:Information theory]]
[[Category:Statistics]]
[[Category:Randomness]]
[[de:Entropie (Informationstheorie)]]
[[es:Entropía (información)]]
[[fr:Entropie de Shannon]]
[[it:Entropia (teoria dell'informazione)]]
[[hu:Shannon-entrópiafüggvény]]
[[nl:Entropie (informatietheorie)]]
[[pl:Entropia (teoria informacji)]]
[[ru:Информационная энтропия]]
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Ithaca College
15446
41987877
2006-03-03T01:42:09Z
206.14.33.243
/* 92 WICB */
{{Infobox_University
|image =
|name = Ithaca College
|motto = ''Commitment to Excelence''
|established = [[1892]]
|type = [[Private school|Private]] with 5 schools
|president = Peggy R. Williams
|city = [[Ithaca, New York|Ithaca]]
|state = [[New York|NY]]
|country = [[United States|USA]]
|undergrad = 6,098
|postgrad = 314
|staff = 656
|campus = [[Urban area]], 757 [[acre]]s (3.0 [[kilometre|km]]²)
|mascot = None. Teams referred to as the "Bombers"
|free_label = Athletics
|free = 23 Varsity Teams
|website = http://www.ithaca.edu/
}}
[[Image:Hp 2 small.jpg|thumb|250px|Ithaca College Campus]]
'''Ithaca College''' is a private [[liberal arts college]] located on the South Hill of [[Ithaca, New York]]. Ithaca was founded by William Egbert in [[1892]] as a conservatory of music. Today, the college offers a diverse curriculum with over 100 degree programs in business, communications, health sciences and human performance, humanities and sciences, music, and interdisciplinary studies.
==Modern era==
Ithaca College's modern era began when the school moved from downtown Ithaca to Ithaca's South Hill, south of [[Cayuga Lake]], beginning in [[1960]].
Ithaca College is best known for its programs in music, communications, physical therapy, psychology, theatre, and physical education.
The School of Music, now housed in the James J. Whalen Center for Music (which was erected around the original Ford Hall in 1998), gives over 300 concerts a year, most of which are free and open to the public. The school offers degrees in music performance, education, recording and jazz studies; as well as a unique 4-1/2 year program in which students graduate with 2 bachelor's degrees, one in performance and one in education.
==Media and Publications==
===''The Ithacan''===
''The Ithacan'' is Ithaca College's official newspaper and the voice of the campus community. It is entirely student run, under the supervision of adviser Michael Serino. It is available in print every Thursday morning when classes are in session and online: [http://www.ithaca.edu/ithacan]. The Ithacan and its staff have won numerous journalistic awards and The Ithacan is regarded as a model for 4-year college weekly newspapers.
===''iMPrint Magazine''===
[http://www.imprintmagazine.org/ ''iMPrint Magazine: College Life’s Internet Magazine''], published from Ithaca College, is published by college students, for college students, about college students. iMPrint strives to inform its readers of national issues and give them the opportunity to voice their opinion and become involved in the discussion.
To be an informed college student is to be able to understand complex topics and relate them to other aspects of life. In order to allow readers to make connections across all topic areas, each edition of iMPrint is built around a central theme. This allows the sports fanatic, for example, to understand how issues of the news might affect their favorite team. But from Arts & Entertainment to Life to News to Sports & Recreation, iMPrint also understands that every reader’s interests are unique.
Beyond providing stories, iMPrint mobilizes information; that is, it allows the reader to become involved in what he or she just read. Whether by linking to a related site, e-mailing a source in the story or leaving a comment for the writer, the reader has the tools to take part in the discussion. iMPrint continues to stay on the cutting edge of seamlessly linking information across the Internet.
Currently, iMPrint only features writers and editors from Ithaca College. Soon, however, iMPrint will be expanding to other colleges and universities to include more voices, more opinions and more diversified content. Every month, iMPrint is growing by leaps and bounds. Now is the time to get involved. Make a difference. Leave your iMPrint. [http://www.imprintmagazine.org/ Leave your iMPrint]
===''Buzzsaw Haircut''===
''Buzzsaw Haircut'' was founded in [[1997]] and is the college's monthly alternative news magazine. It is available in print and [http://www.buzzsawhaircut.com/ online], with three magazines produced per semester.
''Buzzsaw Haircut'' is produced by the Ithaca College community and printed by Our Press of [[Binghamton, NY]]. It is funded by the Ithaca College Student Government Association, the Park School of Communications, and a grant from [[Campus Progress]].
Buzzsaw is a liberal-leaning campus magazine that accepts writing from students and faculty. The magazine is published with a monthly theme that directs the content of the main content section, ''Upfront.'' Other sections include ''News+Views,'' covering current events, ''Ministry of Cool,'' which includes reviews of books, music and movies as well as discussions of related pop culture topics, and ''Sawdust,'' the section for satire and cartoons.
The magazine exists to inspire thoughtful debate and open up the channels through which information is shared. It supports an op-ed voice and in-depth analysis of current and relavent issues.
===''Ithaca College Radio''===
Ithaca College is also home to two student-operated radio stations.
====92 WICB====
92 WICB is a fully-functional, FCC-licensed station that operates at 7500 Watts at 91.7 on the FM band. The majority of its programming falls under the modern rock category. While broadcasting modern rock, the station is run similarly to a commercial modern rock station, with the inclusion of playlists planned by the programming and music departments that include leeway for listener requests and DJ choices.
WICB also broadcasts a City Rhythms programming block on Thursday, Friday, and Saturday nights. Programming on these nights ranges from mainstream hip-hop and R&B, to underground, downtempo, and other lesser-known genres of what is generally considered urban music.
In addition to a lunchtime Jazz show, WICB broadcasts a number of other specialty shows throughout the week. These shows, which usually run 2-3 hours in length, come from genres such as blues, broadway, jam band music, and "homeless" music, that is not normally heard on the public airwaves.
WICB has a reputation in the entertainment and news industries as a strong training ground for students. Alumni of the station are numerous within the radio, record label and artist management businesses.
====106 VIC====
106 VIC is an internet radio station which also broadcasts on ICTV 16 when that station is not otherwise programmed. Approximately 60% of its programming consists of an "alterna-lite" format, which is a mix of alternative rock and singer/songwriter-style music, which is programmed by the music and programming departments. The rest of its programming consists of specialty shows, programmed by student DJs, which are more representative of a typical college station.
The station also hosts an annual 50 Hour Marathon, where two DJs stay awake for fifty hours straight to raise money for a local charity. The marathon, which is simulcast on 92 WICB and ICTV 16, typically involves events such as concerts, scavenger hunts, and remote broadcasts around Ithaca.
===''Journal of Race, Culture, Gender and Ethnicity''===
Also at Ithaca College is the ''Ithaca College Journal of Race, Culture, Gender and Ethnicity''. Founded in 2004 by several Ithaca College students, this academic journal welcomes student work that explores complexities of such topics. The journal is available in print and [http://www.ithaca.edu/icjournal/ online].
==Athletics==
Ithaca College's sports teams were originally called the Cayugans, but the name was changed to the Bombers in the 1930s. Sources credit an ''[[The Ithaca Journal|Ithaca Journal]]'' sports columnist with giving the Bombers their name when he compared Ithaca's [[baseball]] team to the [[New York Yankees]] (which are affectionately known as the "Bronx Bombers").
Ithaca is a member of the [[National Collegiate Athletic Association|NCAA's]] Division III, the [[Empire Eight]] Conference, and the [[Eastern College Athletic Conference]]. Ithaca has one of Division III's strongest athletic programs. The Bombers have won a total of 15 national titles in seven team sports and five individual sports. Most recently, the women's crew team won back-to-back NCAA Division III championships in [[2004]] and [[2005]].
The Bombers play the [[State University of New York at Cortland|Cortland]] Red Dragons for the [[Cortaca Jug]], which was added in 1959 to an already competitive rivalry. The matchup is one of the most prominent in [[Division III]] college football.
Ithaca is also home to a large number of club sports. There are over 60 teams and many are very competitive; competing against other colleges in leagues and tournaments.
==Presidents==
===Current president===
[[Image:Peggy_Williams.jpg|left|200px|thumb|President Peggy Williams]]
Ithaca's current president is Peggy R. Williams. President Williams assumed the presidency of Ithaca College on [[July 1]], [[1997]]. She is the College's seventh president and its first female president. Williams came to Ithaca from [[Lyndon State College]], where she had been president since [[1989]]. She had previously worked at [[Trinity College (Vermont)|Trinity College]] in [[Burlington, Vermont]], as associate academic dean, chair of the business and economics department, and associate professor. She also held various positions within the Vermont State Colleges system. Before entering the field of higher education, Williams was a social worker for the Medical Center Hospital of Vermont and the Monroe County Department of Social Services in New York. Williams holds a bachelor of arts degree in psychology from [[St. Michael's College]] of the [[University of Toronto]]; a master of education degree from the [[University of Vermont]]; and a doctorate in administration, planning, and social policy from Harvard University. A native of [[Montreal]], Williams has lived in the United States since [[1968]] and is a citizen of both the [[United States]] and [[Canada]]. A little known fact about Williams: she is an award-winning yo-yoist.
===Former presidents===
*'''W. Grant Egbert''' (1892-1924) — Founder, musical director, and president of the Ithaca Conservatory of Music, the predecessor of Ithaca College
*'''George C. Williams''' (1924-1932) — Second president of the Ithaca Conservatory of Music and first president of the renamed Ithaca College
*'''Leonard B. Job''' (1932-1957) — Guardian who successfully shepherded the College through the Great Depression and World War II
*'''Howard I. Dillingham''' (1957-1970) — Conductor of the movement that transported Ithaca College from downtown Ithaca to South Hill
*'''Ellis L. Phillips Jr.''' (1970-1975) — Credited with overseeing substantive, comprehensive changes to the College
*'''[[James J. Whalen]]''' (1975-1997) — Led the College through a time of unprecedented growth
==Notable professors, alumni and former students==
*[[David Boreanaz]], [[actor]], ''[[Buffy the Vampire Slayer]]'' and ''[[Angel (TV series)|Angel]]''
*[[Robert Marella]], a.k.a. [[Gorilla Monsoon]]
*[[Mark Romanek]], [[Film director|director]] of ''[[One Hour Photo]]'' and [[music video]]s
*[[Gavin MacLeod]], [[actor]], ''[[The Love Boat]]'' and ''[[The Mary Tyler Moore Show]]''
*[[Jessica Savitch]], first female network anchor
*[[Kevin Connors]], award winning sportscaster
*[[Rod Serling]], creator of the ''[[The Twilight Zone]]''
*[[CCH Pounder]], [[actor]], ''[[The Shield]]''
*[[Ricki Lake]], [[actress]], ''[[Serial Mom]]'', host ''[[The Ricki Lake Show]]''
*[[Gavin DeGraw]], [[singer]]
*[[Karl Ravech]], [[ESPN]] [[sportscaster]]
*[[Robert Iger]], president and chief executive officer of [[The Walt Disney Company]]
*[[Barbara Gaines]], executive producer of the ''[[Late Show with David Letterman]]''
===A cappella groups===
*[http://www.ithacappella.com/ Ithacappella] - male a cappella singing group
*[http://www.ithaca.edu/premiumblend/ Premium Blend] - female a cappella singing group
*[http://www.icvoicestream.com/ VoiceStream] - co-ed a cappella singing group
==External links==
*[http://www.ithaca.edu/ Ithaca College official site]
*[http://www.ithaca.edu/ithacan The Ithacan - Ithaca's official newspaper]
*[http://www.imprintmagazine.org/ iMPrint Magazine: College Life's Internet Magazine]
*[http://www.ithaca.edu/icjournal/ Ithaca College Journal of Race, Culture, Gender and Ethnicity]
*[http://www.buzzsawhaircut.com/ Buzzsaw Haircut] - Ithaca's alternative student-run magazine publication
==Trivia==
*The characters from the movie [[Road Trip]] attended "Ithaca University." The filming, however, took place at The [[University of Georgia]].
Individual differences psychology
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{{mergeto|Differential psychology}}
'''Individual differences psychology''' studies the ways in which individual people differ in their behavior. This is distinguished from other aspects of [[psychology]] in that although psychology is ostensibly a study of individuals, modern psychologists invariably study [[groups]]. For example, in evaluating the effectiveness of a new therapy, the mean performance of the therapy in one [[treatment group|group]] might be compared to the mean effectiveness of a [[placebo]] (or a well-known therapy) in a second, [[control group]]. In this context, differences between individuals in their reaction to the experimental and control manipulations are actually treated as errors rather than as interesting phenomena to study. This is because [[psychology|psychological]] research depends upon statistical controls that are only defined upon groups of people. Individual difference psychologists usually express their interest in individuals while studying groups by seeking dimensions shared by all individuals but upon which individuals differ. Individual differences typically includes the study of [[intelligence (trait)]] and [[IQ]] and the study of [[personality]].
Individual differences of the [[Emotion|emotional]] type were described by [[Knight Dunlap]], in ''Habits: Their Making and Unmaking'' (1932), pp 233-234:
* The timid person has emotions of embarrassment, dismay, apprehension or fear in situations where normal persons show little emotional effect, or where quite different emotions would be more appropriate.
* An irritable person may "boil over" in an offensive way or express himself snappishly under stimulation which should be only mildly annoying. On the other hand, he may, for politic reasons, somewhat restrain his outward expressions, but still feel the irritation he does not flagrantly display. The bad-tempered person, however, seldom restrains his expressions of irritation completely.
* Another type of emotionally maladjusted individual is popularly described as "soft." His sympathy is too easily aroused, and he is an easy prey for clever swindlers. He pities not merely the unfortunate person, but also the deliberate miscreant, and so is an impediment to the maintenance of social order and justice. At the other extreme is the "hard-boiled" man, who is callous to the suffering and misfortune of others and who spares the feelings of no one.
* Self-pity, unlike the emotional defects above described, is not an exaggeration of a normal habit, but is a trait which is undesirable throughout.... However deserving a man may be of pity from others, he cannot afford to pity himself. The neurotic, from whatever complex of disadvantageous traits he may suffer, is especially prone to self-pity, which confirms and strengthens his neurosis.
==Bibliographic Reference==
Dunlap, Knight. ''Habits: Their Making and Unmaking.'' New York: Liveright Publishing Corporation, Inc. (1932).
[[Category:Psychology]]
==See also==
* [[London School of Differential Psychology]]
==External links==
* [http://www.wilderdom.com/personality/L1-1Introduction.html Introduction to Individual Differences]
*Buss, D.M., & Greiling, H.(1999). [http://lepo.it.da.ut.ee/~renee/Buss/buss1999.pdf#search='David%20Bussadaptive%20differencespdf' Adaptive Individual Differences.] ''Journal of Personality, 67'', 209-243.
[[Category:Branches of psychology]]
Israeli
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Industrial and organizational psychology
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'''Industrial and organizational psychology''' (or '''I/O psychology''') is also known as '''occupational psychology''' (in the [[United Kingdom]]) and '''work psychology''' (from the German, ''Arbeitpsychologie'').
Industrial and organizational psychology is the study of the behavior of people in the workplace. Industrial and organizational psychology attempts to apply psychological results and methods to aid workers and organizations.
Industrial and organizational psychologists use [[psychological testing]] to measure the knowledge, skills, abilities, and other characteristics of people for a variety of employment-related purposes, such as selection for hiring or promotion, training and development, or measuring employee satisfaction. Historically, the [[job analysis]] has been the traditional means by which the essential characteristics associated with any particular position are identified. A thorough job analysis takes time, resources and money but its benefits tend to out weigh the costs, especially when the position is of great importance, such as an executive position in a major corporation.
It is a fairly diverse field incorporating aspects of fields such as [[clinical psychology]], social psychology, and psychometrics as well as broader social studies such as [[organizational theory]], [[law]], and gender issues.
Many industrial and organizational psychologists specialize in aspects (e.g., psychometrics; time and motion studies; labor law; personnel selection; training) aspects (e.g., leadership selection, coaching and development; organizational design and change). Some I/O psychologists are academic (working in both business and psychology departments) or non-academic researchers, while many others are engaged in practice, holding positions such as:
* executive coach
* diversity consultant
* legislative compliance officer
* labor relations specialist
* human resources specialist
* process improvement consultant
* manager of selection and training.
== Related disciplines ==
* [[Industrial engineering]]
* [[Total quality management]]
* [[Psychometrics]]
* [[Social psychology]]
* [[Labor and industrial relations]]
* [[Organizational development]]
* [[Personality psychology]]
* [[Organizational behavior]]
== Milestones in industrial and organizational psychology ==
* [[Hawthorne studies]] at [[Western Electric]]
* [[U.S. Army]] Project A
==See also==
* [[Industrial sociology]]
* [[List of human resource management topics]]
* [[List of psychological topics]]
* [[How Occupation and Employment can affect Identity]]
* [[List of publications in psychology#Industrial and organizational psychology | Important publications in Industrial and organizational psychology ]]
== Key works in industrial and organizational psychology ==
* ''Handbook Of Research Methods In Industrial And Organizational Psychology'', by Steven G. Rogelberg
* Two volume ''Handbook of Industrial, Work and Organizational Psychology'', edited by Neil Anderson, Deniz S. Ones, Handan K. Sinangil, and Chockalingam Viswesvaran
* ''Handbook of Psychology, Industrial and Organizational Psychology'' by Walter C. Borman, Daniel R. Ilgen, Richard J. Klimoski, Irving B. Weiner
==External links==
* Additional information can be found at the Web site of the [http://www.siop.org Society for Industrial and Organizational Psychology].
* Related information can be found at the web site of the [http://www.aomonline.org Academy of Management].
[[Category:applied psychology]]
[[category:Organizational studies and human resource management]]
[[af:Bedryfsielkunde]]
[[fa:روانشناسی صنعتی]]
[[fi:Työpsykologia]]
[[sl:Kadrovsko-menedžerska in industrijska psihologija]]
International Council of Unitarians and Universalists
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The '''International Council of Unitarians and Universalists''' (ICUU) is a world council bringing together [[Unitarian]]s, [[Universalist]]s and [[Unitarian Universalism|Unitarian Universalists]]. The original initiative for its establishment was contained in a resolution of the [[General Assembly of Unitarian and Free Christian Churches]] of the [[United Kingdom]] in 1987. This led to the establishment of the "Advocates for the Establishment of an International Organization of Unitarians" (AEIOU), which worked towards the establishment of the council. Rev. [[David Usher (minister)|David Usher]], a British Unitarian minister of Australian origin, proposed the 1987 resolution. However, the General Assembly resolution provided no funding.
The [[Unitarian Universalist Association]] (UUA) became particularly interested in the establishment of a council when it had to deal with an increasing number of applications for membership from congregations outside [[North America]]. It had already granted membership to congregations in [[Adelaide]], [[Auckland, New Zealand|Auckland]], the [[Philippines]] and [[Pakistan]], and congregations in [[Sydney]], [[Russia]] and [[Spain]] had applied for membership. Rather than admit congregations from all over the world, the UUA hoped that they would join a world council instead. The UUA thus became willing to provide funding for the council's establishment.
As a result, the council was finally established at a meeting in [[Essex, Massachusetts]] on [[March 23|March 23-26]], [[1995]]. Rev. David Usher became the ICUU's first President.
The size of the member organizations varies widely. Some member groups have only a few hundred members; while the largest, the Unitarian Universalist Association, has over 200,000 members and is larger than all the other member groups put together.
== Members ==
===Full Members===
*[[Australia and New Zealand Unitarian Association]] (ANZUA)
*[[Canadian Unitarian Council]]
*[[Deutsche Unitarier Religionsgemeinschaft]], Germany
*[[European Unitarian Universalists]]
*[[First Unitarian Church of Nigeria]]
*[[General Assembly of Unitarian and Free Christian Churches]], United Kingdom & Ireland
*[[Ijo Isokan Gbogbo Eda]] (Unitarian Brotherhood Church), Nigeria
*[[Khasi Unitarian Union]], India
*[[Kosciol Unitarianski]] (Unitarian Church in Poland)
*[[Nabozenska spolecnost ceskych unitaru]] (Religious Society of Czech Unitarians)
*[[The Unitarian Christian Church of Madras]], India
*[[The Unitarian Church in Hungary]]
*[[The Unitarian Church of Romania]] (Transylvania)
*[[Unitarian Church of South Africa]]
*[[Unitarian Universalist Association]], USA
*[[Unitarian Universalist Association of Sri Lanka]]
*[[Unitarian Universalist Church of the Philippines]]
*[[Unitarian Universalists of Russia]]
*[[Unitarian Universalist Society of Finland]]
*[[Unitarians and Universalists, Pakistan]]
*[[Unitarisk Kirkesamfund]], Denmark
===Emerging Groups===
*Argentina
*Brazil
*Bolivia
*Latvia
*Puerto Rico
===Other Associates===
*[[Doojin Christian Church]] (Japan)
*[[Church of Iceland]]
*[[Indonesia Global Church of God]]
*Italy
*Kenya
*[[L'Assemblees Fraternelles des Chretiens Unitariens de France]]
*[[L'Association Unitarienne Francophone et Eglise Unitarienne de France]]
*[[Unitarkirken]] (The Unitarian Christian Church in Norway)
== Principles and Purposes ==
PREAMBLE TO THE CONSTITUTION OF THE INTERNATIONAL COUNCIL OF UNITARIANS AND UNIVERSALISTS
We, the member groups of the International Council of Unitarians and Universalists, affirming our belief in religious community based on:
* liberty of conscience and individual thought in matters of faith,
* the inherent worth and dignity of every person.
* justice and compassion in human relations,
* responsible stewardship in human relations,
* and our commitment to democratic principles,
declare our purposes to be:
* to serve the Infinite Spirit of Life and the human community by strengthening the worldwide Unitarian and Universalist faith,
* to affirm the variety and richness of our living traditions,
* to facilitate mutual support among member organizations,
* to promote our ideals and principles around the world,
* to provide models of liberal religious response to the human condition which upholds our common values.
==External links==
* [http://icuu.net/ International Council of Unitarians and Universalists]
[[Category:Religious organizations]]
[[Category:Unitarian Universalism]]
Intersexuals
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Intersexualism
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Itanium
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[[Image:Itanium.jpg|right|thumb|160px|Itanium brand logo]]
In [[computing]], the '''Itanium''' is an [[IA-64]] [[microprocessor]] developed jointly by [[Hewlett-Packard]] and [[Intel]].
==Merced==
[[Image:Itanium.png|thumb|The Intel Itanium processor.]]
HP and Intel first collaborated on chip for servers and workstations in 1989. HP needed a next generation replacement for its successful [[PA-RISC]] line of servers and workstations, and wanted to tap Intel's volume and expertise in chip design and manufacturing.
It would use [[Explicitly Parallel Instruction Computing]] where the compiler would line up instructions for parallel execution. Features were added to ensure compatibility with ''both'' Intel [[X86|x86]] and HP applications. It was expected to dominate servers, workstations, and perhaps even desktops, bumping the ubiquitous x86 architecture. Importantly, it was not expected [[AMD]] would be able to clone it.
==Software support==
[[Image:Itanium_arch.png|thumb|The Intel Itanium architecture.]]
Microsoft has ported [[Windows XP]], [[Windows 2000]], and [[Windows Server 2003]] to Itanium.
Microsoft server applications include [[Microsoft SQL Server|SQL Server]], Operations Manager, CRM Server, [[Internet Information Services|IIS]], [[Microsoft Visual Studio|Visual Studio]], and the [[.NET Framework]]. The decision was made in recent years to not include support for client applications or client operating systems (such as Windows XP) for the Itanium, because the market demand is too small to justify the porting and support costs.
Microsoft has announced support for Itanium on its upcoming [[Windows Server "Longhorn"|Longhorn Server]] operating system. It is being positioned as the top end processor for the most demanding workloads such as [[database]] servers, [[operations management]], and [[customer relationship management]].
In June 2003 [[OpenVMS]] was added to the line up of operating systems able to run on these processors.
The HP [[Tandem Computers|NonStop]] operating system also runs on Itanium. NonStop is used in many of the world's trading and financial markets.
The [[Linux kernel]] and multiple [[Linux distributions|GNU/Linux distributions]] run on Itanium, such as [[Red Hat Enterprise Linux]], [[SUSE Linux Enterprise Server]], [[Debian]], and the version [[Silicon Graphics|SGI]] offers on their [[Altix]] machines. In Jan 2002, [http://www.gelato.org Gelato.org], a community for the propagation of Linux on Itanium was created.
[[FreeBSD]] also runs on Itanium systems.
[[Sun Microsystems|Sun]] was developing a port of [[Solaris Operating Environment|Solaris]] to the Itanium processor, but that port was never released.
==Market trends==
The following companies announced a new "Itanium Alliance" in September 2005 to promote hardware and software development for the chip:
Hewlett-Packard, Hitachi, Fujitsu, NEC, Unisys, Bull, Silicon Graphics, Microsoft, Oracle, Red Hat, Novell, BEA Systems, SAP, SAS, and Intel.
[http://news.com.com/Itanium+alliance+backed+by+major+tech+companies/2100-1006_3-5882978.html]
[[Dell]] and [[IBM]] have dropped the chip from their product lines.[http://www.eweek.com/article2/0,1895,1859669,00.asp][http://news.com.com/IBM+server+design+drops+Itanium+support/2100-1006_3-5589603.html]
Total revenue tripled for the Itanium from 2003-2004 and reached $1.4 billion in 2004.[http://www.theregister.co.uk/2005/02/28/itanium_04_sales/]
[[Intel]] has delayed the dual-core Montecito version of Itanium for 3 months.[http://www.infoworld.com/article/05/10/24/HNintelalters_1.html?PROCESSORS]
Customer spending on Itanium servers hit $2.4 billion in 2005.[http://news.com.com/Analyst+firm+offers+rosy+view+of+Itanium/2100-1006_3-6038932.html]
==Technical criticism==
The first version, code named '''Merced''', shipped in June [[2001]]. Manufactured in a 180 [[nanometre|nm]] process, it was offered at speeds of 733 and 800 [[megahertz|MHz]], with a choice of 2 [[megabyte|MB]] or 4 MB off-die L3 [[CPU cache|cache]]. Prices ranged from US$1200 to over US$4000.
However, performance was disappointing. In IA-64 mode, it performed only slightly better than an equivalently clocked x86 design, and when running legacy x86 code, performance was extremely poor, about 1/8th that of a similarly clocked x86 processor. Software emulation would have been faster.
The main (though by no means only) structural design flaw with the Itanium was the high latency of its level three cache. Intel's engineers had evidently been hoping that the amount of bandwidth available would offset this, but the latency was so high that it actually slowed the cache, to the point where it was not significantly faster than the main memory interface. With the faster first and second-level caches set relatively small (32KB and 96KB respectively), this further increased the load on the main system bus.
Compounding the performance impact of the lack of available cache bandwidth was the fact IA-64 code has a larger footprint than x86 code. So the amount of instructions that could be contained in the cache was in fact even smaller than the sizes alone would suggest, all of which might have been mitigated had Itanium been designed around a fast processor bus. However, at a mere 266MHz it was only equal to consumer [[Athlon]]s of the period, and a full 33% slower than first generation [[Pentium 4]]s. Again, this was worse than it would appear, due to the fact that Itaniums were designed to be used in systems with several processors. Itanium clock speeds were also disappointing, relative to the [[gigahertz|GHz]] speeds being delivered by the Athlon architecture of the period.
Overall, it is generally believed that the technical specifications indicate an original [[1998]]–[[1999|99]] target launch date. But the repeated and lengthy project delays, effectively meant the processor was out of date before it had even begun shipping. Hence, the Itanium was not a competitive product when launched, although it would have been two years earlier.
It was succeeded by the [[Itanium 2]].
==Itanic nickname==
'''Itanic''' is a derisive nickname promulgated by the often-satiric technology publication [[The Register]]. It is a reference to the [[RMS Titanic|''Titanic'']], a famous [[ocean liner]] which sank in [[1912]]. The IA-64 architecture is considered by some to be a [[white elephant]], which cost Intel and partner [[Hewlett-Packard]] many billions of dollars while failing to achieve expected sales in the originally projected timeframe.
==Competition==
Sales of IA-64 processors have most recently been hampered by competition from [[Advanced Micro Devices|AMD]]'s [[AMD64]] architecture on the low end, leading to Intel releasing the largely compatible [[EM64T]] architecture. [[International Business Machines|IBM]]'s [[IBM POWER|POWER]] architecture competes to a lesser extent at the high end. Some early IA-64 vendors, such as [[Dell Computer|Dell]] and IBM have dropped or drastically scaled back support for the architecture, Dell choosing AMD64-compatible processors in line with their high-volume business model, while IBM continues to develop servers built on its own POWER architecture.
Microsoft has decided not to make further releases of its consumer operating systems for Itanium, concentrating only on x86-64 (AMD64, EM64T).
== See also ==
* [[IA-64| IA-64 Architecture]]
* [[Itanium 2]]
==External links==
* [http://news.zdnet.com/2100-9584_22-5984747.html Itanium: A Cautionary Tale] Intel takes over the world - with the lowly x86
* [http://www.cpu-collection.de/?l0=i&i=2179&n=1&sd=1 Intel Itanium opened cartridge processor images at cpu-collection.de]
* [http://news.com.com/Analyst+firm+offers+rosy+view+of+Itanium/2100-1006_3-6038932.html Analyst firm offers rosy view of Itanium]
{{Intel processors}}
[[Category:Microprocessors]]
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Infinity
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'''Infinity''' refers to several distinct concepts which arise in [[theology]], [[philosophy]], [[mathematics]] and everyday life. Popular or colloquial usage of the term often does not accord with its more technical meanings. The word '''infinity''' comes from the [[Latin]] ''infinitas'', "unboundedness".
In [[theology]], for example in the work of [[List of Christian theologians|theologians]] such as [[Duns Scotus]], the infinite nature of [[God]] invokes a sense of being without constraint, rather than a sense of being unlimited in quantity. In [[philosophy]], infinity can be attributed to space and time, as for instance in [[Immanuel Kant|Kant]]'s first [[antinomy]]. In both theology and philosophy, infinity is explored in articles such as [[the Ultimate]], [[the Absolute]], God, and [[Zeno's paradoxes]].
In mathematics, infinity is relevant to, or the subject matter of, articles such as mathematical [[limit (mathematics)|limit]]s, [[aleph number]]s, [[class (set theory)|class]]es in [[set theory]], [[Dedekind-infinite set]]s, [[large cardinal]]s, [[Russell's paradox]], [[hyperreal number]]s, [[projective geometry]], [[extended real number]]s and the [[absolute Infinite]]. By some, infinity is considered to be not a number but a concept of increase beyond bounds.
In [[popular culture]], we have [[Buzz Lightyear]]'s rallying cry, "To infinity — and beyond!", which may also be viewed as the rallying cry of [[set theory|set theorists]] considering [[large cardinal]]s.{{rf|1|large_cardinals}}
For a discussion about infinity and the physical universe, see [[Universe]].
== History ==
=== Ancient view of infinity ===
The earliest known documented knowledge of ''infinity'' is presented in the [[Veda]]- ''[[Yajur Veda]]'' which states that "if you remove a part from infinity or add a part to infinity, still what remains is infinity". The [[Ancient India|India]]n [[Jain]]a mathematical text ''Surya Prajinapti'' (ca. [[400 BC]]) classifies all numbers into three sets: ''enumerable'', ''innumerable'' and ''infinite''. It recognises five different types of infinity: infinite in one and two directions, infinite in area, infinite everywhere, and infinite perpetually. [http://www-groups.dcs.st-and.ac.uk/~history/HistTopics/Jaina_mathematics.html] [http://www.infinityfoundation.com/mandala/t_es/t_es_agraw_jaina.htm] The concept of different orders of infinity would remain unknown in [[Europe]] until the late [[19th century]].
In Europe, the traditional view derives from [[Aristotle]]:
:"... it is always possible to think of a larger number: for the number of times a [[magnitude]] can be [[bisection|bisected]] is infinite. Hence the infinite is potential, never actual; the number of parts that can be taken always surpasses any assigned number." [Physics 207b8]
This is often called potential infinity; however there are two ideas mixed up with this. One is that it is always possible to find a number of things that surpasses any given number, even if there are not actually such things. The other is that we may quantify over infinite sets without restriction. For example, ∀n∈'''Z'''(∃m∈'''Z'''[m>n∧P(m)]), which reads, "for any [[integer]] n, there exists an integer m > n such that P(m)". The second view is found in a clearer form by medieval writers such as [[William of Ockham]]:
:"Sed omne continuum est actualiter existens. Igitur quaelibet pars sua est vere existens in rerum natura. Sed partes continui sunt infinitae quia non tot quin plures, igitur partes infinitae sunt actualiter existentes." (But every [[continuum (mathematics)|continuum]] is actually existent. Therefore any of its parts is really existent in nature. But the parts of the continuum are infinite because there are not so many that there are not more, and therefore the infinite parts are actually existent.)
The parts are actually there, in some sense. However, on this view, no infinite magnitude can have a number, for whatever number we can imagine, there is always a larger one: "There are not so many (in number) that there are no more". [[Thomas Aquinas|Aquinas]] also argued against the idea that infinity could be in any sense complete, or a totality.
=== Views from the Renaissance to modern times ===
[[Galileo Galilei|Galileo]] (during his long house arrest in [[Siena]] after his condemnation by the [[Inquisition]]) was the first to notice that we can place an infinite set into [[one-to-one correspondence]] with one of its [[proper subset]]s (any part of the set, that is not the whole). For example, we can match up the "set" of even numbers {2, 4, 6, 8 ...} with the natural numbers {1, 2, 3, 4 ...} as follows:
:1, 2, 3, 4, ...
:2, 4, 6, 8, ...
It appeared, by this reasoning, as though a set which is naturally smaller than the set of which it is a part (since it does not contain all the members of that set) is in some sense the same size. He thought this was one of the difficulties which arise when we try, "with our finite minds", to comprehend the infinite.
:"So far as I see we can only infer that the totality of all numbers is infinite, that the number of squares is infinite, and that the number of their roots is infinite; neither is the number of squares less than the totality of all numbers, nor the latter greater than the former; and finally the attributes "equal", "greater", and "less", are not applicable to infinite, but only to finite, quantities." [''On two New Sciences'', 1638]
The idea that size can be measured by one-to-one correspondence is today known as [[Hume's principle]], although Hume, like Galileo, believed the principle could not be applied to infinite sets.
[[John Locke|Locke]], in common with most of the [[empiricist]] philosophers, also believed that we can have no proper idea of the infinite. They believed all our ideas were derived from [[sense data]] or "impressions", and since all sensory impressions are inherently finite, so too are our thoughts and ideas. Our idea of infinity is merely negative or privative.
:"Whatever ''positive'' ideas we have in our minds of any space, duration, or number, let them be never so great, they are still finite; but when we suppose an inexhaustible remainder, from which we remove all bounds, and wherein we allow the mind an endless progression of thought, without ever completing the idea, there we have our idea of infinity ... yet when we would frame in our minds the idea of an infinite space or duration, that idea is very obscure and confused, because it is made up of two parts very different, if not inconsistent. For let a man frame in his mind an idea of any space or number, as great as he will, it is plain the mind rests and terminates in that idea; which is contrary to the idea of infinity, which consists in a supposed endless progression." (Essay, II. xvii. 7., author's emphasis)
Famously, the ultra-empiricist [[Thomas Hobbes|Hobbes]] tried to defend the idea of a potential infinity in the light of the discovery, by [[Evangelista Torricelli]], of a figure ([[Gabriel's horn]]) whose [[surface area]] is infinite, but whose [[volume]] is finite. Not reported, this motivation of Hobbes came too late as [[curve]]s having infinite length yet bounding finite areas were known much before. Such seeming paradoxes are resolved by taking any finite figure and stretching its content infinitely in one direction; the magnitude of its content is unchanged as its divisions drop off geometrically but the magnitude of its bounds increases to infinity by necessity. Potentiality lies in the definitions of this operation, as [[well-defined]] and interconsistent mathematical axioms. A potential infinity is allowed by letting an infinitely-large quantity be cancelled out by an infinitely-small quantity.
=== Modern philosophical views ===
Modern discussion of the infinite is now regarded as part of set theory and mathematics, and generally avoided by philosophers. An exception was [[Ludwig Wittgenstein|Wittgenstein]], who made an impassioned attack upon [[axiomatic set theory]], and upon the idea of the actual infinite, during his "middle period".{{rf|2|antinomies}}
:"Does the relation m = 2n correlate the class of all numbers with one of its subclasses? No. It correlates any arbitrary number with another, and in that way we arrive at infinitely many pairs of classes, of which one is correlated with the other, but which are never related as class and subclass. Neither is this infinite process itself in some sense or other such a pair of classes ... In the superstition that m = 2n correlates a class with its subclass, we merely have yet another case of ambiguous grammar." (''Philosophical Remarks'' § 141, cf ''Philosophical Grammar'' p. 465)
Unlike the traditional empiricists, he thought that the infinite was in some way given to sense experience.
:"... I can see in space the possibility of any finite experience ... we recognise [the] essential infinity of space in its smallest part." "[Time] is infinite in the same sense as the three-[[dimension]]al space of sight and movement is infinite, even if in fact I can only see as far as the walls of my room."
:"... what is infinite about endlessness is only the endlessness itself."
=== Infinity symbol ===
The precise origins of the infinity symbol ∞ are unclear. One possibility is suggested by the name it is sometimes called — the [[lemniscate]], from the Latin ''lemniscus'', meaning "ribbon". One can imagine walking forever along a simple loop formed from a ribbon.
A popular explanation is that the infinity symbol is derived from the shape of a [[Möbius strip]]. Again, one can imagine walking along its surface forever. However, this explanation is improbable, since the symbol had been in use to represent infinity for over two hundred years before [[August Ferdinand Möbius]] and [[Johann Benedict Listing]] discovered the Möbius strip in [[1858]].
[[John Wallis]] is usually credited with introducing ∞ as a symbol for infinity in [[1655]] in
his ''De sectionibus conicus''. One conjecture about why he chose this symbol is that he derived it from a [[Roman numeral]] for 1000 that was in turn derived from the [[Etruscan numerals|Etruscan numeral]] for 1000, which looked somewhat like <font face="Arial Unicode MS, Lucida Sans Unicode">CIƆ</font> and was sometimes used to mean "many". Another conjecture is that he derived it from the Greek letter ω ([[omega]]), the last letter in the [[Greek alphabet]].
The infinity symbol is represented in [[Unicode]] by the character ∞ (&#8734;).
== Mathematical infinity ==
Infinity is the state of being greater than any finite (real) number however large.
=== Infinity in real analysis ===
In [[real analysis]], the symbol <math>\infty</math>, called "infinity", denotes an unbounded [[limit]]. <math>x \rightarrow \infty</math> means that ''x'' grows beyond any assigned value, and <math>x \rightarrow -\infty</math> means x is eventually less than any assigned value. Points labeled <math>\infty</math> and <math>-\infty</math> can be added to the real numbers as a [[topological space]], producing the '''two-point [[compactification (mathematics)|compactification]]''' of the real numbers. Adding algebraic properties to this gives us the [[extended real number]]s. We can also treat <math>\infty</math> and <math>-\infty</math> as the same, leading to the '''one-point compactification''' of the real numbers, which is the [[real projective line]]. [[Projective geometry]] also introduces a [[line at infinity]] in [[plane geometry]], and so forth for higher dimensions.
Infinity is often used not only to define a limit but as if it were a value in the extended real numbers in [[real analysis]]; if ''f''(''t'') ≥ 0 then
*<math>\int_{0}^{1} \, f(t) dt \ = \infty</math> means that ''f''(''t'') does not bound a finite area from 0 to 1
*<math>\int_{0}^{\infty} \, f(t) dt \ = \infty</math> means that the area under ''f''(''t'') is infinite
*<math>\int_{0}^{\infty} \, f(t) dt \ = 1</math> means that the area under ''f''(''t'') equals 1
=== Infinity in complex analysis ===
As in real analysis, in [[complex analysis]] the symbol <math>\infty</math>, called "infinity", denotes an unbounded [[limit]]. <math>x \rightarrow \infty</math> means that the magnitude
<math>|x|</math> of x grows beyond any assigned value. A point labeled <math>\infty</math> can be added to the complex plane as a [[topological space]] giving the one-point compactification of the complex plane. When this is done, the resulting space is still a one-dimensional complex manifold and called the extended complex plane or the [[Riemann sphere]].
In this context is often useful to consider [[meromorphic function]]s as maps into the Riemann sphere taking the value of <math>\infty</math> at the poles. The domain of a complex-valued function may be extended to include the point at infinity as well. One important example of such functions is the group of [[Möbius transformation]]s.
===Infinities as part of the extended real number line===
Infinity is '''not''' a real number but may be considered part of the [[extended real number line]], in which arithmetic operations involving infinity may be performed. In this system, infinity has the following arithmetic properties:
==== Infinity with itself ====
# <math>\infty + \infty = \infty \cdot \infty = (-\infty) \cdot (-\infty) = \infty</math>
# <math>(-\infty) + (-\infty) = \infty \cdot (-\infty) = (-\infty) \cdot \infty = -\infty</math>
==== Operations involving infinity and real numbers ====
# <math>-\infty < x < \infty</math>
# <math> x + \infty = \infty</math> and <math> x + (-\infty) = -\infty</math>
# <math> x - \infty = -\infty</math>
# <math> x - (-\infty) = \infty</math>
# <math>{x \over \infty} = 0</math> and <math>{x \over -\infty} = 0</math>
# If <math>0<x<\infty</math> then <math>x \cdot \infty = \infty</math> and <math>x \cdot (-\infty) = (-\infty)</math>.
# If <math>-\infty<x<0</math> then <math>x \cdot \infty = -\infty</math> and <math>x \cdot (-\infty) = \infty</math>.
==== Undefined operations ====
# <math>0 \cdot \infty</math> and <math>0 \cdot (-\infty)</math>
# <math>\infty + (-\infty)</math> and <math>(-\infty) + \infty</math>
# <math>{\pm\infty \over \pm\infty}</math>
# <math>{\pm\infty}^0</math>
# <math>1^{\pm\infty}</math>
Notice that <math>[{x \over \infty} = 0] \not\equiv [0 \cdot \infty = x]</math>. This is because zero times infinity is undefined.
=== Infinities in nonstandard analysis===
The original formulation of the calculus by Newton and Leibniz used infinitesimal quantities. In the twentieth century, it was shown that this treatment could be put on a rigorous footing through various logical systems, including [[smooth infinitesimal analysis]] and [[nonstandard analysis]]. In the latter, infinitesimals are invertible, and their inverses are infinite numbers. There is not just one size of infinity. For example if H is an infinite number, then H + H = 2H is a different infinite number.
=== Infinity in set theory ===
A different type of "infinity" are the [[ordinal]] and [[cardinal number|cardinal]] infinities of set theory. [[Georg Cantor]] developed a system of [[transfinite number]]s, in which the first transfinite cardinal is [[aleph number|aleph-null]] (<math>\aleph_0</math>), the [[cardinality]] of the set of [[natural number]]s. This modern mathematical conception of the quantitative infinite developed in the late nineteenth century from work by Cantor, [[Gottlob Frege]], [[Richard Dedekind]] and others, using the idea of collections, or [[set|sets]]. Dedekind's approach was essentially to adopt the idea of [[one-to-one correspondence]] as a standard for comparing the size of sets, and to reject the view of Galileo (which derived from [[Euclid]]) that the whole cannot be the same size as the part. An infinite set can simply be defined as one having the same size as at least one of its "[[proper subset|proper]]" parts; this notion of infinity is called [[Dedekind infinite]].
Cantor defined two kinds of infinite numbers, the [[ordinal number]]s and the [[aleph number|cardinal numbers]]. Ordinal numbers may be identified with [[well-ordered]] sets, or counting carried on to any stopping point, including points after an infinite number have already been counted. Generalizing finite and the ordinary infinite [[sequence]]s which are maps from the positive [[integers]] leads to [[Map (mathematics)|mappings]] from ordinal numbers, and transfinite sequences. Cardinal numbers define the size of sets, meaning how many members they contain, and can be standardized by choosing the first ordinal number of a certain size to represent the cardinal number of that size. The smallest ordinal infinity is that of the positive integers, and any set which has the cardinality of the integers is '''countably infinite'''. If a set is too large to be put in one to one correspondence with the positive integers, it is called '''uncountable'''. Cantor's views prevailed and modern mathematics accepts actual infinity. Certain extended [[number]] systems, such as the [[hyperreal number]]s, incorporate the ordinary (finite) numbers and infinite numbers of different sizes.
Our intuition gained from finite sets breaks down when dealing with infinite sets. One example of this is [[Hilbert's paradox of the Grand Hotel]].
=== Mathematics without infinity ===
[[Leopold Kronecker]] rejected the notion of infinity and began a school of thought, in the [[philosophy of mathematics]] called [[finitism]], which led to the philosophical and mathematical school of [[mathematical constructivism]].
== Use of infinity in common speech ==
In common parlance, infinity is often used in a [[hyperbole|hyperbolic]] sense. For example, "The movie was infinitely boring, but we had to wait forever to get tickets."
In [[Computer and video games|video games]], '''infinite lives''' and '''infinite ammo''' refer to a never-ending supply of lives and [[ammunition]]. An [[infinite loop]] in [[computer programming]] is a conditional loop construction whose condition always evaluates to true. In theory, as long as there is no external interaction, the loop will continue to run for all time. In practice however, some programming loops considered as infinite will halt by exceeding the (finite) number range of one of its variables. See [[halting problem]]. These terms describe things that are only potential infinities; it is impossible to play a video game for an infinite period of time or keep a computer running for an infinite period of time.
The number [[Infinity plus 1]] is also used sometimes in common speech.
== Physical infinity ==
In [[physics]], approximations of [[real number]]s are used for [[continuum|continuous]] measurements and [[natural number]]s are used for [[discrete]] measurements (i.e. counting). It is therefore assumed by physicists that no [[observable|measurable quantity]] could have an infinite value, for instance by taking an infinite value in an [[extended real number line|extended real number]] system (see also: [[hyperreal number]]), or by requiring the counting of an infinite number of events. It is for example presumed impossible for any body to have infinite mass or infinite energy. There exists the concept of infinite entities (such as an infinite [[plane wave]]) but there are no means to generate such things. Likewise, [[perpetual motion]] machines theoretically generate infinite energy by attaining 100% efficiency or greater, and emulate every conceivable [[open system]]; the impossible problem follows of knowing that the output is actually infinite when the source or mechanism exceeds any known and understood [[system]].
This point of view does not mean that infinity cannot be used in physics. For convenience sake, calculations, equations, theories and approximations often use [[infinite series]], unbounded [[function (mathematics)|function]]s, etc., and may involve infinite quantities. Physicists however require that the end result be physically meaningful. In [[quantum field theory]] infinities arise which need to be interpreted in such a way as to lead to a physically meaningful result, a process called [[renormalization]].
===Infinity in cosmology ===
An intriguing question is whether actual infinity exists in our physical [[universe]]: Are there infinitely many stars? Does the universe have infinite volume? Does space "go on forever"? This is an important open question of [[cosmology]]. Note that the question of being infinite is logically separate from the question of having boundaries. The two-dimensional surface of the Earth, for example, is finite, yet has no edge. By walking/sailing/driving straight long enough, you'll return to the exact spot you started from. The universe, at least in principle, might have a similar [[topology]]; if you fly your space ship straight ahead long enough, perhaps you would eventually revisit your starting point.
If the universe is indeed ever expanding as science suggests then you could never get back to your starting point even on an infinite time scale.
== Three types of infinities ==
Besides the mathematical infinity and the physical infinity, there could also be a philosophical infinity. There are scientists who hold that all three really exist and there are scientists who hold that none of the three exist. And in between there are the various possibilities. [[Rudy Rucker]], in his book ''Infinity and the Mind -- the science and philosophy of the mind'' (1982), has worked out a model list of representatives of each of the eight possible standpoints. The footnote on p.335 of his book suggests the consideration of the following names: [[Abraham Robinson]], [[Plato]], [[Thomas Aquinas]], [[L.E.J. Brouwer]], [[David Hilbert]], [[Bertrand Russell]], [[Kurt Gödel]] and [[Georg Cantor]].
== Infinity in science fiction ==
[[The Hitchhiker's Guide to the Galaxy]] contains the following definition of infinity:
:"Bigger than the biggest thing ever and then some, much bigger than that, in fact really amazingly immense, a totally stunning size, real 'Wow, that's big!' time. Infinity is just so big that by comparison, bigness itself looks really titchy. Gigantic multiplied by colossal multiplied by staggeringly huge is the sort of concept we are trying to get across here."
Another quote from [[The Hitchhiker's Guide to the Galaxy]] states: "Infinity itself looks flat and uninteresting. Looking up into the night sky is looking into infinity -- distance is incomprehensible and therefore meaningless."
[[Rudy Rucker]]'s novel ''White Light'' describes a mathematician who leaves his body and travels to a kind of afterworld that includes a mountain whose Absolute Infinite height matches that of the class of all ordinals. Georg Cantor makes an appearance as a character, and the hero finds a physical correlate for Cantor's Continuum Problem.
== See also ==
* [[Infinitesimal]]
* [[Axiom of infinity]]
== References ==
* {{cite book | author=Aczel, Amir D. | title=The Mystery of the Aleph: Mathematics, the Kabbalah, and the Search for Infinity | publisher=Simon & Schuster Adult Publishing Group | year=2001 | id=ISBN 0743422996}}
* {{cite book | author=Wallace, David Foster | title=Everything and More: A Compact History of Infinity | publisher=Norton, W. W. & Company, Inc. | year=2004 | id=ISBN 0393326292}}
== External links ==
* ''[http://www.earlham.edu/~peters/writing/infapp.htm A Crash Course in the Mathematics of Infinite Sets]'', by Peter Suber. From the St. John's Review, XLIV, 2 (1998) 1-59. The stand-alone appendix to <em>Infinite Reflections</em>, below. A concise introduction to Cantor's mathematics of infinite sets.
* ''[http://www.earlham.edu/~peters/writing/infinity.htm Infinite Reflections]'', by Peter Suber. How Cantor's mathematics of the infinite solves a handful of ancient philosophical problems of the infinite. From the St. John's Review, XLIV, 2 (1998) 1-59.
* [http://pespmc1.vub.ac.be/INFINITY.html ''Infinity'', Principia Cybernetica]
* [http://www.c3.lanl.gov/mega-math/workbk/infinity/infinity.html Hotel Infinity]
* [http://samvak.tripod.com/infinite.html The concepts of finiteness and infinity in philosophy]
* [http://uk.geocities.com/frege@btinternet.com/cantor/Phil-Infinity.htm Source page on medieval and modern writing on Infinity]
== Notes ==
{{ent2|1|large_cardinals}} Large cardinals are quantitative infinities defining the number of things in a [[collection]], which are so large that they cannot be proven to exist in the ordinary mathematics of [[ZFC|Zermelo-Fraenkel plus Choice]] (ZFC).
{{ent2|2|antinomies}} See also {{Web reference | title= Logic of antinomies | url=http://www.emis.de/cgi-bin/zmen/ZMATH/en/quick.html?first=1&maxdocs=3&type=html&an=0724.03003&format=complete | date=November 14 | year=2005 }}
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International Statistical Classification of Diseases and Related Health Problems
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/* Look up codes */
The '''International Statistical Classification of Diseases and Related Health Problems''' (commonly known by the abbreviation '''ICD''') is a detailed description of known [[disease]]s and injuries. It is published by the [[World Health Organization]] and is used world-wide for [[morbidity]] and [[mortality]] statistics.
It is revised periodically and is currently in its tenth edition, known as the '''ICD-10'''.
Every disease (or group of related diseases) is described with its diagnosis and given a unique code, up to five letters long.
=International Classification of Diseases=
The International Classification of Diseases and Related Health Problems (commonly known by the abbreviation ICD) are designed to promote international comparability in the collection, processing, classification, and presentation of [[morbidity]] and [[mortality]] statistics. [http://www.who.int/classifications/icd/en/ ICD-9]. Commonly disputed by healthcare providers as billing code and not representative of true clinical outcomes, the ICD-9 transforms verbal descriptions of diseases, injuries, and procedures into numbers. The current ICD-9-CM has been revised to incorporate changes in the medical field. To date, there have been 10 versions of the ICD, with the ICD-10 developed in 1992 to track mortality statistics. The years for which causes of death in the United States have been classified by each revision as follows:
* ICD-1 - 1900
* ICD-2 - 1910
* ICD-3 - 1921
* ICD-4 - 1930
* ICD-5 - 1939
* ICD-6 - 1949
* ICD-7 - 1958
* ICD-8A - 1968
* ICD-9 - 1979
* ICD-10 - 1992
==History==
The International Classification of Diseases (ICD) was designed to promote international comparability in the collection, processing, classification, and presentation of morbidity and mortality statistics.
In 1893, a French physician, [[Jacques Bertillon]], introduced the [[Bertillon Classification]] of Causes of Death at the International Statistical Institute in Chicago. A number of countries adopted Dr. Bertillon’s system, and in 1898, the [[American Public Health Association]] (APHA) recommended that the registrars of Canada, Mexico, and the United States also adopt it. The APHA also recommended revising the system every ten years to ensure the system remained current with medical practice advances. As a result, the first international conference to revise the International Classification of Causes of Death convened in 1900; with revisions occurring every ten years thereafter. At that time the classification system was contained in one book, which included an Alphabetic Index as well as a Tabular List. The book was small compared with current coding texts.
The revisions that followed contained minor changes, until the sixth revision of the classification system. With the sixth revision, the classification system expanded to two volumes. The sixth revision included morbidity and mortality conditions, and its title was modified to reflect the changes: ''Manual of International Statistical Classification of Diseases, Injuries and Causes of Death (ICD)''. Prior to the sixth revision, responsibility for ICD revisions fell to the Mixed Commission, a group composed of representatives from the International Statistical Institute and the Health Organization of the League of Nations. In 1948, the [[World Health Organization]] (WHO) assumed responsibility for preparing and publishing the revisions to the ICD every ten years. WHO sponsored the seventh and eighth revisions in 1957 and 1968, respectively.
In 1959, the [[U.S. Public Health Service]] published The International Classification of Diseases, Adapted for Indexing of Hospital Records and Operation Classification (ICDA). It was completed in 1962 and a revision of this adaptation – considered to be the seventh revision of ICD – expanded a number of areas to more completely meet the indexing needs of hospitals. The U.S. Public Health Service later published the Eighth Revision, International Classification of Diseases, Adapted for Use in the United States. Commonly referred to as ICDA-8, this classification system fulfilled its purpose to code diagnostic and operative procedural data for official morbidity and mortality statistics in the United States.
WHO published the ninth revision of ICD (ICD-9) in 1978. The U.S. Public Health Service modified ICD-9 to meet the needs of American hospitals and called it International Classification of Diseases, Ninth Revision, Clinical Modification (ICD-9-CM) [http://www.cms.hhs.gov/paymentsystems/icd9/ ]. The ninth revision expanded the book to three volumes and introduced a fifth-digit sub-classification.
==Current Use==
ICD has become the most widely used statistical classification system in the world. Although some countries found ICD sufficient for hospital indexing purposes, many others felt that it did not provide adequate detail for diagnostic indexing. The original revisions of ICD also did not provide for classification of operative or diagnostic procedures. As a result, interested persons in the United States began to develop their own adaptation of ICD for use in the United States.
Hospitals and other healthcare facilities index healthcare data by referring and adhering to a classification system published by the U.S. Department of Health and Human Services: International Classification of Diseases, 9th Revision, Clinical Modification (ICD-9-CM). The Clinical Modification or CM system was developed and implemented in order to better describe the clinical picture of the patient. The CM codes are more precise than those needed only for statistical groupings and trend analysis. The diagnosis component of ICD-9-CM is completely consistent with ICD-9 codes.
Of note, [[ICD-10]] was adopted in 1999 for reporting mortality, but the ICD-9-CM remains the data standard for reporting morbidity. Revisions of the ICD-10 have progress to incorporate both clinical code (ICD-10-CM) and procedure code (ICD-10-PCS) with the revisions completed in 2003. However, ICD-9 has not been phased out by the new revision.
===Public Data Reporting===
Setting the data standard for healthcare providers for the world is a task undertaken in the last fifty years by the World Health Organization (WHO). As individuals become more involved in their personal healthcare, the data standard shared by most will be the International Classification of Diseases or ICD. These codes also have an active role in reporting of data from the Joint Commission on Accreditation of Healthcare Organizations [http://www.jcaho.org JCAHO] but also the current public data on hospitals released by the Centers for Medicare and Medicaid Services[http://www.cms.hhs.gov/quality/hospital/ CMS] in the United States
==ICD-9==
The ICD-9 was published by the WHO in 1977. At this time, the [[National Center for Health Statistics]] created an extension of it so the system could be used for [[morbidity]] as well as mortality ([http://www.instacode.com/news-icd10-demystified.htm]). This extension was called "ICD-9-CM", with the CM standing for "Clinical Modification".
There are three volumes of the ICD-9-CM:
* [[List of ICD-9 codes|Volumes 1 and 2]] contain [[diagnosis codes]]. (Volume 1 is a tabular listing, and volume 2 is an index.)
* [[ICD-9-CM Volume 3|Volume 3]] contains [[procedure codes]].
==ICD-10==
Work on ICD-10 began in [[1983]] and was completed in [[1992]]. (Also see the [http://www3.who.int/icd/vol1htm2003/fr-icd.htm ICD-10 online].)
''Links to diseases can be accessed from: [[List of ICD-10 codes]].''
Adoption was relatively swift in most of the world, but not in the United States. Since 1988, the USA had required ICD-9-CM codes for [[Medicare]] and [[Medicaid]] claims, and most of the rest of the American medical industry followed suit.
On January 1, 1999, the ICD-10 (without clinical extensions) was adopted for reporting [[mortality]], but ICD-9-CM was still used for [[morbidity]]. Meanwhile, NCHS received permission from the WHO to create a clinical modification of the ICD-10, and has produced drafts of the following two systems:
* ICD-10-CM, for [[diagnosis codes]], is intended to replace volumes 1 and 2. A draft was completed in 2003.
* [[ICD-10-PCS]], for [[procedure codes]], is intended to replace volume 3. A final draft was completed in 2000.
However, neither of these systems is currently in place. There is not yet an anticipated implementation date to phase out the use of ICD-9-CM. There will be a two year implementation window once the final notice to implement has been published in the [[Federal Register]]. [http://www.cdc.gov/nchs/about/otheract/icd9/abticd10.htm]. A detailed timeline is provided [http://www.ncvhs.hhs.gov/031105a2.htm here].
Other countries have created their own extensions to ICD-10. For example, [[Australia]] introduced their first edition of [http://www3.fhs.usyd.edu.au/ncchwww/site/4.1.1.htm# "ICD-10-AM"] in 1998, and [[Canada]] introduced [http://secure.cihi.ca/cihiweb/dispPage.jsp?cw_page=codingclass_icd10_e "ICD-10-CA"] in 2000.
==See also==
* [[Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders]]
* [[diagnosis]]
* [[diagnosis-related group]]
* [[Medical classification]]
==External links==
===ICD9===
====Overview====
* [http://www.cdc.gov/nchs/icd9.htm ICD-9-CM homepage]
====Look up codes====
* [http://www.icd9coding.com/ Free 24/7 ICD-9-CM coding site using the Flash Code program], also supports [[Diagnosis-related group|DRG]]
* [http://neuro3.stanford.edu/CodeWorrier/FMPro?-db=CodeWorrier&-lay=Detail&-format=search.htm&-view Stanford database]
* [http://icd9cm.chrisendres.com/index.php Searchable Chrisendres database]
* [http://www.dmi.columbia.edu/hripcsak/icd9/ Columbia]
* [http://www.centralx.com/diseases/icdindex.htm CentralX]
* [http://www.aafp.org/x20096.xml ICD-9 Coding Tools From Family Practice Management]
===ICD10===
====Overview====
* [http://www.who.int/whosis/icd10/ ICD-10 homepage]
* [http://www.cdc.gov/nchs/about/otheract/icd9/icd10cm.htm ICD-10-CM draft]
* [http://www.cdc.gov/nchs/about/otheract/icd9/abticd10.htm ICD-10-CM]
====Look up codes====
* [http://www3.who.int/icd/vol1htm2003/fr-icd.htm?ge00.htm+ Lookup site] from [[World Health Organization]]
* [http://www.schs.state.nc.us/SCHS/data/icd10/checkdisease.cfm Lookup site -- North Carolina]
* [http://www.avon.nhs.uk/phnet/Methods/sure_start.htm List of codes]
* [http://www.medicalize.com/wrapper/ ICD-10 Code Search]
===Conversion between ICD-9-CM-A and ICD-10-AM===
* [http://www.nzhis.govt.nz/documentation/mapping/mappingfiles.html Excel spreadsheets with ICD-10-AM to ICD-9-CM-A and vice versa]
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[[th:การจำแนกประเภทของโรคตามสถิติและปัญหาสาธารณสุขสัมพันธ์ระหว่างประเทศ]]
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Integral domain
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In [[abstract algebra]], an '''integral domain''' is a [[commutative ring]] with an additive identity 0 and a multiplicative identity 1 such that 0 ≠ 1, in which the product of any two non-zero elements is always non-zero; that is, there are no [[zero divisor]]s. Integral domains are generalizations of the [[integer]]s and provide a natural setting for studying divisibility. An integral domain is a commutative [[domain (ring theory)|domain]].
Alternatively and equivalently, integral domains may be defined as commutative rings in which the zero [[ideal (ring theory)|ideal]] {0} is [[prime ideal|prime]], or as the [[subring]]s of [[field (mathematics)|fields]]. Additionally, a commutative ring ''R'' is an integral domain if and only if for every element ''r'' of the ring, the ''R''-module map induced by multiplication by ''r'' is [[injective]].
Viewing the underlying commutative ring as a [[preadditive category]], the above criterion on zero divisors is equivalent to the condition that every nonzero [[morphism]] is a [[monomorphism]] (hence also an [[epimorphism]], by making use of the bilinear structure on the set of morphisms).
The condition 0 ≠ 1 only serves to exclude the [[trivial ring]] {0} with a single element.
== Examples ==
The prototypical example is the ring '''Z''' of all integers.
Every [[field (mathematics) | field]] is an integral domain. Conversely, every [[artinian ring|Artinian]] integral domain is a field. In particular,
the only finite integral domains are the [[finite field]]s.
Rings of [[polynomial]]s are integral domains if the coefficients come from an integral domain. For instance, the ring '''Z'''[X] of all polynomials in one variable with integer coefficients is an integral domain; so is the ring '''R'''[X,Y] of all polynomials in two variables with [[real number|real]] coefficients.
The set of all [[real number]]s of the form ''a'' + ''b''√2 with ''a'' and ''b'' [[integer]]s is a subring of '''R''' and hence an integral domain. A similar example is given by the [[complex number]]s of the form ''a'' + ''bi'' with ''a'' and ''b'' integers (the ''[[Gaussian integer]]s'').
The [[p-adic number|p-adic integers]].
If ''U'' is a [[connectedness|connected]] [[open subset]] of the [[complex number|complex number plane]] '''C''', then the ring H(''U'') consisting of all [[holomorphic function|holomorphic functions]] ''f'' : ''U'' <tt>-></tt> '''C''' is an integral domain. The same is true for rings of analytical functions on connected open subsets of analytical [[manifold|manifolds]].
If ''R'' is a commutative ring and ''P'' is an [[ideal (ring theory)|ideal]] in ''R'', then the [[factor ring]] ''R/P'' is an integral domain if and only if ''P'' is a [[prime ideal]].
== Divisibility, prime and irreducible elements ==
If ''a'' and ''b'' are elements of the integral domain ''R'', we say that ''a divides b'' or ''a is a [[divisor]] of b'' or ''b is a multiple of a'' if and only if there exists an element ''x'' in ''R'' such that ''ax'' = ''b''.
If ''a'' divides ''b'' and ''b'' divides ''c'', then ''a'' divides ''c''. If ''a'' divides ''b'', then ''a'' divides every multiple of ''b''. If ''a'' divides two elements, then ''a'' also divides their sum and difference.
The elements which divide 1 are called the ''units'' of ''R''; these are precisely the invertible elements in ''R''. Units divide all other elements.
If ''a'' divides ''b'' and ''b'' divides ''a'', then we say ''a'' and ''b'' are ''associated elements''. ''a'' and ''b'' are associated if and only if there exists a unit ''u'' such that ''au'' = ''b''.
If ''q'' is a non-unit, we say that ''q'' is an ''irreducible element'' if ''q'' cannot be written as a product of two non-units.
If ''p'' is a non-zero non-unit, we say that ''p'' is a ''prime element'' if, whenever ''p'' divides a product ''ab'', then ''p'' divides ''a'' or ''b''.
This generalizes the ordinary definition of [[prime number]] in the ring '''Z''', except that it allows for negative prime elements. If ''p'' is a prime element, then the principal ideal (''p'') generated by ''p'' is a [[prime ideal]].
Every prime element is irreducible (here, for the first time, we need ''R'' to be an integral domain), but the converse is not true in all integral domains (it is true in [[unique factorization domain]]s, however).
== Field of fractions ==
If ''R'' is a given integral domain, the smallest field Quot(''R'') containing ''R'' as a subring is uniquely determined up to isomorphism and is called the ''[[field of fractions]]'' or ''quotient field'' of ''R''. It consists of all fractions ''a/b'' with ''a'' and ''b'' in ''R'' and ''b'' ≠ 0, modulo an appropriate equivalence relation. The field of fractions of the integers is the field of [[rational number]]s. The field of fractions of a field is [[isomorphism|isomorphic]] to the field itself.
== Algebraic geometry ==
In [[algebraic geometry]], integral domains correspond to [[irreducible (mathematics)|irreducible]] [[algebraic variety|varieties]]. They have a unique [[generic point]], given by the zero ideal. Integral domains are also characterized by the condition that they are [[reduced (ring theory)|reduced]] and irreducible. The former condition ensures that the nilradical of the ring is zero, so that the intersection of all the ring's minimal primes is zero. The latter condition is that the ring have only one minimal prime. It follows that the unique minimal ideal of a reduced and irreducible ring is the zero ideal, hence such rings are integral domains. The converse is clear: No integral domain can have nilpotent elements, and the zero ideal is the unique minimal ideal.
== Characteristic and homomorphisms ==
The [[characteristic (algebra)|characteristic]] of every integral domain is either zero or a [[prime number]].
If ''R'' is an integral domain with prime characteristic ''p'', then ''f''(''x'') = ''x''<sup> ''p''</sup> defines an [[injective]] [[ring homomorphism]] ''f'' : ''R'' → ''R'', the [[Frobenius automorphism]].
== See also ==
*[[Domain (ring theory)]]
* [[wikibooks:Abstract algebra:Integral domains|Integral domains]] - wikibook link
[[Category:Commutative algebra]]
[[Category:Ring theory]]
[[cs:Obor integrity]]
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[[es:Dominio de integridad]]
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[[it:Chiusura integrale]]
[[he:תחום שלמות]]
[[pl:Dziedzina całkowitości]]
[[ru:Область целостности]]
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logic and grammar; if an object is physically SHAPED into the form of a funnel is "funnel-SHAPED"; however, if an object's state-of-being exhibits the SHAPE of a funnel, then it is "funnel-SHAPE"
An '''infundibulum''' (Latin for ''funnel''; plural, ''infundibula'') is a [[funnel]]-shape cavity or [[organ (anatomy)|organ]].
==[[Lungs]]==
The [[alveoli|alveolar]] sacs of the [[lung|lungs]] from which the air chambers (alveoli) open are called '''infundibula'''.
==[[Heart]]==
The outflow portion of the [[right ventricle]] is also known as the '''infundibulum'''.
==[[Ovaries]]==
The end of the [[mammal|mammalian]] [[oviduct]] nearest to the [[ovary]] also bears the name '''infundibulum'''.
==[[Brain]]==
A small outgrowth of the ventral wall of the [[embryo|embryonic]] [[brain]] from which the [[pars nervosa]] (the posterior lobe of the [[pituitary gland]]) develops is also called the '''infundibulum'''.
{{Prosencephalon}}
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Interrupt latency
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{{seealso|Latency (engineering)}}
'''Interrupt latency''' is the time between the generation of an [[interrupt]] by a device and the servicing of the device which generated the interrupt. For many operating systems, devices are serviced as soon as the device's [[interrupt handler]] is executed. Interrupt latency may be effected by [[interrupt controller]]s, [[interrupt mask]]ing, and the [[operating system]]'s (OS) interrupt handling methods.
==Background==
There is usually a tradeoff between interrupt latency, [[throughput]], and processor utilization. Many of the techniques of [[microprocessor|CPU]] and [[operating system|OS]] design that improve interrupt latency will decrease throughput and increase processor utilization. Techniques that increase throughput may increase interrupt latency and increase processor utilization. Lastly, trying to reduce processor utilization may increase interrupt latency and decrease throughput.
Minimum interrupt latency is largely determined by the [[interrupt controller]] circuit and its configuration. They can also effect the [[jitter]] in the interrupt latency, which can drastically affect the [[Real-time computing|real-time]] [[scheduling|schedulability]] of the system. The [[Intel APIC Architecture]] is well known for producing a huge amount of interrupt latency jitter.
Maximum interrupt latency is largely determined by the methods an OS uses for interrupt handling. For example, most processors allow programs to disable interrupts, putting off the execution of interrupt handlers, in order to protect [[critical section]]s of code. During the execution of such a critical section, all interrupt handlers that cannot execute safely within a critical section are blocked (they save the minimum amount of information required to restart the interrupt handler after all critical sections have exited). So the interrupt latency for a blocked interrupt is extended to the end of the critical section, plus any interrupts with equal and higher priority that arrived while the block was in place.
Many computer systems require low interrupt latencies, especially [[embedded system]]s that need to [[Control system|control]] machinery in real-time. Sometimes these systems use a [[real-time operating system]] (RTOS). An RTOS makes the promise that no more than an agreed upon maximum amount of time will pass between executions of [[subroutine]]s. In order to do this, the RTOS must also guarantee that interrupt latency will never exceed a predefined maximum.
==Considerations==
There are many methods that hardware use to increase the interrupt latency that can be tolerated. These include buffers, and [[flow control]]. For example, most network cards implement transmit and receive [[ring buffer]]s, interrupt rate limiting, and hardware flow control. Buffers allow data to be stored until it can be transferred, and flow control ...
Modern hardware also implement interrupt rate limiting. This helps prevent [[interrupt storm]]s or ''live lock'' by having the hardware wait a programmable minimum amount of time between each interrupt it generates. Interrupt rate limiting reduces the amount of time spent servicing interrupts, allowing the processor to spend more time doing useful work. Execeding this time results in a soft (recoverable) or hard (non-recoverable) error.
== See also ==
* [[Advanced Programmable Interrupt Controller]]
* [[Programmable Interrupt Controller]]
* [[IEEE 802.3]] (802.3x PAUSE frames for flow control)
* [[Ethernet flow control]]
* [[Inter-Processor Interrupt]]
* [[Interrupt]]
* [[Interrupt Handler]]
* [[Non-Maskable Interrupt]]
[[Category:Interrupts|Latency]]
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disambiguation from [[Bursa]] to [[Bursa, Turkey]] - ([[WP:DPL|You can help!]])
'''İskender kebap''' is one of the most famous [[meat]] foods of northwestern [[Turkey]] and takes its name from its inventor, İskender Efendi, who lived in [[Bursa, Turkey|Bursa]] in the late [[19th century]].
It is a kind of ''[[döner kebap]]'' prepared from thinly cut grilled [[lamb]] basted with [[tomato sauce]] over pieces of [[pita]] bread and generously slathered with [[Butter|melted butter]] and [[yogurt]]. It is commonly consumed with [[şıra]] as a drink to aid digestion.
Unlike other traditional dishes of [[Turkish cuisine]], Iskender Kebap is a [[trademark]] of Iskender family, who still run the restaurant in Bursa. Still, this dish is available in many restaurants throughout the country sometimes under the name ''Bursa Kebab''.
==External links==
*[http://www.kebapciiskender.com/ Original İskender Restaurant] (in Turkish)
[[Category:Turkish cuisine]]
{{cuisine-stub}}
[[tr:İskender kebap]]
Homosexuality and Islam
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{{RAH}}
:''For age-structured homosexuality, see [[Pederasty in the Islamic lands]]''
There is no concept analogous to "[[homosexuality]]" in [[Islam]], in the sense of an innate identity. Instead, same-sex sexual expression manifests in a number of separate forms, which are not treated alike, either socially or juridically.
Rather, Islam concerns itself with sexual behaviors, rather than desires or orientations. In particular Islam condemns [[anal intercourse]] - whether with males or females - as a major sin, while viewing all other same-sex behaviors between males as minor sins or even praiseworthy.
The traditional tolerance, literary and religious, for chaste [[pederasty|pederastic]] love affairs which had been prevalent since the 800's began to be eroded in the mid-1800's by the adoption of [[European]] [[Victorian]] attitudes by the new [[Westernized]] elite. (El-Rouayheb, 2005, p.156)
==Constructions and examples==
[[Image:Mahmud and Ayaz and Shah Abbas I.jpg|thumb|200px|right|'''[[Mahmud of Ghazna|Mahmud]] and [[Malik Ayaz|Ayaz]]'''<br>The love of the Sultan for his slave has entered Islamic legend as a paragon of ideal love.]]
The most common type of same-sex behavior is ''liwat,'' most commonly used for intercourse between a man and a boy, though it can refer to that between two men or between a man and a woman, being equally prohibited in all cases. The man is known as a ''luti'', which does not imply so much his nature as his role of penetrator. His partner, if paid, is ''murd mu'ajirin,'' if unpaid, ''amrad'' (beardless), or ''ghulam'' (youth, pl. ''ghilman)''.
A separate category exists for men who are "afflicted" with the desire to be penetrated by male partners. They are known as ''ma'bun'' and considered to be victims of a disease, ''ubnah,'' one with an etiology and a number of presumed remedies. Their status is thus very different from that of their male penetrative partners.
Another further category consists of men who are vulnerable to the attractions of handsome boys. All men are thought to fall into this category, and their desires are seen as natural, if problematic in that they render one succeptible of becoming a ''luti.'' (El-Rouayheb, 2005, pp. 14-24)
For example, the [[Hanbalite]] jurist Ibn al-Jawzi (d. [[1200]]) is reputed to have said that "He who claims that he experiences no desire when looking at beautiful boys or youths is a liar, and if we could believe him he would be an animal, and not a human being." (Monroe, 1997, p. 117)
Nevertheless, the act of ''liwat'' ("sodomy," meaning anal intercourse) is proscribed, and men are advised to be even more wary of attraction to beautiful boys than to beautiful women, through religious injunctions exhorting them to resist this temptation. It is related that the Prophet [[Muhammad]] enjoined his followers to "Beware of beardless youth for they are a greater source of mischief than young maidens."
Likewise, the great [[imam]] and legal scholar [[Sufyan At-Thawri]] (d. [[783]] CE) is said to have fled the baths one day, asserting, regarding sexual temptation, that "If every woman has one devil accompanying her, then a handsome lad has seventeen." At the same time, a [[hadith]] by Muhammed posits that chaste love grants one passage into paradise: "He who loves and remains chaste and conceals his secret and dies, dies a martyr." As a result, love for youths in Islam, far from being the path to perdition the Christians made of it, was an understandable passion which, if kept in check, raised one up to the heavens. Male love became a punishable offense (in life) only if one consummated it - and was caught at it, which required witnesses of four men or eight women. If one was not caught at it, however, one would still be punished in the fires of hell. (Murray and Roscoe, 1997, ''passim)''
Historically the punishment has been less severe compared to its Abrahamic counterparts: Judaism and Christianity. The [[Qur'an]] states that if a person commits the sin they can repent and save their life, though there are hadiths that later prescribe the death penalty. Early Islamic cultures, especially ones where homosexuality was entrenched into their Pagan culture were renowned for their cultivation of a homosexual aesthetic. They reconciled their new religion using a [[hadith]] ascribed to [[Muhammad]] declaring male lovers who die chaste to be martyrs, “He who loves and remains chaste and conceals his secret and dies, dies a martyr”.
The result is a religion that allows love between those of the same sex as long as they do not have sexual intercourse. [[Ibn Hazm]], Ibn Daud, [[Al-Mu'tamid]], [[Abu Nuwas]], and many others wrote extensively and openly of love between men. However, in order for the transgression to be proven, at least four men or eight women must bear witness against the accused, thus making it very difficult to persecute those who did not remain celibate in the privacy of their homes.
The intended meaning of "same-sex intercourse" is sexual intercourse between two or more males, or sexual intercourse between two or more females. It does not mean the act of masturbation, nor does it have anything to do with nocturnal emissions, both of which are considered to invalidate [[wudu]] and require the Muslim to take a full bath or shower before his or her next prayer, but are not otherwise punishable under [[Sharia]].
== Homosexuality in the Sharia ==
[[Image:Turkish - Dancing Kocek - Late 19th c - wiki.jpg|thumb|200px|right|Dancing Köçek, a common object of masculine affections in the Ottoman empire. Photograph, late 19th c. Private collection.]]
{{SectNPOV}}
While there is a consensus that same-sex intercourse is in violation of [[Sharia|Islamic law]], there are differences of opinion within Islamic scholarship about punishment, reformation, and what standards of proof are required before physical punishment becomes lawful.
In Sunni Islam there are eight [[madhhab]]s, or legal schools, of which only four still exist: [[Hanafi]], [[Shafi'i]], [[Hanbali]], and [[Maliki]]. The main [[Shia]] school is called [[Ja'fari]], but there are [[Zaidi]] and [[Ismai'ili]] also. More recently, some groups have rejected this tradition in favor of greater [[ijtihad]], or individual interpretation. Of these schools, according to Michael Mumisa of the Birmingham-based Al Mahdi institute:
*The [[Hanafi]] school does not consider same-sex intercourse to constitute adultery, and therefore leaves punishment up to the judge's discretion. Most early scholars of this school specifically ruled out the death penalty; others allow it for a second offence.
*Imam [[Shafi'i]] considers same-sex intercourse as analogous to other [[zina]]. Thus, a married person found to have committed same-sex intercourse is punished as an adulterer (stoned to death), and an unmarried person is punished as a fornicator (flogged).
*The [[Maliki]] school says that anyone (married or unmarried) found to have committed same-sex intercourse should be punished as an adulterer.
*Within the [[Ja'fari]] schools, Sayyid al-Khoi says that anyone (married or unmarried) found to have committed same-sex intercourse should be punished as an adulterer.
It should also be noted that the punishment for adultery requires four witnesses. By analogy, all schools require four witnesses to the act of same-sex intercourse for the punishment to be applied. But if objective proof can be provided (such as through DNA testing, photography, etc.), then punishment can be applied without four witnesses to the act.
According to the modern Islamic scholar [[Yusuf al-Qaradawi]]:
: "The jurists of Islam have held different opinions concerning the punishment for this abominable practice. Should it be the same as the punishment for ''zina'', or should both the active and passive participants be put to death? While such punishments may seem cruel, they have been suggested to maintain the purity of the Islamic society and to keep it clean of perverted elements." - ''The Lawful and the Prohibited in Islam'', p. 165.
== Homosexuality in modern Islamic countries' laws ==
Same-sex intercourse officially carries the death penalty in seven Islamic nations: [[Saudi Arabia]], [[Iran]], [[Mauritania]], [[Sudan]], [[Somalia]], [[Somaliland]], and [[Yemen]].[http://www.ilga.info/Information/Legal_survey/Summary%20information/death_penalty_for_homosexual_act.htm] It formerly carried the death penalty in [[Afghanistan]] under the [[Taliban]], and in [[Iraq]] under a
[[2001]] decree by [[Saddam Hussein]]. The legal situation in the [[United Arab Emirates]] is unclear. In many Muslim nations, such as [[Bahrain]], [[Qatar]], [[Algeria]], and the [[Maldives]], homosexuality is punished with jail time, fines, or corporal punishment. In some Muslim-majority nations, such as [[Turkey]], [[Jordan]], [[Egypt]], or [[Mali]], same-sex intercourse is not specifically forbidden by law. However, in Egypt gays have been prosecuted under general public morality laws.(See [[Cairo 52]].)
In [[Saudi Arabia]], the maximum punishment for homosexuality is public execution, but the government will use other punishments -- e.g., fines, jail time, and whipping -- as alternatives, unless it feels that homosexuals are challenging state authority by engaging in a [[gay rights]] movement. [http://www.sodomylaws.org/world/saudi_arabia/saudinews19.htm] Iran is perhaps the nation to execute the largest number of its citizens for homosexuality. Since its Islamic revolution in [[Iran]], the Iranian government has executed more than 4000 people charged with homosexual acts. In [[Afghanistan]] after the fall of the [[Taliban]] homosexuality went from a capital crime to one that it punished with fines and prison sentence, and a similar situation seems to have occurred in Iraq (see [[gay rights in Iraq]].)
Most international human rights organizations, such as [[Human Rights Watch]] and [[Amnesty International]], condemn laws that make homosexual relations between consenting adults a crime. Since [[1994]] the [[United Nations]] Human Rights Committee has also ruled that such laws violated the right to privacy guaranteed in the Universal Declaration of Human Rights and the International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights. However, most Muslim nations (except for [[Turkey]], which has been ruled by secular law since 1923 and recently has modernized its laws in order to meet the requirements of entry to the [[European Union]]) insist that such laws are necessary to preserve Islamic morality and virtue. Of the nations with a majority of Muslim inhabitants, only [[Lebanon]] has an internal effort to legalize homosexuality. However, some Muslims have expressed criticism of the legal sanctions used against homosexuality.
Reasons given by Muslims condemning the executions include the fact that some legal schools (e.g., [[Hanafi]]) regard it as unjustified, the argument that the death penalty is not specified for it in the [[Qur'an]], the idea that the punishment is unduly harsh, and opposition to the idea that the state's laws should be based on religion. The introduction of the [[AIDS]] [[pandemic]] in the Muslim world has also promoted more discussion about the legal status of homosexuality, as the legal sanctions against homosexuality have made it difficult to initiate any educational programs directed at high risk groups.
While executions and other criminal sanctions curtail any public [[gay rights]] movement, it is impractical to give criminal sanctions to all homosexuals living in a Muslim country, and it is common knowledge (e.g. to visiting foreigners) that some young men will experiment with homosexual relations as an outlet to sexual desires that cannot be met in a society where the sexes are often kept segregated. (See [[sex segregation]].) These discreet and casual homosexual relations allow men to engage in premarital sex with a low risk of facing the social or legal sanctions that would occur if they involved in [[adultery]] or [[fornication]] with a woman, which might result in a pregnancy. Most of these men do not consider themselves to be [[gay]] or [[bisexuality|bisexual]].
A related problem to full enforcement of the laws against homosexuality is that because the sexes are often segregated, men are encouraged to developed close friendships with other men, and women are encouraged to develop close friendships with other women. Also, Islamic law requires a certain number of male and female witnesses to the homosexual act to testify in court. Islam does place a strong value on the right to privacy in the home and thus homosexual relations that occur in private are theoretically outside the bounds of the law, although that is more theory then reality.
== Homosexuality in the Qur'an ==
:''See [[Islamic views of homosexuality#Homosexuality in the Qur'an|''Homosexuality in the Qur'an'']]''
The Qur'an specifically mentions that same-sex intercourse is forbidden.
The [[Abdullah Yusuf Ali]] translation of the [[Qur'an]] states, in [[Al-A'raf]]:
:"We also sent [[Lut]]: He said to his people: Do ye commit lewdness such as no people in creation (ever) committed before you? For ye practice your lusts on men in preference to women: ye are indeed a people transgressing beyond bounds. And his people gave no answer but this: they said, "Drive them out of your city: these are indeed men who want to be clean and pure!"" (Qur'an 7:80-82)
[[Ash-Shu'ara]] (starting at 165):
:"Of all the creatures in the world, will ye approach males, And leave those whom Allah has created for you to be your mates? Nay, ye are a people transgressing (all limits)! They said: "If thou desist not, O Lut! thou wilt assuredly be cast out!" He said: "I do detest your doings:" "O my Lord! deliver me and my family from such things as they do!" So We delivered him and his family,- all Except an old woman who lingered behind. But the rest We destroyed utterly. We rained down on them a shower (of brimstone): and evil was the shower on those who were admonished (but heeded not)! Verily in this is a Sign: but most of them do not believe. And verily thy Lord is He, the Exalted in Might, Most Merciful." (Qur'an 26:165-175)
[[An-Naml]] (starting at 55):
:"Would ye really approach men in your lusts rather than women? Nay, ye are a people (grossly) ignorant! But his people gave no other answer but this: They said, "Drive out the followers of Lut from your city: these are indeed men who want to be clean and pure!" But We saved him and his family, except his wife; her We destined to be of those who lagged behind. And We rained down on them a shower (of brimstone): and evil was the shower on those who were admonished (but heeded not)!" (Qur'an 27:55-58)
[[Al-Ankabut]] (starting at 28):
:"And (remember) Lut: behold, he said to his people: "Ye do commit lewdness, such as no people in Creation (ever) committed before you. Do ye indeed approach men, and cut off the highway? - and practise wickedness (even) in your councils?" But his people gave no answer but this: they said: "Bring us the Wrath of Allah if thou tellest the truth." (Qur'an 29:28-29)
[[An-Nisa]], starting at 15-15:
:"If any of your women are guilty of lewdness, Take the evidence of four (Reliable) witnesses from amongst you against them; and if they testify, confine them to houses until death do claim them, or Allah ordain for them some (other) way. If two men among you are guilty of lewdness, punish them both. If they repent and amend, Leave them alone; for Allah is Oft-returning, Most Merciful." (Qur'an 4:15-16)
See also [[Khalil el-Moumni]]
== Liberal Islamic stances on homosexuality ==
Some self-described liberal Muslims, such as the members of the [[Al-Fatiha Foundation]], accept and consider homosexuality as natural, either regarding these verses as obsolete in the context of modern society, or pointing out that the Qu'ran speaks out against homosexual lust, and is silent on homosexual love. However, this position remains highly controversial even amongst [[liberal movements within Islam]], and is considered completely beyond the pale by mainstream Islam[http://www.al-fatiha.org/pamphlet.html].
==See also==
* [[Faisal Alam]]
* [[Irshad Manji]], Canadian lesbian and human rights activist
* [[Ghilman]]
* [[Historical pederastic couples]]
* [[Mahmoud Asgari and Ayaz Marhoni]]
* [[Malik Ayaz]]
* [[Mallam Abdullahi Ibrahim]]
* [[Nazar ill'al-murd]]
* [[Pederasty in the Islamic lands]]
* [[Usman Sani]]
* [[Yusuf Kabir]]
* [[Waheed Alli, Baron Alli]], British politician
* [[Festival of Muslim Cultures]]
==References==
*Khaled El-Rouayheb, ''Before Homosexuality in the Arab-Islamic World, 1500-1800'' Chicago, 2005
*James T. Monroe, ''Homoeroticism in Classical Arabic Literature'' New York, 1997
== External links ==
*[http://examinethetruth.com/manjism/homosexuality.htm Are homosexuals condemned eternally in Islam?]
[[Category:LGBT issues and religion|Islam]]
[[Category:Islamic law|Homosexuality, Islamic views of]]
[[Category:Religious ethics]]
[[Category:Pederasty]]
[[fr:Islam et homosexualité]]
Isoroku Yamamoto/sleeping giant quote
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/* See also */ added Margaret Garner; alphabetized
In [[sociology]] and [[biology]], '''infanticide''' is the practice of intentionally causing the [[death]] of an [[infant]] of a given species, by members of the same species. In many past societies, certain forms of infanticide were considered proper, whereas in most modern societies the practice is considered [[immoral]] and [[criminal]]. Nonetheless, it still takes place, in the [[Western world]] usually because of the mother's [[mental illness]], and in some poor countries because of tacit societal acceptance.
In the [[UK]], the [[Infanticide Act]] defines ''infanticide'' as a specific crime that can only be committed by the mother during the first twelve months of her infant's life. This article deals with the broader notion of infanticide explained above.
==Infanticide in history==
Infanticide was common in all well-studied ancient cultures, including those of ancient [[Greece]], [[Rome]], [[India]], [[China]], and [[Japan]]. The practice of infanticide has taken many forms. [[Child sacrifice]] to supernatural figures or forces, such as that allegedly practiced in ancient [[Carthage]], is one form; however, many societies only practiced simple infanticide and regarded child sacrifice as morally repugnant. The practice has become less common in the western world, but continues today in areas of extremely high [[poverty]] and [[overpopulation]], such as parts of China and India [http://www.gendercide.org/case_infanticide.html]. Female infants, then and now, are particularly vulnerable -- ''see'' [[female infanticide]].
One frequent method of infanticide in antiquity was simply to [[child abandonment|abandon the infant]], leaving it to death by exposure. Another method commonly used with female children was to severely malnourish them, resulting in a vastly increased risk of death by accident or disease. In some cultures, this is thought to have been an open and accepted practice, while in others it may have been practiced privately, with the passive acceptance of society.
Classic [[ancient Rome|Roman]] civilization can serve as an example of both aspects. In some periods of Roman history it was traditional practice for a newborn to be brought to the ''[[pater familias]]'', the family patriarch, who would then decide whether the child was to be kept and raised, or left to death by exposure. The [[Twelve Tables]] of [[Roman law]] obliged the ''pater familias'' to put to death a child that was visibly deformed. Although infanticide became a capital offense in Roman law in [[374|AD 374]], offenders were rarely if ever prosecuted. A practice described in Roman texts was to smear the breast with [[opium]] residue so that a nursing baby would die with no outward cause.
==Explanations for the practice==
Many historians believe the reason to be primarily economic, with more children born into families than the family is prepared to support. However, this does not explain why infanticide would occur equally among rich and poor, nor why it would be as frequent during decadent periods of the [[Roman Empire]] as during earlier, less affluent, periods.
A letter from a Roman citizen to his wife, dating from [[1 BC]], describes the casual nature with which infanticide was often viewed:
:"Know that I am still in [[Alexandria]]. <nowiki>[...]</nowiki> I ask and beg you to take good care of our baby son, and as soon as I received payment I shall send it up to you. If you are delivered <nowiki>[before I come home]</nowiki>, if it is a boy, keep it, if a girl, discard it." – Naphtali Lewis, Life in Egypt Under Roman Rule.
Some anthropologists have suggested other causes for infanticide in non-State and non-industrialized societies. Janet Siskind has argued that female infanticide may be a form of [[population control]] in Amazonian societies. Population control is achieved not only by limiting the number of potential mothers; increased fighting among men for access to relatively scarce wives would also lead to a decline in population. Although additional research by [[Marvin Harris]] and [[William Divale]] supports this argument, it has been criticized as an example of environmental determinism. In the [[Solomon Islands]], some people reportedly kill their first-born child as a matter of custom -- and then adopt a child from another island, a practice that suggests that the causes of infanticide are more complex.
Other anthropologists have suggested a variety of largely culture-specific reasons for infanticide. In cultures where different value is placed on male and female children, [[sex-selective infanticide]] may be practiced simply to increase the proportion of children of the preferred sex, usually male. In cultures where childbearing is strongly tied to social structures, infants born outside of those structures (illegitimate children, children of incest, children of cross-caste relationships, and so forth) may be killed by family members to conceal or atone for the violation of [[taboo]].
In times of famine or cases of extreme poverty, parents may have to choose which of their children will live and which will starve.
A minority of academics subscribe to an alternate school of thought blaming the practice, both modern and historical, on psychological inability to raise children (see [[early infanticidal childrearing]]).
Contemporary data suggests that modern infanticide is usually brought about by a combination of [[postpartum depression]] and a psychological unreadiness to raise children. It could also be exacerbated by [[schizophrenia]]. It is also attributed, in some cases, to the desire of unwed, underage parents to conceal their sexual relations and/or avoid the responsibility of childrearing.
In addition to debates over the morality of infanticide itself, there is some debate over the effects of infanticide on surviving children, and the effects of childrearing in societies that also sanction infanticide. Some argue that the practice of infanticide in any widespread form causes enormous psychological damage in children. Some anthropologists studying societies that practice infanticide, however, have reported how loving the parents were to their children. (Harris and Divale's work on the relationship between female infanticide and warfare suggests that there are, however, extensive negative effects).
In the absence of [[sex-selective abortion]], sex-selective infanticide can be deduced from very skewed birth statistics. The biologically normal birth ratio for [[homo sapiens]] is approximately 105 males per 100 females, and the life expectancy of females is slightly greater than males on average. When a society has an infant male to female ratio which is [[statistical significance|significantly]] higher than the biological norm, sex selection can usually be inferred. (However, new research has led to [http://slate.msn.com/id/2119402/ alternate explanations to this theory].)
There have been some accusations that infanticide occurs in [[China]] due to the [[one-child policy]] although most demographers do not believe that the practice is widespread. Others assert that China has twenty-five million fewer girl children than expected.
==Infant euthanasia==
[[Joseph Fletcher]], founder of [[situational ethics]] and a [[euthanasia]] proponent, proposed that infanticide be permitted in cases of severe birth defects. He and philosopher [[Peter Singer]] have suggested that it is a logical extension of [[abortion]].
In the [[Netherlands]], euthanasia remains technically illegal for patients under the age of 12. However, Dr. [[Eduard Verhagen]] has documented several cases of infant euthanasia. Together with colleagues and prosecutors, he has developed a protocol to be followed in those cases. Prosecutors will refrain from pressing charges if this ''Groningen protocol'' is followed.
==Infanticide in other species==
Other species, besides [[homo sapiens]], commit infanticide. One, perhaps surprising, example is the [[bottlenose dolphin]], which has been reported to kill its young through impact injuries [http://www.sciencenews.org/pages/sn_arc98/7_18_98/fob1.htm]. Another example is hamsters eating their young.
== See also ==
*[[Melissa Drexler]]
*[[Margaret Garner]]
*[[Amy Grossberg]]
*[[Brian Peterson]]
*[[abortion]]
*[[baby-farming]]
*[[bruce effect]]
*[[child murder]]
*[[eugenics]]
*[[filicide]]
==External links==
* [http://www.cf.ac.uk/hisar/teach/ancthist/projects/children/ An overview of ancient attitudes in the Roman Empire towards the death of children and infanticide]
* [http://www.findarticles.com/p/articles/mi_m0PCG/is_1_21/ai_n6155263 Journal of Population Research: Shortage of girls in China today]
[[Category:Infanticide]]
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Internet protocol suite
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/* Layers in the Internet Protocol stack */ This article is about the IP suite, so discussion about that should come first then relate to OSI
{{IPstack}}
The '''internet protocol suite''' is the set of [[communications protocol]]s that implement the [[protocol stack]] on which the [[Internet]] and most commercial networks run. It is sometimes called the '''TCP/IP''' [[protocol suite]], after the two most important protocols in it: the [[Transmission Control Protocol]] (TCP) and the [[Internet Protocol]] (IP), which were also the first two defined.
The internet protocol suite — like many protocol suites — can be viewed as a set of layers, each layer solves a set of problems involving the transmission of data, and provides a well-defined service to the [[upper layer protocol]]s based on using services from some lower layers. Upper layers are logically closer to the user and deal with more abstract data, relying on [[lower layer protocol]]s to translate data into forms that can eventually be physically transmitted.
The [[OSI model]] describes a fixed set of seven layers that some vendors prefer and that can be roughly compared to the IP suite.
This comparison can cause confusion or give further insight into the IP suite.
==Layers in the internet protocol suite stack==
[[Image:UDP encapsulation.png|thumb|511px|Sample encapsulation of data within a [[User Datagram Protocol|UDP]] datagram within an [[Internet Protocol|IP]] packet]]
The IP suite uses [[encapsulation (networking)|encapsulation]] to provide abstraction of protocols and services to different layers in the stack.
The stack consists of four layers:
{| cellpadding="5" cellspacing="1"
|-
|4||style="border:1px solid black;"|'''Application'''<br />''(OSI layers<br />5 through 7)''
|e.g. [[HTTP]], [[File transfer protocol|FTP]], [[DNS]]<br /> ''(routing protocols like [[Border Gateway Protocol|BGP]] and [[Routing information protocol|RIP]], which for a variety of reasons run over TCP and UDP respectively, may also be considered part of the Internetwork layer)''
|-
|3||style="border:1px solid black;"|'''Transport'''<br />''(OSI layers<br />4 and 5)''
|e.g. [[Transmission Control Protocol|TCP]], [[User Datagram Protocol|UDP]], [[Real-time Transport Protocol|RTP]], [[Stream Control Transmission Protocol|SCTP]]<br /> ''(routing protocols like [[Open shortest path first|OSPF]], which run over IP, may also be considered part of the Internetwork layer)''
|-
|2||style="border:1px solid black;"|'''Internetwork'''<br />''(OSI<br />layer 3)''
| For TCP/IP this is the [[Internet Protocol]] (IP)<br />''(required protocols like [[Internet control message protocol|ICMP]] and [[Internet group management protocol|IGMP]] run over IP, but may still be considered part of the Internetwork layer; [[Address resolution protocol|ARP]] does not run over IP)''
|- style="border:1px solid black;"
|1||style="border:1px solid black;"|'''Link'''<br />''(OSI layers<br />1 and 2)''
|e.g. [[Ethernet]], [[Wi-Fi]], [[Multiprotocol Label Switching|MPLS]], etc.
|}
The layers near the top are logically closer to the user while those near the bottom are logically closer to the physical transmission of the data.
Each layer has an [[upper layer protocol]] and a [[lower layer protocol]] (except the top/bottom protocols, of course) that either use said layer's service or provide a service, respectively.
Viewing layers as providing or consuming a service is a method of [[abstraction (computer science)|abstraction]] to isolate upper layer protocols from the nitty gritty detail of transmitting bits over, say, [[ethernet]] and [[Carrier sense multiple access with collision detection|collision detection]] while the lower layers avoid having to know the details of each and every application and its protocol.
This abstraction also allows upper layers to provide services that the lower layers cannot, or choose not, to provide.
For example, IP is designed to not be reliable and is a [[best effort delivery]] protocol.
This means that all [[transport layer]] must address whether or not to provide reliability and to what degree.
UDP provides data integrity (via a [[checksum]]) but does not guarantee delivery; TCP provides both data integrity and delivery guarantee (by retransmitted until the receiver receives the packet).
===OSI model comparison===
There is some discussion about how to map the TCP/IP model onto the OSI model. Since the TCP/IP and OSI protocol suites do not match precisely, there is no one correct answer.
In addition, the OSI model is not really rich enough at the lower layers to capture the true layering; there needs to be an extra layer (the Internetworking layer) between the Transport and Network layers. Protocols specific to a particular network type, but which are run on top of the basic hardware framing, ought to be at the Network layer. Examples of such protocols are [[Address resolution protocol|ARP]] and the [[Spanning Tree Protocol]] (used to keep redundant [[Network bridge|bridge]]s idle until they are needed). However, they are local protocols and operate beneath the internetwork functionality. Admittedly, placing both groups (not to mention protocols which are logically part of the internetwork layer, but run on top of the internetwork protocol, such as [[ICMP]]) all at the same layer can be confusing, but the OSI model is not complex enough to do a better job.
The following diagram attempts to show where various TCP/IP and other protocols would reside in the original OSI model:
{| cellpadding="5" cellspacing="1"
|-
|7||style="border:1px solid black;"|'''Application'''
|e.g. [[HTTP]], [[Simple Mail Transfer Protocol|SMTP]], [[Simple Network Management Protocol|SNMP]], [[File transfer protocol|FTP]], [[Telnet]], [[Session Initiation Protocol|SIP]], [[Secure Shell|SSH]], [[Network File System|NFS]], [[RTSP]], [[XMPP]], [[Whois]], [[Endpoint Handlespace Redundancy Protocol|ENRP]]
|-
|6||style="border:1px solid black;"|'''Presentation'''
|e.g. [[External Data Representation|XDR]], [[Abstract Syntax Notation 1|ASN.1]], [[Server message block|SMB]], [[Apple Filing Protocol|AFP]], [[NetWare Core Protocol|NCP]]
|-
|5||style="border:1px solid black;"|'''Session'''
|e.g. [[Aggregate Server Access Protocol|ASAP]], [[Transport Layer Security|TLS]], [[SSH]], ISO 8327 / CCITT X.225, [[Remote procedure call|RPC]], [[NetBIOS]], [[AppleTalk|ASP]], [[Winsock]], [[Berkeley sockets|BSD sockets]]
|-
|4||style="border:1px solid black;"|'''Transport'''
|e.g. [[Transmission Control Protocol|TCP]], [[User Datagram Protocol|UDP]], [[Real-time Transport Protocol|RTP]], [[Stream Control Transmission Protocol|SCTP]], [[Sequenced packet exchange|SPX]], [[AppleTalk|ATP]], [[IL Protocol|IL]]
|-
|3||style="border:1px solid black;"|'''Network'''
|e.g. [[Internet Protocol|IP]], [[Internet control message protocol|ICMP]], [[Internet group management protocol|IGMP]], [[IPX]], [[Border Gateway Protocol|BGP]], [[OSPF]], [[Routing information protocol|RIP]], [[IGRP]], [[EIGRP]], [[Address resolution protocol|ARP]], [[RARP]], [[X.25]]
|-
|2||style="border:1px solid black;"|'''Data Link'''
|e.g. [[Ethernet]], [[Token ring]], [[HDLC]], [[Frame relay]], [[Integrated Services Digital Network|ISDN]], [[Asynchronous Transfer Mode|ATM]], [[IEEE 802.11|802.11 WiFi]], [[Fiber distributed data interface|FDDI]], [[Point-to-Point Protocol|PPP]]
|-
|1||style="border:1px solid black;"|'''Physical'''
|e.g. [[wire]], [[radio]], [[fiber optic]], [[IP over Avian Carriers|Carrier pigeon]]
|}
Commonly, the top three layers of the OSI model (Application, Presentation and Session) are considered as a single Application Layer in the TCP/IP suite. Because the TCP/IP suite has a comparatively lightweight session layer, consisting of opening and closing connections under TCP and RTP and providing different port numbers for different applications under TCP and UDP, these functions may be augmented by individual applications (or libraries used by those applications). Similarly, IP is designed around the idea of treating the network below it as a black box so it can be considered as a single layer for the purposes of discussing TCP/IP.
==The layers==
The following is a description of each layer in the IP suite stack.
===The link layer===
The Link layer is not really part of the Internet protocol suite, but is the method used to pass packets from the Internet layer of one device to the Internet layer of another. This process can be controlled both in the [[software]] [[device driver]] for the [[network card]], as well as on [[firmware]] or specialist [[chipsets]]. These will perform [[data link layer|data link]] functions such as adding a [[packet header]] to prepare it for transmission, then actually transmit the frame over a [[physical layer|physical]] [[transmission medium|medium]]. On the other end, the link layer will receive data frames, strip off the packet headers, and hand the received packets to the Internet layer.
However, the link layer is not always so simple. It may also be a [[Virtual private network]] (VPN) or tunnel, where packets from the Internet layer, instead of being sent over a physical interface, are sent using a [[tunneling protocol]] and another (or the same) protocol suite. The VPN or tunnel is usually established ahead of time, and has special characteristics that direct transmission out a physical interface does not (for example, it may encrypt the data going over it). This [[recursion|recursive]] use of the protocol suite can be confusing since the link "layer" is now an entire network. But it is an elegant method for implementing often complex functions. (Though care is needed to prevent a packet that is wrapped and sent through a tunnel being repeatedly re-wrapped and sent down the tunnel again).
===The Internetwork layer===
As originally defined, the [[Network layer]] solves the problem of getting packets across a single network. Examples of such protocols are [[X.25]], and the [[ARPANET]]'s [[Host/IMP Protocol]].
With the advent of the concept of [[Internet|internetworking]], additional functionality was added to this layer, namely getting data from the source [[computer network|network]] to the destination network. This generally involves routing the packet across a network of networks, known as an [[internet]].
In the internet protocol suite, [[Internet Protocol|IP]] performs the basic task of getting packets of data from source to destination. IP can carry data for a number of different higher level protocols; these protocols are each identified by a unique ''IP Protocol Number''. ICMP and IGMP are protocols 1 and 2, respectively.
Some of the protocols carried by IP, such as [[Internet Control Message Protocol|ICMP]] (used to transmit diagnostic information about IP transmission) and [[Internet Group Management Protocol|IGMP]] (used to manage [[multicast]] data) are layered on top of IP but perform internetwork layer functions, illustrating an incompatibility between the internet and OSI models. All routing protocols, such as [[Border Gateway Protocol|BGP]], [[OSPF]], and [[Routing information protocol|RIP]] are also really part of the internetwork layer, although they might seem to belong higher in the stack.
===The transport layer===
The protocols at the [[Transport layer]] can solve problems like reliability ("did the data reach the destination?") and ensure that data arrives in the correct order. In the TCP/IP protocol suite, transport protocols also determine which application any given data is intended for.
The dynamic routing protocols which technically fit at this layer in the TCP/IP Protocol Suite (since they run over IP) are generally considered to be part of the Network layer; an example is [[OSPF]] (IP protocol number 89).
[[Transmission control protocol|TCP]] (IP protocol number 6) is a "reliable", [[connection-oriented]], transport mechanism providing a [[reliable byte stream]], which makes sure data arrives complete, undamaged, and in order. TCP tries to continuously measure how loaded the network is and throttles its sending rate in order to avoid overloading the network. Furthermore, TCP will attempt to deliver all data correctly in the specified sequence. These are its main differences from UDP, and can become disadvantageous in real-time streaming or routing applications with high [[internetwork layer]] loss rates.
The newer [[Stream Control Transmission Protocol|SCTP]] is also a "reliable", [[connection-oriented]], transport mechanism. It is record rather than byte oriented, and provides multiple sub-streams multiplexed over a single connection. It also provides multi-homing support, in which a connection end can be represented by multiple IP addresses (representing multiple physical interfaces), such that if one fails the connection is not interrupted. It was developed initially for telephony applications (to transport [[SS7]] over [[Internet Protocol|IP]]), but can also be used for other applications.
[[User datagram protocol|UDP]] (IP protocol number 17) is a [[connectionless]] datagram protocol. It is a "best effort" or "unreliable" protocol - not because it is particularly unreliable, but because it does not verify that packets have reached their destination, and gives no guarantee that they will arrive in order. If an Application requires these characteristics, it must provide them itself, or use [[Transmission Control Protocol|TCP]].
UDP is typically used for applications such as streaming media (audio and video, etc) where on-time arrival is more important than reliability, or for simple query/response applications like [[DNS]] lookups, where the overhead of setting up a reliable connection is disproportionately large.
[[DCCP]] is currently under development by IETF. It provides TCP's flow control semantics, while keeping UDP's datagram service model visible to the user.
Both TCP and UDP are used to carry a number of higher-level applications. The applications at any given network address are distinguished by their TCP or UDP ''[[port number]]''. By convention certain ''well known ports'' are associated with specific applications.
[[Real-time Transport Protocol|RTP]] is a datagram protocol that is designed for real-time data such as streaming audio and video.
RTP is a session layer that uses the UDP packet format as a basis yet is said to sit within the transport layer of the Internet protocol stack.
===The application layer===
The [[Application layer]] is the layer that most common network-aware programs use in order to communicate across a network with other programs. Processes that occur in this layer are application specific; data is passed from the network-aware program, in the format used internally by this application, and is encoded into a standard protocol.
Some specific programs are considered to run in this layer. They provide services that directly support user applications. These programs and their corresponding protocols include [[HTTP]] (The World Wide Web), [[File Transfer Protocol|FTP]] (File transport), [[Simple Mail Transfer Protocol|SMTP]] (Email), [[Secure shell|SSH]] (Secure remote login), [[DNS]] (Name <-> IP Address lookups) and many others.
Once the data from an application has been encoded into a standard application layer protocol it will be passed down to the next layer of the IP stack.
At the Transport Layer, applications will most commonly make use of TCP or UDP, and server applications are often associated with a [[TCP and UDP port numbers|well-known port number]]. Ports for server applications are officially allocated by the [[Internet Assigned Numbers Authority]] (IANA) but developers of new protocols today often choose the port numbers themselves. As it is rare to have more than a few server applications on the same system, problems with port conflicts are rare. Application software also generally allows users to specify arbitrary port numbers as [[runtime]] [[parameters]].
Client applications connecting out generally use a random port number assigned by the operating system. Applications that listen on a port and then send that port to another copy of the application via a server to set up a peer-peer link (e.g. [[Direct Client-to-Client|dcc]] file transfers on [[Internet Relay Chat|IRC]]). May also use a random port but the applications usually allow specification of a specific port range to allow the ports to be mapped inwards through a router that implements [[network address translation]].
==Development==
The Internet protocol suite came from work done by [[DARPA]] in the early [[1970s]]. After building the pioneering [[ARPANET]], DARPA started work on a number of other data transmission technologies. In 1972, [[Robert E. Kahn]] was hired at the DARPA [[Information Processing Technology Office]], where he worked on both satellite packet networks and ground-based radio packet networks, and recognized the value of being able to communicate across them. In the spring of 1973, [[Vinton Cerf]], the developer of the existing ARPANET Network Control Program (NCP) protocol, joined Kahn to work on open-architecture interconnection models with the goal of designing the next protocol for the ARPANET.
By the summer of [[1973]], Kahn and Cerf had soon worked out a fundamental reformulation, where the differences between network protocols were hidden by using a common [[internetwork protocol]], and instead of the network being responsible for reliability, as in the ARPANET, the hosts became responsible. (Cerf credits [[Hubert Zimmerman]] and [[Louis Pouzin]] (designer of the [[CYCLADES]] network) with important influences on this design.)
With the role of the network reduced to the bare minimum, it became possible to join almost any networks together, no matter what their characteristics were, thereby solving Kahn's initial problem. (One popular saying has it that [[TCP/IP]], the eventual product of Cerf and Kahn's work, will run over "two tin cans and a string", and it has in fact been [[IP over Avian Carriers|implemented using homing pigeons]].) A computer called a ''gateway'' (later changed to ''[[router]]'' to avoid confusion with [[Gateway|other types of ''gateway'']]) is provided with an interface to each network, and forwards [[packet]]s back and forth between them.
The idea was worked out in more detailed form by Cerf's networking research group at Stanford in the [[1973]]–[[1974|74]] period. (The early networking work at [[Xerox PARC]], which produced the [[PARC Universal Packet]] protocol suite, much of which was contemporaneous, was also a significant technical influence; people moved between the two.)
DARPA then contracted with BBN, Stanford, and The University College London to develop operational versions of the protocol on different hardware platforms. Four versions were developed -- TCP v1, TCP v2, a split into TCP v3 and IP v3 in the spring of 1978, and then stability with TCP/IP v4 -- the standard protocol still in use on the Internet today.
In 1975, a two-network TCP/IP communications test was performed between Stanford and University College London (UCL). In November, 1977, a three-network TCP/IP test was conducted between the U.S., U.K., and Norway. Between 1978 and 1983, several other TCP/IP prototypes were developed at multiple research centres. A full switchover to TCP/IP on the ARPANET took place January 1, 1983. [http://www.livinginternet.com/i/ii.htm]
In 1984, the US Department of Defense made TCP/IP the standard for all military computer networking. In 1985, the Internet Architecture Board held a three day workshop on TCP/IP for the computer industry, attended by 250 vendor representatives, helping popularize the protocol and leading to its increasing commercial use.
On [[9 November]] [[2005]] Kahn and Cerf were presented with the [[Presidential Medal of Freedom]] for their contribution to American culture. [http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/technology/4415326.stm]
==How IP Kills and Eats Competitive Networks==
In the long term, IP appears to replace other networks. Here's a brief explanation. IP transmits generic data. The data can serve any purpose, and can easily replace data previously provided by proprietary data networks. Here's the usual sequence:
#A proprietary data network is developed for a specialized purpose. If it works well, users will adopt it.
#IP service is provided as a convenience, often to get e-mail or chat, usually tunneling through the proprietary data service in some fashion. The tunneling method may be quite inefficient at first, because e-mail and chat require only low bandwidth.
#IP infrastructure is emplaced by gradual investment at the edges of the proprietary data network.
#A substitute for the proprietary service is developed using IP, often by a user.
#The IP substitute spreads over the entire internet, making the IP substitute more valuable (because of [[network effect]]s) than the original proprietary network.
#The proprietary network is deprecated. Most users begin maintaining a duplicate facility that uses the IP substitute.
#IP packets have very low overheads, less than 1%, and therefore compete very effectively on cost. An inexpensive transmission medium is developed that can carry IP to most of the users of the proprietary network.
#The proprietary network is removed by most users to cut costs.
#Die-hard users of the proprietary network are therefore forced to adopt.
*
==Implementations==
*[[KA9Q]] PPJ
*[[lwIP]]
Today, most commercial operating systems include and install the TCP/IP stack by default, For most users, there is no need to look for implementations. TCP/IP is included in all commercial Unix and Linux distributions as well as with Mac OS X and Microsoft Windows and Windows Server.
==See also==
* [[OSI Model]]
* [[DoD Model]]
* [[TCP and UDP port numbers]]
==References==
*[http://www.livinginternet.com/i/ii.htm Internet History] -- Pages on Robert Kahn, Vinton Cerf, and TCP/IP (reviewed by Cerf and Kahn).
==External links==
* RFC 1180 A TCP/IP Tutorial - from the Internet Engineering Task Force (January 1991)
* [http://www.itprc.com/tcpipfaq/ TCP/IP FAQ]
* [http://www.columbia.edu/~rh120/other/tcpdigest_paper.txt A Study of the ARPANET TCP/IP Digest]
* [http://www.eventhelix.com/RealtimeMantra/Networking/ TCP/IP Sequence Diagrams]
* [http://www.searchandgo.com/articles/internet/internet-practice-4.php The Internet in Practice]
* [http://cng.ateneo.edu/cng/wyu/classes/cs197/ Ateneo Network Research Group] TCP/IP research at the [[Ateneo de Manila University]]
* [http://www.venu4u.info/network/tcpip.html TCP/IP Directory & Informational Resource.]
==TCP/IP Books==
* [[Joseph G. Davies]] and [[Thomas F. Lee]]. Microsoft Windows Server 2003 TCP/IP Protocols and Services. ISBN 0735612919
* [[Craig Hunt]] TCP/IP Network Administration. O'Reilly (1998) ISBN 1565923227
* [[W. Richard Stevens]]. The Protocols (TCP/IP Illustrated, Volume 1). Addison-Wesley Professional; 1st edition (December 31, 1993). ISBN 0201633469
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Ibn al-Shaykh al-Libi
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Bobblewik
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reduce overlinking
{{cleanup-date|November 2005}}
'''Ibn al-Shaykh al-Libi''' ('''ابن الشیخ اللبّی''') was a [[Libya|Libyan]] paramilitary trainer for [[Al-Qaeda]]. After being captured and interrogated by American forces, the information he gave under interrogation was cited by the [[George W. Bush Administration|Bush Administration]] in the months preceding the [[2003 invasion of Iraq]] as evidence of a connection between [[Saddam Hussein and al-Qaeda]]. That information was frequently repeated by members of the Bush Administration even though then-classified reports from both the [[Central Intelligence Agency]] and the [[Defense Intelligence Agency]] strongly questioned its credibility, suggesting that al-Libi was "intentionally misleading" interrogators.
Al-Libi led the [[Al Khaldan training camp]] in [[Afghanistan]], the facility where [[Zacarias Moussaoui]] and [[Ahmed Ressam]] trained. An associate of [[Abu Zubaydah]], al-Libi was on the [[September 26]], [[2002]] list of [[terrorists]] released by the U.S. government following the [[September 11, 2001 Terrorist Attack]]. The list detailed individuals and organizations whose assets were to be immediately frozen. He was captured by Pakistani officials at the end of 2001 or beginning of 2002 as he attempted to flee [[Afghanistan]] following the collapse of the [[Taliban]] ensuing the [[2001 U.S. Attack on Afghanistan]].
He was then turned over to [[United States|U.S.]] officials and held at a detention center at the [[Kandahar]] airport. In the second week of January 2002, he was flown to the [[USS Bataan|USS ''Bataan'']] in the northern [[Arabian Sea]], the ship which is being used to hold eight other important prisoners, including [[John Walker Lindh]]. His capture was first reported by [[NBC News]] in the evening of [[January 4]], [[2002]].
Al-Libi has been identified as the source of misinformation regarding the connection between Iraq and al Qaeda that the Bush Administration used to justify the [[2003 invasion of Iraq|invasion of Iraq]]. Specifically, he told interrogators that Iraq provided training to al-Qaeda in the area of weapons of mass destruction. In Cincinnati in October 2002, Bush informed the public:
:"Iraq has trained Al Qaeda members in bomb making and poisons and gases."
This claim was repeated several times in the run-up to the war, including in Colin Powell's speech to the U.N Security Council on [[5 February]] [[2003]], which concluded with a long recitation of the information provided al-Libi. Powell's speech came less than a month after a then-classified CIA report concluding that the information provided by al-Libi was unreliable and about a year after a DIA report concluded the same thing.
Libi recanted these claims in January 2004, and his recantation is backed up by evidence from the interrogation of other top al Qaeda officials. The DIA concluded in February 2002 that Libi deliberately misled interrogators. Some speculate that his reason for giving disinformation was in order to draw the U.S. into an attack on Iraq, which al Qaeda believes will lead to a global [[jihad]]. Others suggest that al-Libi gave false information because of the use of excessively harsh interrogation methods. Al-Libi is believed to have been one of the high value detainees who prompted the Bush administration to initiate interrogation methods of questionable morality and legality. These critics suggest it wasn't hard for al-Libi to figure out what his interrogators were sure he knew, and that they wouldn't stop, until he told them what they wanted to hear.
An article published in the [[November 5]], [[2005]] [[New York Times]] quoted two paragraphs of a [[DIA]] report declassified upon request by [[US Senator|Senator]] [[Carl Levin]], that expressed doubts about the results of al-Libi's interrogation in February 2002. The declassified paragraphs are:
:''This is the first report from Ibn al-Shaykh in which he claims Iraq assisted al-Qaida's CBRN efforts. However, he lacks specific details on the Iraqi's [stet] involved, the CBRN materials associated with the assistance, and the location where training occurred. It is possible he does not know any further details; it is more likely this individual is intentionally misleading the debriefers. Ibn al-Shaykh has been undergoing debriefs for several weeks and may describing [stet] scenarios to the debriefers that he knows will retain their interest.
:''Saddam's regime is intensely secular and is wary of Islamic revolutionary movements. Moreover, Baghdad is unlikely to provide assistance to a group it cannot control.''
This report was followed in January 2003 by a CIA report coming to the same conclusion, noting that al-Libi was "not in a position to know if any training had taken place."
----
==External links and references==
* [http://www.nytimes.com/2002/01/06/international/asia/06DETA.html U.S. Captures a Top Trainer for Al Qaeda], The ''[[New York Times]]'', [[January 5]], [[2002]]
* [http://light.afgha.com/article.php?sid=11198 Al Qaeda Trainer in U.S. Hands], reprinted from ''[[Washington Post]]'', [[January 5]], [[2002]]
* [http://www.washingtonpost.com/wp-dyn/articles/A30909-2004Jul31.html Al Qaeda-Iraq Link Recanted: Captured Libyan Reverses Previous Statement to CIA, Officials Say], ''[[Washington Post]]'', [[August 1]], [[2004]]
* [http://levin.senate.gov/newsroom/supporting/2005/DIAletter.102605.pdf Letter from DIA declassifying two paragraphs of DITSUM # 044-02], [[October 26]], [[2005]]
* [http://www.mediainfo.com/eandp/news/article_display.jsp?vnu_content_id=1001434737 Smoking Gun on Manipulation of Iraq Intelligence? 'NY Times' Cites New Document Today], ''[[Editor and Publisher]]'', [[November 5]], [[2005]]
* [http://www.nytimes.com/2005/11/06/politics/06intel.html Report Warned Bush Team About Intelligence Suspicions], ''[[New York Times]]'', [[November 5]], [[2005]]
* [http://msnbc.msn.com/id/9991919/site/newsweek/ Al-Libi's Tall Tales], ''[[Newsweek]]'', [[10 November]] [[2005]].
* Kurt Nimmo. [http://kurtnimmo.com/?p=168 CIA Patsy Spins Fairy Tale Plot to Assassinate Bush], ''Another Day in the Empire'', December 23, 2005.
[[Category:Al-Qaeda members|Libi, Ibn al-Shaykh]]
IDF
15478
41772234
2006-03-01T17:12:43Z
Crzrussian
202279
'''IDF''' or '''idf''' may refer to:
* the [[International Diabetes Federation]]
* the [[Israel Defense Forces]]
* the [[AIDC Ching-kuo]] '''I'''ndigenous '''D'''efence '''F'''ighter of [[Taiwan]].
* [[Intel Developer Forum]]
* [[Icelandic Defense Force]]
* [[Île-de-France (région)]] of [[France]].
* [[Île-de-France (province)]] (historical) of France
* Inverse Document Frequency
* an abbreviation for "identify" or "identifier"
* [[Intermediate distribution frame]] (in telephony)
{{TLAdisambig}}
[[de:IDF]]
[[fr:IDF]]
[[nl:IDF]]
[[ja:IDF]]
Israeli Army
15480
15912953
2004-03-23T02:53:34Z
Kent Wang
34477
fix double redirect after 'Israel Defence Forces' moved to 'Israel Defense Forces'
#REDIRECT [[Israel Defense Forces]]
Israeli Defence Force
15482
15912955
2004-03-23T02:53:36Z
Kent Wang
34477
fix double redirect after 'Israel Defence Forces' moved to 'Israel Defense Forces'
#REDIRECT [[Israel Defense Forces]]
Inter-American Institute for Global Change Research
15486
37349244
2006-01-30T12:06:07Z
150.163.35.22
[[Image:Iai_logo_transparent.jpg]]
The '''Inter-American Institute for Global Change Research''' is an intergovernmental organization supported by 19 countries in the Americas dedicated to pursuing the principles of scientific excellence, sharing of [[natural environment|environment]]al scientific [[research]], international cooperation, and the open exchange of scientific information to increase the understanding of global change phenomena and their socio-economic implications. The IAI pursues the principle of scientific excellence, international cooperation and the full and open exchange of scientific information relevant to [[Global_change|global change]].
'''<u>Our Mission</u>'''
To develop the capacity of understanding the integrated impact of present and future global change on regional and continental environments in the Americas and to promote collaborative research and informed action at all levels.
'''<u>Science Agenda</u>'''
The primary objective of the IAI is to encourage research beyond the scope of national programs by advancing comparative and focused studies based on scientific issues important to the region as a whole. Our mission is defined as to develop the capacity of understanding the integrated impact of past, present and future global change on regional and continental environments in the Americas and to promote collaborative research and informed action at all levels. In its approach the IAI pursues the principles of scientific excellence, international cooperation and the full and open exchange of scientific information relevant to Global Environmental Change (GEC).
The term global change is used to refer to the interactions of biological, chemical and physical processes that regulate changes in the functioning of the Earth system, including the particular ways in which these changes are influenced by human activities.
The agreement establishing the IAI stated that the Science Agenda should be dynamic and should evolve to permanently incorporate new scientific priorities and to address changes in the needs of the region's countries. At present, four broadly defined research foci have been identified by the IAI.
These are:
'''I - Understanding Climate Change and Variability in the Americas'''
The focus of this theme is to observe, document and predict climate change and variability in the Americas and its links to changes in natural systems and societal impacts.
The goals are to understand the role of the ocean-land-atmosphere interactions in climate, to determine the key processes that cause climatic variability, from seasonal to decadal time scales, and to apply the insight gained by these findings to improve weather and climate predictions.
Topics suggested under this theme:
* Tropical Atlantic Variability (TAV), El Niño-Southern Oscillation (ENSO) and other forms of low-frequency climate variability.
* Ocean variability, including sudden climate change, and its influence on climate and weather of the surrounding continents.
* Variability of the American Monsoon systems.
* Ocean/Land/Atmosphere interactions and Hydrology, including atmospheric mesoscale processes.
* Global and regional changes in the water cycle.
* Aerosol impact on climate change and variability.
* Climate change at regional scales: scenarios, impacts, vulnerability and adaptation.
* Climate changes in the past.
* Development of the Americas component for a Global Observing System for climate.
'''II - Comparative Studies of Ecosystem, Biodiversity, Land Use and Cover, and Water Resources in the Americas'''
The IAI encourages comparative and integrated analyses of the effects of Global Environmental Change on natural and anthropogenic systems and processes among tropical, temperate and cold latitude systems. Sponsored work should increase our knowledge of the drivers and dynamics of variability, and the impacts of such variability on food security, biodiversity and the provision of ecological goods and services. Research is expected to include work in terrestrial, coastal and oceanic environments; and work that integrates across the land/sea interface will be encouraged.
Topics suggested under this theme:
* Impacts of global change on biodiversity, including species and genetic biodiversity—both of natural systems and agricultural systems and cultivars.
* Comparative studies of resilience of ecosystems, key species, and important agricultural cultivars to global change.
* Comparative studies of changes in land use and/or coastal/marine/freshwater resource use.
* Prediction and documentation of estuarine changes due to changes in freshwater inflows as well as changes in watershed land use and cover.
* Climate and habitat change impacts on wide-ranging species across the Americas.
'''III - Understanding Global Change Modulations of the Composition of the Atmosphere, Oceans and Fresh Waters'''
The focus of this theme is on observing, documenting and understanding processes that modify the chemical composition of the atmosphere, inland waters and oceans in a manner that affects productivity and human welfare. A multidisciplinary approach to this research area is expected.
Topics suggested under this theme:
* Effects of air pollution and rain water quality on ecosystems.
* Impact of mega-cities on regional climate.
* Regional and global air pollution: Transport and impacts.
* High latitude processes and ozone depletion.
* Comparative studies of regional air and water pollution.
* Biogeochemical processes and ecosystem hydrology.
* Greenhouse gases and their impact on climate change.
* Coastal processes and water pollution.
'''IV - Understanding the Human Dimensions and Policy Implications of Global Change, Climate Variability and Land Use'''
The focus of this theme is to research the dynamic interaction of global change, climate variability, land use and human beings – their health, welfare and activities which depend on the productivity, diversity and functioning of ecosystems. The emphasis of the research is on projects that address the complex interactions between natural and socio-economic systems through interdisciplinary approaches. The objective is to inform public policies that increase sustainability of natural systems and human welfare.
Topics suggested under this theme:
* Health and environmental issues with emphasis on vector-borne diseases.
* Increased vulnerability of human settlements due to global change, climate variability, and land use.
* Rapid urbanization and sustainability of natural and human systems.
* Changes in food production patterns; potential actions for increasing food security.
* Global environmental and economic change and biodiversity; implications for conservation strategies.
* Effects of GEC, climate variability and land use on natural disaster occurrences, mitigation strategies, and policies that limit loss of life and property.
* Impact of GEC and climate variability on fisheries and fishers; strategies for limiting socio-economic impacts.
* Identification of factors that contribute to resilience of natural ecosystems; conservation strategies to promote resilience.
* Effects of GEC, climate variability and land use on water supply, freshwater flows, and security of water for human uses.
* Participatory environmental decision-making.
==External links==
* [http://www.iai.int Inter-American Institute for Global Change Research Website]
* [https://iaibr3.iai.int:1500/twiki/bin/view/DIS IAI-DIS Website]
* [http://www.institutes.iai.int/ Institutes Website]
International Red Cross and Red Crescent Movement
15487
41959557
2006-03-02T22:07:32Z
206.86.145.15
/* Red Shield of David */
[[Image:Croixrouge_logos.jpg|250px|thumb|The [[Red Cross (symbol)|Red Cross]] and the [[Red Crescent (symbol)|Red Crescent]] emblems, the symbols from which the Movement derives its name]]
The '''International Red Cross and Red Crescent Movement''' consists of the International Committee of the Red Cross (ICRC), the International Federation of Red Cross and Red Crescent Societies (Federation), and the 183 national [[List of Red Cross and Red Crescent Societies|Red Cross or Red Crescent societies]] currently recognized by the ICRC and admitted as full members of the Federation. All of these organizations are legally independent from each other, but are united within the movement through common basic principles, objectives, symbols, statutes, and governing organs. The movement is voluntary and [[Non-governmental organization|non-governmental]]. Its stated mission is to protect human life and health, to ensure respect for the [[human]] being, and to prevent and alleviate human suffering, without any discrimination based on [[nationality]], [[race]], [[religion|religious]] beliefs, [[social class|class]] or [[politics|political]] opinions. Recently, it has finally ended its dispute with Israel with the inclusion of a secular [[Red_Crystal_flag|red crystal]].
The ''International Committee of the Red Cross'' has a membership of a maximum of 25 [[Switzerland|Swiss]] citizens and is the only institution explicitly named under [[International Humanitarian Law]] (IHL) as a controlling authority. Like the [[Holy See]] and the [[Knights Hospitaller|Sovereign Military Hospitaller Order]] (Knights Hospitaller), it is a rare example of a non-governmental [[Sovereignty|sovereign]] entity. Its sole [[humanitarian]] mission, based on the principles of impartiality, [[neutrality]], and independence, is the protection of the life and dignity of the victims of international and internal armed conflicts.
The main task of the ''International Federation of Red Cross and Red Crescent Societies'' is to coordinate cooperation between different national Red Cross and Red Crescent societies within the movement. On the international level, the federation leads and organizes, in close cooperation with the national societies, relief assistance missions responding to large-scale emergencies.
''National Red Cross and Red Crescent societies'' exist in nearly every country in the world. Each entity works in its home country according to the principles of international humanitarian law and the [[statute]]s of the International Movement. Depending on their specific circumstances and capacities, national societies can take on additional humanitarian tasks that are not directly defined by international humanitarian law or the [[mandate]]s of the International Movement. See the [[list of Red Cross and Red Crescent Societies]] to find information about a particular national society.
The term ''International Red Cross'' and the respective acronym ''IRC'' is actually a misnomer, as no official organization exists bearing that name. Furthermore, the use of this label can result in confusion regarding the distinction between the ICRC and the Federation, potentially adversely politicizing its efforts.
==History of the Movement==
===The International Committee of the Red Cross===
====Solferino, Henry Dunant and the foundation of the ICRC====
[[Image:Jean_Henri_Dunant.jpg|250px|thumb|[[Henry Dunant]], Author of "[[A Memory of Solferino]]"]]
Up until the middle of the 19<sup>th</sup> century, there were no organized and well-established [[army nursing]] systems for casualties and no safe and protected institutions to accommodate and treat those who were wounded on the battlefield. In June 1859, the Swiss businessman [[Henry Dunant]] traveled to [[Italy]] to meet French emperor [[Napoléon III]] with the intention of discussing difficulties in conducting business in [[Algeria]], at that time occupied by [[France]]. When he arrived in the small town of [[Solferino]] on the evening of [[June 24]], he witnessed the [[Battle of Solferino]], an engagement in the [[Austro-Sardinian War]]. In a single day, about 40,000 soldiers on both sides died or were left wounded on the field. Henry Dunant was shocked by the terrible aftermath of the battle, the suffering of the wounded soldiers, and the near-total lack of medical attendance and basic care. He completely abandoned the original intent of his trip and for several days he devoted himself to helping with the treatment and care for the wounded. He succeeded in organizing an overwhelming level of relief assistance by motivating the local population to aid without discrimination. Back in his home in [[Geneva]], he decided to write a book entitled ''[[A Memory of Solferino]]'' which he published with his own money in 1862. He sent copies of the book to leading political and military figures throughout [[Europe]]. In addition to penning a vivid description of his experiences in Solferino in 1859, he explicitly advocated the formation of national voluntary relief organizations to help nurse wounded soldiers in the case of war. In addition, he called for the development of international treaties to guarantee the neutrality and protection of those wounded on the battlefield as well as medics and field hospitals.
[[Image:Original_Geneva_Conventions.jpg|250px|thumb|left|Original document of the first Geneva Convention, 1864.]]
On [[February 9]], [[1863]] in Geneva, Henry Dunant founded the "Committee of the Five" (together with four other leading figures from well-known [[Geneva families]]) as an investigatory commission of the [[Geneva Society for Public Welfare]]. Their aim was to examine the feasibility of Dunant's ideas and to organize an international conference about their possible implementation. The members of this committee, aside from Dunant himself, were [[Gustave Moynier]], lawyer and chairman of the Geneva Society for Public Welfare; physician [[Louis Appia]], who had significant experience working as a field surgeon; Appia's friend and colleague [[Théodore Maunoir]], from the [[Geneva Hygiene and Health Commission]]; and [[Guillaume Henri Dufour|Guillaume-Henri Dufour]], a [[Swiss Army]] general of great renown. Eight days later, the five men decided to rename the committee to the "International Committee for Relief to the Wounded." In October (26-29) 1863, the international conference organized by the committee was held in Geneva to develop possible measures to improve medical services on the battle field. The conference was attended by 36 individuals: eighteen official delegates from national governments, six delegates from other non-governmental organizations, seven non-official foreign delegates, and the five members of the International Committee. The states and kingdoms represented by official delegates were [[Baden Germany|Baden]], [[Bavaria]], [[France]], [[Britain]], [[Hanover]], [[Hesse]], [[Italy]], [[Netherlands|the Netherlands]], [[Austria]], [[Prussia]], [[Russia]], [[Saxony]], [[Sweden]], and [[Spain]]. Among the proposals written in the final resolutions of the conference, adopted on [[October 29]], 1863, were:
* The foundation of national relief societies for wounded soldiers;
* Neutrality and protection for wounded soldiers;
* The utilization of volunteer forces for relief assistance on the battlefield;
* The organization of additional conferences to enact these concepts in legally binding international treaties; and
* The introduction of a common distinctive protection symbol for medical personnel in the field, namely a white armlet bearing a red cross.
[[Image:Gedenkstein-rotes-kreuz-1864.jpg|250px|thumb|Memorial commemorating the first use of the Red Cross symbol in an armed conflict during the Battle of [[Dybbøl]] (Denmark) in 1864; jointly erected in 1989 by the national Red Cross societies of [[Denmark]] and [[Germany]].]]
Only one year later, the Swiss government invited the governments of all European countries, as well as the [[United States]], [[Brazil]], and [[Mexico]], to attend an official diplomatic conference. 16 countries sent a total of 26 delegates to Geneva. On [[August 22]], 1864, the conference adopted the first [[Geneva Conventions|Geneva Convention]] "for the Amelioration of the Condition of the Wounded in Armies in the Field." Representatives of 12 states and kingdoms signed the convention: Baden, Belgium, Denmark, France, Hesse, Italy, the Netherlands, [[Portugal]], Prussia, Switzerland, Spain, and [[Württemberg]]. The convention contained ten articles, establishing for the first time legally binding rules guaranteeing neutrality and protection for wounded soldiers, field medical personnel, and specific humanitarian institutions in an armed conflict. Furthermore, the convention defined two specific requirements for recognition of a national relief society by the International Committee:
* The national society must be recognized by its own national government as a relief society according to the convention, and
* The national government of the respective country must be a state party to the Geneva Convention.
Directly following the establishment of the Geneva Convention, the first national societies were founded in Belgium, Denmark, France, [[Oldenburg]], Prussia, Spain, and Württemberg. Also in 1864, Louis Appia and [[Charles Van de Velde]], a captain of the [[Royal Netherlands Army|Dutch Army]], became the first independent and neutral delegates to work under the symbol of the Red Cross in an armed conflict. Three years later in 1867, the first [[International Conference of National Aid Societies for the Nursing of the War Wounded]] was convened.
Also in 1867, Henry Dunant was forced to declare bankruptcy due to business failures in Algeria, partly because he had neglected his business interests during his tireless activities for the International Committee. Controversy surrounding Dunant's business dealings and the resulting negative public opinion combined with an ongoing conflict with Gustave Moynier led to Dunant's expulsion from his position as a member and secretary. He was forced to leave Geneva and never returned to his home city. In the following years, national societies were founded in nearly every country in Europe. In 1876, the committee adopted the name "International Committee of the Red Cross" (ICRC), which is still its official designation today. Five years later, the [[American Red Cross]] was founded through the efforts of [[Clara Barton]]. More and more countries signed the Geneva Convention and began to respect it in practice during armed conflicts. In a rather short period of time, the Red Cross gained huge momentum as an internationally respected movement, and the national societies became increasingly popular as a venue for volunteer work.
When the first [[Nobel Peace Prize]] was awarded in 1901, the [[Norway|Norwegian]] Nobel Committee opted to give it jointly to Henry Dunant and [[Frédéric Passy]], a leading international pacifist. More significant than the honor of the prize itself, the official congratulation from the International Committee of the Red Cross marked the overdue rehabilitation of Henry Dunant and represented a tribute to his key role in the formation of the Red Cross. Dunant died nine years later in the small Swiss health resort of [[Heiden]]. Only two months earlier his long-standing adversary Gustave Moynier had also died, leaving a mark in the history of the Committee as its longest-running president ever.
In 1906, the 1864 Geneva Convention was revised for the first time. One year later, the [[Hague Conventions (1899 and 1907)|Hague Convention]] X, adopted at the second International Peace Konferenz in [[The Hague]], extended the scope of the Geneva Convention to naval warfare. Shortly before the beginning of the [[First World War]] in 1914, 50 years after the foundation of the ICRC and the adoption of the first Geneva Convention, there were already 45 national relief societies throughout the world. The movement had extended itself beyond [[Europe]] and [[North America]] to [[Central America|Central]] and [[South America]] ([[Argentina]], [[Brazil]], [[Chile]], [[Cuba]], [[Mexico]], [[Peru]], [[El Salvador]], [[Uruguay]], [[Venezuela]]), [[Asia]] ([[China]], [[Japan]], [[Korea]], [[Siam]]), and [[Africa]] ([[Republic of South Africa]]).
====The ICRC during World War One====
[[Image:Honneur_à_la_Croix-Rouge-1915.JPG|250px|thumb|French postcard celebrating the role of Red Cross nurses during the First World War, 1915.]]
With the outbreak of [[World War One]], the ICRC found itself confronted with enormous challenges which it could only handle by working closely with the national Red Cross societies. Red Cross nurses from around the world, including the United States and Japan, came to support the medical services of the armed forces of the European countries involved in the war. On [[October 15]], [[1914]], immediately after the start of the war, the ICRC set up its International Prisoners-of-War ([[POW]]) Agency, which had about 1,200 mostly volunteer staff members by the end of 1914. By the end of the war, the Agency had transferred about 20 million letters and messages, 1.9 million parcels, and about 18 million [[Swiss francs]] in monetary donations to POWs of all affected countries. Furthermore, due to the intervention of the Agency, about 200,000 prisoners were exchanged between the warring parties, released from captivity and returned to their home country. The organizational card index of the Agency accumulated about 7 million records from 1914 to 1923, each card representing an individual prisoner or missing person. The card index led to the identification of about 2 million POWs and the ability to contact their families. The complete index is on loan today from the ICRC to the [[International Red Cross and Red Crescent Museum]] in Geneva. The right to access the index is still strictly restricted to the ICRC.
During the entire war, the ICRC monitored warring parties’ compliance with the Geneva Conventions of the 1907 revision and forwarded complaints about violations to the respective country. When [[chemical weapons]] were used in this war for the first time in history, the ICRC vigorously protested against this new type of warfare. Even without having a mandate from the Geneva Conventions, the ICRC tried to ameliorate the suffering of civil populations. In territories that were officially designated as "occupied territories," the ICRC could assist the civilian population on the basis of the [[Hague Convention]]'s "Laws and Customs of War on Land" of 1907. This convention was also the legal basis for the ICRC's work for prisoners of war. In addition to the work of the International Prisoner-of-War Agency as described above this included inspection visits to POW camps. A total of 524 camps throughout Europe were visited by 41 delegates from the ICRC until the end of the war.
Between 1916 and 1918, the ICRC published a number of [[postcard]]s with scenes from the POW camps. The pictures showed the prisoners in day-to-day activities such as the distribution of letters from home. The intention of the ICRC was to provide the families of the prisoners with some hope and solace and to alleviate their uncertainties about the fate of their loved ones. After the end of the war, the ICRC organized the return of about 420,000 prisoners to their home countries. In 1920, the task of repatriation was handed over to the newly founded [[League of Nations]], which appointed the Norwegian diplomat and scientist [[Fridtjof Nansen]] as its "High Commissioner for Repatriation of the War Prisoners." His legal mandate was later extended to support and care for war refugees and displaced persons when his office became that of the League of Nations "High Commissioner for Refugees." Nansen, who invented the ''[[Nansen passport]]'' for stateless refugees and was awarded the Nobel Peace Prize in 1922, appointed two delegates from the ICRC as his deputies.
A year before the end of the war, the ICRC received the 1917 Nobel Peace Prize for its outstanding wartime work. It was the only Nobel Peace Prize awarded in the period from 1914 to 1918. In 1923, the Committee adopted a change in its policy regarding the selection of new members. Until then, only citizens from the city of Geneva could serve in the Committee. This limitation was expanded to include Swiss citizens. As a direct consequence of World War One, an additional protocol to the Geneva Convention was adopted in 1925 which outlawed the use of suffocating or poisonous gases and biological agents as weapons. Four years later, the 1906 Convention was revised and the second Geneva Convention "relative to the Treatment of Prisoners of War" was established. The events of World War One and the respective activities of the ICRC significantly increased the reputation and authority of the Committee among the international community and led to an extension of its competencies.
As early as in 1934, a draft proposal for an additional convention for the protection of the civil population during an armed conflict was adopted by the International Red Cross Conference. Unfortunately, most governments had not enough interests in implementing this convention, preventing it from entering into force before the beginning of [[World War Two]].
====The ICRC and World War Two====
[[Image:HZwLazarecie1940.jpg|250px|thumb|Red Cross message from [[Łódź]], [[Poland]], 1940]]
The legal basis of the work of the ICRC during World War II were the Geneva Conventions in their 1929 revision. The activities of the Committee were similar to those during World War I: visiting and monitoring POW camps, organizing relief assistance for civilian populations, and administering the exchange of messages regarding prisoners and missing persons. By the end of the war, 179 delegates had conducted 12,750 visits to POW camps in 41 countries. The Central Information Agency on Prisoners-of-War (''Zentralauskunftsstelle für Kriegsgefangene'') had a staff of 3,000, the card index tracking prisoners contained 45 million cards, and 120 million messages were exchanged by the Agency. One major obstacle was that the [[Nazi]]-controlled [[German Red Cross]] refused to cooperate with the Geneva statutes including blatant violations such as the deportation of [[Jews]] from Germany and the [[Holocaust|mass murders]] conducted in the [[concentration camps]] run by the German government. Moreover, two other main aggressors, the [[Soviet Union]] and Japan, were not party to the 1929 Geneva Conventions and were not legally required to follow the rules of the conventions. Thus, other countries were not bound to follow the Conventions regarding their prisoners in return.
During the war, the ICRC failed to obtain an agreement with Nazi Germany about the treatment of detainees in concentration camps, and it eventually abandoned applying pressure in order to avoid disrupting its work with POWs. The ICRC also failed to develop a response to reliable information about the extermination camps and the mass killing of European Jews. This is still considered the greatest failure of the ICRC in its history. After November 1943, the ICRC achieved permission to send parcels to concentration camp detainees with known names and locations. Because the notices of receipt for these parcels were often signed by other inmates, the ICRC managed to register the identities of about 105,000 detainees in the concentration camps and delivered about 1.1 million parcels, primarily to the camps [[Dachau]], [[Buchenwald]], [[Ravensbrück]], and [[Sachsenhausen concentration camp|Sachsenhausen]].
[[Image:Marcel_Junod-5.jpg|250px|thumb|left|'''Marcel Junod''', delegate of the ICRC, visiting POWs in Germany<br><small>(© Benoit Junod, Switzerland)</small>]]
On [[March 12]], [[1945]], ICRC president Jacob Burckhardt received a message from SS General [[Ernst Kaltenbrunner]] accepting the ICRC's demand to allow delegates to visit the concentration camps. This agreement was bound by the condition that these delegates would have to stay in the camps until the end of the war. Ten delegates, among them [[Louis Haefliger]] ([[Mauthausen-Gusen concentration camp|Camp Mauthausen]]), [[Paul Dunant]] ([[Concentration camp Theresienstadt|Camp Theresienstadt]]) and [[Victor Maurer]] ([[Dachau concentration camp|Camp Dachau]]), accepted the assignment and visited the camps. Louis Haefliger courageously prevented the forceful eviction or blasting of Mauthausen-Gusen by alerting American troops, thereby saving the lives of about 60,000 inmates. His actions were condemned by the ICRC because they were deemed as acting unduly on his own authority and risking the ICRC's neutrality. Only in 1990, his reputation was finally rehabilitated by ICRC president [[Cornelio Sommaruga]].
Another example of great humanitarian spirit was [[Friedrich Born]] (1903-1963), an ICRC delegate in [[Budapest]] who saved the lives of about 11,000 to 15,000 Jewish people in [[Hungary]]. On [[June 5]], [[1987]], he was posthumously granted the title of "[[Righteous Among the Nations]]" by ''[[Yad Vashem]]'', Israel's Holocaust Martyrs' and Heroes' Remembrance Authority. [[Marcel Junod]] (1904-1961), a physician from Geneva, was another famous delegate during the Second World War. An account of his experiences, which included being one of the first foreigners to visit [[Hiroshima]] after the [[atomic bomb]] was dropped, can be found in the book ''Warrior without Weapons''.
In 1944, the ICRC received its second Nobel Peace Prize. As in World War I, it received the only Peace Prize awarded during the main period of war, 1939 to 1945. At the end of the war, the ICRC worked with national Red Cross societies to organize relief assistance to those countries most severely affected. In 1948, the Committee published a report reviewing its war-era activities from [[September 1]], [[1939]] to [[June 30]], [[1947]]. Since January 1996, the ICRC archive for this period has been open to academic and public research.
====The ICRC after the Second World War====
[[Image:IKRK_Hauptquartier.jpg|250px|thumb|The ICRC Headquarters in Geneva]]
On [[August 12]], [[1949]], further revisions to the existing two Geneva Conventions were adopted. An additional convention "for the Amelioration of the Condition of Wounded, Sick and Shipwrecked Members of Armed Forces at Sea", named the second Geneva Convention, was added to succeed the 1907 Hague Convention X. The 1929 convention "relative to the Treatment of Prisoners of War", while being the second Geneva Convention from a historical point of view, became the third convention in the context of the 1949 revisions. Reacting to the experience of World War II, the [[Fourth Geneva Convention]], a new Convention "relative to the Protection of Civilian Persons in Time of War," was established. Also, the additional protocols of [[June 8]], [[1977]] were intended to make the conventions apply to internal conflicts such as civil wars. Today, the four conventions and their added protocols contain more than 600 articles, a remarkable expansion when compared to the mere 10 articles in the first 1864 convention.
In celebration of its centennial in 1963, the ICRC, together with the League of Red Cross societies, received its third Nobel Peace Prize. Since 1993, non-Swiss individuals have been allowed to serve as Committee delegates abroad, a task which was previously restricted to Swiss citizens. Indeed, since then, the share of staff without Swiss citizenship has increased to about 35%.
On [[October 16]], [[1990]], the [[UN General Assembly]] decided to grant the ICRC [[observer status]] for its assembly sessions and sub-committee meetings, the first observer status given to a private organization. The resolution was jointly proposed by 138 member states and introduced by the [[Italy|Italian]] ambassador, [[Vieri Traxler]], in memory of the organization's origins in the Battle of Solferino. An agreement with the Swiss government signed on [[March 19]], [[1993]], affirmed the already long-standing policy of full independence of the Committee from any possible interference by Switzerland. The agreement protects the full sanctity of all ICRC property in Switzerland including its headquarters and archive, grants members and staff legal immunity, exempts the ICRC from all taxes and fees, guarantees the protected and duty-free transfer of goods, services, and money, provides the ICRC with secure communication privileges at the same level as foreign embassies, and simplifies Committee travel in and out of Switzerland.
At the end of the [[Cold War]], the ICRC's work actually became more dangerous. In the [[1990s]], more delegates lost their lives than at any point in its history, especially when working in local and internal armed conflicts. These incidents often demonstrated a lack of respect for the rules of the Geneva Conventions and their protection symbols. Among the slain delegates were:
* Frédéric Maurice. He died on [[May 19]], [[1992]] at the age of 39, one day after a Red Cross transport he was escorting was attacked in the former [[Yugoslavia|Yugoslavian]] city of [[Sarajevo]].
* [[Fernanda Calado]] (Spain), [[Ingeborg Foss]] (Norway), [[Nancy Malloy]] (Canada), [[Gunnhild Myklebust]] (Norway), [[Sheryl Thayer]] ([[New Zealand]]), and [[Hans Elkerbout]] (Netherlands). They were murdered at point-blank range while sleeping in the early hours of [[December 17]], [[1996]] in the ICRC field hospital in the [[Chechnya|Chechen]] city of [[Nowije Atagi]] near [[Grozny]]. Their murderers have never been caught and there was no apparent motive for the killings.
* [[Rita Fox]] (Switzerland), [[Véronique Saro]] ([[Democratic Republic of Congo]], formerly Zaire), [[Julio Delgado]] ([[Colombia]]), [[Unen Ufoirworth]] (DR Congo), [[Aduwe Boboli]] (DR Congo), and [[Jean Molokabonge]] (DR Congo). On [[April 26]], [[2001]], they were en route with two cars on a relief mission in the northeast of the [[Democratic Republic of Congo]] when they came under fatal fire from unknown attackers.
* [[Ricardo Munguia]] (El Salvador). He was working as a water engineer in Afghanistan and travelling with local colleagues when their car was stopped by unknown armed men. He was killed execution-style at point-blank range while his colleagues were allowed to escape. He died at the age of 39.
* [[Vatche Arslanian]] (Canada). Since 2001, he worked as a logistics coordinator for the ICRC mission in Iraq. He died when he was travelling through Baghdad together with members of the Iraqi Red Crescent. Their car accidentally came into the cross fire of fighting in the city.
* [[Nadisha Yasassri Ranmuthu]] (Sri Lanka). He was killed by unknown attackers on [[July 22]], [[2003]] when his car was fired upon near the city of [[Hilla]] in the south of [[Baghdad]].
====Presidents of the ICRC====
Since 2000, the president of the ICRC has been [[Jakob Kellenberger]]. [[Olivier Vodoz]] and [[Jacques Forster]] serve as the vice presidents.
The former presidents of the Committee have been:
{{col-begin}}
{{col-break}}
* 1863 - 1864: Henri Dufour
* 1864 - 1910: Gustave Moynier
* 1910 - 1928: Gustave Ador
* 1928 - 1944: Max Huber
* 1944 - 1948: Carl Jacob Burckhardt
* 1948 - 1955: Paul Ruegger
{{col-break}}
* 1955 - 1964: Leopold Boissier
* 1964 - 1969: Samuel Gonard
* 1969 - 1973: Marcel Naville
* 1973 - 1976: Eric Martin
* 1976 - 1987: Alexandre Hay
* 1987 - 1999: Cornelio Sommaruga
{{col-end}}
===The International Federation of Red Cross and Red Crescent Societies===
====History====
[[Image:Henry_Davison.jpg|250px|thumb|'''Henry Davison''', Founding father of the League of Red Cross societies<br><small>(Picture from: [http://www.redcross.int www.redcross.int])</small>]]
In 1919, representatives from the national Red Cross societies of Britain, France, Italy, Japan, and the US came together in Paris to found the "League of Red Cross Societies". The original idea was [[Henry Davison]]'s, then president of the [[American Red Cross]]. This move, led by the American Red Cross, expanded the international activities of the Red Cross movement beyond the strict mission of the ICRC to include relief assistance in response to emergency situations which were not caused by war (such as man-made or natural disasters). The ARC already had great disaster relief mission experience extending back to its foundation.
The formation of the League, as an additional international Red Cross organization alongside the ICRC, was not without controversy for a number of reasons. The ICRC had, to some extent valid, concerns about a possible rivalry between both organizations. The foundation of the League was seen as an attempt to undermine the leadership position of the ICRC within the movement and to gradually transfer most of its tasks and competencies to a multilateral institution. In addition to that, all founding members of the League were national societies from countries of the [[Triple Entente|Entente]] or from associated partners of the Entente. The original statutes of the League from May 1919 contained further regulations which gave the five founding societies a privileged status and, due to the efforts of Henry P. Davison, the right to permanently exclude the national Red Cross societies from the countries of the [[Central Powers]], namely [[Germany]], [[Austria]], [[Hungary]], [[Bulgaria]] and [[Turkey]], and in addition to that the national Red Cross society of [[Russia]]. These rules were contrary to the Red Cross principles of universality and equality among all national societies, a situation which furthered the concerns of the ICRC.
The first relief assistance mission organized by the League was an aid mission for the victims of a famine and subsequent typhus epidemic in [[Poland]]. Only five years after its foundation, the League had already issued 47 donation appeals for missions in 34 countries, an impressive indication of the need for this type of Red Cross work. The total sum raised by these appeals reached 685 million Swiss Francs, which were used to bring emergency supplies to the victims of famines in [[Russia]], [[Germany]], and [[Albania]]; [[earthquakes]] in [[Chile]], [[Persian Empire|Persia]], [[Japan]], [[Colombia]], [[Ecuador]], [[Costa Rica]], and [[Turkey]]; and refugee flows in [[Greece]] and Turkey. The first large-scale disaster mission of the League came after the 1923 earthquake in Japan which killed about 200,000 people and left countless more wounded and without shelter. Due to the League's coordination, the Red Cross society of Japan received goods from its sister societies reaching a total worth of about $100 million. Another important new field initiated by the League was the creation of youth Red Cross organizations within the national societies.
[[Image:Timbre_Turquie_Croissant_rouge_1928.jpg|250px|thumb|left|A stamp from Turkey to support the Red Crescent, 1928]]
A joint mission of the ICRC and the League in the [[Russian Civil War]] from 1917 to 1922 marked the first time the movement was involved in an internal conflict, although still without an explicit mandate from the Geneva Conventions. The League, with support from more than 25 national societies, organized assistance missions and the distribution of food and other aid goods for civil populations affected by hunger and [[disease]]. The ICRC worked with the [[Russian Red Cross]] society and later the society of the [[Soviet Union]], constantly emphasizing the ICRC's neutrality. In 1928, the "International Council" was founded to coordinate cooperation between the ICRC and the League, a task which was later taken over by the "Standing Commission". In the same year, a common statute for the movement was adopted for the first time, defining the respective roles of the ICRC and the League within the movement.
During the [[Second Italo-Abyssinian War|Abyssinian war]] between [[Ethiopia]] and [[Italy]] from 1935 to 1936, the League contributed aid supplies worth about 1.7 million Swiss Francs. Because the Italian fascist regime under [[Mussolini]] refused any cooperation with the Red Cross, these goods were delivered solely to Ethiopia. During the war, an estimated 29 people lost their lives while being under explicit protection of the Red Cross symbol, most of them due to attacks by the Italian Army. During the [[Spanish Civil War|Civil War in Spain]] from 1936 to 1939 the League once again joined forces with the ICRC with the support of 41 national societies. In 1939 on the brink of the Second World War, the League relocated its headquarters from Paris to Geneva to take advantage of Swiss neutrality.
[[Image:Friedensnobelpreis-1963.jpg|250px|thumb|Peace Nobel Prize ceremony in 1963; From left to right: King Olav of Norway, ICRC President Leopold Boissier, League Chairman John A. MacAulay<br><small>(Picture from: [http://www.redcross.int www.redcross.int])</small>]]
In 1952, the 1928 common statute of the movement was revised for the first time. Also, the period of [[decolonization]] from 1960 to 1970 was marked by a huge jump in the number of recognized national Red Cross and Red Crescent societies. By the end of the 1960's, there were more than 100 societies around the world. On [[December 10]], [[1963]], the Federation and the ICRC received the Nobel Peace Prize. In 1983, the League was renamed to the "League of Red Cross and Red Crescent Societies" to reflect the growing number of national societies operating under the Red Crescent symbol. Three years later, the seven basic principles of the movement as adopted in 1965 were incorporated into its statutes. The name of the League was changed again in 1991 to its current official designation the "International Federation of Red Cross and Red Crescent Societies". In 1997, the ICRC and the Federation signed the [[Seville Agreement]] which further defined the responsibilities of both organizations within the movement. In 2004, the Federation began its largest mission to date after the [[2004 Indian Ocean earthquake|tsunami disaster in South Asia]]. More than 40 national societies have worked with more than 22,000 volunteers to bring relief to the countless victims left without food and shelter and endangered by the risk of epidemics.
====Presidents of the Federation====
Since 2001, the president of the Federation has been Don Juan Manuel Suárez Del Toro Rivero of Spain. The Vice presidents are currently René Rhinow (ex officio as president of the Swiss Red Cross society) and, representing the different core regions of the world, Robert Barnes (Canada), Murli S. Deora (India), Dr. Mamdouh Gabr (Egypt) and Dr. Massimo Barra (Italy).
Former presidents (until 1977 titled "Chairman") have been:
{{col-begin}}
{{col-break}}
* 1919 - 1922: Henry Davison (USA)
* 1922 - 1935: John Barton Payne (USA)
* 1935 - 1938: Cary T. Grayson (USA)
* 1938 - 1944: Norman Davis (USA)
* 1944 - 1945: Jean de Muralt (Switzerland)
* 1945 - 1950: Basil O'Connor (USA)
{{col-break}}
* 1950 - 1959: Emil Sandstrom (Sweden)
* 1959 - 1965: John MacAulay (Canada)
* 1965 - 1977: Jose Barroso (Mexico)
* 1977 - 1981: Adetunji Adefarasin (Nigeria)
* 1981 - 1987: Enrique de la Mata (Spain)
* 1987 - 1997: Mario Enrique Villarroel Lander (Venezuela)
* 1997 - 2000: Astrid N. Heiberg (Norway)
{{col-end}}
==Activities==
===Organization of the Movement===
[[Image:Schweiz_Genf_IRK-Museum.jpg|250px|thumb|Entry to the International Red Cross and Red Crescent Museum in Geneva]]
Altogether, there are about 97 million people worldwide who serve with the ICRC, the Federation, and the national societies. And there are about 300,000 total full time staff members.
The 1965 International Conference in [[Vienna]] adopted seven basic principles which should be shared by all parts of the Movement, and they were added to the official statutes of the Movement in 1986.
* Humanity
* Impartiality
* Neutrality
* Independence
* Voluntary Service
* Unity
* Universality
The International Red Cross and Red Crescent Conference, which occurs once every four years, is the highest institutional body of the Movement. It gathers delegations from all of the national societies as well as from the ICRC, the Federation and the signatory states to the Geneva Conventions. In between the conferences, the Standing Commission acts as the supreme body and supervises implementation of and compliance with the resolutions of the conference. In addition, the Standing Commission coordinates the cooperation between the ICRC and the Federation. It consists of two representatives from the ICRC (including its president), two from the Federation (including its president), and five individuals who are elected by the International Conference. The Standing Commission convenes every six months on average. Moreover, a convention of the Council of Delegates of the Movement takes place every two years in the course of the conferences of the General Assemblies of the Federation. The Council of Delegates plans and coordinates joint activities for the Movement.
===Activities and Organization of the ICRC===
====The mission of the ICRC and its responsibilities within the Movement====
[[Image:Flag of the ICRC.svg|250px|thumb|Emblem of the ICRC]]
The official mission of the ICRC as an impartial, neutral, and independent organization is to stand for the protection of the life and dignity of victims of international and internal armed conflicts. According the 1997 Seville Agreement, it is the "Lead Agency" of the Movement in conflicts. The core tasks of the Committee, which are derived from the Geneva Conventions and its own statutes, are the following:
* to monitor compliance of warring parties with the Geneva Conventions
* to organize nursing and care for those who are wounded on the battlefield
* to supervise the treatment of prisoners of war
* to help with the search for missing persons in an armed conflict (tracing service)
* to organize protection and care for civil populations
* to arbitrate between warring parties in an armed conflict
====Legal status and organization====
The ICRC is headquartered in the Swiss city of Geneva and has external offices in about 80 countries. It has about 12,000 staff members worldwide, about 800 of them working in its Geneva headquarters, 1,200 expatriates with about half of them serving as delegates managing its international missions and the other half being specialists like doctors, agronomists, engineers or interpreters, and about 10,000 members of individual national societies working on site. Contrary to popular belief, the ICRC is not a [[non-governmental organization]] in the most common sense of the term, nor is it an international organization. As it limits its members (a process called cooptation) to Swiss nationals only, it does not have a policy of open and unrestricted membership for individuals like other legally defined NGOs. The word "international" in its name does not refer to its membership but to the worldwide scope of its activities as defined by the Geneva Conventions. The ICRC has special privileges and legal immunities in many countries, based on national law in these countries or through agreements between the Committee and respective national governments. According to Swiss law, the ICRC is defined as a private association. According to its statutes it consists of 15 to 25 Swiss-citizen members, which it coopts for a period of four years. There is no limit to the number of terms an individual member can have although a three-quarters majority of all members is required for re-election after the third term.
The leading organs of the ICRC are the Directorate and the Assembly. The Directorate is the executive body of the Committee. It consists of a General Director and five directors in the areas of "Operations", "Human Resources", "Resources and Operational Support", "Communication", and "International Law and Cooperation within the Movement". The members of the Directorate are appointed by the Assembly to serve for four years. The Assembly, consisting of all of the members of the Committee, convenes on a regular basis and is responsible for defining aims, guidelines, and strategies and for supervising the financial matters of the Committee. The president of the Assembly is also the president of the Committee as a whole. Furthermore, the Assembly elects a five member Assembly Council which has the authority to decide on behalf of the full Assembly in some matters. The Council is also responsible for organizing the Assembly meetings and for facilitating communication between the Assembly and the Directorate.
Due to Geneva's location in the French-speaking part of Switzerland, the ICRC usually acts under its French name ''Comité international de la Croix-Rouge'' (CICR). The official symbol of the ICRC is the Red Cross on white background with the words "COMITE INTERNATIONAL GENEVE" circling the cross.
====Funding and financial matters====
The 2005 budget of the ICRC amounts to about 970 million Swiss Francs. Most of that money comes from Switzerland in its capacity as the depositary state of the Geneva Conventions, from national Red Cross societies, the signatory states of the Geneva Conventions, and from international organizations like the [[European Union]]. All payments to the ICRC are voluntary and are received as donations based on two types of appeals issued by the Committee: an annual ''Headquarters Appeal'' to cover its internal costs and ''Emergency Appeals'' for its individual missions. The total budget for 2005 consists of about 819.7 million Swiss Francs (85% of the total) for field work and 152.1 million Swiss Francs (15%) for internal costs. In 2005, the budget for field work increased by 8.6% and the internal budget by 1.5% compared to 2004, primarily due to above average increases in the number and scope of its missions in [[Africa]].
===Activities and organization of the Federation===
====The Mission of the Federation and its responsibilities within the Movement====
[[Image:Flag of the IFRC.svg|250px|thumb|Emblem of the Federation]]
The Federation coordinates cooperation between national Red Cross and Red Crescent societies throughout the world and supports the foundation of new national societies in countries where no official society exists. On the international stage, the Federation organizes and leads relief assistance missions after emergencies like natural disasters, manmade disasters, epidemics, mass refugee flights, and other emergencies. According to the 1997 Seville Agreement, the Federation is the Lead Agency of the Movement in any emergency situation which does not take place as part of an armed conflict. The Federation cooperates with the national societies of those countries affected - each called the ''Operating National Society'' (ONS) - as well as the national societies of other countries willing to offer assistance - called ''Participating National Societies'' (PNS). Among the 187 national societies admitted to the General Assembly of the Federation as full members or observers, about 25-30 regularly work as PNS in other countries. The most active of those are the [[American Red Cross]], the [[British Red Cross]], the [[German Red Cross]], and the Red Cross societies of [[Swedish Red Cross|Sweden]] and [[Norwegian Red Cross|Norway]]. Another major mission of the Federation which has gained attention in recent years is its commitment to work towards a codified, worldwide ban on the use of [[land mine]]s and to bring medical, psychological, and social support for people injured by land mines.
The tasks of the Federation can therefore be summarized as follows:
* to promote humanitarian principles and values
* to provide relief assistance in emergency situations of large magnitude
* to support the national societies with disaster preparedness through the education of voluntary members and the provision of equipment and relief supplies
* to support local health care projects
* to support the national societies with youth-related activities
====Legal status and organization====
Like the ICRC, the Federation has its headquarters in Geneva. It also runs 14 permanent regional offices and has about 350 delegates in more than 60 delegations around the world. The legal basis for the work of the Federation is its constitution. The executive body of the Federation is a secretariat, led by a Secretary General. The secretariat is supported by four divisions labeled "Support Services", "National Society and Field Support", "Policy and Relations" and "Movement Cooperation". The Movement Cooperation division organizes interaction and cooperation with the ICRC. The highest body of the Federation is the General Assembly which convenes every two years with delegates from all of the national societies. Among other tasks, the General Assembly elects the Secretary General. Between the convening of General Assemblies, the Governing Board is the leading body of the Federation. It has the authority to make decisions for the Federation in a number of areas. The Governing Board consists of the president and the vice presidents of the Federation, the chairman of the Finance Commission, and twenty elected representatives from national societies. It is supported by four additional commissions: "Disaster Relief", "Youth", "Health & Community Services", and "Development".
The symbol of the Federation is the combination of the Red Cross (left) and Red Crescent (right) on a white background (surrounded by a red rectangular frame) without any additional text.
====Funding and financial matters====
The main parts of the budget of the Federation are funded by contributions from the national societies which are members of the Federation and through revenues from its investments. The exact amount of contributions from each member society is established by the Finance Commission and approved by the General Assembly. Any additional funding, especially for unforeseen expenses for relief assistance missions, is raised by appeals published by the Federation and comes from voluntary donations by national societies, governments, other organizations, corporations, and individuals.
===National societies within the Movement===
====Official Recognition of a national society====
National Red Cross and Red Crescent societies exist in nearly every country in the world. Within their home country, they take on the duties and responsibilities of a national relief society as defined by [[International Humanitarian Law]]. Within the Movement, the ICRC is responsible for legally recognizing a relief society as an official national Red Cross or Red Crescent society. The exact rules for recognition are defined in the statutes of the Movement. Article 4 of these statutes contains the ''"Conditions for recognition of National Societies"'':
: ''In order to be recognized in terms of Article 5, paragraph 2 b) as a National Society, the Society shall meet the following conditions:''
:#''Be constituted on the territory of an independent State where the Geneva Convention for the Amelioration of the Condition of the Wounded and Sick in Armed Forces in the Field is in force.''
:#''Be the only National Red Cross or Red Crescent Society of the said State and be directed by a central body which shall alone be competent to represent it in its dealings with other components of the Movement.''
:#''Be duly recognized by the legal government of its country on the basis of the Geneva Conventions and of the national legislation as a voluntary aid society, auxiliary to the public authorities in the humanitarian field.''
:#''Have an autonomous status which allows it to operate in conformity with the Fundamental Principles of the Movement.''
:#''Use the name and emblem of the Red Cross or Red Crescent in conformity with the Geneva Conventions.''
:#''Be so organized as to be able to fulfill the tasks defined in its own statutes, including the preparation in peace time for its statutory tasks in case of armed conflict.''
:#''Extend its activities to the entire territory of the State.''
:#''Recruit its voluntary members and its staff without consideration of race, sex, class, religion or political opinions.''
:#''Adhere to the present Statutes, share in the fellowship which unites the components of the Movement and co-operate with them.''
:#''Respect the Fundamental Principles of the Movement and be guided in its work by the principles of international humanitarian law.''
After recognition by the ICRC, a national society is admitted as a member to the International Federation of Red Cross and Red Crescent societies.
====Activities of national societies on a national and international stage====
Despite formal independence regarding its organizational structure and work, each national society is still bound by the laws of its home country. In many countries, national Red Cross and Red Crescent societies enjoy exceptional privileges due to agreements with their governments or specific "Red Cross Laws" granting full independence as required by the International Movement. The duties and responsibilities of a national society as defined by International Humanitarian Law and the statutes of the Movement include humanitarian aid in armed conflicts and emergency crises such as natural disasters. Depending on their respective human, technical, financial, and organizational resources, many national societies take on additional humanitarian tasks within their home countries such as blood donation services or acting as civilian [[Emergency Medical Service]] (EMS) providers. The ICRC and the International Federation cooperate with the national societies in their international missions, especially with human, material, and financial resources and organizing on-site logistics.
==Symbols of the Movement==
===Protection symbols vs. organizational emblems===
The symbols described below have two distinctively different meanings. On one hand, the visual symbols of the Red Cross, the Red Crescent, the Red Lion with Sun and the Red Crystal serve as protection markings in armed conflicts, a denotation which is derived from and defined in the Geneva Conventions. This is called the ''protective use'' of the symbols. On the other hand, these symbols are used as distinctive logos by those organizations which are part of the International Red Cross and Red Crescent Movement. This is the ''indicative use'' of the emblems. As a protection symbol, they are used in armed conflicts to mark persons and objects (buildings, vehicles, etc.) which are working in compliance with the rules of the Geneva Conventions. In this function, they can also be used by organizations and objects which are not part of the International Red Cross and Red Crescent Movement, for example the medical services of the armed forces, civilian hospitals, and civil defense units. As protection symbols, these emblems should be used without any additional specification (textual or otherwise) and in a prominent manner which makes them as visible and observable as possible, for example by using large white flags bearing the symbol. When used as an organizational logo, these symbols only indicate that persons, vehicles, buildings, etc. which bear the symbols belong to a specific organization which is part of the International Red Cross and Red Crescent Movement (like the ICRC, the International Federation or the national Red Cross and Red Crescent societies). In this case, they should be used with an additional specification (for example "American Red Cross") and not be displayed as prominently as when used as protection symbols. The Red Shield of David of the Israel society Magen David Adom can only be used for indicative purposes as it is not a recognized protection symbol according to the Geneva Conventions.
===Symbols recognized by the Geneva Conventions===
{{details|Emblems of the Red Cross}}
====Red Cross====
[[Image:Flag_of_the_Red_Cross.svg|150px|thumb|The Red Cross symbol]]
The Red Cross on white background was the original protection symbol declared at the 1864 Geneva Convention. It is, in terms of its color, a reversal of the [[Flag of Switzerland|Swiss national flag]], a meaning which was adopted to honor Swiss founder Henry Dunant and his home country. The ideas to introduce a uniform and neutral protection symbol as well as its specific design originally came from Dr. Louis Appia and General Henri Dufour, founding members of the International Committee. The Red Cross is defined as a protection symbol in Article 7 of the 1864 Geneva Convention, Chapter VII ("The distinctive emblem") and Article 38 of the 1949 Geneva Convention ("For the Amelioration of the Condition of the Wounded and Sick in Armed Forces in the Field"). There is an unofficial agreement within the Red Cross and Red Crescent Movement that the shape of the cross should be a cross composed of five squares. However, regardless of the shape, any Red Cross on white background should be valid and must be recognized as a protection symbol in conflict. Of the 183 national societies which are currently recognized by the ICRC, 151 are using the Red Cross as their official organization emblem. In addition, the Red Cross is currently used by the national society of [[Tuvalu]] which has applied for official recognition.
====Red Crescent====
[[Image:Flag_of_the_Red_Crescent.svg|150px|thumb|The Red Crescent symbol]]
During the [[Russo-Turkish War]] from 1876 to 1878, the [[Ottoman Empire]] used a Red Crescent instead of the Red Cross because its government believed that the cross would alienate its Muslim soldiers. When asked by the ICRC in 1877, [[Russia]] committed to fully respect the sanctity of all persons and facilities bearing the Red Crescent symbol, followed by a similar commitment from the Ottoman government to respect the Red Cross. After this de facto assessment of equal validity to both symbols, the ICRC declared in 1878 that it should be possible in principle to adopt an additional official protection symbol for non-Christian countries. The Red Crescent was formally recognized in 1929 when the Geneva Conventions were amended (Article 19). Originally, the Red Crescent was used by [[Egypt]] and the new [[Turkey|Turkish Republic]]. From its official recognition to today, the Red Crescent became the organizational emblem of nearly every national society in countries with majority [[Muslim]] populations. The national societies of some countries such as [[Pakistan]] ([[1974]]), [[Malaysia]] ([[1975]]), or [[Bangladesh]] ([[1989]]) have officially changed their name and emblem from the Red Cross to the Red Crescent. The Red Crescent is used by 32 of the 183 recognized societies worldwide and also by the national society of [[Palestinian territories|Palestine]], which has applied for recognition.
====Red Crystal: the third Protocol emblem====
:{{main article|[[Red Crystal (symbol)]]}}
[[Image:Flag of the Red Crystal.svg|150px|thumb|right|The third protocol emblem, also known as the Red Crystal.]]
Because of the controversy over Israel's national society [[Magen David Adom]] and a number of other disputes, the introduction of an additional neutral protection symbol had been under discussion for a number of years, with the Red Crystal (previously referred to as the Red [[Lozenge]] or Red [[Diamond]]) being the most popular proposal. Other attempts have included [[Sri Lanka]] ([[1957]]) and [[India]] ([[1977]]) who tried to establish a [[Swastika|Red Swastika]] and also efforts by the national societies of [[Kazakhstan]] and [[Eritrea]] to use a unique combination of the Red Cross and the Red Crescent, similar to the combination of both symbols used by the national society of the [[Soviet Union]] until its demise. However, amending the Geneva Conventions to add a new protection symbol requires a diplomatic conference of all 192 signatory states to the Conventions. The Swiss government organized such a conference to take place on December 5-6, 2005, to adopt a third additional protocol to the Geneva Conventions introducing the Red Crystal as an additional symbol with equal status to the Red Cross or Red Crescent. Following an unplanned extension of the conference until December 7, the protocol was adopted after a vote successfully achieved the required two-thirds majority. From the countries which attended the conference, 98 voted in favour and 27 against the protocol, while 10 countries abstained from voting.
The official name of the new symbol is "the third Protocol emblem". The rules for the use of this symbol, based on the third additional protocol to the Geneva Conventions, are the following:
* ''Within its own national territory'', a national society can use either of the recognized symbols alone, or incorporate any of these symbols or a combination of them into the Red Crystal. Furthermore, a national society can choose to display a previously and effectively used symbol, after officially communicating this symbol to the state parties of the Geneva Conventions through Switzerland as the depositary state prior to the adoption of the proposed third additional protocol.
* ''For indicative use on foreign territory'', a national society which does not use one of the recognized symbols as its emblem [[Red Crystal flag#"Defaced" Red Crystal Flag Variants|has to incorporate its unique symbol into the Red Crystal]], based on the previously mentioned condition about communicating its unique symbol to the state parties of the Geneva Conventions.
* ''For protective use'', only the symbols recognized by the Geneva Conventions can be used. Specifically, those national societies which do not use one of the recognized symbols as their emblem have to use the Red Crystal without incorporation of any additional symbol.
====Red Lion with Sun: currently not in use====
[[Image:Red_Lion_with_Sun.svg|150px|thumb|The Red Lion with Sun symbol]]
From 1924 to 1980, [[Iran]] used a 'Red Lion with Sun' symbol for its national society, based on the flag and emblem of the [[Shah dynasty]]. The Red Lion with Sun was formally recognized as a protection symbol in 1929, together with the Red Crescent. Despite the country's shift to the Red Crescent in 1980, Iran explicitly maintains the right to use the symbol. Therefore, it is still recognized by the Geneva Convention as a protection symbol with equal status to the Red Cross, Red Crescent and Red Crystal.
===Other symbols used by specific national societies===
====Red Shield of David====
[[Image:Red_Star_of_David.svg|left|150px|thumb|The emblem of Magen David Adom for indicative use within Israel]]
[[Image:Red-magen-david.GIF|right|150px|thumb|The emblem for Magen David Adom for indicative use when operating abroad]]
[[Magen David Adom]], the national society of [[Israel]], has used the Red Shield of David as its organization emblem since its foundation. The Red Shield of David was initially proposed as an addition to the Red Cross, Red Crescent, and Red Lion in Sun in 1931. The proposal was rejected, for fear of symbol proliferation. Israel again tried to establish the emblem as a third protection symbol in the context of the Geneva Conventions, but a respective proposal was narrowly defeated when the conventions were amended in 1949. As the Red Shield of David is not a recognized protection symbol under the Geneva Conventions, Magen David Adom was not recognized as a national society by the ICRC (see requirements for recognition above). However, the relationship between the ICRC and Magen David Adom has become significantly closer in the last five years.
With the adoption of the third protocol emblem, recognition of Magen David Adom and its admission as a full member of the International Federation can be expected for the near future. The rules of the third protocol allow Magen David Adom to continue using the Red Shield of David when operating within Israel as well as provide a solution for Magen David Adom for abroad missions. Despite limitations due to the previous situation, the organization has had an excellent reputation within the Movement for many years and, in cooperation with both the ICRC and the Federation, takes part in many international activities.
==Mottos of the Movement, Commemoration Day and places of interest==
[[Image:Red_Cross_Memorial_in_Solferino.jpg|thumb|right|250px|The International Red Cross Memorial in Solferino, Italy]]
The original motto of the International Committee of the Red Cross was ''Inter Arma Caritas'' ("In War, Charity"). This Christian-spirited slogan was amended in 1961 with the neutral motto ''Per Humanitatem ad Pacem'' or "With humanity, towards peace". While ''Inter Arma Caritas'' is still the primary motto of the ICRC (as per Article 3 of the ICRC statutes), ''Per Humanitatem ad Pacem'' is the primary motto of the Federation (Article 1 of the Constitution of the Federation). Both organizations acknowledge the alternative motto, and together both slogans serve as the combined motto of the International Movement.
The mission statement of the International Movement as formulated in the "Strategy 2010" document of the Federation is ''to improve the lives of vulnerable people by mobilizing the power of humanity''. From 1999 to 2004, the common slogan for all activities of the International Movement was ''The Power of Humanity''. In December 2003, the 28th International Conference in Geneva adopted the conference motto ''Protecting Human Dignity'' as the new Movement slogan.
The 16th International Conference which convened in [[London]] in 1938 officially decided to make [[May 8]], the birthday of Henry Dunant, as the official annual commemoration and celebration day of the Movement. Since 1984, the official name of the celebration day has been "[[World Red Cross and Red Crescent Day]]".
In Solferino, a small museum describes the history of the [[Battle of Solferino]] and of the [[Risorgimento]], the long and bloody Italian struggle for independence and unity. In the [[Ossario di Solferino]] (Solferino Ossuary) in close proximity to the museum, a moving display shows the horrors of war. Inside the chapel, 1,413 skulls and many more bones from thousands of French and Austrian troops who died during the battle are shown. Solferino is also host to the [[International Red Cross Memorial]] inaugurated in 1959 on the centennial of the Battle of Solferino. The memorial contains stone plaques identifying each recognized national society. In [[Castiglione delle Stiviere]], a small town near [[Solferino]], the [[International Museum of the Red Cross]] was also opened in 1959. Moreover, another museum, the [[International Red Cross and Red Crescent Museum]] stands in Geneva in close proximity to the headquarters of the ICRC. Finally, in the Swiss city of [[Heiden]], the [[Henry Dunant Museum]] was opened to preserve the memory and legacy of Dunant himself.
==See also==
* [[Principles of Warfare]]
* [[Prisoners of war]]
* [[Laws of war]]
==References==
===Books===
* David P. Forsythe: ''Humanitarian Politics: The International Committee of the Red Cross.'' Johns Hopkins University Press, Baltimore 1978, ISBN 0-80-181983-0
* Henry Dunant: ''A Memory of Solferino.'' ICRC, Geneva 1986, ISBN 2-88-145006-7
* Hans Haug: ''Humanity for all: the International Red Cross and Red Crescent Movement.'' Henry Dunant Institute, Geneva in association with Paul Haupt Publishers, Bern 1993, ISBN 3-25-804719-7
* Georges Willemin, Roger Heacock: ''International Organization and the Evolution of World Society. Volume 2: The International Committee of the Red Cross.'' Martinus Nijhoff Publishers, Boston 1984, ISBN 9-02-473064-3
* Pierre Boissier: ''History of the International Committee of the Red Cross. Volume I: From Solferino to Tsushima.'' Henry Dunant Institute, Geneva 1985, ISBN 2-88-044012-2
* André Durand: ''History of the International Committee of the Red Cross. Volume II: From Sarajevo to Hiroshima.'' Henry Dunant Institute, Geneva 1984, ISBN 2-88-044009-2
* International Committee of the Red Cross: ''Handbook of the International Red Cross and Red Crescent Movement.'' 13th edition, ICRC, Geneva 1994, ISBN 2-88-145074-1
* John F. Hutchinson: ''Champions of Charity: War and the Rise of the Red Cross.'' Westview Press, Boulder 1997, ISBN 0-81-333367-9
* Caroline Moorehead: ''Dunant's dream: War, Switzerland and the history of the Red Cross.'' HarperCollins, London 1998, ISBN 0-00-255141-1 (Hardcover edition); HarperCollins, London 1999, ISBN 0-00-638883-3 (Paperback edition)
* François Bugnion: ''The International Committee of the Red Cross and the protection of war victims.'' ICRC & Macmillan (ref. 0503), Geneva 2003, ISBN 0-33-374771-2
* Angela Bennett: ''The Geneva Convention: The Hidden Origins of the Red Cross.'' Sutton Publishing, Gloucestershire 2005, ISBN 0-75-094147-2
* David P. Forsythe: ''The Humanitarians. The International Committee of the Red Cross.'' Cambridge University Press, Cambridge 2005, ISBN 0-52-161281-0
===Articles===
* François Bugnion: ''The emblem of the Red Cross: a brief history.'' ICRC (ref. 0316), Geneva 1977
* Jean-Philippe Lavoyer, Louis Maresca: ''The Role of the ICRC in the Development of International Humanitarian Law.'' In: ''International Negotiation.'' 4(3)/1999. Brill Academic Publishers, p. 503-527, ISSN 1382-340X
* Neville Wylie: ''The Sound of Silence: The History of the International Committee of the Red Cross as Past and Present.'' In: ''Diplomacy and Statecraft.'' 13(4)/2002. Routledge/ Taylor & Francis, p. 186-204, ISSN 0959-2296
* David P. Forsythe: "The International Committee of the Red Cross and International Humanitarian Law." In: ''Humanitäres Völkerrecht - Informationsschriften. The Journal of International Law of Peace and Armed Conflict.'' 2/2003, German Red Cross and Institute for International Law of Peace and Armed Conflict, p. 64-77, ISSN 0937-5414
* François Bugnion: ''Towards a comprehensive Solution to the Question of the Emblem.'' Revised third edition. ICRC (ref. 0778), Geneva 2005
==External links==
{{commons|International Red Cross and Red Crescent Movement}}
* [http://www.redcross.int International Red Cross and Red Crescent Movement]
* [http://www.icrc.org International Committee of the Red Cross (ICRC)]
* [http://www.ifrc.org International Federation of Red Cross and Red Crescent Societies (IFRC)]
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<!-- Unsourced image removed: [[image:gershwin2.jpg|right|thumb|175px|George (left) and Ira Gershwin]] -->
'''Ira Gershwin''' ([[6 December]] [[1896]] – [[17 August]] [[1983]]) was an [[United States|American]] [[lyricist]] who collaborated with his younger brother, [[composer]] [[George Gershwin]], to create some of the most memorable songs of the 20th century.
With George he wrote more than a dozen Broadway shows, featuring songs such as "I Got Rhythm," "Embraceable You," "The Man I Love" and "Someone to Watch Over Me", and the opera ''[[Porgy and Bess]]''.
The success the brothers had with their collaborative works has often overshadowed the creative role that Ira played. However, his mastery of songwriting continued even after the early death of George, and he wrote further hit songs with composers [[Jerome Kern]] ("Long Ago (And Far Away)", [[Kurt Weill]] and [[Harold Arlen]].
His critically-acclaimed book ''Lyrics on Several Occasions'' of [[1959]], an amalgam of autobiography and annotated anthology, is an important source for studying the art of the lyricist in the golden age of American popular song.
==Biography==
'''Ira Gershwin''' (born '''Israel Gershowitz''') was reportedly very shy as a young boy and spent most of his time at home reading. However, from [[Grammar school|grammar school]] through college he played a prominent part in several school newspapers and magazines. While his younger brother began composing and “plugging” in [[Tin Pan Alley]] from the age of sixteen, Ira worked as a cashier in his father’s [[Turkish bath]]s- still unsure of his calling. But in [[1921]] he found it. [[Alex Aarons]] signed Ira to write the music for his next show, ''[[Two Little Girls in Blue]]'', with [[Vincent Youmans]]. His lyrics were well received and allowed him to successfully enter the theatre world with just one show.
It wasn’t until [[1924]] that Ira and George teamed up to write the music for their first [[Broadway theatre|Broadway]] hit, ''[[Lady Be Good|Lady, Be Good!]]'' Once the brothers joined together, their talents exploded into what would become one of the most influential forces in the history of [[American Musical Theatre]]. Together, Ira and George wrote the music for over twelve shows and four films. Some of their more famous works include “[[The Man I Love]]”, “[[Fascinating Rhythm]]”, “[[Someone to Watch Over Me]]”, “[[I Got Rhythm]]” “[[Summertime (song)|Summertime]]” and “[[They Can't Take That Away from Me]]”. Their partnership continued up until George’s sudden and tragic death in [[1937]].
Following his brother’s death, Ira waited nearly three years before writing again. After this interlude, he teamed up with such accomplished composers as [[Jerome Kern]], [[Kurt Weill]], and [[Harold Arlen]]. Over the next fourteen years, Ira continued to write the lyrics for many film scores and a few Broadway shows.
Ira died on [[August 15]], [[1983]], and is now interred in the [[Westchester Hills Cemetery]], [[Hastings-on-Hudson, New York]]. Together, the Gershwin siblings left behind a legacy that would help shape American Musical Theatre. Solely, Ira played a huge part in bringing about a new type of song lyric: a smart, witty style that even the common man could relate to and enjoy.
==Comments on the Gershwin collection at the Library of Congress==
From Library of Congress publication (presumably in the public domain, as are all US Govt. publications) http://www.loc.gov/loc/lcib/9809/gershwin.html
The music of George and Ira Gershwin runs deep in the American consciousness. The opening clarinet glissando from ''[[Rhapsody in Blue]],'' the taxi horn theme from ''[[An American in Paris]]'' and the songs — "I Got Rhythm," "Embraceable You," "The Man I Love," "Someone to Watch Over Me," "Fascinating Rhythm," and many others — are instantly recognizable. Mere mention of the name "Gershwin" brings to mind the sophisticated glamour of the '20s and '30s, personified by the brothers who helped to give those decades their musical voice.
But if the Gershwins symbolize a time, their music and words transcend it. The proliferating performances and recordings of their music testify to its enduring popularity, and George and Ira continue to be the subjects of both popular and scholarly study.
Ira Gershwin was a joyous listener to the sounds of the modern world. He noted in a diary: "Heard in a day: An elevator's purr, telephone's ring, telephone's buzz, a baby's moans, a shout of delight, a screech from a `flat wheel,' hoarse honks, a hoarse voice, a tinkle, a match scratch on sandpaper, a deep resounding boom of dynamiting in the impending subway, iron hooks on the gutter."
George's beautiful manuscript full score for ''[[Porgy and Bess]]'' conveys his care in creating the opera and the importance he attached to it. Song manuscripts with erasures and corrections present the youthful composer whom [[Edward Jablonski]] has called the "Jazz Age Meteor." Similarly, Ira's lyric sheets, with experimental [[rhyme]]s, unused [[couplet]]s and various corrections, show us Jablonski's "Contemplative Craftsman." No fewer than 17 pages of lyric drafts survive for the Ira Gershwin-[[Jerome Kern]] classic "Long Ago (And Far Away)." Also included are the so-called Secaucus manuscripts (scores and lyric sheets found in a Secaucus, N. J., Warner Bros. warehouse), George's harmony exercises, and eight of his musical sketchbooks.
==Further reading==
*Ira Gerswhin - ''Lyrics on Several Occasions: a selection of stage and screen lyrics written for sundry situations and now arranged in arbitrary categories, to which have been added many informative annotations and disquistions on their why and wherefore, their whom-for, their how, and matters associative'' (1959)
==References==
{{cite book | author=Rosenberg, Deena | title=Fascinating Rhythm: The Collaboration of George and Ira Gershwin | publisher= Penguin Books USA Inc. | year=1991 | id=ISBN 0-525-93356-5}}
==External links==
* [http://www.gershwinfan.com/ Gershwin fan site]
* [http://www.loc.gov/loc/lcib/9809/gershwin.html Library of Congress Gershwin collection]
{{Porgy}}
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Indus River
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The '''Indus''' (sometimes considered a [[misnomer]]{{Citation needed}}) is the [[English language|English]] name for the Sengge Chu which flows from Tibet into Ladakh and Baltistan, finally arriving into Pakistan. Also called [[Sindh]] Nadi (''nadi'' literally means "river"), known as the ''Sindhu'' in [[Sanskrit]], ''Sinthos'' in [[Greek language|Greek]], and ''Sindus'' in [[Latin]], is the principal [[river]] of [[Pakistan]]. Before the [[partition of India]] into the modern states of [[India]] and Pakistan in 1947, the Indus was second only to the [[Ganges]] in terms of cultural and commercial importance for the subcontinent, and the name [[India]] is derived from the root of the river's name. The river originates in [[Tibet]], flowing from the [[Himalaya]] in a north-westernly direction through [[Kashmir]], and then turning south for nearly the entire length of Pakistan. Figures for the total length of the river vary between 2900 and 3200 km. The [[Indus Valley Civilization]] had some of the earliest urban settlement in the world.
[[Image: Indus.jpg|thumb|300px|The Indus River in northern [[Pakistan]], near the rock Aornus.]]
== Course and Hydrology ==
The ultimate source of the Indus is actually in [[Tibet]]; it begins at the confluence of the [[Sengge River]] and [[Gar River]] that drain the [[Nganglong Kangri]] and [[Gangdise Shan]] ranges. The Indus then flows northwest through [[Ladakh-Baltistan]] into Gilgit just south of the [[Karakoram]] range, then gradually bends to the south, coming out of the hills between [[Peshawar]] and [[Rawalpindi]]. It is dammed in this area also, forming the [[Tarbela Reservoir]]. The remainder of its route to the sea is in plains of the [[Punjab region|Punjab]] and [[Sind]], and the river becomes slow-flowing and highly braided. It is joined by [[Panjnad]] river at [[Mithankot]]. Passing by [[Hyderabad, Pakistan|Hyderabad]], it ends in a large delta to the southeast of [[Karachi]].
=== Tributaries ===
[[Image:Indus.A2002274.0610.1km.jpg|thumb|200px|Satellite image of the Indus River basin.]]
* [[Shigar River]]
* [[Zangskar River]]
* [[Suru Chu River]]
* [[Wakha River]]
* [[Shingo River]]
* [[Gar River]]
* [[Astore River]]
* [[Gilgit River]]
* [[Ghizar River]]
* [[Hunza River]]
'''* [[Gumal River]]
* [[Zhob River]]'''
* [[Kabul River]]
* [[Kunar River]]
* [[Sutlej River]]
* [[Shyok River]]
* [[Beas River]]
* [[Chenab River]]
* [[Jhelum River]]
* [[Ravi River]]
=== Other ===
The Indus is one of the few rivers in the world that exhibit a [[tidal bore]].
The Indus is, by volume, the largest ''exotic river'' (one that mainly flows through a country from which it receives no water) in the world.
== History and Archeology ==
The [[Indus Valley Civilization]] was one of the three earliest civilizations of the ancient world, the other two being [[Sumer]] (in [[Mesopotamia]]/[[Iraq]]) and [[ancient Egypt]]. The major cities of the Indus Valley civilization, such as [[Harappa]] and [[Mohenjo Daro]], date back to around 3300 BC, and represent some of the largest human habitations of the ancient world.
== Wildlife ==
The [[Indus River Dolphin]] is a sub-species of Dolphins found only in the Indus River. It formerly also occurred in the tributaries of the Indus river. [[Palla fish]] (''[[Hilsa ilisha]]'') of the river is a delicacy for people living along the river.
Located southeast of [[Karachi]], the large delta has been recognised by conservationists as one of the world's most important ecological regions.
== See also ==
* [[Geography of India]]
* [[Geography of China]]
* [[Geography of Pakistan]]
* [[Indus River Delta]]
* [[Indus Water Treaty]]
==External links==
* [http://www.northernareas.org.pk/ Northern Areas Development Gateway]
* [http://www.macp-pk.org/home.asp The Mountain Areas Conservancy Project]
* [http://earthtrends.wri.org/maps_spatial/maps_fullscale.cfm?mapID=355&theme=2 Indus River watershed map (World Resources Institute)]
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Integer factorization
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In [[number theory]], the '''integer factorization''' problem is the problem of finding a
[[divisor|non-trivial divisor]] of a [[composite number]]; for example, given a number like 91, the challenge is to find a number such as 7 which [[divides]] it.
When the numbers are very large, no efficient [[algorithm]] is known; a recent effort which factored a 200 digit number ([[RSA-200]]) took eighteen months and used over half a century of computer time. The supposed difficulty of this problem is at the heart of certain algorithms in [[cryptography]] such as [[RSA]]. Many areas of [[mathematics]] and [[computer science]] have been brought to bear on the problem, including [[elliptic curves]], [[algebraic number theory]], and [[quantum computer|quantum computing]].
Not all numbers of a given length are equally hard to factor. Given the state of the art as of [[2006]], the hardest instances of these problems are those where the factors are two randomly-chosen prime numbers of about the same size.
==Prime decomposition==
By the [[fundamental theorem of arithmetic]], every positive integer has a unique prime factorization. Given an algorithm for integer factorization, one can factor any integer down to its constituent primes by repeated application of this algorithm.
==Practical applications==
The hardness of this problem is at the heart of several important cryptographic systems. A fast integer factorization algorithm would mean that the [[RSA]] [[public-key]] algorithm was insecure. Some cryptographic systems, such as the [[Rabin cryptosystem|Rabin public-key algorithm]] and the [[Blum Blum Shub]] [[pseudo-random number generator]] can make a stronger guarantee - any means of breaking them can be used to build a fast integer factorization algorithm, so if integer factorization is hard then they are strong. In contrast, it may turn out that there are attacks on the [[RSA problem]] more efficient than integer factorization, though none are currently known.
A similar hard problem with cryptographic applications is the [[discrete logarithm problem]].
==Current state of the art==
A team at the German Federal Agency for Information Technology Security ([[BSI]]) holds the record for factorization of [[semiprimes]] in the series proposed by the [[RSA Factoring Challenge]] sponsored by [[RSA Security]]. On May 9, [[2005]], this team announced factorization of [[RSA-200]], a 663-bit number (200 decimal digits), using the [[general number field sieve]].
The same team later announced factorization of [[RSA-640]], a smaller number containing 193 decimal digits (640 bits), on November 4, 2005.
Both factorizations required several months of computer time using the combined power of 80 [[AMD]] [[Opteron]] CPUs.
===Difficulty and complexity===
If a large, ''b''-[[bit]] number is the product of two primes that are roughly the same size, then no [[algorithm]] is known that can factor in polynomial time. That means there is no known algorithm that can factor it in time [[Big O notation|O]](''b''<sup>''k''</sup>) for any constant ''k''. There are algorithms, however, that are faster than [[Big O notation|Θ]](e<sup>''b''</sup>). In other words, the best known algorithms are sub-exponential, but super-polynomial. In particular, the best known asymptotic running time is for the [[general number field sieve]] (GNFS) algorithm, which, for a number n, is:
:<math>O\left(\exp\left(\left(\begin{matrix}\frac{64}{9}\end{matrix} \log n\right)^{1\over3} (\log \log n)^{2\over3}\right)\right)</math>
For an ordinary computer, GNFS is the best known algorithm for large ''n''. For a [[quantum computer]], however, [[Peter Shor]] discovered an algorithm in 1994 that solves it in [[polynomial time]]. This will have significant implications for cryptography if a large quantum computer is ever built. [[Shor's algorithm]] takes only O((''log n'')<sup>3</sup>) time and O(log ''n'') space. In 2001, the first 7-qubit quantum computer became the first to run Shor's algorithm. It factored the number 15.
It is not known exactly which [[computational complexity theory|complexity classes]] contain the integer factorization problem. The [[decision problem|decision-problem]] form of it ("does ''N'' have a factor less than ''M''?") is known to be in both [[NP (complexity)|NP]] and [[co-NP]]. This is because both YES and NO answers can be checked if given the prime factors along with their [[primality certificate]]s. It is known to be in [[BQP]] because of [[Shor's algorithm]]. It is suspected to be outside of all three of the complexity classes [[P (complexity)|P]], [[NP-Complete]], and [[co-NP-Complete]]. If it could be proved that it is in either NP-Complete or co-NP-Complete, that would imply NP = co-NP. That would be a very surprising result, and therefore integer factorization is widely suspected to be outside both of those classes. Many people have tried to find classical polynomial-time algorithms for it and failed, and therefore it is widely suspected to be outside P. Another problem in NP but not believed to be in P or NP-complete is the [[graph isomorphism problem]].
Interestingly, the decision problem "is ''N'' a [[composite number]]?" (or equivalently: "is ''N'' a [[prime number]]?") appears to be much easier than the problem of actually finding the factors of ''N''. Specifically, the former can be solved in polynomial time (in the number ''n'' of digits of ''N''), according to a recent preprint given in the references, below. In addition, there are a number of [[randomized algorithm|probabilistic algorithm]]s that can test primality very quickly if one is willing to accept the small possibility of error. The easiness of [[primality test]]ing is a crucial part of the [[RSA]] algorithm, as it is necessary to find large prime numbers to start with.
==Factoring algorithms==
===Special-purpose===
A special-purpose factoring algorithm's running time depends on the properties of its unknown factors: size, special form, etc. Exactly what the running time depends on, varies between algorithms.
* [[Trial division]]
* [[Pollard's rho algorithm]]
* [[Pollard's p-1 algorithm]]
* [[William's p plus 1 algorithm|Williams' p+1 algorithm]]
* [[Lenstra elliptic curve factorization]]
* [[Fermat's factorization method]]
* [[Special number field sieve]]
===General-purpose===
A general-purpose factoring algorithm's running time depends solely on the size of the integer to be factored. This is the type of algorithm used to factor [[RSA number]]s. Most general-purpose factoring algorithms are based on the [[congruence of squares]] method.
* [[Dixon's algorithm]]
* [[Continued fraction factorization]] (CFRAC)
* [[Quadratic sieve]]
* [[General number field sieve]]
* [[Shanks' square forms factorization]] (SQUFOF)
===Other notable algorithms===
* [[Shor's algorithm]], for [[quantum computer]]s
==External links==
*Richard P. Brent, "Recent Progress and Prospects for Integer Factorisation Algorithms", ''Computing and Combinatorics"'', 2000, pp.3-22. [http://citeseer.ist.psu.edu/327036.html download]
*Manindra Agarwal, Nitin Saxena, Neeraj Kayal, "PRIMES is in P", Preprint, August 6, 2002, http://www.cse.iitk.ac.in/news/primality.html
* The "PRIMES is in P" FAQ [http://crypto.cs.mcgill.ca/~stiglic/PRIMES_P_FAQ.html http://crypto.cs.mcgill.ca/~stiglic/PRIMES_P_FAQ.html]
* [ftp://ftp.computing.dcu.ie/pub/crypto/factor.exe] is a public-domain integer factorization program for Windows. It claims to handle 80-digit numbers. See also the web site for this program [http://indigo.ie/~mscott/ MIRACL]
* [http://www.alpertron.com.ar/ECM.HTM http://www.alpertron.com.ar/ECM.HTM] is an integer factorization Java applet that uses the Elliptic Curve Method and the Self Initializing Quadratic Sieve.
* [http://www.rsasecurity.com/rsalabs/node.asp?id=2093 The RSA Challenge Numbers] - a factoring challenge.
* Eric W. Weisstein, [http://mathworld.wolfram.com/news/2005-11-08/rsa-640/ “RSA-640 Factored,”] ''MathWorld Headline News'', November 8, 2005, http://mathworld.wolfram.com/news/2005-11-08/rsa-640/
==References==
* [[Donald Knuth]]. ''The Art of Computer Programming'', Volume 2: ''Seminumerical Algorithms'', Third Edition. Addison-Wesley, 1997. ISBN 0-201-89684-2. Section 4.5.4: Factoring into Primes, pp.379–417.
* {{cite book|author = [[Richard Crandall]] and [[Carl Pomerance]] | year = 2001 | title = Prime Numbers: A Computational Perspective | publisher = Springer | edition = 1st edition | id = ISBN 0387947779}} Chapter 5: Exponential Factoring Algorithms, pp.191–226. Chapter 6: Subexponential Factoring Algorithms, pp.227–284. Section 7.4: Elliptic curve method, pp.301–313.
[[Category:Integer factorization algorithms|*]]
[[ar:مشكلة التفكيك إلى جداء عوامل أولية]]
[[de:Faktorisierungsverfahren]]
[[fr:Décomposition en produit de facteurs premiers]]
[[ko:소인수분해]]
[[is:Þáttun]]
[[nl:Priemfactor]]
[[ja:素因数分解]]
[[pl:Faktoryzacja]]
[[ru:Факторизация]]
[[sl:Praštevilski razcep]]
[[sv:Faktorisering]]
[[zh:整数分解]]
Imperial unit
15492
41885475
2006-03-02T10:21:37Z
195.131.172.165
/* External links */
:''This article is about post-1824 Imperial units, please see also [[English unit]], [[U.S. customary unit]] or [[Avoirdupois]].''
The '''Imperial units''' or the '''Imperial system''' is a [[system of units|collection]] of [[English unit]]s, first defined in the Weights and Measures Act<!--s--> of 1824<!-- and 1879-->, later refined (until 1959) and reduced. The units were introduced in the [[United Kingdom]] and its colonies, including [[Commonwealth of Nations|Commonwealth]] countries, but excluding the then already independent [[United States]]. Systems of Imperial units are sometimes referred to as '''foot-pound-second''', after the base units of length, weight and time.
== Relation to other systems ==
[[Comparison of the Imperial and U.S. customary systems|The distinction]] between this imperial system and the [[U.S. customary unit]]s (also called standard units there) or older British/English units/systems and newer additions is often not drawn precisely. Most length units are shared among the Imperial and U.S. systems, albeit partially and temporally defined slightly differently. Capacity measures differ the most due to the introduction of the Imperial [[gallon]] and the unification of wet and dry measures. The [[avoirdupois]] system only applies to weights; it has a ''long'' flavour and a ''short'' flavour for the hundredweight and ton.
The term ''imperial'' should not be applied to English units that were outlawed in Weights and Measures Act of 1824 or earlier, or which had fallen out of use by that time, nor to post-imperial inventions such as the [[slug (mass)|slug]] or [[poundal]].
Although most of the units are defined in more than one system, some subsidiary units were used to a much greater extent, or for different purposes, in one area rather than the other.
== Measures of length ==
[[Image:ImperialStandardsOfLength1876TrafalgarSquare Copyright2005KaihsuTai.jpg|thumb|right|Imperial standards of length 1876 in [[Trafalgar Square]], [[London]].]]
After the [[1 July]] [[1959]] deadline, agreed upon in 1958, the U.S. and the British yard were defined identically (0.9144 m) to the ''international yard''. Metric equivalents in this article usually assume this latest official definition. Before this date, the most precise measurement of the Imperial Standard Yard was 0.914398416 m (Sears et al. 1928. ''Phil Trans A'' 227:281).
{| class="wikitable"
|-
!
! inch
! link
! foot
! yard
! pole
! chain
! furlong
! mile
! league
! [[metre]]
|-
! one [[inch]]
|'''1'''
| 100/792
| 1/12
| 1/36
| 1/198
| 1/792
| 1/7,920
| 1/63,360
| 1/190,080
| 0.0254
|-
! one [[link (unit)|link]]
| 792/100
| '''1'''
| 66/100
| 22/100
| 4/100
| 1/100
| 1/1000
| 1/8,000
| 1/24,000
| 0.201168
|-
! one [[foot (unit of length)|foot]]
| 12
| 100/66
| '''1'''
| 1/3
| 2/33
| 1/66
| 1/660
| 1/5,280
| 1/15,840
| 0.3048
|-
! one [[yard]]
| 36
| 100/22
| 3
| '''1'''
| 2/11
| 1/22
| 1/220
| 1/1,760
| 1/5,280
| 0.9144
|-
! one [[pole (unit of length)|pole]]*
| 198
| 25
| 16½
| 5½
| '''1'''
| 1/4
| 1/40
| 1/320
| 1/960
| 5.0292
|-
! one [[chain (unit)|chain]]
| 792
| 100
| 66
| 22
| 4
| '''1'''
| 1/10
| 1/80
| 1/240
| 20.1168
|-
! one [[furlong]]
| 7,920
| 1,000
| 660
| 220
| 40
| 10
| '''1'''
| 1/8
| 1/24
| 201.168
|-
! one [[mile]]
| 63,360
| 8,000
| 5,280
| 1,760
| 320
| 80
| 8
| '''1'''
| 1/3
| 1,609.344
|-
! one [[league (unit)|league]]
| 190,080
| 24,000
| 15,840
| 5,280
| 960
| 240
| 24
| 3
| '''1'''
| 4,828.032
|}
* ''The pole is also called rod or perch.''
Until the adoption of the international definition of 1852 metres in 1970, the British [[nautical mile]] was defined as 6080 feet (1.85318 km). It was not readily expressible in terms of any of the intermediate units, because it was derived from the circumference of the Earth (like the original [[metre]]).<!--Cable length? Shackle?--> Depth of water at sea was expressed in [[fathom]]s (6 feet = 1.8288 m).
== Measures of area ==
{|
|+ Area
!1 ''[[rood]]''
| = 1 furlong × 1 rod || = 40 square rods || = 10890 square feet || = 0.10117141056 ha || = 1011.7141056 m²
|-
!1 ''[[acre]]''
| = 1 furlong × 1 chain || = 160 square rods || = 1/640 square mile || = 0.40468564224 [[hectare|ha]] || = 4046.8564224 m²
|-
|}
== Measures of volume ==
In [[1824]], Britain adopted a close approximation to the ale gallon known as the Imperial gallon. The Imperial gallon was based on the volume of 10 [[Pound (weight)|lb]] of distilled water weighed in air with brass weights with the barometer standing at 30 [[inch of mercury|in]] and at a temperature of 62 [[Fahrenheit|°F]]. In 1963, this definition was refined as the space occupied by 10 lb of distilled water of density 0.998 859 [[gram|g]]/[[millilitre|mL]] weighed in air of density 0.001 217 g/mL against weights of density 8.136 g/mL. This works out to exactly 4.545 964 591 L, or 277.420 in³. The Weights and Measures Act of 1985 finally switched to a gallon of exactly 4.546 09 L (approximately 277.419 43 cu in<!--- 277.419432791621488754788533199114 --->) [http://www.sizes.com/units/gallon_imperial.htm].
{|
|+ Wet <!-- The wet and dry distinction should be superfluous, although usage may be so. -->
!1 [[fluid ounce]]
| || || || = 0.028 413 062 5 L
|-
!1 [[gill (unit)|gill]]
| || || = 5 oz. || = 0.142 065 312 5 L
|-
!1 [[pint]]
| || = 4 gills || = 20 oz. || = 0.568 261 25 L
|-
!1 [[quart]]
| || = 2 pints || = 40 oz. || = 1.136 522 5 L
|-
!1 [[gallon]]
| = 4 quarts || = 8 pints || = 160 oz. || = 4.546 09 L
|}
{|
|+ Dry
!1 [[peck]]<!-- Imperial or just English? -->
| || || = 2 gal. || = 9.092 18 L
|-
!1 [[Kenning (disambiguation)|kenning]] or bucket<!-- Imperial or just English? -->
| || = 2 pecks || = 4 gal. || = 18.184 36 L
|-
!1 [[bushel]]
| = 2 kennings || = 4 pecks || = 8 gal. || = 36.368 72 L
|-
!1 [[strike (unit)|strike]]<!-- Imperial or just English? -->
| || = 2 bushels || = 16 gal. || = 72.737 44 L
|-
!1 [[quarter (unit)|quarter]] or pail<!-- Imperial or just English? -->
| || = 8 bushels || = 64 gal. || = 290.949 76 L
|-
!1 [[chaldron]]<!-- Imperial or just English? -->
| = 4 quarters || = 32 bushels || = 256 gal. || = 1163.799 04 L
|-
!1 [[last (unit)|last]]<!-- Imperial or just English? -->
| = 10 quarters || = 80 bushels || = 640 gal. || = 2909.497 6 L
|}
{|
|+ Brewery<!-- Imperial or just English? -->
!1 [[firkin]]
| || || = 9 gal. || = 40.914 81 L
|-
!1 [[kilderkin]]
| || = 2 firkin || = 18 gal. || = 81.829 62 L
|-
!1 [[barrel (unit)|barrel]]
| = 2 kilderkin || = 4 firkin || = 36 gal. || = 163.659 24 L
|-
!1 [[hogshead]] (of beer)
| = 3 kilderkin || = 6 firkin || = 54 gal. || = 245.488 86 L
|}
The full table of British apothecaries' measure is as follows:<!--abolished when? 1879 IIRC-->
{|
|+ Apothecaries' measure
!1 ''[[minim (unit)|minim]]''
| || || = 0.059 193 880 208¯3 mL
|-
!1 ''fluid scruple''
| || = 20 minims || = 1.183 877 604 1¯6 mL
|-
!1 [[Dram (volume)|fluid dram]] or ''fluidram''
|= 3 fluid scruples || = 60 minims || = 3.551 632 812 5 mL
|-
!1 fluid ounce
|= 8 fluid drachms || = 480 minims || = 28.413 062 5 mL
|-
!1 pint
| || = 20 fluid ounces || = 568.261 25 mL
|-
!1 gallon
| = 8 pints || = 160 fluid ounces || = 4.546 09 L
|}
For a comparison to the U.S. customary system see the article on [[Comparison of the Imperial and US customary systems]].
== Measures of weight and mass ==
Britain has made some use of three different weight systems, [[troy weight]], used for precious metals, [[avoirdupois]] weight, used for most other purposes, and [[apothecaries' weight]], now virtually unused since the metric system is used for all scientific purposes.
The use of the ''[[Pound (weight)|troy pound]]'' (373.241 721 6 g) was abolished in Britain on January 6, 1879, <!-- should this be 1 Jan? It's in Weights and Measures Act of 1878 ... Is it even Imperial? -->with only the ''troy ounce'' (31.103 476 8 g) and its [[decimal]] subdivisions retained. In all the systems, the fundamental unit is the [[Pound (weight)|pound]], and all other units are defined as fractions or multiples of it.
{|
|+ Avoirdupois Mass
!1 mite<!-- Imperial or just English? -->
| = 1/20 grain || || = 3.239 945 5 mg
|-
!1 grain
| || || = 64.798 91 mg
|-
!1 drachm
| = 1/16 ounce || = 1/256 pound || = 1.771 845 195 312 5 g
|-
!1 ounce
| || = 1/16 pound || = 28.349 523 125 g
|-
!1 pound
| = 7000 grains || || = 453.592 37 g
|-
!1 stone
| || = 14 pounds || = 6.350 293 18 kg
|-
!1 quarter
| = 2 stone || = 28 pounds || = 12.700 586 36 kg <!-- the plural of stone is stone. 1 stone, 2 stone, etc. -->
|-
!1 hundredweight
| = 4 quarters || = 112 pounds || = 50.802 345 44 kg
|-
!1 ton
|= 20 hundredweight || = 2240 pounds || = 1016.046 908 8 kg
|}
Note that the British [[ton]] is 2240 pounds (the [[long ton]]), which is very close to a metric [[tonne]], whereas the ton generally used in the United States is the "short ton" of 2000 pounds (907.184 74 kg), both are 20 hundredweights. For more on Commonwealth-U.S. differences see ''[[Comparison of the Imperial and US customary systems]]''.
== Current use of Imperial units ==
British law now defines each Imperial unit entirely in terms of the metric equivalent. See the
[http://www.hmso.gov.uk/si/si1995/Uksi_19951804_en_2.htm Units of Measurement Regulations 1995]. This regulation effectively outlaws their usage in retail and trading except in previously established exceptions. This has now been proved by in court against the so called '[[Metric Martyrs]]', a small group of market traders. Despite this, many small market traders still use the customary measures, citing customer preference especially among the older population.
In the United States and in a few [[Caribbean]] countries, the [[U.S. customary units]], which are similar to Imperial units based upon older [[English unit]]s and in part share definitions, are still in common use. English units have been replaced elsewhere by the [[SI]] (metric) system. Most Commonwealth countries have switched entirely to the international system of units.
The United Kingdom completed its legal transition to SI units in 1995, but a few such units are still in official use: draught beer ''must'' still be sold in [[pint]]s, most roadsign distances are still in yards and miles, and speed limits are in [[miles per hour]], therefore interfaces in cars ''must'' have miles, and even though the [[troy weight|troy pound]] was outlawed in Great Britain in the Weights and Measures Act of 1878, the ''troy ounce'' still ''may'' be used for the weight of precious stones and metals. The use of SI units is increasingly mandated by law for the retail sale of food and other commodities, but most British people still use Imperial units in colloquial discussion of distance (miles and yards), speed (miles per hour), weight (stone and pounds), liquid (pints and gallons) and height (feet and inches).
In Canada, the government's efforts to implement the metric system were more extensive: pretty much any agency, institution, or thing provided by the government will use SI units exclusively. Imperial units were eliminated from all road signs, although both systems of measurement will still be found on privately-owned signs (such as the height warnings at the entrance of a multi-story parking facility). Temperatures in degrees Fahrenheit will occasionally be heard on English Canadian commercial radio stations, but only those that cater to older listeners. The law requires that measured products (such as fuel and meat) be priced in metric units, although there is leniency in regards to fruits and vegetables. Traditional units persist in ordinary conversation and may be experiencing a resurgence due to the reduction in trade barriers with the United States. Few Canadians would use SI units to describe their weight and height, although driver's licences use SI units. In livestock auction markets, cattle are sold in dollars per hundredweight (short, of course), whereas hogs are sold in dollars per hundred kilograms. Land is surveyed and registered in metric units, but imperial units still dominate in construction, house renovation and gardening talk (although "two-by-fours" don't ''actually'' measure 2×4", for example).
One area where Imperial units are still in current use is in firearms and ammunition. For example, Imperial measures are still used in the description of cartridge types, even where the cartridge is of relatively recent invention (e.g., .204 Ruger, .17 HMR, where the caliber is expressed in decimal fractions of an inch). In the manufacture of ammunition, bullet and powder weights are still expressed in terms of Imperial grains.
== See also ==
* [[Conversion of units]]
* [[Cooking weights and measures]]
* [[Metrication]]
* [[Metrified English unit]]
* [[Unit of measurement]]
* [[Systems of measurement]]
* [[History of measurement]]
== References ==
* Appendices B and C of [http://ts.nist.gov/ts/htdocs/230/235/h442003.htm NIST Handbook 44]
* Barry N. Taylor's [http://physics.nist.gov/Pubs/SP811/ NIST Special Publication 811], also available as [http://physics.nist.gov/Document/sp811.pdf a PDF file]
== External links ==
* [http://laws.justice.gc.ca/en/w-6/109089.html Canada - Weights and Measures Act 1970-71-72]
* [http://193.120.124.98/gen531996a.html Ireland - Metrology Act 1996]
* [http://www.hmso.gov.uk/si/si1995/Uksi_19951804_en_2.htm UK - Units of Measurement Regulations 1995]
* [http://www.metric.org.uk/ The UK Metric Association]
* [http://www.bwmaonline.com/ British Weights And Measures Association]
* [http://www.metric4us.com Metric4us.com]
*[http://www.unitconversion.org Unit converters of 99.9% known units in 67 categories]
* Jacques J. Proot's [http://users.aol.com/jackproot/met/spvolas.html Anglo-Saxon weights & measures] page.
[[Category:Imperial units|*]]
[[Category:Systems of units]]
[[bg:Имперска единица]]
[[de:Angloamerikanisches Maßsystem]]
[[fr:Unité de mesure anglo-saxonne]]
[[nl:Imperiale Systeem]]
[[ja:ヤード・ポンド法]]
[[pl:Anglosaski układ jednostek miar]]
[[ru:Английская система мер]]
[[zh:英制]]
Incompatible-properties argument
15494
19115434
2005-07-18T23:59:04Z
Lupin
42385
/* Simplicity vs. omniscience */
The '''Incompatible-properties argument''' is the idea that no description of [[God]] is consistent with [[reality]]. For example, if one takes the definition of God to be described fully from the [[Bible]], then the claims of what properties God has described therein might be argued to lead to a [[contradiction]].
==Evil vs. good and omnipotence==
The [[problem of evil]] is the argument that the existence of evil is incompatible with the concept of an omnipotent and perfectly good God.
A variation does not depend on the existence of evil. A truly omnipotent God could create all possible worlds. A "good" God can create only "good" worlds. A God that created all possible worlds would have no moral qualities whatsoever, and could be replaced by a random generator. The standard response is to argue a distinction between "could create" and "would create." In other words, God "could" create all possible worlds but that is simply not in God's nature. This has been argued by theologians for centuries. However, the result is that a "good" God is incompatible with some possible worlds, thus incapable of creating them without losing the property of being a totally different God.
==Purpose vs. timelessness==
One argument based on incompatible properties rests on a definition of God that includes a will, plan or purpose and an existence outside of [[time]]. To say that a being possesses a purpose implies an inclination or tendency to steer events toward some state that does not yet exist. This, in turn, implies a privileged direction, which we may call "[[time]]". It may be one direction of [[causality]], the direction of increasing [[entropy]], or some other emergent property of a world. These are not identical, but one must exist in order to progress toward a goal.
In general, God's time would not be related to our time. God might be able to operate within our time without being constrained to do so. However, God could then step outside this game for any purpose. Thus God's time must be aligned with our time if human activities are relevant to God's purpose. (In a relativistic universe, presumably this means -- at any point in spacetime -- time measured from t=0 at the Big Bang or end of inflation.)
A God existing outside of any sort of time could not create anything because creation substitutes one thing for another, or for nothing. Creation requires a creator that existed, by definition, prior to the thing created.
==Omniscience vs. indeterminacy or free will==
Another pair of incompatible properties is omniscience and either indeterminacy or [[free will]]. Omniscience concerning the past and present (properly defined relative to Earth) is not a problem, but omniscience regarding the future implies it has been determined. That is possible only in a deterministic world.
==Simplicity vs. omniscience==
Another pair is simplicity and omniscience. God's memory alone vastly exceeds the terabytes in our computers, and bits (or bytes) are the fundamental mathematical units of information. Information is not "ineffable" and cannot be reduced to something simpler. Furthermore, God must live forever and therefore must have a deterministic processing unit or infinite error correction mechanisms. The simplest implementation is deterministic and quite unconscious, seemingly incompatible with an intelligent being.
== External links ==
*[http://www.secularhumanism.org/library/philo/drange_1_2.htm A description of 10 more incompatibilities]
*[http://www.missouri.edu/~kvanvigj/papers/omniscienceandeternityareplytocraig.htm A response to William Craig] --Technical paper on omniscience and time.
*[http://students.washington.edu/tmetcalf/oamp.htm Omniscience and Omnipotence]
International Society of Olympic Historians
15495
28993977
2005-11-22T17:37:58Z
82.120.131.110
The '''International Society of Olympic Historians''' is a [[non-profit organisation]] with the purpose of promoting and studying the Olympic Movement and the Olympic Games. This purpose is achieved primarily through research into their history, through the gathering of historical and statistical data concerning the Olympic Movement and Olympic Games, through the publication of the research via journals and other publications, and through the cooperation of the membership.
The International Society of Olympic Historians (ISOH) was formed as the result of a meeting in London, England in December 1991. The idea of forming an Olympic historical society had been the subject of correspondence – mainly between Bill Mallon ([[United States]]) and Ture Widlund ([[Sweden]]) – for many years. On Thursday, [[December 5|5 December]] [[1991]], a group of potential members met at the Duke of Clarence, a small pub in the Kensington section of [[London]]. Those present were Ian Buchanan ([[Great Britain]]), Stan Greenberg ([[Great Britain]]), Ove Karlsson ([[Sweden]]), Bill Mallon ([[United States]]), Peter Matthews ([[Great Britain]]), [[David Wallechinsky]] ([[United States]]), and Ture Widlund ([[Sweden]]). The invited guests who sent regrets were: Anthony Bijkerk ([[Netherlands]]), Peter Diamond ([[United States]]), Pim Huurman ([[Netherlands]]), Erich Kamper ([[Austria]]), Volker Kluge ([[Germany]]), John Lucas ([[United States]]), and Wolf Lyberg ([[Sweden]]).
Currently, the ISOH has about 300 members from 50 nations. The ISOH publishes the ''Journal of Olympic History'' (formerly ''Citius, Altius, Fortius'') three times a year.
From its inception to 2000, Ian Buchanan has been the president of the ISOH. In 2000, this function was taken over by Bill Mallon.
Organization homepage: [http://www.olykamp.org/isoh/ ISOH Homepage]
See also [[Sports history organizations]]
[[Category:Olympics]]
[[Category:History of sports]]
[[Category:Non-profit organizations]]
[[it:Società internazionale degli storici olimpici]]
Serie A
15496
41910143
2006-03-02T15:33:06Z
ChrisTheDude
625916
/* Teams 2005-06 */ slight re-wording
'''Serie A''' is the top division of the [[Italian Football League]], the highest [[football (soccer)|football]] league in [[Italy]]. Italian mobile phone company [[Telecom Italia Mobile|TIM]] is the main sponsor, so the official name is Serie A TIM. The division consists of 20 clubs from the [[2004]]-[[2005|05]] season, with each team competing against each other team twice, round-robin style, for a total of 38 matches per season. The bottom three clubs in the league table are [[relegation|relegated]] to [[Serie B]]. The top two clubs from Serie B are promoted automatically, while the third- through sixth-place clubs enter a promotion playoff for the final place in Serie A. The promotion playoff, similar to that used for years in [[England]]'s [[The Football League|Football League]], was first employed in 2004-05.
Serie A, as it is structured today, began in [[1929]]. From [[1898]] to 1929 the competition was organised into regional groups. No title was awarded in [[1927]] after [[Torino Calcio|Torino]] were stripped of the championship by the [[Italian Football Federation]] (FIGC). Torino were declared champions in the [[1948]]-[[1949|49]] season following [[Superga air disaster|a plane crash]] near the end of the season in which the entire team was killed.
The Serie A Championship title is often referred to as the '''Scudetto''' (small shield) because the winning team will bear a small coat of arms with the [[flag of Italy|Italian tricolour]] on their uniform in the following season. The most successful league club is [[Juventus]] with 28 championships, followed by [[A.C. Milan]] (17), [[Internazionale Milano F.C.|Internazionale]] (13) and [[Genoa 1893|Genoa C&FC]] (9). For every ten titles won, clubs are allowed to wear a golden star above their club badge; so Juventus has two stars, while Milan and Internazionale have one star each.
==Teams 2005-06==
Twenty clubs compete in Serie A in the 2005-06 season. The first two teams qualify for the [[UEFA Champions League]] automatically, while the third and fourth enter the qualifying rounds. The fifth and sixth teams, as well as the winner of the [[Coppa Italia]], enter the [[UEFA Cup]]. For the season 2005-06, the Italian teams playing Champions League are Juventus, Milan, Internazionale, and Udinese – the last two entered through qualification matches; Sampdoria, Palermo and Roma (as runner-up in Coppa Italia) will play in the UEFA Cup.
*'''[[Ascoli Calcio 1898]]''' ([[Ascoli Piceno]])
*'''[[Cagliari Calcio]]''' ([[Cagliari]])
*'''[[A.C. ChievoVerona]]''' ([[Verona]])
*'''[[Empoli F.C.]]''' ([[Empoli]])
*'''[[ACF Fiorentina]]''' ([[Florence]])
*'''[[Internazionale Milano F.C.]]''' ([[Milan]])
*'''[[Juventus F.C.]]''' ([[Turin]])
*'''[[S.S. Lazio]]''' ([[Rome]])
*'''[[U.S. Lecce]]''' ([[Lecce]])
*'''[[A.S. Livorno Calcio]]''' ([[Livorno]])
*'''[[F.C. Messina Peloro]]''' ([[Messina]])
*'''[[A.C. Milan]]''' ([[Milan]])
*'''[[U.S. Città di Palermo]]''' ([[Palermo]])
*'''[[Parma F.C.]]''' ([[Parma]])
*'''[[Reggina Calcio]]''' ([[Reggio Calabria]])
*'''[[A.S. Roma]]''' ([[Rome]])
*'''[[U.C. Sampdoria]]''' ([[Genoa]])
*'''[[A.C. Siena]]''' ([[Siena]])
*'''[[Treviso F.B.C. 1993]]''' ([[Treviso]])
*'''[[Udinese Calcio]]''' ([[Udine]])
==Champions==
{|
|valign="top"|
* 1898 - [[Genoa Cricket & Football Club|Genoa Cricket & Athletic Club]]
* 1899 - Genoa Cricket & Athletic Club
* 1900 - [[Genoa Cricket & Football Club]]
* 1901 - [[A.C. Milan|Milan Cricket & FC]]
* 1902 - Genoa C&FC
* 1903 - Genoa C&FC
* 1904 - Genoa C&FC
* 1905 - [[Juventus F.C.|Juventus FC]]
* 1906 - [[A.C. Milan|Milan FC]]
* 1907 - Milan FC
* 1908 - [[U.S. Pro Vercelli Calcio|Pro Vercelli]]
* 1909 - Pro Vercelli
* 1910 - [[Internazionale Milano F.C.|Internazionale]]
* 1911 - Pro Vercelli
* 1912 - Pro Vercelli
* 1913 - Pro Vercelli
* 1914 - [[A.S. Casale Calcio|Casale]]
* 1915 - Genoa C&FC (title awarded by the FIGC)
* 1916-19 - ''league suspended due to [[World War I]]''
* 1920 - Internazionale
* 1921 - Pro Vercelli
* 1922 - ''CCI:'' Pro Vercelli; ''FIGC:'' [[U.S. Novese|US Novese]]
* 1923 - Genoa C&FC
* 1924 - Genoa C&FC
* 1925 - [[Bologna F.C. 1909|Bologna FC]]
* 1926 - Juventus FC
* 1927 - [[Torino F.C.|FC Torino]] (removed by the FIGC)
* 1928 - FC Torino
* 1929 - Bologna
* 1929-30 - [[Internazionale Milano F.C.|Ambrosiana SS]]
* 1930-31 - Juventus FC
* 1931-32 - Juventus FC
* 1932-33 - Juventus FC
* 1933-34 - Juventus FC
* 1934-35 - Juventus FC
* 1935-36 - Bologna
* 1936-37 - Bologna
* 1937-38 - [[Internazionale Milano F.C.|Ambrosiana-Internazionale]]
* 1938-39 - Bologna
* 1939-40 - Ambrosiana-Internazionale
* 1940-41 - Bologna
* 1941-42 - [[A.S. Roma|AS Roma]]
* 1942-43 - Torino
* 1944-45 - ''league suspended due to [[World War II]]''
* 1945-46 - Torino
* 1946-47 - Torino
* 1947-48 - Torino
* 1948-49 - Torino
* 1949-50 - Juventus FC
* 1950-51 - [[A.C. Milan|AC Milan]]
* 1951-52 - Juventus FC
* 1952-53 - Internazionale
|width="50"|
|valign="top"|
* 1953-54 - Internazionale
* 1954-55 - AC Milan
* 1955-56 - [[ACF Fiorentina|Fiorentina]]
* 1956-57 - AC Milan
* 1957-58 - Juventus FC
* 1958-59 - AC Milan
* 1959-60 - Juventus FC
* 1960-61 - Juventus FC
* 1961-62 - AC Milan
* 1962-63 - Internazionale
* 1963-64 - Bologna
* 1964-65 - Internazionale
* 1965-66 - Internazionale
* 1966-67 - Juventus FC
* 1967-68 - AC Milan
* 1968-69 - Fiorentina
* 1969-70 - [[Cagliari Calcio|Cagliari]]
* 1970-71 - Internazionale
* 1971-72 - Juventus FC
* 1972-73 - Juventus FC
* 1973-74 - [[SS Lazio]]
* 1974-75 - Juventus FC
* 1975-76 - Torino
* 1976-77 - Juventus FC
* 1977-78 - Juventus FC
* 1978-79 - AC Milan
* 1979-80 - Internazionale
* 1980-81 - Juventus FC
* 1981-82 - Juventus FC
* 1982-83 - [[A.S. Roma|AS Roma]]
* 1983-84 - Juventus FC
* 1984-85 - [[Hellas Verona F.C.|Hellas Verona]]
* 1985-86 - Juventus FC
* 1986-87 - [[Napoli Soccer|SSC Napoli]]
* 1987-88 - AC Milan
* 1988-89 - Internazionale
* 1989-90 - SSC Napoli
* 1990-91 - [[U.C. Sampdoria|UC Sampdoria]]
* 1991-92 - AC Milan
* 1992-93 - AC Milan
* 1993-94 - AC Milan
* 1994-95 - Juventus FC
* 1995-96 - AC Milan
* 1996-97 - Juventus FC
* 1997-98 - Juventus FC
* 1998-99 - AC Milan
* 1999-2000 - SS Lazio
* 2000-01 - AS Roma
* 2001-02 - Juventus FC
* 2002-03 - Juventus FC
* [[Serie A 2003-04|2003-04]] - AC Milan
* [[Serie A 2004-05|2004-05]] - Juventus FC
|width="50"|
|valign="top"|
|}
{|
|valign="top"|
# ''28'' - {{Fc|Juventus}}
# ''17'' - [[A.C. Milan]]
# ''13'' - [[Internazionale Milano F.C.|Internazionale]]
# ''9'' - [[Genoa Cricket & Football Club|Genoa 1893]]
# ''7'' - [[Bologna F.C. 1909|Bologna]], {{Fc|Torino}}, [[Pro Vercelli]]
# ''3'' - [[A.S. Roma]]
# ''2'' - [[ACF Fiorentina|Fiorentina]], [[S.S. Lazio|Lazio]], [[SSC Napoli]]
# ''1'' - [[A.S. Casale Calcio|Casale]], [[U.S. Novese|Novese]], [[Cagliari Calcio|Cagliari]], {{Fc|Hellas Verona}}, [[U.C. Sampdoria|UC Sampdoria]]
|width="50"|
|valign="top"|
|}
<gallery>
Image:Totti-a.s.Roma-celebration.jpg|2000-01. Transfer on a [[Rome|Roman]] house to celebrate [[Francesco Totti|Totti]] and [[A.S. Roma]]'s third ''scudetto''.
Image:Milano Scudetto Milan 1.jpg|2003-04. Celebrations in [[Milan]] for the 17<sup>th</sup> ''scudetto'' of [[A.C. Milan]].
</gallery>
==Records==
===Top Scorers by seasons===
{|
|valign="top"|
* 1946/47 - 29 goals {{flagicon|Italy}} [[Valentino Mazzola]] ([[Torino Calcio|Torino]])
* 1947/48 - 27 goals {{flagicon|Italy}} [[Giampiero Boniperti]] ([[Juventus F.C.|Juventus]])
* 1948/49 - 26 goals {{flagicon|France}} [[Stefano Nyers]] ([[Internazionale Milano F.C.|Internazionale]])
* 1949/50 - 35 goals {{flagicon|Sweden}} [[Gunnar Nordahl]] ([[A.C. Milan|Milan]])
* 1950/51 - 34 goals {{flagicon|Sweden}} Gunnar Nordahl (Milan)
* 1951/52 - 30 goals {{flagicon|Denmark}} [[John Hansen (football manager)|John Hansen]] (Juventus)
* 1952/53 - 26 goals {{flagicon|Sweden}} Gunnar Nordahl (Milan)
* 1953/54 - 23 goals {{flagicon|Sweden}} Gunnar Nordahl (Milan)
* 1954/55 - 26 goals {{flagicon|Sweden}} Gunnar Nordahl (Milan)
* 1955/56 - 29 goals {{flagicon|Italy}} [[Gino Pivatelli]] ([[Bologna F.C. 1909|Bologna]])
* 1956/57 - 22 goals {{flagicon|Brazil}} [[Dino Da Costa]] ([[A.S. Roma|Roma]])
* 1957/58 - 28 goals {{flagicon|Wales}} [[John Charles]] (Juventus)
* 1958/59 - 33 goals {{flagicon|Argentina}} [[Antonio Valentin Angelillo]] (Internazionale)
* 1959/60 - 28 goals {{flagicon|Italy}} {{flagicon|Argentina}} [[Omar Sivori]] (Juventus)
* 1960/61 - 27 goals {{flagicon|Italy}} [[Sergio Brighenti]] ([[U.C. Sampdoria|Sampdoria]])
* 1961/62 - 22 goals:
**{{flagicon|Italy}} [[José Altafini]] ([[A.C. Milan|Milan]])
**{{flagicon|Italy}} [[Aurelio Milani]] ([[ACF Fiorentina|Fiorentina]])
* 1962/63 - 19 goals:
**{{flagicon|Denmark}} [[Harald Nielsen]] (Bologna)
**{{flagicon|Argentina}} [[Pedro Manfredini]] (Roma)
* 1963/64 - 21 goals {{flagicon|Denmark}} Harald Nielsen (Bologna)
* 1964/65 - 17 goals:
**Orlando (Fiorentina)
**{{flagicon|Italy}} [[Sandro Mazzola]] (Internazionale)
* 1965/66 - 25 goals {{flagicon|Italy}} [[Luis Vinicio]] ([[Vicenza Calcio|Vicenza]])
* 1966/67 - 18 goals {{flagicon|Italy}} [[Gigi Riva]] ([[Cagliari Calcio|Cagliari]])
* 1967/68 - 15 goals {{flagicon|Italy}} [[Pierino Prati]] (Milan)
* 1968/69 - 21 goals {{flagicon|Italy}} Gigi Riva (Cagliari)
* 1969/70 - 21 goals {{flagicon|Italy}} Gigi Riva (Cagliari)
* 1970/71 - 24 goals {{flagicon|Italy}} [[Roberto Boninsegna]] (Internazionale)
* 1971/72 - 22 goals {{flagicon|Italy}} Roberto Boninsegna (Internazionale)
* 1972/73 - 17 goals:
**{{flagicon|Italy}} [[Paolino Pulici]] (Torino)
**{{flagicon|Italy}} [[Gianni Rivera]] (Milan)
**{{flagicon|Italy}} [[Giuseppe Savoldi]] (Bologna)
|width="50"|
|valign="top"|
* 1973/74 - 24 goals {{flagicon|Italy}} [[Giorgio Chinaglia]] ([[S.S. Lazio|Lazio]])
* 1974/75 - 18 goals {{flagicon|Italy}} Paolino Pulici (Torino)
* 1975/76 - 21 goals {{flagicon|Italy}} Paolino Pulici (Torino)
* 1976/77 - 21 goals {{flagicon|Italy}} [[Francesco Graziani]] (Torino)
* 1977/78 - 24 goals {{flagicon|Italy}} [[Paolo Rossi]] (Vicenza)
* 1978/79 - 19 goals {{flagicon|Italy}} [[Bruno Giordano]] (Lazio)
* 1979/80 - 16 goals {{flagicon|Italy}} [[Roberto Bettega]] (Juventus)
* 1980/81 - 18 goals {{flagicon|Italy}} [[Roberto Pruzzo]] (Roma)
* 1981/82 - 15 goals {{flagicon|Italy}} Roberto Pruzzo (Roma)
* 1982/83 - 16 goals {{flagicon|France}} [[Michel Platini]] (Juventus)
* 1983/84 - 20 goals {{flagicon|France}} Michel Platini (Juventus)
* 1984/85 - 18 goals {{flagicon|France}} Michel Platini (Juventus)
* 1985/86 - 19 goals {{flagicon|Italy}} Roberto Pruzzo (Roma)
* 1986/87 - 17 goals {{flagicon|Italy}} [[Pietro Paolo Virdis]] (Milan)
* 1987/88 - 15 goals {{flagicon|Argentina}} [[Diego Maradona]] ([[Napoli Soccer|Napoli]])
* 1988/89 - 22 goals {{flagicon|Italy}} [[Aldo Serena]] (Internazionale)
* 1989/90 - 19 goals {{flagicon|Netherlands}} [[Marco Van Basten]] (Milan)
* 1990/91 - 19 goals {{flagicon|Italy}} [[Gianluca Vialli]] (Sampdoria)
* 1991/92 - 25 goals {{flagicon|Netherlands}} Marco Van Basten (Milan)
* 1992/93 - 26 goals {{flagicon|Italy}} [[Giuseppe Signori]] (Lazio)
* 1993/94 - 23 goals {{flagicon|Italy}} Giuseppe Signori (Lazio)
* 1994/95 - 26 goals {{flagicon|Argentina}} [[Gabriel Batistuta]] (Fiorentina)
* 1995/96 - 24 goals:
**{{flagicon|Italy}} Giuseppe Signori (Lazio)
**{{flagicon|Italy}} [[Igor Protti]] ([[A.S. Bari|Bari]])
* 1996/97 - 24 goals {{flagicon|Italy}} [[Filippo Inzaghi]] ([[Atalanta B.C.|Atalanta]])
* 1997/98 - 27 goals {{flagicon|Germany}} [[Oliver Bierhoff]] ([[Udinese Calcio|Udinese]])
* 1998/99 - 22 goals {{flagicon|Brazil}} [[Amoroso]] (Udinese)
* 1999/00 - 24 goals {{flagicon|Ukraine}} [[Andriy Shevchenko]] (Milan)
* 2000/01 - 26 gaols {{flagicon|Argentina}} [[Hernán Crespo]] (Lazio)
* 2001/02 - 24 goals:
**{{flagicon|France}} [[David Trézéguet]] (Juventus)
**{{flagicon|Italy}} [[Dario Hubner]] ([[Piacenza F.C.|Piacenza]])
* 2002/03 - 24 goals {{flagicon|Italy}} [[Christian Vieri]] (Internazionale)
* [[Serie A 2003-04|2003/04]] - 24 goals {{flagicon|Ukraine}} Andriy Shevchenko (Milan)
* [[Serie A 2004-05|2004/05]] - 24 goals {{flagicon|Italy}} [[Cristiano Lucarelli]] ([[A.S. Livorno Calcio|Livorno]])
|}
*[http://www.rsssf.com/tablesi/italtops.html Figure before 1997 from RSSSF.com ]
*[http://www.lega-calcio.it/ita/atim_archivio_classifica.shtml Figure after 1997 from lega-calcio.it]
==Trivia==
*The record for non-Italian players of the same nationality in one match is held by [[Internazionale Milano F.C.|Internazionale]]. On [[January 18]] [[2006 in sports|2006]], [[Julio Ricardo Cruz|Cruz]] (one goal), [[Nicolas Burdisso|Burdisso]], [[Javier Zanetti|J. Zanetti]] (captain), [[Juan Sebastián Verón|Verón]], [[Esteban Cambiasso|Cambiasso]], [[Cristian González|Kily González]] and [[Walter Samuel|Samuel]] played as starters to complete 7 [[:Category:Argentine footballers|Argentine footballers]] for the team that defeated [[Treviso F.B.C. 1993|Treviso]] 0-1 [http://www.ole.com.ar/jsp/v4/pagina.jsp?pagId=1126624].
*Oldest Player Appearence:
#{{flagicon|Italy}} [[Marco Ballotta]] 41 years and 302 days at [[S.S. Lazio]] ([[January 29]] [[2006]])
#{{flagicon|Italy}} [[Dino Zoff]] 41 years-old ([[1983]])
==See also==
*[[Sports attendances]]
==External link==
*[http://lega-calcio.it Official Site]
; History
* [http://www.resultsfromfootball.com/seriea-seasons.html Serie A] — All results since 1929, statistics, compare teams ...
{{Serie A}}
[[Category:Italian football competitions]]
[[Category:National football (soccer) premier leagues]]
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[[it:Campionato di calcio italiano]]
[[he:סרייה א']]
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[[ja:セリエA (サッカー)]]
[[no:Serie A]]
[[pl:Serie A]]
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[[sv:Serie A i fotboll]]
[[vi:Danh sách vô địch Serie A]]
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[[zh:意大利足球甲级联赛]]
Inter Milan
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Fix redirect
#REDIRECT [[Internazionale Milano F.C.]]
IPCC Policymakers Summary
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MyRedDice
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#REDIRECT [[Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change]] (combining content)
#REDIRECT [[Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change]]
Inhalants
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Automated conversion
#REDIRECT [[Inhalant]]
Inhalant
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Rhymeless
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/* Common inhalants */ +freon
'''Inhalants''' are a chemically diverse group of psychoactive substances composed of organic solvents and volatile substances commonly found in more than 1000 common household products, such as [[glue]]s, hair spray, air fresheners, [[gasoline]], [[Naphtha|lighter fluid]], and [[paint]].
The practice of inhaling such substances is sometimes colloquially referred to as '''solvent abuse''' or '''huffing'''.
Solvents are some of the most dangerous substances used recreationally, and can cause serious damage to the [[brain]] and [[central nervous system]], and are generally only used by young [[substance abuse]]rs or as a desperate last resort for financially deprived drug addicts. While not regulated in the [[United States]] under the [[Controlled Substances Act]], many states have placed restrictions on the sale of these products to minors.
==Methods of use==
Inhalants may be sniffed directly from an open container or "huffed" from a rag soaked in the substance and held to the face. Alternatively, the open container or soaked rag can be placed in a plastic bag where the vapors concentrate, and the bag held to the face as the user inhales.
Solvent-based and markers are generally held to the nose, and the fumes inhaled. Propane and butane may be inhaled directly from the canister.
Although inhalant abusers may prefer one particular substance because of the odor or taste, a variety of substances may be used because of their similar effects, availability, and cost. Once inhaled, the extensive capillary surface of the [[lung]]s allows rapid absorption of the substance, and blood levels peak rapidly. Entry into the [[brain]] is so fast that the effects of inhalation can resemble the intensity of effects produced by intravenous injection of other psychoactive drugs.
==Usage and availability==
Inhalant abuse is common among children and adolescents.
Inhalants are readily available, inexpensive, and easy to conceal. Therefore, they are increasingly popular with young people and are, for many, one of the first substances abused.
In the United States the extent of the inhalant problem among children and adolescents was, at first, virtually unrecognized by the general public. However, an event in early [[1999]] called national attention to this severe problem. Five high school girls were killed in a car accident outside [[Philadelphia]], and the coroner's report showed that four of the five, including the driver, had ingested "significant" amounts of a [[computer keyboard]] cleaner.
Since this event, there has been an increased awareness of the threat of inhalant abuse.
In [[Australia]] the inhalation of volatile substances is known as sniffing. Petrol (gasoline) sniffing has reached epidemic proportions in the remote [[Indigenous Australians|Aboriginal]] communities and outback towns. One response has been the introduction of low-volatility [[Opal (fuel)|Opal petrol]] in the central desert regions, and the banning of petrol from some areas (where [[diesel]] fuelled vehicles are used).
Gasoline inhalation became common on [[Russia]]n ships following attempts to limit the supply of [[alcoholic beverage|alcohol]] to crew in the 1980s. The documentary "Children Underground" depicts the huffing of Aurolac by Romanian homeless children.
==Common inhalants==
* [[butane]]
* [[canned air]] (compressed [[hydrofluorocarbon]]s)
* [[casette]] player head cleaner
* [[correction fluid]]
* [[diethyl ether]]
* [[embalming chemicals|embalming fluid]] ([[formaldehyde]] or similar chemicals)
* [[freon]]
* [[gasoline]]
* [[glue]]s and cements (rubber cement, plastic cement, etc.)
* [[nail polish]] remover ([[acetone]] or similar chemicals)
* [[paint]] or [[spraypaint]]
* [[Paint thinner]] ([[turpentine]] or similar chemicals)
* [[Scotchgard]]
* [[xylent]] markers
== See also ==
* "[[Sniffin' Glue]]" (magazine)
* "[[The Pod]]" (recording)
==External links==
* [http://www.inhalants.org/ National Inhalant Prevention Coalition]
* [http://inhalants.drugabuse.gov/ Inhalants.Drugabuse.gov] (National Institute on Drug Abuse)
* [http://www.nida.nih.gov/Infofacts/Inhalants.html NIDA InfoFacts - Inhalants] (National Institute on Drug Abuse)
* [http://www.whitehousedrugpolicy.gov/drugfact/inhalants/index.html Inhalants - Facts and Figures] (Office of National Drug Control Policy)
* [http://ncadi.samhsa.gov/govpubs/phd631/ Tips for Teens: The Truth About Inhalants] (SAMHSA's National Clearinghouse for Alcohol and Drug Information)
* [http://www.drgreene.com/21_180.html DrGreene.com - What Parents Should Know About "Huffing"]
* [http://www.caresproject.org/docs/ed/drug/inhalants.htm Inhalants and Solvent Abuse] (Martin J. Smilkstein, M.D.)
* [http://www.thesmokinggun.com/archive/0721051gold1.html Mugshot and Police Report from The Smoking Gun (1)]
[[es:Inhalante]]
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[[Category:Drugs]]
[[Category:Substance-related disorders]]
Incubus film
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Iceman (comics)
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{{Superherobox|
|image=[[Image:Iceman (comics).png|250px]]
|caption=Iceman<br>Art by [[Salvador Larroca]]
|comic_color=background:#ff8080
|character_name=Iceman
|real_name=Robert "Bobby" Louis Drake
|publisher=[[Marvel Comics]]
|debut=''X-Men'' #1
|creators=[[Stan Lee]]<br>[[Jack Kirby]]
|alliance_color=background:#ffc0c0
|status=Active
|alliances=[[X-Men]]
|previous_alliances=[[X-Factor]], [[Defenders (comics)|Defenders]], [[The Champions (comics)|Champions]], [[X-Terminators]], [[The Twelve (comics)|The Twelve]], [[Cataclysm Keys]]
|aliases=Drake Roberts
|relatives=William Robert Drake (father), Madeline Beatrice Bass-Drake (mother), Anne (aunt), Mary, Joel (cousins)
|powers=Local and body temperature reduction,<br>Water manipulation,<br>Thermal vision
|}}
'''Iceman''' (Robert Louis "Bobby" Drake) is a [[comic book]] [[superhero]] in the [[Marvel Comics]] [[Marvel Universe|universe]] and an original and current member of the [[X-Men]]. Created by [[Stan Lee]] and [[Jack Kirby]], he first appeared in ''X-Men'' volume 1 #1 (September, 1963).
==Character biography==
Iceman is a [[Mutant (fictional)|mutant]] with the ability to emanate intense [[cold]] which manifests as [[ice]] formations and the mental ability to shape those ice formations into whatever structure he can imagine. He is often seen to project cold from his hands in the form of "ice blasts" which can cause an enemy to be completely engulfed in ice in a matter of seconds. Perhaps his most ingenious use of his abilities is the creation of a sort of ice slide along which he can slide very quickly. This can occasionally lead to him being confused with the Silver Surfer, as the two characters are visually quite similar. It is also worth noting he is the only original X-Man to stay with the team throughout its entire run (except for when he departed with the original X-Men to form the first incarnation of [[X-Factor (comics)|X-Factor]], and a very short stint with [[Excalibur (comics)]].
He was born in [[Floral Park]], [[New York]], [[United States]] to William Robert Drake and his wife Madeline Beatrice Bass. As a teenager, Drake was recruited to [[Professor Charles Xavier]]'s "school for gifted youngsters", where he joined other young mutants as a charter member of the X-Men. Drake was sometimes self-conscious that he was the youngest member of the original team. For a short while, he moved to Los Angeles and became a founding member of [[The Champions (comics)|The Champions]]
Iceman's appearance has changed significantly over the years. In the early X-Men stories, his appearance was more reminiscent of a snowman. The explanation that was given in those days was that when he used his abilities, he became so cold that frost formed on his skin. In ''X-Men'' #7 (1964), at the prompting of team leader [[Cyclops (comics)|Cyclops]], he learned to cover his body with hardened-but-flexible ice and adopted the hard crystalline appearance familiar to modern readers. Even more recently, Iceman developed the ability to not only cover his body with ice, but to actually become organic ice. Though the appearance is similar, Iceman is now actually translucent in his ice form. Iceman is virtually indestructible in this form: he can reform his shattered body and even if the rest of his body is completely destroyed, his head can form a new body from frozen liquids. Most recently, Iceman has been trapped in his ice form to the degree that he cannot return to his human form. Iceman is now considered an [[Omega-Level Mutant]] with his current power level.
Iceman suffers from a chronic poor [[self image]] and is a classic under-achiever. Bobby's use of his powers has often been lazy and undisciplined. Iceman often played the part of the joker, which annoyed Professor Xavier and Cyclops. Iceman has never realized the true potential of his abilities and even went through a period of deep depression after [[Emma Frost]], the former [[White Queen (comics)|White Queen]] of the [[Hellfire Club (comics)|Hellfire Club]], took over his body and used his powers at levels which Iceman himself had generally been unable to reach. The White Queen believed that Iceman had the potential to be one of the most powerful mutants on Earth.
[[Polaris (comics)|Polaris]] broke up with [[Havok]] and Iceman admitted that he still had feelings for her. The two have engaged in mild flirtation, but nothing serious has happened yet. They do seem to be beginning a small relationship, however.
==Powers and abilities==
[[Image:X-Factor 27.jpg|left|thumb|150px|Iceman creates an ice slide on the cover of ''X-Factor'' #27, 1988]]
Iceman's powers have evolved considerably over the years. Originally he had a normal human and an ice-form. In normal human form, he had the strength, agility and durability of a typical [[athletic]] male of his size. In his ice-form, his strength and durability was enhanced.
Iceman is able to lower his body temperature without harm to himself, reaching -105F within a few seconds. He is able to freeze any moisture in the air around him into unusually hard ice to form ice-slides and various projectiles and shields. Iceman is immune to sub-zero temperatures. Iceman has [[thermal]] vision: the ability to detect objects visually by how much heat the objects generate.
Over the years, his mutant [[physiology]] has gone through radical changes. First, he was able to fashion an [[armor]] of densely packed [[snow]] around his human form when lowering his temperature; later, this became armor of solid ice. Eventually, he was actually able to transform his body into organic ice in which his strength and endurance were augmented to enhanced levels, but when he turned his body back to normal, he would be an ordinary human.
For a time, Iceman could no longer revert to a human form as part of a [[secondary mutation]]. He was constantly in a [[translucent]] organic ice-form. Iceman is also able to reconstitute his ice-form if any part of it is damaged or even if it is completely shattered, without permanent harm to himself. He is able to temporarily add the mass of a body of water to his own to increase his mass, size and physical power. His strength and durability in his ice-form are enhanced beyond normal human levels. He can survive not only as [[sentient]] ice but as sentient water and [[vapor]]. He has the capacity to manipulate all forms of moisture. He has all of the abilities to generate [[projectile| projectiles]], slides and [[shield| shields]] that he always has had but they have been augmented greatly. Under the [[mind control]] of [[Emma Frost]] he was able to deposit his bodily mass into a river and reconstitute his entire mass a great distance away in a matter of minutes.
Writers have implied that Iceman's lack of personal initiative has prevented him from discovering the deeper facets of his abilities and has led him instead to focus only on what might be the easiest manifestation of his abilities, the creation of ice.
In ''House of M'' #8, it appeared that Iceman was among the many thousands of mutants who lost their powers due to the magic of the Scarlet Witch, having returned to his normal human form and noticeably sweating. However, at the end of ''X-Men'' #178, while repelling an attack of anti-mutant protesters, Iceman's powers reactivated. In ''X-Men'' #179, it was revealed Iceman didn't lose his powers, but had subconsicously shut them down out of fear due to the aftermath of the [[House of M]].
In [[X-Men: Evolution]], he has the ability to create an ice statue of himself on the spot by moving, similar to [[Sub-Zero]] in [[Mortal Kombat]].
==Alternate versions==
===[[Ultimate X-Men| Ultimate Iceman]]===
[[Image:ultimatexmen68.jpg|left|200px|thumb|Cover of ''The Ultimate X-Men #68'', featuring Iceman and Rogue. Art by [[Tom Raney]].]]
In the [[Ultimate Marvel]] continuity, Bobby Drake is 15 years old and the youngest founding member of the [[Ultimate X-Men|X-Men]]. He ran away from his family at the peak of government-supported [[Sentinels (comics)|Sentinel]] attacks, fearing they would kill them if they found out he was a [[mutant (fictional)|mutant]].
Bobby established himself as a valuable asset, even single-handedly taking out the [[Ultimates]] once with a gigantic ice wall (''see [[Ultimate War]]''), as well as single handedly halting an invasion by Colonel Wraith and Weapon X; Only to be stopped by Rogue who was in temporary possession of Marvel Girl's telepathy.
During the World Tour arc, Bobby was greatly injured by Proteus, which resulted in a lawsuit issued by his parents against Xavier. Luckily, Bobby rebelled against his parents and returned to the X-Men not a moment too soon.
He has dated both [[Rogue (comics)|Rogue]], for a longer time and [[Shadowcat (comics)|Shadowcat]], who he recently broke up with. When Rogue returned to the school after her escapade with Gambit, causing her to absorb his powers, they fell in love again. Rogue was now due to Gambit's powers mixing over her own able to touch and kiss anyone she wanted, and Bobby and Marian made love to each other while the other X-Men were away.
===[[Age of Apocalypse]]===
In the [[Age of Apocalypse]] it was not [[Professor X]] who trained the [[X-Men]], but [[Magneto (comics)|Magneto]]. He was much harder on his students and pushed them to levels in their abilities that had been unheard of. Because he was pushed so hard, he lacks his characteristic sense of humor and became very cold and inhuman, making his teammates feel uncomfortable. In addition to his normal abilities, Bobby was capable of breaking down his body and merging it with another body of water to travel great distances in a matter of seconds. He could bring others along as well through a process that he called "[[moisture]] [[molecular]] [[inversion]]", although it was a painful process for the passengers. In addition to this he could also reconstitute his body from broken pieces.
===[[Mutant X (comics)|Mutant X]]===
In the alternate reality known as the [[Mutant X (comics)|Mutant X]] universe, Robert Drake had been the victim of misfortune. The [[Norse mythology| Asgardian]] god [[Loki (comics)|Loki]] amplified Bobby's powers to a dangerous level, leaving him unable to make contact with any organic thing for fear of killing it. In the [[Earth 616| main Marvel universe]] [[Iron Man| Tony Stark]] was able to create a device that helped Bobby regulate his abilities, but no such thing was invented in this universe. Bobby, going by Rob and calling himself [[Ice-Man (comics)|Ice-Man]], became very bitter from his circumstances.
===[[Earth X]]===
During the series '''Earth X''' Bobby had become trapped in his ice form, making him vulnerable to melting. He moved to the [[Arctic]] regions and made an ice city for himself and the [[Inuit| Inuits]] that lived there with him. Due to a series of events where the mass of the planet changed and the orbital path moved, Bobby was able to return to the [[United States]] to aid in the battle against the [[demon]] [[Mephisto (comics)|Mephisto]].
==Appearances in other media==
[[Image:Iceman3.JPG|thumb|left|150px|Shawn Ashmore as Iceman]]
Iceman was one of the three leads in the [[animated television series]] ''[[Spider-Man and His Amazing Friends]]'', in which he was voiced by [[Frank Welker]].
He also appeared in the ''X-Men'' [[X-Men (animated series)|animated series]] voiced by [[Dennis Akayama]] in the episode "Cold Comfort" where he gets Jubilee's help to rescue his girlfriend Lorna Dane (not called Polaris here) from a government facility which is housing the X-Factor led by the modern day [[Forge (comics)|Forge]].
He had also appeared in the ''X-Men: Evolution'' animated series played by [[Andrew Francis]].
[[Image:Iceman.gif|right|thumb|130px|Iceman in [[Marvel vs. Capcom 2]]]]
In the movies ''[[X-Men (film)|X-Men]]'', ''[[X2 (film)|X2]]'' and the upcoming ''[[X-Men: The Last Stand|X-Men 3]]'' movie he is played by [[Shawn Ashmore]]. Bobby Drake has a dating relationship with [[Rogue (comics)|Rogue]] and is a bit jealous over her, evidenced with his interactions with a returning [[Wolverine (comics)|Wolverine]], who Rogue shows a bit of affection for. He is also shown to have an uneasy friendship with [[Pyro (comics)|Pyro]], who, ironically, has power of fire. In [[X-Men 3]], rumours have suggested he may have a relationship with [[Kitty Pryde]].
Iceman has appeared in various video game adaptations, such as ''[[X-Men: Children of the Atom (arcade game)|X-Men: Children of the Atom]],'' the subsequent ''[[Marvel vs. Capcom 2]]'' and the more recent ''[[X-Men Legends]]'' and its sequel ''[[X-Men Legends II: Rise of Apocalypse]]''. In both of the ''Legends'' games, he is one of the quickest characters to become extremely powerful in melee combat. A cursor of his ability to add his icy damage to his melee attacks and to his own defense.
Iceman will also be one of the 3 playble characters in the forthcoming game ''[[X-Men: The Official Movie Game]]'' which will fill in the gap between ''[[X2: X-Men United]]'' and ''[[X3: The Last Stand]]''
In the [[Capcom]] games, he is especially notorious for his ability to take little to no blocking damage from projectile and beam attacks, special attacks in general, which combined with his powerful ice beam attacks make him an excellent defensive character. In the competitive scene, he fell out of use as [[Cable (comics)|Cable]] players evolved; Iceman's special attacks are vulnerable to Cable's instant super attacks.
{{wikibooks|Fighting Game Moves/Capcom/Iceman}}
==External links==
* [http://www.freewebs.com/xboyscerebro/iceman.htm Iceman at X-Boys8 Central]
* [http://www.uncannyxmen.net/db/spotlight/showquestion.asp?faq=10&fldAuto=55 Spotlight On... Iceman at UncannyXmen.Net]
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Isidore of Seville
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[[Image:Isidor von Sevilla.jpeg|thumb|right|Isidore, depicted by [[ Bartolomé Esteban Murillo|Murillo]]]]
'''Saint Isidore of Seville''' ([[560]] - [[April 4]], [[636]]) was [[Archbishop]] of [[Seville]] for more than three decades and has the reputation of being one of the great scholars of the early [[middle ages]]. All the later medieval history-writing of [[Spain]] was based on Isidore's histories.
Isidore was born in [[Cartagena, Spain]], to an influential family who were instrumental in the political-religious maneuvering that converted the Visigothic kings from [[Arianism]] to Catholicism, and were all awarded sainthoods: his brother [[Leander of Seville|Leander]] immediately preceded him as Catholic bishop of [[Seville]], the opponent of king [[Liuvigild]], his younger brother was also awarded a [[bishop]]ric at the start of the new reign of Catholic [[Reccared]], and their sister was an [[abbess]] in charge of forty convents.
Isidore's Latin was affected by local Visigothic traditions and contains hundreds of recognizably Spanish words; his 18th-century editor [[Faustino Arévalo]] identified 1,640 of them: Isidore can possibly be characterized as the world's last native speaker of [[Latin]] and perhaps the world's first native speaker of [[Spanish]].
At a time of disintegration of classical culture, and aristocratic violence and illiteracy, he assisted [[Leander]] in the conversion of the royal [[Visigoth]] [[Arianism|Arians]] to Catholicism and carried the conversion forward after his brother's death, for example in presiding over the (second) synod of Seville (November 618 or 619), which the bishops of Gaul and Narbonne attended, as well as the Spanish prelates. In the Council's Acts the nature of Christ is fully set forth, countering Arian conceptions. At an advanced age he also presided over the Fourth Council of [[Toledo, Spain|Toledo]] ([[633]]), which required all bishops to establish seminaries, on the pattern of the one at Seville associated with Isidore. The council probably expressed with tolerable accuracy the mind and influence of Isidore. The position and deference granted to the king is remarkable. The church is free and independent, yet bound in solemn allegiance to the acknowledged king: nothing is said of allegiance to the [[Papacy|bishop of Rome]].
Isidore's most important work was the first [[encyclopedia]] known to be compiled in western civilization, the ''[[Etymologiae]]''. The work takes its title from the method he used in the transcription of his era's knowledge. The encyclopedia was a huge compilation of 448 chapters in 20 volumes, devoted to transmitting the epitome of the learning of antiquity. The depository of classical culture in Isidore's compendium was so highly regarded that it superseded the use of many individual works of the classics themselves, which were not recopied and have been lost. The book was the most popular compendium in [[medieval]] libraries. It was printed in at least 10 editions between [[1470]] and [[1530]], showing Isidore's continued popularity in the [[Renaissance]]. Until the 12th century brought translations from Arabic sources, Isidore transmitted what western Europeans remembered of the works of [[Aristotle]] and other Greeks, although he understood only a limited amount of Greek. The ''Etymologiae'' was much copied, particularly into medieval [[bestiary|bestiaries]].
His other works include his ''Chronica Majora'' (a universal history), ''De differentiis verborum'', which amounts to brief theological treatise on the doctrine of the Trinity, the nature of Christ, of Paradise, angels, and men. Isidore also produced a ''History of the Goths''; ''On the Nature of Things'' (not the poem of [[Lucretius]]), a book of astronomy and natural history dedicated to the Visigothic king [[Sisebut]]; and ''Questions on the Old Testament''. There is a mystical treatise on the allegorical meanings of numbers, and a number of brief letters.
He was [[Canonization|canonized]] as a [[saint]] by the [[Catholicism|Roman Catholic Church]] in [[1598]] and declared a [[Doctor of the Church]] in [[1722]].
In [[2003]] he was proposed as the patron saint of the Internet, but was not among the top six vote totals in an Italian language Internet poll (Google translation: [http://translate.google.com/translate?u=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.santiebeati.it%2Fpatrono.html&langpair=it%7Cen&hl=en&ie=UTF-8&oe=UTF-8&prev=%2Flanguage_tools])
Alternative spelling: Isadore.
''See also'': [[Cartographer]]
==External links==
*[http://www.ccel.org/w/wace/biodict/htm/TOC.htm Henry Wace, ''Dictionary of Christian Biography'']
*[http://www.newadvent.org/cathen/08186a.htm ''Catholic Encyclopedia'', 1913: 'Isidore of Seville']
*[http://www.wired.com/news/culture/0,1284,49995,00.html?tw=wn_story_related St. Isidore proposed as patron saint of the Internet]
[[Category:Spanish saints|Isidore of Seville]]
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Inorganic chemistry of carbon
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There is a rich variety of [[carbon]] [[chemistry]] that does not fall within the realm of [[organic chemistry]] and is thus called '''inorganic carbon chemistry'''.
Perhaps best well known are the [[oxide]]s of carbon, [[carbon dioxide]] and [[carbon monoxide]]. Other types include
(but are not limited to) inorganic [[salt]]s and [[complex (chemistry) | complexes]] of the carbon-containing [[polyatomic ion]]s, [[cyanide]], [[cyanate]], [[thiocyanate]], [[carbonate]], and [[carbide]].
The known inorganic chemistry of the [[allotropy|allotrope]]s of carbon ([[diamond]], [[graphite]], and the [[fullerene]]s) blossomed with the discovery of buckminsterfullerene in the late twentieth century as additional fullerenes and their various derivatives were discovered. One such class of derivatives is inclusion compounds, in which an ion is enclosed by the all-carbon shell of the fullerene. This inclusion is denoted by the "@" symbol. For example, an ion consisting of a lithium ion trapped within buckminsterfullerene would be denoted C<sub>60</sub>@Li<sup>+</sup>. As
with any other ionic compound, this complex ion could in principle pair with a [[counterion]] to form a salt.
For a fairly full listing of inorganic carbon compounds on Wikipedia see [[Inorganic_compounds_by_element#Carbon]].
Industrial espionage
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<div style="margin-left: 60px;">'''This article may contain [[Wikipedia:No original research|original research]] or [[Wikipedia:Verifiability|unverified]] claims.''' <br> Please help Wikipedia by adding references. See the [[:{{NAMESPACE}} talk:{{PAGENAME}}|talk page]] for details [[Category:Articles which may contain original research|{{PAGENAME}}]].</div>
</div>'''Industrial espionage''' is [[espionage]] conducted for [[commerce|commercial]] purposes instead of [[national security]] purposes. It is conducted both by governments and by private organizations.
At the most innocuous level, the term is applied to the legal and mundane methods of examining corporate publications, web sites, [[patent]] filings, and the like to determine the activities of a corporation (though this is normally referred to as [[business intelligence]]), through to illegal methods such as [[bribe]]ry, [[blackmail]], technological surveillance and even occasional violence. As well as spying on commercial organizations, governments can also be targets of commercial espionage—for example, to determine the terms of a tender for a government contract so that another tenderer can underbid.
Most large corporations openly acknowledge the existence of departments to perform the legal aspects of corporate espionage. Many also spend considerable amounts on precautions to protect against the more cloak-and-dagger varieties.
The [[United States]] government has admitted to using commercial espionage, for instance using surveillance of phone calls to determine that a French competitor of a US firm was bribing Brazilian officials to obtain an air traffic control radar contract (it was later revealed that the US firm was ''also'' bribing officials). It is generally believed that most large intelligence agencies are involved in the practice.
A commission of the [[European Parliament]] suspects that [[ECHELON]], a communications espionage system operated by the [[NSA]] and agencies of the United Kingdom, Germany, Canada, Australia and New Zealand, is used for political espionage and occasionally to help American companies against European competitors.
The government of [[France]] has conducted ongoing industrial espionage against American aerodynamics and satellite companies. [http://www.hanford.gov/oci/maindocs/ci_r_docs/frenchesp.pdf]
The development of the [[Tupolev Tu-144]] [[supersonic]] aircraft, with its rapid design and similarity to [[Concorde]], was one of the most prominent examples of industrial espionage in the 20th century.
==See also==
*[[Business intelligence]]
*[[Trade secret]]
==External links==
* [http://samvak.tripod.com/pp144.html Recent cases and future of industrial espionage]
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Instruction set architectures
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#REDIRECT [[Instruction set]]
Isaac Bashevis Singer
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{{dablink|This article is about the fiction writer. For the inventor of the sewing machine, see [[Isaac Singer]].}}
[[Image:Ibsinger.jpg|250px|thumb|right|Isaac Bashevis Singer]]
'''Isaac Bashevis Singer''' ([[Yiddish language|Yiddish]]: יצחק באַשעװיס זינגער or יצחק בת־שבֿעס זינגער) ([[November 21]], [[1902]] or [[July 14]], [[1904]] - [[July 24]], [[1991]]) was a [[Nobel Prize in literature|Nobel Prize]]-winning [[Jewish]] writer of both short stories and novels.
==Biography==
Isaac Bashevis Singer was born Icek-Hersz Zynger in [[Radzymin]], near [[Warsaw]] in [[Poland]], then part of the [[Russian Empire]]. His father was a [[Hasidic Judaism|Hasidic]] [[rabbi]] and his mother, Bathsheba, was the daughter of a rabbi. Singer later used her name in his penname "Bashevis" (son of Bathsheba). His brother [[Israel Joshua Singer]] also was a noted writer and was the first and greatest literary influence on his younger brother Isaac. Their sister, [[Esther Kreitman]], was also a writer.
Singer grew up in the [[Yiddish language|Yiddish]]-speaking poor Jewish quarter of Warsaw, where his father acted as a rabbi, judge, and spiritual leader, and in [[Bilgoraj]], a traditional Jewish village or ''shtetl''. Singer entered in [[1920]] the Tachkemoni Rabbinical Seminary, but then returned to Bilgoraj, where he supported himself by giving [[Hebrew language|Hebrew]] lessons. Though his rabbinical studies would remain a strong influence on him, he longed to be a part of a literary community. In [[1923]] he moved to Warsaw, where he worked as a proofreader for the ''Literarische Bleter'', edited by his brother Israel. The older brother contributed to the younger brother's spiritual liberation and contact with the new currents of seething political, social and cultural upheaval.
Singer made his debut with ''Satan in Goray'' which was first published in Poland in [[1932]]. It was written in the style imitative of medieval Yiddish chronicle and tells the story of the events surrounding the [[17th Century]] false messiah [[Shabbatai Zvi]]. The people in this novel, as elsewhere with Singer, are often at the mercy of the capricious infliction of circumstance, but even more so, their own passions, manias, superstitions and fanatical dreams. In his later work ''The Slave'' ([[1962]]) Singer returned again to the 17th Century in a love story of a Jewish man and a [[Gentile]] woman.
To flee from anti-Semitism, and to follow his brother, Singer emigrated to the [[United States|U.S.]] in [[1935]]. He separated from his first wife Rachel, and son Israel, who went to Moscow and later Palestine. Singer settled in [[New York City|New York]], where he started writing as a journalist and columnist for ''[[The Forward]]'', a Jewish newspaper. He wrote nearly all his work in [[Yiddish language|Yiddish]] and often used the penname Warshofsky. In 1940 he married Alma Haimann, a [[ethnic German|German]] emigrant. He became a [[naturalized citizen]] of the United States in [[1943]]. Throughout his career, Singer would continue to be a contributor and supporter of ''The Forward'', which remains in existence today as a weekly.
Throughout the [[1940s]], Singer´s reputation began to grow among the many Yiddish-speaking immigrants. After [[World War II]] and the near destruction of the Yiddish-speaking peoples, Yiddish seemed a dead language. Though Singer had moved to the United States, he believed in the power of his native language and knew that there was still a large audience that longed to read in Yiddish. In an interview in ''Encounter'' (Feb 1979) he claimed that although the Jews of Poland had died "something - call it spirit or whatever - is still somewhere in the universe. This is a mystical kind of feeling, but I feel there is truth in it." Singer's work is undoubtedly much indebted to the great writers of Yiddish tradition such as [[Sholom Aleichem]], but is much more modern in approach and has been shaped by his experience in America. His themes of witchcraft, mystery and legend draw on traditional sources, but they are established in modern and ironic way. They are also concerned with the bizarre and the grotesque.
Singer published 18 novels, 14 children's books, a number of memoirs, essays and articles, but he is best known as a writer of short-stories which have appeared in over a dozen collections. The first collection of Singer's short-stories in English ''Gimpel, the Fool'', was published in 1957. The title story was translated by [[Saul Bellow]] and published in 1952 in ''Partisan Review''. Stories published in ''Daily Forward'' were later collected among others such as ''My Father's Court'' (1966). Later collections include ''A Crown of Feathers'' (1973), with notable masterpieces in between, such as, ''The Spinoza of Market Street'' (1961), or, ''A Friend of Kafka'' (1970). The world of his stories is the world and life of East European Jewry, such as it was lived in cities and villages, in poverty and persecution, and imbued with sincere piety and rites combined with blind faith and superstition. It appears to include everything - pleasure and suffering, coarseness and subtlety. We find obstrusive carnality, spicy, colourful, fragrant or smelly, lewd or violent. But there is also room for sagacity, worldly wisdom and humor.
One of Singer's most prominent themes is the clash between the old and the modern world, tradition and renewal, faith and free thought. Among many other themes, it is dealt with in Singer's big family chronicles - the novels, ''The Family Moskat'' (1950), ''The Manor'' (1967), and ''The Estate'' (1969). These extensive epic works have been compared with [[Thomas Mann]]'s novel, ''Buddenbrooks''. Like Mann, Singer describes how old families are broken up by the new age and its demands, from the middle of the [[19th Century]] up to the Second World War, and how they are split, financially, socially and humanly.
Throughout the 1960s Singer continued to write on questions of personal morality. One of his most famous novels (due to a popular movie remake) was ''Enemies, a Love Story'' in which a [[Holocaust]] survivor deals with his own desires, complex family relationships, and the loss of faith. His feminist story, "Yentel," was also made into a popular movie, starring Barbra Streisand. Thanks to the film, the story has had a wide impact on culture.
Singer's own relationship with religion was complex. He regarded himself as a skeptic and a loner, though he still felt connected to his Orthodox roots, and ultimately developed his own brand of religion and philosophy which he called a "private mysticism: Since God was completely unknown and eternally silent, He could be endowed with whatever traits one elected to hang upon Him."
After being awarded the Nobel Prize in [[1978]], Singer gained a monumental status among writers throughout the world, and his reputation with non-Jewish audiences is now higher than that of any other Yiddish writer.
Singer died on [[July 24]], [[1991]] in [[Miami, Florida]], after suffering a series of [[stroke]]s.
==Vegetarianism==
Singer was a prominent [[vegetarian]] for the last 35 years of his life and often included such themes in his works. In his short story, ''The Slaughterer'', he described the anguish that an appointed slaughterer had trying to reconcile his compassion for animals with his job of slaughtering animals. He felt that the eating of meat was a denial of all ideals and all religions: "How can we speak of right and justice if we take an innocent creature and shed its blood". When asked if he had become a vegetarian for health reasons, he replied: "I did it for the health of the chickens."
In the preface to Steven Rosen's "Food for Spirit: Vegetarianism and the World Religions" (1986), Singer wrote, "When a human kills an animal for food, he is neglecting his own hunger for justice. Man prays for mercy, but is unwilling to extend it to others. Why should man then expect mercy from God? It's unfair to expect something that you are not willing to give. It is inconsistent. I can never accept inconsistency or injustice. Even if it comes from God. If there would come a voice from God saying, "I'm against vegetarianism!" I would say, "Well, I am for it!" This is how strongly I feel in this regard."
==List of works==
Note: the publication years in the following list refer to English translations, not the Yiddish originals (which often predate their translations by ten or twenty years).
* ''[[The Family Moskat]]'' (1950)
* ''[[Satan in Goray]]'' (1955)
* ''[[The Magician of Lublin]]'' (1960)
* ''[[The Slave]]'' (1962)
* ''[[The Fearsome Inn]]'' (1967)
* ''[[Mazel and Shlimazel]]'' (1967)
* ''The Manor'' (1967)
* ''[[The Estate]]'' (1969)
* ''[[Elijah The Slave]]'' (1970)
* ''[[Joseph and Koza: or the Sacrifice to the Vistula]]'' (1970)
* ''[[The Topsy-Turvy Emperor of China]]'' (1971)
* ''[[Enemies, a Love Story]]'' (1972)
* ''[[The Wicked City]]'' (1972)
* ''[[The Hasidim]]'' (1973)
* ''[[Fools of Chelm]]'' (1975)
* ''[[Naftali and the Storyteller and His Horse, Sus]]'' (1976)
* ''[[Shosha (novel)|Shosha]]'' (1978)
* ''[[A Young Man in Search of Love]]'' (1978)
* ''[[The Penitent]]'' (1983)
* ''[[Yentl the Yeshiva Boy]]'' (1983) (basis for the movie [[Yentl]])
* ''[[Why Noah Chose the Dove]]'' (1984)
* ''[[The King of the Fields]]'' (1988)
* ''[[Scum (novel)|Scum]]'' (1991)
* ''[[The Certificate]]'' (1992)
* ''[[Meshugah]]'' (1994)
* ''[[Shadows on the Hudson]]'' (1997)
see books:
Aleksandra Ziółkowska "Korzenie są polskie", Warszawa 1992
[[Aleksandra Ziółkowska Boehm]] "The Roots Are Polish", Toronto 2004
==External links==
* [http://nobelprize.org/literature/laureates/1978/index.html 1978 Nobel Prize in Literature]
*[http://nobelprize.org/literature/laureates/1978/singer-bio.html Nobel biography]
*[http://www.weeklystandard.com/Content/Public/Articles/000/000/004/783obafc.asp What Yiddish Says] article from The Weekly Standard
* [http://www.jpost.com/servlet/Satellite?pagename=JPost/JPArticle/ShowFull&cid=1096259488459&p=1006953079969 An American exile] article from The Jerusalem Post
*http://www.kirjasto.sci.fi/ibsinger.htm
*http://www.pbs.org/wnet/americanmasters/database/singer_i.html
*http://www.wbur.org/arts/2005/48687_20050101.asp
[[Category:1904 births|Singer, Isaac Bashevis]]
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Islamic eschatology
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'''Islamic eschatology''' is concerned with the ''[[Qiyamah]]'' ([[End of the world (religion)|end of the world]]; [[Last Judgement]]) and the [[Judgement Day|final judgement of humanity]]. [[Eschatology]] is one of the three main principles of [[Islam]], alongside ''[[tawhid]]'' (the [[monotheism|unity of Allah]]) and ''nubuuwa'' ([[prophecy]]). Islam teaches the bodily [[resurrection]] of the dead, the fulfillment of a divine plan for creation, and the immortality of the human soul; the righteous are rewarded with the pleasures of ''[[Jannah]]'' ([[Heaven]]), while the unrighteous are punished in ''[[Jahannam]]'' ([[Hell#Islam|Hell]]). A significant fraction of the Quran deals with these beliefs, with many ''[[hadith]]'' elaborating on the themes and details. Islamic apocalptic literature describing the Armageddon is often known as ''[[fitna|fitan]]'' and ''malahim'' (or ''ghayba'' in the [[Shi'a|shi'ite]] tradition).
==Jesus and the ad-Dajjal==
According to the Islamic view [[Jesus]] ([[Isa]], in [[Arabic language|Arabic]]) is not the [[Son of God]], but was a [[prophet]] and will return to Earth. It is believed that Jesus never died and he was not crucified; instead he was raised into heaven still physically alive, where he lives now. At the time appointed by [[Allah]], Jesus will physically return to this world, and together with the [[Mahdi]] will end all wars, and usher in an era of peace. The messianic era comes after Jesus kills [[Dajjal|ad-Dajjal]], the [[antichrist]] figure in Islam, and defeats his followers.
Minority views held by the [[Ahmadiyya]] movement, which mainstream Islam regards as heretics, state that while Jesus was crucified, he did not die on the cross. Instead, he was removed from the cross while still alive after which he died a natural death in [[Kashmir]]. Their belief is that the references to the [[Second Coming]] of Jesus in Islamic eschatological literature are allegorical. This prophecy according to them was fulfilled by the coming of [[Mirza Ghulam Ahmad]].
== Rewards for believers ==
Islamic descriptions of ''Jannah'' ([[Heaven]]) are couched in the language of physical pleasure, sometimes interpreted literally, sometimes allegorically. Heaven is most often described as a cool, well-shaded, and well-watered garden. The rewards of the righteous are also described in explicitly physical terms; they include unlimited food and drink. Some interpretations also promise enormous palaces staffed with multitudes of servants, and perfect, perpetually-virgin spouses (see [[houri]]).
Muslims stress the belief that it is only the [[Five Pillars of Islam|five pillars of faith]] that bring one to Heaven. Muslims believe that [[Allah]] knows best who will enter Heaven and that some people of the other [[Abrahamic]] faiths (regarded as "People of the book") will also get into heaven.
== Punishment for nonbelievers ==
The Muslims who will not inherit heaven will be punished with a temporary stay in ''Jahannam'' ([[Hell#Islam|Hell]]), and will go to heaven later as long as there is "one atom of faith in their hearts," as stated by the Islamic prophet Muhammad. Some, but not all, Muslims also believe that people who do not accept Muhammad after hearing his message, will receive eternal damnation in Jahannam; just as those who did not believe in Jesus and Moses at their respective periods after hearing of their messages will also receive eternal damnation in hell.
The descriptions in the Qur'an of punishment for unbelief (Jahannam) are, like the descriptions of Jannah, very descriptive. Skin is burned off the person's body and then they are given new skin so it can be burned off again.
:''As for those who reject Our Signs, We will roast them in a Fire. Every time their skins are burned off, We will replace them with new skins so that they can taste the punishment. Allah is Almighty, All-Wise. (4:56)
One interesting point is that the Quran actually states that the skin will be replaced, due to the fact that, in the skin, are the receptors for feeling. Once the skin is burnt down the receptors are destroyed thus no pain will be felt on the burnt place. This is the reason why the burnt skin will be replaced with a new skin so the pain can be felt again.
[[Boil]]ing water is poured down people's throats and it rips their bowels apart. Temperature extremes are applied to the body as punishment.
However, when considering punishments such as those described above, one must also consider that in Islam the afterlife is considered to involve only the spirit, or "roh". Thus, when terms describing physical distress or physical pleasure are used to indicate what heaven or hell are like in the Qur'an, they are actually terms which refer to spiritual state. A description of heaven being an oasis of comfort or hell being one of violent misery is an analogy comparing the pains of the physical world to the pains of the spirit in the afterlife. From a literary perspective, this interpretation makes sense because the audience--humanity--only really understands the physical environment that surrounds it.
==See also==
*[[Nakir and Munkar]]
*[[Mahdi]]
*[[Jannah]]
*[[Hell#Islam|Hell in Islam]]
*[[Iblis]]
==External links==
*[http://www.usc.edu/dept/MSA/fundamentals/pillars/signsofthelasthour.html Signs of the Last Hour]
*[http://www.al-qiyamah.org/ Islamic views on the Day of Judgement]
*[http://www.guardian.co.uk/saturday_review/story/0,3605,631332,00.html The 72 virgins as a reward for Islamic martyrs.]
*[http://www.islamfortoday.com/firestone01.htm Islam Hijacked] - commentary on martyrdom and the rewards thereof
*[http://www.islam.tc/prophecies/jesus.html Islamic prophecies about Jesus]
*[http://www.guidedones.com/metapage/frq/islamicpar.htm Paradise in Islam]
*[http://www.islamfrominside.com/Pages/Tafsir/Tafsir%286-73%29.html Blowing of the Trumpet that signals judgement]
*[http://www.islamfrominside.com/Pages/Tafsir/Tafsir%2810-30%29.html The two resurrections]
[[Category:Islamic eschatology|*]]
Iblis
15514
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Naconkantari
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Reverted edits by [[Special:Contributions/71.126.151.77|71.126.151.77]] ([[User talk:71.126.151.77|talk]]) to last version by Naconkantari
{{otheruses1|Iblis the devil}}
{{Islam}}
'''Iblīs''' (Arabic إبليس), is the primary [[devil]] in [[Islam]].
He appears more often in the [[Qur'an]] (Islamic holy Book) as the ''[[Shaitan]]'', a term used to refer to all of the evil spirits assisting Iblis, but which is often used to refer to just Iblis. Iblis is mentioned 11 times, and Shaitan "al-Shaitaan" ‏(الشيطان) 87 times. He is chief of the spirits of [[evil]] (Shaitan), and his personality is similar to that of the devil in [[Christianity]].
Iblis was a [[Jinn]], a creature made of smokeless fire by God (like humans are made of 'clay'). In an outburst rooted in envy, Iblis disobeyed [[Allah]] (Arabic word for God) and was expelled from the grace of Allah. He was later sent to earth along with [[Adam and Eve]] after having lured them into eating fruit from the forbidden tree, although in this role he is always referred to as [[Shaitan|al-Shaitan]]. He was condemned consequently by God to Hell. He replied with saying that he wanted to bring the inhabitants of Earth down with him, and God, to test Mankind and Jinn, allowed him to roam Earth to attempt to misguide others.
He tempts humans through his whisper (''waswas'', "he whispered") of sinful ideas in their head and false suggestion (''haiif''). In the end, it is believed, he will be cast into ''[[Jahannam]]'' ([[Hell#Islam|Hell in Islam]]) along with those who give in to his temptation of sinful ideas and disobeyed God's true message to mankind (Islam), while those who successfully try to follow a righteous path will be rewarded with the pleasures of ''[[Jannah]]'' (Paradise or [[Heaven]] in Islam).
The Qur'an does not depict ''Shaitan'' as the enemy of Allah, for Allah is supreme over all his creations and Iblis is just one of his creations. Unlike the Zoroastrian beliefs, all good and bad deeds are from Allah himself and only he can save humanity from the evils of his universe and his creations. Shaitan's single enemy is humanity. He intends to discourage humans from obeying God. Thus, humankind is warned to struggle against the mischiefs of the Shaitan and temptations he puts them in. A commonly shared belief in both Islam and Christianity is that the universal existence of evil in personal lives is usually experienced because of the devil.
==Etymology==
Non-Muslim scholars generally hold Iblis to be a contraction of the Greek word ''diabolos'', meaning "[[devil]]". They claim that the Christian and Jewish communities of Arabia during Muhammad's time are likely to have known the word from Greek translations of the [[Hebrew Bible]] and the [[Gospels]]. Muslim scholars, on the other hand, are more inclined to derive the word from the [[Arabic language|Arabic]] verbal root ''balasa'' بلس, meaning "he despaired".
==Origin==
The Qur'an mentions that he was a [[Jinn|Jinn]] [http://www.usc.edu/dept/MSA/quran/018.qmt.html#018.050 (18-50)] and that he was created from fire [http://www.usc.edu/dept/MSA/quran/007.qmt.html#007.012 (7-12)][http://www.usc.edu/dept/MSA/quran/038.qmt.html#038.076 (38-76)] - and not as a ''fallen angel'' as mentioned in the Bible.
According to the Qur'an, after God had completed the creation of everything else [http://www.usc.edu/dept/MSA/quran/002.qmt.html#002.029 (2-29)], [[Allah]] announced that He will create a ''[[Khalifa]]'' (viceregent) on Earth, causing the angels to exclaim how He intends to place on earth one who shall make mischief and shed blood (mankind) while they hymn His praise and sanctify Him. It caused them to receive the answer that He knows what they do not [http://www.usc.edu/dept/MSA/quran/002.qmt.html#002.030 (2-30)].
So Allah created Adam and gave him from His knowledge what no other creature of his possess, by teaching him the names of everything, and by presenting them to the angels, Allah demanded that they tell the names [http://www.usc.edu/dept/MSA/quran/002.qmt.html#002.030 (2-30)], knowing that they will fail.
After the angels have admitted that they have no knowledge except that which Allah (God) had given them [http://www.usc.edu/dept/MSA/quran/002.qmt.html#002.030 (2-30)], Allah commanded Adam to display his knowledge in front of the angels [http://www.usc.edu/dept/MSA/quran/002.qmt.html#002.033 (2-33)], and when Adam did, He commanded the angels to prostrate before Adam, so they do except for [[Iblis]] [http://www.usc.edu/dept/MSA/quran/002.qmt.html#002.034 (2-34)], [http://www.usc.edu/dept/MSA/quran/007.qmt.html#007.011 (7-11)], [http://www.usc.edu/dept/MSA/quran/020.qmt.html#020.116 (20-116)].
In another version of the story Allah informs the angels that He will create Man (Bashar) from clay [http://www.usc.edu/dept/MSA/quran/015.qmt.html#015.028 (15-28)] and that as soon as He has completed his creation they should all prostrate before his creation [http://www.usc.edu/dept/MSA/quran/015.qmt.html#015.029 (15-29)], and so they all do [http://www.usc.edu/dept/MSA/quran/015.qmt.html#015.030 (15-30)], except for [[Iblis]] [http://www.usc.edu/dept/MSA/quran/015.qmt.html#015.031 (15-31)], [http://www.usc.edu/dept/MSA/quran/038.qmt.html#038.074 (38-74)] When Allah demanded an explanation from [[Iblis]] of why he refused to prostrate to Adam [http://www.usc.edu/dept/MSA/quran/015.qmt.html#015.032 (15-32)], and [[Iblis]] explains that he would not prostrate before [[Adam and Eve|Adam]] whom Allah has created from clay [http://www.usc.edu/dept/MSA/quran/015.qmt.html#015.033 (15-33)] [http://www.usc.edu/dept/MSA/quran/017.qmt.html#017.061 (17-61)], while he himslef [[Iblis]] was created from fire [http://www.usc.edu/dept/MSA/quran/038.qmt.html#038.076 (38-76)], and as such he was better than [[Adam and Eve|Adam]] [http://www.usc.edu/dept/MSA/quran/007.qmt.html#007.012 (7-12)].
==See also==
*[[Shaitan]]
*[[Jannah]]
*[[Hell]]
*[[Islamic eschatology]]
==External links==
* [http://www.pantheon.org/articles/i/iblis.html Short summary on Iblis]
* [http://www.themystica.org/mystica/articles/i/iblis.html Another short summary]
* [http://web.uvic.ca/~rpn/files/iblis.html Iblis]
==References==
* Gustav Weil, ''The Bible, the Koran and the Talmud'' (London, 1846).
[[Category:Islamic demons]]
[[ar:إبليس]]
[[de:Iblis]]
[[fa:ابلیس]]
[[fr:Iblis]]
[[ms:Iblis]]
[[sr:Иблис]]
Intelsat
15516
40228414
2006-02-19T02:32:57Z
Gcapp1959
298824
/* History */
[[Image:Logo level 2 nav.gif|right]]
'''Intelsat, Ltd.''' is the world’s largest commercial [[satellite]] communications services provider. On [[July 18]] [[2001]], Intelsat became a private company, 37 years after being formed as '''International Telecommunications Satellite Organization''' ('''ITSO'''), an intergovernmental consortium owning and managing a constellation of [[communications satellite]]s ('''Intelsats''') to provide international broadcast services. Ownership and investment in ITSO (measured in shares) was distributed among ITSO members according to their respective use of services. Investment shares determined each member’s percentage of the total contribution needed to finance capital expenditures. The organization’s primary source of revenue came from satellite usage fees which, after deduction of operating costs, was redistributed to ITSO members in proportion to their shares as repayment of capital and compensation for use of capital. Satellite services were available to any organization (both ITSO members and non-members), and all users paid the same rates.
==History==
The consortium began on [[August 20]], [[1964]] with 11 participating countries. On [[April 6]] [[1965]], Intelsat’s first satellite, the ''Early Bird'', was placed in [[geostationary orbit]] above the [[Atlantic Ocean]] by a [[Delta rocket|Delta D rocket]].
In [[1973]], the name was changed and there were 80 signatories. Intelsat provides service to over 600 Earth stations in more than 149 countries, territories and dependencies. By 2001, ITSO had over 100 members.
Since its inception, Intelsat has used several versions (blocks) of its dedicated Intelsat satellites. ITSO competes each block of spacecraft independently, leading to a variety of contractors over the years. Intelsat’s largest spacecraft supplier is [[Space Systems/Loral]], having built 31 spacecraft (as of 2003), or nearly half of the fleet.
The network in its early years was not as robust as it is now. A failure of the Atlantic satellite in the spring of [[1969]] threatened to stop the ''[[Apollo 11]]'' mission; a replacement satellite fired into orbit went into a bad orbit and could not be recovered in time to use; [[NASA]] had to resort to using undersea cable telephone circuits to bring Apollo's communications to NASA during the moon walk.
Today, the number of Intelsat satellites, as well as ocean-spanning fibre-optic lines, allows rapid rerouting of traffic when one satellite fails. Also, modern satellites are themselves more robust, lasting several more years, with much larger capacity.
==Current operation==
Intelsat was sold for U.S. $3.1bn in [[August]] [[2004]] to four private equity firms: [[Madison Dearborn Partners]], [[Apax Partners]], [[Permira]] and [[Apollo Management]]. The company is merging with [[PanAmSat]]. Intelsat maintains it corporate headquarters in [[Bermuda]], with a majority of staff and satellite functions — administrative headquarters — located at the [[Intelsat Global Services Corporation]] offices in [[Washington, DC]]. This arrangement allows the company to lobby politicians in Washington while filing tax from Bermuda.
Spacecraft operations are controlled through ground stations in [[Fucino, Italy]], [[Clarksburg, Maryland]] (USA), [[Beijing, China]], [[Raisting, Germany]], [[Perth, Western Australia|Perth, Australia]], and [[Paumalu, Hawaii]] (USA).
Intelsat was operating [[Intelsat Americas-7]] until it was lost on [[29 November]] [[2004]] [http://portal.wikinerds.org/node/152].
==See also==
* [[Inmarsat]]
* [[Intersputnik]]
== External links ==
* [http://www.intelsat.com/ Company home page]
===Data===
*[http://biz.yahoo.com/ic/53/53101.html Yahoo! - Intelsat, Ltd. Company Profile]
*[http://www.dailywireless.org/modules.php?name=News&file=article&sid=3542 Pacific Satellite Fails]
[[Category:Communications satellites]]
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#REDIRECT [[Intelsat]]
Interpol
15519
41764107
2006-03-01T16:00:04Z
J M Rice
182338
/* History */ deleted POV
:''This article is about the International Criminal Police Organization. For the indie rock band, see [[Interpol (band)]].''
[[Image:Interpol logo.jpg|right|thumb|199px|Interpol logo]]
'''INTERPOL''', more correctly the '''International Criminal Police Organization''', was created in [[1923]] to assist international criminal police co-operation. INTERPOL, once merely the organization's telegraphic address, was officially incorporated into the organization's new name adopted in [[1956]], prior to which it was known as the International Criminal Police Commission.
INTERPOL is the world's second largest [[international organization]], after the [[United Nations]]; it currently has 184 member countries. It is financed by annual contributions from its member countries, which total about [[euro|EUR]] 30 million; however, [[Europol]] receives €50 million annually. The Organization is headquartered in [[Lyon]], [[France]] (formerly headquartered in [[Saint Cloud]], a town located in the vicinity of [[Paris]]). The currently serving President of Interpol is Mr. [[Jackie Selebi]], Commissioner of the South African Police. The current Secretary General, [[Ronald K. Noble]], formerly of the [[United States Department of the Treasury|U.S. Treasury Department]], is the first non-European to hold the position.
Because of the politically neutral role Interpol must play, its Constitution forbids any involvement in crimes that do not overlap several member countries, or any political, military, religious, or racial crimes. Its work centers primarily on public safety and [[terrorism]], [[organized crime]], [[illicit drug production]] and [[drug trafficking]], [[weapons smuggling]], [[people smuggling|trafficking in human beings]], [[money laundering]], [[child pornography]], financial and high-tech crime, and [[political corruption|corruption]].
In October [[2001]], the Interpol General Secretariat employed a staff of 384, representing 54 different countries. That same month, INTERPOL began to change from a 9-to-5 agency to a 24-hour agency, making its work easier and more efficient.
In [[2001]], some 1,400 people were arrested or located as a result of INTERPOL notices.
==History==
Interpol was founded in [[Austria]] in [[1923]] as the International Criminal Police Commission. The organization came under control of [[Nazi Germany]] when Germany declared the [[Anschluss]] (political union between Germany and Austria). The staff and facilities of INTERPOL were utilised as an information gathering unit for the [[Gestapo]], until the Nazi regime fell to [[Allies of World War II|Allied forces]].
Senior military officials from [[Britain]], [[France]], [[Belgium]] and [[Scandinavia]] reorganized Interpol into today's organization.
The [[United States]] joined INTERPOL in [[1961]].
==Methodology==
Each member country maintains a [[National Central Bureau]] (NCB) staffed by national [[law enforcement]] officers. The NCB is the designated contact point for the INTERPOL General Secretariat, regional bureaus and other member countries requiring assistance with overseas investigations and the location and apprehension of fugitives. This is especially important in countries which have many law-enforcement agencies: this central bureau is a unique point of contact for foreign entities, which may not understand the complexity of the law-enforcement system of the country they attempt to contact. For instance, the NCB for the [[United States of America]] is housed at the [[United States Department of Justice]] (DOJ). The NCB will then ensure the proper transmission of information to the correct agency.
INTERPOL maintains a large database charting unsolved crimes and both convicted and alleged criminals. At any time, a member nation has access to specific sections of the database and its police forces are encouraged to check information held by Interpol whenever a major crime is committed. The rationale behind this is that [[Illegal drug trade|drugs traffickers]] and similar criminals have international ties, and so it is likely that crimes will extend beyond political boundaries.
A member nation's police force can contact one or more member nations by sending a message relayed through INTERPOL.
Contrary to what has been featured in some works of fiction, INTERPOL officers do not directly conduct inquiries in member countries.
==Member states==
[[Afghanistan]], [[Albania]], [[Algeria]], [[Andorra]], [[Angola]], [[Antigua and Barbuda]], [[Argentina]], [[Armenia]], [[Aruba]], [[Australia]], [[Austria]], [[Azerbaijan]], [[Bahamas]], [[Bahrain]], [[Bangladesh]], [[Barbados]], [[Belarus]], [[Belgium]], [[Belize]], [[Benin]], [[Bolivia]], [[Bosnia and Herzegovina]], [[Botswana]], [[Brazil]], [[Brunei]], [[Bulgaria]], [[Burkina Faso]], [[Burundi]], [[Cambodia]], [[Cameroon]], [[Canada]], [[Cape Verde]], [[Central African Republic]], [[Chad]], [[Chile]], [[People's Republic of China|China]], [[Colombia]], [[Comoros]], [[Republic of the Congo|Congo]], [[Democratic Republic of Congo]], [[Costa Rica]], [[Côte d'Ivoire]], [[Croatia]], [[Cuba]], [[Cyprus]], [[Czech Republic]], [[Denmark]], [[Djibouti]], [[Dominica]], [[Dominican Republic]], [[East Timor]], [[Ecuador]], [[Egypt]], [[El Salvador]], [[Equatorial Guinea]], [[Eritrea]], [[Estonia]], [[Ethiopia]], [[Fiji]], [[Finland]], [[Republic of Macedonia]], [[France]], [[Gabon]], [[The Gambia|Gambia]], [[Georgia (country)|Georgia]], [[Germany]], [[Ghana]], [[Greece]], [[Grenada]], [[Guatemala]], [[Guinea]], [[Guinea Bissau]], [[Guyana]], [[Haiti]], [[Honduras]], [[Hong Kong]], [[Hungary]], [[Iceland]], [[India]], [[Indonesia]], [[Iran]], [[Iraq]], [[Republic of Ireland|Ireland]], [[Israel]], [[Italy]], [[Jamaica]], [[Japan]], [[Jordan]], [[Kazakhstan]], [[Kenya]], [[Republic of Korea]], [[Kuwait]], [[Kyrgyzstan]], [[Laos]], [[Latvia]], [[Lebanon]], [[Lesotho]], [[Liberia]], [[Libya]], [[Liechtenstein]], [[Lithuania]], [[Luxembourg]], [[Madagascar]], [[Malawi]], [[Malaysia]], [[Maldives]], [[Mali]], [[Malta]], [[Marshall Islands]], [[Mauritania]], [[Mauritius]], [[Mexico]], [[Moldova]], [[Monaco]], [[Mongolia]], [[Morocco]], [[Mozambique]], [[Myanmar]], [[Namibia]], [[Nauru]], [[Nepal]], [[Netherlands]], [[Netherlands Antilles]], [[New Zealand]], [[Nicaragua]], [[Niger]], [[Nigeria]], [[Norway]], [[Oman]], [[Pakistan]], [[Panama]], [[Papua New Guinea]], [[Paraguay]], [[Peru]], [[Philippines]], [[Poland]], [[Portugal]], [[Qatar]], [[Romania]], [[Russia]], [[Rwanda]], [[Saint Kitts and Nevis]], [[St Lucia]], [[Saint Vincent and the Grenadines]], [[São Tomé and Príncipe]], [[Saudi Arabia]], [[Senegal]], [[Serbia and Montenegro]], [[Seychelles]], [[Sierra Leone]], [[Singapore]], [[Slovakia]], [[Slovenia]], [[Somalia]], [[South Africa]], [[Spain]], [[Sri Lanka]], [[Sudan]], [[Suriname]], [[Swaziland]], [[Sweden]], [[Switzerland]], [[Syria]], [[Tajikistan]]. [[Tanzania]], [[Thailand]], [[Togo]], [[Tonga]], [[Trinidad and Tobago]], [[Tunisia]], [[Turkey]], [[Turkmenistan]], [[Uganda]], [[Ukraine]], [[United Arab Emirates]], [[United Kingdom]], [[United States]], [[Uruguay]], [[Uzbekistan]], [[Venezuela]], [[Vietnam]], [[Yemen]], [[Zambia]], [[Zimbabwe]].
==External links==
*[http://www.interpol.int Interpol's official website]
*[http://icpoinfo.tripod.com Interpol Information Website]
*[http://www.janes.com/security/law_enforcement/news/pr/pr060112_1_n.shtml What is Interpol?] - article from Jane's Police Review
[[Category:International organizations]]
[[Category:International law enforcement organisations]]
[[Category:Intelligence agencies]]
[[cs:Interpol]]
[[da:Interpol]]
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[[es:Organización Internacional de Policía Criminal]]
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[[he:אינטרפול]]
[[nl:Interpol]]
[[ja:国際刑事警察機構]]
[[no:Interpol]]
[[pt:International Criminal Police Organization]]
[[ru:Интерпол]]
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[[tr:Interpol]]
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ICPO-Interpol
15520
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2005-10-06T18:09:39Z
Tedernst
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eliminate double re-direct
#REDIRECT [[Interpol]]
Indian numerals
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41753353
2006-03-01T14:24:33Z
Noe
57569
cat
{{Table_Numeral_Systems}}
Most of the [[positional system|positional]] [[base 10]] [[numeral system]]s in the world have originated from [[India]], which first developed the concept of positional numerology. The Indian numeral system is commonly referred to in the West as [[Hindu-Arabic numerals|Hindu-Arabic numeral system]], since it reached Europe through the Arabs.
==[[Devanagari]] numerals and their [[Sanskrit]] names==
Below is a list of the Indian numerals in their [[Devanagari]] form, the corresponding European (Indo-Arabic) equivalents, and their [[Sanskrit]] pronunciation.
<table>
<tr><th>Devanagari<br>Numeral<th>Arabic/Western<br>Numeral<th>Sanskrit word<br>for the numeral
<tr><th>०<td>[[0 (number)|0]]<td>shuunyaha
<tr><th>१<td>[[1 (number)|1]]<td>ekaha
<tr><th>२<td>[[2 (number)|2]]<td>dwitiyaha
<tr><th>३<td>[[3 (number)|3]]<td>tritityaha
<tr><th>४<td>[[4 (number)|4]]<td>chaturaha
<tr><th>५<td>[[5 (number)|5]]<td>panchaha
<tr><th>६<td>[[6 (number)|6]]<td>shashtihi
<tr><th>७<td>[[7 (number)|7]]<td>sapthami
<tr><th>८<td>[[8 (number)|8]]<td>ashtaha
<tr><th>९<td>[[9 (number)|9]]<td>navaha
</table>
It is thus evident that the '''words''' for each number in the [[Sanskrit]] language very closely approximate the [[Greek language|Greek]] and [[Latin]] words for the same numbers.
==Other modern Indian languages==
:''See also [[glyphs used with the Hindu-Arabic numeral system]].''
The three Indian languages ([[Hindi]], [[Marathi]] and [[Sanskrit]] itself) that have adapted the Devanagari script to their use also naturally employ the numeral symbols above; of course, the names for the numbers vary by language. The table below presents a listing of the '''symbols''' used in various modern Indian scripts for the numbers from zero to nine:
{| border="1" cellspacing="2" cellpadding="2" style="BORDER-COLLAPSE: collapse; text-align:center;"
|'''Variant''' || '''0''' || '''1''' || '''2''' || '''3''' || '''4''' || '''5''' || '''6''' || '''7''' || '''8''' || '''9''' || '''Used in'''
|-
|'''Bangla''' numerals ||০|| ১|| ২|| ৩|| ৪|| ৫|| ৬|| ৭|| ৮|| ৯|| [[Bengali language]]
|-
|'''Gujarati''' numerals ||૦|| ૧|| ૨|| ૩|| ૪|| ૫|| ૬|| ૭|| ૮|| ૯|| [[Gujarati language]]
|-
|'''Gurumukhi''' numerals ||੦|| ੧|| ੨|| ੩|| ੪|| ੫|| ੬|| ੭|| ੮|| ੯|| [[Punjabi language]]
|-
|'''Kannada''' numerals ||೦|| ೧|| ೨|| ೩|| ೪|| ೫|| ೬|| ೭|| ೮|| ೯|| [[Kannada language]]
|-
|'''Malayalam''' numerals ||൦|| ൧|| ൨|| ൩|| ൪|| ൫|| ൬|| ൭|| ൮|| ൯|| [[Malayalam language]]
|-
|'''Oriya''' numerals ||୦|| ୧|| ୨|| ୩|| ୪|| ୫|| ୬|| ୭|| ୮|| ୯|| [[Oriya language]]
|-
|'''Tamil''' numerals ||௦ || ௧|| ௨|| ௩|| ௪|| ௫|| ௬|| ௭|| ௮|| ௯|| [[Tamil language]]
|-
|'''Tibetan''' numerals ||༠|| ༡|| ༢|| ༣|| ༤|| ༥|| ༦|| ༧|| ༨|| ༩|| [[Tibetan language]]
|-
|'''Lepcha''' numerals
| colspan="10" | [http://www.omniglot.com/writing/lepcha.htm Lepcha]
| [[Sikkim]] and [[Bhutan]]
|}
==History==
{{main|History of the Hindu-Arabic numeral system}}
A decimal place system has been traced back to ca. 500 CE in India. Before that epoch, the [[Brahmi numeral]] system was in use; that system did not encompass the concept of the place-value of numbers. Instead, Brahmi numerals included additional symbols for the tens, as well as separate symbols for ''hundred'' and ''thousand''.
The Indian place-system numerals spread to neighboring [[Persia]], where they were picked up by the conquering [[Arab]]s. In AD 662, a [[Nestorian]] bishop living in what is now called [[Iraq]] said :
:''I will omit all discussion of the science of the Indians ... of their subtle discoveries in astronomy - discoveries that are more ingenious than those of the Greeks and the Babylonians - and of their valuable methods of calculation which surpass description. I wish only to say that this computation is done by means of nine signs. If those who believe that because they speak Greek they have arrived at the limits of science would read the Indian texts they would be convinced even if a little late in the day that there are others who know something of value.''
The addition of [[0 (number)|zero]] as a tenth positional digit is documented from the [[9th century]].
As it was from the Arabs that the Europeans learnt this system, the Europeans called them ''[[Arabic numerals]];'' ironically, to this day the Arabs refer to their numerals as ''Indian numerals''. In academic circles they are called the ''Hindu-Arabic'' or ''Indo-Arabic'' numerals.
The significance of the development of the positional number system is probably best described by the French mathematician Pierre Simon Laplace (1749 - 1827) who wrote:
: ''"It is India that gave us the ingenuous method of expressing all numbers by the means of ten symbols, each symbol receiving a value of position, as well as an absolute value; a profound and important idea which appears so simple to us now that we ignore its true merit, but its very simplicity, the great ease which it has lent to all computations, puts our arithmetic in the first rank of useful inventions, and we shall appreciate the grandeur of this achievement when we remember that it escaped the genius of Archimedes and Apollonius, two of the greatest minds produced by antiquity." ''
Tobias Dantzig, the father of George Dantzig had this to say in ''Number'':
:''"This long period of nearly five thousand years saw the rise and fall of many a civilization, each leaving behind it a heritage of literature, art, philosophy, and religion. But what was the net achievement in the field of reckoning, the earliest art practiced by man? An inflexible numeration so crude as to make progress well nigh impossible, and a calculating device so limited in scope that even elementary calculations called for the services of an expert [...] Man used these devices for thousands of years without contributing a single important idea to the system [...] Even when compared with the slow growth of ideas during the dark ages, the history of reckoning presents a peculiar picture of desolate stagnation. When viewed in this light, the achievements of the unknown Hindu, who some time in the first centuries of our era discovered the principle of position, assumes the importance of a world event."''
==References==
*Georges Ifrah, ''The Universal History of Numbers.'' John Wiley, 2000.
[[de:Indische Ziffern]]
[[nl:Indiase cijfers]]
[[category:Numeration]]
I.Q.
15522
15912993
2005-03-13T05:09:52Z
Kevyn
71581
Fix Double Redirect - [[WP:WS|Please help out by clicking here to fix someone else's Wiki syntax]]
#REDIRECT [[Intelligence quotient]]
Ian Botham
15524
40434492
2006-02-20T14:52:24Z
Soames
739048
/* External links */
{{Infobox Cricketer |
flag = England flag.svg |
nationality = English |
country = England |
country abbrev = ENG |
name = Ian Botham |
picture = Cricket no pic.png |
batting style = Right-handed batsman (RHB) |
bowling style = Right-arm [[Fast bowling|fast medium]] (RFM) |
tests = 102 |
test runs = 5200 |
test bat avg = 33.34 |
test 100s/50s = 14/22 |
test top score = 208 |
test overs = 3549.3 |
test wickets = 383 |
test bowl avg = 28.40 |
test 5s = 27 |
test 10s = 4 |
test best bowling = 8/34 |
test catches/stumpings = 120/0 |
ODIs = 116 |
ODI runs = 2113 |
ODI bat avg = 23.21 |
ODI 100s/50s = 0/9 |
ODI top score = 79 |
ODI overs = 1032.1 |
ODI wickets = 145 |
ODI bowl avg = 28.54 |
ODI 5s = 0 |
ODI best bowling = 4/31 |
ODI catches/stumpings = 36/0 |
date = 5 January |
year = 2005 |
source = http://www.cricinfo.com/link_to_database/PLAYERS/ENG/B/BOTHAM_IT_01001529/
}}
'''Ian Terence Botham''' [[Order of the British Empire|OBE]], (born [[November 24]], [[1955]] in [[Heswall]], [[Cheshire]]) ([[nickname]]d "Beefy") was one of [[English cricket team|England]]'s best-ever [[cricket]]ers and one of the best [[all-rounder|all-round]] cricketers of all time. In a [[Test cricket|Test]] career spanning 15 years from [[1977]], he scored 5,200 runs at 33.54, and took 383 [[wicket]]s at an average of 28.40. Similarly successful at [[one-day cricket]], he was a [[Wisden]] cricketer of the year in [[1978]].
Whilst his averages suggest he was an average [[batsman]] and [[bowler (cricket)|bowler]], they belie his reputation as one of the greatest match winners of the game. He tended to play to extremes, so if Botham played well, he often seemed to win the match on his own.
He was renowned as a big-hitting batsman but with a surprisingly classical technique, and as a fast-medium paced [[swing bowling|swing bowler]]. In his later career after a back injury, his pace diminished to no more than a gentle medium, but he seemed to retain the knack of taking wickets regardless.
==On the field==
A talented footballer as well as cricketer, Botham had to choose very early in his career whether to play professional [[football (soccer)|football]] or cricket. Later on, to get fit after an injury, he played for [[Scunthorpe United F.C.|Scunthorpe United]].
Botham started his [[first-class cricket|first-class]] career with [[Somerset County Cricket Club|Somerset]] in [[1974]]. He left Somerset in [[1985]] as a protest against the sacking of his friends [[Vivian Richards|Viv Richards]] and [[Joel Garner]], and played for [[Worcestershire County Cricket Club|Worcestershire]] between 1986 and [[1991]]. In [[1992]], he joined [[County Championship]] newcomers [[Durham County Cricket Club|Durham]] before retiring midway through the 1993 season, poignantly after Durham's match against the touring Australians. He also played for [[Queensland]] although his time there was tarnished by incidents in an aircraft, which also involved [[Allan Border]] and a passenger.
He made his Test debut for [[England cricket team|England]] on [[28 July]] [[1977]] in the Third Test against [[Australian cricket team|Australia ]]. He played 102 Tests, and was England [[captain]] for 12 [[Test cricket|Tests]] in [[1980]] and [[1981]]. However, he was unsuccessful in that role, with 8 draws and 4 losses although in his defence, 9 of his matches as captain were against the best team of the time, the [[West Indian cricket team|West Indies]].
His career coincided with the careers of several other great all-rounders, including [[Richard Hadlee]], [[Imran Khan]], and [[Kapil Dev]]. As a result, the 1980s is considered to be a golden era for the all-rounder. Botham's best world rankings were first and third in bowling and batting respectively.
===Records===
Ian Botham holds a number of Test records as an all-rounder, including being the fastest (in terms of matches) to achieve the "doubles" of 1,000 runs and 100 wickets, 2,000 runs and 200 wickets, and 3,000 runs and 300 wickets.
He was the first player to score 5,000 runs and take 300 Test wickets, and the first to score a century and take 10 wickets in the same Test match. He scored a century and took 5 wickets in an [[innings]] in the same Test match on 5 occasions; no-one else has managed this feat more than twice.
When he retired, he held the world record for the greatest number of Test wickets, although his tally has subsequently been passed by several players.
During the [[1981]] [[The Ashes | Ashes]] (see below), Ian set a record of six sixes in a single Ashes Test Match at [[Old Trafford (cricket)|Old Trafford]]. That record remained unbroken until the 7th August [[2005]] when [[Andrew Flintoff]] scored five in the first innings and four in the second innings of the second Test at [[Edgbaston Stadium|Edgbaston]] against Australia, and again until the 12th September [[2005]], when [[Kevin Pietersen]] hit seven sixes in the second innings of the last Test at [[The Brit Oval]], again against Australia.
People also joke about his age when he became [[50]], claiming that because of his batting skill and natural love for the game of [[Cricket]], it was his slowest half-century that he's ever made.
==="Botham's Ashes"===
In 1980, Botham was the pre-eminent all-rounder in world cricket and was appointed captain of the England team. However, his captaincy was not a happy one; he lost form and the team did not do well (see above). There was also an incident in the 1980 centenary Test against Australia at Lord's where several frustrated Lord's pavilion members threw punches at him, after what they saw as his alliance with the umpires to unnecessarily delay play on a dry, sunny, Saturday (it had rained heavily the previous night). He resigned the captaincy after a loss and a draw in the first two Tests of the [[1981]] [[Ashes series]]; he was dismissed for a "pair" in the Second Test at [[Lord's Cricket Ground|Lord's]]. He returned to an embarrassed silence in the pavilion and after the previous year's events at the centenary Test, this possibly was the final straw. For the rest of his cricketing career, Botham always refused to acknowledge the pavilion members when he played at Lord's. The Australian team was rated as second only to the great West Indies team of the time containing a formidable pace attack in the form of [[Dennis Lillee]], [[Geoff Lawson (cricketer)|Geoff Lawson]] and [[Terry Alderman]].
[[Mike Brearley]], the captain Botham had replaced, took over the reins for the Third Test scheduled for [[16 July|16]] to [[21 July]], at [[Headingley Stadium|Headingley]]. Australia won the toss and elected to bat. They batted all day Thursday and most of Friday, declaring after tea at 401 for 9, [[John Dyson]] having made 102 and Botham having taken 6 for 96. The England openers [[Graham Gooch]] and [[Geoff Boycott]] survived the remaining few overs, and England finished the day on 7 for no wicket.
The next day, Saturday, was a disaster for England: Gooch was out in the first over of the day, and although Boycott and Brearley then attempted to dig in, they were both out before lunch. None of the other batsmen got going at all with the exception of Botham who top scored with 50 — his first half century since his first Test as captain 13 matches earlier. England were all out in the third session for 174. Australia enforced the follow on and piled on the pressure, Gooch was out for 0 on the third ball of the first over caught by Terry Alderman off the bowling of Dennis Lillee. By the close, England had struggled to just 6 for 1, still 221 behind Australia.
Sunday [[19 July]] was a rest day and the papers roasted the lamentable England team. Morale was not improved by the news that [[Ladbrokes]] were offering 500-1 against England winning the match. (Controversially, the Australian wicket keeper [[Rod Marsh]] and opening bowler Dennis Lillee both placed bets on England to win, claiming that 500-1 were silly odds on any two-horse race.)
On Monday morning the odds began to look generous, as first Brearley, then [[David Gower]] and [[Mike Gatting]] all fell cheaply to reduce England to 41 for 4. Boycott was still anchored at the other end however and he and [[Peter Willey]] added 50 runs before lunch. In the afternoon however, Willey was out for 33 and England were in deep trouble at 105 for 5 as Botham walked out to bat. Matters did not improve as first Geoff Boycott and then [[Robert Taylor|Bob Taylor]] were soon dismissed. At 135 for 7 an innings defeat looked almost certain.
By all accounts, both teams' players thought Australia would win the match. When [[Graham Dilley]] joined him at the crease, Botham reportedly said, "Right then, let's have a bit of fun...". With able support from Dilley (56) and [[Chris Old]] (29), Botham hit out and by the close of play was 145 not out with [[Bob Willis]] hanging on at the other end on 1 not out. England's lead was just 124 but there was hope. On the final day's play there was time for just four more runs from Botham before Willis was out and Botham was left on 149 not out.
Willis's real contribution was with the ball however, after Botham took the first wicket Willis skittled Australia out for just 111, finishing with figures of 8 for 43. England had won by just 18 runs, it was only the second time in history that a team following on had won a Test match.
The next Test match, at Edgbaston, looked almost as hopeless for England. In a low scoring match (no-one made a score over 48), Australia needed 151 to win. At 5-105, things looked a little worrying for them, but an Australian win was still the most likely result. Botham then took 5 wickets for 1 run in 28 balls to give England the win by 29 runs. (Later, Brearley said that Botham hadn't wanted to bowl and had to be persuaded.)
The [[Old Trafford (cricket)|Old Trafford]] Test was less of a turnaround and more of a team performance than the previous two Tests, but Botham again was England's hero, scoring 118 in what Lillee claimed was a better innings than his Headingley heroics. His sixes in this innings have themselves become a part of cricketing folklore; three of the five were from Lillee's bowling, two of them in the same over. Remarkably, even though he seemed to take his eye off the ball while hooking some fearsome Lillee bouncers, his sheer power and strength carried the ball over the boundary ropes. England won the match, then drew the last match at [[The Oval]] (Botham took 6 wickets in the first innings) to take the series 3-1.
Unsurprisingly, Botham was named man of the series, scoring 399 runs and taking 34 wickets. He was made [[BBC Sports Personality of the Year]] in [[1981]]. He is one of only four cricketers to receive the honour, the others being [[Jim Laker]] in [[1956]], [[David Steele]] in [[1975]] and [[Andrew Flintoff]] in 2005.
The turnaround at Headingley was ranked 5th in Channel 4's [[100 Greatest Sporting Moments]] in 2002.
==Off the field==
A colourful character, Botham was suspended briefly in 1986 for smoking [[cannabis (drug)|cannabis]], and his private life has occasionally made dramatic appearances in Britain's tabloid newspapers. He is married with three children. His son [[Liam Botham]] was a professional [[Rugby League]] player, playing for [[Wigan Warriors]] until his retirement in 2005 due to injury.
After retiring as a player, he became an authoritative [[television]] [[commentator]] and has participated in a number of long-distance fund-raising walks for charities. He has raised more than five million pounds, with [[Leukaemia Research]] (charity) amongst the causes which have benefited.
Botham was appointed an [[Order of the British Empire|OBE]] in [[1992]] for services to cricket and for his charity work. For several years, he was a resident team captain on the [[BBC]] [[quiz]] show "[[A Question Of Sport]]", and he has also taken up offers of appearing in [[pantomime]]s during the [[Christmas]] period. In 2004, he won the [[BBC Sports Personality of the Year Lifetime Achievement Award]]. In 2003 he was made the first ever President of Leukaemia Research, the UK's leading blood cancer charity.
==Family history==
Ian Botham's father came from [[East Riding of Yorkshire|East Yorkshire]]. When Ian was young, his father was stationed with the [[Fleet Air Arm]] in Northern Ireland, before he moved to [[Yeovil]], where he worked at [[Westland Helicopters]]. Botham went to Milford Junior School, where he discovered a liking for sport, especially cricket, and played for Somerset Under-15s. He left Buckler's Mead Comprehensive School at 15, being only interested in playing cricket for Somerset, although he also had an offer to join [[Crystal Palace F.C.]]. From an early age, he always wanted his own way in a devoutly, almost religious, single-minded fashion. When informed that Ian wanted to be a sportsman, the careers master at his school said to him 'Fine, everyone wants to play sport, but what are you really going to do?'.
==External links==
* {{cricinfo|ref=ci/content/player/9163.html}}
* [http://www.cricketarchive.com Cricket Archive]
{{5WI 25 times}}
{{English Test match double}}
{{All-rounders}}
{{start box}}
{{succession box|
before=[[Mike Brearley]]|
title=[[England Cricket|English national cricket captain]]|
years=1980-1981|
after=[[Mike Brearley]]
}}
{{succession box|title=[[BBC Sports Personality of the Year]]|before=[[Robin Cousins]] |after=[[Daley Thompson]]|years=1981}}
{{end box}}
[[Category:1955 births|Botham, Ian]]
[[Category:Living people|Botham, Ian]]
[[Category:British sports broadcasters|Botham, Ian]]
[[Category:Cricket commentators|Botham, Ian]]
[[Category:Durham cricketers|Botham, Ian]]
[[Category:English ODI cricketers|Botham, Ian]]
[[Category:English Test cricketers|Botham, Ian]]
[[Category:English all-rounders|Botham, Ian]]
[[Category:English batsmen|Botham, Ian]]
[[Category:English bowlers|Botham, Ian]]
[[Category:English cricket captains|Botham, Ian]]
[[Category:English cricketers|Botham, Ian]]
[[Category:English footballers|Botham, Ian]]
[[Category:Officers of the British Empire|Botham, Ian]]
[[Category:Queensland cricketers|Botham, Ian]]
[[Category:Scunthorpe United F.C. players|Botham, Ian]]
[[Category:Somerset cricket captains|Botham, Ian]]
[[Category:Somerset cricketers|Botham, Ian]]
[[Category:Wisden Cricketers of the Year|Botham, Ian]]
[[Category:Worcestershire cricketers|Botham, Ian]]
[[Category:Natives of Cheshire|Botham, Ian]]
[[fr:Ian Botham]]
Id Software
15526
38679425
2006-02-07T22:55:31Z
192.246.40.8
Both Hall and Romero were let go from id, they didn't quit. I changed the entry to be more correct
{{lowercase|title=id Software}}
{{Infobox_Company |
company_name = id Software |
company_logo = [[Image:idlogo.jpg|180px|]] |
company_type = [[Private company|Private]] |
company_slogan = N/A |
foundation = [[Mesquite, TX]] ([[February 1]] [[1991]]) |
location = [[Mesquite, TX]] |
key_people = [[John Carmack]], Lead Programmer<br />[[John Romero]], Former Game Designer<br />[[Tom Hall]], Former Game Designer<br />[[Adrian Carmack]], Former Artist |
num_employees = 26 |
industry = [[Computer game]]s|
products = [[Wolfenstein 3D]]<br />[[HeXen]]<br />[[HeXen II]]<br />[[Heretic (computer game)|Heretic]]<br />[[Doom]]<br />[[Doom II]]<br />[[Doom 3]]<br />[[Doom engine]]<br />[[Quake]]<br />[[Quake II]]<br />[[Quake III Arena]]<br />[[Quake 4]]<br />[[Quake engine]]<br />[[Commander Keen]] |
revenue = n/a|
homepage = [http://www.idsoftware.com/ www.idsoftware.com]
}}
'''id Software''' is a [[video game developer|computer game developer]] based in [[Mesquite, Texas|Mesquite]], [[Texas]], a suburb of [[Dallas, Texas|Dallas]]. The company was founded by four members of the computer company [[Softdisk]]: [[John Carmack]], a [[game programmer|programmer]], [[John Romero]] and [[Tom Hall]], [[game designer]]s, and [[Adrian Carmack]], an [[artist]]. id Software is now considered the most influential of the many game development companies in the Dallas area, known as the [[Dallas Gaming Mafia]].
Note the lower-case ''id'', which some say refers to the [[Ego, superego, and id|id]] as a psychological concept. Originally, both letters were capitals (ID Software), and came from "Ideas from the Deep". The "I" was made lowercase in the release of the second Commander Keen series, and eventually the "D" was also dropped down to lowercase which, according to some changed the meaning of the company name.
The correct pronunciation of id Software is a much-argued subject. Since the original name came from "Ideas from the Deep", many argue that it is an abbreviation and hence should be pronounced "eye-dee". However, since both letters were changed from upper to lower case, and id Software's [http://www.idsoftware.com/business/history/ id History page] makes a direct reference to [[Sigmund_Freud|Freud]], many now argue that it is [[Ego, superego, and id|id]] as in "did" or "kid".
==History==
The founders of id Software met in the offices of [[Softdisk]] developing multiple games for Softdisk for monthly publishing. These included [[Dangerous Dave]] and other titles. Once [[Apogee Software]] learned of the group and their exceptional talent, they recruited them, and developed the necessary titles for them to get out of their Softdisk contracts. Meanwhile, they worked on titles that would be developed under the ID Software moniker. The most successful of those outings would be ''[[Commander Keen]]''.
===''Commander Keen''===
The [[Commander Keen]] series, a [[platform game]] introducing one of the first smooth side-scrolling [[game engine]]s for the [[IBM PC compatible|PC]], brought id Software into the gaming mainstream. The game was very successful and spawned a whole series of titles. It was also the group of id Software that designer Tom Hall was most affiliated with.
The [[shareware]] distribution method was initially employed by id Software through Apogee Software to sell their products, such as the Commander Keen, Doom and Wolfenstein games. They would release the first part of their trilogy as shareware, then sell the other two installments by mail order. Only later (about the time of the release of ''Doom II'') did id release their games via more traditional shrink-wrapped boxes in stores (through other [[video game publisher|game publishers]]). It is likely that id Software has been the most successful shareware publisher to date.
===''Wolfenstein 3D''===
The company's breakout product was ''[[Wolfenstein 3D]]'', a [[first person shooter]] with smooth 3D graphics that were unprecedented in computer games, and with violent game play that many gamers found engaging. After essentially founding an entire genre with this game, id created ''[[Doom]]'', ''[[Doom II]]'', ''[[Quake]]'', ''[[Quake II]]'', ''[[Quake III Arena]]'', ''[[Doom 3]]'', and ''[[Quake 4]]''. Each of these first person shooters featured progressively higher levels of graphical technology (and progressively higher minimum system requirements).
===John Carmack===
The [[lead programmer]] for id Software is [[John Carmack]], whose skill at [[3D computer graphics|3D]] [[computer programming|programming]] is widely recognized in the software industry. He is the last of the original lead designers remaining in the company.
===Tom Hall===
[[Tom Hall]] left id Software during the early days of ''Doom'' development (but not before he had some impact: he was responsible, for example, for the inclusion of teleporters in the game). He was let go before the shareware release of ''Doom'' and then went to work for Apogee working on ''[[Rise of the Triad]]'' with the "Developers of Incredible Power". Hall has frequently commented that if id Software ever sold him the rights to ''Commander Keen'' he will immediately develop another Keen title.
===John Romero===
[[John Romero]], who was also asked to leave, left after the release of the shareware ''Quake'' to form the ill-fated [[Ion Storm]]. Having already finished his work on ''Rise of the Triad'' and not finding himself compatible with the ''[[Prey (computer game)|Prey]]'' development team at Apogee, Tom Hall left to join his ex-id compadre in this new company.
Both Hall and Romero are seen as excellent designers and idea men who have helped shape some of the key PC gaming titles of the 1990s.
Romero now heads the [[Cyberathlete Professional League]] Board of Directors.
===''Quake''===
The release of ''Quake'' marked the second milestone in id history. ''Quake'' combined a cutting edge fully 3D engine with an excellent art style to create what was at the time regarded as a feast for the eyes. Audio was not neglected either, having recruited [[Trent Reznor]] to facilitate unique sound-effects and ambient music for the game. Furthermore, ''Quake'''s main innovation—the capability to play a deathmatch (competitive gameplay between living opponents instead of against computer-run characters) over the [[Internet]] (especially through the add-on ''QuakeWorld'') seared the title into the minds of gamers as another smash hit.
===Opinion and engines===
The success of ''Quake II'', ''Quake III'' and ''Doom 3'', though financially very successful, have met some critical opposition. id's games have continued to rate well in magazines, but community opinion on the later id games is often divided, with some accusing the company of being too orthodox in their design principles, especially with ''Doom 3''. id's games have always included new revolutionary technologies, varying from graphics to netcode.
Currently, id's "game engines" are [[license]]d to many other developers. This, along with Carmack's heavily orthodox FPS design ideas are two facts that have helped shape public opinion, to the point at which some in the community regard id firstly as a technology developer, and only secondly as a game developer. The price of licensing id's engines normally runs about $250,000 per title. Id releases its older game engines, such as that of ''Quake'', ''Quake II'' and ''Quake III'', under the GNU [[GPL]] for others to use free of charge (bound by the GPL license restrictions) [http://www.idsoftware.com/business/techdownloads/].
The source code to the ''Quake III'' engine was previously supposed to have been released around the end of 2004, which would be consistent with an apparent policy of releasing all the 3d engines under the GPL when they are over 5 years old. However, John Carmack announced that the GPL release had been put on hold in order to maintain a grace period, since the ''Quake III'' engine was still being licensed to commercial customers who would otherwise become upset over the sudden loss in value of their recent investment. The fact that software from 1999 continued to be worth considerable licensing fees by the market at least until 2004 is a testament to its quality. The ''Quake III'' source code was released under the GPL on [[August 19]], [[2005]].
In 2003, the book ''Masters of Doom'' chronicled the development of id, concentrating on the personalities and interaction of John Carmack and John Romero.
==Games by id Software==
*''[[Commander Keen]]''
**Episode 1: ''Marooned on Mars'' (1990)
**Episode 2: ''The Earth Explodes'' (1991)
**Episode 3: ''Keen Must Die'' (1991)
**''Keen Dreams'' (1991)
**Episode 4: ''Secret of the Oracle'' (1991)
**Episode 5: ''The Armageddon Machine'' (1991)
**Episode 6: ''Aliens Ate My Baby Sitter'' (1991)
*''[[Dangerous Dave|Dangerous Dave in the Haunted Mansion]]'' (1991)
*''[[Rescue Rover]]'' (1991)
*''[[Rescue Rover 2]]'' (1991)
*''[[Hovertank 3D]]'' (1991)
*''[[Catacomb 3D]]'': ''A New Dimension'' (1992) re-released as ''Catacomb 3-D: The Descent''
**''Catacomb Abyss'' (1992)
**''Catacomb Armageddon'' (1992) re-released as ''Curse of the Catacombs''
**''Catacomb Apocalypse'' (1992) re-released as ''Terror of the Catacombs''
*''[[Wolfenstein 3D]]'' (1992)
**''Spear of Destiny'' (1992)
*''[[Doom]]'' (1993)
**''The Ultimate Doom'' (1995)
*''[[Doom II: Hell on Earth]]'' (1994)
**''[[Master Levels for Doom II]]'' (1995)
**''[[Final Doom]]'' (1996)
*''[[Quake]]'' (1996)
**Mission Pack 1: ''[[Quake Mission Pack: Scourge of Armagon|Scourge of Armagon]]'' (1997) (developed by [[Hipnotic Interactive]], now known as [[Ritual Entertainment]])
**Mission Pack 2: ''Dissolution of Eternity'' (1997) (developed by [[Rogue Entertainment]])
*''[[Quake II]]'' (1997)
**Mission Pack 1: ''The Reckoning'' (1998) (developed by [[Xatrix Entertainment]], now known as [[Gray Matter Interactive]])
**Mission Pack 2: ''Ground Zero'' (1998) (developed by [[Rogue Entertainment]])
*''[[Quake III Arena]]'' (1999)
**Expansion: ''Team Arena'' (2000)
*''[[Return to Castle Wolfenstein]]'' (2001) (developed by [[Gray Matter Interactive]], multiplayer portion by [[Nerve Software]])
*''[[Wolfenstein: Enemy Territory]]'' (2003) (developed by [[Splash Damage]])
*''[[Doom 3]]'' (2004)
**Expansion: ''[[Doom 3: Resurrection of Evil|Resurrection of Evil]]'' (2005) (developed by [[Nerve Software]])
*''[[Quake 4]]'' (2005) (developed by [[Raven Software]])
*''[[Enemy Territory: Quake Wars]]'' (2006) (developed by [[Splash Damage]])
==Additional reading==
*Kushner, David (2003). ''Masters of Doom: How Two Guys Created an Empire and Transformed Pop Culture'', New York: Random House. ISBN 0375505245.
==External links==
*[http://www.idsoftware.com/ Official id Software website]
*[http://www.doomwadstation.com/gamedemos/ All The Demos], every demo of every game ever made by id Software
*[http://www.doomwadstation.com/idgames/ Doom Wad Station] User Created maps in an archive directory for every game from Wolfenstein3d to QuakeIV
*[http://www.quakecon.org/ QuakeCon.org], id Software fan site
*[http://www.spectrum.ieee.org/WEBONLY/publicfeature/aug02/id.html "The Wizardry of Id" article By David Kushner from IEEE Spectrum Online]
*[http://www.gamespy.com/e32002/pc/id/ "A Chat With id Software" - A GameSpy interview with people at id Software]
*[http://www.3drealms.com/keenhistory/ "A Look Back at Commander Keen" includes some details on the history of id]
*[http://idm.gesies.com/ ''id Museum''], a page dedicated to id Software
*[http://www.assassinworks.com/ray/wolf.html A tribute to id Software]
*[http://bbs.keyhole.com/ubb/download.php?Number=190480 Google-Earth Placemark]
[[Category:Computer and video game companies]]
[[Category:Dallas-Fort Worth Texas based companies]]
[[Category:1991 establishments]]
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Isaac Stern
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wikifying Yo-Yo Ma
'''Isaac Stern''' ([[July 21]], [[1920]] – [[September 22]], [[2001]]) is widely considered one of the finest [[violin]] [[virtuosi]] of the [[20th century|twentieth century]].
Born in [[Kremenetz]], [[Ukraine]], his family moved to [[San Francisco]] when he was ten months old. He received his first music lessons from his mother before enrolling at the [[San Francisco Conservatory of Music]] in [[1928]]. There he studied the violin with [[Nahum Blinder]].<!--Source please: "He felt proud to have been a student of [[Nahum Blinder]]."--> At his public début on [[February 18]], [[1936]] he played [[Camille Saint-Saëns|Saint-Saëns]]' [[Violin Concerto No. 3 (Saint-Saëns)|Violin Concerto No. 3]] with the [[San Francisco Symphony]] [[orchestra]], [[Conducting|conducted]] by [[Pierre Monteux]].
In [[1979]], the [[People's Republic of China|Chinese]] government invited Stern to tour and teach in their country. The film-maker [[Murray Lerner]] accompanied him and made the film ''[[From Mao to Mozart]]'', winning the [[1980]] [[Academy Award|Oscar]] for Best Documentary.
Stern became famous both for his great [[Sound recording|recording]]s and for championing younger players. Among his discoveries were the [[cellist]] [[Yo-Yo Ma]] and violinists [[Itzhak Perlman]] and [[Pinchas Zukerman]]. He also played a major role in saving [[New York City]]'s [[Carnegie Hall]] from demolition in [[1960]] and its main [[auditorium]] is now named after him.
Amongst many other recordings, Stern recorded [[concerto]]s by [[Johannes Brahms|Brahms]], [[Johann Sebastian Bach|Bach]], [[Ludwig van Beethoven|Beethoven]], [[Felix Mendelssohn|Mendelssohn]] and [[Antonio Vivaldi|Vivaldi]] and modern works by [[Samuel Barber]], [[Béla Bartók]], [[Igor Stravinsky]] and [[Leonard Bernstein]]. He also [[Dubbing|dubbed]] actors' violin-playing in several films, for example ''[[Fiddler on the Roof]]''.
==Discography==
{{listdev}}
== Awards and Recognitions ==
{{listdev}}
'''[[Grammy Award for Best Chamber Music Performance]]''':
*[[Emanuel Ax]], [[Jaime Laredo]], [[Yo-Yo Ma]] & Isaac Stern for ''Brahms: Piano Quartets (Op. 25 and 26)'' ([[Grammy Awards of 1992|1992]])
*[[Eugene Istomin]], [[Leonard Rose]] & Isaac Stern for ''[[Ludwig van Beethoven|Beethoven]]: The Complete Piano Trios'' ([[Grammy Awards of 1971|1971]])
<!--Categories-->
[[Category:1920 births|Stern, Isaac]]
[[Category:2001 deaths|Stern, Isaac]]
[[Category:American classical musicians|Stern, Isaac]]
[[Category:American violinists|Stern, Isaac]]
[[Category:Classical violinists|Stern, Isaac]]
[[Category:Jewish classical musicians|Stern, Isaac]]
[[Category:National Medal of Arts recipients|Stern, Issac]]
[[Category:Presidential Medal of Freedom recipients|Stern, Isaac]]
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Integral
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: ''This article deals with the concept of an integral in [[calculus]]. For other meanings of "integral" see [[integration]] and [[integral (disambiguation)]].''
{{Calculus}}
In [[calculus]], the '''integral''' of a [[function (mathematics)|function]] is a generalization of [[area (geometry)|area]], [[mass]], [[volume]] and [[summation|total]]. The process of finding integrals is '''integration''', in its mathematical meaning. Unlike the closely-related process of [[derivative|differentiation]], there are several possible definitions of integration, with different technical underpinnings. They are, however, compatible; any two different ways of integrating a function will give the same result when they are both defined.
The word "integral" may also refer to [[antiderivative]]s in a mild abuse of language. Though they are closely related through the [[fundamental theorem of calculus]], the two notions are conceptually distinct. When one wants to clarify this distinction, an antiderivative integral is referred to as an indefinite integral (a function), while the integrals discussed in this article are termed '''definite integrals'''.
Intuitively, the integral of a [[continuous function|continuous]], [[negative and non-negative numbers|positive]] real-valued function ''f'' of one real variable ''x'' between a left endpoint ''a'' and a right endpoint ''b'' represents the area bounded by the lines ''x'' = ''a'', ''x'' = ''b'', the ''x''-axis, and the curve defined by the graph of ''f''. More formally, if we let
:<math> S= \{(x,y) \in \mathbb{R}^2:a \leq x \leq b ,0 \leq y \leq f(x)\}, </math>
then the integral of ''f'' between ''a'' and ''b'' is the [[Measure (mathematics)|measure]] of ''S''.
[[Leibniz]] introduced the standard [[long s]] notation for the integral. The integral of the previous paragraph would be written <math>\int_a^b f(x)\,dx</math>. The ∫ sign represents integration, ''a'' and ''b'' are the endpoints of the [[interval]], ''f(x)'' is the function we are integrating, and ''dx'' is a notation for the variable of integration. Historically, ''dx'' represented an [[infinitesimal]] quantity, and the long s stood for "sum". However, modern theories of integration are built from different foundations, and the traditional symbols have become no more than [[Mathematical notation|notation]].
As an example, if ''f'' is the [[mathematical constant|constant]] function ''f''(''x'') = 3, then the integral of ''f'' between 0 and 10 is the area of the rectangle bounded by the lines ''x'' = 0, ''x'' = 10, ''y'' = 0, and ''y'' = 3. The area is the width of the rectangle times its height, so the value of the integral is 30.
Integrals can be taken over regions other than intervals. In general, the integral over a [[set]] ''E'' of a function ''f'' is written ∫<sub>''E''</sub>''f''(''x'') ''dx''. Here ''x'' need not be a real number, but, for instance, a [[vector (spatial)|vector]] in '''R'''<sup>3</sup>. [[Fubini's theorem]] shows that such integrals can be rewritten as an iterated integral. In other words, the integral can be calculated by integrating one coordinate at a time.
[[Image:Integral as region under curve.png|thumb|250px|The integral of ''f''(''x'') is the area between the curve ''y'' = ''f''(''x'') and the ''x''-axis in the interval [''a'', ''b''].]]
If a function has an integral, it is said to be ''integrable''. The function for which the integral is calculated is called the '''integrand'''. Integrals result in a number, not another function. If the domain of the function to be integrated is the [[real number]]s, and if the region of integration is an [[interval (mathematics)|interval]], then the [[infimum|greatest lower bound]] of the interval is called the ''lower limit of integration'', and the [[supremum|least upper bound]] is called the ''upper limit of integration''.
[[Image:Areabetweentwographs.png|thumb|287px|Finding the area between two curves.]]
== Computing integrals ==
The most basic technique for computing integrals of one real variable is based on the [[fundamental theorem of calculus]]. It proceeds like this:
# Choose a function ''f(x)'' and an interval [''a'',''b''].
# Find an [[antiderivative]] of ''f'', that is, a function ''F'' such that ''F' '' = ''f''.
# By the fundamental theorem of calculus, provided the integrand and integral have no singularities on the path of integration, <math>\int_a^b f(x)\,dx = F(b)-F(a)</math>.
# Therefore the value of the integral is ''F(b) − F(a)''.
Note that the integral is not actually the antiderivative, but the fundamental theorem allows us to use antiderivatives to evaluate definite integrals.
The difficult step is finding an antiderivative of ''f''. It is rarely possible to glance at a function and write down its antiderivative. More often, it is necessary to use one of the many techniques that have been developed to evaluate integrals. Most of these techniques rewrite one integral as a different one which is hopefully more tractable. Techniques include:
* [[Integration by substitution|Integration by substitution]]
* [[Integration by parts]]
* [[trigonometric substitution|Integration by trigonometric substitution]]
* [[Partial fractions in integration|Integration by partial fractions]]
Even if these techniques fail, it may still be possible to evaluate a given integral. The next most common technique is [[Residue (complex analysis)|residue calculus]]. There are also many less common ways of calculating definite integrals; for instance, [[Parseval's identity]] can be used to transform an integral over a rectangular region into an infinite sum. Occasionally, an integral can be evaluated by a trick; for an example of this, see [[Gaussian integral]].
Computations of volumes of [[solid of revolution|solids of revolution]] can usually be done with [[disk integration]] or [[shell integration]].
Specific results which have been worked out by various techniques are collected in the [[list of integrals]].
=== Approximation of definite integrals ===
Definite integrals may be approximated using several methods of [[numerical integration]]. One popular method, called the [[rectangle method]], relies on dividing the region under the function into a series of rectangles and finding the sum. Other well-known methods are the [[trapezoidal rule]] and [[Simpson's rule]].
Some integrals cannot be found exactly, and others are so complex that finding the exact answer would be extremely time-consuming or computationally-intensive. Approximation, however, is a process which relies only on variable substitution, multiplication, addition, and [[division (mathematics)|division]]. It can be done easily and quickly by modern graphing calculators and computers. Many real-world applications of calculus rely on calculating integrals approximately because of the complexity of formulas and since an exact answer is unnecessary.
=== Integrals and computerized algebra systems ===
Many professionals, educators, and students now use [[computerized algebra systems]] to make difficult (or simply tedious) algebra and calculus problems easier. The design of such a computer algebra system is nontrivial as systematic methods of antidifferentiation are difficult to formulate, although in many cases a definite integral can be computed without finding an antiderivative.
One difficulty in computing definite integrals is that it is not always possible to find "[[closed-form expression|explicit formulae]]" for antiderivatives. For instance, there is a (nontrivial) proof that there is no nice function (e.g., involving sin, cos, exp, [[polynomial]]s, roots and so on) whose derivative is ''x''<sup>''x''</sup>. As such, computerized algebra systems have no hope of being able to find an antiderivative for this particular function. Unfortunately, functions that have nice antiderivatives are the exception. If one writes a large random expression involving [[exponential function|exponentials]] and polynomials, the odds are almost nil that it will have an antiderivative. (This statement can be made formal, but it is difficult to do so.)
One of the difficulties is to decide what set of functions to use as building blocks for antiderivatives. Usually, we need a set of antiderivatives closed under, say, multiplication and composition. This set of antiderivatives should also include polynomials, perhaps quotients, exponentials, [[logarithm]]s, sines and [[cosine]]s. The [[Risch-Norman algorithm]] is able to compute any integral of such a shape; that is, if the antiderivative involves polynomials, sines, cosines, etc..., the Risch-Norman algorithm will be able to compute it. Extended versions of this algorithm are implemented in [[Mathematica]] and the [[Maple computer algebra system]].
Some special integrands occur often enough to warrant special study. In particular, it may be useful to have, in the set of antiderivatives, the [[special functions]] of [[physics]] (like the [[Legendre function]]s, the [[hypergeometric function]], the [[Gamma function]] and so on). Extending the Risch-Norman algorithm so that it includes these functions is possible but challenging.
Most humans are not able to integrate such general formulae, so in a sense computers are more skilled at integrating highly complicated formulae. On the other hand, very complex formulae are unlikely to have closed-form antiderivatives, so this advantage is dubious.
== Improper integrals ==
Not all integrals can be evaluated using a single limit process. An integral which can only be evaluated by considering it as the limit of integrals on successively larger and larger intervals is called an '''[[improper integral]]'''. Improper integrals usually turn up when the [[range of a function|range]] of the function to be integrated is infinite or, in the case of the [[Riemann integral]], when the [[domain of a function|domain]] of the function is infinite. One common example of an improper integral is the [[Cauchy principal value]].
== Definitions of the integral ==
The most important integrals are the [[Riemann integral]] and the [[Lebesgue integral]]. The Riemann integral was created by [[Bernhard Riemann]] in [[1854]] and was the first [[rigor]]ous definition of the integral. The Lebesgue integral was created by [[Henri Lebesgue]] to integrate a wider class of functions and to prove very strong [[theorem]]s about interchanging [[limit]]s and integrals (see Lebesgue's [[dominated convergence theorem]]).
Although the Riemann and Lebesgue integrals are the most important ones, a number of others exist, including but not limited to:
* The [[Daniell integral]].
* The [[Darboux integral]], a variation of the Riemann integral.
* The [[Denjoy integral]] (also known as the [[Henstock-Kurzweil integral]]), an extension of both the Riemann and Lebesgue integrals.
* The [[Haar integral]].
* The [[Henstock-Kurzweil integral]], an extension of both the Riemann and Lebesgue integrals (also called HK-integral).
* The [[Henstock-Kurzweil-Stieltjes integral]] (also called HK-Stieltjes integral).
* The [[Lebesgue-Stieltjes integral]] (also called Lebesgue-Radon integral).
* The [[Perron integral]], which is equivalent to the restricted [[Denjoy integral]].
* The [[Riemann-Stieltjes integral]], an extension of the Riemann integral.
== Definitions by means of an integral ==
Several mathematical functions and constants can be defined by using an integral. The [[natural logarithm]] is usually defined as
:<math>\ln x = \int_1^x \! {dt\over t}.</math>
The mathematical constant ''e'' may then be defined as the number such that
:<math>\ln e =\int_1^e \! {dt\over t} = 1.</math>
== See also ==
* [[Lists of integrals]]
* [[Multiple integral]] (integrals for functions of more than one variable)
* [[Integral (examples)]]
* [[Antiderivative]]
== External links ==
* [http://www.cut-the-knot.org/Curriculum/Calculus/RiemannSums.shtml Riemann Sums - Function Integration (a Java simulation)] at [[cut-the-knot]]
* [http://www.cut-the-knot.org/Curriculum/Calculus/CubicSpline.shtml Function, Derivative and Integral (a Java simulation)] at [[cut-the-knot]]
* [http://integrals.wolfram.com/ The Integrator] by [[Wolfram Research]]
* [http://wims.unice.fr/wims/wims.cgi?module=tool/analysis/function.en Function Calculator] from [[WIMS]]
* P.S. Wang, [http://www.lcs.mit.edu/publications/specpub.php?id=660 Evaluation of Definite Integrals by Symbolic Manipulation] (1972) - a cookbook of definite integral techniques
* [http://en.wikibooks.org/wiki/Calculus Wikibook of Calculus]
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[[Category:Integral calculus|*]]
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Zionist Terrorism
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List of airports
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* By [[International Air Transport Association|IATA]] code: [[List of airports by IATA code: A|A]] - [[List of airports by IATA code: B|B]] - [[List of airports by IATA code: C|C]] - [[List of airports by IATA code: D|D]] - [[List of airports by IATA code: E|E]] - [[List of airports by IATA code: F|F]] - [[List of airports by IATA code: G|G]] - [[List of airports by IATA code: H|H]] - [[List of airports by IATA code: I|I]] - [[List of airports by IATA code: J|J]] - [[List of airports by IATA code: K|K]] - [[List of airports by IATA code: L|L]] - [[List of airports by IATA code: M|M]] - [[List of airports by IATA code: N|N]] - [[List of airports by IATA code: O|O]] - [[List of airports by IATA code: P|P]] - [[List of airports by IATA code: Q|Q]] - [[List of airports by IATA code: R|R]] - [[List of airports by IATA code: S|S]] - [[List of airports by IATA code: T|T]] - [[List of airports by IATA code: U|U]] - [[List of airports by IATA code: V|V]] - [[List of airports by IATA code: W|W]] - [[List of airports by IATA code: X|X]] - [[List of airports by IATA code: Y|Y]] - [[List of airports by IATA code: Z|Z]]
* By [[International Civil Aviation Organization|ICAO]] code: [[List of airports by ICAO code: A|A]] - [[List of airports by ICAO code: B|B]] - [[List of airports by ICAO code: C|C]] - [[List of airports by ICAO code: D|D]] - [[List of airports by ICAO code: E|E]] - [[List of airports by ICAO code: F|F]] - [[List of airports by ICAO code: G|G]] - [[List of airports by ICAO code: H|H]] - [[List of airports by ICAO code: I|I]] - [[List of airports by ICAO code: J|J]] - [[List of airports by ICAO code: K|K]] - [[List of airports by ICAO code: L|L]] - [[List of airports by ICAO code: M|M]] - [[List of airports by ICAO code: N|N]] - [[List of airports by ICAO code: O|O]] - [[List of airports by ICAO code: P|P]] - [[List of airports by ICAO code: Q|Q]] - [[List of airports by ICAO code: R|R]] - [[List of airports by ICAO code: S|S]] - [[List of airports by ICAO code: T|T]] - [[List of airports by ICAO code: U|U]] - [[List of airports by ICAO code: V|V]] - [[List of airports by ICAO code: W|W]] - [[List of airports by ICAO code: X|X]] - [[List of airports by ICAO code: Y|Y]] - [[List of airports by ICAO code: Z|Z]]
* [[List of airports in North America]]
* [[Lists of military bases]]
* By country: see [[:Category:Lists of airports]]
* By metropolitan area: see [[:Category:Local airport lists]]
''See also:'' [[Latitude and longitude of airports near U.S. cities]]
==References==
* The [http://www.brusselsairport.be/airports_web/en_allairports.cfm?order=code Brussels Airport] website has an alternative list which contains some airports not included in the lists above.
* [http://www.aircraft-charter-world.com/ Airport Charter World] is an air charter company that has a comprehensive list with a clickable map.
==External links==
* [http://www.airnav.com/airports/ AirNav.com] - complete list of U.S. airports, with detailed airport information
* [http://www.airportcitycodes.com/ AirportCityCodes] - Airport Code search, Distance Calculator
* [http://www.quickaid.com/ QuickAid Airport Directory] - Hotel and services for many US Airports plus links to major airport official websites
* [http://www.nationsonline.org/oneworld/airport_code.htm Airport Code List]
* [http://www.azworldairports.com/index.htm A-Z World Airports]
* [http://www.uk-airport-news.info UK Airport News]
* [http://www.africaspotter.at.tt AFRICASPOTTER.at.tt] - Airports in Southern Africa
* [http://www.world-airport-codes.com World Airport Codes] - Useful site showing all airports in the world
* [http://www.numlink.com/ Airport satellite images]
* [http://www.airfields-freeman.com/ List of abandoned and little-known airfields in the United States]
[[Category:Lists of airports| ]]
[[de:Liste der Verkehrsflughäfen]]
[[es:Lista de aeropuertos del mundo]]
[[fr:Liste des aéroports]]
[[it:Codice aeroportuale IATA]]
[[nl:Lijst van vliegvelden]]
[[pl:Porty lotnicze świata]]
[[ro:Listă de aeroporturi din România]]
[[ru:Список аэропортов]]
[[ja:世界の空港一覧]]
Inclusion body myositis
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{{DiseaseDisorder infobox |
Name = Inclusion body myositis |
ICD10 = |
ICD9 = {{ICD9|728.89}} |
}}
'''Inclusion body myositis''' ('''IBM''') is an [[inflammation|inflammatory]] [[muscle]] [[disease]], characterized by slowly progressive wasting and weakness of the [[arm]]s and [[Human leg|legs]]. Two features characterize the sIBM muscle, profound [[inflammation]] and protein abnormalities within the muscle cells. The inflammation aspect is similar to [[polymyositis]] however, polymyositis does not display many of the abnormal [[Cell (biology)||cellular]] changes seen in sIBM. Additionally, in contrast with polymyositis(PM), sIBM affects men more than women and is resistant to treatment (PM often responds well). Symptoms usually begin after 50 years of age. There is no effective treatment for the disease.
Sporadic inclusion body myositis [MY-oh-sigh-tis] (sIBM) is a disease of the muscle cells. The muscle cells somehow become abnormal and the [[immune system]] kills them, weakening the muscles. Its name comes form the fact that the muscles in sIBM are characterized by "inclusion bodies" within the cells. sIBM is a rare disease, diagnosed in only about 5 people per million, although not much research exists on the number of cases and some doctors feel the numbers are much higher. It is more common in men (2 to 3 males to 1 female). sIBM is an age-related disease - as we get older it gets more and more common. It usually appears after the age of 50 and is the most common acquired muscle disorder seen in older people although about 20% of cases display symptoms before the age of 50. Weakness comes on slowly and progresses steadily and may lead to severe weakness and wasting of arm and leg muscles. Patients may become unable to perform daily living activities and be confined to [[wheelchair]]s. sIBM is not considered a [[fatal]] disorder - all things being equal, sIBM will not kill you (but the risk of serious injury due to falls is increased).
==Symptoms==
How sIBM affects individuals is quite variable as is the age of onset (which varies from the forties upwards). Because sIBM affects different people in different ways and at different rates, there is no textbook case.
Eventually, sIBM results in general, progressive muscle weakness. Usually, the muscles initially afflicted by sIBM are those in the arms and legs, resulting in difficulty performing various everyday tasks, such as getting out of chairs. Another common and distinct characteristic of sIBM is an early and severe weakening of the finger [[flexor muscle]]s, leading to difficulties in grasping and holding on to things..
During the course of the illness, the patient's mobility is progressively restricted as it becomes hard for them to bend down, reach for things, walk quickly and so on. Many patients say they have balance problems and fall easily, as the muscles cannot compensate for an off-balanced posture. Because sIBM makes the leg muscles weak and unstable, patients are very vulnerable to serious injury from tripping or falling down.
In up to 33 to 50 percent of cases, patients with sIBM develop weakness in the [[pharyngeal muscle]]s, used in swallowing.
Patients with sIBM eventually need to resort to a cane or a walker. In most cases, a wheelchair eventually becomes a necessity, usually within 5 to 10 years from initial diagnosis.
From a recent article: "The progressive course of s-IBM leads slowly to severe disability. Finger functions can become very impaired, such as for manipulating pens, keys, buttons, and zippers, pulling handles, and firmly grasping handshakes. Arising from a chair becomes difficult. Walking becomes more precarious. Sudden falls, sometimes resulting in major injury to the skull or other bones, can occur, even from walking on minimally-irregular ground or from other minor imbalances outside or in the home, due to weakness of quadriceps and gluteus muscles depriving the patient of automatic posture maintenance. A foot-drop can increase the likelihood of tripping. [[Dysphagia]] can occur, usually caused by upper esophageal constriction that often can be symptomatically improved, for several months to years, by bougie dilation per a GI or ENT physician. Respiratory muscle weakness can sometimes eventuate." W. King Engel, and Valerie Askanas NEUROLOGY 2006;66(Suppl 1): S20–S29
==Causes==
The causes, of sIBM are currently unknown, though it is likely that the affliction results from the interaction of a number of factors, both genetic and environmental.
It appears that in people with sIBM, the muscle cells display “flags” telling the immune system that they are infected or damaged and the immune system attacks the cells and kills them, which would label it as an [[autoimmune disorder]]. One confusing aspect is that medications that lower the immune response do not improve sIBM symptoms, as should happen in the case of an autoimmune disorder.
There are also many abnormal [[protein]] changes within the muscle cells. Some researchers believe it is these protein changes that are primary and that precced or trigger the abnormal immune response.
From a recent article: "Two hypotheses predominate regarding the key pathogenic mechanisms involved in s-IBM: an amyloid-b-related degenerative process and an immune dysregulation. Ultimately, both may be considered important, and their possible interrelationship may be clarified. An intriguing feature is the accumulation within s-IBM muscle fibers of [[amyloid-beta]] (Ab), [[phosphorylated]] [[tau protein]], and at least 20 other proteins that are also accumulated in [[Alzheimer]] brain. In the s-IBM muscle fibers, there is evidence of misfolding of proteins, pathologic proteinaceous inclusions including aggresomes, abnormalities of the two protein-disposal systems involving the [[ubiquitin]] [[proteasome]] pathway and the [[lysosomes]], [[mitochondrial]] dysfunctions, and [[oxidative stress]]. The pronounced T-cell inflammation can be striking, and it is characterized by activated, antigen-driven, cytotoxic [[CD8]]+ [[T-cells]]."
Askanas V, Dalakas MC, Engel WK. NEUROLOGY 2006;66(Suppl 1): Si
==Diagnosis==
The term “inclusion body myositis” was originally introduced in [[1971]]. Over the ensuing 35 years, s-IBM has been increasingly recognized and reported, mainly due to increased awareness by doctors and because of improved diagnostic tests. In spite of much progress, sIBM is still often difficult to diagnose and many patients are initially misdiagnosed, often with another inflammatory muscle disorder called polymyositis.
A diagnosis is based on clinical signs and testing. The first common clinical signs are falling down and tripping and weakness in the finger flexors - the muscles involved in grip. Several different tests may be done to help diagnose sIBM including a blood test of the level of [[creatine kinase]] (CK) (also known as phosphocreatine kinase or creatine phosphokinase (CPK)). This is an [[enzyme]] in the [[blood]] produced when muscle cells are damaged, normally by the ordinary wear and tear of everyday life. Elevated levels indicate that abnormal muscle damage has occurred, or is occurring. Typically, in sIBM, CK values are about 10 times normal levels. An [[electromyography]] (EMG) is often done. In this test, a small electric current is put into a muscle and a machine records how the muscle responds.
The best test to diagnose sIBM is a [[muscle biopsy]] (MBx). A small piece of muscle is surgically removed and then is studied in the laboratory. Several major changes in the muscle cells are usually visible that are characteristic of sIBM:
*Inflammation is present and inflammatory cells are seen invading the muscle cells
*Holes ("[[vacuoles]]") appear in the muscle fibers ("vacuolar degeneration")
*Inclusions ("clumps" of material) are found inside the muscle fibers, these are associated with the build-up of several different abnormal proteins, including [[tau protein]] and beta [[amyloid]].
*There are twisted, abnormal protein strands called "paired-helical filaments" (PHFs). PHFs contain a protein called phosphorylated tau that shows up when the muscle is tested with an stain called SMI-31 monoclonal [[antibody]] – this test recognizes p-tau of the PHFs within s-IBM muscle fibers and in the AD brain.
*Another abnormal protein is called [[ubiquitin]]. Inclusions containing ubiquitin can usually be seen in the muscle biopsies of sIBM patients, but they do not appear in any other muscle illnesses (e.g., not in polymyositis).
Weakness and wasting (shrinkage) in the [[quadriceps]] along with the finger flexor muscles and a CK level of about ten times normal are findings suggestive of sIBM. These findings are then often confirmed with a muscle biopsy.
==Treatment==
There have been several attempts to use different medications to treat sIBM but in clinical trials, none has been shown to be effective. No medication has ever been developed specifically for sIBM.
==Other Directly Related Disorders==
There are several other rare genetic forms of muscle illness related to sIBM, called inclusion body myopathy (myopathies). In these forms, inflammation ([[myositis]]) is not a major feature of the muscle cells (myopathy just means diseased muscle). These illnesses are inherited, but different types are inherited in different ways. About one case of inclusion body myopathy is seen for every ten cases of sporadic inclusion body myositis. See [[hereditary inclusion body myopathy]]
==Other Related Disorders==
When sIBM was originally described, the major feature was muscle inflammation. Two other disorders were also known to display muscle inflammation, so sIBM was classified along with them. They are [[dermatomyositis]] (DM) and [[polymyositis]] (PM) and all three illnesses were called idiopathic inflammatory myositis or inflammatory myopathies (idiopathic means they don’t know what causes it). It appears that sIBM and [[polymyositis]] share some common features, especially the initial sequence of immune system activation, however, polmyositis does not display the subsequent protein abnormalities seen in IBM. As well, polymyositis tends to respond well to treatments, IBM does not. IBM and polymyositis apparently involve different disease mechanisms than are seen in [[dermatomyositis]].
==External links and references==
*[http://members.shaw.ca/btillieribm/ Page by a patient]
*[http://www.myositissupportgroup.org/IBM/ Patient support group]
Latest review: January 2006
Twenty two articles resulted from a conference held on inclusion body myositis (s-IBM) - Inclusion-body myositis: Clinical and pathologic aspects, and basic research potentially relevant to treatment. January 26-28, 2005 in Santa Monica. The TMA funded the Conference and the Muscular Dystrophy Association assisted by funding the printing and distribution of the Conference report. The 22 articles were published in electronic format as an Expedited E-Pub at www.neurology.org on December 16, 2005. They appear in print in Neurology Volume 66(2) Supplement 1 January 24, 2006. [http://members.shaw.ca/btillieribm/2006supp.htm]
[[Category:Muscular disorders]]
Ion implantation
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'''Ion implantation''' is a [[materials engineering]] process by which [[ion (physics)|ion]]s of a material can be implanted into another solid, thereby changing the physical properties of the solid. Ion implantation is used in [[Fabrication (semiconductor)|semiconductor device fabrication]] and in metal finishing, as well as various applications in [[materials science]] research. The ions introduce both a chemical change in the target, in that they can be a different element than the target, and a structural change, in that the [[crystal structure]] of the target can be damaged or even destroyed.
[[image:ion_implanter_schematic.png|thumb|Ion implantation setup with mass separator]]
Ion implantation equipment typically consists of an [[ion source]], where ions of the desired element are produced, an accelerator, where the ions are electrostatically accelerated to a high energy, and a target chamber, where the ions impinge on a target, which is the material to be implanted. Each ion is typically a single atom, and thus the actual amount of material implanted in the target is the integral over time of the ion current. This amount is called the dose. The currents supplied by implanters are typically small (microamperes), and thus the dose which can be implanted in a reasonable amount of time is small. Thus, ion implantation finds application in cases where the amount of chemical change required is small.
Typical ion energies are in the range of 10 to 500 [[electronvolt|keV]] (1,600 to 80,000 aJ). Energies in the range 1 to 10 keV (160 to 1,600 aJ) can be used, but result in a penetration of only a few nanometers or less. Energies lower than this result in very little damage to the target, and fall under the designation [[ion beam deposition]]. Higher energies can also be used: accelerators capable of 5 MeV (800,000 aJ) are common. However, there is often great structural damage to the target, and because the depth distribution is broad, the net composition change at any point in the target will be small.
The energy of the ions, as well as the ion species and the composition of the target determine the depth of penetration of the ions in the solid: A monoenergetic ion beam will generally have a broad depth distribution. The average penetration depth is called the range of the ions. Under typical circumstances ion ranges will be between 10 nanometers and 1 micrometer. Thus, ion implantation is especially useful in cases where the chemical or structural change is desired to be near the surface of the target. Ions gradually lose their energy as they travel through the solid, both from occasional collisions with target atoms (which cause abrupt energy transfers) and from a mild drag from overlap of electron orbitals, which is a continuous process. The loss of ion energy in the target is called stopping.
==Application in [[Fabrication (semiconductor)|semiconductor device fabrication]]==
===[[Doping (semiconductor)|Doping]]===
The introduction of dopants in a semiconductor is the most common application of ion implantation. Dopant ions such as boron, phosphorus or arsenic are generally created from a gas source, so that the purity of the source can be very high. These gases tend to be very hazardous. When implanted in a semiconductor, each dopant atom creates a charge carrier in the semiconductor (hole or electron, depending on if it is a p-type or n-type dopant), thus modifying the conductivity of the semiconductor in its vicinity.
===[[Silicon on insulator]]===
SOI wafers are produced by one of two main methods, both of which rely on ion implantation:
*''SIMOX'' - '''S'''eparation by '''IM'''plantation of '''OX'''ygen: Oxygen can be implanted at high energy into a silicon substrate, at a high enough dose that subsequent high temperature annealing forms an oxide layer underneath the surface layer of silicon. The oxide is an insulator, thus producing a silicon on insulator (SOI) structure.
*''Smartcut'': First, oxidized surfaces are grown on two wafers, and then bonded together. Most of the top wafer is then [[cleavage (crystal)|cleaved]] away along a band of [[hydrogen]] bubbles which form from implanted ions. The thin layer of silicon that is left behind is isolated from the substrate by what were originally the surface oxide layers.
===Mesotaxy===
Mesotaxy is the term for the growth of a crystallographically matching phase underneath the surface of the host crystal (compare to [[epitaxy]], which is the growth of the matching phase on the surface of a substrate). In this process, ions are implanted at a high enough energy and dose into a material to create a layer of a second phase, and the temperature is controlled so that the crystal structure of the target is not destroyed. The crystal orientation of the layer can be engineered to match that of the target, even though the exact crystal structure and lattice constant may be very different . For example, after the implantation of nickel ions into a silicon wafer, a layer of nickel silicide can be grown in which the crystal orientation of the silicide matches that of the silicon.
==Application in metal finishing==
===Tool steel toughening===
Nitrogen or other ions can be implanted into a tool steel target (drill bits, for example). The structural change caused by the implantation produces a surface compression in the steel, which prevent crack propagation and thus makes the material more resistant to fracture. The chemical change can also make the tool more resistant to corrosion.
===Surface finishing===
In some applications, for example prosthetic devices such as artificial joints, it is desired to have surfaces very resistant to both chemical corrosion and wear due to friction. Ion implantation is used in such cases to engineer the surfaces of such devices for more reliable performance. As in the case of tool steels, the surface modification caused by ion implantation includes both a surface compression which prevents crack propagation and an alloying of the surface to make it more chemically resistant to corrosion.
==Other issues in ion implantation==
===Crystallographic damage===
Each individual ion produces many point defects in the target crystal on impact such as vacancies and interstitials. Vacancies are crystal lattice points unoccupied by an atom: in this case the ion collides with a target atom, resulting in transfer of a significant amount of energy to the target atom such that it leaves its crystal site. This target atom then itself becomes a projectile in the solid, and can cause successive collision events. Interstitials result when such atoms (or the original ion itself) come to rest in the solid, but find no vacant space in the lattice to reside. These point defects can migrate and cluster with each other, resulting in dislocation loops and other defects.
===Damage recovery===
Because ion implantation causes damage to the crystal structure of the target which is often unwanted, ion implantation processing is often followed by a thermal annealing. This can be referred to as damage recovery.
===Amorphization===
The amount of crystallographic damage can be enough to completely amorphize the surface of the target: i.e. it can become an [[amorphous solid]] (such a solid produced from a melt is called a [[glass]]). In some cases, complete amorphization of a target is preferable to a highly defective crystal: An amorphized film can be regrown at a lower temperature than required to anneal a highly damaged crystal.
===[[Sputtering]]===
Some of the collision events result in atoms being ejected from the surface, and thus ion implantation will slowly etch away a surface. The effect is only appreciable for very large doses.
===Ion channelling===
[[image:Diamsm.gif|framed|right|A diamond cubic crystal viewed from the [[Crystallography#Notation|<110>]] direction, showing hexagonal ion channels.]]
If there is a crystallographic structure to the target, and especially in semiconductor substrates where the crystal structure is more open, particular crystallographic directions offer much lower stopping that other directions. The result is that the range of an ion can be much longer if the ion travels exactly along a particular direction, for example the <110> direction in silicon and other [[diamond cubic]] materials. This effect is called ''ion channelling''. The effect is highly nonlinear, with small variations from perfect orientation resulting in extreme differences in implantation depth. For this reason, most implantation is carried out a few degrees off-axis, where tiny alignment errors will have more predictable effects. There is no relation between this effect and [[ion channel]] of a cell membrane.
Ion channelling can be used directly in [[Rutherford backscattering]] and related techniques as an analytical method to determine the amount and depth profile of damage in crystalline thin film materials.
== Hazardous materials note==
In the ion implantation semiconductor fabrication process of [[Wafer (electronics)|wafers]], it is important for the workers to minimize their exposure to the [[toxic]] materials used in the ion implanter process. Such hazardous elements, solid source and gasses are used, such as [[arsenic]]. For this reason, the [[semiconductor fabrication]] facilities are highly automated. Other elements may include [[Antimony]], [[phosphine]], and [[boron]]. Residue of these elements show up when the machine is opened to atmosphere, and can also be accumulated and found concentrated in the vacuum pumps hardware. It is important not to expose yourself to these [[Carcinogen|Carcinogenic]] , [[Corrosion|corrosive]] , [[flammable]] , and [[Toxicity|toxic]] elements. Use safety, and do read [[Material safety data sheet|MSDS's]].
=== High Voltage safety===
There is also potential for electrocution, death by [[Electric shock|electric shock]], in the [[Ion source]] area, and [[Quadrupole magnet|steering magnet]] and focusing lens power supplies. Make sure all [[High voltage|high voltage potentials hazards]] are off, and discharged.
== Manufacturers of Ion Implantation Equipment ==
*[http://www.amat.com Applied Materials]
*[http://www.axcelis.com Axcelis Technologies]
*[http://www.nissin-ion.co.jp Nissin Ion Equipment (Japanese)]
*[http://www.senova.com Sumitomo Eaton Nova (Japanese)]
*[http://www.ulvac.com Ulvac]
*[http://www.vsea.com Varian Semiconuductor]
== External links ==
*[http://www.casetechnology.com/implant.html Ion Implantation]
[[Category:Materials science]]
[[Category:Semiconductor device fabrication]]
[[de:Ionenimplantation]]
Igneous rock
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[[Image:North america rock volcanic.jpg|thumb|right|Volcanic rock on [[North America]] ]]
[[Image:North america rock plutonic.jpg|thumb|right|Plutonic rock on [[North America]] ]]
'''Igneous rocks''' are formed when molten [[rock (geology)|rock]] ([[magma]]) cools and solidifies, with or without [[crystal]]lization, either below the surface as [[Intrusion|intrusive]] (plutonic) rocks or on the surface as [[extrusive (geology)|extrusive]] ([[Volcanic rock|volcanic]]) rocks. This magma can be derived from either the [[Earth]]'s [[mantle (geology)|mantle]] or pre-existing rocks made molten by extreme temperature and pressure changes. Over 700 types of igneous rocks have been described, most of them formed beneath the surface of the Earth's [[crust (geology)|crust]]. The word "igneous" is derived from the [[Latin]] ''ignis'', meaning "fire".
==Magma origination==
The Earth's crust is about 35 kilometers thick under the [[Continental crust|continents]], but averages only some 7-10 kilometers beneath the [[Oceanic crust|oceans]]. The continental crust is composed primarily of crystalline ''basement''; stable igneous and metamorphic rocks such as [[granulite]], [[granite]] and various other intrusive rocks. Oceanic crust is composed primarily of [[basalt]], [[gabbro]] and [[peridotite]].
The crust floats on the [[asthenosphere|asthenospheric mantle]], which is convecting due to the forces of [[plate tectonics]]. The [[mantle (geology)|mantle]], which extends to a depth of nearly 3,000 kilometers is the source of all magma. Most of the magma which forms igneous rocks is generated within the upper parts of the mantle at temperatures estimated between 600 to 1600 °C.
Melting of rocks requires temperature, water and pressure. The mantle is generally over 1000 to 1200 °c beneath the crust, at depths of between 7 and 70km. However, most magma is generated at depths of between 20 and 50 km. Melting begins because of upwelling of hot mantle from deeper portions of the earth, nearer the [[Planetary core]]; because of water driven off subducted oceanic crust at [[subduction zone]]s (providing water to lower the melting point of the rocks) and because of decompression caused by [[rift (geology)|rifting]].
Melting of the continental crust occurs rarely because it is usually dry, and composed of minerals and rocks which are resistant to melting such as [[pyroxene]] [[granulite]]. However, addition of heat from the mantle or from [[mantle plume]]s, subduction related compression and burial as well as some rifting, can prompt the continental crust to melt.
As magma cools, [[mineral]]s [[crystallize]] from the melt at different temperatures ([[fractional crystallization]]). There are relatively few minerals which are important in the formation of igneous rocks. This is because the magma from which the minerals crystallize is rich in only certain elements: [[silicon]], [[oxygen]], [[aluminium]], [[sodium]], [[potassium]], [[calcium]], [[iron]], and [[magnesium]]. These are the elements which combine to form the [[silicate minerals]], which account for over ninety percent of all igneous rocks.
[[Bowen's reaction series]] is important for understanding the idealised sequence of fractional crystallisation of a magma.
Igneous rocks make up approximately ninety five percent of the upper part of the Earth's crust, but their great abundance is hidden on the Earth's surface by a relatively thin but widespread layer of sedimentary and metamorphic rocks.
Igneous rock are geologically important because:
* their minerals and global chemistry gives information about the composition of the mantle, from where some igneous rocks are extracted, and the temperature and pressure conditions that allowed this extraction, and/or of other pre-existing rock that melted;
* their absolute ages can be obtained from various forms of [[radiometric dating]] and thus can be compared to adjacent geological [[stratum|strata]], allowing a time sequence of events;
* their features are usually characteristic of a specific tectonic environment, allowing tectonic reconstitutions (see [[plate tectonics]]);
* in some special circumstances they host important mineral deposits ([[ore]]s): for example, [[tungsten]], [[tin]], and [[uranium]], are commonly associated with [[granite]]s.
==Morphology and Setting==
In terms of modes of occurrence, igneous rocks can be either [[intrusion|intrusive]] (plutonic) or [[extrusive (geology)|extrusive]] ([[volcanic rock|volcanic]]).
===Intrusive Igneous Rocks===
Intrusive igneous rocks are formed from magma that cools and solidifies within the earth. Surrounded by pre-existing rock (called country rock), the magma cools slowly, and as a result these rocks are coarse grained. The mineral grains in such rocks can generally be identified with the naked eye. [[Intrusion (geology)|Intrusive]] rocks can also classified according to the shape and size of the intrusive body and its relation to the other formations into which it intrudes. Typical intrusive formations are [[batholith]]s, stocks, [[laccolith]]s, [[Sill (geology)|sill]]s and [[dike (geology)|dikes]]. The extrusive types usually are called lavas.
The central cores of major mountain ranges consist of intrusive igneous rocks, usually granite. When exposed by erosion, these cores (called ''[[batholith]]s'') may occupy huge areas of the surface.
Coarse grained intrusive igneous rocks which form at depth within the earth are termed as abyssal; intrusive igneous rocks which form near the surface are termed ''hypabyssal''.
===Extrusive Igneous Rocks===
Extrusive igneous rocks are formed at the Earth's surface as a result of the melting of rocks within the [[mantle (geology)|mantle.]]
The melted rock, called [[magma]] rises due to contrasting density with the surrounding mantle. When it reaches the surface, magma extruded onto the surface either beneath water or air, is called [[lava]]. Eruptions of volcanoes under the air are termed ''subaerial'' whereas those occurring underneath the ocean are termed ''submarine''. [[Black smokers]] and mid ocean ridge basalt are examples of submarine volcanic activity.
Magma which erupts from a [[volcano]] behaves according to its temerature and composition, which cause a highly different range of [[viscosity]]. High temperature magma, which is usually basaltic in composition, behaves in a manner similar to thick oil and, as it cools, treacle. This forms [[pahoehoe]] type lava. Intermediate composition magma such as [[andesite]] tends to form cinder cones of intermingled ash, tuff and lava, and may have viscosity similar to thick, cold mollasses or even rubber when erupted. Felsic magma such as rhyolite is usually erupted at low temperature and is up to 10,000 times as viscous as basalt. These volcanoes rarely form lava flows, and usually erupt explosively.
Felsic and intermediate rocks which erupt at surface often do so violently, with explosions driven by release of gases such as [[carbon dioxide]] trapped in the magma. Such volcanic deposits are called [[pyroclastic]] deposits, and include [[tuff]], [[agglomerate]] and [[ignimbrite]]. Fine [[volcanic ash]] is also erupted and forms ash tuff deposits which can often cover vast areas.
Because lava cools and crystallizes rapidly, it is fine grained. If the cooling has been so rapid as to prevent the formation of even small crystals the resulting rock may be a glass (such as the rock [[obsidian]]).
Because of this fine grained texture it is much more difficult to distinguish between the different types of extrusive igneous rocks than between different types of intrusive igneous rocks. Generally, the mineral constituents of fine grained extrusive igneous rocks can only be determined by examination of thin sections of the rock under a microscope, so only an approximate classification can usually be made in the field.
==Classification==
Igneous rock are classified according to mode of occurrence, texture, chemical composition, and the geometry of the igneous body.
The classification of the many types of different igneous rocks can provide us with important information about the conditions under which they formed. Two important variables used for the classification of igneous rocks are particle size, which largely depends upon the cooling history, and the mineral composition of the rock. [[Feldspar]]s, [[quartz]], [[olivine]]s, [[pyroxene]]s, [[amphibole]]s, and [[mica]]s are all important minerals in the formation of igneous rocks, and they are basic to the classification of these rocks. All other minerals present are regarded as nonessential (called ''accessory minerals'').
In a simplified classification, igneous rock types are separated on the basis of the type of feldspar present, the presence or absence of quartz, and in rocks with no feldspar or quartz, the type of iron or magnesium minerals present.
Igneous rocks which have crystals large enough to be seen by the naked eye are called phaneritic; those with crystals too small to be seen are called aphanitic. Generally speaking, phaneritic implies an intrusive origin; aphanitic an extrusive one.
The crystals embedded in fine grained igneous rocks are termed porphyritic. The porphyritic texture develops when some of the crystals grow to considerable size before the main mass of the magma consolidates into the finer grained uniform material.
===Texture===
:'' main article [[Rock microstructure]]''
Texture is an important criterion for the naming of volcanic rocks. The [[rock microstructure|texture]] of volcanic rocks, including the size, shape, orientation, and distribution of grains and the intergrain relationships, will determine whether the rock is termed a [[tuff]], a [[pyroclastic]] lava or a simple [[lava]].
However, the texture is only a subordinate part of classifying volcanic rocks, as most often there needs to be chemical information gleaned from rocks with extremely fine-grained groundmass or which are airfall tuffs which may be formed from [[volcanic ash]].
Textural criteria are less critical in classifying intrusive rocks where the majority of minerals will be visible to the naked eye or at least using a hand lens, magnifying glass or microscope. Plutonic rocks tend also to be less texturally varied and less prone to gaining structural fabrics. Textural terms can be used to differentiate different intrusive phases of large plutons, for instance [[porphyritic]] margins to large intrusive bodies, [[Porphyry (geology)|porphyry]] stocks and subvolcanic apophyses. Mineralogical classification is used most often to classify plutonic rocks and chemical classifications are preferred to classify volcanic rocks, with phenocryst species used as a prefix, eg; "olivine-bearing picrite" or "orthoclase-phyric rhyolite".
* see also [[List of rock textures]]
===Chemical Classification===
Igneous rocks can be classified according to chemical or mineralogical parameters:
Chemical - Total alkali - silica content (TAS diagram) for [[volcanic rock]] classification used when modal or mineralogic data is unavailable:
* ''acid'' igneous rocks containing a high silica content, greater than 63% SiO<sub>2</sub> (examples [[rhyolite]] and [[dacite]])
* ''intermediate'' igneous rocks containing between 52 - 63% SiO<sub>2</sub> (example [[andesite]])
* ''basic'' igneous rocks have low silica 45 - 52% and typically high iron - magnesium content (example [[basalt]])
* ''ultrabasic'' igneous rocks with less than 45% silica. (examples [[picrite]] and [[komatiite]])
* ''alkalic'' igneous rocks with 5 - 15% alkali (K<sub>2</sub>O + Na<sub>2</sub>O) content (examples [[phonolite]] and [[trachyte]])
:Note: the acid-basic terminology is used more broadly in older geological literature.
Chemical classification also extends to differentiating rocks which are chemically similar according to the TAS diagram, for instance;<br>
*[[ultrapotassic igneous rocks|Ultrapotassic]]; rocks containing molar K<sub>2</sub>O/Na<sub>2</sub>O >3<br>
*[[peralkaline igneous rocks|Peralkaline]]; rocks containing molar K<sub>2</sub>O + Na<sub>2</sub>O/ Al<sub>2</sub>O<sub>3</sub> >1
*[[peraluminous igneous rocks|Peraluminous]]; rocks containing molar K<sub>2</sub>O + Na<sub>2</sub>O/ Al<sub>2</sub>O<sub>3</sub> <1
==Mineralogical Classification==
For volcanic rocks, mineralogy is important in classifying and naming lavas. The most important criteria is the [[phenocryst]] species, followed by the groundmass mineralogy. Often, where the groundmass is [[aphanitic]], chemical classification must be used to properly identify a volcanic rock.
'''Mineralogic contents - felsic versus mafic'''
* ''[[felsic]]'' rock, with predominance of quartz, alkali [[feldspar]] and/or [[feldspathoid]]s: ''the felsic minerals''; these rocks (e.g., granite) are usually light coloured, and have low density.
* ''[[mafic]]'' rock, with predominance of mafic minerals [[pyroxene]]s, [[olivine]]s and calcic [[plagioclase]]; these rocks (example, basalt) are usually dark coloured, and have higher density than felsic rocks.
* ''[[ultramafic]]'' rock, with more than 90% of mafic minerals (e.g., [[dunite]])
For intrusive, plutonic and usually [[phaneritic]] igneous rocks where all minerals are visible at least via microscope, the mineralogy is used to classify the rock. This usually occurs on ternary diagrams, where the relative proportions of three minerals are used to classify the rock.
The following table is a simple subdivision of igneous rocks according both to their composition and mode of occurrence.
{| cellpadding="2" cellspacing="0" border="1"
|-
|
! bgcolor="#ffc0c0" colspan="4" | Composition
|-
! bgcolor="#ffc0c0" | Mode of occurrence
| bgcolor="#c0ffc0" | Acid
| bgcolor="#c0ffc0" | Intermediate
| bgcolor="#c0ffc0" | Basic
| bgcolor="#c0ffc0" | Ultrabasic
|-
| bgcolor="#c0ffc0" | Intrusive
| [[Granite]]
| [[Diorite]]
| [[Gabbro]]
| [[Peridotite]]
|-
| bgcolor="#c0ffc0" | Extrusive
| [[Rhyolite]]
| [[Andesite]]
| [[Basalt]]
| [[Komatiite]]
|}
For a more detailed classification see [[QAPF diagram]].
===Example of classification===
[[Granite]] is an igneous, intrusive rock (crystallized at depth), with felsic composition (rich in silica and with more than 10% of felsic minerals) and phaneritic, subeuedral texture (minerals are visible for the unaided eye and some of them retain original crystallographic shapes). Granite is the most abundant intrusive rock that can be found in the continents.
==Etymology==
Volcanic rocks are named after [[Vulcan (mythology)|Vulcan]], the [[Ancient Rome|Roman]] name for the god of fire.<br>
Intrusive rocks are also called plutonic rocks, named after [[Pluto (god)|Pluto]], the Roman god of the underworld.
==Reference==
* Le Maitre, L.E., ed., (2002) ''Igneous Rocks: A Classification and Glossary of Terms'' 2nd edition, Cambridge.
==See also==
* [[List of minerals]]
* [[List of rocks]]
* [[Large igneous province]]
==External links==
{{commons|Igneous rock}}
*[http://vulcan.wr.usgs.gov/LivingWith/VolcanicPast/Notes/igneous_rocks.html USGS Igneous Rocks]
*[http://www.geol.lsu.edu/henry/Geology3041/lectures/02IgneousClassify/IUGS-IgneousClassFlowChart.htm Igneous rock classification flowchart]
[[Category:Petrology]]
[[Category:Igneous rocks]]
[[Category:Volcanology]]
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'''John Ford''' may refer to:
* [[John Ford]] (1894–1973), film director
* [[John Ford (dramatist)]] (1586–c.1640)
* [[John D. Ford]] (1840–1918), U.S. naval officer
* [[John David Ford]], Green candidate for Canadian House of Commons, 2004, 2006
* [[John M. Ford]] (born 1957), writer, game designer
* [[John Ford (politician)]] (born 1942), Tennessee state senator
* [[John Patrick Ford]], witness in the [[Schapelle Corby]] trial.
* [[John Salmon Ford]] (also called John ”Rip” Ford) (1815–1897), Texas politician, Texas Ranger, Confederate military officer, journalist
{{hndis}}
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[[Image:John_woo_small.jpg|right|John Woo]]
'''John Woo''' ({{zh-cp|c=吳宇森|p=Wú Yǔsēn}}) (born [[1 May]], [[1946]], in [[Guangzhou]], [[China]]) is a [[China|Chinese]] [[film director]] known especially for the [[ballet]]-like [[violence]] in his [[film|movie]]s.
==Biography==
When Woo's parents were faced with persecution, his [[Lutheran]] family fled to [[Hong Kong]] when he was five years old. During this time, the Woo family led a hard life in the slums since his father had [[tuberculosis]] and could not work. In 1953, the family was made [[homeless]] when their house was burned to the ground in a brush fire. It was only thanks to donations from charities that his family were able to move into another house. Unfortunately, by this time, a wave of crime and violence was beginning to infest Hong Kong's housing projects. One of Woo's most vivid childhood memories was of seeing a man being killed on his front steps.
In order to escape his dismal surroundings, Woo would retreat to the local movie theater. It was through [[Musical film|musical]]s like ''[[The Wizard of Oz (1939 film)|The Wizard of Oz]]'' —a film that still stands as his all-time favorite—that the young Woo came to realize that the world was not just filled with violence and suffering; it could be beautiful and happy as well.
Woo has been married to Annie Woo Ngau Chun-lung since 1976 and they have three children. He plans to stay in the [[United States]].
==Hong Kong career history==
In 1969, when he was 23, Woo got a job as a script supervisor at Cathay Studios. In 1971, he became an assistant director at [[Shaw Studios]], where the famous [[Chang Cheh]] took him under his wing. In 1974 he directed his first feature film '''The Young Dragons''' (Tie han rou qing)''. Choreographed by [[Jackie Chan]], it was a [[Kung fu]] [[action cinema|action]] film that featured dynamic camera-work and elaborate action scenes. The film was picked up by [[Golden Harvest Studio]] where he went on to direct more martial arts films. He later had success as a comedy director with ''Money Crazy (Fa qian han)'' (1977), starring Hong Kong comedian [[Ricky Hui]].
By the mid-1980s, Woo suffered a [[Burnout (psychology)|burnout]]. His films were failures at the box office and he retreated to [[Taiwan]] in exile. John Woo— once called the new comedy king of Hong Kong— seemed to be on the way out. It was then that director/producer [[Tsui Hark]] provided the funding for Woo to film a longtime pet project called ''[[A Better Tomorrow]]'' (1986).
The story of two brothers— one a cop, the other a criminal— the film became a sensational [[blockbuster (entertainment)|blockbuster]]. ''A Better Tomorrow'' singularly redefined Hong Kong [[action cinema]] with its emotional drama, slow-motion gun-battles and gritty atmosphere. The film's trenchcoat/sunglasses fashion sense, and combat style of using a gun in each hand in close quarters— often referred to as '[[Gun fu]]'— would later inspire [[Hollywood]] filmmakers such as [[Quentin Tarantino]] and the [[Wachowski brothers]].
Together with leading man [[Chow Yun-Fat]], John Woo would make several more [[Heroic bloodshed|Heroic Bloodshed]] films in the late 1980s and early 1990s. His violent [[gangster]] [[thriller]]s typically focused on men who were steadfast in their honor and friendship, even though such values forced them to become outcasts in a rapidly-changing world that was more concerned with money and progress. In this respect, Woo's characters were modern-day knights who used guns instead of swords.
The most famous of these movies would be ''[[The Killer (film)|The Killer]] (Die xue shuang xiong)'' (1989), which brought Woo international recognition. Often named as one of the best Hong Kong movies ever made, it was widely praised by critics and fans for its action sequences, acting and [[cinematography]], and often referred to as being a perfect action film. With ''The Killer'' becoming the most successful Hong Kong film in the U.S. since [[Bruce Lee]]'s ''[[Enter the Dragon]]'' (1973), John Woo became a [[cult film|cult]] favorite. One year later he made another masterpiece, ''[[Bullet in the Head]]'', that he still considers as his most personal work. The movie was a major commercial failure in his career though.
It was only a matter of time before [[Hollywood]] took notice. By this time, John Woo had many American admirers, including the likes of [[Martin Scorsese]], and [[Sam Raimi]] - who compared Woo's mastery of action to [[Alfred Hitchcock|Hitchcock]]'s mastery of suspense. Enormously impressed with his work, American executives green-lighted a contract for Woo to work in America. With the [[History of Hong Kong|1997 handover of Hong Kong]] fast approaching, Woo decided that it was indeed time to leave.
John Woo's last Hong Kong film was ''[[Hard Boiled]]'' (1992), which he made as an antithesis to his movies that glorifie gangsters. Upping the ante with an all-out action film, it featured a Hollywood-scale spectacle in its second half with policemen and criminals waging war inside a hospital - while helpless patients are caught in the crossfire. The film climaxes with supercop [[Chow Yun-Fat]] singing a lullaby to a baby while gunning down incoming gangsters, and then jumping out of a window to safety below, baby in arm.
==United States career history==
In [[1993 in film|1993]], John Woo found himself in a new land with a new culture. He was commissioned by [[Universal Studios]] to direct the [[Jean Claude Van Damme]] film ''[[Hard Target]]''. While Woo was used to creative freedom in Hong Kong, he was forced to deal with a compressed production schedule. He also faced studio-imposed restrictions such as how many people could be killed in each scene, how many bullets Van Damme could pump into somebody, how Van Damme could behave and so on. When initial cuts failed to yield an [[MPAA film rating system|"R" rated film]], the studio took the film from Woo's hands and pared it down themselves in order to produce a cut that was "suitable for American audiences". A "rough cut" of the film, supposedly his original unrated version, is still circulated among fans.
It would be three long years before Woo made another American directorial attempt. Starring [[John Travolta]] and [[Christian Slater]], ''[[Broken Arrow (duan jian xing dong)(1996 film)|Broken Arrow]]'' was a frantic chase-picture with a bigger budget. Unfortunately, Woo once again found himself hampered by studio interference and editors who did not share his sense of aesthetics and filming style. What resulted was a film that, despite modest financial success, lacked Woo's trademark style.
Still smarting from his bitter experiences, Woo cautiously rejected the script for ''[[Face/Off]]'' several times until it was rewritten to suit him (by shifting the futuristic setting to a modern one). With [[Paramount Studios]] offering him significantly more freedom this time around, Woo set out to craft a complex story of two enemies— a law enforcement agent played by [[John Travolta]] and a terrorist played by [[Nicolas Cage]]—who embark on a fantastical surgical procedure that allows them to switch faces. Trapped in each other's identities, they play a cat-and-mouse game that allowed Woo to do what he did best: emotional characterization and elaborate action. ''Face/Off'' opened in [[1997 in film|1997]] to critical acclaim and performed well at the box office, grossing over $100 million in the [[United States]] alone. As a result, John Woo became the first Asian director to hit mainstream, paving the way for other Asian filmmakers to follow in his footsteps.
John Woo has made three additional Hollywood films: ''[[Mission: Impossible II]]'', ''[[Windtalkers]]'' and ''[[Paycheck (short story)|Paycheck]]''. While ''Mission: Impossible II'' was a huge hit in [[2000 in film|2000]], ''Windtalkers'' and ''Paycheck'' have been box office duds that were lambasted by critics. It is unclear whether Woo will be able to bounce back from these disappointments.
At the moment John Woo has many projects in mind, including three remakes of French famous thrillers starring [[Alain Delon]] and a videogame called ''[[stranglehold (game)|Stranglehold]]'' for Xbox 360. However he had to give up two projects of videogames' adaptations, ''[[Spy Hunter]]'', which was already in production, and ''[[Metroid]]''. In 2006 he will go back to China with Chow Yun-Fat to shoot his next major project, the highly anticipated ''[[The War of the Red Cliff]]'', based on a historical epic battle from ''[[Romance of the Three Kingdoms]]''.
==Trivia==
* One of Woo's trademarks is doves. He was quoted in the June 2000 edition of ''Premiere'' magazine:
:"I love doves. I am a Christian. Doves represent the purity of love, beauty. They're spiritual. Also the dove is a messenger between people and God... When I shot ''The Killer'', these two men, the killer and the cop, they work in different ways, but their souls are pure, because they do the right thing. In the church scene, I wanted to bring them together. I wanted to use a metaphor of the heart. I came up with doves —they're white. When the men die, I cut to the dove flying —it's the soul, rescued and safe and also pure of heart. So the dove became one of my habits: I used it in ''Hard Boiled'', ''Face/Off'', and in ''Mission: Impossible II''".
* In the anime series, ''[[R.O.D the TV]]'' which features three girls named after real life Hong Kong action stars, 'John Woo' is the name of a mysterious carrier pigeon.
* [[Quentin Tarantino]] has been quoted in reply to a studio executive who said "I suppose Woo can direct action scenes" as saying "Sure, and Michelangelo can paint ceilings!"
* When Jean-Claude Van Damme was trying to get Woo for ''Hard Target'' he described him as "the [[Martin Scorsese]] of Asia".
* In another anime series, ''[[FLCL]]'', two characters can be seen watching the climactic end sequence of an action movie. Although the screen in not visible, it can be surmised that it is indeed a John Woo film, as one of the film's characters exclaims, "What are all these pigeons doing in here?" and a multitude of flapping wings heard. The screen was then broken, and a flock of white doves flew out of the TV set.
* A [[Mexican standoff]] is a common situation in his movies.
* At some point the main characters see and talk to each other using mirrors.
* Japanese [[professional wrestler]] SUWA, of the promotions Dragon's Gate and [[Pro Wrestling NOAH]], utilizes a seated [[dropkick]] that frequently sends its victim flying back-first into the corner. As a fan of Hong Kong action cinema, he calls this move the "John Woo", as a [[homage]] to the impact of [[shotgun]] blasts on the human body in Woo's films.
*In the video game [[Max Payne]] there are many homage and reference of John Woo. For example the black suit and tie Max was seen wearing at the beginning, the dual guns and jumping and shooting in slow motion. Also John Woo's name was mentioned at one point in the game.
* John Woo likes the look of the [[Beretta 92F/FS]] pistol and had featured it in many of his movies. He stated in an interview that it "is a great character" and added that "it's so strong and elegant." He also mentioned that other pistols looked dumb to him.
* John Woo enjoyed watching [[Western (genre)|Western]] movies during his youth, especially the final scene in ''[[Butch Cassidy and the Sundance Kid]]'' where the two comrades run out gun blazing (where he got the inspiration of holding two guns). Woo is also a fan of Hollywood musicals and at one point, was a contender for the director's chair for ''[[Phantom of the Opera]]''.
* In the [[PC game]] ''[[F.E.A.R. (computer game)|F.E.A.R.]]'', the developer admitted that they been inspired by John Woo action movies that they wanted the action to be exactly epic to Woo movies.
* The Christian rock band [[Newsboys]] has a song called "John Woo" which makes reference to the religious symbolism he often employs in his films.
==Filmography==
* ''[[The War of the Red Cliff (film)|The War of the Red Cliff]]'' ([[2007 in film|2007]])
* ''[[He-Man (film)|He-Man]]'' ([[2006 in film|2006]])
* ''[[Honor among Thieves (film)|Honor among Thieves]]'' ([[2006 in film|2006]])
* ''[[Rider on the Rain (film)|Rider on the Rain]]'' ([[2006 in film|2006]])
* ''[[The Prone Gunman (film)|The Prone Gunman]]'' ([[2006 in film|2006]])
* ''[[The Red Circle (film)|The Red Circle]]'' ([[2006 in film|2006]])
* ''[[Stranglehold (game)|Stranglehold]]'' ([[video game]]) ([[2006]])
* ''[[Paycheck (short story)|Paycheck]]'' ([[2003 in film|2003]])
* ''Hostage (short [[BMW films|BMW film]])'' ([[2002 in film|2002]])
* ''[[Windtalkers]]'' ([[2001 in film|2001]])
* ''[[Mission: Impossible II]]''
* ''[[Blackjack (film)|Blackjack]]'' ([[1998]]) (TV)
* ''[[Face/Off]]'' ([[1997 in film|1997]])
* ''[[Once a Thief (1996 film)|Once a Thief]]'' ([[1996]]) (TV)
* ''[[Broken Arrow (1996 film)|Broken Arrow (duan jian xing dong)]]'' ([[1996 in film|1996]])
* ''[[Hard Target]]''
* ''[[Hard Boiled]] (Lashou shentan)''
* ''[[Once a Thief (1991 film)|Once a Thief]] (Zong sheng si hai)'' (1991)
* ''[[Bullet in the Head]] (Die xue jie tou)'' ([[1990 in film|1990]])
* ''[[The Killer (film)|The Killer]] (Die xue shuang xiong)''
* ''[[Tragic Heroes]] (Yi dan qun ying)'' (1989)
* ''[[A Better Tomorrow II]] (Ying xiong ben se II)'' ([[1987 in film|1987]])
* ''[[A Better Tomorrow]] (Ying xiong ben se)''
* ''[[Heroes Shed No Tears]] (Ying xiong wu lei)'' (1986)
* ''[[Run, Tiger, Run]] (Liang zhi lao hu)'' ([[1985 in film|1985]])
* ''[[When You Need a Friend]] (Xiao jiang)'' ([[1984 in film|1984]])
* ''[[Plain Jane to the Rescue]] (Ba cai Lin Ya Zhen)'' ([[1982 in film|1982]])
* ''[[Laughing Times]] (Hua ji shi dai)'' (1981) (as Wu Hsiang-fei)
* ''[[To Hell with the Devil (movie)|To Hell with the Devil]] (Mo deng tian shi)'' ([[1981 in film|1981]])
* ''[[Hello, Late Homecomers]] (Ha luo, ye gui ren)'' (1978)
* ''[[Last Hurrah for Chivalry]] (Hao xia)'' (1978)
* ''[[Follow the Star]] (Da sha xing yu xiao mei tou)'' ([[1978 in film|1978]])
* ''[[Money Crazy]] (Fa qian han)''
* ''[[From Riches to Rags]] (Qian zuo guai)'' (1977)
* ''[[Princess Chang Ping]] (Dinu hua)'' (1975) (as Yusen Wu)
* ''[[Hand of Death]]/Countdown in Kung Fu (Shao Lin men)'' ([[1975 in film|1975]])
* ''[[Fist to Fist]]/Fists of the Double K'' (1974)
* ''[[Belles of Taekwondo]]/The Dragon Tamers (Nu zi tai quan qun ying hui)'' (1974)
* ''[[The Young Dragons]] (Tie han rou qing)''
==See also==
* [[Cinema of China]]
* [[Cinema of Hong Kong]]
==External links==
* {{imdb name|id=0000247|name=John Woo}}
* [http://www.mediacircus.net/johnwoo.html A John Woo Retrospective]
* [http://www.geocities.com/danwangkw ACTION WEB - Your John Woo & Tsui Hark Resource]
[[Category:1946 births|Woo, John]]
[[Category:Living people|Woo, John]]
[[Category:Chinese film directors|Woo, John]]
[[Category:Hong Kong film directors|Woo, John]]
[[Category:Lutherans|Woo, John]]
[[Category:American film directors|Woo, John]]
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:''For other uses, see [[Japan (disambiguation)]].''
{{Infobox_Country|
|native_name = 日本国<br>Nihon-koku/Nippon-koku<br>Japan
|common_name = Japan
|image_flag = Flag of Japan.svg
|image_coat = Imperial Seal of Japan.svg
|image_map = LocationJapan.png
|national_motto =
|national_anthem = [[Kimi Ga Yo]]
|official_languages = [[Japanese language|Japanese]]
|capital = [[Tokyo]]
|latd=35 |latm=41 |latNS=N |longd=139 |longm=46 |longEW=E |
|largest_city = [[Tokyo]] ''See: [[23 special wards]]''
|government_type = [[Constitutional monarchy]]
|leader_titles = [[Emperor of Japan|Emperor]]<br>[[Prime Minister of Japan|Prime Minister]]
|leader_names = [[Akihito]]<br>[[Junichiro Koizumi]]
|area_rank = 377,835
|area_magnitude = 1 E8
|area= 377,835
|percent_water = 0.8%
|population_estimate = 127,417,244
|population_estimate_year = 2005
|population_estimate_rank = 10th
|population_census =
|population_census_year =
|population_density = 337
|population_density_rank = 18th
|GDP_nominal_year= 2004
|GDP_nominal = 4.8 trillion
|GDP_nominal_rank = 2nd
|GDP_PPP_year= 2005
|GDP_PPP = $3.867 trillion
|GDP_PPP_rank = 3rd
|GDP_PPP_per_capita = $30,400
|GDP_PPP_per_capita_rank = 22nd
|sovereignty_type = [[History of Japan|Formation]]
|established_events = [[Meiji Restoration]]<br>[[Japanese Constitution|Current constitution]]<br>[[Treaty of San Francisco]]
|established_dates = <br>[[January 3]], [[1868]]<br>[[May 3]], [[1947]]<br>[[April 28]], [[1952]]
|HDI_year = 2003
|HDI = 0.943
|HDI_rank = 11th
|HDI_category = <font color="#009900">high</font>
|currency = [[Japanese yen|Yen]] (¥)
|currency_code = JPY
|country_code = JPN
|time_zone =
|utc_offset = +9
|time_zone_DST =
|utc_offset_DST = +10
|cctld = [[.jp]]
|calling_code = 81
|footnotes =
}}{{Portal}}
'''Japan''' ([[Japanese language|Japanese]]: 日本, '''Nihon''' or '''Nippon''', literally "sun source") is an [[East Asia]]n [[country]] surrounded by the [[Pacific Ocean]], the [[Sea of Japan]], the [[Philippine Sea]], the [[East China Sea]], and the [[Sea of Okhotsk]]. To the west is [[Korea]] ([[North Korea|North]] and [[South Korea|South]]), to the north [[Russia]], and to the southwest [[People's Republic of China|China]] and [[Taiwan]].
One of the world's [[G8|leading industrialized]] countries, the "[[Names of Japan|Land of the Rising Sun]]" is composed of over 3,000 islands. The largest and main islands are, from north to south, [[Hokkaido|Hokkaidō]], [[Honshu|Honshū]], [[Shikoku]], and [[Kyushu|Kyūshū]]. The [[Ryukyu Islands]], including [[Okinawa]], are southwest of the main islands.
==History==
<!--Please try to keep this section as general as possible. Specific information should be added to a more specific article-->
{{main|History of Japan}}
===Pre-history===
[[Image:MiddleJomonVessel.JPG|thumb|left|160px|A Middle [[Jomon]] vessel (3000 to 2000 BC)]]
[[Archaeology|Archaeological]] research indicates that the earliest inhabitants of the [[Japanese archipelago]] migrated over land bridges from [[Northeast Asia]] about 30,000 years ago. Other evidence also suggests that some may have later come by sea from [[Southeast Asia]] during a period of migration toward the [[Pacific Ocean]].
The first signs of civilization appeared around [[10th millennium BC|10,000 BC]] with the [[Jomon]] culture, characterized by a [[Mesolithic]] to [[Neolithic]] semi-sedentary [[hunter-gatherer]] lifestyle of pit dwelling and a rudimentary form of [[agriculture]]. [[Weaving]] was still unknown and clothes were often made of [[bark]]. Around that time, however, the Jomon people started to make [[clay]] vessels, decorated with patterns made by impressing the wet clay with braided or unbraided cord and sticks (Jomon means "patterns of plaited cord"). This led to the introduction of possibly the earliest known type of [[pottery]] in the world.
The start of the [[Yayoi]] period around 300 BC, marked the influx of new technologies such as [[rice]] farming, [[shamanism]], and [[iron]] and [[bronze]]-making brought by migrants from [[Korean peninsula]]. These formed the basic elements of traditional Japanese culture, still seen today. As the population increased and society became more complex, they wove cloth, lived in permanent farming villages, constructed buildings of wood and stone, accumulated wealth through landownership and the storage of grain, and developed distinct social classes.
The Yayoi period was succeeded around [[250|250 AD]] by the [[Kofun era]], characterized by the establishment of strong military states centered around powerful clans. The [[Yamato]] court, concentrated in the [[Asuka]] region, suppressed the clans and acquired agricultural lands, increasing their power. Based upon the Chinese model, they developed a central administration and an imperial court system and society was organized into occupation groups ([[Ritsuryo]]). Most people were farmers; others were fishermen, weavers, potters, artisans, armorers, and ritual specialists.
===Classical era===
[[Image:TodaijiDaibutsu0224.jpg|thumb|160px|The Great [[Buddha]] at [[Todaiji]], [[Nara, Nara|Nara]], originally cast in 752]]
The Japanese did not start writing their own histories until the 5th and 6th centuries, when the [[Chinese written language|Chinese writing system]], [[Buddhism]], advanced [[pottery]], ceremonial burial, and other aspects of culture were introduced by aristocrats, artisans, scholars, and monks from [[Baekje]], one of the [[Three Kingdoms of Korea]].
The beginning of Japanese historical writing culminated in the early 8th century with the massive chronicles, [[Kojiki]] (The Record of Ancient Matters, 712) and [[Nihonshoki]] (Chronicles of Japan, 720). Though Japan did not appear in written history until 57, when it is first mentioned in Chinese records as the nation of "[[Wa (Japan)|Wa]]" (in Chinese, "Wo"), or "dwarf state", these chronicles tell a much different and much more legendary history of Japan, deriving the people of Japan from the gods themselves.
According to traditional Japanese mythology, Japan was founded in the 7th century BC by the ancestral Emperor [[Jinmu]], a direct descendant of the Shinto deity [[Amaterasu]]. It is claimed that he started a line of emperors that remains unbroken, to this day. However, historians believe the first emperor who actually existed was Emperor [[Ojin]], though the date of his reign is uncertain. Nonetheless, for most of Japan's history, real power has been in the hands of the court nobility, the [[shogun]]s, the military, or, more recently, prime ministers.
Through the [[Taika Reform Edicts]] of 645, Japanese intensified the adoption of Chinese cultural practices and reorganized the government in accordance with the Chinese administrative structure. This paved the way for the dominance of [[Confucianism|Confucian]] philosophy in Japan until the 19th century.
The [[Nara period]] of the 8th century marked the first strong Japanese state, centered around an imperial court, in the city of Heijo-kyo (now [[Nara, Nara|Nara]]). The imperial court later moved briefly to [[Nagaoka]], and later Heian-kyo (now [[Kyoto]]), starting a "golden age" of classical Japanese culture called the [[Heian Period|Heian period]] which lasted for nearly four centuries and was characterized by the regency regime of the [[Fujiwara clan]].
===Medieval era===
Japan's [[medieval]] era was characterized by the emergence of a ruling class of [[warrior]]s, the [[samurai]]. In the year 1185, general [[Minamoto no Yoritomo]] was the first to break the tradition of ruling alongside the emperor in Kyoto, holding power in distant [[Kamakura, Kanagawa|Kamakura]]. After Yoritomo's death, another warrior clan, the [[Hojo clan|Hojo]], came to rule as regents for the [[shogun]]s. The shogunate managed to repel [[Mongols|Mongol]] invasions from [[Mongol invasions of Korea|Mongol-occupied]] [[Korea]] in 1274 and 1281. The [[Kamakura shogunate]] lasted another fifty years. Its successor, the [[Ashikaga shogunate]], was much weaker, and Japan soon fell into warring factions. The "Warring States" or [[Sengoku period]] ensued.
[[Image:NanbanGroup.JPG|thumb|160px|A group of [[Portuguese people|Portuguese]] [[Nanban]] foreigners, 17th century]]
During the 16th century, traders and [[missionary|missionaries]] from [[Portugal]] reached Japan for the first time, initiating the ''[[Nanban trade period|Nanban]]'' ("southern barbarian") period of active commercial and cultural exchange between Japan and the West (and even China). During the last quarter of this century, [[Oda Nobunaga]], [[Toyotomi Hideyoshi]], and [[Tokugawa Ieyasu]] established increasingly strong control over the warring states of Japan. Toyotomi reunified the country, and following his death, Tokugawa seized power by defeating his enemies at the [[Battle of Sekigahara]] in 1600, moving the capital to [[Edo]] (now [[Tokyo]]) and founding the [[Tokugawa shogunate]].
The Tokugawa shogunate, suspicious of the influence of [[Catholic]] missionaries, barred all relations with Europeans, except for severely restricted contacts with [[the Netherlands|Dutch]] merchants at the [[artificial island]] of [[Dejima]], near [[Nagasaki]]. They also became more conscious of trade with China, especially after the [[Manchu]] conquered China and established the [[Qing Dynasty]]. The Manchus subjugated Korea in 1637, and the Japanese feared an invasion. Thus, the country became more isolated than ever before. This period of isolation lasted for two and a half centuries, a time of tenuous political unity known as the [[Edo period]], considered to be the height of Japan's medieval culture.
===Modern era===
[[Image:Japanese_Empire2.png|thumb|240px|The Empire of Japan encompassed most of East and Southeast Asia at its height, in 1942]]
In 1854, [[Matthew Perry (naval officer)|Commodore Matthew Calbraith Perry]] of the United States forced the opening of Japan to the West with the [[Convention of Kanagawa]]. The perceived weakness of the shogunate led many samurai to revolt, leading to the [[Boshin War]] of 1867 to 1868. Subsequently, the shogunate resigned, and the [[Meiji Restoration]] returned the emperor to power. Japan adopted numerous Western institutions during the [[Meiji period]], including a modern government, legal system, and military. These reforms helped transform the [[Empire of Japan]] into a world power, defeating [[China]] in the [[First Sino-Japanese War]] and [[Russia]] in the [[Russo-Japanese War]]. By 1910, Japan controlled [[Korea]], [[Taiwan]], and the southern half of [[Sakhalin]].
The early 20th century saw a brief period of "[[Taisho democracy]]" overshadowed by the rise of [[Japanese expansionism]]. [[World War I]] enabled Japan, which fought on the side of the victorious [[Allies]], to expand its influence in [[Asia]], and its territorial holdings in the Pacific. In 1936, however, Japan signed the [[Anti-Comintern Pact]], joining with Germany and Italy to form the [[Axis]] alliance. During this period, Japan invaded China, occupying [[Manchuria]] in 1931, and continued its expansion into [[China proper]] in 1937, starting the [[Second Sino-Japanese War]], which lasted until the end of World War II. In 1941, after US [[Franklin D. Roosevelt|President Franklin D. Roosevelt]] demanded that Japan withdraw its forces from China, Japan [[Attack on Pearl Harbor|attacked the United States naval base in Pearl Harbor]] as well as [[United Kingdom|British]] and [[Netherlands|Dutch]] colonies in [[Southeast Asia]], bringing itself and the [[United States]] into [[World War II]]. After a long campaign in the [[Pacific Ocean]], Japan lost its initial territorial gains, and American forces moved close enough to begin [[strategic bombing]] of [[Tokyo]], [[Osaka]], and other major cities, as well as the [[atomic bombing of Hiroshima and Nagasaki|atomic bombing]]s of [[Hiroshima]] and [[Nagasaki]]. The Japanese eventually agreed to an unconditional surrender to the Allies on [[August 15]], [[1945]] ([[V-J Day]]). The [[International Military Tribunal for the Far East|Tokyo War Crimes Tribunal]] was convened on [[May 3]][[1946]] to prosecute [[Japanese war crimes]], including atrocities like the [[Nanking Massacre]]. Emperor [[Hirohito]], however, was given immunity and retained his title.
The war cost millions of lives in Japan and other countries, especially in [[East Asia]], and left much of the country's industries and infrastructure destroyed. Official [[Occupied Japan|American occupation]] lasted until 1952, although [[United States Forces Japan|U.S. forces]] still retain important bases in Japan, especially in [[Okinawa]]. In 1947, Japan adopted a new [[pacifism|pacifist]] [[Constitution of Japan|constitution]], seeking international cooperation and emphasizing human rights and democratic practices.
After the occupation, under a program of aggressive industrial development and U.S. assistance, Japan achieved spectacular growth to become one of the largest economies in the world. Despite a major [[stock market crash]] in 1990, from which the country is recovering gradually, Japan remains a global economic power today and is now bidding for a permanent seat on the [[United Nations Security Council]].
==Government and politics==
{{main|Government of Japan}}
===The Parliament===
[[Image:The Diet.jpg|250px|thumb|right|The Parliament sits in joint session.]]
The [[Constitution of Japan]] states that the nation's "highest organ of state power" is its bicameral [[parliament]], the [[Diet of Japan|National Diet]]. The Diet consists of a [[House of Representatives of Japan|House of Representatives]] (Lower House or ''Shūgi-in'') containing 480 seats, elected by popular vote every four years or when dissolved, and a [[House of Councillors]] <!-- The official English Web page of the House of Councillors (see link in Diet of Japan article) spells the word with a double "l" -->(Upper House or ''Sangi-in'') of 242 seats, whose popularly-elected members serve six-year terms. There is universal adult (over 20 years old) [[suffrage]], with a [[secret ballot]] for all elective offices.
The [[Cabinet of Japan|Cabinet]] is composed of a [[Prime Minister of Japan|Prime Minister]] and ministers of state, and is responsible to the Diet. The Prime Minister must be a member of the Diet, and is designated by his colleagues. The Prime Minister has the power to appoint and remove ministers, a majority of whom must be Diet members. The [[Liberal conservatism|liberal conservative]] [[Liberal Democratic Party (Japan)|Liberal Democratic Party]] (LDP) has been in power since 1955, except for a short-lived [[coalition government]] formed from its opposition parties in 1993; the largest opposition party is the liberal-socialist [[Democratic Party of Japan]].
===The Imperial Household===
[[Image:JapanTokyoNijubashi.jpg|thumb|250px|left|The [[Kokyo|Imperial Palace]] in Tokyo is the primary residence of the emperor]]
The [[Imperial Household of Japan]] is headed by the [[Emperor of Japan|emperor]]. The Constitution of Japan defines the emperor to be "the symbol of the state and of the unity of the people". He performs ceremonial duties and holds no real power; not even emergency [[reserve power]]s. Sovereignty is vested in the [[Japanese people]] by the constitution. Though his official status is disputed, on diplomatic occasions the emperor tends to behave (with widespread public support, it should be noted) as though he were a [[head of state]]. In academic studies, Japan is generally considered a [[constitutional monarchy]], based largely upon the British system. As of 2006 Japan is the only country in the world which is headed by an [[emperor]].
[[Akihito]] (明仁) is the current and 125th Emperor of Japan. He assumed the throne after the death of his father, [[Hirohito]], on [[January 7]], [[1989]]. His son, [[Crown Prince]] [[Naruhito]], married [[Princess Masako|Masako Owada]], who gave birth to a girl, [[Princess Aiko]], in 2001. The Imperial Household Law of [[1947]] limits succession to males, but there is ongoing and widespread public discussion of the [[Japanese Imperial succession controversy]]. It seems likely that the law will be amended to permit women to ascend the throne (as eight have in Japan's recorded history).
===Foreign relations===
{{main|Foreign relations of Japan}}
Japan is a member state of the [[United Nations]], the [[G8]], and the [[G4 nations]], and is a major donor in [[international aid]] and development efforts, donating 0.19% of its [[Gross National Income]] in 2004. [http://www.oecd.org/dataoecd/40/3/35389786.pdf]
Japan has territorial disputes over islands that were controlled by Japan before [[World War II]]. They are the [[Kuril Island conflict|four southern islands]] of the [[Kuril Islands]], administered by [[Russia]], as well as the [[Liancourt Rocks]] (''Dokdo'' in Korean, ''Takeshima'' in Japanese), administered by [[South Korea]], and the [[Senkaku Islands]] (''Diaoyutai'' in Chinese), administered by Japan, but claimed by both the [[People's Republic of China]] and [[Republic of China|the Republic of China (Taiwan)]]. The disputes are in part about the control of marine and natural resources, such as possible reserves of [[crude oil]] and [[natural gas]].
Japan also has an ongoing dispute with [[North Korea]] over its [[North Korean abductions of Japanese|abduction]] of Japanese citizens and [[North Korea and weapons of mass destruction|nuclear weapons program]].
Japan has developed relations with [[ASEAN]] as a member of ''ASEAN Plus three'' and the [[East Asia Summit]] (EAS).
==Geography of Japan==
[[Image:Ja-map.png|right|Map of Japan]]
{{main|Geography of Japan}}
Japan, a country of [[island]]s, extends along the eastern or [[Pacific Ocean|Pacific]] coast of [[Asia]]. The main islands (sometimes referred to as the Home Islands), running from north to south, are [[Hokkaido]], [[Honshū|Honshu]] (or the mainland), [[Shikoku]], and [[Kyushu]]. [[Naha, Okinawa|Naha]] on [[Okinawa Island|Okinawa]], in the [[Ryukyu Islands|Ryukyu]] archipelago, is over 600 km to the southwest of Kyushu. In addition, about 3,000 smaller islands may be counted in the full extent of the [[archipelago]] that comprises greater Japan.
*Area: 377,835 km² (including 3,091 km² of territorial water)
*Major islands: Honshu, Hokkaido, Kyushu, Shikoku
*Coastline: 29,751 km
*Highest peak: [[Mount Fuji]]: 3776 m (12,385 ft)
*Lowest elevation: Hachinohe Mine -130 m (-426 ft)
Japan is the 18th most densely populated country in the world (see also the [[list of countries by population density]]). About 73% of the country is [[mountain]]ous, and unsuitable for agricultural, industrial, or residential use, due to the generally steep elevations, climate, and risk of landslides caused by earthquakes, soft ground, and heavy rain. This has resulted in an extremely high population density in the habitable zones that are mainly located in coastal areas.
Japan is situated in a [[Volcano|volcanic]] zone on the [[Pacific Ring of Fire]], at the juncture of the [[Philippine Plate]], [[Pacific Plate]], [[Eurasian Plate]], and [[North American Plate]]. Frequent low-intensity earth tremors and occasional volcanic activity are felt throughout the islands. Destructive [[earthquake]]s, often resulting in [[tsunami]]s, occur several times each century. Twenty percent of the world's earthquakes magnitude 6.0 and higher are epicentered in Japan. The most recent major quakes include the [[2004 Chuetsu Earthquake]] and the [[Great Hanshin earthquake|Great Hanshin Earthquake]] of [[1995]]. [[Onsen|Hot springs]] are numerous, and have been developed as resorts.
===Climate===
Japan is a temperate region with four seasons of varying severity--five, if the rainy season is included. Japan's average temperature for the summer time is 30°C, and for the winter, it is 4.7°C. Because of its great length from north to south, Japan's [[climate]] varies from region to region: the far north is very cold in the [[winter]], while the far south is [[subtropical]]. The climate is also affected by the seasonal winds, blown from the continent to the ocean in winters and vice versa in [[summer]]s. The waters of the [[Kuroshio Current]] also warm the Pacific side of Japan, sustaining the [[coral reefs]] of Japan, the northernmost coral reefs in the world. Due to severe water pollution, these reefs are now dying.
Japan's main [[Monsoon|rainy season]] begins (tsuyu-iri) in early May in Okinawa, and the stationary rain front responsible for this gradually works its way north until it dissipates in northern Japan before reaching Hokkaido in late July. The rainy season begins in most of Honshu around the 8th of [[June]] and ends (tsuyu-ake) around the 20th of [[July]]. In late summer and early [[autumn]], [[typhoon]]s develop from [[tropical depression]]s generated near the [[equator]], and track from the southwest to the northeast, often bringing heavy rain.
Japan's varied geographical features divide it into six principal climatic zones:
*[[Hokkaido]]: Hokkaido has a temperate climate with long, cold winters and cool summers. [[precipitation (meteorology)|Precipitation]] is not heavy, but the islands usually develop deep snow banks in the winter.
*[[Sea of Japan]]: The northwest wind in the wintertime brings heavy snowfall. In the summer, the region is cooler than the Pacific area, though it sometimes experiences extremely hot temperatures, due to the [[Föhn wind]] phenomenon.
*Central Highlands (''[[Chuo-kochi]]''): A typical inland climate, with large temperature differences between summer and winter, and between day and night. Precipitation is light.
*[[Inland Sea|Seto Inland Sea]] (''Seto-naikai''): The Mountains of the [[Chugoku region|Chugoku]] and [[Shikoku]] regions block the seasonal winds, bringing mild weather throughout the year.
*Pacific Ocean: Experiences cold winters with little snowfall and hot, humid summers due to the southeast seasonal wind.
*Nansei-shoto ([[Ryukyu Islands|Ryukyu]]) or Southwest Islands: The Ryukyu Islands have a subtropical climate, with warm winters and hot summers. Precipitation is very heavy, especially during the rainy season. [[Tropical cyclone|Typhoons]] are common; in 2004 a record 10 typhoons reached the main islands.
===Regions===
{{main|Regions of Japan}}
Japan is commonly divided into [[Regions of Japan|regions]]. [[Honshu]], by far the largest and most populated island, is typically divided into five (or more) regions. The other islands constitute one region each. From north to south, these are the:
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Honshu:
* [[Tohoku region|Tohoku]] - north-eastern Honshu in which [[Sendai, Miyagi|Sendai]] and [[Fukushima, Fukushima|Fukushima]] are large cities.
* [[Kantō region|Kanto]] - includes [[Tokyo]], [[Kawasaki, Kanagawa|Kawasaki]], [[Yokohama]], [[Yokosuka, Kanagawa|Yokosuka]], and surrounding coastal plain. Also includes [[Gunma Prefecture|Gunma]], [[Saitama Prefecture|Saitama]], [[Chiba Prefecture|Chiba]], [[Tochigi Prefecture|Tochigi]], and [[Ibaraki Prefecture|Ibaraki]] Prefectures.
* [[Chubu region|Chubu]] - mountainous middle region dominated by the [[Japanese Alps]]. The Sea of Japan side is the [[Hokuriku region]], and the Pacific side is the [[Tokai region]]. The main cities of Hokuriku are [[Niigata, Niigata|Niigata]] and [[Kanazawa, Ishikawa|Kanazawa]], and the main cities of Tokai are [[Nagoya, Aichi|Nagoya]] (the nation's fourth largest) and [[Shizuoka, Shizuoka|Shizuoka]].
* Kinki or [[Kansai]] region - ancient center of culture and commerce, including [[Osaka]], [[Kyoto]], [[Kobe]], [[Nara, Nara|Nara]], [[Wakayama Prefecture|Wakayama]], [[Shiga Prefecture|Shiga]] and [[Mie Prefecture|Mie]] Prefectures.
* [[Chugoku region|Chugoku]] - includes the cities [[Hiroshima]] and [[Okayama, Okayama|Okayama]].
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Other islands:
* [[Hokkaido]] - major cities are [[Sapporo, Hokkaido|Sapporo]] and [[Hakodate, Hokkaido|Hakodate]].
* [[Shikoku]] - the smallest of the main four islands, known as a destination for Buddhist pilgrims. The main cities are [[Matsuyama, Ehime|Matsuyama]] and [[Takamatsu, Kagawa|Takamatsu]].
* [[Kyushu]] - southernmost of the four main islands. The main towns include [[Fukuoka, Fukuoka|Fukuoka]], [[Kitakyushu, Fukuoka|Kitakyushu]] and [[Nagasaki, Nagasaki|Nagasaki]].
* [[Okinawa Prefecture|Okinawa]] - semitropical southern island chain reaching out to [[Taiwan]]. The only major city is [[Naha, Okinawa|Naha]].
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===Prefectures===
{{main|Prefectures of Japan}}
The [[Local Government Law]] of Japan divides the country into 47 [[prefectures of Japan|prefectures]], which carry out administrative duties, independently of the central government. Voters in each prefecture elect a governor and a legislative assembly. Each prefecture has an administrative bureaucracy.
== Economy ==
<div style="float:right;">
[[Image:Wfm_kansai_closeup.jpg|thumb|none|Japan's construction industry has been aided by huge civil works projects. One of the most well known is [[Kansai International Airport]], built on an [[artificial island]] at a total cost of $30 billion. A second runway is also under construction which will more than double the airport's land area.]]
</div>
{{main|Economy of Japan}}
Government-industry cooperation, aid from the United States following World War II, a strong work ethic, mastery of high technology, emphasis on education, and a comparatively small defense allocation have helped Japan advance with extraordinary speed to become the second largest economy in the world, after the U.S. For three decades, overall real economic growth had been spectacular: a 10% average in the 1960s, a 5% average in the 1970s, and a 4% average in the 1980s. Growth slowed markedly in the 1990s largely due to the after-effects of over-investment during the late 1980s and domestic policies intended to wring speculative excesses from the stock and real estate markets. Government efforts to revive economic growth have met with little success and were further hampered in 2000 to 2001 by the slowing of the US and [[Asian|Asia]] economies.
However, the economy saw signs of strong recovery in 2005. GDP growth for the year was 2.8%, with a fourth quarter expansion of 5.5%, surpassing the growth rate of the US and European Union during the same period. Unlike previous recovery trends, domestic consumption has been the dominant factor in leading the growth. Hence, the Japanese government predicts that recovery will continue into 2006.
Distinguishing characteristics of the Japanese economy include the cooperation of manufacturers, suppliers, distributors, and banks in closely-knit groups called [[keiretsu]]; the powerful enterprise unions and ''[[shunto|shuntō]]''; cozy relations with government bureaucrats, and the guarantee of lifetime employment (''shushin koyo'') in big corporations and highly [[labour union|unionized]] [[blue-collar]] factories. Recently, Japanese companies have begun to abandon some of these norms in an attempt to increase profitability.
The current government of [[Junichiro Koizumi]] has enacted or attempted to pass (sometimes with failure) major privatization and foreign-investment laws intended to help stimulate Japan's dormant economy. Although the effectiveness of these laws is still ambiguous, the economy has begun to respond, but Japan's aging population is expected to place further strain on growth in the near future.
===Agricultural sector===
Japan uses a system of terrace farming to build in a small area due to lack of available land. Japanese agriculture has one of the world's highest levels of productivity per unit area. Japan's small [[agriculture|agricultural]] sector, however, is also highly subsidized and protected, with government regulations that favor small-scale cultivation instead of large-scale agriculture as practiced in North America. Imported [[rice]], the most protected crop, is subject to tariffs of 490% and restricted to a quota of only 3% of the total rice market. Although Japan is usually self-sufficient in rice (except for its use in making rice crackers and processed foods), the country must import about 50% of its requirements of other [[Cereal|grain]] and fodder crops, and relies on imports for most of its supply of [[meat]]. Japan maintains one of the world's largest [[fishing]] fleets and accounts for nearly 15% of the global catch, prompting some claims that Japan's fishing is leading to depletion in fish stocks such as [[tuna]]. Japan has also sparked controversy by supporting quasi-commercial [[whaling in Japan|whaling]].
===Industrial sector===
Industry, one-fourth of Japan's [[Gross Domestic Product|GDP]], is heavily dependent on imported raw materials and [[fuel]]s. Internationally, Japan is best known for its [[automobile|automotive]], optics, and [[electronics]] industries, as the home of big manufacturers such as [[Toyota]], [[Honda]], [[Nissan]], [[Mitsubishi]], [[Mazda]], [[Sony]], [[Matsushita]], [[Toshiba]], [[Suzuki]] and [[Hitachi,_Ltd.|Hitachi]], as well as household names like [[Nintendo]] and [[Nikon Corporation]]. Japan also holds a large market share in high-technology industries such as [[semiconductor]]s, industrial chemicals, machine tools, and (in recent years) [[Aerospace engineering|aerospace]]. [[Construction]] has long been one of Japan's largest industries, with the help of multi-billion-dollar government contracts in the civil sector. [[Robot|Robotics]] constitutes a key long-term economic strength.
===Service sector===
Japan's service sector accounts for about three-fourths of its total economic output. [[Bank|Banking]], [[insurance]], [[real estate]], [[Retailer|retail]]ing, [[transportation in Japan|transportation]], and [[telecommunication]]s are all major industries. The [[Junichiro Koizumi|Koizumi]] government is attempting to privatize [[Japan Post and Postal Services Agency|Japan Post]], one of the country's largest providers of savings and insurance services, by 2007.
{{seealso|List of Japanese companies}}
==Society==
===Demographics===
{{main|Demographics of Japan}}
Japanese society is [[ethnic]]ally and [[Linguistics|linguistically]] homogeneous, with small populations of primarily [[Ryukyuans]] (1.5 million), North and South [[Koreans]] (1 million), [[China|Chinese]] and [[Taiwan]]ese (0.5 million), [[Philippines|Filipino]]s (0.5 million), and [[Brazil]]ians — mostly of [[Japanese-Brazilian|Japanese]] descent — (250,000), as well as the indigenous [[Ainu_people|Ainu]] minority in [[Hokkaido]]. About 99% of the population speaks [[Japanese language|Japanese]] as their first language.
Japanese [[citizenship]] is conferred on an infant when a family member registers the infant's birth in the family registry held by a neighborhood ward office. Simply being born in Japan does not assure citizenship. Monolingual Japanese-speaking minorities often reside in Japan for generations under permanent residency status without acquiring citizenship in their country of birth. People of Japanese heritage returning from overseas have citizenship if their birth in a foreign country was registered in Japan on their behalf by a family member. Sometimes these returnees are not considered truly Japanese and suspected of being descendants of the [[Burakumin]] [[caste]] of feudal times.
The Japanese population is rapidly aging, the effect of a post-war [[Post-WW2_baby_boom|baby boom]] followed by a decrease in births as the country modernized in the latter part of the 20th century (notable aspects including the shift from agricultural to urban lifestyles and the increasing tendency for women to remain in the workplace). Japan has the highest [[life expectancy]] in the world (85.2 years for women and 78.3 years for men in 2002 [http://unstats.un.org/unsd/demographic/products/dyb/dyb2.htm]). By 2007, over 20% of the population will be over the age of 65. The changes in the demographic structure have created a number of social issues, particularly a potential decline in the workforce population and increases in the cost of social securities like the [[pension|public pension plan]].
The population started declining in 2005, as the 1.067 million births were exceeded by the 1.077 million deaths. Assuming current birth and death rates, the 2005 population of 128 million would decline to 100 million in 2050, and to 64 million in 2100. The main problem will be the financial crisis that comes from having a higher and higher dependency ratio (nonworking young and old compared to working ages.) Demographers and government planners are currently in a heated debate over how to cope with this problem.[http://www.mofa.go.jp/j_info/japan/socsec/ogawa.html]. [[Immigration]] and birth incentives are sometimes suggested as a possible solution to provide younger workers to support the nation's aging population. Immigration, however, is not publicly popular as recent increased [[crime]] rates are often attributed to foreigners living in Japan.
===Religion===
[[Image:Toshodaiji.jpg|thumb|251px|right|The [[Toshodaiji]] Buddhist temple, part of a [[United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization|UNESCO]] [[World Heritage Site]] in [[Nara, Nara|Nara]].]]
{{main articles|[[Religion in Japan]] and [[Japanese mythology]]}}
The Japanese people's concern towards religion is mostly related to [[mythology]], [[traditions]], and neighborhood activities rather than the source of morality or the guideline for one's life, for which sometimes [[Confucianism]], or even [[Taoism]], tends to serve as the basis for the moral code. When asked to identify their religion, most would profess to believe in either [[Shintoism]] (54%) or [[Buddhism]] (40%), for simple reasons like their family has belonged to some sect of Buddhism or to avoid contention with religious foreigners. Nonetheless, most of the people are not [[atheist]]s, and the tendency is often identified with [[syncretism]], [[secularism]], and even [[irreligion]]. This results in a variety of practices such as parents and children celebrating [[Shinto]] rituals, students praying before exams, couples holding a wedding at a [[Christian]] church and funerals being held at [[Buddhist]] temples. A minority profess to [[Christianity]] (0.7%) and other religions (4.7%) like [[shamanism]], [[Islam]], and [[Hinduism in Japan|Hinduism]]. Also, since the mid-19th century, many religious sects called [[Shinkosyukyo]], and later [[shinshukyo]], emerged.
===Education===
{{main|Education in Japan}}
Compulsory education was introduced into Japan in 1872 as one result of the [[Meiji Restoration]]. Since 1947, compulsory education consists of [[elementary school]] and [[middle school]], which lasts for 9 years (from age 6 to age 15). Almost all children continue their education at a three-year senior [[high school]], and 96% of high school graduates attend a [[university]], [[junior college]], trade school, or other post-secondary institution.
===Language===
{{main|Japanese Language}}
Japanese language is an [[agglutinative]] language that belongs in the [[Altaic languages|Altaic language]] family. It is distinguished by a system of [[Japanese honorifics|honorifics]] reflecting the [[Hierarchy|hierarchical]] nature of Japanese society, with verb forms and particular vocabulary which indicate the relative status of speaker and listener.
Modern Japanese is written with a mix of [[Chinese character|Chinese characters]] ([[kanji]]) and a modified [[syllabary]] ([[kana]]), also originally based on Chinese characters. Japanese texts may also include [[Romanization of Japanese|rōmaji]] (letters from the Latin alphabet) as well as various special symbols. [[Japanese writing system|Written Japanese]] has been heavily influenced by [[Chinese language|Chinese]] although the latter belongs to a different language family. Much vocabulary also has been imported from Chinese, or created on Chinese models.
The oldest surviving book written in Japan is the [[Kojiki]] ([[712]]). It was written in a mixture of Chinese, used both ideographically, phonetically, and otherwise to create Japanese meanings. The oldest surviving Japanese book written in [[hiragana]] is the ''Tosa Diary'' ([[935]]) by [[Ki no Tsurayuki]]. [[Japanese literature]] reached a high point during the 11th century with the ''Genji Monogatari'' (''[[The Tale of Genji]]'') by Lady [[Murasaki Shikibu]]. Many other Japanese literary works were also written by women.
===Culture===
[[Image:Japanese traditional dancer cropped.jpg|thumb|A Japanese traditional dancer]]
{{main|Culture of Japan}}
Japanese culture has evolved greatly over the years, from the country's original [[Jomon]] culture to its contemporary hybrid culture, which combines a number of influences from Asia, Europe, and America.
Historically, China and Korea have been the most influential starting with the development of the [[Yayoi]] culture from around 300 BC and culminating with the introduction of rice farming, ceremonial burial, pottery, painting, writing, poetry, etiquette, the [[Chinese written language|Chinese writing system]], and [[Mahayana]] [[Buddhism]] by the 7th century AD. In the pre-modern era, Japan developed a distinct culture, in its [[Japanese Art|arts]]: ([[ikebana]], [[origami]], [[ukiyo-e]]), [[Japanese crafts|crafts]] ([[Japanese traditional dolls|dolls]], [[Lacquer|lacquerware]], [[Japanese pottery|pottery]]), performances ([[bunraku]], [[Japanese traditional dance|dance]], [[kabuki]], [[noh]], [[rakugo]]), traditions ([[List of Japanese games|games]], [[onsen]], [[sento]], [[Japanese tea ceremony|tea ceremony]], [[Japanese architecture|architecture]], [[Japanese garden|gardens]], [[Katana|swords]]), and [[Cuisine of Japan|cuisine]].
From the mid-19th century onward, Western influence prevailed, with American influence becoming especially predominant following the end of [[World War II]]. This influence is apparent in Japan's contemporary popular culture, which combines Asian, European, and, 1950-onward, American influences in its [[fashion]], [[Cinema of Japan|films]], [[Japanese literature|literature]], [[Japanese television programs|television]], [[Computer and video games|video games]], and [[Music of Japan|music]]. Also, the Japanese are the largest spenders of money on luxury goods in the world. Today, Japan is a major exporter of such culture, which has gained popularity around the world, particularly in the other countries of East Asia. Especially notable contributions of modern Japan to the rest of the world include [[anime|animation (anime)]] and [[manga|graphic novels (manga)]]. Japanese culture has attracted many devotees in Europe and North America as well.
{{seealso|Japanese clothing|Etiquette of Japan|Japanese festivals|Japanese New Year|Japanese sports|Tourism in Japan|Japanese media|Japanese traditional dance}}
==Military==
{{main|Japan Self-Defense Forces}}
Following centuries of [[feudalism]], Japan established two separate military services in the late 1800s, the [[Imperial Japanese Army]] (modeled upon the army of [[Germany]]) and the [[Imperial Japanese Navy]] (modeled upon the [[Royal Navy]] of the [[United Kingdom|UK]]). Following [[Occupation of Japan|American Occupation]] after [[World War II]], the only time in Japan's recorded history where it had been occupied by a foreign power, the Imperial Army was dissolved in 1945.
In 1950, GHQ established the Reserved Police in order to complement the Amercan Army, a large part of which was sent to [[Korea]] to fight the [[Korean War]]. In 1952, when the [[San Francisco Peace Treaty]] is concluded, the Reserved Police lost its legal basis, and the Japanese Government started to prepare the establishment of the Security Forces. At the same time, the Sea Guard was established by the Japanese Government, and these two parties were reformed into the Security Forces later in the same year. The Security Forces were replaced in 1954 by the [[Japan Self-Defense Forces]].
Japan's current constitution prohibits the use of military forces to wage war against other countries. [[Deployment of Japanese troops to Iraq|Japan's involvement]] in the [[Iraq war]], however, marked the first overseas use of its military since [[World War II]].
<references/>
==References==
* S. N. Eisenstadt, ''Japanese Civilization: A Comparative View'', [[University of Chicago]] 1995. (ISBN 0226195589)
* ''Japan a Profile of Nation'', [[Kodansha]] International, 1999. (ISBN 4770023847)
==Further reading==
{{sisterlinks|Japan}}
* ''The Cambridge Encyclopaedia of Japan'', [[University of Cambridge|Cambridge Univ]]. Press, 1993 (ISBN 0521403529)
* De Mente, ''The Japanese Have a Word For It'', [[McGraw-Hill]], 1997 (ISBN 0844283169)
* Henshall, ''A History of Japan'', Palgrave Macmillan, 2001 (ISBN 0312233701)
* Jansen, ''The Making of Modern Japan'', Belknap, 2000 (ISBN 0674003349)
* ''Japan At A Glance'', Kodansha, 1998 (ISBN 4770020805)
* Johnson, ''Japan: Who Governs?'', W.W. Norton, 1996 (ISBN 0393314502)
* ''Lonely Planet Japan'', Lonely Planet Publications, 2003 (ISBN 1740591623)
* Reischauer, ''Japan: The Story of a Nation'', McGraw-Hill, 1989 (ISBN 0075570742)
* Sugimoto et al., ''An Introduction to Japanese Society'', Cambridge Univ. Press, 2003 (ISBN 0521529255)
* Totman, ''A History of Modern Japan'', 2d ed., Blackwell, 2005 (ISBN 1405123591)
* Van Wolferen, ''The Enigma of Japanese Power'', Vintage, 1990 (ISBN 0679728023)
==Miscellaneous topics==
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* [[Samurai]] - Japanese warrior
* [[Bushido]] - The way of warrior - Japanese spirit
* [[Kendo]] - Japanese martial art - the way of sword
* [[Communications in Japan]]
* [[Ethnic issues in Japan]]
* [[Human rights in Japan]]
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* [[Japan Self-Defense Forces|Military of Japan]]
* [[Japanese war crimes]]
* [[Japanese calendar]]
* [[Japanese mobile phone culture]]
* [[Japanese fashion]]
* [[Japanese law]]
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* [[Japanese media|Japanese Television and Radio]]
* [[Japanese miniaturization culture]]
* [[Japanese mythology]]
* [[Japanese nationalism]]
* [[Japanese Wolf|Japanese wolf]] (extinct)
* [[Law Concerning the National Flag and Anthem]]
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* [[List of Japanese people]]
* [[List of Japan-related topics]]
* [[List of national parks of Japan]]
* [[Portal:Japan|Portal]] to Japan
* [[Transportation in Japan]]
* [[Japanese unit]]s of measurement
* [[Scout Association of Japan]]
{{col-end}}
==External links==
{{col-begin}}
{{col-2}}
===Official===
*[http://courtdomino2.courts.go.jp/home.nsf/ehome?OpenPage Courts.go.jp] - Official site of the Japanese Supreme Court
*[http://www.kantei.go.jp/foreign/index-e.html Kantei.go.jp] - Official prime ministerial and cabinet site
*[http://www.kunaicho.go.jp/eindex.html Kunaicho.go.jp] - Official site of the Imperial family.
*[http://www.kantei.go.jp/foreign/link/links_e.html Links to Ministries and other Organizations]
*[http://www.mofa.go.jp/ Ministry of Foreign Affairs] - Detailed papers on Japan's foreign policy, education programs, culture and life.
*[http://www.sangiin.go.jp/eng/index.htm Sangi-in.go.jp] - Official site of the House of Councillors
*[http://www.shugiin.go.jp/index.nsf/html/index_e.htm Shugi-in.go.jp] - Official site of the House of Representatives
*[http://www.stat.go.jp/english/index.htm Stat.go.jp] - Statistics Bureau Home Page (English)
{{col-2}}
===Media===
*[http://www.nhk.or.jp/daily/english/ NHK World Daily News]
*[http://home.kyodo.co.jp/ Kyodo News (Wire Service, English)]
*[http://www.3yen.com/ 3Yen (Daily news, English)]
===Other===
*[http://www.cia.gov/cia/publications/factbook/geos/ja.html CIA World Factbook - ''Japan'']
*[http://www.japanesestudies.org.uk ''electronic journal of contemporary japanese studies'']
*[http://www.guardian.co.uk/japan/0,7368,450622,00.html Guardian Unlimited - ''Special Report: Japan'']
*[http://lcweb2.loc.gov/frd/cs/jptoc.html Library of Congress - ''Country Study: Japan''] data as of January 1994
*{{wikitravel}}
{{col-end}}
{{col-begin}}
{{col-2}}
{{Japan-portal}}
{{East Asia}}
{{col-2}}
{{UN Security Council}}
{{col-end}}
{{G8}}
{{Asia}}
[[Category:East Asian countries]]
[[Category:Japan| ]]
[[Category:Monarchies]]
[[Category:Island nations]]
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Geography of Japan
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[[Japan]] is an [[island nation]] in [[East Asia]] comprised of a large [[Stratovolcano|stratovolcanic]] [[archipelago]] extending along the [[Pacific Ocean|Pacific]] coast of [[Asia]]. Measured from the [[geographic coordinate]] system, Japan is 36° north of the [[equator]] and 138° east of the [[Prime Meridian]]. The country is north-northeast of [[China]] and [[Taiwan]] (separated by the [[East China Sea]]) and slightly east of [[Korea]] (separated by the [[Sea of Japan]]<sup>1</sup>). The country is south of [[Siberia]] in [[Russia]].
[[Image:Japan_topo_en.jpg|thumb|Topographic map]]
The main [[island]]s, sometimes called the "Home Islands", (from north to south) are [[Hokkaido]], [[Honshu]] (the "[[mainland]]"), [[Shikoku]] and [[Kyushu]]. There are also about 3,000 smaller islands, including [[Okinawa]], and [[islet]]s, some inhabited and others uninhabited. In total, Japan's territory is 377,835 km², of which 374,744 km² is land and 3,091 km² water. This makes Japan's total area slightly smaller than the [[U.S. state]] of [[Montana]]. Japan is bigger than [[Germany]] and the [[U.K]]. It is 1.7 times the size of North and South [[Korea]] combined, 10 times the size of [[Taiwan]].
==Statistics==
[[Image:Ja-map.png|right|Map of Japan]]
'''Location''': Eastern Asia, island chain between the North Pacific Ocean and the [[Sea of Japan]], east of the [[Korean Peninsula]].
'''Geographic coordinates''': 36 00 N, 138 00 E
'''Map references''': [[Asia]]
'''Area''':<br>
''total'': 377,835 km²<br>
''land'': 374,744 km²<br>
''water'': 3,091 km²<br>
''note'': includes [[Bonin Islands]] (Ogasawara-guntō 小笠原群島), [[Daito-shoto|Daitō-shotō]] (大東諸島), [[Minami Torishima]] (南鳥島), [[Okino-tori-shima]] (沖ノ鳥島), [[Ryukyu Islands|Ryūkyū Islands]] (Ryūkyū-shotō 琉球諸島),
and [[Volcano Islands]] (Kazan-rettō 火山列島)
'''Area - comparative''': slightly smaller than [[Montana]]
'''Land boundaries''': 0 km
'''Coastline''': 29,751 km
'''Maritime claims''': <br>
''exclusive economic zone'': 200 [[nautical mile]]s (370 km)<br>
''territorial sea'': 12 nautical miles (22 km); between 3 and 12 nautical miles (6 and 22 km) in the international straits - [[La Perouse Strait|La Perouse]] or [[Soya Strait|Sōya Strait]] (宗谷海峡), [[Tsugaru Strait]] (津軽), Osumi, and Eastern and
Western Channels of the Korea or [[Tsushima Strait]] (対馬海峡)
'''Climate''': varies from tropical in south to cool temperate in north
'''Terrain''': mostly rugged and mountainous
'''Elevation extremes''': <br>
''lowest point'': [[Hachiro-gata|Hachirō-gata]] (八郎潟) -4 m <br>
''highest point'': [[Mount Fuji]] (富士山) 3,776 m
'''Natural resources''': negligible [[mineral]] resources, fish
'''Land use''': <br>
''arable land'': 11% <br>
''permanent crops'': 1% <br>
''permanent pastures'': 2% <br>
''forests and woodland'': 67% <br>
''other'': 19% (1993 est.)
'''Irrigated land''': 27,820 km² (1993 est.)
==Composition, Topography, and Drainage==
About 73 percent of Japan is [[mountain]]ous, with a [[mountain range]] running through each of the main islands. Japan's highest mountain is [[Mt. Fuji]], with an [[elevation]] of 3776m (12,388 feet). Since so little flat area exists, many hills and mountainsides are cultivated all the way to the top. As Japan is situated in a volcanic zone along the [[Pacific ocean|Pacific]] deeps, frequent low-intensity earth tremors and occasional volcanic activity are felt throughout the islands. Destructive [[earthquake]]s occur several times a century. [[Hot spring]]s are numerous and have been developed as resorts.
The mountainous islands of the Japanese Archipelago form a crescent off the eastern coast of Asia. They are separated from the mainland by the [[Sea of Japan]], which historically served as a protective barrier. The country consists of four principal islands: [[Hokkaido]], [[Honshu]], [[Shikoku]], and [[Kyushu]]; more than 3,000 adjacent islands and islets, including [[Oshima]] in the [[Nampo chain]]; and more than 200 other smaller islands, including those of the [[Amami]], [[Okinawa]], and [[Sakishima Islands|Sakishima]] chains of the [[Ryukyu Islands]]. The national territory also includes the small Bonin or [[Ogasawara Islands]], which include [[Iwo Jima]] and the [[Volcano Islands]] (Kazan Retto), stretching some 1,100 kilometers from the main islands. A territorial dispute with [[Russia]], dating from the end of World War II, over the two southernmost of the [[Kuril Islands]], Etorofu ([[Iturup]]) and [[Kunashir Island|Kunashiri]], and the smaller [[Shikotan]] and [[Habomai]] Islands northeast of [[Hokkaido]] remain a sensitive spot in [[Japanese-Russian relations]] as of 2005. Excluding disputed territory, the archipelago covers about 377,000 square kilometers. No point in Japan is more than 150 kilometers from the sea.
The four major islands are separated by narrow straits and form a natural entity. The Ryukyu Islands curve 970 kilometers southward from Kyushu.
The distance between Japan and the [[Korean Peninsula]], the nearest point on the Asian continent, is about 200 kilometers at the [[Korea Strait]]. Japan has always been linked with the continent through trade routes, stretching in the north toward [[Siberia]], in the west through the [[Tsushima Island]]s to the Korean Peninsula, and in the south to the ports on the south China coast.
The Japanese islands are the summits of mountain ridges uplifted near the outer edge of the [[continental shelf]]. About 75 percent of Japan's area is mountainous, and scattered plains and intermontane basins (in which the population is concentrated) cover only about 25 percent. A long chain of mountains runs down the middle of the archipelago, dividing it into two halves, the "face," fronting on the Pacific Ocean, and the "back," toward the Sea of Japan. On the Pacific side are steep mountains 1,500 to 3,000 meters high, with deep valleys and gorges. Central Japan is marked by the convergence of the three mountain chains—the [[Hida Mountains|Hida]], [[Kiso Mountains|Kiso]], and [[Akaishi Mountains|Akaishi]] mountains—that form the [[Japanese Alps]] (Nihon Arupusu), several of whose peaks are higher than 3,000 meters. The highest point in the Japanese Alps is [[Kitadake]] at 3,192 meters. The highest point in the country is [[Mount Fuji]] (Fujisan, also erroneously called Fujiyama), a volcano dormant since [[1707]] that rises to 3,776 meters above sea level in [[Shizuoka Prefecture]]. On the Sea of Japan side are plateaus and low mountain districts, with altitudes of 500 to 1,500 meters.
None of the populated plains or mountain basins is extensive in area. The largest, the [[Kanto Plain]], where [[Tokyo]] is situated, covers only 13,000 square kilometers. Other important plains are the [[Nobi Plain]] surrounding [[Nagoya]], the [[Kinki Plain]] in the [[Osaka]]-[[Kyoto]] area, the [[Sendai Plain]] around the city of [[Sendai, Miyagi|Sendai]] in northeastern Honshu, and the [[Ishikari Plain]] on Hokkaido. Many of these plains are along the coast, and their areas have been increased by reclamation throughout recorded history.
The small amount of habitable land prompted significant human modification of the terrain over many centuries. Land was reclaimed from the sea and from river deltas by building [[dike (construction)|dikes]] and drainage, and rice paddies were built on terraces carved into mountainsides. The process continued in the modern period with extension of shorelines and building of artificial islands for industrial and port development, such as Port Island in Kobe and the new [[Kansai International Airport]] in Osaka Bay. Hills and even mountains have been razed to provide flat areas for housing.
Rivers are generally steep and swift, and few are suitable for navigation except in their lower reaches. Most rivers are fewer than 300 kilometers in length, but their rapid flow from the mountains provides a valuable, renewable resource: [[Hydroelectricity|hydroelectric power]] generation. Japan's hydroelectric power potential has been exploited almost to capacity. Seasonal variations in flow have led to extensive development of flood control measures. Most of the rivers are very short. The longest, the [[Shinano River]], which winds through [[Nagano Prefecture]] to [[Niigata Prefecture]] and flows into the Sea of Japan, is only 367 kilometers long. The largest freshwater lake is [[Lake Biwa]], northeast of Kyoto.
Extensive coastal shipping, especially around the [[Inland Sea]] (Seto Naikai), compensates for the lack of navigable rivers. The Pacific coastline south of Tokyo is characterized by long, narrow, gradually shallowing inlets produced by sedimentation, which has created many natural harbors. The Pacific coastline north of Tokyo, the coast of Hokkaido, and the Sea of Japan coast are generally unindented, with few natural harbors.
==Climate==
Japan belongs to the temperate zone with distinct four seasons, but its climate varies from cool temperate in the north to subtropical in the south. The climate is also affected by the seasonal winds that blow from the continent to the ocean in winters and vice versa in summers.
Japan is generally a rainy country with high humidity. Because of its wide range of latitude, Japan has a variety of climates, with a range often compared to that of the east coast of [[North America]], from [[Nova Scotia]] to [[Georgia (U.S. state)|Georgia]]. [[Tokyo]] is at about 36 north latitude, comparable to that of [[Tehran]], [[Athens]], or [[Los Angeles]]. The generally humid, temperate climate exhibits marked seasonal variation celebrated in [[Japanese art|art]] and [[Japanese literature|literature]], as well as regional variations ranging from cool in Hokkaido to subtropical in Kyushu. Climate also varies with altitude and with location on the Pacific Ocean or on the Sea of Japan. Northern Japan has warm summers but long, cold winters with heavy snow. Central Japan has hot, humid summers and short winters, and southwestern Japan has long, hot, humid summers and mild winters.
Two primary factors influence Japan's climate: a location near the [[Asia]]n continent and the existence of major [[Ocean current|oceanic currents]]. The climate from June to September is marked by hot, wet weather brought by tropical airflows from the Pacific Ocean and Southeast Asia. These airflows are full of moisture and deposit substantial amounts of rain when they reach land. There is a marked rainy season, beginning in early June and continuing for about a month. It is followed by hot, sticky weather. Five or six [[Tropical cyclone|typhoon]]s pass over or near Japan every year from early August to early September, sometimes resulting in significant damage. Annual [[precipitation]], which averages between 100 and 200 centimeters, is concentrated in the period between June and September. In fact, 70 to 80 percent of the annual precipitation falls during this period. In winter, a high-pressure area develops over Siberia, and a low-pressure area develops over the northern Pacific Ocean. The result is a flow of cold air eastward across Japan that brings freezing temperatures and heavy snowfalls to the central mountain ranges facing the Sea of Japan, but clear skies to areas fronting on the Pacific.
Two major ocean currents affect this climatic pattern: the warm [[Kuroshio Current]] (Black Current; also known as the Japan Current); and the cold [[Oyashio Current]] (Parent Current; also known as the Okhotsk Current). The Kuroshio Current flows northward on the Pacific side of Japan and warms areas as far north as Tokyo; a small branch, the [[Tsushima Current]], flows up the Sea of Japan side. The Oyashio Current, which abounds in [[plankton]] beneficial to coldwater fish, flows southward along the northern Pacific, cooling adjacent coastal areas. The meeting point of these currents at 36 north latitude is a bountiful fishing ground.
Late June and early July are a rainy season except Hokkaido as a seasonal rain front or baiu zensen (梅雨前線) stays above Japan. In summer and early autumn, typhoons, grown from tropical depressions generated near the equator, attack Japan with furious rainstorms.
Its varied geographical features divide Japan into six principal climatic zones.
* Hokkaidō (北海道): Belonging to the cool temperate zone, Hokkaido has long, cold winters and cool summers. Precipitation is not great.
* Nihonkai (日本海) or Sea of Japan: The northwest seasonal wind in winter gives heavy snowfalls. In summer it is less hot than in the Pacific area but sometimes experiences extreme high temperatures due to the [[Föhn wind]] phenomenon.
* [[Chūō-kōchi]] (中央高地) or Central highland: A typical inland climate gives large temperature differences between summers and winters and between days and nights. Precipitation is not large throughout the year.
* Setonaikai (瀬戸内海) or [[Seto Inland Sea|Inland Sea]]: The mountains in the Chūgoku and Shikoku regions block the seasonal winds and bring mild climate and many fine days throughout the year.
* Taiheiyō (太平洋) or Pacific Ocean: Winters are cold, with little snowfall, and summers are hot and humid due to the southeast seasonal wind.
* Nansei-shotō (南西諸島) or Southwest Islands: This zone has a subtropical climate with warm winters and hot summers. Precipitation is very high, and is especially affected by the rainy season and typhoons.
As an island nation, Japan has a long coastline. A few prefectures are landlocked: [[Gunma Prefecture|Gunma]], [[Tochigi Prefecture|Tochigi]], [[Saitama Prefecture|Saitama]], [[Nagano Prefecture|Nagano]], [[Yamanashi Prefecture|Yamanashi]], [[Gifu Prefecture|Gifu]], [[Shiga Prefecture|Shiga]], and [[Nara Prefecture|Nara]]. The others all have coasts on the Pacific Ocean, Sea of Japan, Seto Inland Sea or have a body of salt water connected to them. Two prefectures—[[Hokkaido Prefecture|Hokkaido]] and [[Okinawa Prefecture|Okinawa]]—are composed of islands.
==Environmental protection==
''Main article:'' [[Environmental protection in Japan]]; ''see also'' [[Whaling in Japan]]
'''Environment - current issues''': air pollution from [[automobile|car]] emissions in urban area suspected for causing [[Asthma]]; over-enrichment of lakes and reservoirs degrading water quality for aquatic life; quota for fisheries imposed on Japanese fishing fleets; over-fish farming causing degrading water quality for aquatic life; [[Biodiversity]] threatened by foreign animals, fish, insects, and plants
'''Environment - international agreements''': <br>
''party to'': [[Protocol on Environmental Protection to the Antarctic Treaty|Antarctic-Environmental Protocol]], [[Antarctic Treaty System|Antarctic Treaty]], [[Convention on Biological Diversity|Biodiversity]], [[United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change|Climate Change]], [[United Nations Convention to Combat Desertification|Desertification]], [[Convention on the International Trade in Endangered Species of Wild Flora and Fauna|Endangered Species]], [[Convention on the Prohibition of Military or Any Other Hostile Use of Environmental Modification Techniques|Environmental Modification]], Hazardous Wastes ([[Basel Convention]]), [[United Nations Convention on the Law of the Sea|Law of the Sea]], [[Convention on the Prevention of Marine Pollution by Dumping Wastes and Other Matter|Marine Dumping]], [[Comprehensive Test Ban Treaty|Nuclear Test Ban]], Ozone Layer Protection ([[Montreal Protocol]]), Ship Pollution ([[MARPOL 73/78]]), [[International Tropical Timber Agreement, 1983|Tropical Timber 83]], [[International Tropical Timber Agreement, 1994|Tropical Timber 94]], Wetlands ([[Ramsar Convention]]), [[International Convention for the Regulation of Whaling|Whaling]] <br>
''signed, but not ratified'': Climate Change-[[Kyoto Protocol]]
==Natural hazards==
Ten percent of the world's active [[volcano]]es—forty in the early 1990s (another 148 were dormant)—are found in Japan, which lies in a zone of extreme [[crustal instability]]. As many as 1,500 [[earthquake]]s are recorded yearly, and magnitudes of four to six on the [[Richter scale]] are not uncommon. Minor tremors occur almost daily in one part of the country or another, causing slight shaking of buildings. Major earthquakes occur infrequently; the most famous in the twentieth century was the [[great Kantō earthquake]] of 1923, in which 130,000 people died. [[Undersea earthquake]]s also expose the Japanese coastline to danger from [[tsunami]] (津波), tidal wave.
Japan has become a world leader in research on causes and prediction of earthquakes. The development of advanced technology has permitted the construction of [[skyscraper]]s even in earthquake-prone areas. Extensive civil defense efforts focus on training in protection against earthquakes, in particular against accompanying fire, which represents the greatest danger.
Another common hazard are typhoons ([[tropical cyclone]]s) (台風) that reach Japan from the pacific.
== Regions ==
{{dablink|Main article: [[Regions of Japan]]}}
[[Image:Regions of Japan.png|right|Map of Japan]]
Japan is informally divided into eight regions. Each contains several [[Prefectures of Japan|prefectures]], except the Hokkaido region, which covers only Hokkaido [[Prefecture]].
The region is not an official administrative unit, but has been traditionally used as the regional division of Japan in a number of contexts: for example, maps and geography textbooks divide Japan into the eight regions, weather reports usually give the weather by region, and many businesses and institutions use their home region as part of their name ([[Kinki Nippon Railway]], Chugoku Bank, [[Tohoku University]], etc.). While Japan has eight High Courts, their jurisdictions do not correspond to the eight regions.
== See also ==
* [[Japanese addressing system]]
* [[List of national parks of Japan]]
* [[List of islands of Japan]]
* [[List of lakes in Japan]]
* [[Rivers of Japan]]
* [[Peninsulas of Japan]]
* [[Ou Mountains]]
==Notes==
1. See [[Sea of Japan naming dispute]]. South Korea proposes "East Sea" as the international name for the sea.
==References==
{{loc}} — [http://lcweb2.loc.gov/frd/cs/ http://lcweb2.loc.gov/frd/cs/ Japan].
{{Asia in topic|Geography of}}
[[Category:Geography of Japan| ]]
[[Category:Lists of subnational entities|Japan, Regions of]]
[[de:Geographie Japans]]
[[es:Geografía de Japón]]
[[fr:Géographie du Japon]]
[[he:גאוגרפיה של יפן]]
[[lt:Japonijos geografija]]
[[ja:日本の地理]]
[[nl:Geografie van Japan]]
[[pt:Geografia do Japão]]
[[vi:Địa lí Nhật Bản]]
Demographics of Japan
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/* Basic facts */
[[Japan]]'s population, currently 127,417,224, experienced a high growth rate during the 20th century, as a result of scientific, industrial, and social changes. Population growth has more recently decreased, because of falling [[birth rate]]s and almost no net [[immigration]]. High [[sanitary]] and health standards produce a [[life expectancy]] exceeding that of any other nation in the world. The population started declining in 2005, as the 1.067 million births were exceeded by the 1.077 million deaths. Assuming current birth and death rates, the 2005 population of 127 million will decline to 100 million in 2050, and 64 million in 2100--and keep falling. The main problem will be the financial crisis that comes from having a higher and higher [[Dependency ratio]] (that is, nonworking young and old compared to working ages.)
Japan is an urban society with only about 5% of the labor force engaged in agriculture. Many farmers supplement their income with part-time jobs in nearby towns and cities. About 80 million of the urban population are heavily concentrated on the Pacific shore of [[Honshu]] and in southern [[Kyushu]]. Metropolitan [[Tokyo]] with approximately 12 million; [[Yokohama]] with 3,555,473; [[Osaka]] 2,624,129; [[Nagoya, Aichi|Nagoya]] 2,190,549; [[Sapporo, Hokkaido|Sapporo]] 1,854,837; [[Kobe, Hyogo|Kobe]] 1,513,967; [[Kyoto]] 1,466,163; [[Fukuoka, Fukuoka|Fukuoka]] 1,325,611; [[Kawasaki, Kanagawa|Kawasaki]] 1,290,426; and [[Kitakyushu, Fukuoka|Kitakyushu]] with 1,000,211 each account for part of this population. Japan faces the same problems that confront urban industrialized societies throughout the world: over-crowded cities, congested highways, [[air pollution]], and rising [[juvenile delinquency]].
==Population density==
Japan's population density is 337 persons per square kilometer according to the CIA World Factbook website as of July 2005. It ranks 18th in a [[list of countries by population density]], ranking directly above [[India]] (328 per km², 19th), and directly below [[Belgium]] (339 per km², 17th).
<!--
higher than
Australia (2, 191th),
Canada (3, 185th),
Russia (8, 178th),
the United States (30, 143th),
Mexico (53, 117th),
France (110, 68th),
the People's Republic of China (136, 54th),
Italy (192, 40th),
Germany (230, 34th),
the United Kingdom (243, 33rd),
and India (328, 19th),
lower than
Belgium (339, 17th),
South Korea (491, 12th),
and Taiwan (636, 9th).
-->
Japan's population density has helped promote extremely high [[Real Property|land]] prices. Between 1955 and 1989, land prices in the six largest cities increased 15,000 %. Urban land prices generally increased 40 % from 1980 to 1987; in the six largest cities, the price of land doubled over that period. For many families, this trend put housing in central cities out of reach. The result was lengthy commutes for many workers; daily commutes of up to two hours each way are not uncommon in the Tokyo area. Despite the large amount of forested land in Japan, [[parkland|park]]s in cities are smaller and scarcer than in major West European or North American cities, which average ten times the amount of parkland per inhabitant.
National and regional governments devote resources to making regional cities and rural areas more attractive by developing transportation networks, social services, industry, and educational institutions in attempts to decentralize settlement and improve the quality of life. Nevertheless, major cities, especially Tokyo, remain attractive to young people seeking education and jobs.
==Age Structure==
Like other [[postindustrial]] countries, Japan faces the problems associated with an aging population. In 1989, only 11.6 % of the population was sixty-five years or older, but projections were that 25.6 % would be in that age category by 2030. That shift will make Japan one of the world's most elderly societies, and the change will have taken place in a shorter span of time than in any other country.
This aging of the population was brought about by a combination of low [[fertility]] and high life expectancies. In 1993 the fertility rate was estimated at 10.3 per 1,000 population, and the average number of children born to a woman over her lifetime has been fewer than two since the late 1970s (the average number was estimated at 1.5 in 1993). Family planning was nearly universal, with [[condom]]s and legal [[abortion]]s the main forms of [[birth control]]. A number of factors contributed to the trend toward small families: late [[marriage]], increased participation of women in the labor force, small living spaces, and the high costs of children's education. Life expectancies at birth, 76.4 years for males and 82.2 years for women in 1993, were the highest in the world. (The expected life span at the end of World War II, for both males and females, was fifty years.) The mortality rate in 1993 was estimated at 7.2 per 1,000 population. The leading causes of death are [[cancer]], [[heart]] [[heart disease|disease]], and [[cerebrovascular disease]], a pattern common to postindustrial societies.
Public policy, the media, and discussions with private citizens revealed a high level of concern for the implications of one in four persons in Japan being sixty-five or older. By 2025 the dependency ratio (the ratio of people under fifteen years plus those sixty-five and older to those aged fifteen to sixty-five, indicating in a general way the ratio of the dependent population to the working population) was expected to be two dependents for every three workers. The aging of the population was already becoming evident in the aging of the labor force and the shortage of young workers in the late 1980s, with potential impacts on employment practices, wages and benefits, and the roles of women in the labor force. The increasing proportion of elderly people in the population also had a major impact on government spending. As recently as the early 1970s, social expenditures amounted to only about 6 % of Japan's national income. In 1992 that portion of the national budget was 18 %, and it was expected that by 2025, 27 % of national income would be spent on social welfare.
In addition, the median age of the elderly population was rising in the late 1980s. The proportion of people aged seventy-five to eighty-five was expected to increase from 6 % in 1985 to 15 % in 2025. Because the incidence of chronic disease increases with age, the healthcare and pension systems, too, are expected to come under severe strain. The government in the mid-1980s began to reevaluate the relative burdens of government and the private sector in [[health care]] and [[pension]]s, and it established policies to control government costs in these programs. Recognizing the lower probability that an elderly person will be residing with an adult child and the higher probability of any daughter or daughter-in-law's participation in the paid labor force, the government encouraged establishment of [[nursing home]]s, [[day-care]] facilities for the elderly, and home health programs. Longer life spans are altering relations between spouses and across generations, creating new government responsibilities, and changing virtually all aspects of social life.
==A homogeneous society?==
Japanese often claim to outsiders that their society is homogeneous. By world standards, the Japanese enjoy a high standard of living, and nearly 90% of the population consider themselves part of the [[middle class]]. Most people express satisfaction with their lives, and take great pride in being Japanese and in their country's status as an economic power on a par with the [[United States]] and the [[European Union]]. In [[folk craft]]s and in [[right-wing politics]], in the [[Shinshukyo|new religions]] and in [[international management]], the Japanese have turned to their past to interpret the present. In doing so, however, they may be reconstructing history as a common set of beliefs and practices that make the country look more homogeneous than it really is.
In a society that values outward conformity, individuals may appear to take a back seat to the needs of the group. Yet it is individuals who create for themselves a variety of life-styles. They are constrained in their choices by age, gender, life experiences, and other factors, but they draw from a rich cultural repertoire of past and present through which the wider social world of families (see [[Japanese family]]), neighborhoods (see [[Japanese neighborhood]]), and institutions gives meaning to their lives. As Japan set out to internationalize itself in the 1990s, the identification of inherent Japanese qualities took on new significance, and the ideology of homogeneity sometimes masked individual decisions and life-styles of [[postindustrial]] Japan.
==Migration==
Between 6 million and 7 million people moved their residences each year during the 1980s. About 50 % of these moves were within the same prefecture; the others were relocations from one prefecture to another. During Japan's economic development in the twentieth century, and especially during the 1950s and 1960s, migration was characterized by [[urbanization]] as people from rural areas in increasing numbers moved to the larger metropolitan areas in search of better jobs and education. Out-migration from rural prefectures continued in the late 1980s, but more slowly than in previous decades.
In the 1980s, government policy provided support for new urban development away from the large cities, particularly Tokyo, and assisted regional cities to attract young people to live and work there. Regional cities offered familiarity to those from nearby areas, lower costs of living, shorter commutes, and, in general, a more relaxed life-style then could be had in larger cities. Young people continued to move to large cities, however, to attend universities and find work, but some returned to regional cities (a pattern known as U-turn) or to their prefecture of origin (a pattern referred to as J-turn).
Government statistics show that in the 1980s significant numbers of people left the largest cities (Tokyo and Osaka). In 1988 more than 500,000 people left Tokyo, which experienced a net loss through migration of nearly 73,000 for the year. Osaka had a net loss of nearly 36,000 in the same year. However, the prefectures showing the highest net growth are located near the major urban centers, such as [[Saitama]], [[Chiba, Chiba|Chiba]], [[Ibaraki, Ibaraki|Ibaraki]], and [[Kanazawa]] around Tokyo, and [[Hyogo]], [[Nara, Nara|Nara]], and [[Shiga]] near Osaka and Kyoto. This pattern suggests a process of [[suburb|suburbanization]], people moving away from the cities for affordable housing but still commuting there for work and recreation, rather than a true decentralization.
Japanese economic success has led to an increase in certain types of external migration. In 1990 about 11 million Japanese went abroad. More than 80 % of these people traveled as tourists, especially visiting other parts of Asia and North America. However, about 663,100 Japanese were living abroad, approximately 75,000 of whom had permanent foreign residency, more than six times the number who had that status in 1975. More than 200,000 Japanese went abroad in 1990 for extended periods of study, research, or business assignments. As the government and private corporations have stressed internationalization, greater numbers of individuals have been directly affected, decreasing Japan's historically claimed insularity. Despite the benefits of experiencing life abroad, individuals who have lived outside of Japan for extended periods often faced problems of discrimination upon their return because others might no longer consider them fully Japanese. By the late 1980s, these problems, particularly the bullying of returnee children in the schools, had become a major public issue both in Japan and in Japanese communities abroad.
==Minorities==
Japanese society, with its ideology of homogeneity, has traditionally been intolerant of ethnic and other differences. People identified as different might be considered "polluted"--the category applied historically to the outcasts of Japan, particularly the ''hisabetsu buraku'',"discriminated communities," often called ''burakumin'', a term some find offensive —- and thus not suitable as marriage partners or employees. Men or women of mixed ancestry, those with family histories of certain diseases, and foreigners, and members of minority groups faced discrimination in a variety of forms.
===Foreign Residents===
If Japanese society is reluctant to readmit returnees, it is even less willing to accept as full members of society those people who are not ethnic Japanese. In 1991 there were 1.2 million foreign residents in Japan, less than 1 % of Japan's population (if illegal aliens were counted, the number of foreigners might be several times higher than the quoted figure). Of this number, 693,100 (about 57 %) were Koreans and 171,100 (some 14 %) were Chinese. Many of these people were descendants of those brought to Japan during Japan's occupation of Taiwan (1895- 1945) and Korea (1905-45) to work at unskilled jobs, such as coal mining. Because Japanese [[citizenship]] was based on the nationality of the parent rather than on the place of birth, subsequent generations were not automatically Japanese and had to be naturalized to claim citizenship, despite being born and educated in Japan and speaking only Japanese, as was the case with most Koreans in Japan. Until the late 1980s, people applying for citizenship were expected to use only the Japanese renderings of their names and, even as citizens, continued to face discrimination in education, employment, and marriage. Thus, few chose naturalization, and they faced legal restrictions as foreigners, as well as extreme social prejudice.
All non-Japanese are required by law to register with the government and carry alien registration cards. From the early 1980s, a civil disobedience movement encouraged refusal of the [[fingerprint]]ing that accompanied registration every five years. Those people who opposed fingerprinting argued that it was discriminatory because the only Japanese who were fingerprinted were criminals. The courts upheld fingerprinting, but the law was changed so that fingerprinting was done once rather than with each renewal of the registration. Some Koreans, often with the support of either South Korea or the Democratic People's Republic of Korea (North Korea), attempted to educate their children in the Korean language, history, and culture and to instill pride in their Korean heritage. Most Koreans in Japan, however, have never been to the Korean Peninsula and do not speak Korean. Many are caught in a vicious cycle of poverty and discrimination in a society that emphasizes Japan's homogeneity and cultural uniqueness. Other Asians, too, whether students or permanent residents, face prejudice and a strong "us-them" distinction. Europeans and North Americans might be treated with greater hospitality but nonetheless find it difficult to become full members of Japanese society. Public awareness of the place of foreigners (''gaijin'') in Japanese society was heightened in the late 1980s in debates over the acceptance of Vietnamese and Chinese refugees and the importing of Filipino brides for rural farmers.
A small but noticeable number of [[Brazil|Brazilian]] immigrants (around 250.000) also live in Japan, particularly those of Japanese descent.
===Hisabetsu Buraku===
''Main article: [[Burakumin]]''
Despite popular claims of Japanese homogeneity on the part of observers both foreign and domestic, three native Japanese minority groups can be identified. The largest are the ''hisabetsu buraku'' or "discriminated communities", also known as the ''burakumin''. These descendants of premodern outcast hereditary occupational groups, such as [[butcher]]s, [[leather|leatherworkers]], [[funeral]] directors, and certain entertainers, may be considered a Japanese analog of [[India]]'s [[Dalit (outcaste)|Dalits]]. Discrimination against these occupational groups arose historically because of [[Buddhist]] prohibitions against killing and [[Shinto]] notions of pollution, as well as governmental attempts at social control. During the [[Edo period|Tokugawa]] period, such people were required to live in special ''buraku'' and, like the rest of the population, were bound by [[sumptuary law]]s based on the inheritance of social class. The [[Meiji]] government abolished most derogatory names applied to these discriminated communities in [[1871]], but the new laws had little effect on the social discrimination faced by the former outcasts and their descendants. The laws, however, did eliminate the economic monopoly they had over certain occupations.
Although members of these discriminated communities are physically indistinguishable from other Japanese, they often live in urban [[ghetto]]es or in the traditional special hamlets in rural areas. Some attempt to pass as ordinary Japanese, but the checks on family background that are often part of marriage arrangements and employment applications make this difficult. Estimates of their number range from 2 million to 4 million, or about 2 to 3 % of the national population.
Ordinary Japanese claimed that membership in these discriminated communities can be surmised from the location of the family home, occupation, dialect, or mannerisms and, despite legal equality, continued to discriminate against people they surmised to be members of this group. Past and current discrimination has resulted in lower educational attainment and socioeconomic status among hisabetsu buraku than among the majority of Japanese. Movements with objectives ranging from "liberation" to encouraging integration have tried over the years to change this situation.
===Ryukyuans===
The second largest minority group among Japanese citizens is the [[Ryukyuans|Ryukyuan people]].
===Ainu===
The third largest minority group among Japanese citizens is the [[Ainu people|Ainu]], who are thought to be related to the Tungusic, Altaic, and Uralic peoples of [[Siberia]]. Historically, the Ainu (Ainu means human in the Ainu language) were an indigenous [[hunting]] and gathering population who occupied most of northern Honshu as late as the Nara period (A.D. [[710]]-[[794|94]]). As Japanese settlement expanded, the Ainu were pushed northward, until by the Meiji period they were confined by the government to a small area in Hokkaido, in a manner similar to the placing of native Americans on reservations. Characterized as remnants of a primitive circumpolar culture, the fewer than 20,000 Ainu in 1990 were considered racially distinct and thus not fully Japanese. Disease and a low birth rate had severely diminished their numbers over the past two centuries, and intermarriage had brought about an almost completely mixed population.
Although no longer in daily use, the [[Ainu language]] is preserved in epics, songs, and stories transmitted orally over succeeding generations. Distinctive rhythmic music and dances and some Ainu festivals and crafts are preserved, but mainly in order to take advantage of tourism.
==Basic facts==
'''Population''': 127,417,244 (July 2005 est.) people in 47,062,743 households, 78.7 % in urban areas (July 2000). High population density; 329.5 persons per square kilometer for total area; 1,523 persons per square kilometer for habitable land. More than 50 % of population lives on 2 % of land. (July 1993)
'''Population growth rate''':
:0.05% (2005 est.)
:0.08% (2004 est.)
:0.11% (2003 est.)
:0.18% (2000 est.)
'''Birth rate''':
:9.47 births/1,000 population (2005 est.)
:9.56 births/1,000 population (2004 est.)
:9.61 births/1,000 population (2003 est.)
:9.96 births/1,000 population (2000 est.)
'''Death rate''':
:8.95 deaths/1,000 population (2005 est.)
:8.75 deaths/1,000 population (2004 est.)
:8.55 deaths/1,000 population (2003 est.)
:8.15 deaths/1,000 population (2000 est.)
'''Age structure''':
:0-14 years: 14.3% (male 9,337,867; female 8,876,996)
:15-64 years: 66.2% (male 42,697,264; female 42,196,835)
:65 years and over: 19.5% (male 10,169,190; female 14,054,850) (2005 est.)
'''Sex ratio''':
:at birth: 1.05 male(s)/female
:under 15 years: 1.05 male(s)/female
:15-64 years: 1.01 male(s)/female
:65 years and over: 0.73 male(s)/female
:total population: 0.96 male(s)/female (2005 est.)
'''Infant mortality rate''':
:total: 3.26 deaths/1,000 live births
:male: 3.52 deaths/1,000 live births
:female: 2.99 deaths/1,000 live births (2005 est.)
'''Life expectancy at birth''':
:total population: 81.15 years
:male: 77.86 years
:female: 84.61 years (2005 est.)
:total population: 80.7 years
:male: 77.51 years
:female: 84.05 years (2000 est.)
'''Total fertility rate''':
:1.288 children born/woman (2005 est.)
'''HIV/AIDS - adult prevalence rate''':
:less than 0.1% (2004 est.)
'''HIV/AIDS - people living with HIV/AIDS''':
:12,000 (2003 est.)
'''HIV/AIDS - deaths''':
:500 (2003 est.)
'''Nationality''':
:noun: Japanese (singular and plural)
:adjective: Japanese
'''Ethnic Groups''': 99.4 % Japanese and 0.6 % other, mostly [[Korean people|Korean]] (40.4% of non-Japanese) and some [[ethnic Chinese|Chinese]]. [[Ainu people|Ainu]], [[Ryukyuans]] and [[hisabetsu buraku]] constitute native Japanese minority groups. Japanese people are considered to be a homogeneous race but recent studies have shown that the Japanese race is very mixed. It consists of Chinese, Korean, Polynesian and proto-caucasoid blood which explains the variety of Japanese facial structures.
'''Foreign Citizens''': More than 2.5 million (possibly higher because of the illegal immigrants), 14.9% up in five years. North and South Koreans 1 million, Chinese 0.5 million, Filipinos 0.5 million, and Brazilian 250,000 with others like Peruvian, American/Canadian, British, Indonesian, Thai, African and other nationals.
'''Marriage Status''':
:Over 15: Married Male 61.8%, Female 58.2%. Never married Male 31.8%, Female 23.7%.
:25 - 29: Never married Male 69.3%, Female 54.0%.
:30 - 34: Never married Male 42.9%, Female 26.6% (July 2000).
'''Religion''': No reliable statistics exist since census does not have questions regarding religion. See [[Religions of Japan]].
'''Net migration rate''':
:0 migrant(s)/1,000 population (2005 est.)
'''Language''': [[Japanese language|Japanese]]. Emphasis on [[English language|English]] as a second language.
'''Literacy''':
definition: age 15 and over can read and write
:total population: 99% (2002 est.)
:male: 99% (2002 est.)
:female: 99% (2002 est.)
==Reference==
* {{loc}} - [http://lcweb2.loc.gov/frd/cs/jptoc.html Japan]
==External links==
* [http://www.japanesestudies.org.uk/discussionpapers/Chapple.html The Dilemma Posed by Japan's Population Decline], discussion paper by Julian Chapple in the [http://www.japanesestudies.org.uk/ ''electronic journal of contemporary japanese studies''], [[18 October]] [[2004]].
* [http://www.nytimes.com/2005/12/24/international/asia/24population.html?n=Top%2fNews%2fInternational%2fCountries%20and%20Territories%2fJapan 'Japan's Population Fell This Year]
[[Category:Demographics by country|Japan]]
[[Category:Demographics of Japan]]
[[es:Demografía del Japón]]
[[fr:Démographie du Japon]]
[[lt:Japonijos demografija]]
[[ms:Demografi Jepun]]
[[ru:Население Японии]]
Politics of Japan
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{{PoliticsJapan}}
[[Japan]] has a [[parliament|parliamentary government]], which consists of three branches: the administration (executive) branch, the legislative branch and the judicial branch. Sovereignty is vested in Japanese nationals by whom officials are elected in all of the branches. There is universal adult suffrage with a fair, reliable, secret ballot. For historical reasons, the system is similar to that in the [[United Kingdom]]. There is dispute as to whether Japan is a [[constitutional monarchy]] or a [[republic]].
== Government ==
'''Main article:''' [[Government of Japan]]
Japan officially has the traditional [[federal system]], and its [[prefectures of Japan|47 prefectures]] depend on the central government for most funding. Governors of prefectures, [[mayors]] of municipalities, and prefectural and municipal assembly members are popularly elected for four-year terms.
===Sovereignty===
According to traditional beliefs, Japan was founded in [[660 BC]] by [[Emperor Jimmu]]. The [[Meiji Constitution]], which established the modern Japanese state, was ratified in [[1889]]. Japan was [[occupied Japan|occupied]] by the [[Allies]] from the end of [[World War II]] in [[1945]] until [[1952]]. Sovereignty, which was previously embodied in the Emperor, is now the domain of the people. The Emperor is defined as the symbol of the state.
[[Image:Japanese_national_diet_building.jpg|right|250px|frame|National Diet building in Tokyo]]<br>
=== Legislative ===
By the [[JapanConstitution|Constitution]], the [[Diet of Japan|Diet]] is the most powerful of the three branches and consists of two houses, [[House of Representatives of Japan|the House of Representatives]] and [[House of Councillors of Japan|the House of Councillors]]. The Diet directs the [[Akihito|Emperor]] in the appointment and removal of the chiefs of the executive and judicial branches.
At present, the following political parties are represented in the National Diet, along with Non-partisans.
*[[Liberal Democratic Party (Japan)|Liberal Democratic Party]] (LDP, conservative)
*[[Democratic Party of Japan| Democratic Party]] (DPJ, liberal/social-democratic)
**the [[Independent's Club]] sits with the Democrat Party.
*[[New Clean Government Party]] (New Kōmeitō, theocratic Buddhist/conservative)
*[[Japanese Communist Party]] (JCP, communist)
*[[Social Democratic Party (Japan)|Social Democrat Party]] (SDP, social-democratic)
*[[Liberal League]] (LL, conservative)
'''Note:''' The [[New Conservative Party]] (''Hoshu Shintō'') merged with the [[Liberal Democratic Party (Japan)|Liberal Democrat Party of Japan]] on [[November 10]], [[2003]], after its failure to win more than 4 seats in the election that year.
The LDP has been the dominant party for most of the post-war period since 1955, and is composed of a several factions which are oriented along personalistic rather than ideological lines.
=== Executive ===
The executive branch reports to the Diet. The chief of the executive branch, the [[Prime Minister of Japan|Prime Minister]], is appointed by the Emperor as directed by the Diet. He must be a member of either house of the Diet and a civilian. The [[Cabinet of Japan|Cabinet]], which he organizes, must also be civilian. The Constitution states that the majority of the Cabinet must be elected members of either house of the Diet, the precise wording leaving an opportunity to appoint non-elected officials too. The Prime Minister has the power to appoint and remove ministers.
In cases when the [[Liberal Democratic Party (Japan)|Liberal Democrat Party]] (the '''LDP''') has been in power, it has been convention that the President of the LDP serves as prime minister.
=== Judicial ===
The judicial branch is independent of the other two. Its judges are appointed by the Emperor as directed by the Diet.
Japan's judicial system, drawn from customary law, civil law, and Anglo-American common law, consists of several levels of courts, with the Supreme Court as the final judicial authority. The Japanese [[Constitution of Japan|constitution]], drawn up on [[May 3]], [[1947]] includes a bill of rights similar to the [[United States Bill of Rights]], and the Supreme Court has the right of judicial review. Japanese courts do not use a jury system, and there are no administrative courts or claims courts. Because of the judicial system's basis, court decisions are made in accordance with legal statutes. Only Supreme Court decisions have any direct effect on later interpretation of the law.
''See also:'' [[Japanese law]], [[Judicial system of Japan]]
==Policy making==
Despite an increasingly unpredictable domestic and international environment, policy making conforms to wellestablished postwar patterns. The close collaboration of the ruling party, the [[Civil service of Japan|elite bureaucracy]], and important interest groups often make it difficult to tell who exactly is responsible for specific policy decisions. The tendency for insiders to guard information on such matters compounds the difficulty, especially for foreigners wishing to understand how domestic decision making can be influenced to reduce trade problems.
===Human factor===
The most important human factor in the policy-making process is the homogeneity of the political and business elites. They tend to be graduates of a relatively small number of top-ranked universities, such as the [[University of Tokyo]] and [[Keio University]]. Regardless of these individuals' regional or class origins, their similar educational backgrounds encourage their feeling of community, as is reflected in the finely meshed network of marriage alliances between top official and financial circle (''zaikai'') families. The institution of early retirement also foster homogeneity. In the practice of ''[[amakudari]]'', or descent from heaven, as it is popularly known, bureaucrats retiring in their fifties often assume top positions in public corporations and private enterprise. They also become politicians. By the late 1980s, most postwar prime ministers had had civil service backgrounds.
This homogeneity facilitates the free flow of ideas among members of the elite in informal settings. Bureaucrats and business people that are associated with a single industry, such as electronics, often hold regular informal meetings in Tokyo hotels and restaurants. Political scientist [[T.J. Pempel]] has pointed out that the concentration of political and economic power in Tokyo—particularly the small geographic area of its central wards—makes it easy for leaders, who are almost without exception denizens of the capital, to have repeated personal contact. Another often overlooked factor is the tendency of elite males not to be family men. Late night work and bar-hopping schedules give them ample opportunity to hash and rehash policy matters and engage in ''[[haragei]]'' (literally, belly art), or intimate, often nonverbal communication. Comparable to the warriors of ancient [[Sparta]], who lived in barracks apart from their families during much of their adulthood, the business and bureaucratic elites are expected to sacrifice their private lives for the national good.
===Formal Policy Development===
After a largely informal process within elite circles in which ideas were discussed and developed, steps might be taken to institute more formal policy development. This process often took place in deliberation councils (''shingikai''). There were about 200 ''shingikai'', each attached to a ministry; their members were both officials and prominent private individuals in business, education, and other fields. The ''shingikai'' played a large role in facilitating communication among those who ordinarily might not meet. Given the tendency for real negotiations in Japan to be conducted privately (in the ''[[nemawashi]]'', or root binding, process of consensus building), the ''shingikai'' often represented a fairly advanced stage in policy formulation in which relatively minor differences could be thrashed out and the resulting decisions couched in language acceptable to all. These bodies were legally established but had no authority to oblige governments to adopt their recommendations.
The most important deliberation council during the 1980s was the [[Provisional Commission for Administrative Reform]], established in March 1981 by Prime Minister [[Suzuki Zenko]]. The commission had nine members, assisted in their deliberations by six advisers, twenty-one "expert members," and around fifty "councillors" representing a wide range of groups. Its head, [[Keidanren]] president [[Doko Toshio]], insisted that government agree to take its recommendations seriously and commit itself to reforming the administrative structure and the tax system. In 1982 the commission had arrived at several recommendations that by the end of the decade had been actualized. These implementations included tax reform; a policy to limit government growth; the establishment, in 1984, of the [[Management and Coordination Agency]] to replace the Administrative Management Agency in the Office of the Prime Minister; and privatization of the [[Japanese public corporations|state-owned railroad and telephone systems]]. In April 1990, another deliberation council, the Election Systems Research Council, submitted proposals that included the establishment of single-seat constituencies in place of the multiple-seat system.
Another significant policy-making institution in the early 1990s was the [[LDP's Policy Research Council|LDP's Policy Research Council]]. It consisted of a number of committees, composed of LDP Diet members, with the committees corresponding to the different executive agencies. Committee members worked closely with their official counterparts, advancing the requests of their constituents, in one of the most effective means through which interest groups could state their case to the bureaucracy through the channel of the ruling party.
''See also:'' [[Industrial policy of Japan]]; [[Monetary and fiscal policy of Japan]]; [[Mass media and politics in Japan]]
== Post-war political development==
Political parties had begun to revive almost immediately after the [[Occupied Japan|occupation]] began. [[Left-wing]] organizations, such as the [[Japan Socialist Party]] and the [[Japanese Communist Party]], quickly reestablished themselves, as did various conservative parties. The old [[Seiyokai]] and [[Rikken Minseito]] came back as, respectively, the Liberal Party ([[Nihon Jiyuto]]) and the [[Japan Progressive Party]] (Nihon Shimpoto). The first postwar elections were held in 1946 (women were given the franchise for the first time), and the Liberal Party's vice president, [[Yoshida Shigeru]] (1878-1967), became prime minister. For the 1947 elections, anti-Yoshida forces left the Liberal Party and joined forces with the Progressive Party to establish the new [[Democratic Party of Japan|Democratic Party]] (Minshuto). This divisiveness in conservative ranks gave a plurality to the Japan Socialist Party, which was allowed to form a cabinet, which lasted less than a year. Thereafter, the socialist party steadily declined in its electoral successes. After a short period of Democratic Party administration, Yoshida returned in late 1948 and continued to serve as prime minister until 1954.
Even before Japan regained full sovereignty, the government had rehabilitated nearly 80,000 people who had been purged, many of whom returned to their former political and government positions. A debate over limitations on [[Defense budget of Japan|military spending]] and the [[Controversies regarding the role of the Emperor of Japan|sovereignty of the emperor]] ensued, contributing to the great reduction in the Liberal Party's majority in the first postoccupation elections (October 1952). After several reorganizations of the armed forces, in 1954 the [[Japan Self-Defense Forces]] were established under a civilian director. [[Cold War]] realities and the hot [[Korean war|war]] in nearby Korea also contributed significantly to the United States-influenced economic redevelopment, the suppression of communism, and the discouragement of [[organized labor]] in Japan during this period.
Continual fragmentation of parties and a succession of [[minority government]]s led conservative forces to merge the Liberal Party (Jiyuto) with the Japan Democratic Party (Nihon Minshuto), an offshoot of the earlier Democratic Party, to form the [[Liberal Democratic Party (Japan)|Liberal Democratic Party]] (Jiyu-Minshuto; LDP) in November 1955. This party continuously held power from 1955 through 1993, when it was replaced by a new minority government. LDP leadership was drawn from the elite who had seen Japan through the defeat and occupation; it attracted former bureaucrats, local politicians, businessmen, journalists, other professionals, farmers, and university graduates. In October 1955, socialist groups reunited under the [[Japan Socialist Party]], which emerged as the second most powerful political force. It was followed closely in popularity by the [[Komeito]] (Clean Government Party), founded in 1964 as the political arm of the [[Soka Gakkai International|Soka Gakkai]] (Value Creation Society), until 1991 a lay organization affiliated with the [[Nichiren Shoshu]] Buddhist sect. The Komeito emphasized traditional Japanese beliefs and attracted urban laborers, former rural residents, and many women. Like the [[Japan Socialist Party]], it favored the gradual modification and dissolution of the [[Treaty of Mutual Cooperation and Security between the United States and Japan|Japan-United States Mutual Security Assistance Pact]].
== Recent political developments ==
LDP domination lasted until the Diet Lower House elections on [[July 18]], [[1993]], in which the LDP failed to win a majority.
A coalition of new parties and existing opposition parties formed a governing majority and elected a new prime minister, [[Morihiro Hosokawa]], in August [[1993]]. His government's major legislative objective was political reform, consisting of a package of new political financing restrictions and major changes in the electoral system. The coalition succeeded in passing landmark political reform legislation in January [[1994]].
In April [[1994]], Prime Minister Hosokawa resigned. Prime Minister [[Tsutomu Hata]] formed the successor coalition government, Japan's first minority government in almost 40 years. Prime Minister Hata resigned less than 2 months later.
Prime Minister [[Tomiichi Murayama]] formed the next government in June [[1994]], a coalition of his [[Japan Socialist Party]] (JSP), the LDP, and the small [[New Party Sakigake]]. The advent of a coalition containing the JSP and LDP shocked many observers because of their previously fierce rivalry.
Prime Minister Murayama served from June [[1994]] to January [[1996]]. He was succeeded by Prime Minister [[Ryutaro Hashimoto]], who served from January [[1996]] to July [[1998]]. Prime Minister Hashimoto headed a loose coalition of three parties until the July [[1998]] Upper House election, when the two smaller parties cut ties with the LDP.
Hashimoto resigned due to a poor electoral showing by the LDP in those Upper House elections. He was succeeded as party president of the LDP and prime minister by Keizo Obuchi, who took office on [[July 30]], [[1998]].
The LDP formed a governing coalition with the [[Liberal Party of Japan (1998)| Liberal Party]] in January [[1999]], and [[Keizo Obuchi]] remained prime minister. The LDP-Liberal coalition expanded to include the New Komeito Party in October [[1999]].
Prime Minister Obuchi suffered a stroke in April [[2000]] and was replaced by [[Yoshiro Mori]]. After the Liberal Party left the coalition in April [[2000]], Prime Minister Mori welcomed a Liberal Party splinter group, the [[New Conservative Party]], into the ruling coalition. The three-party coalition made up of the LDP, New Komeito, and the New Conservative Party maintained its majority in the Diet following the June [[2000]] Lower House elections.
After a turbulent year in office in which he saw his approval ratings plummet to the single digits, Prime Minister Mori agreed to hold early elections for the LDP presidency in order to improve his party's chances in crucial July [[2001]] Upper House elections. On [[April 24]], [[2001]], riding a wave of grassroots desire for change, maverick politician [[Junichiro Koizumi]] defeated former Prime Minister Hashimoto and other party stalwarts on a platform of economic and political reform. Koizumi was elected as Japan's 87th Prime Minister on [[April 26]], [[2001]].
On [[October 11]], [[2003]], the Prime Minister Koizumi dissolved the [[House of Representatives of Japan|lower house]] after he was re-elected as the president of the LDP. (See [[Japan general election, 2003]]) Likewise, that year, the LDP won the election, even though it suffered setbacks from the new opposition party, the [[Liberalism|liberal]] and [[social-democratic]] [[Democratic Party of Japan| Democrat Party]]. A similar event occurred during the 2004 Upper House Elections.
On August 8, 2005, [[Prime Minister]] [[Junichiro Koizumi]] called a [[Japan_general_election,_2005|snap election]] to the lower house, as threatened, after LDP stalwarts and opposition DPJ parliamentarians defeated his proposal for a large-scale reform and privatisation of [[Japan Post]], which besides being Japan's state-owned postal monopoly is arguably the world's largest financial institution, with nearly 331 trillion yen of assets. The election was scheduled for [[September 11]], [[2005]], and was won in a landslide by [[Junichiro Koizumi|Junichiro Koizumi's]] LDP.
== Political parties and elections ==
{{elect|List of political parties in Japan|Elections in Japan}}
===2005 General election===
{{Japanese general election, 2005}}
{{main|Japan general election, 2005}}
===2004 Upper House election===
{{Japan upper house election, 2004}}
{{main|Japan upper house election, 2004}}
=== [[Liberal Democratic Party (Japan)| Liberal Democratic Party]]===
The LDP is Japan's largest political party and the senior partner in the current governing coalition. Prime Minister [[Junichiro Koizumi]] is a member of this political party. It is a [[Conservatism|conservative]] party of the [[right-wing]] and is made up of various conservative and reformist factions. The LDP has been in power almost continuously since [[1955]], when it was formed as a merger of early postwar Japan's two conservative parties, the [[Liberal Party of Japan, Occupation]], and the [[Democrat Party of Japan, Occupation]]. The party is characterized as being very conservative on social and foreign matters.
=== [[Democratic Party of Japan]]===
The DPJ is Japan's second largest party and leads the opposition. It is a [[Liberalism|liberal]] and almost [[social-democratic]] party of the [[left-wing]]. It is the largest opposition party, and was formed in the late 1990s as a result of the merger of several anti-LDP parties. Quite [[Liberalism|liberal]] and oppositional on key issues, as well as moderately [[social-democratic]]. It is against the Iraq war, and is led by Seiji Maehara.
=== [[New Clean Government Party]] ===
The Shin Komeito Party (Japanese name for the New Clean Government Party) is Japan's third largest party and the governing party's junior partner. It was formerly known as the [[Clean Government Political Assembly]] and the [[Clean Government Party (Former)]]. The party is a [[conservative]] party of the [[right-wing]], but it is also the political wing of [[Soka Gakkai]], an almost militant sect of [[Nichiren Buddhism]]. Therefore, it is also considered a [[theocratic]] Buddhist party. It has moderated its stance however. Because it is partners with the LDP, it is unopposed to the war in Iraq. It is now led by [[Takenori Kanzaki]].
=== [[Japanese Communist Party]] ===
The Japanese Communist Party is Japan's fourth largest party and the middle partner of the opposition coalition. It is a [[moderate]] [[communist]] party of the [[left-wing]]. Though it is communist, it is a very moderate communist party, and is not against religion and does not want the [[emperor]] to step down. It supports multi-party democracy and does not advocate the imposition of radical change on Japanese society. That is why the Communists have more seats than the [[Social Democratic Party (Japan)| Social Democrat Party]]. It is very pacifist and does not support an alliance with the [[United States]].
=== [[Social Democratic Party (Japan)]] ===
The Social Democrat Party of Japan is Japan's fifth largest party and the junior partner in the opposition coalition. It is a [[moderate]] [[social-democratic]] party of the [[left-wing]]. It is seen more as a [[moderate]] social-democratic, and [[populist]] party rather than a [[revolutionary]] [[socialist]] party. It grew out of the [[Japan Socialist Party]] and the [[Democratic Socialist Party (Japan)]] It is not popular in Japan and the Communists have more votes than the Social Democrats. It is against the war in Iraq.
=== Minor Political Parties ===
==== [[Liberal League]] ====
The Liberal League is a [[right-wing]] party in Japan, which, despite its name, is actually [[conservative]]. The party is not very popular among the Japanese people, but it has 1 seat so far in the Diet.
==== Other minor parties ====
Japan has other minor parties, but these are just about defunct. Most other parties are [[communist]] and [[socialist]] parties, as well as a few [[nationalist]], [[reformist]], and even [[racist]] and far [[right-wing]] parties.
==Census==
The government of Japan collects information on the population. The [[2005]] census collects information on population, age, sex, household size, work and income as of the end of September.
==See also==
*[[Japanese Foreign minister]]
*[[Japan general election, 2003]]
*[[Japanese nationalism]]
*[[Neoconservatism (Japan)]]
*[[Political funding in Japan]]
== Reference ==
* {{loc}} - [http://lcweb2.loc.gov/frd/cs/jptoc.html Japan]
==External links==
* [http://www.japanesestudies.org.uk ''Electronic journal of contemporary japanese studies'']
[[Category:Politics of Japan]]
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[[ja:日本の政治]]
[[pt:Política do Japão]]
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Economy of Japan
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{{Economy of Japan table}}
==Economic Profile==
[[Japan]]'s [[industrialized]], [[free-market]] [[economics|economy]] is the world's third-largest by [[purchasing power parity]] (PPP) after the [[United States]] and [[China]], and second-largest by [[market]] [[exchange rates]]. Its economy is highly efficient and competitive in areas linked to international trade, but productivity is lower in areas such as agriculture, distribution, and services. After achieving one of the [[Japanese post-war economic miracle|highest economic growth rates in the world]] from the [[1960s]] through the [[1980s]], the Japanese economy slowed dramatically in the early [[1990s]], when the "[[Japanese asset price bubble|bubble economy]]" collapsed. Its reservoir of industrial leadership and technicians, well-educated and industrious work force, high savings and investment rates, and intensive promotion of industrial development and foreign trade have produced a mature industrial economy. Japan has few natural resources, and trade helps it earn the foreign exchange needed to purchase raw materials for its economy.
Sliding stock and real estate prices marked the end of the "bubble economy" of the late 1980s, and ushered in a decade of stagnant economic growth. Real GDP in Japan grew at an average of roughly 1.5% yearly between 1991-1999, compared to growth in the 1980s of about 4% per year. Growth in Japan throughout the 1990s was slower than growth in other major industrial nations, and the same as [[France]] and [[Germany]]. Japan endured periods of recession around the turn of the millennium, exacerbated by recession in the [[United States]], but from 2003 began to grow strongly again at 2.0% and this rate has held steady through 2004 and projected by a survey of economists through 2005. Japan has already achieved over 5% growth in the first half of 2005.'''
==Natural resources==
A mountainous, island nation, Japan has inadequate [[natural resources]] to support its growing economy and large population. Although many kinds of minerals were extracted throughout the country, most mineral resources had to be imported in the postwar era. Local deposits of metal-bearing ores were difficult to process because they were low grade. The nation's large and varied [[forest]] resources, which covered 70 percent of the country in the late 1980s, were not utilized extensively. Because of the precipitous terrain, underdeveloped road network, and high percentage of young trees, domestic sources were only able to supply between 25 and 30 percent of the nation's timber needs. Agriculture and fishing were the best developed resources, but only through years of painstaking investment and toil. The nation therefore built up the manufacturing and processing industries to convert raw materials imported from abroad. This strategy of economic development necessitated the establishment of a strong economic infrastructure to provide the needed energy, transportation, communications, and technological know-how.
Given its heavy dependence on imported energy, Japan has aimed to diversify its sources. Since the oil shocks of the 1970s, Japan has reduced dependence on petroleum as a source of energy from more than 75% in 1973 to about 57% at present. Other important energy sources are coal, liquefied natural gas, nuclear power, and hydropower. Demand for oil is also dampened by higher government taxes on automobile engines over 2000 cc, as well as on gasoline itself, currently 54 yen per liter sold retail. Kerosene is also used extensively for home heating in portable heaters, especially farther north. Many taxi companies run their fleets on liquefied gas with tanks in the car trunks. A recent success towards greater [[fuel economy]] was the introduction of mass-produced [[Hybrid vehicle]]s. (''see also'' [[Energy production in Japan]])
Deposits of gold, magnesium, and silver meet current industrial demands, but Japan is dependent on foreign sources for many of the minerals essential to modern industry. [[Iron ore]], [[Coke (fuel)|coke]], [[copper]], and [[bauxite]] must be imported, as must many forest products.
==Agriculture==
Only 15% of Japan's land is suitable for cultivation. The agricultural economy is highly subsidized and protected. With per unit area crop yields among the highest in the world, Japan maintains an overall agricultural self-sufficiency rate of about 50% on fewer than 56,000 km² (14 million acres) cultivated. Japan normally produces a slight surplus of rice but imports large quantities of [[wheat]], [[sorghum]], and [[soybean]]s, primarily from the [[United States]]. Japan is the largest market for U.S. agricultural exports. Potatoes are also grown, mostly in [[Hokkaido]], as well as where they were first introduced by Dutch traders, in [[Nagasaki]] in the late 18th century.
==Industry==
The nation's industrial activities (including [[Japanese mining industry|mining]], manufacturing, and power, gas, and water utilities) contributed 46.6 of total domestic industrial production in 1989, up slightly from 45.8 percent in 1975. This steady performance of the industrial sector in the 1970s and 1980s was a result of the growth of high-technology industries. During this period, some of the older [[heavy industry|heavy industries]], such as steel and shipbuilding, either declined or simply held stable. Together with the [[Construction industry of Japan|construction industry]], those older heavy industries employed 34.9 of the work force in 1989 (relatively unchanged from 34.8 percent in 1980). The service industry sector grew the fastest in the 1980s in terms of GNP, while the greatest losses occurred in agriculture, forestry, mining, and transportation. Most industry catered to the domestic market, but exports were important for several key commodities. In general, industries relatively geared toward exports over imports in 1988 were transportation equipment (with a 24.8 percent ratio of exports over imports), motor vehicles (54 percent), electrical machinery (23.4 percent), general machinery (21.2 percent), and metal products (8.2 percent).
Industry is concentrated in several regions, in the following order of importance: the [[Kantō region]] surrounding [[Tokyo]], especially the prefectures of [[Chiba Prefecture|Chiba]], [[Kanagawa Prefecture|Kanagawa]], [[Saitama Prefecture|Saitama]] and Tokyo (the [[Keihin region|Keihin industrial region]]); the [[Nagoya]] metropolitan area, including [[Aichi Prefecture|Aichi]], [[Gifu Prefecture|Gifu]], [[Mie Prefecture|Mie]], and [[Shizuoka Prefecture|Shizuoka]] prefectures (the [[Chukyo-Tokai industrial region]]); [[Kansai|Kinki]] (the [[Keihanshin industrial region]]); the southwestern part of [[Honshū]] and northern [[Shikoku]] around the [[Inland Sea]] (the [[Setouchi industrial region]]); and the northern part of [[Kyushu]] ([[Kitakyushu]]). In addition, a long narrow belt of industrial centers is found between [[Tokyo]] and [[Hiroshima]], established by particular industries, that have developed as mill towns. These include [[Toyota City]], near Nagoya, the home of the automobile manufacturer.
The fields in which Japan enjoys relatively high technological development include [[semiconductor]] manufacturing, [[optical fiber]]s, [[optoelectronics]], [[optical media]], [[Fax|facsimile]] and [[Photocopying|copy machines]], [[industrial robot]]s, and [[fermentation]] processes. Japan lags slightly in such fields as [[satellite]]s, [[rocket]]s, and large [[aircraft]], where advanced engineering capabilities are required, and in such fields as computer-aided design and computer-aided manufacturing ([[CAD/CAM]]), and databases, where basic software capabilities are required, and natural resources exploitation, due to the lack of them.
*''see'' [[Manufacturing industries of Japan]]
==Labor Force==
[[Image:Unemployment1984 2033 2 html m5c39a5a0.jpg]]
Japan's labor force consists of some 64 million workers, 40% of whom are women. Labor union membership is about 12 million. The unemployment rate is currently 4.9%--a post-war high. In 1989, the predominantly public sector union confederation, SOHYO (General Council of Trade Unions of Japan), merged with RENGO (Japanese Private Sector Trade Union Confederation) to form the Japanese Trade Union Confederation.
One major long-term concern for the Japanese labor force is a low [[birthrate]]. In the first half of [[2005]], the number of deaths in Japan exceeded the number of births, indicating that the decline in population, initially predicted to start in [[2007]], has already started. While one countermeasure for a declining birthrate would be to remove barriers to [[immigration]], the Japanese government has been reluctant to do so.
''see also:'' [[Labor market of Japan]]
==Current Economic Issues==
Japan faces a number of economic concerns. While the bad loan problem of the mid to late 1990s, which plagued the banking sector, has shown improvement in recent years, Japan still has a number of long-term economic issues that it must deal with.
The privatization of [[Japan Post]], the Japanese [[postal system]] which also runs insurance and deposit-taking businesses, is a major issue. A political battle over privatization caused a political stalemate in August, 2005, and ultimately led to the dissolution of the Japanese [[House of Representatives of Japan|House of Representatives]]. The Postal Savings deposits, which have until now been used to fund public works projects, many of which have had questionable economic value, stands in excess of 1.9 trillion U.S. dollars, and could be a major force in energizing the private sector.
The decline in the Japanese population as a result of a low birthrate threatens the long-term economic vitality of Japan. A higher percentage of [[elderly]] in the population will put pressures on the [[pension system]], and will ultimately force a higher burden on the current generation of laborers.
==Other Economic Indicators==
'''Industrial Production Growth Rate:''' 6.6% (2004)
'''Investment (gross fixed):''' 24% of GDP (2004)
'''Household income or consumption by percentage share:'''
*''Lowest 10%:'' 4.8%
*''Highest 10%:'' 21.7% (1993)
'''Agriculture - Products:''' rice, sugar beets, vegetables, fruit, pork, poultry, dairy products, eggs, fish
'''Exports - Commodities:''' motor vehicles, semiconductors, office machinery, chemicals
'''Imports - Commodities:''' machinery and equipment, fuels, foodstuffs, chemicals, textiles, raw materials (2001)
'''[[Exchange rates]]:'''<br>
''Japanese Yen per US$1'' - 109.690016 (2005), 115.933 (2003), 125.388 (2002), 121.529 (2001), 105.16 (January 2000), 113.91 (1999), 130.91 (1998), 120.99 (1997), 108.78 (1996), 94.06 (1995)
'''Electricity:'''
*''Electricity - consumption:'' 964.2 [[TWh]] (2001)
*''Electricity - production:'' 1037 [[TWh]] (2001)
*''Electricity - exports:'' 0 [[kWh]] (2001)
*''Electricity - imports:'' 0 [[kWh]] (2001)
'''Electricity - Production by source:'''
*''Fossil Fuel:'' 56.68%
*''Hydro:'' 8.99%
*''Nuclear:'' 31.93%
*''Other:'' 2.4% (1998)
'''Electricity - Standards:'''
*100 [[volts]] at 50 Hz from the Oi River (in [[Shizuoka]]) Northward;
*100 [[volts]] at 60 Hz Southward
'''Oil:'''
*''production:'' 17,330 barrel/day (2001 est.)
*''consumption:'' 5.29 million barrel/day (2001 est.)
*''exports:'' 93,360 barrel/day (2001)
*''imports:'' 5.449 million barrel/day (2001)
*''net imports:'' 5.3 million barrel/day (2004 est.)
*''proved reserves:'' 29.29 million barrels (1 January 2002)
==See also==
*[[Japanese post-war economic miracle]]
==External links==
*[http://www.japanesestudies.org.uk ''electronic journal of contemporary japanese studies'']
[[Category:Economies by country|Japan]]
[[de:Wirtschaft Japans]]
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Communications in Japan
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Japan currently possesses one of the most advanced communication networks in the world.
==Telephone==
'''[[Telephone]]s - main lines in use:''' 60.3 million ([[1997]])
'''Telephones - [[mobile cellular]]:''' 88.1 million ([[July]] [[2004]])
'''Telephone system:''' excellent domestic and international service according to CIA World Factbook
:''domestic:'' All major city to city lines are now [[fiber-optic]] and replacing [[copper wires]] to the home has started. Several [[IP phone]] companies have also begun their services providing low or fixed price phone services.
:''international:'' satellite earth stations - 5 [[Intelsat]] (4 Pacific Ocean and 1 Indian Ocean), 1 [[Intersputnik]] (Indian Ocean region), and 1 [[Inmarsat]] (Pacific and Indian Ocean regions); submerged cables to [[Mainland China]], [[Philippines]], [[Russia]], and [[United States|US]] (via [[Guam]])
==Radio and Television==
'''Radio broadcast stations:''' [[Amplitude modulation|AM]] 190, [[Frequency modulation|FM]] 88, [[shortwave]] 24 ([[1999]])
'''[[Radio]]s:''' 120.5 million (1997)
'''Television broadcast stations:''' 7,108 (plus 441 repeaters; note - in addition, US Forces are served by 3 TV stations and 2 TV cable services) (1999)
'''Televisions:''' 86.5 million (1997)
== [[Internet]] Service ==
*'''[[Internet Service Provider]]s (ISPs):''' 357 (1999)
*'''Internet Service Providers via [[Cable Network]]:''' 334 (June 2004)
*'''Number of Portable Phone Users with the Internet Access:''' 71,044,000 (June 2004)
Number of [[Broadband]] Users by Access (April 2005)
*'''Number of the [[xDSL]] Users:''' 13,675,840 lines
*'''Number of the [[FTTH]] Users:''' 2,852,205 lines
*'''Number of the [[CATV]] Service Users:''' 2,959,712 lines
Number of [[Broadband]] Users by Access (June 2004)
*'''Number of the [[xDSL]] Users:''' 12,068,718 lines
*'''Number of the [[FTTH]] Users:''' 1,417,483 lines
*'''Number of the [[CATV]] Service Users:''' 2,702,000 lines
*'''Number of the [[Dial-up]] Users:''' 17,730,000 lines
Number of [[Broadband]] Users by Access (June 2002)
*'''Number of the [[xDSL]] Users:''' 3,300,926 lines
*'''Number of the [[FTTH]] Users:''' 84,903 lines
*'''Number of the [[CATV]] Service Users:''' 1852000 lines
*'''Number of the [[Dial-up]] Users:''' 20,390,000 lines
'''[[Country codes|Country code]] (Top-level domain):''' JP
==History==
The first milestones in the Japanese media history were newspapers in the Meiji period, the first being the [[Nagasaki Shipping List & Advertiser]], founded [[1861]] in [[Nagasaki]], with the telegraph and telephone following suit.
<!-- year data needed-->
The broadcast industry has been dominated by the Japan Broadcasting Corporation (Nippon Hoso Kyokai—[[NHK]]) since its founding in 1925.
In the postwar period, NHK's budget and operations were under the purview of the [[Ministry of Posts and Telecommunications (Japan)|Ministry of Posts and Telecommunications]], the [[Broadcasting Law]] of 1950 provides for independent management and programming by NHK. Television broadcasting began in 1953, and color television was introduced in 1960. Cable television was introduced in 1969. In 1978 an experimental broadcast satellite with two color television channels was launched. Operational satellites for television use were launched between 1984 and 1990. Television viewing spread so rapidly that, by 1987, 99 percent of Japan's households had color television sets and the average family had its set on at least five hours a day. Starting in 1987, NHK began full-scale experimental broadcasting on two channels using satellite-to-audience signals, thus bringing service to remote and mountainous parts of the country that earlier had experienced poor reception. The new system also provided twenty-four hours a day, nonstop service.
In the late 1980s, NHK operated two public [[television]] and three [[radio]] networks nationally, producing about 1,700 programs per week. Its general and education programs were broadcast through more than 6,900 television stations and nearly 330 AM and more than 500 FM radio transmitting stations. Comprehensive service in twenty-one languages is available throughout the world.
Rapid improvements, innovations, and diversification in communications technology, including optical fiber cables, communications satellites, and [[fax]] machines, led to rapid growth of the communications industry in the 1980s. [[Nippon Telegraph and Telephone]] Corporation, owned by the government until 1985, had dominated the communications industry until April 1985, when new common carriers, including [[Daini Denden]], were permitted to enter the field. [[NTT Worldwide Telecommunications Corp]] (Kokusai Denshin Denwa Company) lost its monopoly hold on international communications activities in 1989, when [[Nihon Kokusai Tsushin]] and other private overseas communications firms began operations.
In 1992 Japan also had more than 12,000 televisions stations, and the country had more than 350 radio stations, 300 AM radio stations and 58 FM. Broadcasting innovations in the 1980s included sound multiplex (two-language or stereo) broadcasting, satellite broadcasting, and in 1985 the University of the Air and teletext services were inaugurated.
Japan has been the world leader in telecommunications in the [[1980s]], but this position that has been challenged by the [[United States]]' [[dot-com]] industry in the 1990s and the emerging [[tiger states]] in Asia. While the United States is leading in digital content, [[South Korea]] is leading in broadband access, India is leading in software, and [[Taiwan]] is leading in research and development.
[[Category:Communications by country|Japan]]
[[Category:Communications in Japan| ]]
Transportation in Japan
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'''Transportation in Japan''' is modern and efficient, serving a population of over 100 million people.
==Rail transport==
[[Image:Yamanote line train.jpg|thumb|Yamanote Line, [[Tokyo]]]]
[[Image:KumamotoStreetcarA.jpg|thumb|[[Tram|Streetcar]] in [[Kumamoto, Kumamoto|Kumamoto]]]]
In [[Japan]], [[railway]]s are a major means of passenger [[transport]], especially for mass and high-speed transport between major cities and for commuter transport in [[metropolitan area]]s. Seven [[Japan Railway]] companies, once state-owned until 1987, cover most parts of Japan. There also are railway services operated by private rail companies, regional governments, and companies funded by both regional governments and private companies. Japanese trains are also famous for always being on time.
Total railways of 23,670.7 [[kilometre|km]] include entirely electrified 2,893.1 km of 1.435-[[metre|m]] [[standard gauge]] and 89.8 km of 1.372-m [[narrow gauge]],
89.8 km of which is electrified. Half of 20,656.8 km 1.067-m gauge and 3.6 km of 31 km 0.762-m gauge are electrified (1994).
Due to the country being an island there are no links to adjacent countries. There has been a proposal of a tunnel to [[Sakhalin]], which would the be connected to Russian mainland via another tunnel.
[[Fukuoka, Fukuoka|Fukuoka]], [[Kobe, Hyogo|Kobe]], [[Kyoto, Kyoto|Kyoto]], [[Nagoya, Aichi|Nagoya]], [[Osaka, Osaka|Osaka]], [[Sapporo, Hokkaido|Sapporo]], [[Sendai, Miyagi|Sendai]], [[Tokyo]] and [[Yokohama]] have [[metro]] systems.
See also [[Rail transport in Japan]], [[monorails in Japan]], [[Shinkansen]].
===External links===
*[http://www.jistac.net/gif/jr.pdf Railway map]
==Road transport==
[[Image:FujiChuoExpressway.jpg|thumb|left|The [[Chuo Expressway]] has beautiful views of [[Mount Fuji]].]]
Japan has 1,152,207 km of highways with 863,003 km (including 6,114 km of [[Expressways of Japan|expressways]]) paved and 289,204 km of unpaved ways (1997 est.). A single network of high-speed, divided, limited-access [[toll road]]s connects major cities on [[Honshu]], [[Shikoku]] and [[Kyushu]]. [[Hokkaido]] has a separate network, and [[Okinawa Island]] has a highway of this type. In the year 2005, the toll collecting companies, formerly [[Japan Highway Public Corporation]], have been transformed into private companies in public ownership, and there are plans to sell parts of them. The aim of this policy is to encourage competition and decrease tolls.
Road passenger and freight transport expanded considerably during the 1980s as private ownership of motor vehicles greatly increased along with the quality and extent of the nation's roads. The [[Japan Railway]]s Group companies operates long-distance bus service on the nation's expanding expressway network. In addition to relatively low fares and deluxe seating, the buses are well utilized because they continue service during the night, when air and train service is limited.
The cargo sector grew rapidly in the 1980s, recording 274.2 billion ton-kilometers in 1990. The freight handled by motor vehicles, mainly trucks, in 1990, was over 6 billion tons, accounting for 90 percent of domestic freight tonnage and about 50 percent of ton-kilometers.
Recent large infrastructure projects were the construction of the [[Great Seto Bridge]] and the [[Tokyo Wan Aqua-Line]] (opened 1997).
''see also:'' [[National highways of Japan]]
==Marine transport==
[[Image:FerryMiyajima7511.jpg|thumb|right|Ferry Miyajima on the [[Inland Sea]] near [[Miyajima, Hiroshima]]]]
[[Waterway]]s are about 1,770 km; seagoing craft ply all coastal inland seas.
The twenty-two major [[seaport]]s designated as special important ports by Ministry of Land, Infrastructure and Transport include [[Chiba, Chiba|Chiba]], Fushiki/[[Toyama, Toyama|Toyama]], [[Himeji, Hyogo|Himeji]], [[Hiroshima, Hiroshima|Hiroshima]], [[Kawasaki, Kanagawa|Kawasaki]], [[Kitakyushu, Fukuoka|Kitakyushu]], [[Kobe, Hyogo|Kobe]], [[Kudamatsu, Yamaguchi|Kudamatsu]], [[Muroran, Hokkaido|Muroran]], [[Nagoya, Aichi|Nagoya]], [[Niigata, Niigata|Niigata]], [[Osaka, Osaka| Osaka]], [[Sakai, Osaka|Sakai]]/Senpoku, [[Sendai, Miyagi|Sendai]]/[[Shiogama, Miyagi|Shiogama]], [[Shizuoka, Shizuoka|Shimizu]], [[Shimonoseki, Yamaguchi|Shimonoseki]], [[Tokyo]], [[Tomakomai, Hokkaido|Tomakomai]], [[Wakayama, Wakayama|Wakayama]], [[Yokkaichi, Mie|Yokkaichi]], and [[Yokohama, Kanagawa|Yokohama]].
Japan has 662 ships of 1,000 GRT or over, totaling 13,039,488 [[GRT]] or 18,024,969 [[DWT]]. There are 146 bulk ships, 49 [[cargo]], 13 [[chemical]] [[Tanker (ship)|tanker]]s, 16 combination bulk, 4 with combination of ore and oil, 25 [[containerization|container]], 45 [[liquefied gas]], 9 [[passenger]], 2 passenger and cargo combination ships, 214 [[petroleum]] tankers, 22 refrigerated cargo, 48 roll-on/roll-off, 9 short-sea passenger, and 60 vehicle carriers (1999 est.).
[[Ferry|Ferries]] connect Hokkaido to Honshu, and Okinawa Honto to Kyushu and Honshu.
==Pipelines==
Japan has 84 km of [[pipeline]]s for [[crude oil]], 322 km for [[petroleum]] products, and 1,800 km for [[natural gas]].
==Air transport==
[[Image:KansaiAirport_Departures.JPG|thumb|Kansai Airport, [[Osaka]]]]
Japan has many [[airport]]s. The main international gateways are [[Narita International Airport]] (Tokyo area), [[Kansai International Airport]] (Osaka/Kobe/Kyoto area), and [[Chubu Centrair International Airport]] (Nagoya area). The main domestic hub is [[Tokyo International Airport]] (Haneda Airport), Asia's busiest airport; other major traffic hubs include [[Osaka International Airport]] (Itami Airport), [[New Chitose Airport]] outside [[Sapporo]], and [[Fukuoka Airport]]. 14 [[heliport]]s are estimated to exist (1999).
The two main [[airline]]s are [[All Nippon Airways]] and [[Japan Airlines]]. Other passenger carriers include [[Skymark Airlines]], [[Skynet Asia Airways]], and [[Air Do]]. [[United Airlines]] and [[Northwest Airlines]] are major international operators from Narita Airport.
Domestic air travel in Japan has historically been highly regulated. From [[1972]], the three major domestic airlines (JAL, ANA, and JAS) were allocated certain routes, with JAL and ANA sharing trunk routes, and ANA and JAS sharing local feeder routes. JAL also had a flag-carrier monopoly on international routes until [[1986]]. Airfares were set by the government until 2000, although carriers had freedom to adjust the standard fares starting in [[1995]] (when discounts of up to 50% were permitted). Today, fares can be set by carriers, but the government retains the ability to veto fares that are impermissibly high.
==See also==
*[[List of airports in Japan]]
*[[List of railway companies in Japan]]
*[[List of railway electification systems in Japan]]
*[[List of Railway Stations in Japan]]
*[[Japan Highway Public Corporation]]
==External links==
*[http://www.hyperdia.com/ Hyperdia] - Travel planning tool supporting English and Japanese
*[http://www.jorudan.co.jp/english/norikae/e-norikeyin.html Jorudan] - Travel planning tool supporting English and Japanese
*[http://www.kotsu.metro.tokyo.jp/util/english/ Toei Transportation Information] - English Tokyo subway information and multilingual maps
[[Category:Transportation in Japan|*]]
[[fr:Transport au Japon]]
[[id:Transportasi di Jepang]]
[[ja:日本の交通]]
Foreign relations of Japan
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{{Foreign relations of Japan}}
Despite the burst of the [[Japanese asset price bubble]] in the early 1990s and the subsequent slow economic growth, [[Japan]] remains a major economic and cultural power. Japan has diplomatic relations with nearly all independent nations and has been an active member of the [[United Nations]] since 1956. Japanese foreign policy has aimed to promote peace and prosperity for the Japanese people, and arguably for humanity in general, by working closely with the West and supporting the United Nations.
During the Cold War, Japanese foreign policy was unidimensional, focusing mainly on the economic realm. In recent years, however, Japan's political elites (and, more broadly, the Japanese public) has shown a greater willingness to deal with security issues and support the Self Defense Forces. This is in part due to its success in disaster relief efforts at home and its participation in peacekeeping operations in [[Cambodia]] in the early 1990s as well as the greater assertiveness in the first Iraq War requested by the first Bush Administration out of Japan in line with its economic power. More importantly, however, Japan's renewed focus on national security rests on an increasing sense of insecurity in the international environment (owing to the rise of China and a belligerent North Korea). Nonetheless, there are still significant internal political and psychological constraints on, as well as intense [[People's Republic of China|Chinese]] and [[Korea|Korean]] opposition to, strengthening Japan's defense/military capabilities.
While maintaining its primary relationship with the United States, Japan has diversified and expanded its ties with other nations. Good relations with its neighbors continue to be of vital interest. After Japan signed a peace and friendship treaty with the [[People's Republic of China]] in [[1978]], ties between the two countries developed rapidly. The Japanese extend significant economic assistance to the Chinese in various modernization projects. At the same time, Japan has maintained economic but not diplomatic relations with the [[Republic of China]] ([[Taiwan]]), where a strong bilateral trade relationship thrives.
One major diplomatic and cultural initiative is the [[JET Program]], originally presented by former Prime Minister [[Yasuhiro Nakasone]] to [[Ronald Reagan]] as a "gift." Some analysts suggest the relatively quick adoption of this program was a response to foreign claims that Japan was too insular and that it needed to bring up a new [[generation]] of youth comfortable with the [[English language]] and with foreigners.
==Relations by country and region==
===United States===
''Main article:'' [[Japan-United States relations]]
The United States is Japan's closest ally, and Japan relies on the U.S. for its [[National security of Japan|national security]] to a high degree. As the world's two top economic powers (in 2005), both countries also rely on close economic ties for their wealth, despite ongoing and occasionally acriminious trade frictions.
Although [[Constitution of Japan|its constitution]] and [[Government of Japan|government]] policy preclude an offensive military role for Japan in international affairs, Japanese cooperation with the United States through the [[1960]] [[Treaty of Mutual Cooperation and Security between the United States and Japan|U.S.-Japan Security Treaty]] has been important to the peace and stability of East Asia. Currently, there are domestic discussions about possible reinterpretation of [[Article 9 of the Constitution of Japan|Article 9]] of the Japanese constitution. All postwar Japanese governments have relied on a close relationship with the United States as the foundation of their foreign policy and have depended on the mutual security treaty for strategic protection.
The relationship probably hit a post-war nadir around the early 1990s, when Japanese [[economic dominance]] was seen as a threat to American power. Japan was the primary financer of the [[First Iraq War]], yet received major criticism in some US circles for its refusal to commit actual military support. Following the collapse of the so-called [[Bubble economy]] and the 90s boom in the US, the Japanese economy was perceived as less of a threat to US interests. Some observers still feel that Japan's willingness to deploy troops in support of current US operations in Iraq, as spear-headed by [[Koizumi]] and the conservative [[LDP]] party, reflects a vow not to be excluded from the group of countries the US considers friends. This decision may reflect an [[realpolitik]] understanding of the threat Japan faces from a rapidly modernizing [[China]], which from its continued and indeed growing pattern of anti-Japanese [[demonstrations]] reveals the belief that old historical scores remain unsettled.
Japan's relationship with the United States is likely to remain strong throughout the forseeable future.
===North and South Korea===
''Main article:'' [[Japanese-Korean relations]]
Japanese ties with (Republic of Korea) [[South Korea]] have improved since an exchange of visits in the mid-1980s by their political leaders. [[South Korea]]n President [[Kim Dae-jung]] had a very successful visit to Japan in October [[1998]]. Japan has limited economic and commercial ties with the Democratic People's Republic of Korea ([[North Korea]]). Japanese normalization talks halted when North Korea refused to discuss a number of issues with Japan.
Japan strongly supports the U.S. in its efforts to encourage [[Pyongyang]] to abide by the [[nuclear Non-Proliferation Treaty]] and its agreements with the [[International Atomic Energy Agency]] (IAEA). Despite the August 31, 1998 [[North Korea]]n missile test which overflew the Home Islands, Japan has maintained its support for the Korean Energy Development Organization (KEDO) and the Agreed Framework, which seek to freeze the North Korean nuclear program. The U.S., Japan, and South Korean closely coordinate and consult trilaterally on policy toward North Korea, at least on a government level.
===China===
''Main article:'' [[Sino-Japanese relations]]
===South-East Asia===
''Main articles:'' [[Philippine-Japanese relations]], [[Japanese-Vietnamese relations]]
By 1990 Japan's interaction with the vast majority of Asia-Pacific countries, especially its burgeoning economic exchanges, was multifaceted and increasingly important to the recipient countries. The developing countries of [[ASEAN]] regarded Japan as critical to their development. Japan's aid to the ASEAN countries totaled US$1.9 billion in Japanese fiscal year (FY) 1988 versus about US$333 million for the [[United States]] during U.S. FY 1988. Japan was the number one foreign investor in the ASEAN countries, with cumulative investment as of March 1989 of about US$14.5 billion, more than twice that of the United States. Japan's share of total foreign investment in ASEAN countries in the same period ranged from 70 to 80 percent in [[Thailand]] to 20 percent in [[Indonesia]].
In the early 1990s, the Japanese government was making a concerted effort to enhance its diplomatic stature, especially in Asia. [[Toshiki Kaifu]]'s much publicized spring 1991 tour of five Southeast Asian nations—[[Malaysia]], [[Brunei]], [[Thailand]], [[Singapore]], and the [[Philippines]]—culminated in a May 3 major foreign policy address in Singapore, in which he called for a new partnership with the Association of Southeast Asian Nations (ASEAN) and pledged that Japan would go beyond the purely economic sphere to seek an "appropriate role in the political sphere as a nation of peace." As evidence of this new role, Japan took an active part in promoting negotiations to resolve the [[Cambodia]]n conflict.
In 1997, the ASEAN member nations and the People's Republic of China, South Korea and Japan agreed to hold yearly talks to further strengthen regional cooperation, the [[ASEAN Plus Three]] meetings. In 2005 the ASEAN plus Three countries together with [[India]], [[Australia]] and [[New Zealand]] held the inaugural [[East Asia Summit]] (EAS).
===South Asia===
In [[South Asia]], Japan's role is mainly that of an aid donor. Japan's aid to seven South Asian countries totaled US$1.1 billion in 1988 and 1989, dropping to just under US$900 million in 1990. Except for [[Pakistan]], which received heavy inputs of aid from the United States, all other South Asian countries receive most of their aid from Japan. Four South Asian nations—[[India]], [[Pakistan]], [[Bangladesh]], and [[Sri Lanka]]—are in the top ten list of Tokyo's aid recipients worldwide.
Prime Minister Toshiki Kaifu signaled a broadening of Japan's interest in South Asia with his swing through the region in April 1990. In an address to the [[Indian parliament]], Kaifu stressed the role of free markets and democracy in bringing about "a new international order," and he emphasized the need for a settlement of the [[Kashmir territorial dispute]] between India and Pakistan and for economic liberalization to attract foreign investment and promote dynamic growth. To India, which was very short of hard currency, Kaifu pledged a new concessional loan of ¥100 billion (about US$650 million) for the coming year.
===Russia===
''Main article:'' [[Japanese-Russian relations]]
Japan's relations with [[Russia]] are hampered by the two sides' inability to resolve their territorial dispute over the four islands that make up the [[Kuril Island conflict|Northern Territories]] ([[Kuril Islands|Kuriles]]), which the U.S.S.R. seized towards the end of [[World War II]]. The stalemate has prevented conclusion of a peace treaty formally ending the war. The United States supports Japan on the Northern Territories issue and recognizes Japanese sovereignty over the islands. Despite the lack of progress in resolving the Northern Territories dispute, Japan and Russia have made some progress in developing other aspects of the relationship. Even without a peace treaty, most Japanese do not feel that relationship with Russia is troubled. That said, remembrance of the almost last-minute Soviet declaration of war on the defeated Japan in World War II and subsequent exploitation of former Japanese soldiers in harsh Siberian prison [[labor camps]] remains.
===Western Europe===
''Main articles:'' [[Anglo-Japanese relations]]; [[Franco-Japanese relations]]; [[German-Japanese relations]]
Although cultural and noneconomic ties with [[Western Europe]] grew significantly during the 1980s, the economic nexus remained by far the most important element of Japanese-West European relations throughout the decade. Events in West European relations, as well as political, economic, or even military matters, were topics of concern to most Japanese commentators because of the immediate implications for Japan. The major issues centered on the effect of the coming West European economic unification on Japan's trade, investment, and other opportunities in Western Europe. Some West European leaders were anxious to restrict Japanese access to the newly integrated [[European Union]] (until November 1993, the [[European Community]]), but others appeared open to Japanese trade and investment. In partial response to the strengthening economic ties among nations in Western Europe and to the United States-[[Canada]]-[[Mexico]] [[North American Free Trade Agreement|North American Free Trade Agreement]], Japan and other countries along the Asia-Pacific rim began moving in the late 1980s toward greater economic cooperation.
On July 18, 1991, after several months of difficult negotiations, Prime Minister [[Toshiki Kaifu]] signed a joint statement with the [[Prime Minister of the Netherlands|Dutch prime minister]] and head of the [[European Community Council]], [[Ruud Lubbers]], and with the [[European Commission]] president, [[Jacques Delors]], pledging closer Japanese-European Community consultations on foreign relations, scientific and technological cooperation, assistance to developing countries, and efforts to reduce trade conflicts. Japanese Ministry of Foreign Affairs officials hoped that this agreement would help to broaden Japanese-European Community political links and raise them above the narrow confines of trade disputes.
===Other countries===
Beyond its immediate neighbors, Japan has pursued a more active foreign policy in recent years, recognizing the responsibility that accompanies its economic strength. It has expanded ties with the [[Middle East]], which provides most of its oil. Japan increasingly is active in [[Africa]] and [[Latin America]] and has extended significant support to development projects in both regions. And a Japanese-conceived peace plan became the foundation for nationwide elections in [[Cambodia]] in 1998.
==Debates and frictions==
Japan's has formally [[List of war apology statements issued by Japan|issued statements]] for its military occupations during and before [[World War II]] but it has done little in helping to improve her relationships with neighboring countries, especially the [[People's Republic of China]], the [[People's Democratic Republic of Korea]] and [[South Korea]]. Despite the formal statements of regret from Prime Ministers [[Hosokawa Morihiro]] and [[Murayama Tomiichi]], these countries still insist that Japan has yet to formally express remorse for its wrongdoings in the 20th century. In regards to the statements however, it is more of a debate about compensation and war reparations than over the symbolic nature of words and acknowledgments of wrongdoing and regret. Japan’s official stance is that all war related reparation claims have been resolved (except for North Korea). Unofficial visits to the controversial [[Yasukuni Jinja]] by past and present Prime Ministers belonging to the [[Liberal Democratic Party (Japan)|Liberal Democratic Party]] and the exclusion or generalisation some elements of Japan’s military history in a number school textbooks have also clouded the issue.
In [[2004]] the People’s Republic of China, North Korea, and South Korea also criticized Japan for sending its Ground Self Defence Forces to [[Iraq]], which was seen as a return to [[militarism]]. The government of Japan insisted that its forces would only participate in reconstruction and humanitarian aid missions.
There is a widespread [[anti-Japanese sentiment]] in many Asian countries, particularly the People’s Republic of China, the People's Democratic Republic of Korea, and South Korea. However, division is not always the case. South Korea and Japan successfully dual-hosted the [[2002]] [[Football World Cup 2002|Football World Cup]] together bridging a physical and political gap between the two countries. The popularity of [[Bae Yong Joon]], a South Korean actor, in Japan was also seen as a sign that the two cultures had moved closer together.
==Disputed territories==
Islands of Etorofu, Kunashiri, Shikotan, and the Habomai group occupied by the [[Soviet Union]] in 1945, now administered by Russia, claimed by Japan; [[Tokdo]] administered by [[South Korea]], claimed by Japan as [[Liancourt Rocks/Takeshima]]; Senkaku-shoto ([[Senkaku Islands]]) claimed by the [[People's Republic of China]] and the [[Republic of China]] on [[Taiwan]].
==See also==
*[[Anglo-Japanese relations]]
*[[Franco-Japanese relations]]
*[[Japanese-German relations]]
*[[Japanese-Russian relations]]
*[[Japanese-Vietnamese relations]]
*[[List of war apology statements issued by Japan]]
*[[Philippine-Japanese relations]]
*[[Sino-Japanese relations]]
==Reference==
{{loc}}
==External links==
*Various articles and discussion papers on Japan's foreign relations in the [http://www.japanesestudies.org.uk ''electronic journal of contemporary japanese studies'']
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Joshua Jackson
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'''Joshua Carter Jackson''' (born [[June 11]], [[1978]]) is an actor in American television and movies. He was born in [[Vancouver]], [[British Columbia]], [[Canada]] to an [[United States|American]] father and an [[Ireland|Irish]]-born mother. He currently divides his time between [[Los Angeles]] and [[Vancouver]]. Previously he lived in [[Wilmington, North Carolina|Wilmington]], [[North Carolina]], where the television program ''[[Dawson's Creek]]'' was filmed.
Jackson grew up in [[California]] until age 8, when his family moved back to [[Vancouver]]. Soon after he took up acting, landing a role in a commercial for [[Keebler]]'s Potato Chips. He is best known for the role of Pacey Witter on ''[[Dawson's Creek]]'', but he has also appeared in several movies
including ''[[Cruel Intentions]]'', ''[[The Mighty Ducks (movies)|The Mighty Ducks]]'' series, ''[[Apt Pupil]]'', ''[[Scream 2]]'', ''[[The Laramie Project]]'' and ''[[The Skulls]]''. He will next appear in the all-star ensemble drama ''[[Bobby]]'', directed by [[Emilio Estevez]], Jackson's co-star from ''[[The Mighty Ducks (movies)|The Mighty Ducks]]''.
Joshua is left-handed and is 6 foot 2. He is rumored to hold dual U.S./Canadian citizenship.
Joshua dated two of his Dawson's Creek co-stars: actress [[Katie Holmes]] in 1998, and actress [[Brittany Daniel]] in 1999-2000. Jackson also dated & was rumored to be engaged to [[Rosario Dawson]].
==Selected filmography==
*''[[CBS TV pilot]]'' ([[2006 in film|2006]])([[TV series]])
*''[[Meet the Devil (movie)|Meet the Devil]]'' ([[2006 in film|2006]])
*''[[Bobby (movie)|Bobby]]'' ([[2006 in film|2006]])
*''[[Shadows in the Sun (movie)|Shadows in the Sun]]'' ([[2005 in film|2005]])
*''[[Aurora Borealis (movie)|Aurora Borealis]]'' ([[2005 in film|2005]])
*''[[Americano (movie)|Americano]]'' ([[2005 in film|2005]])
*''[[Racing Stripes]]'' ([[2005 in film|2005]]) ([[voice actor|voice]])
*''[[Cursed (film)|Cursed]]'' ([[2005 in film|2005]])
*''[[I Love your Work]]'' ([[2003 in film|2003]])
*''[[The Laramie Project]]'' ([[2002 in film|2002]])
*''[[Lone Star State of Mind]]'' ([[2002 in film|2002]])
*''[[The Safety of Objects]]'' ([[2001 in film|2001]])
*''[[Ocean's Eleven (2001 film)|Ocean's Eleven]]'' ([[2001 in film|2001]])
*''[[The Skulls]]'' ([[2000 in film|2000]])
*''[[Gossip]]'' ([[2000 in film|2000]])
*''[[Muppets From Space]]'' ([[1999 in film|1999]]) (uncredited)
*''[[Cruel Intentions]]'' ([[1999 in film|1999]])
*''[[Urban Legend (film)|Urband Legend]]'' ([[1998 in film|1998]])
*''[[Apt Pupil]]'' ([[1998 in film|1998]])
*''[[Dawson's Creek]]'' ([[1998 in film|1998]]) ([[TV series]])
*''[[Scream 2]]'' ([[1997 in film|1997]])
*''[[The Mighty Ducks (movies)|The Mighty Ducks]]''
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Jung
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Various people have the name '''Jung''':
* [[Andrea Jung]], Chairman of the Board and Chief Executive Officer of Avon Products, Inc.
* [[Carl Jung]] (1875–1961), a Swiss psychiatrist and founder of analytical psychology
* [[Douglas Jung]] (1924–2002), the first ethnic Chinese Member of Parliament (MP) in the Canadian House of Commons
* [[Edgar Julius Jung]] (1894–1934), a Calvinist lawyer and leader of the right-wing Conservative Revolutionary movement
* [[George Jung]], a major player in cocaine importation in the United States in the 1970s and early 80s as a part of the Medellín Cartel; his life story was portrayed in the movie ''Blow''
* [[Johann Heinrich Jung]] (1740–1817), a German author best known by his assumed name of Heinrich Stilling
* [[Rudolf Jung]] (1882–1945), an instrumental force and agitator of Austrian National Socialism and later a member of the daughter party German Nazi Party
* [[Jung Myung Seok]] (1945–), a controversial Korean religious leader
'''Jung''' may also refer to:
* [[Jung-Kellogg Library]], located at Missouri Baptist University in St. Louis, Missouri
* [[Salar Jung Museum]], in Hyderabad, Andhra Pradesh, India, and houses the collection of the Salar Jung family
== See also ==
* [[Young]]
* [[Junge]]
[[Category:Surnames]]
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JRR Tolkien
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JFK (disambiguation)
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'''JFK''' is a [[three-letter abbreviation]] with multiple meanings, as described below:
* [[John F. Kennedy]], 35th President of the United States
* [[John F. Kennedy International Airport]] in New York City (IATA airport code)
* [[John F. Kennedy Stadium]] in Philadelphia, Pennslvania
* [[JFK (film)|''JFK'' (film)]], a 1991 film directed by Oliver Stone
* [[USS John F. Kennedy (CV-67)|USS ''John F. Kennedy'']], a supercarrier and a modification of the Kitty Hawk class
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'''[[Jupiter]]''' is the fifth planet from the Sun.
'''Jupiter''' may also mean:
* [[Jupiter (god)]], a Roman god
* [[Jupiter, Florida]], a town in Palm Beach County, Florida
* [[Jupiter JVM]], a Java virtual machine
* [[Jupiter Novels]], a series of science fiction novels published by Tor Books
In '''business''':
* [[Jupitermedia Corporation]], a U.S. company that manages Internet properties
* [[Jupiter (company)]], a Japanese game and hardware development studio
* Jupiter Limited, an Australian gambling company that merged with [[Tabcorp Holdings|Tabcorp]] in 2003
In '''rocketry''':
*[[PGM-19 Jupiter]]
*[[Jupiter-C (rocket)]]
In '''music''':
*A line of music synthesizers made by [[Roland Corporation|Roland]]
**[[Roland Jupiter-4]]
**[[Roland Jupiter-6]]
**[[Roland Jupiter-8]]
* [[Jupiters]], a pop rock band from Pakistan
'''Jupiter''' may also be:
* A name given to Mozart's [[Symphony No. 41 (Mozart)|Symphony No. 41]]
* A variety of [[List of Apple cultivars|apple]] developed in Kent, England
* The main villain in [[Robin Jarvis]]'s ''The Deptford Mice'' trilogy
* "Jupiter, the Bringer of Jollity", a movement in Gustav Holst's suite ''[[The Planets]]''
* "Song of Jupiter", an arrangement by [[Leroy Anderson]] of the aria "Where'er you walk" from Handel's oratorio ''[[Semele (oratorio)|Semele]]''
* Sailor Jupiter, the codename of [[Makoto Kino]], a character in the ''Sailor Moon'' franchise
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John Ray
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[[image:John_Ray.jpg|thumb|200px|John Ray.]]
'''John Ray''' ([[November 29]], [[1627]] – [[January 17]], [[1705]]) was an [[England|English]] [[Natural history|naturalist]], sometimes referred to as the father of English natural history. Until [[1670]] he wrote his name as John Wray.
He published important works on [[plant]]s, [[animal]]s, and [[natural theology]]. His classification of plants in his ''[[Historia Plantarum]]'' was an important step towards modern taxonomy. Ray rejected the system of dichotomous division by which species were classified according to a pre-conceived, either/or type system, and instead classified plants according to similarities and differences that emerged from observation. Thus he advanced [[empiricism|scientific empiricism]] against the [[deductive rationalism]] of the scholastics.
== Early life ==
Ray was born in the [[village]] of [[Black Notley]], near [[Braintree, Essex|Braintree]], in the [[Counties of England|county]] of [[Essex]], in the south east of [[England]]. He is said to have been born in the [[forge|smithy]], his father having been the [[blacksmith]] of [[Black Notley]] near [[Braintree]]. From Braintree school he was sent at the age of sixteen to [[Catharine Hall, Cambridge]], whence he removed to [[Trinity College, Cambridge|Trinity College]] after about one year and three-quarters. His tutor at Trinity was [[James Duport]], [[Regius Professor of Greek (Cambridge)|Regius Professor of Greek]], and his intimate friend and fellow-pupil the celebrated [[Isaac Barrow]]. Ray was chosen minor fellow of Trinity in [[1649]], and in due course became a major fellow on proceeding to the [[master's degree]]. He held many college offices, becoming successively lecturer in Greek (1651), mathematics (1653),and humanity (1655), ''praelector'' (1657), junior dean (1657), and college steward (1659 and 1660); and according to the habit of the time, he was accustomed to preach in his college chapel and also at [[St Mary the Great with St Michael, Cambridge|Great St Mary's]] before the university, long before he took holy orders. Among his sermons preached before his ordination, which was not till the [[23 December]], [[1660]], were the famous discourses on ''The Wisdom of God in the Creation'', and on ''The Chaos, Deluge and Dissolution of the World''. Ray's reputation was high also as a tutor; and he communicated his own passion for natural history to several pupils, of whom [[Francis Willughby]] is by far the most famous.
== Career ==
Ray's quiet college life closed when he found himself unable to subscribe to the [[Act of Uniformity 1661]], and was obliged to give up his fellowship in 1662, the year after [[Isaac Newton]] had entered the college. We are told by Dr Derham in his ''Life of Ray'' that the reason of his refusal:
<blockquote>was not (as some have imagined) his having taken the 'Solemn League and Covenant,' for that he never did, and often declared that he ever thought it an unlawful oath; but he said he could not declare for those that had taken the oath that no obligation lay upon them, but feared there might</blockquote>
From this time onwards he seems to have depended chiefly on the bounty of his pupil Willughby, who made Ray his constant companion while he lived, and at his death left him 6 shillings a year, with the charge of educating his two sons.
In the spring of [[1663]] Ray started together with Willughby and two other pupils on a tour through [[Europe]], from which he returned in March 1666, parting from Willughby at [[Montpellier]], whence the latter continued his journey into [[Spain]]. He had previously in three different journeys (1658, 1661, 1662) travelled through the greater part of Great Britain, and selections from his private notes of these journeys were edited by [[George Scott]] in 1760, under the title of ''Mr Ray's Itineraries''. Ray himself published an account of his foreign travel in 1673, entitled ''Observations topographical, moral, and physiological, made on a Journey through part of the Low Countries, Germany, Italy, and France''. From this tour Ray and Willughby returned laden with collections, on which they meant to base complete systematic descriptions of the animal and vegetable kingdoms. Willughby undertook the former part, but, dying in 1672, left only an ornithology and ichthyology, in themselves vast, for Ray to edit; while the latter used the botanical collections for the groundwork of his ''Methodus planiarurn nova'' (1682), and his great ''Historia generalis plantarum'' (3 vols., 1686, 1688, 1704). The plants gathered on his British tours had already been described in his ''Catalogus plantarum Angliae'' (1670), which work is the basis of all later English floras.
In 1667 Ray was elected Fellow of the [[Royal Society]], and in 1669 he published in conjunction with Willughby his first paper in the Philosophical Transactions on ''Experiments concerning the Motion of Sap in Trees''. They demonstrated the ascent of the sap through the wood of the tree, and supposed the sap to precipitate a kind of white coagulum or jelly, which may be well conceived to be the part which every year between bark and tree turns to wood and of which the leaves and fruits are made. Immediately after his admission into the Royal Society he was induced by Bishop [[John Wilkins]] to translate his ''Real Character'' into Latin, and it seems he actually completed a translation, which, however, remained in manuscript; his ''Methodus plantarum nova'' was in fact undertaken as a part of Wilkins's great classificatory scheme.
In [[1673]] Ray married Margaret Oakley of [[Launton]]; in 1676 he went to [[Sutton Coldfield]], and in 1677 to Falborne Hall in [[Essex]]. Finally, in 1679, he removed to Black Notley, where he afterwards remained. His life there was quiet and uneventful, although he had poor health, including chronic sores. He occupied himself in writing books and in keeping up a wide scientific correspondence, and lived, in spite of his infirmities, to the age of seventy-six, dying at Black Notley on [[17 January]], 1705. The [[Ray Society]], for the publication of works on natural history, was founded in his honor in [[1844]].
== Works ==
Ray's first book, the ''Catalogus plantarum circa Cantabrigiam nascentium'' (1660, followed by appendices in 1663 and 1685), was written in conjunction with his ''amicissimus et individuus comes'', [[John Nid]]. The 626 plants are listed alphabetically, but a system of classification differing little from [[Caspar Bauhin]]'s is sketched at the end of the book; and the notes contain many references to other parts of natural history. The locations of the plants are minutely described; and Cambridge students still gather some of their rarer plants in the copses or chalk-pits where he found them. The book shows signs of his indebtedness to [[Joachim Jung]] of [[Hamburg]], who had died in 1657, leaving his writings unpublished; but a manuscript copy of some of them was sent to Ray by [[Samuel Hartlib]] in 1660. Jung invented or gave precision to many technical terms which Ray and others at once made use of in their descriptions, and which are now classical; and his notions of what constitutes a specific distinction and what characters are valueless as such seem to have been adopted with little change by Ray. The first two editions of the ''Catalogus plantarum Angliae'' (1670, 1677) were likewise arranged alphabetically; but in the ''Synopsis stirpium rum'' (1690, 1696, also re-edited by Dillenius, 1724, and by Hill, 1760) Ray applied the scheme of classification which he had by that time elaborated in the ''Methodus'' and the ''Historia plantarum''. The ''Methodus plantarum nova'' (1682) was largely based on the works of [[Caesalpinus]] and Jung, and still more on that of [[Robert Morison]] of Oxford. The greatest merit of this book is the use of the number of [[cotyledons]] as a basis of classification; though it must be remembered that the difference between the monocotyledonous and dicotyledonous embryo was detected by [[Nehemiah Grew]]. After dividing plants into flowerless and flowering, Ray says:
<blockquote>Floriferas dividemus in Dicotyledones. auarum semina sata binis foliis anomalis, seminalibus dictis, quae cotyledonorum usum praestant, e terra exeunt, yel in binos saltem lobos dividuntur, quamvis eos supra terrem foliorum specie non efferunt; et Monocotyledones, quae nec folia bina seminalia efferunt nec lobos binos condunt. Haec divisio ad arbores etiam extendi potest; siquidem Palmae et congeneres hoc respectu eodem modo a reliquis arboribus differunt quo Monocotyledones a reliquis herbis.</blockquote>
But a serious blemish was his persistent separation of trees from herbs, a distinction whose falsity had been exposed by Jung and others, but to which Ray tried to give scientific foundation by denying the existence of buds in the latter. At this time he based his classification, like Caesalpinus, chiefly upon the fruit, and he distinguished several natural groups, such as the grasses, ''[[Labiatae]]'', ''[[Umbelliferae]]'' and ''[[Papilionaceae]]''.
The classification of the ''Methodus'' was extended and improved in the ''Historia plantarum'', but was disfigured by a large class of Anomalae, to include forms that the other orders did not easily admit, and by the separation of the cereals from other grasses. This vast book enumerates and describes all the plants known to the author or described by his predecessors, to the number, according to Adanson, of 18,625 species. In the first volume a chapter ''De plantis in genere'' contains an account of all the anatomical and physiological knowledge of the time regarding plants, with the recent speculations and discoveries of Caesalpinus, Grew, Malpighi and Jung; and Cuvier and Dupetit Thouars, declaring that it was this chapter which gave acceptance and authority to these authors works, say that the best monument that could be erected to the memory of Ray would be the republication of this part of his work separately. The ''Stirpium Europaearum extra Britannias nascentium Sylloge'' (1694) is a much amplified edition of the catalogue of plants collected on his own European tour. In the preface to this book he first clearly admitted the doctrine of the sexuality of plants, which, however, he had no share in establishing. Here also begins his long controversy with Rivinus ([[Augustus Quirinus Bachmann]]) which chiefly turned upon Ray's indefensible separation of ligneous, from herbaceous plants, and also upon what he conceived to be the misleading reliance that Rivinus placed on the characters of the corolla. But in the second edition of his ''Methodus'' (1703) he followed Rivinus and [[Joseph Pitton de Tournefort]] in taking the flower instead of the fruit as his basis of classification: he was no longer a fructicist but a corollist.
Besides editing his friend Willughby's books, Ray wrote several zoological works of his own, including ''Synopsis methodica Animalium Quadrupedum et Serpentini Generis'' (1693), that is to say, both mammals and reptiles, and ''Synopsis methodica Aviusn et Piscium'' (1713); the latter was published posthumously, as was also the more important ''Historia Insectorum'', which embodied a great mass of Willughbys notes.
Most of Ray's minor works were the outcome of his faculty for carefully amassing facts; for instance, his ''Collection of English Proverbs'' (1670), his ''Collection of Out-of-the-way English Words'' (1674), his ''Collection of Curious Travels and Voyages'' (1693), and his ''Dictionariolum trilingue'' (1675, 5th edition as Nomenclator classicus, 1706). The last was written for the use of Willughby's sons, his pupils; it passed through many edtions, and is still useful for its careful identifications of plants and animals mentioned by Greek and Latin writers. But Ray's influence and reputation have depended largely upon his two books entitled ''The Wisdom of God manifested in the Works of the Creation'' (1691), and ''Miscellaneous Discourses concerning the Dissolution and Changes of the World'' (1692). The latter includes three essays on ''The Primitive Chaos and Creation of the World'', ''The General Deluge, its Causes and Effects'', and ''The Dissolution of the World and Future Conflagrations''. The germ of these works was contained in sermons preached long before in Cambridge. Both books obtained immediate popularity, and the former, at least, was translated into several languages. In ''The Wisdom of God'' Ray recites innumerable examples of the perfection of organic mechanism, the multitude and variety of living creatures, the minuteness and usefulness of their parts, and many, if not most, of the familiar examples of purposive adaptation and design in nature were suggested by him, such as the structure of the eye, the hollowness of the bones, the camel's stomach and the hedgehog's armour.
== Legacy ==
In [[1986]], to mark the 300th anniversary of the publication of Ray's ''Historia Plantarum'', there was a celebration of Ray's legacy in Braintree. A "John Ray Gallery" was opened in the Braintree Museum. The scientific society at his old college is named the "John Ray Society" after him.
The standard [[Binomial nomenclature#Authorship in scientific names|botanical author abbreviation]] '''Ray''' is applied to [[species]] he described.
{{wikiquote}}
==References==
*{{1911}}
==External links==
* [http://www.jri.org.uk/ The John Ray Initiative: connecting Environment and Christianity]
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John F. Kennedy
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:''For other uses, see [[John Kennedy (disambiguation)]]''
{{Infobox_President | name=President John Fitzgerald Kennedy
| nationality=american
| image=JFKofficial.jpg
| order=35th President
| term_start=[[January 20]], [[1961]]
| term_end=[[November 22]], [[1963]]
| predecessor=[[Dwight D. Eisenhower]]
| successor=[[Lyndon B. Johnson]]
| birth_date=[[May 29]], [[1917]]
| birth_place=[[Brookline, Massachusetts]]
| death_date=[[November 22]], [[1963]]
| death_place=[[Dallas, Texas|Dallas]], [[Texas]]
| spouse=[[Jacqueline Kennedy Onassis|Jacqueline Lee Bouvier Kennedy]]
| party=[[Democratic Party (United States)|Democratic]]
| vicepresident=[[Lyndon B. Johnson]]
| buried=[[Arlington National Cemetery]]
}}
'''John Fitzgerald Kennedy''' ([[May 29]], [[1917]] – [[November 22]], [[1963]]), often referred to as '''John F. Kennedy''', '''JFK''', or '''Jack Kennedy''', was the 35th [[President of the United States]]. He served from 1961 until [[John F. Kennedy assassination|his assassination]] in 1963. A member of the prominent [[Kennedy family|Kennedy political family]], he is considered an icon of [[American liberalism]]. During [[World War II]], he served as a naval lieutenant in the Pacific theatre and was cited for exceptional bravery for the rescue of his men. Kennedy is the youngest person ever to have been elected president of the United States, at the age of 43. ([[Theodore Roosevelt]] was the youngest ever to ''serve'' as President of the United States, as he succeeded to the presidency at age 42, following President [[William McKinley|McKinley's]] assassination.)
Major events during his presidency included the failed [[Bay of Pigs invasion]], the [[Cuban Missile Crisis]], the failed prevention of the Israeli nuclear weapons program, the failed prevention of the Chinese nuclear weapons program, the building of the [[Berlin Wall]], the [[Space Race]], early events of the [[Vietnam War]], and the [[American Civil Rights Movement]]. In [[Historical rankings of U.S. Presidents|rankings of U.S. presidents]], historians usually grade Kennedy above average, but among the general public he is often regarded as among the greatest presidents.
Kennedy is also the first and only [[Roman Catholicism in the United States|Roman Catholic]] ever to become President, the first president to serve who was born in the [[20th century]], the last to die while still in office, the last [[Democratic Party (United States)|Democrat]] from the [[Northern United States|North]] to be elected, and the last to be elected while serving in the [[United States Senate|U.S. Senate]].
Kennedy died the youngest of any U.S. president, at 46 years and 177 days, when he was assassinated on [[November 22]], [[1963]]. The assassination is often considered a defining moment in U.S. history because of its traumatic impact on the entire nation, its impact on the political history of the ensuing decades, and because of Kennedy's elevation as an [[icon]] for a new generation of Americans and American aspirations.
==Early Life==
Kennedy was born in [[Brookline, Massachusetts|Brookline]], [[Massachusetts]], the son of [[Joseph P. Kennedy, Sr.]] and [[Rose Fitzgerald Kennedy|Rose Fitzgerald]].
Years later, it would be revealed that Kennedy had been diagnosed as a young man with [[Addison's Disease]], a rare endocrine disorder. This and other medical disorders were kept from the press, and the public, throughout Kennedy's life.
Kennedy attended [[Edward Devotion School]] for four years ([[Kindergarten]] in [[1922]] to Third Grade [http://www.jfklibrary.org/fa_edward_devotion_school.html]) and then [[Choate Rosemary Hall]] in [[Connecticut]], one of the country's most elite private boarding schools, from which he graduated in 1935. That fall (Sept 25, 1935) he sailed from New York to London with his parents and his sister [[Kathleen Cavendish, Marchioness of Hartington|Kathleen]]. There he enrolled at the [[London School of Economics]] with the intention of studying for a year ([[political economy]] under the tutelage of Professor [[Harold Laski]]) but an illness hospitalized him shortly after his enrollment. His father insisted he return to the US. Jack sailed from London for New York on Oct 26, 1935. Later that fall of 1935, he enrolled in [[Princeton University]], but was forced to leave after contracting [[jaundice]]. The next fall, he began attending [[Harvard College]]. Kennedy traveled to [[Europe]] twice during his years at Harvard, visiting the [[United Kingdom]], while his father was serving as [[Ambassador]] to the [[Court of St. James's]]. In 1937, Kennedy was prescribed [[steroid]]s to control his [[colitis]], which only heightened his medical problems causing him to develop [[osteoporosis]] of the lower [[lumbar spine]] [http://www.npr.org/templates/story/story.php?storyId=1276266].
In 1940 Kennedy wrote his honors thesis, entitled "[[Why England Slept]]" on the British portion of the [[Munich Agreement]]. He initially intended for the thesis to be for college only, but his dad encouraged him to publish the book. He graduated ''[[Latin honors|cum laude]]'' from Harvard with a degree in [[international affairs]] in June 1940. His thesis was published in 1940 [http://www.questia.com/PM.qst?a=o&d=24144268] and became a [[best-seller]].
==Military service==
In the spring of 1941, Kennedy volunteered for the [[United States Army|U.S. Army]], but was rejected, mainly because of his troublesome back. However, the [[United States Navy|U.S. Navy]] accepted him in September of that year with the influence of the director of the [[Office of Naval Intelligence]] (ONI), a former naval [[attaché]] to Ambassador Joseph Kennedy. As an [[Ensign (rank)|ensign]], he served in the office that supplied bulletins and briefing information for the [[United States Secretary of the Navy|Secretary of the Navy]]. It was during this assignment that the [[attack on Pearl Harbor]] occurred. It was also during this time that he began a romantic relationship with [[Inga Arvad]], a suspected [[Nazi]] spy. The relationship ended, however, when Kennedy was transferred to the ONI field office in [[South Carolina]]. He attended the Naval Reserve Officers Training School and Motor Torpedo Boat Squadron Training Center before being assigned for duty in [[Panama]] and eventually the [[Pacific theater]]. He participated in various commands in the Pacific theater and earned the rank of [[lieutenant]], commanding a [[patrol torpedo boat]] (''PT boat'').[http://www.history.navy.mil/faqs/faq60-2.htm]
[[Image:JFKPT109.jpg|thumb|right|200px|John on his navy patrol boat, [[PT 109]].]]
On [[August 2]], [[1943]], Kennedy's boat, the ''[[PT-109]]'', was taking part in a night-time military raid near [[New Georgia]] (near the [[Solomon Islands]]) when it was rammed by a [[Japan]]ese [[destroyer]]. Kennedy was thrown across the deck, injuring his already troubled back. Still, Kennedy somehow towed a wounded man three miles through the ocean, arriving on an island where his crew was subsequently rescued. Kennedy said that he blacked out for periods of time during the ordeal. For these actions, Kennedy received the [[Navy and Marine Corps Medal]], awarded for heroism not involving conflict with the enemy under the following citation:
:For heroism the rescue of 3 men following the ramming and sinking of his motor torpedo boat while attempting a torpedo attack on a Japanese destroyer in the Solomon Islands area on the night of Aug 12, 1943. Lt. KENNEDY, Capt. of the boat, directed the rescue of the crew and personally rescued 3 men, one of whom was seriously injured. During the following 6 days, he succeeded in getting his crew ashore, and after swimming many hours attempting to secure aid and food, finally effected the rescue of the men. His courage, endurance and excellent leadership contributed to the saving of several lives and was in keeping with the highest traditions of the United States Naval Service.
Kennedy's other decorations from the Second World War include the [[Purple Heart]], [[Asiatic-Pacific Campaign Medal]], and the [[World War II Victory Medal]]. He was honorably discharged in early 1945, just a few months before Japan surrendered.
In May 2002, a [[National Geographic Society|National Geographic]] expedition found what is believed to be the wreckage of the ''[[PT-109]]'' in the Solomon Islands [http://news.nationalgeographic.com/news/2002/07/0709_020710_kennedyPT109.html].
==Early political career==
[[Image:JFKSENATE.jpg|thumb|left|200px|A young Senator Kennedy in 1953.]]
After World War II, Kennedy entered politics (partly to fill the void of his popular brother, [[Joseph P. Kennedy, Jr.]], on whom his family had pinned many of their hopes but who was killed in the war). In 1946, [[United States House of Representatives|Representative]] [[James Michael Curley]] vacated his seat in an overwhelmingly Democratic district to become mayor of [[Boston, Massachusetts|Boston]] and Kennedy ran for that seat, beating his Republican opponent by a large margin. He was reelected twice, but had a mixed voting record, often diverging from President [[Harry S. Truman]] and the rest of the Democratic Party.
<!-- no source
[[Image:jfkatbcin56.jpg|right|thumb|Kennedy gives his [[Jesuit Ivy]] address at the 1956 [[Boston College]] commencement.]] -->
Kennedy married [[Jacqueline Lee Bouvier]] on [[September 12]], [[1953]]. He underwent several spinal operations in the two following years, nearly dying (receiving the Catholic faith's [[Anointing of the Sick|"last rites"]] four times during his life), and was often absent from the Senate. During this period, he published ''[[Profiles in Courage]]'', highlighting eight instances in which U.S. Senators risked their careers by standing by their personal beliefs. The book was awarded the 1957 [[Pulitzer Prize]] for Biography.
==McCarthy's support from the Kennedy family==
After 1950, Senator [[Joseph McCarthy]] was the nation's most prominent [[Irish-American]] along with the [[Kennedy family]]. Even before becoming famous, McCarthy forged a close friendship with [[Joseph P. Kennedy]], who contributed thousands of dollars to McCarthy, and became one of his major supporters. Joseph Kennedy often brought him to Hyannis Port as a weekend house guest in the late 1940s. McCarthy at one point dated Patricia Kennedy, JFK's sister. In the Senate race of 1952, Joseph allegedly worked a deal so that McCarthy, a Republican, would not make campaign speeches for the GOP ticket in Massachusetts. In return, John F. Kennedy would not give any anti-McCarthy speeches that his liberal supporters wanted to hear. In 1953, at the father's urging, McCarthy hired [[Robert Kennedy]] (age 27) as a senior staff member. In 1954, when the Senate was threatening to condemn McCarthy, Senator Kennedy faced a dilemma. "How could I demand that Joe McCarthy be censured for things he did when my own brother was on his staff?" asked Kennedy. By 1954, however, Robert Kennedy and McCarthy's chief aide, [[Roy Cohn]], had had a falling out and Robert no longer worked for McCarthy. John Kennedy had a speech drafted calling for the censure of McCarthy, but he never delivered it. When the Senate voted to censure McCarthy on December 2, 1954, Senator Kennedy was in the hospital and never indicated then or later how he would vote.
==Senator, 1953-60==
In [[U.S. Senate election, 1952|1952]], Kennedy ran for the [[United States Senate|Senate]] with the slogan "Kennedy will do more for Massachusetts." In an [[upset]] victory, he defeated Republican incumbent [[Henry Cabot Lodge, Jr.]] by a margin of about 70,000 votes.
In 1956, Kennedy campaigned for the [[Vice President of the United States|Vice Presidential]] nomination at the [[Democratic National Convention]], but convention delegates selected [[Tennessee]] Senator [[Estes Kefauver]] instead. However, Kennedy's efforts helped bolster his reputation within the party.
An example of Kennedy's political suppleness prior to the 1960 campaign was his handling of the [[Civil Rights Act of 1957]]. He voted for final passage, while earlier voting for the "jury trial amendment", which some people feel rendered the Act toothless. He was able to say to both sides that he supported them.
In 1958, Kennedy published the first edition of his book ''[[A Nation of Immigrants]]'', closely following his involvement in the Displaced Persons Act and the 1957 bill to bring families together.
==[[1960 presidential election]]==
[[Image:Jfknixon.jpg|thumb|right|175px|Kennedy and Richard Nixon shake hands before one of the 1960 televised debates.]]
In 1960, Kennedy declared his intent to run for President of the United States. In the Democratic [[primary election]], he faced challenges from Senator [[Hubert H. Humphrey]] of [[Minnesota]], Senator [[Lyndon B. Johnson]] of [[Texas]], and [[Adlai Stevenson]], the Democratic nominee in 1952 and 1956 who was not officially running but was a favorite write-in candidate. Kennedy won key primaries like [[Wisconsin]] and [[West Virginia]]. In the latter state, Kennedy made a visit to a coal mine, and talked to the mine workers to win their support, as most people in that [[conservative]], mostly [[Protestant]] state were deeply suspicious about Kennedy being a Catholic. Kennedy emerged as a universally acceptable candidate for the party after that victory.
On [[July 13]], [[1960]] the Democratic Party nominated Kennedy as its candidate for president. Kennedy asked Johnson to be his Vice Presidential candidate, despite clashes between the two during the primary elections. He needed Johnson's strength in the South to win what was considered likely to be the closest election since 1916. Major issues included how to get the economy moving again, Kennedy's Catholicism, [[Cuba]], and whether or not both the Soviet space and missile programs had surpassed those of the U.S. To allay fears that his Roman Catholicism would impact his decision making, he said in a famous speech in [[Houston, Texas]] (to the Greater Houston Ministerial Association), on [[September 12]], [[1960]], "I am not the Catholic candidate for President. I am the Democratic Party's candidate for President who happens also to be a Catholic. I do not speak for my Church on public matters and the Church does not speak for me." [http://www.americanrhetoric.com/speeches/johnfkennedyhoustonministerialspeech.html] {{seealso|Alfred E. Smith}}
In September and October, Kennedy debated Republican candidate Vice President [[Richard Nixon]] in the first televised [[U.S. presidential election debates|US presidential debates]]. During the debates, Nixon looked tense, sweaty, and unshaven compared to Kennedy's composure and handsomeness, leading many to deem Kennedy the winner, although historians consider the two evenly matched as orators. Interestingly, many who listened on radio thought Nixon more impressive in the debate. [http://www.museum.tv/archives/etv/K/htmlK/kennedy-nixon/kennedy-nixon.htm] The debates are considered a political landmark: the point at which the medium of [[television]] played an important role in politics and looking presentable on camera became one of the important considerations for presidential and other political candidates.
In the general [[U.S. presidential election, 1960|election]] on [[November 8]], [[1960]], Kennedy beat Nixon in a very close race. There were serious allegations that [[Electoral fraud|vote fraud]] in [[Texas]] and [[Illinois]] had cost Nixon the presidency[http://www.leanleft.com/archives/cat_reviews.html]. There were unusually large margins in [[Richard J. Daley|Richard Daley]]'s Chicago — which were announced after the rest of the vote in Illinois. The only change after the official recount was a win for Kennedy in [[Hawaii]].
==Presidency 1961-1963 ==
[[Image:Jfkspeech.jpg|thumb|right|175px|Kennedy gives his memorable [[inauguration address]]]]
===Policies===
Kennedy was sworn in as the 35th [[President]] on [[January 20]], [[1961]]. In his [[inaugural address]] he spoke of the need for all Americans to be active citizens. "Ask not what your country can do for you, ask what you can do for your country", he said. He also asked the nations of the world to join together to fight what he called the "common enemies of man: [[tyranny]], [[poverty]], [[disease]], and [[war]] itself." [http://www.historyplace.com/speeches/jfk-inaug.htm]
===Foreign policies===
On [[April 17]], [[1961]], Kennedy gave orders allowing a previously planned invasion of Cuba to proceed. With support from the [[CIA]], in what is known as the [[Bay of Pigs Invasion]], 1,500 U.S.trained Cuban exiles, called "Brigade 2506" returned to the island in the hope of deposing [[Fidel Castro|Castro]], but the [[CIA]] had underestimated popular support for Castro, made several mistakes in devising and carrying out the plan, and the exiles did not rally the Cuban people as expected. By [[April 19]] Castro's government had killed or captured most of the invading exiles and Kennedy was forced to negotiate for the release of the 1,189 survivors. After 20 months, Cuba released the captured exiles in exchange for $53 million worth of food and medicine. The incident was a major embarrassment for Kennedy, but he took full responsibility. Historians in 2006 ranked the debacle as the #8 worst presidential mistake ever made.[http://www.ctv.ca/servlet/ArticleNews/story/CTVNews/20060218/presidential_errors_060218/20060218?hub=World]
On [[August 13]], [[1961]], the [[East German]] government began construction of the [[Berlin Wall]] separating East Berlin from the Western sector of the city, due to the American military presence in [[West Berlin]]. Kennedy claimed this action was in violation of the "[[Four Powers]]" agreements. Kennedy initiated no action to have it dismantled, and did little to reverse or halt the eventual extension of this barrier to a length of 155 km.
[[Image:Zahir_shah_and_kenedy.gif|thumb|King of [[Afghanistan]] [[Zahir Shah]] (right) and US President John F. Kennedy (left)]]
The [[Cuban Missile Crisis]] began on [[October 14]], [[1962]] when American [[Lockheed U-2|U-2]] [[spy plane]]s took photographs of a [[Soviet Union|Soviet]] intermediate range ballistic missile site under construction in Cuba. Kennedy faced a dire dilemma: if the U.S. attacked the sites it might have led to [[nuclear war]] with the [[U.S.S.R.]] If the U.S. did nothing, it would endure the perpetual threat of nuclear weapons within its region, in such close proximity as to make retaliation for a preemptive launch very unlikely. Another fear was that the U.S. would appear to the world as weak in its own hemisphere. Many military officials and cabinet members pressed for an air assault on the missile sites but Kennedy ordered a naval [[quarantine]] in which the U.S. Navy inspected all ships. He began negotiations with the Soviets and a week later, he and Soviet Premier [[Nikita Khrushchev]] reached an agreement. Khrushchev agreed to remove the missiles while the U.S. publicly promised never to invade Cuba, and also secretly promised to remove U.S. ballistic missiles from [[Turkey]] and [[Italy]] within six months. Following this incident, which brought the world closer to nuclear war than at any point before or since, Kennedy was more cautious in confronting the Soviet Union.
[[Image:Kennedyarms.png|thumb|left|200px|The [[coat of arms]] of John F Kennedy blazoned ''Sable three helmets in profile Or within a bordure per saltire Gules and Ermine''.]]
Arguing that "those who make peaceful revolution impossible, make violent revolution inevitable", Kennedy sought to contain [[communism]] in [[Latin America]], by establishing the [[Alliance for Progress]], which sent aid to troubled countries in the region and sought greater [[human rights]] standards in the region. He worked closely with [[Puerto Rican]] [[Governor of Puerto Rico|Governor]] [[Luis Muñoz Marín]] for the development of the Alliance of Progress, as well as developments on the autonomy of the Commonwealth of [[Puerto Rico]].
Another example of Kennedy's belief in the ability of non-military power to improve the world was the creation of the [[Peace Corps]], one of his first acts as president. Through this program, which still exists today, Americans volunteered to help underdeveloped nations in areas such as [[education]], [[farming]], [[health care]], and [[construction]].
Kennedy also used limited military action to contain the spread of communism. Determined to stand firm against the spread of communism, Kennedy continued the previous administration's policy of political, economic, and military support for the unstable [[South Vietnam|South Vietnamese]] government, which included sending military advisers and U.S. Special Forces to the area. U.S. involvement in the area continually escalated until regular U.S. forces were directly fighting the [[Vietnam War]] in the next administration.
On [[June 26]], [[1963]] Kennedy visited [[West Berlin]] and gave a public speech criticizing communism. While Kennedy was speaking, some people on the other side of the wall in [[East Berlin]] were applauding Kennedy and showing their distaste for [[Soviet]] control. Kennedy used the construction of the [[Berlin Wall]] as an example of the failures of communism "[[Freedom]] has many difficulties and [[democracy]] is not perfect, but we have never had to put a wall up to keep our people in." The speech is known for its famous phrase ''"[[Ich bin ein Berliner]]"''.
Troubled by the long-term dangers of [[radioactive contamination]] and [[Nuclear proliferation|nuclear weapons proliferation]], Kennedy also pushed for the adoption of a Limited or [[Partial Test Ban Treaty]], which prohibited atomic testing on the ground, in the atmosphere, or underwater, but does not prohibit testing underground. The United States, the United Kingdom and the Soviet Union were the initial signatories to the Treaty. Kennedy signed the Treaty into law in August 1963, and believed it to be one of the greatest accomplishments of his administration.
On the occasion of his visit to [[Ireland]] in 1963, President Kennedy joined with Irish President [[Eamon de Valera]] to form The [[American Irish Foundation]]. The mission of this organization was to foster connections between Americans of Irish descent and the country of their ancestry. Kennedy furthered these connections of cultural solidarity by accepting a grant of [[armorial bearings]] from the [[Chief Herald of Ireland]]. {{see|The Ireland Funds}}
===Domestic policies===
[[Image:JFKMLK.jpg|thumb|left|200px|JFK in the [[Oval Office]] with various civil rights activists including [[Martin Luther King Jr]]]]
Kennedy used the term [[New Frontier]] as a label for his domestic programs. It ambitiously promised federal funding for [[education]], [[health care]] for the [[Old age|elderly]], and government intervention to halt the [[recession]]. Kennedy also promised an end to [[racial discrimination]].
The turbulent end of state-sanctioned racial discrimination was one of the most pressing domestic issues of Kennedy's era. The [[Supreme Court of the United States|Supreme Court]] had ruled in 1954 that [[racial segregation]] in public schools would no longer be permitted. However, there were many schools, especially in southern states, that did not obey this decision. There also remained the practice of segregation on buses, in restaurants, movie theaters, and other public places.
Kennedy started his fight for civil rights when he appealed to African-American voters during his campaign in 1962.
In 1962, [[James Meredith]] tried to enroll at the [[University of Mississippi]], but he was prevented by white students. Kennedy responded by sending some 400 federal marshals and 3000 troops to ensure that Meredith could enroll in his first class.
Kennedy also assigned [[United States Marshals Service|federal marshals]] to protect the [[Freedom Riders]].
Thousands of Americans of all races and backgrounds joined Kennedy in protesting racial discrimination. Kennedy supported [[racial integration]] and civil rights, and during the 1960 campaign he telephoned [[Coretta Scott King]], wife of the jailed Rev. [[Martin Luther King Jr.]], which drew much black support to his candidacy. However, as president, Kennedy initially believed the grassroots movement for civil rights would only anger many Southern whites and make it even more difficult to pass civil rights laws through Congress, which was dominated by Southern Democrats, and he distanced himself from it. As a result, many civil rights leaders viewed Kennedy as unsupportive of their efforts. It is also notable that Kennedy approved warrantless wiretaps and covert surveillance of King and other civil rights leaders.
On [[June 11]], President Kennedy intervened when the Governor of Alabama, [[George Wallace]], blocked the doorway to the [[University of Alabama]] to stop two black students, [[Vivian Malone]] and [[James Hood]], from enrolling. George Wallace moved aside after being confronted by [[federal marshals]], Deputy Attorney General [[Nicholas Katzenbach]], and the Alabama [[United States National Guard|National Guard]]. That evening Kennedy gave his famous Civil Rights Address on national television and radio, applying the [[Golden Rule (ethics)|golden rule]] to U.S. race relations.[http://www.americanrhetoric.com/speeches/johnfkennedycivilrights.htm] Kennedy proposed what would become the [[Civil Rights Act of 1964]].
[http://www.mass.gov/statehouse/statues/jfk_landing.htm]
[http://usinfo.state.gov/usa/infousa/facts/democrac/39.htm]
Also on the domestic front, in 1963 Kennedy proposed a [[tax reform]] that included income [[tax cuts]], but this was not passed by the Congress until after his death in 1964. It is one of the largest tax cuts in modern U.S. history, surpassing the [[Ronald Reagan|Reagan]] tax cut of 1981.
===Support of space programs===
[[Image:JFKNASA.jpg|thumb|right|200px|JFK looks at the spacecraft [[Mercury Atlas 6|Friendship 7]], the spacecraft that made three earth orbits, piloted by astronaut [[John Glenn]].]]
Kennedy was eager for the United States to lead the way in the [[space race]]. [[Soviet Union|Soviet]] [[Prime Minister]] [[Nikita Khrushchev]]'s son [[Sergei Khrushchev|Sergei]] has said that JFK approached his father twice for a 'joint venture' in space exploration in June 1961 and Autumn 1963. On the first occasion Russia was far ahead of America, and Khrushchev then said 'nyet' ("no"). Kennedy later made a speech at [[Rice University]] in September 1962, in which he said, "no nation which expects to be the leader of other nations can expect to stay behind in this race for space" and "we choose to go to the [[Moon]] in this decade and do the other things, not because they are easy, but because they are hard."[http://webcast.rice.edu/speeches/19620912kennedy.html]. On the second approach to Khrushchev, the Soviet premier was persuaded that cost sharing was beneficial, and American space technology was forging ahead - the U.S. had launched a [[geostationary orbit|geostationary]] satellite, and Kennedy had asked Congress to approve more than 22 billion dollars for [[Project Apollo]], which had the goal of landing an American man on the Moon before the end of the decade. Khrushchev agreed to a joint venture in Autumn 1963, but JFK died in November before the agreement could be formalised.
In 1969, six years after Kennedy's death, the Project Apollo goal was finally realized when [[Neil Armstrong]] and [[Buzz Aldrin]] became the first humans to [[Moon Landing|land on the Moon]].
===Administration and Cabinet===
{| cellpadding="1" cellspacing="4" style="margin:3px; border:3px solid #000000;" align="left"
!bgcolor="#000000" colspan="3"|
|-
|align="left"|'''OFFICE'''||align="left"|'''NAME'''||align="left"|'''TERM'''
|-
!bgcolor="#000000" colspan="3"|
|-
|align="left"|[[President of the United States|President]]||align="left" |'''John F. Kennedy'''||align="left"|1961–1963
|-
|align="left"|[[Vice President of the United States|Vice President]]||align="left"|'''[[Lyndon B. Johnson]]'''||align="left"|1961–1963
|-
!bgcolor="#000000" colspan="3"|
|-
|align="left"|[[United States Secretary of State|State]]||align="left"|'''[[Dean Rusk]]'''||align="left"|1961–1963
|-
|align="left"|[[United States Secretary of the Treasury|Treasury]]||align="left"|'''[[C. Douglas Dillon]]'''||align="left"|1961–1963
|-
|align="left"|[[United States Secretary of Defense|Defense]]||align="left"|'''[[Robert S. McNamara]]'''||align="left"|1961–1963
|-
|align="left"|[[Attorney General of the United States|Justice]]||align="left"|'''[[Robert F. Kennedy]]'''||align="left"|1961–1964
|-
|align="left"|[[Postmaster General of the United States|Postmaster General]]||align="left"|'''[[J. Edward Day]]'''||align="left"|1961–1963
|-
|align="left"| ||align="left"|'''[[John A. Gronouski]]'''||align="left"|1963
|-
|align="left"|[[United States Secretary of the Interior|Interior]]||align="left"|'''[[Stewart L. Udall]]'''||align="left"|1961–1963
|-
|align="left"|[[United States Secretary of Agriculture|Agriculture]]||align="left"|'''[[Orville L. Freeman]]'''||align="left"|1961–1963
|-
|align="left"|[[United States Secretary of Commerce|Commerce]]||align="left"|'''[[Luther H. Hodges]]'''||align="left"|1961–1963
|-
|align="left"|[[United States Secretary of Labor|Labor]]||align="left"|'''[[Arthur J. Goldberg]]'''||align="left"|1961–1962
|-
|align="left"| ||align="left"|'''[[W. Willard Wirtz]]'''||align="left"|1962–1963
|-
|align="left"|[[United States Secretary of Health, Education, and Welfare|HEW]]||align="left"|'''[[Abraham A. Ribicoff]]'''||align="left"|1961–1962
|-
|align="left"| ||align="left"|'''[[Anthony J. Celebrezze]]'''||align="left"|1962–1963
|}
<br clear="all">
[[Image:KennedyCabinet.jpg|thumb|right|Kennedy's Cabinet meets during the Cuban Missile Crisis]]
===Supreme Court appointments===
Kennedy appointed the following Justices to the [[Supreme Court of the United States]]:
* [[Byron Raymond White]] 1962
* [[Arthur Joseph Goldberg]] 1962
===Assassination and aftermath===
[[Image:JFKmotorcade.jpg|thumb|right|President Kennedy, Jackie, and Gov. [[John Connally]] in the Presidential limousine shortly before the assassination.]]
{{main|John F. Kennedy assassination}}
President Kennedy was assassinated in [[Dallas, Texas|Dallas]], [[Texas]] on Friday, [[November 22]], [[1963]] at 12:30 pm [[CST]] while on a political trip through Texas. [[Lee Harvey Oswald]] was charged at 7:00 pm for killing Dallas policeman, J.D. Tippit, by "murder with malice", and also charged at 11:30 pm for the murder of the president (there being no charge of "assassination" of a president at that time). Oswald was fatally shot less than two days later in Dallas police station by [[Jack Ruby]]. Five days after Oswald was killed, the new president, [[Lyndon B. Johnson]], created the [[Warren Commission]], chaired by Chief Justice [[Earl Warren]], to investigate the assassination. It concluded that Oswald was the lone assassin. A later investigation in the 1970s by the [[House Select Committee on Assassinations]] (HSCA) also concluded that Oswald was the assassin, however, it added that he was likely part of a [[conspiracy]] to kill the president, although the committee did not uncover sufficient evidence to identify any other members of the conspiracy.
Critics have proposed a number of [[Kennedy assassination theories]] which contradict the various theories on exactly how the assassination took place that have been proposed by the government's official reports. There is no consensus among government investigations, let alone amongst their critics, on the number of bullets fired at the president, the direction from which all the bullets were fired, and which of the bullets struck the president, and [[List of Governors of Texas|Governor]] [[John Connally]], who was also wounded in the attack.
[[Lee Harvey Oswald]] denied shooting anyone, and claimed he was being set up as a "[[patsy]]". He claimed the photograph of him holding the alleged murder weapon was a fabrication, and that he would prove his face was pasted on the body of someone else holding the rifle. However, because of his own murder by [[Jack Ruby]], Oswald's guilt or innocence was never determined in a court of law. Some critics contend that Oswald was not involved at all and that he was framed.
Among the most widely posited conspirators in the assassination are the [[CIA]], the [[mafia]], the [[KGB]], and [[Fidel Castro]], Vice President [[Lyndon B. Johnson]], and the military-industrial complex.
==Image, social life and family==
{{see|Kennedy political family}}
Both Kennedy and his wife "Jackie" were very young in comparison to earlier presidents and first ladies, and were both extraordinarily popular in ways more common to [[pop singer]]s and [[movie star]]s than politicians, influencing fashion trends and becoming the subjects of numerous photo spreads in popular magazines.
[[Image:Kennedy bros.jpg|thumb|right|200px|The Kennedy brothers during the 1960 campaign: John, Robert, and Edward (Ted)]]
The Kennedys brought a new life and vigor to the atmosphere of the [[White House]]. They believed that the White House should be a place to celebrate American history, culture, and achievement, and invited artists, writers, scientists, poets, musicians, actors, [[Nobel Prize]] winners and athletes to visit. [[Jacqueline Kennedy]] also gathered new [[art]] and [[furniture]] and eventually restored all the rooms in the White House.
The White House also seemed like a more fun, youthful place, because of the Kennedys' two young children, [[Caroline Kennedy|Caroline]] and [[John F. Kennedy Jr.|John Jr.]] (who came to be known in the popular press as "John-John" though years later Jacqueline Kennedy denied that the family called him by that name). Outside the White House Lawn, the Kennedys established a pre-school, swimming pool, and tree house.
Behind the glamorous facade, the Kennedys also suffered many personal tragedies. Jacqueline suffered a miscarriage in 1955, and gave birth to a stillborn daughter in 1956. (Although the daughter was unnamed and is buried at Arlington National Cemetery next to her parents with a marker reading "Daughter" Kennedy later reports indicated that the Kennedys had intended to call her Arabella.) The death of their newborn son [[Patrick Bouvier Kennedy]] in August 1963 was a great loss.
The charisma of Kennedy and his family led to the figurative designation of "[[Camelot (disambiguation)|Camelot]]" for his administration, credited by his widow to his affection for the contemporary Broadway musical of the same name.
Kennedy is the third most [[Gallup's List of Widely Admired People|admired]] person in the 20th century, according to [[Gallup]].
==Legacy==
[[Image:JFKCasketLeavesCapitolHill.JPG|thumb|left|200px|The world mourned the assassinated president]]
[[Television]] became the primary source by which people kept informed of events surrounding John F. Kennedy's assassination, with newspapers the following day becoming more souvenirs than sources of updated information. U.S. networks switched to 24 hour news coverage for the first time ever. [[State funeral of John F. Kennedy|Kennedy’s state funeral]] and the murder of [[Lee Harvey Oswald]] were all broadcast live in America and in other places around the world. It was with this event that television matured as a news source rivaling that of newspapers.
The assassination had such an impact on every American, most that were alive when first learning of the news that Kennedy was assassinated vividly remember where they were when they received word. U.N. Ambassador [[Adlai Stevenson]] said of the assassination that "all of us...will bear the grief of his death until the day of ours."
[[Image:JFK grave.jpg|thumb|right|200px|Kennedy's grave at Arlington National Cemetery.]]
On [[March 14]], [[1967]] Kennedy's body was moved to a permanent burial place and memorial at [[Arlington National Cemetery]]. Kennedy is buried with his wife and their deceased children, and his brother Robert is also buried nearby. His grave is marked with an "[[John F. Kennedy Eternal Flame|Eternal Flame]]." Kennedy and [[William Howard Taft]] are the only two US Presidents buried at Arlington.
Many of Kennedy's speeches, especially his inaugural address, are considered to be inspiring and iconic. Despite his relatively short term in office and a lack of major legislative changes during his term, Americans regularly vote him as one of the best presidents, in the same league as [[Abraham Lincoln]], [[George Washington]] and [[Franklin D. Roosevelt]]. Selected excerpts of Kennedy's inaugural address are engraved on marble panels at his grave at Arlington.
==Memorials==
[[Image:wiki_kennedy.JPG|thumb|left|200px]]
Kennedy's legacy has been memorialized in various aspects of American culture. To name a few:
*New York Idlewild International Airport was renamed [[John F. Kennedy International Airport|JFK]] on [[December 24]], [[1963]]. Even though the airport was renamed "John F. Kennedy International Airport," most people refer to it as "JFK."
*The ''[[USS John F. Kennedy (CV-67)|USS John F. Kennedy]]'' was awarded on [[April 30]], [[1964]] as a [[United States Navy|U.S. Navy]] [[aircraft carrier]].
*The [[John F. Kennedy Presidential Library]] opened in 1979 as Kennedy's official [[presidential library]].
*[[John F. Kennedy University]] opened in [[Pleasant Hill, California]] in 1964 as a school for adult education.
*[[John F. Kennedy National Historic Site]] preserves his home in [[Brookline, Massachusetts]].
*The [[John F. Kennedy Center for the Performing Arts]] opened in 1971 in Washington, DC as a living memorial to him.
*A British memorial at [[Runnymede]], England, as well as a memorial bust near Regent's Park in London.
*A memorial on the harbor at Hyannis Port, Massachusetts.
[[Cape Canaveral]] was renamed Cape Kennedy in 1963, but reverted to its original name in 1973.
Hundreds of schools across the U.S were also renamed in his honor.
Posthumously awarded the [[Presidential Medal of Freedom]] in 1963, Kennedy's portrait now appears on the [[United States half dollar coin]].
==Criticism==
[[Image:wanted for treason.jpg|thumb|230px|A famous handbill circulated on November 21, 1963
In Dallas, Texas. One day before the [[assassination of John F. Kennedy]].]]
Kennedy is among the most popular former presidents of the United States; however, a number of critics argue that his reputation is largely undeserved. Although he was young and charismatic, he had little chance to achieve much during his presidency. Under this reasoning, his immense popularity results from the fact that his short time in office was marked by the optimistic beginnings of many programs declared to be of great benefit to the United States, its people, and various global issues. Unlike the tenures of other U.S. presidents, Kennedy's time in office, generally speaking, thereby lacked the scandals and controversies seen in the terms of many other presidents who served longer. The [[Civil Rights Act of 1964|Civil Rights Act]] that he sent to Congress in June of 1963 was, at least in part, conceived by his brother and Attorney General [[Robert F. Kennedy]], and it was signed into law by his successor, Lyndon Johnson, in 1964.
Kennedy and his vice president Lyndon B. Johnson are primarily blamed for sending the first combat troops into the largely unpopular Vietnam War. Kennedy is also blamed by millions of Cubans for the Bay of Pigs slaughter, in which thousands of Cubans were killed, even after being promised protection from the United States. This promise was broken when Kennedy backed out at the last moment. Many Cuban refugees felt betrayed by the Kennedy adminstration and became Republicans. Many of them served in public office in the state of Florida and in other parts of the nation.
In 2000, The Wall Street Journal joined with the Federalist Society to sponsor a rating of former presidents by a panel of 78 academics, carefully chosen for political balance. The rankings and impressive commentary can be found as "Hail to the Chief." Going up just in time to be swamped by the Florida election contest, the project has not received the attention it deserves. No fewer than 43 raters, an outright majority of the panel, considered President John F. Kennedy overrated. An essay by Akhil Reed Amar of Yale Law School faults JFK for appeasing Southern Democrats by stocking the lower federal bench with "notorious segregationists"; the best civil rights judges were Eisenhower appointees. And with the appointment of his brother as attorney general, he tried to found a political dynasty, abhorred by the Founding Fathers. "The metaphor of Camelot, after all, is ultimately un-American and undemocratic, conjuring up images of crowns and dashing young princes and noble birth."
Kennedy's personal life has also attracted the ire of critics, some of whom argue that lapses in judgment in his personal life impacted his professional life. Among the critics' charges are: that the Kennedy family concealed from the public his serious, potentially life-threatening health issues (e.g., he suffered from [[Addison's disease]]) and his heavy medication regimen; that he had a long history of extramarital affairs; and that he had alleged, circuitous links to [[organized crime]] figures. Seymour Hersh's ''The Dark Side of Camelot'' (1998) presents such a critical argument. Robert Dallek's ''An Unfinished Life'' (2003) is a more balanced biography, but contains much detail on Kennedy's health issues.
Another of Kennedy's critics is U.S. intellectual [[Noam Chomsky]], whose book ''Rethinking Camelot: JFK, the Vietnam War, and US Political Culture'' (1993) presents an image of the Kennedy administration opposite to the one that lingers in mainstream memory. The book is a criticism of policy rather than his personal life, and explores information not usually presented about the 35th president. In particular, Chomsky and many other critics highlight the ill-planned increased U.S. involvement in the [[Vietnam War|Vietnam conflict]] during Kennedy's administration.
==Trivia==
*JFK was the first president born in the 20th century.
*Because of his early death at the age of 46, he was outlived by three of his predecessors, [[Herbert Hoover]] (1874-1964), [[Harry S. Truman]] (1884-1972) and [[Dwight D. Eisenhower]] (1890-1969), and four of his successors who were actually older than he, [[Lyndon B. Johnson]] (1908-1973), [[Richard Nixon]] (1913-1994), [[Gerald Ford]] (b. 1913) and [[Ronald Reagan]] (1911-2004).
==Kennedy in the movies==
* ''[[PT 109 (film)|PT 109]]'' (1963): played by [[Cliff Robertson]]
* ''[[The Missiles of October]]'' (1974, TV): played by [[William Devane]]
* ''[[The Private Files of J. Edgar Hoover]]'' (1977): played by [[William Jordan]]
* ''[[Johnny, We Hardly Knew Ye]]'' (1977, TV): played by [[Paul Rudd]]
* ''[[Young Joe, the Forgotten Kennedy]]'' (1977, TV): played by [[Sam Chew Jr.]]
* ''[[King (TV miniseries)|King]]'' (1978, TV): played by William Jordan
* ''[[Jacqueline Bouvier Kennedy (TV movie)|Jacqueline Bouvier Kennedy]]'' (1981, TV): played by [[James Franciscus]]
* ''[[Blood Feud (TV movie)|Blood Feud]]'' (1983, TV): played by [[Sam Groom]]
* ''[[Kennedy (TV miniseries)|Kennedy]]'' (1983, TV): played by [[Martin Sheen]]
* ''[[Prince Jack]]'' (1985): played by [[Robert Hogan]]
* ''[[Robert Kennedy & His Times]]'' (1985, TV): played by [[Cliff De Young]]
* ''[[J. Edgar Hoover (TV movie)|J. Edgar Hoover]]'' (1987, TV): played by [[Art Hindle]]
* ''[[LBJ: The Early Years]]'' (1987, TV): played by [[Charles Frank]]
* ''[[Onassis: The Richest Man in the World]]'' (1988, TV): played by [[David Gillum]]
* ''[[The Kennedys of Massachusetts]]'' (1990, TV): played by [[Steven Weber (actor)|Steven Weber]]
* ''[[Malcolm X (film)|Malcolm X]]'' (1992): played by [[Steve Reed (actor)|Steve Reed]]
* ''[[Ruby (film)|Ruby]]'' (1992): played by [[Gérard David]] and [[Kevin Wiggins]]
* ''[[Sinatra (TV movie)|Sinatra]]'' (1992, TV): played by [[James F. Kelly]]
* ''[[J.F.K.: Reckless Youth]]'' (1993, TV): played by [[Patrick Dempsey]]
* ''[[Forrest Gump]]'' (1994): played by [[Jed Gillin]]
* ''[[Norma Jean & Marilyn]]'' (1996, TV): played by [[Perry Stephens]]
* ''[[The Rat Pack (TV movie)|The Rat Pack]]'' (1998, TV): played by [[William L. Petersen]]
* ''[[Bonanno: A Godfather's Story]]'' (1999, TV): played by [[Matt Norklun]]
* ''[[Thirteen Days]]'' (2000): played by [[Bruce Greenwood]]
* ''[[Jackie Bouvier Kennedy Onassis]]'' (2000, TV): played by [[Tim Matheson]]
* ''[[Jackie, Ethel, Joan: The Women of Camelot]]'' (2001, TV): played by [[Daniel Hugh Kelly]]
* ''[[Power and Beauty]]'' (2002, TV): played by [[Kevin Anderson (actor)|Kevin Anderson]]
* ''[[RFK (film)|RFK]]'' (2002, TV): played by [[Martin Donovan]]
* ''[[America's Prince: The John F. Kennedy Jr. Story]]'' (2003, TV): played by [[Randy Triggs]]
==See also==
* [[John F. Kennedy assassination]]
* [[Kennedy assassination theories]]
* [[John F. Kennedy, Jr.]]
* [[Robert F. Kennedy assassination]]
* [[State funeral of John F. Kennedy]]
* [[Kennedy Compound]]
* [[John F. Kennedy Center for the Performing Arts]]
* [[John Fitzgerald Kennedy Library]] in Boston, Massachusetts
* [[U.S. presidential election, 1960]]
* [[History of the United States (1945-1964)|History of the United States (1945–1964)]]
* [[Jesuit Ivy]]
* [[Peace Corps]]
* [[John F. Kennedy Eternal Flame]]
* [[Runnymede|John F. Kennedy Memorial]] at Runnymede, England
* [[Kennedy Memorial Trust]]
* [[Five cents John Kennedy]], postage stamp
* [[Whiz Kids]]
* [[Evelyn Lincoln]], personal secretary to the President
* [[Kennedy Doctrine]]
* [[Lincoln/Kennedy Coincidences]]
* [[Coincidence theory]]
* [[Kennedy curse]]
* [[List of people on stamps of Ireland]]
==References==
===Secondary sources===
* Brauer, Carl. ''John F. Kennedy and the Second Reconstruction'' (1977)
* Burner, David. ''John F. Kennedy and a New Generation'' (1988)
*{{cite book | author=Dallek, Robert | title=An Unfinished Life : John F. Kennedy, 1917 1963 | publisher=Brown, Little | year=2003 | id=ISBN 0316172383}}
*Freedman, Lawrence. ''Kennedy's Wars: Berlin, Cuba, Laos, and Vietnam (2000)
* Fursenko, Aleksandr and Timothy Naftali. ''One Hell of a Gamble: Khrushchev, Castro, and Kennedy, 1958-1964'' (1997)
* Giglio, James. ''The Presidency of John F. Kennedy'' (1991), standard scholarly overview.
* Harper, Paul, and Joann P. Krieg eds. ''John F. Kennedy: The Promise Revisited'' (1988) scholarly articles on presidency.
* Harris, Seymour E. ''The Economics of the Political Parties, with Special Attention to Presidents Eisenhower and Kennedy'' (1962)
*Heath, Jim F. ''Decade of Disillusionment: The Kennedy-Johnson Years'' (1976)
*Kunz; Diane B. ''The Diplomacy of the Crucial Decade: American Foreign Relations during the 1960s'' (1994)
* O'Brien, Michael. ''John F. Kennedy: A Biography'' (2005)
* Parmet, Herbert. ''JFK: The Presidency of John F. Kennedy'' (1983)
* Patterson, James T''. Grand Expectations: The United States, 1945–1974'' (1996).
* Piper, Michael Collins. " Final Judgment" 2004 (sixth edition). American Free Press.
* Reeves, Richard. ''President Kennedy: Profile of Power'' (1993)
* Reeves, Thomas. ''A Question of Character: A Life of John F. Kennedy'' (1991) negative assessment
* Schlesinger, Arthur, Jr. ''A Thousand Days: John F. Kennedy in the White House'' (1965) by a close advisor.
* Sorenson, Theodore. ''Kennedy'' (1966) by a close advisor.
===Primary sources===
*Goldzwig, Steven R. and George N. Dionisopoulos, eds. ''In a Perilous Hour: The Public Address of John F. Kennedy'', text and analysis of key speeches (1995)
==Media==
{{multi-video start}}
{{multi-video item |
filename = Kennedy inauguration footage.ogg |
title = Kennedy inauguration footage |
description = Newsreel footage of the inauguration ceremony and speeches. (18.7 [[Megabyte|MB]], [[ogg]]/[[Theora]] format). |
format = [[Theora]]
}}
{{multi-video end}}
==External links==
{{wikiquote}}
{{Wikisource author}}
* [http://www.jfklibrary.org/ John F. Kennedy Library]
* [http://www.pophistorynow.com/samples.htm The 1960's Week-By-Week - Follows JFK's run to the White House and his time as President. Very comprehensive and includes a look at First Lady Jackie's influence on pop culture]
* [http://www.whitehouse.gov/history/presidents/jk35.html The White House Biography]
* [http://search.yale.edu:8765/query.html?col=ycsg&col=opa&col=yaleuniv&col=dynamic&qt=John+F.+Kennedy&charset=iso-8859-1&qp=%2Burl%3Awww.yale.edu%2Flawweb%2Favalon JFK at the Avalon Project]
* [http://www.whitehousetapes.org/pages/tapes_jfk.htm JFK's Secret White House Recordings @ University of Virginia's Miller Center of Public Affairs]
*[http://www.heraldrysociety.us/presidents/index.php?page=Kennedy Armigerous American Presidents Series]
* [http://vvl.lib.msu.edu/showfindingaid.cfm?findaidid=KennedyJF Audio clips of Kennedy's speeches and other commentary]
* [http://www.spartacus.schoolnet.co.uk/JFKindex.htm Assassination of President Kennedy Encyclopaedia]
* [http://mcadams.posc.mu.edu/home.htm McAdams website about JFK]
* [http://www.csicop.org/si/2005-01/strange-world.html article: Facts and Fiction in the Kennedy Assassination]
* [http://www.rootdig.com/john_f_kennedy.html John F. Kennedy in United States Census Records]
* [http://www.doctorzebra.com/prez/g35.htm Medical and Health history of John F. Kennedy]
* {{gutenberg author| id=John+F.+Kennedy | name=John F. Kennedy}}
* [http://mcadams.posc.mu.edu/stjohn.htm St. John the Liberal?]
* [http://bioguide.congress.gov/scripts/biodisplay.pl?index=K000107 Biographical Directory of the U.S. Congress]
* [http://www.kcur.org/UTDarchive.html Gretchen Rubin radio interview]. [[November 4]], [[2005]] on ''Up To Date''.
{{start box}}
{{U.S. Representative box |
state=Massachusetts |
district=11 |
district_ord=11th |
before=[[James Michael Curley]] |
after=[[Thomas P. O'Neill, Jr.]] |
years=1947 – 1953
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{{U.S. Senator box|
state=Massachusetts|
class=1|
before=[[Henry Cabot Lodge, Jr.]]|
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{{succession box|title=[[President of the United States]]|before=[[Dwight D. Eisenhower]]|after=[[Lyndon B. Johnson]]|years=[[January 20]], [[1961]] – [[November 22]], [[1963]]}}
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|PLACE OF BIRTH=[[Brookline, Massachusetts]], [[United States of America]]
|DATE OF DEATH=[[November 22]], [[1963]]
|PLACE OF DEATH=[[Dallas, Texas]], [[United States of America]]
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[[uk:Кеннеді Джон Фітцджеральд]]
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James Joyce
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2006-03-02T02:20:41Z
Markalexander100
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Reverted edits by [[Special:Contributions/Biff boffkins|Biff boffkins]] ([[User talk:Biff boffkins|talk]]) to last version by Markalexander100
{{Infobox_Biography
|subject_name=James Augustine Aloysius Joyce
|image_name=Joyce oconnell dublin.jpg
|image_caption=Irish novelist, short-story writer and poet
|date_of_birth=[[2 February]] [[1882]]
|place_of_birth=[[Rathgar]], [[Dublin]], [[Ireland]]
|dead=dead
|date_of_death=[[13 January]] [[1941]]
|place_of_death=[[Zürich]], [[Switzerland]]}}
'''James Augustine Aloysius Joyce''' ([[2 February]] [[1882]] – [[13 January]] [[1941]]) was an [[expatriate]] [[Ireland|Irish]] writer and poet, widely considered to be one of the most influential writers of the [[20th century]]. He is best known for his short story collection ''[[Dubliners]]'' ([[1914]]), and his novels ''[[A Portrait of the Artist as a Young Man]]'' ([[1916]]), ''[[Ulysses (novel)|Ulysses]]'' ([[1922]]), and ''[[Finnegans Wake]]'' ([[1939]]).
Although most of his adult life was spent outside the country, Joyce's Irish experiences are essential to his writings and provide all of the settings for his fiction and much of their subject matter. His fictional universe is firmly rooted in [[Dublin]] and reflects his family life and the events and friends (and enemies) from his school and college days. Due to this, he became both one of the most cosmopolitan and one of the most local of all the great [[English language]] [[modernist literature|modernists]].
==Life and writings==
===Dublin, 1882-1904===
In 1882, James Augustine Joyce was born into a [[Catholic]] family in the Dublin [[suburb]] of [[Rathgar]]. He was the eldest of ten surviving children; two of his siblings died of typhoid. His father's family, originally from [[Cork]], once owned a small salt and lime works. Both Joyce's paternal grandfather and his father married into wealthy families. In 1887, his father, [[John Joyce|John Stanislaus Joyce]], was appointed rate collector by [[Dublin Corporation]]; the family subsequently moved to the fashionable new suburb of [[Bray]]. Around this time Joyce was attacked by a dog, which added them to his lifelong fear of thunderstorms, a fear that had been inspired by his deeply religious aunt as a sign of God's divine wrath.
In [[1891]], James wrote a poem, "Et Tu Healy," on the death of [[Charles Stewart Parnell]]. His father had it printed and even sent a copy to the [[Vatican Library]]. In November of that same year, John Joyce was entered in ''[[Stubbs Gazette]]'' (an official register of [[bankrupt|bankruptcies]]) and suspended from work. In 1893 John Joyce was dismissed with a [[pension]]. This was the beginning of a slide into [[poverty]] for the family, mainly due to John's drinking and general financial mismanagement.
James Joyce was initially educated at [[Clongowes Wood College]], a boarding school in [[County Kildare]], which he entered in 1888 but had to leave in 1892 when his father could no longer pay the fees. Joyce then studied at home and briefly at the [[Christian Brothers]] school on North Richmond Street, Dublin, before he was offered a place in the [[Jesuits]]' Dublin school, [[Belvedere College]], in 1893. The offer was made at least partly in the hope that he would prove to have a vocation and join the Order. Joyce, however, would reject [[Catholicism]] by the age of 16, although the philosophy of [[St. Thomas Aquinas]] would remain a strong influence on him throughout his life.
He enrolled at the recently established [[University College Dublin]] in 1898, as [[Trinity College, Dublin|Trinity College]] was still off-limits to Catholics. He studied modern languages, specifically [[English language|English]], [[French language|French]] and [[Italian language|Italian]]. He also became active in theatrical and literary circles in the city. His review of ''[[Henrik Ibsen|Ibsen]]'s New Drama'' was published in 1900 and resulted in a letter of thanks from the [[Norway|Norwegian]] dramatist himself. Joyce wrote a number of other articles and at least two plays (since lost) during this period. Many of the friends he made at University College would appear as characters in Joyce's written works.
After graduating from UCD in 1903, Joyce left for Paris; ostensibly to study medicine, but in reality he squandered money his family could ill afford. He returned to Ireland after a few months, when his mother was diagnosed with cancer. Joyce refused to pray at her bedside but this seems to have had more to do with Joyce's agnosticism than antagonism for his mother. After she died he continued to drink heavily, and conditions at home grew quite appalling. He scraped a living reviewing books, teaching and singing. On [[7 January]] [[1904]], he wrote ''A Portrait of the Artist'', an essay-story dealing with aesthetics, in a day, only to have it rejected from the free-thinking magazine ''Dana''. He decided, on his twenty-second birthday, to revise the story and turn it into a novel he planned to call ''Stephen Hero''. The same year he met [[Nora Barnacle]], a young woman from [[Connemara]], [[County Galway]] who was working as a chambermaid. On [[16 June]] [[1904]], they went on their first date, an event which would be commemorated by providing the date for the action of ''Ulysses''. Joyce remained in Dublin for some time longer, drinking heavily. After one of these drinking binges, he got into an fight over a misunderstanding with a man in [[Phoenix Park]]; he was picked up and dusted off by a minor acquaintance of his father's, Alfred H. Hunter, who brought him into his home to tend to his injuries. Hunter was rumored to be a [[Jew]] and to have an unfaithful wife, and would serve as one of the models for [[Leopold Bloom]], the main protagonist of ''Ulysses''. He took up with medical student [[Oliver St John Gogarty]], who formed the basis for the character Buck Mulligan in ''Ulysses''. After staying in Gogarty's [[Martello Tower]] for six nights he left in the middle of the night following an altercation which involved Gogarty shooting a pistol in his direction. He walked all the way back to Dublin to stay with relatives for the night, and sent a friend to the tower the next day to pack his trunk. Shortly thereafter he eloped to the continent with Nora.
===1904-1920: Trieste and Zurich===
Joyce and Nora went into self-imposed exile, moving first to [[Zurich]], where he had supposedly acquired a post teaching English at the [[Berlitz Language Schools|Berlitz Language School]] through an agent in England. It turned out that the English agent had been swindled, but the director of the school sent him on to [[Trieste]], in [[Austria-Hungary]]. Once again, he found there was no position for him, but with the help of Almidano Artifoni, director of the Trieste Berlitz school, he finally secured a teaching position in [[Pula|Pola]], then part of Austria-Hungary (today part of [[Croatia]]). He stayed there from October 1904 through March 1905, when the Austrians discovered an espionage ring in the city and expelled all aliens. With Artifoni's help, he moved back to Trieste and began teaching English. He would remain in Trieste for most of the next ten years.
Later that year Nora gave birth to their first child, George. He then managed to talk his brother, [[Stanislaus Joyce|Stanislaus]], into joining him in Trieste, and secured him a position teaching at the school. Ostensibly his reasons were for his company and offering his brother a much more interesting life than the simple clerking job he had back in Dublin, but in truth, he hoped to augment his family's meagre income with his brother's earnings. Stanislaus and Joyce had strained relations the entire time they lived together in Trieste, most arguments centering around Joyce's frivolity with money and drinking habits.
With chronic wanderlust much of his early life, Joyce became frustrated with life in Trieste and moved to [[Rome]] in late 1906, having secured a position working in a bank in the city. He intensely disliked Rome, however, and ended up moving back to Trieste in early 1907. His daughter [[Lucia Joyce|Lucia]] was born in the summer of the same year.
Joyce returned to Dublin in the summer of 1909 with George, in order to visit his father, show off his son and work on getting ''Dubliners'' published. He visited Nora's family in [[Galway]], meeting them for the first time (a successful visit, to his relief). When preparing to return to Trieste he decided to bring one of his sisters, Eva, back to Trieste with him in order to help Nora look after the home. He would spend only a month back in Trieste before again heading back to Dublin, this time as a representative of some cinema owners in order to set up a regular cinema in Dublin. The venture was successful (but would quickly fall apart in his absence), and he returned to Trieste in January 1910 with another sister in tow, Eileen. While Eva became very homesick for Dublin and returned a few years later, Eileen spent the rest of her life on the continent, eventually marrying Czech bank cashier Frantisek Schaurek.
Joyce returned to Dublin briefly in the summer of 1912 during his years-long fight with his Dublin publisher, George Roberts, over the publication of ''Dubliners''. His trip was once again fruitless, and on his return he wrote the poem "Gas from a Burner" as a thinly veiled invective of Roberts. It was his last trip to Ireland, and he never came closer to Dublin than London again, despite the many pleas of his father and invitations from fellow Irish writer [[William Butler Yeats]].
Joyce came up with many money-making schemes during this period of his life, such as his attempt to become a cinema magnate back in Dublin, as well as an always-discussed but never-accomplished plan to import Irish tweeds into Trieste. His expert borrowing skills kept him from ever becoming completely destitute. His income was made up partially from his position at the Berlitz school, and partially from taking on private students. Many of his aquaintances through meeting these private students proved invaluable allies during his problems getting out of Austria-Hungary and into [[Switzerland]] in 1915.
One of his students in Trieste was [[Italo Svevo|Ettore Schmitz]], better known by the pseudonym [[Italo Svevo]]; they met in 1907 and became lasting friends and mutual critics. Schmitz was a Jew, and became the primary model for Leopold Bloom; most of the details about the Jewish faith included in ''Ulysses'' came from Schmitz in response to Joyce's queries. Joyce would spend most of the rest of his life on the Continent. It was in Trieste that he first began to be plagued by major eye problems, which would result in over a dozen surgeries before his death.
In 1915 he moved to Zurich in order to avoid the complexities of living in Austria-Hungary during [[World War I]], where he met one of his most enduring and important friends, Frank Budgen, whose opinion Joyce constantly sought through the writing of ''Ulysses'' and ''Finnegans Wake''. It was also here where [[Ezra Pound]] brought him to the attention of English feminist and publisher [[Harriet Shaw Weaver]], who would become Joyce's patron, providing him thousands of pounds over the next 25 years and relieving him of the burden of teaching in order to focus on his writing. After the war he returned to Trieste briefly, but found the city had changed, and his relations with his brother (who had been interred in an Austrian prison camp for most of the war due to his pro-Italian politics) were more strained than ever. Joyce headed to Paris in 1920 at an invitation from Ezra Pound, supposedly for a week, but he ended up living there for the next twenty years.
===1920-1941: Paris and Zurich===
He travelled frequently to Switzerland for eye surgeries and treatments for Lucia, who suffered from [[schizophrenia]]. In Paris, [[Maria Jolas|Maria]] and [[Eugene Jolas]] nursed Joyce during his long years of writing ''Finnegans Wake''. Were it not for their unwavering support (along with Harriet Shaw Weaver's unwavering financial support), there is a good possibility that his books might never have been finished or published. In their now legendary literary magazine ''"transition''," the Jolases published serially various sections of Joyce's novel under the title ''Work in Progress.'' He returned to Zurich to live after the [[Nazi]] occupation of [[France]] in [[1939]]. He lived quietly in Zurich for the next two years. On [[11 January]] [[1941]], he underwent surgery for a perforated ulcer. While at first improved, he relapsed the following day, and despite several transfusions, fell into a coma. He awoke at 2 a.m. on [[13 January]] [[1941]], and asked for a nurse to call his wife and son before losing consciousness again. They were still en route when he expired fifteen minutes later. He is buried in the [[Fluntern Cemetery]] within earshot of the lions in the Zurich zoo. His wife Nora, (whom he finally married in London in 1931) survived him by 10 years. She is buried now by his side, as is their son George, who passed away in 1976.
==Major works==
[[Image:CBI - SERIES C - TEN POUND NOTE.PNG|right|300px|thumb|James Joyce as depicted on the £10 note of [[Series C Banknotes (Ireland)|Series C of Ireland]]]]
'''Dubliners'''
Joyce's Irish experiences are essential to his writings, and provide all of the settings for his fiction and much of their subject matter. The early volume of short stories, ''[[Dubliners]]'', is a penetrating analysis of the stagnation and paralysis of Dublin society. The stories incorporate [[Epiphany|epiphanies]], a word used particularly by Joyce, by which he meant a sudden consciousness of the "soul" of a thing. Although many of Joyce's works illustrate the rich tradition of the [[Catholic Church]], his short story "Araby" displays his disaffection and loss of faith with the Church. The final and most famous story in the collection, "[[The Dead (short story)|The Dead]]", was directed by [[John Huston]] as his last feature film, completed in 1987.
'''A Portrait of the Artist as a Young Man'''
''[[A Portrait of the Artist as a Young Man]]'' is a nearly complete rewrite of the abandoned ''Stephen Hero'' novel, the original manuscript of which was partially destroyed in a fit of rage during an argument with Nora. A künstlerroman, or story of the development of an artist (a type of [[bildungsroman]], or coming of age novel), it is largely autobiographical, showing the process of attaining maturity and self-consciousness by a gifted young man. The main character is [[Stephen Dedalus]], Joyce's representation of himself. In this novel, some glimpses of Joyce's later techniques are evident, in the use of interior monologue and in the concern with the psychic rather than external reality. [[Joseph Strick]] directed a film of the book in 1977 starring [[Luke Johnston]], [[Bosco Hogan]], [[T.P. McKenna]] and [[John Gielgud]].
'''Exiles and poetry'''
Despite early interest in the theatre, Joyce published only one play, ''Exiles'', begun shortly after the outbreak of [[World War I]] in [[1914]] and published in 1918. A study of a husband and wife relationship, the play looks back to ''The Dead'' (the final story in ''Dubliners'') and forward to ''Ulysses'', which was begun around the time of the play's composition.
Joyce also published a number of books of poetry. His first mature published work was the satirical broadside "The Holy Office" ([[1904]]), in which he proclaimed himself to be the superior of many prominent members of the [[Celtic revival]]. His first full-length poetry collection ''Chamber Music'' (named after the sound of urine hitting the side of a chamber pot) consisted of 36 short lyrics. This publication led to his inclusion in the ''[[Imagism|Imagist Anthology]]'', edited by [[Ezra Pound]], who was a champion of Joyce's work. The other poetry Joyce published in his lifetime consists of "Gas From A Burner" ([[1912]]), ''Pomes Penyeach'' ([[1927]]) and "Ecce Puer", written in 1932 to mark the birth of his grandson and the recent death of his father. It was published in ''Collected Poems'' ([[1936]]).
'''Ulysses'''
In 1906, as he was completing work on ''Dubliners'', Joyce considered adding another story featuring a Jewish advertising canvasser called [[Leopold Bloom]] under the title ''[[Ulysses (novel)|Ulysses]]''. The story was not written, but the idea stayed with Joyce and, in 1914, he started work on a novel using both the title and basic premise, completing the writing in October, 1921. It was to be another three months before Joyce would stop working on the [[proofreading|proofs]] of the book; he halted on the cusp of his self-imposed deadline, his 40th birthday ([[2 February]] [[1922]]).
Thanks to [[Ezra Pound]], serial publication of the novel in the magazine ''[[The Little Review]]'' began in 1918. This magazine was edited by [[Margaret Anderson]] and [[Jane Heap]], with the backing of [[John Quinn (collector)|John Quinn]], a [[New York]] [[attorney]] with an interest in contemporary experimental art and literature. Unfortunately, this serialisation ran into censorship problems in the [[United States]], and in 1920 the editors were convicted of publishing obscenity, resulting in an end to the serial publication of the novel. The novel remained banned in the States until 1933.
At least partly because of this controversy, Joyce found it difficult to get a publisher to accept the book, but it was published in 1922 by [[Sylvia Beach]] from her well-known [[Left Bank]] bookshop, ''[[Shakespeare and Company]]''. An English edition published the same year by Joyce's patron, [[Harriet Shaw Weaver]], ran into further difficulties with the United States authorities, and 500 copies that were shipped to the States were seized and possibly destroyed. The following year, [[John Rodker]] produced a print run of 500 more intended to replace the missing copies, but these were burned by English customs at [[Folkestone]]. A further consequence of the novel's ambiguous legal status as a banned book was that a number of 'bootleg' versions appeared, most notably a number of pirate versions from the publisher [[Samuel Roth]]. In 1928, a court injunction against Roth was obtained and he ceased publication.
[[1922]] was a key year in the history of English-language literary modernism, with the appearance of both ''Ulysses'' and [[T. S. Eliot]]'s poem, ''[[The Waste Land]]''. In ''Ulysses'', Joyce employs stream of consciousness, parody, jokes, and virtually every other literary technique to present his characters. The action of the novel, which takes place in a single day, [[16 June]] [[1904]], sets the characters and incidents of the [[Odyssey]] of [[Homer]] in modern Dublin and represents [[Odysseus]] (Ulysses), [[Penelope]] and [[Telemachus]] in the characters of Leopold Bloom, his wife [[Molly Bloom]] and Stephen Dedalus, parodically contrasted with their lofty models. The book explores various areas of Dublin life, dwelling on its squalor and monotony. Nevertheless, the book is also an affectionately detailed study of the city, and Joyce claimed that if Dublin were to be destroyed in some catastrophe it could be rebuilt, brick by brick, using his work as a model. In order to achieve this level of accuracy, Joyce used the 1904 edition of [[Thom's Directory]]— a work that listed the owners and/or tenants of every
residential and commercial property in the city. He also bombarded friends still living there with requests for information and clarification.
The book consists of 18 chapters, each covering roughly one hour of the day, beginning around about 8 a.m. and ending sometime after 2 a.m. the following morning. Each of the 18 chapters of the novel employs its own literary style. Each chapter also refers to a specific episode in Homer's Odyssey and has a specific colour, art or science and bodily organ associated with it. This combination of kaleidoscopic writing with an extreme formal, schematic structure represents one of the book's major contributions to the development of [[20th century]] modernist literature. The use of [[classical mythology]] as a framework for his book and the near-obsessive focus on external detail in a book in which much of the significant action is happening inside the minds of the characters are others. Nevertheless, Joyce complained that, "I may have oversystematised ''Ulysses''," and played down the mythic correspondences by eliminating the chapter titles that had been taken from Homer.
Joseph Strick directed a [[Ulysses (film)|film]] of the book in 1967 starring [[Milo O'Shea]], [[Barbara Jefford]] and [[Maurice Roëves]]. [[Sean Walsh]] directed another version released in 2004 starring [[Stephen Rea]], [[Angeline Ball]] and [[Hugh O'Conor]].
'''Finnegans Wake'''
Having completed work on ''Ulysses'', Joyce felt he had completed his life's work but soon was at work on an even more ambitious work. On [[10 March]] [[1923]] he began work on a text that was to be known, first, as ''Work in Progress'' and later ''[[Finnegans Wake]]''. By 1926 he had completed the first two parts of the book. In that year, he met Eugene and Maria Jolas who offered to serialise the book in their magazine ''[[Transition (literary journal)|transition]]''. For the next few years, Joyce worked rapidly on the new book, but in the [[1930s]], progress slowed considerably. This was due to a number of factors, including the death of his father in 1931, concern over the mental health of his daughter [[Lucia Joyce|Lucia]] and his own health problems, including failing eyesight. Much of the work was done with the assistance of younger admirers, including [[Samuel Beckett]]. For some years, Joyce nursed the eccentric plan of turning over the book to his friend [[James Stephens]] to complete, on the grounds that Stephens was born in the same hospital as Joyce exactly one week later, and shared the first name of both Joyce and of Joyce's fictional alter-ego (this is one example of Joyce's numerous superstitions).
Reaction to the early sections that appeared in ''transition'' was mixed, including negative comment from early supporters of Joyce's work, such as Pound and the author's brother [[Stanislaus Joyce]]. In order to counteract this hostile reception, a book of essays by supporters of the new work, including Beckett, [[William Carlos Williams]] and others was organised and published in 1929 under the title ''[[Our Exagmination Round His Factification for Incamination of Work in Progress]]''. At his 47th birthday party at the Jolases' home, Joyce revealed the final title of the work and ''Finnegans Wake'' was published in book form on [[4 May]] [[1939]].
Joyce's method of stream of consciousness, literary allusions and free dream associations was pushed to the limit in ''[[Finnegans Wake]]'', which abandoned all conventions of plot and character construction and is written in a peculiar and obscure language, based mainly on complex multi-level puns. This approach is similar to, but far more extensive than that used by [[Lewis Carroll]] in "[[Jabberwocky]]". If ''Ulysses'' is a day in the life of a city, the ''Wake'' is a night and partakes of the logic of dreams. This has led many readers and critics to apply Joyce's oft-quoted description in the Wake of ''Ulysses'' as his ''usylessly unreadable Blue Book of Eccles'' to the Wake itself. However, readers have been able to reach a consensus about the central cast of characters and general plot.
Much of the wordplay in the book stems from the use of multilingual puns which draw on a wide range of languages. The role played by Beckett and other assistants included collating words from these languages on cards for Joyce to use and, as Joyce's eyesight worsened, of writing the text from the author's dictation.
The view of history propounded in this text is very strongly influenced by [[Giambattista Vico]], and the metaphysics of [[Giordano Bruno]] of [[Nola]] are important to the interplay of the "characters". Vico propounded a cyclical view of history, in which civilisation rose from chaos, passed through theocratic, aristocratic, and democratic phases, and then lapsed back into chaos. The most obvious example of the influence of Vico's cyclical theory of history is to be found in the opening and closing sentences of the book. ''Finnegans Wake'' opens with the words 'riverrun, past Eve and Adam's, from swerve of shore to bend of bay, brings us by a commodius vicus of recirculation back to Howth Castle and Environs.' (with a pun on Vico in 'vicus') and ends 'A way a lone a last a loved a long the'. In other words, the first sentence starts on the last page and the last sentence on the first, turning the book into one great cycle. Indeed, Joyce said that the ideal reader of the ''Wake'' would suffer from ''ideal insomnia'' and, on completing the book, would turn to page one and start again, and so on in an endless cycle of reading.
==Joyce's legacy==
[[Image:Ireland - Dublin - St Stephen's Green - James Joyce.jpg|A bust of James Joyce in St. Stephen's Green in Dublin|thumb]]
Joyce's work has been subject to intense scrutiny by scholars of all types. He has also been an important influence on writers as diverse as [[Samuel Beckett]], [[Jorge Luis Borges]], [[Flann O'Brien]], [[Máirtín Ó Cadhain]], [[Salman Rushdie]], [[Thomas Pynchon]] and [[William Burroughs]].
Joyce's influence is also evident in fields other than literature. The phrase "Three Quarks for Muster Mark" in Joyce's ''Finnegans Wake'' is often called the source of the physicists' word "[[quark]]", the name of one of the main kinds of [[elementary particle]]s, proposed by the physicist [[Murray Gell-Mann]]. ([[James Gleick]]'s book ''Genius'' notes that Gell-Mann may have found the Joycean antecedent after the fact; as Gleick observes, physicists have pronounced ''quark'' to rhyme with ''cork'' and not with ''Mark.'' It may be noted, however, against Gleick's speculation, that the discoverers of quarks were Americans who would have pronounced quark in the American, not the Irish accent.) The French philosopher [[Jacques Derrida]] has written a book on the use of language in ''Ulysses'', and the American philosopher [[Donald Davidson (philosopher)|Donald Davidson]] has written similarly on ''Finnegans Wake'' in comparison with [[Lewis Carroll]]. [[Vladimir Nabokov]] esteemed ''Ulysses'' greatly, listing it with [[Franz Kafka]]'s "[[The Metamorphosis]]" as one of the [[20th century]]'s greatest prose works. However, Nabokov was less than thrilled with ''Finnegans Wake'' (see ''[[Strong Opinions]],'' ''[[Lolita|The Annotated Lolita]]'' or ''[[Pale Fire]]''), an attitude which [[Jorge Luis Borges]] shared.
''Finnegans Wake'' is a recurring theme in [[Tom Robbins]]'s novel ''[[Fierce Invalids Home from Hot Climates]].'' In that novel, it is the favourite discussion topic of the [[Bangkok]]-based "C.R.A.F.T. Club" (Can't Remember A Fucking Thing). The protagonist, a [[CIA]] agent named Switters, contemplates writing a thesis about it. The life of Joyce is celebrated annually on June 16, [[Bloomsday]], in [[Dublin]] and in an increasing number of cities worldwide.
==Bibliography==
* ''[[Stephen Hero]]'' (written 1904-6: precursor to the ''Portrait'', published 1944)
* ''[[Chamber Music]]'' ([[1907 in literature|1907]] [[poem]]s)
* ''[[Dubliners]]'' ([[1914 in literature|1914]])
* ''[[Exiles (play)|Exiles]]'' ([[1915 in literature|1915]] [[play]])
* ''[[A Portrait of the Artist as a Young Man]]'' ([[1916 in literature|1916]])
* ''[[Ulysses (novel)|Ulysses]]'' ([[1922 in literature|1922]])
* ''[[Pomes Penyeach]]'' ([[1927 in literature|1927]] poems)
* ''[[Finnegans Wake]]'' ([[1939 in literature|1939]])
==References==
'''General (print) '''
*[[Anthony Burgess|Burgess, Anthony]]. ''Joysprick: An Introduction to the Language of James Joyce'' (1973)
* ---''Here Comes Everybody: An Introduction to James Joyce for the Ordinary Reader'' (1965); also published as ''Re Joyce''.
*[[Richard Ellmann|Ellmann, Richard]]. ''[[James Joyce (biography)|James Joyce]]''. Oxford University Press, 1959, revised edition 1983.
*Igoe, Vivien. A Literary Guide to Dublin. ISBN 0-4136912-0-9
*Levin, Harry (ed. with introduction and notes). ''The Essential James Joyce''. Cape, 1948. Revised edition Penguin in association with Jonathan Cape, 1963.
*[[William H. Quillian|Quillian, William H.]] ''Hamlet and the new poetic: James Joyce and [[T.S. Eliot]]''. Ann Arbor, MI: UMI Research Press, 1983.
*Read, Forrest. ''Pound/Joyce: The Letters of Ezra Pound to James Joyce, with Pound's Essays on Joyce''. New Directions, 1967.
'''General (web) '''
*[http://www.fathom.com/course/10701034/index.html How to Read Joyce], a seminar by [[Cambridge University Press]].
*[http://www.pgil-eirdata.org/html/pgil_datasets/authors/j/Joyce,James/life1.htm Detailed timeline of Joyce's life, contemporary critical comments and Joyce, &c.]
*[http://joycean.org/ Essays and Criticism about James Joyce; Texts of his Major Works]
*[http://www.james-joyce-music.com Music in the Works of James Joyce]
*[http://www.pulainfo.hr/en/jj.asp James Joyce the citizen of Pula]
*[http://www.histrica.com/g/celebs/james-joyce James Joyce in the Croatia]
*[http://www.jamesjoyce.nl James Joyce in the Netherlands]
*[http://libtext.library.wisc.edu/JoyceColl/ The James Joyce Scholars' Collection]
*[http://www.utulsa.edu/jjq The James Joyce Quarterly]
'''Dubliners'''
*[http://www.hackwriters.com/dubliners.htm In depth review of ''Dubliners'']
'''Ulysses'''
*[http://www.uwm.edu/Library/special/exhibits/clastext/clspg158.htm Publication history of ''Ulysses'']
*[http://www.doc.ic.ac.uk/~rac101/ulysses/ A hypertextual, self-referential, complete edition of ''Ulysses'']
*[http://www.ulysses-art.demon.co.uk/scheme.html Schemata of ''Ulysses'']
*[http://www.threemonkeysonline.com/threemon_articleJames%20Joyce%20Ulysses.htm James Joyce’s ''Ulysses'': Why the Fuss? - An introduction to ''Ulysses'']
'''Finnegans Wake (print)'''
*[[Samuel Beckett|Beckett, Samuel]]; [[William Carlos Williams]]; et al. ''Our Exagmination Round His Factification For Incamination Of Work In Progress''. Shakespeare and Company, 1929.
*[[Anthony Burgess|Burgess, Anthony]] (ed.) ''A Shorter 'Finnegans Wake''', 1969.
*[[Joseph Campbell|Campbell, Joseph]] and Henry Morton Robinson. ''A Skeleton Key to Finnegan's Wake'', 1961.
*McHugh, Roland. ''Annotations to Finnegans Wake''. Johns Hopkins University Press, 1991.
*Tindall, William York. ''A Reader's Guide to Finnegans Wake''. Syracuse University Press, 1996 (First published 1969).
'''Finnegans Wake (web)'''
*[http://www.fweet.org Home Fweet Home ''Elucidations to Finnegans Wake'']
*[http://mural.uv.es/joesdel/Writing_Wake.html The Writing Of ''Finnegans Wake'']
*[http://www.kirbymountain.com/FWconcordance/fwc-main.html Concordance of Finnegans Wake]
*[http://www.finneganswiki.com Finnegans Wiki - a Wiki of Finnegans Wake]
'''Poems''' and '''Exiles'''
*[http://www.themodernword.com/joyce/joyce_works_other.html Poems and ''Exiles'' at themodernword.com]
*[http://www.cosmoetica.com/TOP4-DES4.htm Essay on Joyce’s ''Watching the Needleboats at San Sabba & On the Beach at Fontana'']
==Other external links==
{{wikiquote}}
{{wikisource author}}
*[http://rmc.library.cornell.edu/joyce/introduction/index.html James Joyce from Dublin to Ithaca Exhibition] from the collections of [[Cornell University]]
*[http://www.creativequotations.com/one/617.htm Creative Quotations from James Joyce]
*[http://www.themodernword.com/joyce The Brazen Head ]
* {{gutenberg author|id=James_Joyce|name=James Joyce}}
*[http://www.cluas.com/music/features/james_joyce.htm The influence of James Joyce on Popular Music] from [http://www.cluas.com/ music webzine CLUAS.com]
*[http://digital.library.wisc.edu/1711.dl/JoyceColl The James Joyce Scholars' Collection] from the [http://uwdc.library.wisc.edu University of Wisconsin Digital Collections Center].
*[http://www.robotwisdom.com/jaj/ IQ Infinity: the Unknown James Joyce]
*[http://www.univ.trieste.it/~nirdange/school/joyceweb.htm The Ninth Annual Trieste Joyce School]
[[Category:1882 births|Joyce, James]]
[[Category:1941 deaths|Joyce, James]]
[[Category:Irish literature]]
[[Category:Irish people|Joyce, James]]
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[[Category:Natives of County Dublin|Joyce, James]]
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Judo
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/* Gradings */
{| border="1" cellpadding="2" width="250" cellpadding="2" cellspacing="0" align="right"
! colspan="2" bgcolor="#FFCCCC" | Judo
|-
! colspan="2" | Japanese Name
|-
| width="125" | [[Japanese language|Japanese]]
| width="125" | 柔道
|-
| width="125" | [[Kana]] spelling
| width="125" | じゅうどう
|-
| width="125" | Modified [[Hepburn]]
| width="125" | Jūdō
|-
| width="125" | [[Kunrei-shiki]]
| width="125" | Zyûdô
|-
| width="125" | [[Nihon-shiki]]
| width="125" | Zyûdô
|}
'''Judo''' ([[Japanese language|Japanese]]: 柔道, ''jūdō''; "gentle way") is a [[martial art]], [[sport]], and [[philosophy]] originated in [[Japan]]. Judo was developed from [[Jujutsu]], and was founded by Dr. [[Jigoro Kano]] (嘉納治五郎) in [[1882]]. The sport became the model of the modern Japanese martial arts, [[gendai budo]], developed from old [[koryu]] schools. Practitioners of Judo are called '''judoka''' (柔道家).
==History and philosophy==
The early history of Judo and that of its founder, Japanese [[polymath]] and educator [[Jigoro Kano|Kano Jigoro]] (surname first in [[Japanese name|Japanese]]) (1860-1938), are inseparable. Kano was born into a well-to-do Japanese family. His grandfather was a self-made man, a [[sake]] brewer from [[Shiga prefecture]] in central Japan; however, Kano's father was not the eldest son and did not inherit the business, but instead became a Shinto priest and government official, with enough influence for his son to enter the second incoming class of [[Tokyo Imperial University]].
Kano was a small, frail boy, who, even in his twenties, did not weigh more than a hundred pounds, was often picked on by bullies. He first started pursuing [[jujitsu]] (柔術), at that time a flourishing art, at the age of 17, but met with little success---in part due to difficulties finding a teacher who would take him on as a serious student. When he went off to the University to study literature at the age of 18, he continued his martial efforts, eventually gaining a referral to [[Hachinosuke Fukuda]], a master of the [[Tenjin Shinyo Ryu]] (天神真楊流) and ancestor of noted Japanese/American judoka [[Keiko Fukuda]], who is one of Kano's oldest surviving students. Fukuda is said to have emphasized technique over formal exercise, sowing the seeds of Kano's emphasis of [[randori]] (乱取り), or free practice, in Judo.
Little more than a year after Kano joined Fukuda's school, Fukuda took ill and died. Kano then became a student in another Tenjin Shinyo school, that of [[Masatomo Iso]], who put more emphasis on formal [[Kata (martial arts)|kata]] than did Fukuda. Through dedication, Kano quickly earned the title "[[shihan]]", or master, and became assistant instructor to Iso at the age of 21. Iso, too, took ill, and Kano, feeling that he still had much to learn, took up another style, becoming a student of [[Tsunetoshi Iikubo]] of [[Kito Ryu]]. Like Fukuda, Iikubo placed much emphasis on free practice; on the other hand, Kito Ryu emphasized throwing techniques to a much greater degree than Tenjin Shinyo Ryu.
By this time, Kano was devising new techniques, such as the ''kata guruma'' ( or 'shoulder wheel', known as a fireman's carry to Western wrestlers who use(d) a slightly different form of this technique) and ''uki goshi'' (floating hip toss). His thoughts were already on doing more than expanding the canons of Kito and Tenjin Shinyo Ryu; full of new ideas, in part as a result of his education, Kano had in mind a major reformation of jujutsu, with techniques based on sound scientific principles, and with focus on development of the body, mind, and character of young men in addition to development of martial prowess. At the age of 22, just about to finish his degree at the University, Kano took 9 students from Iikubo's school to study jujitsu under him at the [[Eishoji Temple]]. Although two years would pass before it would be called by that name, and Kano had not yet been accorded the title of "master" in the Kito ryu (起倒流) -- Iikubo would come to the temple to help teach three days per week, this was the founding of the [[Kodokan Institute|Kodokan]] (講道館) or "place for learning the way."
<!--to be continued-->
The word Judo is composed of two kanji: "ju" (柔), which means gentleness, and "dō" (道), way or road(the same character as the Chinese "[[tao]]"). Thus Judo literally means "the gentle way", or "the way of giving way", and may also be defined as "the way of suppleness", "the way of flexibility, or "the way of adaptability". To English speakers, Judo and Jujutsu would mean "the easy way", as in the easiest way to accomplish something. Judo takes from jujutsu ("gentle art") the principle of using one's opponent's strength against him and adapting well to changing circumstances. For example, if the attacker was to push against his opponent he would find his opponent stepping to the side and allowing (usually with the aid of a foot to trip him up) his momentum to throw him forwards (the inverse being true for pulling). Kano saw jujutsu as a disconnected bag of tricks, and sought to unify it according to some principle; he found it in the notion of "maximum efficiency". Jujitsu techniques which relied solely on superior strength were discarded or adapted in favour of those which involved redirecting the opponent's force, off-balancing the opponent, or making use of superior leverage.
<!--also will be continued-->
== Judo's Theory of Combat ==
Judo assumes that there are two main phases of combat: the standing (''[[grappling#Stand-up grappling|tachi-waza]]'') and the ground (''[[grappling#Ground grappling|ne-waza]]'') phase. Each phase requires its own mostly separate techniques, strategies, [[randori]], conditioning and so on, although some special training is devoted to 'transitional' techniques to bridge the gap. Some [[judoka]] can become quite skilled in one phase and be rather weak in the other, depending on where their interests most lie, although most are rather balanced between the two.
'''The Standing Phase'''
In the standing phase, which is considered the initial phase, the opponents try to throw each other to the ground. Even though standing joint-lock and choke/strangulation submission techniques are legal in the standing phase, they are quite rare due to the fact that they are much harder to apply standing than throws are. Some judoka, however, are very skilled in combining takedowns with submissions, where a submission technique is begun standing and finished on the ground. Strikes (i.e. punches, kicks etc) are not allowed due to their certainty of injury, but judoka are supposed to 'take them into consideration' while training by, for example, not fighting in a bent-over position for long, since this position is vulnerable to knee-strikes and others. The main purpose of the throwing techniques ([[nage waza]]) is to take an opponent who is standing on his feet, mobile and dangerous, down onto his back where he cannot move any more. Thus, the main reason for throwing the opponent is to control him and put yourself in a dominant position above him where you have more potential to inflict damage on him than he does on you. Be that as it may, another reason to throw the opponent is to shock his body through smashing him forcefully onto the ground. If a judoka executes a powerful yet fully controlled throw, he can win a match outright due to the theory that he has displayed enough superiority. In actual fact, this kind of victory is very difficult to achieve if the opponents are equally matched. Therefore points are given for lesser throws in the standing phase of combat. In real fight situations, a throw in itself can create shock to the opponent, and the impact can potentially knock the opponent unconscious (depending on the hardness of the ground).
'''The Ground Phase'''
In the ground phase, which is considered the secondary phase of combat, the opponents try to hold, or get the opponent to submit either by using arm locks (leg locks are not allowed due to safety regulations) or by chokes and strangulations.
'''Footsweeps'''
Footsweeps are used to off-balance the opponent.
'''Pins'''
Pins are considered important since in a real fight the person on top who has control of the person beneath can hit him with knees, forearms, the head and so on. If a pin is held for 25 seconds, the person doing the pinning wins the match. The reason for requiring such a long pin is that in order to be able to hit the person underneath you effectively, you have to have full control of him for a long time. In a match, if you pin your opponent for less than 25 seconds you get points depending on how long, with the minimum being 10 seconds. This also flows from the theory that you will be striking a pinned opponent, and after 10 seconds will have possibly weakened him somewhat with strikes, at least enough to merit giving some points.
However, if the person you are holding down has wrapped his legs around any part of your lower body or your trunk, he is pinning you as much as you are pinning him since you cannot get up and flee unless he lets go. What if, for example, his friends who are nearby happen to drop in to 'pay you a little visit'? You won't be able to get away. Also, to make things even worse for you, there are various attacking techniques he can launch against you from this position, which is called '[[Dojime]]' (body squeeze) in Japanese and '[[Guard (grappling)|The Guard]]' in English. Clearly you do not have control of him in this position even though you are 'on top', so it is not considered a pin. It is your job to break through his 'guard' and pin or submit him, and it is his job to submit you from where he is, to roll you over and get on top of you or to simply break out and get back up to his feet and fight from there if that is what he wants to do.
'''Joint Locks'''
Elbow locks are considered safe-enough to do at nearly full-force to induce a submission. In times past, Judo allowed many other joints to be attacked too such as the knees, spine and others. Over the years it was discovered that attacking those other joints would not only result in many injuries to the athletes, but also would gradually wear the joints down over time. Even so, some Judoka still enjoy learning and fighting each other informally using these banned techniques. Joint locks are effective combat techniques since they enable you to control your opponent through pain-compliance. Also, some joints, such the elbows, can be broken, maiming your adversary so he cannot any longer attack you effectively or put up a defence. For these reasons Judo considers joint locks to be important techniques.
'''Chokes/Strangulations'''
Chokes/strangulations are Judo's deadliest techniques. They enable the one applying the choke to force the adversary into unconsciousness and even death. In competition the judoka wins the round if the opponent gives in to submission and/or fail to get out of the hold for 25 seconds.
'''Fighting'''
Judo emphasizes fighting ([[randori]]) as its main form of training. Half the combat time is spent fighting on the ground, called ''[[grappling#Ground grappling|ne-waza]]'' and the other half standing up, called ''[[grappling#Ground grappling|tachi-waza]]''. Actual fighting, albeit within safety rules, is considered to be much more effective than only practicing techniques, since fighting full-strength develops the muscles and [[cardio-vascular]] system on the physical side of things, and it develops strategy and reaction time on the mental side of things.
'''Judo's Balanced Approach to Fighting'''
Judo's balance between both the standing and ground phases of combat gives judoka the ability to take down opponents who are standing up and then pin and submit them on the ground. This balanced theory of combat has made Judo a popular choice for many.
== Uniform ==
[[Image:Judo orange belt.JPG|thumb|200px|The [[judogi]] is intended to withstand the stresses of throwing and grappling]]
'''Judoka''' (Judo practitioners) wear white cotton uniforms called '''[[Judogi]]''' (which means Judo uniform in Japanese) for practicing Judo. Sometimes the word is seen shortened simply to "gi" (uniform). This judogi was created at the [[Kodokan]] and similar uniforms were later adopted by many other martial arts. The judogi consists of white cotton drawstring pants and a white quilted cotton jacket fastened by a colored belt indicative of kyu or dan rank. The jacket is intended to withstand the stresses of throwing and grappling, and is as a result much thicker than that of a karategi. Before competition, a blue judogi is assigned to one judoka for ease of distinction by judges, referees, and spectators. In Japan, the traditional red sash (based on the flag's colors) is affixed to one judoka's belt, however in Europe and North America, a colored sash is typically used for convienence in local competitions, while a blue judogi is assigned to one judoka at the regional, national, or Olympic levels where the visibility, particularly to television cameras is more important than tradition or convienence. It should be noted that Japanese practitioners and purists tend to look down on the use of blue judogis.
==Techniques==
[[Image:Judo_-_Ippon_Seoinage.gif|thumb|One of the first throws learned in judo - the Ippon Seoi Nage]]
While Judo includes a variety of rolls, falls, throws, pins, [[chokehold|chokes]], [[joint-lock]]s, and methods of percussion, the primary focus is on throwing (''nage-waza'', 投げ技), and groundwork (''[[grappling#Ground grappling|ne-waza]]'',寝技). Nage-waza is divided in two groups of techniques, standing techniques (''[[grappling#Stand-up grappling|tachi-waza]]'', 立技) and sacrifice techniques (''sutemi-waza'', 捨身技). Standing techniques are divided in hand techniques (''te-waza'', 手技), hip techniques (''koshi-waza'', 腰技) and foot/leg techniques (''ashi-waza'', 足技). Sacrifice techniques are divided into those in which the thrower falls directly backwards (''ma-sutemi-waza'', 真捨身技) and those in which he falls onto his side (''yoko-sutemi-waza'', 橫捨身技).
The groundwork techniques are divided into: attacks against the joints or [[joint lock]]s (''kansetsu-waza'', 関節技), strangleholds or [[chokehold]]s (''shime-waza'', 絞技), and holding or pinning techniques (''osaekomi-waza'', 押込技).
A kind of sparring is practiced in judo, known as ''[[randori]]'' (乱取り), meaning "free practice". In randori, players (known as ''judoka'') may attack each other with any judo throw or grappling technique. Striking techniques (called ''atemi-waza'') such as kicking and punching, along with knife and sword techniques are retained in the ''kata''s taught to higher ranking judoka (for instance, in the [[kime-no-kata]]), but are forbidden in contest (and usually prohibited in randori), for reasons of safety. Also for reasons of safety, chokeholds, jointlocking - and the sacrifice (sutemi) techniques, which can be very spectacular, are often subject to age and/or rank restrictions; in the United States, one must be 13 or older to use chokeholds, and 17 or older, or hold the rank of Shodan (first grade black belt) or higher to use [[armlock]]s.
In ''randori'' and ''shiai'' (tournament) practice, when an opponent successfully executes a chokehold or joint lock, one "taps out" by tapping the mat or one's opponent at least twice in a manner that clearly indicates the submission. When this occurs, the match is over, and the tapping player has lost, but the chokehold or joint lock ceases. Because this allows a merciful exit to the match, injuries related to these holds are quite rare.
==Gradings==
{| class="wikitable" style="float:right;"
|+Typical European judo belt colours
|-
| width="100" align="center"|White || width="200" style="background:white;" |
|-
|align="center"|Yellow || style="background:yellow;" |
|-
|align="center"|Orange || style="background:orange;" |
|-
|align="center"|Green || style="background:green;" |
|-
|align="center"|Blue || style="background:blue;" |
|-
|align="center"|Brown || style="background:brown;" |
|-
|align="center"|Black || style="background:black;" |
|}
Judoka are ranked according to skill and knowledge of judo, that grade being reflected in the colour of his belt: There are two divisions of grades, the student grades (''kyu'', 級), and the master grades (''dan'', 段). In some countries, the nine colours run from grey through white, light blue, blue, yellow, orange, green, purple, and brown. In the UK and most of Europe the belt grading colours run like this: White, Yellow, Orange, Green, Blue, Brown and then Black. Some European countries additionally use a red belt to signify a complete beginner. In Japan, all adult kyu grades wear either white or brown belts. All ''dan'' grades may wear the ''[[Black belt (martial arts)|black belt]]''; sixth- through eighth- ''dan''s may alternately wear a red-and-white belt, while those ranked ninth- ''dan'' and above may wear a solid red belt. Historically, a woman's belt had a white stripe at its centre in some countries, while in most of them this custom has been discontinued. Jigoro Kano was the inventor of the ''kyu'' - ''dan'' grading system, that soon got adapted by other martial arts such as [[karate]].
In competition one judoka wears a blue suit while the other wears white. In some competitions the older system whereby one competitor wears a white sash and the other a blue sash remains in place. In both cases this does not indicate their rank, but is to enable the judges and spectators to tell the opponents apart during a fight. Points are also awarded to white or blue. Corner judges on the corners of the mat also have a white and blue flag to indicate to which competitor a point should go when it is unclear whom it should be awarded to.
In most Western countries, Judokas have to pass an exam which is normally assesed by the Sensei (Teacher) within the '''Dojo'''. Judokas also have to compete in a grading competition against people of a similar grade. Once both parts have been completed it is possible for a Judoka to be promoted. The ''dan'' (black belt) ranks are awarded after doing an exam supervised by independent judges of the national judo association. However, some have been awarded black belts outside of this association. Examples include, Hori Akioya from Bogoto, Colombia, who was awarded a black belt after his death in a Judo match, and student prodigy Joseph Picthall from the United States who was awarded a black belt after defeating a renowned Grand Master in a tournament held in Seattle, Washington in 2000.
==Styles==
Jigoro Kano's [[Kodokan Judo]] (講道館) is not the only style of judo. Kano took the name Judo from Jikishin Ryu Judo, which is an older school but not really seen outside of Japan. A sub-style of Kodokan Judo that developed in Japanese inter-scholastic competition is known as [[Kosen judo]] (高專柔道) with the same range of techniques but greater latitude permitted for ''[[grappling#Ground grappling|Ne-waza]]'' (ground technique).
Teaching in France, Mikonosuke Kawaishi developed an alternative approach to instruction that continued to teach many techniques banned in modern competition. In Austria, Julius Fleck and others developed a system of throwing intended to extend Judo that they called [[Judo-do]].
Mitsuo 'Count' Maeda introduced Judo to Brazil in the early 20th Century. At this time, groundfighting ([[newaza]]) was very popular and not yet limited by the rules. He taught Judo to Carlos Gracie (1902-94) and others in Brazil. The terms Judo and Jiu-jitsu were at that time interchangeable. [[Brazilian Jiu-Jitsu]] remained rather aloof to later changes in international Judo rules which added emphasis to the standing phase of the fight, and thus remains a distinctive form of Judo to this day.
==Sport==
[[Image:Vladimir Putin martial arts.jpg|thumb|200px|Russian President [[Vladimir Putin]] throwing a sparring partner at a training session in [[Novo-Ogaryovo]], [[16 June]] [[2002]]]]
Although a fully featured martial art, judo has also developed as a sport. Judo became an [[Olympic Games|Olympic]] sport for men in [[1964]] and, with the persistence of an American woman by the name of [[Rusty Kanokogi]] and many others, a sport for women as well in [[1988]] (both years given were the years that Judo was a demonstration event followed by an official medal event 4 years later). Men and women compete separately (although they often train together), and there are several [[human weight|weight]] divisions.
The seven divisions are:
{| class="wikitable"
|-
! colspan="7" | Men
|-
| Up to and including 60 kg
| Over 60 kg up to and including 66 kg
| Over 66 kg up to and including 73 kg
| Over 73 kg up to and including 81 kg
| Over 81 kg up to and including 90 kg
| Over 90 kg up to and including 100 kg
| Over 100 kg
|-
! colspan="7" | Women
|-
| Up to and including 48 kg
| Over 48 kg up to and including 52 kg
| Over 52 kg up to and including 57 kg
| Over 57 kg up to and including 63 kg
| Over 63 kg up to and including 70 kg
| Over 70 kg up to and including 78 kg
| Over 78 kg
|}
[[Collegiate]] competition in the [[United States]], especially between [[University of California, Berkeley|UC Berkeley]] and [[San Jose State]], contributed towards refining judo into the sport seen at the [[Olympic Games]] and World Championships. In the [[1940s]] [[Henry Stone]] and [[Yosh Uchida]], the head coaches at Cal and SJSC, developed a [[weight class]] system for use in the frequent competitions between the schools. In [[1953]], Stone and Uchida successfully petitioned the [[Amateur Athletic Union]] to accept judo as a sport, with their weight class system as an official component. In [[1961]], Uchida represented the United States at the [[International Judo Federation]] meetings in [[Paris]], where the IJF adopted weight classes for all future championships. Of course the IJF was created largely based on the earlier European Judo Union where weight classes had also been used for many years.
The object in a judo match is to throw your opponent to the ground. This will score an ''ippon'' (一本), a full point that wins the match. Anything else, such as landing your opponent on the hip or shoulder, will be ''waza-ari'' (技有), ''yuko'' (有効) or ''koka'' (効果) (''waza-ari'' being the highest of the 3, ''koka'' the lowest) or even no score. Technically speaking, a ''waza-ari'' is a half-point, two of which will earn the match. ''Yuko''s and ''koka''s are not fractional points in that they do not accumulate to equal a ''waza-ari'' or ''ippon''-- in fact a ''waza-ari'' beats any number of ''yukos'' and a ''yuko'' beats any number of ''kokas''. Rather, they are used as tiebreakers if the match ends before an ''ippon'' is scored. At match end, if one player has scored a ''waza-ari'' and the other has not, the player with the ''waza-ari'' wins, but if they are equal in that regard (both with zero or one) ''yuko''s are used to break the tie. If they are also equal in ''yuko''s, ''koka''s break the tie. Finally, if both players have identical scores, the match is resolved by having the contestants continue fighting in a sudden death overtime called the Golden Score period where the first contestant to get any score wins. If there is no score during this period, then the decision (majority vote) of the referee and two corner judges is used.
After the throw occurs and is scored, combat may continue on the ground. Pinning an opponent, with both shoulders on the mat, for 25 seconds (20 if you previously scored a ''waza-ari'', since two half-points will complete your ippon) results in an ''ippon''. An automatic ''ippon'' is also granted when one's opponent submits (which frequently occurs when strangle holds / arm locks are used). If there is no ''ippon'' or submission, the one with the highest score wins. Penalties may be given for being inactive during the match or using illegal techniques and fighting must be stopped if a participant is outside the designated area on the mat (''[[tatami]]'').
All scores and penalties are given by the referee. The judges can make a decision to change the score or penalty given by the referee.
==Sport and beyond==
Despite the literal meaning of ''judo'' being "the gentle way", competition judo is one the roughest and most demanding of sports. A World Championship or [[Olympic Games|Olympic]] match lasts only 5 minutes, but will leave participants exhausted.
Without the kicking and punching so common to other martial arts, except in atemi-waza, which is taught to black belts, judo is often portrayed as friendlier than, for instance, [[karate]]. Proponents believe this contributes to judo being underrated as a method of self-defense. However, while throws executed with proper break falls on soft mats can seem light and graceful, their more practical application on a hard surface (and potentially with greater intent to harm) could be very dangerous. Even in the controlled environments of a match or dojo training session, injuries can easily occur due to a lapse in focus or overzealous application of a technique.
Due to their knowledge in [[ne-waza]]/[[grappling]] and [[tachi-waza]]/standing-grappling, various accomplished judo practitioners have also competed in [[mixed martial arts]] matches. [[Hidehiko Yoshida]], an [[Olympic Games|Olympic]] gold medalist in 1992 and World Judo Champion in 1999, is well-known in [[PRIDE|PRIDE Fighting Championships]], as is [[Fedor Emelianenko]], PRIDE's current heavy weight champion. [[Karo Parisyan]], an Armenian-born judoka now fighting in the [[Ultimate Fighting Championship]], has demonstrated the application of judo techniques to mixed martial arts in the United States. It should be noted that the ability to throw an opponent to his back and apply a pinning technique is of enormous importance in these kinds of competitions, as is the ability to finish off a downed opponent with strikes or a submission-move. Judo, uniquely among combat sports, puts equal emphasis on the initial throwing and the final pinning and submitting phases of combat, ideally enabling practitioners to dominate grappling-fights from the get-go.
==Organization==
The international organization of judo is the IJF, or the International Judo Federation. In the US, there are several different national organizations. One is USA Judo, which also has state organizations which host state tournaments and other judo related activities. The other national organizations are USJF, United States Judo Federation, and USJA, United States Judo Association. Each national organization in the US has its own promotion requirements, but they still have the same belt rank system.
In Great Britain, the British Judo Association (BJA) is the largest Judo Association and the only one affiliated to the IJF. Judo clubs can also be administered by the British Judo Council (BJC), which is popular in the north of England. Some minor judo administrations exist, such as the BJC-MAC (British Judo Council - Martial Arts Circle).
==See also==
*[[Kodokan]]
*[[Neil Adams]]
*[[Masahiko Kimura]]
*[[Anton Geesink]]
*[[Doug Rogers]]
*[[Judo at the 2004 Summer Olympics]] (and similar articles for other Olympic years)
*[[Sambo (martial art)|Sambo wrestling]], a Russian martial art partially based on Judo
*[[Brazilian Jiu-Jitsu]] (BJJ), a Brazilian variant of Judo where [[grappling#Ground grappling|newaza]] is emphasized
*[[Throw (grappling)]], More on throws
==External links==
{{wiktionary|judo}}
*[http://www.ijf.org/ IJF International Judo Federation]
*[http://www.usjf.com/ United States Judo Federation]
*[http://www.jwc2006.com/ XIII Junior World Judo Championships 2006]
*[http://www.judoinfo.com/ JudoInfo Online Dojo]
*[http://www.kodokan.org/ Kodokan Judo Institute]
*[http://www.ippon.org/ International Competition Results]
*[http://judoinfo.com/techjudo.htm Judo Techniques]
*[http://www.twoj.org/ The World of Judo Magazine]
*[http://www.karatedepot.com/judo-gi-guide.html About the Judo Gi]
*[http://www.judoinside.com/ JudoInside.com]
*[http://www.judocoach.com Judo Coaching Website]
*[http://www.judoplace.com/ Contains a brief history, photographs, and listing of techniques]
*[http://photoguide.jp/pix/thumbnails.php?album=51 Photos of All-Japan Judo Championships at Budokan in 2005]
*[http://members.lycos.co.uk/fight/judo/judo.html Judo History Archive] (lots of background information including [[Kosen judo]] and [[Brazilian Jiu-Jitsu]])
*Essay about [http://www.jiujitsu.org.au/kawaishi.html Mikonosuke Kawaishi]
=== British sites ===
{{commons}}
*[http://www.britishjudo.org.uk/ British Judo Association]
*[http://www.Zenjudo.co.uk/ Zen Judo Family]
*[http://www.ajajudo.org.uk/ Amateur Judo Association]
*[http://www.britishjudocouncil.org/ British Judo Council]
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[[Image:007.svg|300px|right|thumb|The James Bond 007 gun logo]]
'''James Bond''', also known as '''007''' (pronounced "double-oh seven"), is a [[fictional character|fictional]] [[United Kingdom|British]] [[espionage|spy]] created by writer [[Ian Fleming]] in [[1953]]. Fleming wrote numerous novels and short stories based upon the character and, after his death in [[1964]], further literary adventures were written by [[Kingsley Amis]] (pseudonym "[[Robert Markham]]"), [[John Pearson (author)|John Pearson]], [[John Gardner (thriller writer)|John Gardner]], [[Raymond Benson]], and [[Charlie Higson]]; in addition, [[Christopher Wood (writer)|Christopher Wood]] wrote two screenplay novelisations and other authors have also written various unofficial permutations of the character.
Although initially made famous through the novels, James Bond is now probably best known from the [[EON Productions]] film series. Twenty films have been produced by EON featuring this character as well as two independently produced films and one [[United States|American]] television adaptation of Fleming's first novel under legal licence; however, it is generally considered that only the EON films are "official." [[Albert R. Broccoli]] and [[Harry Saltzman]] produced most of the official films up until [[1975]] when Broccoli became the sole producer. His daughter, [[Barbara Broccoli]], and his stepson, [[Michael G. Wilson]], carried on the production duties together beginning in [[1995]].
To date, five actors have portrayed Bond in the official series, and a sixth is soon to make his appearance. They are:
*[[Sean Connery]] (1962–1967; 1971)
*[[George Lazenby]] (1969)
*[[Roger Moore]] (1973–1985)
*[[Timothy Dalton]] (1987–1989)
*[[Pierce Brosnan]] (1995–2002)
*[[Daniel Craig]] (2006–present)
In addition, [[Barry Nelson]] played Bond in an [[Casino Royale|unofficial TV episode]] in 1954, [[David Niven]] played the role in an [[Casino Royale (1967 film)|unofficial film]] in 1967, and Connery played Bond again in an [[Never Say Never Again|unofficial film]] in 1983.
The twenty-first official film, ''[[Casino Royale (2006 film)|Casino Royale]]'', with Daniel Craig as Bond, is in production and is scheduled for a [[November 17]], [[2006]] release.
Broccoli's family company, [[Danjaq, LLC]], has co-owned the James Bond film series with [[United Artists]] Corporation since the mid-1970s, when Saltzman sold UA his share of Danjaq. Currently, [[Columbia Pictures]] and [[Metro-Goldwyn-Mayer|MGM]] (United Artists' parent) co-distribute the series.
In addition to novels and films, Bond is a prominent character in many [[James Bond games|computer and video games]], [[James Bond comic strips|comic strips]] and [[James Bond comic books|comic books]], and has been the subject of many [[James Bond parodies|parodies]].
==Overview==
[[Image:Fleming007impression.jpg|225px|thumb|Fleming's commissioned impression of 007 used as an example to aid the ''[[Daily Express]]'' comic strip artists.]]
===The character===
Commander James Bond, [[Order of St Michael and St George|CMG]], [[Royal Naval Volunteer Reserve|RNVR]] is an agent of the international arm of the British Secret Service headquartered in London in a tall, grey building overlooking [[Regent's Park]]. Under the cover name "Universal Exports" and later "Transworld Consortium", Bond's fictional British Secret Service starting in 1995 takes on the actual name of the UK's [[Secret Intelligence Service]], commonly known as MI6. As an agent of the Secret Service, Bond holds code number "007". The 'double-O' prefix indicates his discretionary [[Licence to kill (concept)|licence to kill]] in the performance of his duties.
Bond is the consummate [[womaniser]], drinker, and heavy [[cigarette]] smoker, at one point reaching 70 cigarettes a day. On average, however, Bond smokes 60 a day, although in certain novels Bond does attempt to cut back so that he can accomplish certain feats such as swimming underwater. He is also forced to cut back after being sent to a health farm per his superior's order. Regardless, the literary incarnation continues to smoke through many continuation novels. On film, Bond has been off and on. During the films starring Connery, Lazenby and Dalton Bond was a smoker, while during Moore's and Brosnan's tenure he doesn't smoke cigarettes, although he does occasionally smoke [[cigar]]s. The last time Bond smoked a cigarette on film was in 1989.
James Bond is famous for ordering his [[Martini cocktail|vodka martinis]] "[[shaken, not stirred]]", although the literary Bond also drinks [[gin]] martinis and [[bourbon]].
James Bond does have a quirk of being a "know-it-all," more so on film. In ''[[Goldfinger]]'', he is able to calculate in his head how many trucks it would take to transport all the gold in [[Fort Knox]], and how long the gold would be [[radioactive]] after [[Auric Goldfinger]]'s [[atomic bomb]] detonates inside the vault. Bond's "[[genius]]" became a running joke during Roger Moore's era. Afterwards, it was virtually eliminated.
===Ian Fleming's creation and inspiration===
James Bond was created in February 1952 by Ian Fleming while on vacation at his [[Jamaica]]n estate called Goldeneye. The hero of Fleming's tale, James Bond, was named after an [[United States|American]] [[James Bond (ornithologist)|ornithologist of the same name]] who was an expert on [[Caribbean]] birds and had written a definitive book on the subject: ''[[Birds of the West Indies]]''. Fleming, a keen [[Birdwatching|birdwatcher]], owned a copy of Bond's field guide at Goldeneye. Of the name, Fleming once said "I wanted the simplest, dullest, plainest-sounding name I could find, James Bond was much better than something more interesting like 'Peregrine Maltravers.' Exotic things would happen to and around him but he would be a neutral figure - an anonymous blunt instrument wielded by a Government Department." {{ref|Chancellor}}
After completing the manuscript for what would later be titled ''Casino Royale'', Fleming allowed his friend [[William Plomer]], a poet and later Fleming's editor, to read it. Plomer liked it enough that he gave the manuscript to [[Jonathan Cape]], who did not like it as much, but published it anyway due to the fact that Ian was the younger brother of [[Peter Fleming]], an established travel writer who also put in a good word for Ian.
Since the fictional James Bond's creation, hundreds of reports by various news outlets have suggested names for Ian Fleming's inspiration of Bond. Usually these people have a background of some kind in espionage or other covert operations. Although some names share similarities with Bond, none have ever been confirmed by Fleming, [[Ian Fleming Publications]] or any of Ian Fleming's biographers such as Fleming's assistant and friend, [[John Pearson (author)|John Pearson]]. Most researchers agree that James Bond is a highly romanticised version of Fleming himself; the author was known for his jetsetting lifestyle and reputation as a womaniser. Both, for the most part, went to the same schools, like the same foods (e.g., [[scrambled eggs]]), have the same habits (e.g., drinking and smoking), share the same view on women (e.g., how they should look and how they should dress), and have similar education and military careers both rising to the rank of Commander. Although the character of Bond is not known to be based on anyone but Fleming himself, the look of James Bond, famed for being "suave and sophisticated," is based on a young [[Hoagy Carmichael]]. In ''Casino Royale'' the character [[Bond girl|Vesper Lynd]] says of Bond, "He reminds me rather of Hoagy Carmichael, but there is something cold and ruthless." Other characteristics of Bond's look are said to be based on Fleming, such as his height, his hairstyle and his eye colour.
Fleming has, however, admitted to being inspired by true or partially-true events that took place during his career at the [[Naval Intelligence Division (UK)|Naval Intelligence Division]] of the [[Admiralty]]. Most notably, and the basis for ''Casino Royale'', was a trip to [[Lisbon]] that Fleming and the Director of Naval Intelligence, Admiral Godfrey, took during [[World War II]] en route to the United States. While there they went to the [[Estoril Casino]] in [[Estoril]], which, due to the neutral status of [[Portugal]] had a number of spies of warring regimes present. Fleming claimed that while there he was cleaned out by a "chief [[Germany|German]] agent" at a table playing [[Chemin de Fer]], however, Admiral Godfrey tells a different story, that Fleming only played Portuguese businessmen and that afterwards Ian had fantasised about them being German agents and the excitement of cleaning them out.
===The franchise===
[[Image:FromRussia1959.jpg|right|thumb|250px|''[[From Russia with Love]]'' is the novel credited with sparking the James Bond craze when it was listed as one of [[John F. Kennedy]]'s favourite books.]]
The James Bond franchise is currently the second all-time highest grossing film franchise in history, after ''[[Star Wars]]''{{ref|filmfranchise}}, and one of the longest running film series in history, spanning 20 [[#Official|official films]], 2 [[#Unofficial|unofficial films]], 1 TV episode based on ''Casino Royale'', and a cartoon television series spinoff. A new film, ''Casino Royale'', is currently in production with an expected release in November 2006.
The James Bond novels and films have ranged from realistic spy drama to [[science fiction]]. The original books by Fleming are usually dark – lacking [[fantasy]] or gadgets. Instead, they established the formula of unique villains, outlandish plots, and voluptuous women who tend to fall in love with Bond at first sight — the feeling often being mutual. The films expanded on Fleming's books, adding gadgets from [[Q (James Bond)|Q Branch]], death-defying stunts, and often abandoning the original plotlines for more outlandish and cinema-friendly adventures. The cinematic Bond adventures were initially influenced by earlier spy thrillers such as ''[[North by Northwest]]'', ''[[Saboteur (film)|Saboteur]]'', and ''[[Journey Into Fear]]'', but later entries became formulaic dramas where Bond saves the world from [[apocalypse|apocalyptic]] madmen. Inevitably, a villain tries to kill Bond with a [[deathtrap (plot device)|deathtrap]] during which the villain reveals vital information; Bond later escapes and uses the information to thwart the evil plot. In many cases, the villain then dies at Bond's hands, although early Bond films often ended with the villain either escaping or being killed by someone else.
The first actor to play Bond was American [[Barry Nelson]], in the 1954 [[CBS]] television production of ''Casino Royale'' in which the character became a U.S. agent named "Jimmy Bond." In 1956, [[Bob Holness]] provided the voice of Bond in a [[South Africa]]n [[radio]] adaptation of Fleming's third novel, ''[[Moonraker]]''.
[[Albert R. Broccoli]] and [[Harry Saltzman]] started the official cinematic run of Bond in [[1962 in film|1962]], with ''[[Dr. No]]'' starring Sean Connery. Their production company, EON Productions, set up a semi-regular schedule of releases; initially annually, then usually once every two years, although there have been a couple times where the gap was larger, usually due to external events. Every Bond film has been a box office success to a lesser or greater degree. They continue to earn substantial profits after their theatrical run via [[videotape]], [[DVD]], and television broadcasts. In the UK, Bond holds three of the top five top spots of [[List of most-watched television episodes|the most-watched television movies]].
Since Bond's peak of popularity in 1965, with the release of ''Thunderball'', critics have often predicted that Bond's successful run would come to an end, usually believing that Bond was out of touch with the times. After the release of ''[[On Her Majesty's Secret Service]]'', George Lazenby quit the role of Bond for this very reason even though he was offered a seven-film contract. By the 1980s, some critics had grown tired of the films, commenting that the perennial [[sexism]] and glamorous locales had become outdated, and that Bond's smooth, unruffled exterior didn't mesh with competing movies like ''[[Die Hard]]''. The hard-edge of Timothy Dalton in the Bond films of the late 80s met a mixed response from moviegoers; some welcomed the earthier style reminiscent of Fleming's character, while others missed the light-hearted approach which characterised the Roger Moore era. While Dalton's final outing, ''Licence to Kill'' (1989), was financially successful, it did not prove as popular as previous Bond films. ''Licence to Kill'''s relative failure is usually blamed on a poor promotional campaign in the United States, Dalton's darker portrayal of Bond, and its status as the first Bond film to be rated [[PG-13]] in the U.S. and "15" in the UK. Regardless, a new Bond film was scheduled for release in 1991; however, legal wrangling over ownership of the character led to a protracted delay that would keep Bond off movie screens for the next six years during which time, Dalton had moved on.
The 1990s saw a revival and renewal of the series beginning with ''[[GoldenEye]]'' in 1995. Pierce Brosnan filled Bond's shoes with an elegant mix of Sean Connery cool and Roger Moore [[wit]]. The combination saw the success of Bond return to its standard stride it hadn't reached since 1979's ''Moonraker''.
==Biography of James Bond==
{{spoiler}}
===Early years===
James Bond is the son of a [[Scottish people|Scottish]] father, Andrew Bond, and a [[Switzerland|Swiss]] mother, Monique Delacroix, both of whom died in a mountain [[climbing]] accident in the [[Aiguilles Rouges]], when Bond was 11 years old. He subsequently went to live with his Aunt, Miss Charmian Bond, in [[Kent]]. Bond's family [[motto]], which was adopted by James Bond during "Operation Corona" in the novel ''[[On Her Majesty's Secret Service]]'' is ''Orbis non sufficit'' ([[Latin]] for "The world is not enough.")
With the exception of the ''[[Young Bond]]'' series of novels by [[Charlie Higson]] launched in 2005, Bond for the most part is an [[ageless]] character in both films and literature. He is roughly in his late thirties. Many Ian Fleming biographers agree that Fleming never really intended to write as many James Bond adventures as he did and to keep writing the novels he had to "tinker with Bond's early life" and change dates to ensure Bond was the appropriate age for the service, particularly due to a statement in ''Moonraker'' that 007 faced mandatory [[retirement]] from the 00 Section at age 45. In the same novel Bond notes that he has only 8 years to go, thus in ''Moonraker'', Bond is 37 years old. This approximate age carries on in continuation novels written by Kingsley Amis, John Gardner, and Raymond Benson.
Due to Fleming's changes of dates and times in which events occurred, Bond's specific birth year is unknown. Most researchers or biographers have concluded that Bond was born in either 1920, 1921 or 1924. According to John Pearson's ''[[James Bond: The Authorised Biography of 007]]'', Bond was born on [[November 11]], [[1920]]; no Fleming novel supports this date, in fact, the novel ''You Only Live Twice'' makes a couple references to Bond's birth year being 1924. In the novel, M writes an obituary for James Bond after believing him to be dead. M writes that Bond left school when he was 17 years old and joined the [[Ministry of Defence (United Kingdom)|Ministry of Defence]] in 1941. If Bond was 17 in 1941, then he was born in 1924. Prior to this, Tiger Tanaka, the head of the Japanese Secret Service, states Bond was born in the [[year of the rat]], which supports 1924. A more complex date of birth, according to [[John Griswold]] and his authorised book ''Ian Fleming's James Bond: Annotations and Chronologies'', is [[November 11]], [[1921]] (November 11, being Pearson's date). Griswold notes that Bond's joining of the Ministry of Defence was originally written in Fleming's manuscript as 1939 (the same year Fleming joined). He contends that a lot of details in Bond's timeline make better sense with the original 1939 date. For instance, if one computes Bond's age for when he was admitted into the Ministry of Defence to when his parents died (1939 - 17 = 1922 + 11 = 1933) Bond would have been 11 in 1933 from January 1 through November 10 if he was born in 1921. 1933 is the year mentioned in ''Casino Royale'' for when Bond 'bought' his first Bentley. Since all of the years claimed for when Bond was born would have made him too young to purchase this Bentley, a more likely scenario is that he inherited it. [[Ian Fleming Publications]] recognised this issue for their ''Young Bond'' series of novels featuring Bond as a teenager in the 1930s and along with its author, Charlie Higson, defined Bond being born in the year 1920.
It is also debated where James Bond was born. According to Pearson, Bond was born near [[Essen, Germany|Essen]], [[Germany]]; however, Charlie Higson, in his novel ''SilverFin'' claims Bond was born in [[Switzerland]]. Regardless, Bond is unquestionably British.
Bond briefly attended [[Eton College]] starting at the age of "12 or thereabouts" (13 in ''Young Bond''), but was expelled after two halves when some "alleged" troubles with one of his maids came to light, although in the short story "[[For Your Eyes Only#"From A View to a Kill"|From a View to a Kill]]," Bond admits to losing his [[virginity]] on his first visit to [[Paris]] at the age of 16. After Eton, Bond attended and continued his education at [[Fettes College]] in [[Edinburgh]], [[Scotland]], his father's old school. In "[[Octopussy and The Living Daylights#"Octopussy"|Octopussy]]", Fleming writes that Bond briefly attended the [[University of Geneva]]. With the exception of Fettes, Bond's attendance at these schools parallels Fleming's own life, as he attended these same schools. The film version of James Bond tacks on the additions of Bond being a graduate with a [[academic degree|degree]] in [[Asian languages|Oriental languages]] from [[University of Cambridge|Cambridge University]], as stated in ''You Only Live Twice''. He also attends (presumably at some point) [[University of Oxford|Oxford]] to study [[Danish language|Danish]] in ''Tomorrow Never Dies'', although in the film he's not there to study at all. Bond can speak a variety of different languages, most notably [[Russian language|Russian]] and [[Japanese language|Japanese]], although many times the languages Bond claims to know are contradicted between the film series, Fleming's novel series, and even later films and continuation novels.
In 1941, Bond lied about his age in order to enter the [[Royal Naval Volunteer Reserve]] during [[World War II]], from which he emerged with the rank of [[Commander]]. Bond maintains this rank while in the employ of the British Secret Service and through further continuation novels and in the films, however, Gardner promoted Bond to [[Captain]] in ''[[Win, Lose or Die]]''. Since Benson's Bond was [[Reboot (continuity)|rebooted]], Bond became a Commander again.
===007===
It is never stated when James Bond became a 00 agent. According to Fleming, after joining the RNVR, Bond is mentioned as to traveling to America, Hong Kong, and Jamaica. It is believed that it is during this time that Bond perhaps joined another organisation such as the [[Special Operations Executive|SOE]], the 00 Section of the British Secret Service, or perhaps as a commando in Fleming's own 30 Assault Unit (30 AU). One supporting reason is that Fleming describes Bond in the [[Ardennes]] firing a [[bazooka]] in 1944. This action really doesn't make any sense since Bond is supposedly in the [[Royal Navy]]. It can be assumed that by this time Bond has moved on to another organisation. In Bond's obituary from ''You Only Live Twice'', [[M (James Bond)|M]] alludes to Bond's rank as being cover.
<blockquote>
''To serve the confidential nature of his duties, he was accorded the rank of lieutenant in the Special Branch of the R.N.V.R., and it is a measure of the satisfaction his services gave to his superiors that he ended the war with the rank of Commander.'' — M
</blockquote>
Bond earns his stripes in the 00 Section by completing two tasks, which Fleming outlines in ''Casino Royale''. The first is the assassination of a [[Japan]]ese cipher expert on the thirty-sixth floor of the [[GE Building|RCA Building]] at [[Rockefeller Center]] in [[New York City]]. The second was the assassination of a [[Norwegian]] who became a double agent and betrayed two British agents. Bond travels to [[Stockholm]] where he kills the man in his sleep with a knife.
According to Bond, obtaining a 00 number is not hard so long as you're prepared to kill. Throughout Fleming's novel, further continuation novels, and even the films, Bond's attitude toward his job is similar. Bond dislikes taking life—resorting to flippant jokes and off-hand remarks as after-the-fact relief, often misinterpreted as cold-bloodedness. Pearson's biography (disputed canonically) suggests Bond first killed as a teenager. The novel ''Goldfinger'' begins with Bond being haunted by memories of a small-time, [[Mexico|Mexican]] gunman he had killed with his bare hands days earlier and on film, specifically in ''[[The World Is Not Enough]]'', he admits that cold-blooded killing is a filthy business. Nonetheless, James Bond does kill when needed, and on film commits acts that might be considered [[murder]] in other circumstances (in ''[[Dr. No]]'', shooting Professor Dent in the back; killing the unarmed [[Elektra King]] in ''The World Is Not Enough''). The literary James Bond was reserved in his licenced killing, sometimes disobeying his orders to kill if the mission could be accomplished by other means. Such is the case in "[[Octopussy and The Living Daylights#"The Living Daylights"|The Living Daylights]]" where Bond makes a last second decision to disobey his orders and not kill an assassin. Instead Bond intentionally wounds the assassin and still manages to accomplish the mission. He later feels so strongly about his decision that he actually hopes [[M (James Bond)|M]] fires him for it; there are Fleming works in which Bond does not kill anyone.
The cinematic James Bond (introduced in 1962) already had a history with the Secret Service. In ''Dr. No'', when reluctantly re-equipped with a 7.65 mm [[Walther PPK]] pistol replacing his [[Beretta]] automatic pistol, agent 007 protests, telling [[M (James Bond)|M]] that he has used the weapon for 10 years, suggesting he has been a secret agent for at least that long. Since ''Dr. No'' in both the literary and cinematic versions, Bond has used a Walther PPK in almost every adventure. In the film ''Tomorrow Never Dies'', Bond updates his gun to the latest model of the [[Walther P99]]. In the novels, Gardner replaced the PPK (eventually) with an [[ASP (handgun)|ASP 9mm]].
===Description and love life===
In the novels (notably ''From Russia, With Love''), Bond's physical description has generally been consistent: a three-inch, vertical scar on his left cheek (absent from the cinematic version); blue-grey eyes; a "cruel" mouth; short, dark hair, a comma of which falls on his forehead (greying at the temples in Gardner's novels); and (after ''[[Casino Royale]]'') the faint scar of the [[Russian language|Russian]] [[cyrillic]] letter "Ш" (SH) on the back of one of his hands (carved by a [[SMERSH (James Bond)|SMERSH]] agent).
In both the literary and cinematic versions of ''[[On Her Majesty's Secret Service]]'', James Bond marries, but his bride, [[Tracy Bond|Teresa di Vicenzo]] (Tracy), is killed on their wedding day by his archenemy, [[Ernst Stavro Blofeld]]; the event resonates in both versions of the character for many years thereafter. In the novels, Bond gets [[revenge]] in the following novel, ''You Only Live Twice'', when he by chance comes across Blofeld in [[Japan]], whilst the cinematic Bond takes on Blofeld in ''[[Diamonds Are Forever]]'' with an ambiguous result. Later, in the pre-titles sequence of ''[[For Your Eyes Only]]'', Bond dispatches a bald, wheelchair-bound man who bears a startling resemblance to Blofeld. The character is not named for legal reasons connected with Eon's ongoing dispute with Kevin McClory and many have speculated that this episode represents both Bond closing the book on Blofeld and Eon demonstrating to McClory that they had no dependence on the Blofeld character.
Bond had one child, by Kissy Suzuki in ''You Only Live Twice'', although he did not know of the boy's existence until sometime later. Exactly when he learned this is not known; however he is aware of his son, James Suzuki, by the time of Raymond Benson's short story "[[James Bond uncollected short stories#"Blast From the Past|Blast From the Past]]."
===Alternate biographies===
An interesting, if wholly [[canon (fiction)|noncanonical]], conjecture about the Bond lineage can be found in [[Alan Moore|Alan Moore's]] comic book series, ''[[The League of Extraordinary Gentlemen]]'', set in [[Victorian England]]. In it, the portly, sinister, and secretive MI6 agent placed in charge of the League is named [[Campion Bond]]. His superior, the overall director of the top-secret team, is code-named [[M (James Bond)|M]], an obvious reference to the Bond mythos. Later in "League," it is revealed that this "M" is none other than Professor James Moriarty, the archnemesis of Sherlock Holmes. The second miniseries would continue the Holmes link, as MI6 would be taken over by Mycroft Holmes as the new "M." Although Moore makes no overt connection between Bond and Campion, the saturation of literary reference in the comics has led fans to propose that Campion is meant to be an ancestor of the modern secret agent. His first name, Campion, is believed to be a reference to fictional detective [[Albert Campion]].
A second (non-canonical) son is suggested in the [[Marvel Comics]] series [[Master of Kung Fu]]. Clive Reston, a supporting character in the series, resembles Bond in many respects and is an MI6 agent himself. While it is never stated explicitly, dialogue strongly hints that Reston is Bond's son and the grand-nephew of [[Sherlock Holmes]]. In his fictional biographies, author [[Philip Jose Farmer]] suggests that Bond belongs in the [[Wold Newton family]] tree along with [[Tarzan]], [[Doc Savage]], and many other fictional heroes. Followers of Farmer's speculations have greatly elaborated on Bond's family.
==Novels==
===By [[Ian Fleming]]===
[[Image:IanFleming.jpg|right|thumb|200px|Ian Fleming. Photo: [[Horst Tappe]].]]
In February 1952, Ian Fleming began work on his first James Bond novel. At the time, Fleming was the Foreign Manager for [[Kemsley Newspapers]], an organisation owned by the ''[[London Sunday Times]]''. Upon accepting the job, Fleming asked that he be allowed two months vacation per year. Every year thereafter until his death in 1964, Fleming would retreat for the first two months of the year to his Jamaican estate, Goldeneye, to write a James Bond novel.
{| class="wikitable"
|- style="vertical-align: top;"
|
*[[1953 in literature|1953]] ''[[Casino Royale]]''
*[[1954 in literature|1954]] ''[[Live and Let Die]]''
*[[1955 in literature|1955]] ''[[Moonraker]]''
*[[1956 in literature|1956]] ''[[Diamonds Are Forever]]''
*[[1957 in literature|1957]] ''[[From Russia with Love]]''
*[[1958 in literature|1958]] ''[[Dr. No]]''
*[[1959 in literature|1959]] ''[[Goldfinger]]''
|
*[[1960 in literature|1960]] ''[[For Your Eyes Only]]''
*[[1961 in literature|1961]] ''[[Thunderball]]''
*[[1962 in literature|1962]] ''[[The Spy Who Loved Me]]''
*[[1963 in literature|1963]] ''[[On Her Majesty's Secret Service]]''
*[[1964 in literature|1964]] ''[[You Only Live Twice]]''
*[[1965 in literature|1965]] ''[[The Man with the Golden Gun]]''
*[[1966 in literature|1966]] ''[[Octopussy and The Living Daylights]]''
|}
Between 1953 and 1966, twelve James Bond novels and two short story collections by Fleming were published, with one novel and one short story collection issued posthumously. To this day, it is still debated [[The Man with the Golden Gun#The controversy over the novel|whether Fleming himself actually finished]] 1965's ''The Man with the Golden Gun'', as he died very soon after completing the book. His first anthology of short stories, ''For Your Eyes Only'', mostly consisted of converted screenplays for a [[CBS]] television series based on the character. When the project fell through, Fleming turned them into short stories: (i) "[[For Your Eyes Only#"From A View to a Kill"|From a View to a Kill]]", (ii) "[[For Your Eyes Only#"For Your Eyes Only"|For Your Eyes Only]]", (iii) "[[For Your Eyes Only#"Risico"|Risico]]", plus two additional stories, "[[For Your Eyes Only#"The Hildebrand Rarity"|The Hildebrand Rarity]]" and "[[For Your Eyes Only#"Quantum of Solace"|Quantum of Solace]]", which were previously published. The second anthology, ''Octopussy and The Living Daylights'' (in many editions titled only ''Octopussy''), originally only contained two short stories, "[[Octopussy and The Living Daylights#"Octopussy"|Octopussy]]" and "[[Octopussy and The Living Daylights#"The Living Daylights"|The Living Daylights"]]; a third story, "[[Octopussy and The Living Daylights#"The Property of a Lady"|The Property of a Lady]]" was added in the 1967 paperback edition, and a fourth, "[[Octopussy and The Living Daylights#"007 in New York"|007 in New York]]", was added in 2002.
===Post-Fleming James Bond novels===
[[Image:ColonelSunOld.jpg|right|thumb|200px|After Fleming's death, Glidrose Productions attempted to continue the Bond series with ''Colonel Sun''.]]
Following Fleming's death in 1964, [[Ian Fleming Publications|Glidrose Productions]], publishers of the James Bond novels, planned a new book series, credited to the pseudonym "[[Robert Markham]]" and written by a rotating series of authors. Ultimately, only one Markham novel saw print, 1968's ''[[Colonel Sun]]'' by [[Kingsley Amis]]. Amis had previously written two books on the world of James Bond, the 1964 essay ''The James Bond Dossier'' and the tongue-in-cheek [[1965]] release ''The Book of Bond, or Every Man His Own 007'' (written under the pseudonym "Lt.-Col. William ("Bill") Tanner", a recurring character in the Bond novels. Amis had also been claimed for many years as the [[ghost writer]] of ''[[The Man with the Golden Gun]]'', although this has been debunked by numerous sources. See [[The Man with the Golden Gun#The controversy over the novel|The controversy over ''The Man with the Golden Gun'']].)
In [[1973 in literature|1973]], Fleming biographer [[John Pearson (author)|John Pearson]] was commissioned by Glidrose to biograph the fictional character James Bond. Pearson wrote ''[[James Bond: The Authorised Biography of 007]]'' in the first person as if meeting the secret agent himself. The book was well-received by aficionados—readers and viewers, alike. Since the book has many discrepancies with Fleming's Bond (for example his birth year), the canonical status of ''James Bond: The Authorised Biography of 007'' is debated among fans—some consider it [[apocryphal]], though at least one publisher, Pan Books, issued it as an official novel along with the rest of Fleming's series for its first paperback edition. Glidrose reportedly considered a new series of novels written by Pearson, but this did not come to pass. Prior to writing this, Pearson had written an early biography of Ian Fleming, ''[[The Life of Ian Fleming]]''.
In [[1977 in literature|1977]], the film ''[[The Spy Who Loved Me]]'' was released and was subsequently novelised and published by Glidrose due to the radical difference between the script and Fleming's novel of the same name. This would happen again with [[1979 in literature|1979]]'s ''[[Moonraker]]''. Both novelisations were written by [[screenwriter]] [[Christopher Wood (writer)|Christopher Wood]] and were the first official novelisations, although technically, Fleming's ''Thunderball'' was a novelisation having been based on scripts by himself, [[Kevin McClory]], and [[Jack Whittingham]] (although it predated the movie), and the ''For Your Eyes Only'' collection was also, for the most part, based upon unproduced scripts.
In the 1980s, the series was finally revived with new novels by John Gardner; between [[1981]] and [[1996]], he wrote fourteen James Bond novels and two screenplay novelisations, surpassing Fleming's original output. The biggest change in Gardner's series was updating 007's world to the 1980s; however, it would keep the characters the same age as they were in Fleming's novels. Generally Gardner's series is considered a success although their canonical status is disputed.
{| class="wikitable"
|- style="vertical-align: top;"
|
*[[1981 in literature|1981]] ''[[Licence Renewed]]''
*[[1982 in literature|1982]] ''[[For Special Services]]''
*[[1983 in literature|1983]] ''[[Icebreaker (novel)|Icebreaker]]''
*[[1984 in literature|1984]] ''[[Role of Honour]]''
*[[1986 in literature|1986]] ''[[Nobody Lives For Ever]]''
*[[1987 in literature|1987]] ''[[No Deals, Mr. Bond]]''
*[[1988 in literature|1988]] ''[[Scorpius (novel)|Scorpius]]''
*[[1989 in literature|1989]] ''[[Win, Lose or Die]]''
|
*[[1989 in literature|1989]] ''[[Licence to Kill]]'' ([[novelisation]])
*[[1990 in literature|1990]] ''[[Brokenclaw]]''
*[[1991 in literature|1991]] ''[[The Man from Barbarossa]]''
*[[1992 in literature|1992]] ''[[Death is Forever]]''
*[[1993 in literature|1993]] ''[[Never Send Flowers]]''
*[[1994 in literature|1994]] ''[[SeaFire]]''
*[[1995 in literature|1995]] ''[[GoldenEye]]'' (novelisation)
*[[1996 in literature|1996]] ''[[COLD (novel)|COLD]]''
|}
In 1996, Gardner retired from writing James Bond books due to ill health, and American Raymond Benson quickly replaced him. As a James Bond novelist, Benson was initially controversial for being American, and for ignoring much of the continuity established by Gardner. Benson had previously written ''[[The James Bond Bedside Companion]]'', a book dedicated to Ian Fleming, the official novels, and the films. The book was initially released in [[1984 in literature|1984]] and later updated in [[1988 in literature|1988]]. Benson also contributed to the creation of several modules in the popular ''James Bond 007'' [[role-playing game]] in the 1980s. Benson wrote six James Bond novels, three novelisations, and three short stories.
{| class="wikitable"
|- style="vertical-align: top;"
|
*[[1997 in literature|1997]] ''"[[James Bond uncollected short stories#"Blast from the Past"|Blast From the Past]]"'' (short story)
*[[1997 in literature|1997]] ''[[Zero Minus Ten]]''
*[[1997 in literature|1997]] ''[[Tomorrow Never Dies]]'' (novelisation)
*[[1998 in literature|1998]] ''[[The Facts of Death]]''
*[[1999 in literature|1999]] ''"[[James Bond uncollected short stories#"Midsummer Night's Doom"|Midsummer Night's Doom]]"'' (short story)
*[[1999 in literature|1999]] ''"[[James Bond uncollected short stories#"Live at Five"|Live at Five]]"'' (short story)
|
*[[1999 in literature|1999]] ''[[The World Is Not Enough]]'' (novelisation)
*[[1999 in literature|1999]] ''[[High Time to Kill]]''
*[[2000 in literature|2000]] ''[[Doubleshot]]''
*[[2001 in literature|2001]] ''[[Never Dream of Dying]]''
*[[2002 in literature|2002]] ''[[The Man with the Red Tattoo]]''
*[[2002 in literature|2002]] ''[[Die Another Day]]'' (novelisation)
|}
Benson's three short stories [[James Bond uncollected short stories|remain uncollected]], unlike previous short stories from Ian Fleming. Benson also wrote a fourth short story entitled "[[James Bond uncollected short stories#Unpublished story|The Heart of Erzulie]]" that was rejected for publication.
Benson abruptly resigned as Bond novelist at the end of 2002, despite having previously announced plans to write a short story collection. Low sales figures for the books, and plans by Ian Fleming Publications to focus on reissuing Fleming's original novels for the 50th anniversary of the character, were among reasons speculated by fans as to why Benson departed. The year 2003 marked the first year since 1980 that a new James Bond novel had not been published.
On [[August 28]], [[2005]], Ian Fleming Publications confirmed it is planning to publish a one-off adult Bond novel in [[2008]] to mark what would have been Ian Fleming's 100th birthday. This would feature the adult version of the character as opposed to the "Young Bond" character of the recent Charlie Higson books (see below). Although it has been suggested a "big name" author might take on the task, the publishers have yet to approach anyone about this project [http://www.ianflemingcentre.com/index.cfm?page=news].
===Young Bond===
{{main|Young Bond}}
In April 2004, Ian Fleming Publications (Glidrose) announced a new series of James Bond books. Instead of continuing from where Raymond Benson ended in 2002, the new series featured James Bond as a thirteen-year-old boy attending [[Eton College]]. Written by [[Charlie Higson]] (''[[The Fast Show]]'') the series is intended to align faithfully with the adult Bond's back-story established by Fleming and Fleming only. Since the concept was announced the series has taken heavy criticism for being aimed at the "[[Harry Potter]] audience" and has been seen by some as a desperate attempt to find a new audience for Bond. Regardless, the first novel became a bestseller in the United Kingdom and was released to good reviews. A second novel was released in the UK in January 2006. The series is currently planned out for five novels according to Charlie Higson.
{|class="wikitable"
|- style="vertical-align: top;"
|
*[[2005 in literature|2005]] ''[[SilverFin]]''
*[[2006 in literature|2006]] ''[[Blood Fever]]''
*2007 ''[[Young Bond Book 3]]''
*2008 ''[[Young Bond Book 4]]''
*2009 ''[[Young Bond Book 5]]''
|}
The ''Young Bond'' series is expected to add [[graphic novel]]s in 2006. It is currently unknown whether these will be adaptations of Higson's books.
===The Moneypenny Diaries===
{{main|The Moneypenny Diaries}}
A new trilogy of novels "edited" by [[Samantha Weinberg]] under the pseudonym [[Kate Westbrook]] entitled ''[[The Moneypenny Diaries]]'' was released by [[John Murray (publisher)|John Murray]] publishers that centres on the character of [[Miss Moneypenny]], [[M (James Bond)|M]]'s personal secretary. The first installment of the trilogy, subtitled ''Guardian Angel'', was released on [[October 10]], [[2005]]. Weinberg is the first woman to write officially licensed Bond-related literature (although [[Johanna Harwood]] had previously co-written the screenplay for ''Dr. No'').
The novels had originally been touted as the secret journal of a "real" Miss Moneypenny and that James Bond was a possible pseudonym for a genuine intelligence officer, an idea shared by John Pearson's earlier biography, ''James Bond: The Authorised Biography of 007''. John Murray admitted on [[August 28]], [[2005]] that the books were a spoof after an investigation by ''The Sunday Times'' of London. Ian Fleming Publications, who had previously refused to comment as to whether the book was authorised, officially confirmed the book was and always had been a project by them on the day of the book's publication.
A second volume has been tentatively scheduled for publication in October 2006.[http://commanderbond.net/Public/Stories/2999-1.shtml]
===Other Bond-related fiction===
In [[1967]], Glidrose authorised publication of ''[[003½: The Adventures of James Bond Junior]]'' written by [[Arthur Calder-Marshall]] under the pseudonym R D Mascott. This book is for young-adult readers, and chronicles the adventures of 007's nephew (despite the inaccurate title).
In 1991 an animated television series, ''[[James Bond Jr]]'', ran for 65 episodes. The series was mildly successful and spawned six novelisations published in 1992 by [[John Peel (writer)|John Peel]] writing as John Vincent, a 12 issue comic book series by [[Marvel Comics]] published in 1992, as well as a [[video game]] [[video game developer|developed]] by [[Eurocom]] for the [[Nintendo Entertainment System|NES]] and the [[Super Nintendo Entertainment System|SNES]] in 1991.
[[Russia|Russians]] were often the villains in Fleming's [[Cold War]]-era novels in at least some form. In [[1968]], they hit back with a spy novel of their own called ''[[The Zakhov Mission|Avakoum Zahov vs. 07]]'' by [[Andrei Guliashki]], in which a [[communism|communist]] hero finally and forcefully defeats 007.
In addition to numerous [[fan fiction]] pieces written since the character was created, there have been two stories written by well-known authors claiming to have been contracted by Glidrose. The first in 1966, was ''[[Per Fine Ounce]]'' by [[Geoffrey Jenkins]], a friend of Ian Fleming who claimed to have developed with Fleming a diamond-smuggling storyline similar to ''Diamonds Are Forever'' as early as the 1950s. According to the book ''The Bond Files'' by [[Andy Lane]] and [[Paul Simpson]], soon after Ian Fleming died, Glidrose Productions commissioned Jenkins to write a James Bond novel. The novel was never published. Some sources have suggested that Jenkins novel was to be published under the Markham pseudonym. The second story, 1985's ''[[The Killing Zone]]'' by [[James Hatfield|Jim Hatfield]] goes so far as to have been privately published as well as claim on the cover that it was published by Glidrose; however it is highly unlikely that Glidrose contacted Hatfield to write a novel since at the time John Gardner was the official author. The text of ''The Killing Zone'' is available on the [[Internet]] and can be found [http://www.universalexports.net/Books/killingzone.shtml here].
In [[1997]], the British publisher [[B.T. Batsford]] produced ''[[Your Deal, Mr. Bond]]'', a collection of [[bridge (card game)|bridge]]-related short stories by [[Phillip King (writer)| Phillip King]] and [[Robert King]]. The title story features James Bond, M, and other characters and features an epic bridge game between Bond and the villain, Saladin. No credit is given to Ian Fleming Publications, suggesting this rare story may have been unauthorised; a photo of Sean Connery as Bond is featured on the cover of the book.
In Clive Cussler's novel, "Night Probe", there is a character named Brian Shaw, whom the hero, Dirk Pitt suspects to be James Bond. Brian Shaw's choice of pistol, a .25 caliber, echoes that of James Bond's preference for the .25 caliber Beretta. Shaw's old office was located in Regent Park, and he was supposed to have been on SMERSH's hit list.
==Films==
===Official===
The James Bond film series has its own traditions, many of which date back to the very first movie in 1962.
Since ''Dr. No'', every official James Bond film begins with what is known as the [[James Bond gun barrel sequence]], which introduces agent 007. The gun barrel is seen from the assassin's perspective—looking down at a walking James Bond, who quickly turns and shoots; the scene reddens (signifying the spilling of the would-be assassin's blood), the gun barrel dissolves to a white circle, and the film begins.
[[Image:Kleinman gunbarrel.jpg|left|275px|thumb|Pierce Brosnan as James Bond in the gun barrel sequence]]
After the gun barrel sequence, every film starting with ''From Russia with Love'' (1963), would start with a pre-credits teaser, also popularly known as the "opening [[gambit]]." Usually the scene features 007 finishing up a previous case before taking on the case from the film, and does not always relate to his main mission. Some of the teasers tie in with the plot of the film (as in ''Live and Let Die''). Since ''The Spy Who Loved Me'' in 1977, they have often involved attention-grabbing action sequences, which have tended to become larger and more elaborate with each successive film. The [[1999]] film ''The World Is Not Enough'' currently holds the record as the longest Bond teaser ever, running more than 15 minutes; most teasers run for less than five.
[[Image:Kleinman titlecredits.jpg|right|275px|thumb|Title credits from ''GoldenEye'' representing the fall of the [[Soviet Union]] and the end of the [[Cold War]]]]
When the teaser sequence is finished, the opening credits begin during which an arty display of scantily clad and even (discreetly) naked females can be seen doing a variety of activities from dancing, jumping on a trampoline, to shooting weapons. This sequence is a trademark and a staple of the James Bond films. The best known of the Bond title designers is [[Maurice Binder]], who created these sequences for fourteen 007 films from 1962 to 1989. Since Binder's death in 1991, [[Daniel Kleinman]] has designed the credits and has introduced CG elements not present during Binder's era. While the credits run, the main theme of the film is usually sung by a popular artist of the time. For the most part, the credits are unrelated to the plot of the film, although the design may reflect an overall theme (for example, ''You Only Live Twice'' uses a [[Japan|Japanese]] motif as well as images of a [[volcano]], both of which are elements of the movie itself). ''Goldfinger'' uses short glimpses of the film projected onto women's bodies. ''For Your Eyes Only'' begins with [[Sheena Easton]] singing the title song on-screen. ''[[Die Another Day]]'' was unusual in that the images shown in that film's opening credits advance the storyline by depicting Bond's torture following his capture by the North Koreans. The credits for ''GoldenEye'' depict the fall of the Soviet Union and thus provide a transition from the pre-fall era of the opening sequence to the post-fall setting of the rest of the narrative. The Bond films are unusual in retaining full opening and closing credits; since the late 1970s it has become common for most films to save detailed credits for the end, with only principal actors and crew listed at the beginning.
[[Image:James bond world locations.PNG|thumb|[[James Bond locations|Countries James Bond visited]]]]
Agent 007's famous introduction, "Bond. James Bond" became a [[catch phrase]] after it was first muttered (with a cigarette in the corner of his mouth) by Sean Connery in ''Dr. No''. Since then, the phrase has entered the [[lexicon]] of Western [[popular culture]] as the epitome of polished, understated machismo. On [[June 21]], [[2005]] the catch phrase was honoured as the 22nd greatest quotation in cinema history by the [[American Film Institute]] as part of their [[100 Years Series]] {{ref|AFI}}. The catch phrase, "a martini. [[Shaken, not stirred]]," which was first uttered by Bond in ''Goldfinger'' (although it is actually first said on screen by the villain in ''Dr. No'') was also honoured as #90 on the same list.
Every film, except ''Dr. No'' (1962) and "Thunderball" (1965), has the line: "James Bond will return. . ." or "James Bond will be back" during or after the final credits. Up until ''Octopussy'' (1983) the end-credit line would also name the next title in the film series ("James Bond will return in..."). Over the years the films have incorrectly named the sequel three times. The first, 1964's ''Goldfinger'', in early prints announced Bond to return in ''On Her Majesty's Secret Service'', however, the producers changed their mind shortly after release and subsequently made the correction in future prints of the film. In 1977, ''The Spy Who Loved Me'' stated Bond would return in ''For Your Eyes Only'', however, EON Productions had decided to instead take advantage of the ''[[Star Wars]]'' space craze and release a film adaptation of Fleming's ''Moonraker'', which was changed to a plot involving outer space. Thirdly, ''Octopussy'' (1983) incorrectly states the title of the next film as ''From A View To A Kill'', the original literary title of ''A View to a Kill''.
Every aficionado has a favourite James Bond: Sean Connery—the tough guy, his machismo ready beneath the polished persona, George Lazenby—the controversial ultra-macho man, equally loved and despised, Roger Moore—the sophisticate, a perfect gentleman, rarely mussing his hair whilst saving the world, Timothy Dalton—the hard-edged literary character, and Pierce Brosnan—the polished man of action. On [[October 14]], [[2005]], EON Productions announced that Daniel Craig would be the sixth official James Bond and will star in the latest 007 adventure, ''Casino Royale'' in 2006. Work is also already underway on the script for the follow-up film, currently referred to by its working title, ''Bond 22''
There's also lively debate on the best Bond movie, with most major film critics giving the top mark to either ''From Russia with Love'' (Connery's favourite, as he re-asserted in a 2002 [[American Broadcasting Company|ABC]] interview with [[Sam Donaldson]]) or its brassy followup, ''Goldfinger.'' Despite George Lazenby's short tenure in the tuxedo, some reviewers have also warmed to ''On Her Majesty's Secret Service'' (with [[Leonard Maltin]]'s ''Movies on TV'' review book stating it might have been the best Bond film ever had Connery appeared in it).
[[Image:007Connery.jpg|100px|thumb|left|[[Sean Connery]]]]
[[Image:007Lazenby.jpg|100px|thumb|left|[[George Lazenby]]]]
[[Image:007Moore.jpg|100px|thumb|left|[[Roger Moore]]]]
[[Image:007Dalton.jpg|100px|thumb|left|[[Timothy Dalton]]]]
[[Image:007Brosnan.jpg|100px|thumb|left|[[Pierce Brosnan]]]]
[[Image:007DanielCraig.jpg|100px|thumb|left|[[Daniel Craig]]]]
<br style="clear: left"/>
<!--DO NOT add Never Say Never Again or the 1967 Casino Royale to this list. They are unofficial films and are listed in the unofficial films list, below!-->
{| class="wikitable"
!No.
!width="215"|Title
!Year
!width="115"|James Bond
!U.S. Box Office
!Total Box Office
!Total Admissions
|-
|1
|''[[Dr. No]]''
|[[1962 in film|1962]]
|'''[[Sean Connery]]'''
|$16,100,000
|$59,600,000
|72.1 million
|-
|2
||''[[From Russia with Love]]''
|[[1963 in film|1963]]
|Sean Connery
|$24,800,000
|$78,900,000
|95.3 million
|-
|3
|''[[Goldfinger]]''
|[[1964 in film|1964]]
|Sean Connery
|$51,100,000
|$124,900,000
|130.1 million
|-
|4
|''[[Thunderball]]''
|[[1965 in film|1965]]
|Sean Connery
|$63,600,000
|$141,200,000
|166 million
|-
<!--DO NOT add The 1967 Casino Royale to this list. It is an unofficial film and is listed in the unofficial films list, below!-->
|5
|''[[You Only Live Twice]]''
|[[1967 in film|1967]]
|Sean Connery
|$43,100,000
|$111,600,000
|81.7 million
|-
|6
|''[[On Her Majesty's Secret Service]]''
|[[1969 in film|1969]]
|'''[[George Lazenby]]'''
|$22,800,000
|$87,400,000
|62.4 million
|-
|7
|''[[Diamonds Are Forever]]''
|[[1971 in film|1971]]
|Sean Connery
|$43,800,000
|$116,000,000
|70.3 million
|-
|8
|''[[Live and Let Die]]''
|[[1973 in film|1973]]
|'''[[Roger Moore]]'''
|$35,400,000
|$161,800,000
|91.6 million
|-
|9
|''[[The Man with the Golden Gun]]''
|[[1974 in film|1974]]
|Roger Moore
|$21,000,000
|$97,600,000
|51.6 million
|-
|10
|''[[The Spy Who Loved Me]]''
|[[1977 in film|1977]]
|Roger Moore
|$46,800,000
|$185,400,000
|83.1 million
|-
|11
|''[[Moonraker]]''
|[[1979 in film|1979]]
|Roger Moore
|$70,300,000
|$210,300,000
|85.1 million
|-
|12
|''[[For Your Eyes Only]]''
|[[1981 in film|1981]]
|Roger Moore
|$54,800,000
|$195,300,000
|70.3 million
|-
|13
|''[[Octopussy]]''
|[[1983 in film|1983]]
|Roger Moore
|$67,900,000
|$187,500,000
|59.5 million
|-
<!--DO NOT add Never Say Never Again to this list. It is an unofficial film and is listed in the unofficial films list, below!-->
|14
|''[[A View to a Kill]]''
|[[1985 in film|1985]]
|Roger Moore
|$50,300,000
|$152,400,000
|42.9 million
|-
|15
|''[[The Living Daylights]]''
|[[1987 in film|1987]]
|'''[[Timothy Dalton]]'''
|$51,200,000
|$191,200,000
|48.9 million
|-
|16
|''[[Licence to Kill]]''
|[[1989 in film|1989]]
|Timothy Dalton
|$34,700,000
|$156,200,000
|39.1 million
|-
|17
|''[[GoldenEye]]''
|[[1995 in film|1995]]
|'''[[Pierce Brosnan]]'''
|$106,400,000
|$353,400,000
|81.2 million
|-
|18
|''[[Tomorrow Never Dies]]''
|[[1997 in film|1997]]
|Pierce Brosnan
|$125,300,000
|$346,600,000
|75.5 million
|-
|19
|''[[The World Is Not Enough]]''
|[[1999 in film|1999]]
|Pierce Brosnan
|$126,900,000
|$390,000,000
|77.1 million
|-
|20
|''[[Die Another Day]]''
|[[2002 in film|2002]]
|Pierce Brosnan
|$160,900,000
|$456,000,000
|78.6 million
|-
|21
|''[[Casino Royale (2006 film)|Casino Royale]]''
|[[2006 in film|2006]]
|'''[[Daniel Craig]]'''
|
|
|
|}
===Unofficial===
In 1954, [[CBS]] paid Ian Fleming $1,000 [[United States dollar|USD]] for the rights to adapt ''Casino Royale'' into a one hour [[television]] adventure as part of their ''[[Climax! (television)|Climax!]]'' series. The episode featured [[United States|American]] [[Barry Nelson]] in the role of "Jimmy Bond", an agent for the fictional "Combined Intelligence" agency. The rights to ''Casino Royale'' were subsequently sold to producer [[Charles K. Feldman]] who turned Fleming's first novel into a [[Parody|spoof]] featuring actor [[David Niven]] as one of ''six'' James Bonds. The instrumental theme music was a hit for [[Herb Alpert|Herb Alpert and the Tijuana Brass]]. For more information, see [[Casino Royale#Adaptation history|the history of ''Casino Royale'']].
When plans for a James Bond film were scrapped in the late 1950s, a story treatment entitled ''Thunderball'', written by Ian Fleming, [[Kevin McClory]] and [[Jack Whittingham]], was adapted as Fleming's ninth Bond novel. Initially the novel only credited Fleming. McClory filed a lawsuit that would eventually award him the film rights to the novel in 1963. Afterwards McClory made a deal with EON Productions to produce a film adaptation starring Sean Connery. The deal specifically stated that McClory couldn't reproduce another adaptation until a set period of time had elapsed. McClory did so in 1983 by producing the film ''Never Say Never Again'', which featured Sean Connery for a seventh time as 007. ''Never Say Never Again'' was not made by Broccoli's production company, [[EON Productions]], and is, therefore, not considered a part of the official film series. A second attempt by McClory to remake ''Thunderball'' in the 1990s with [[Sony Pictures]] was halted by legal action which resulted in Sony Pictures abandoning their aspirations for a rival James Bond series. McClory to this day still claims to own the film rights to ''Thunderball'', though MGM and EON claim those rights have expired. For more in-depth information, see [[Thunderball#The controversy over the novel|the controversy over ''Thunderball'']].
{|
|[[Image:Barry Nelson autograph.JPG|thumb|none|125px|[[Barry Nelson]]]]
|[[Image:DavidNiven.jpg|thumb|none|125px|[[David Niven]]]]
|[[Image:Sean Connery 1983NSNA.jpg|thumb|none|130px|[[Sean Connery]]]]
|}
{| class="wikitable"
!width="200"|Title
!Year
!width="150"|James Bond
!U.S. Box Office
!Total Box Office
!Total Admissions
|-
|''[[Casino Royale#The 1954 television episode|Casino Royale]]'' — TV episode
|[[1954 in television|1954]]
|'''[[Barry Nelson]]'''
|not applicable
|not applicable
|not applicable
|-
||''[[Casino Royale (1967 film)|Casino Royale]]'' — Film spoof
|[[1967 in film|1967]]
|'''[[David Niven]]'''
|$25,000,000
|$44,000,000
|36.1 million
|-
|''[[Never Say Never Again]]''
|[[1983 in film|1983]]
|'''[[Sean Connery]]'''
|$55,400,000
|$160,000,000
|50.8 million
|}
===Other films pertaining to James Bond===
{{main|James Bond parodies}}
James Bond has long been a household name and remains a huge influence within the cinematic spy film genre. The ''[[Austin Powers]]'' series by writer and actor [[Mike Myers (actor)|Mike Myers]] and other parodies such as ''[[Johnny English]]'' (2003), the "[[Our Man Flint|Flint]]" series starring [[James Coburn]] as Derek Flint, and ''Casino Royale'' (1967) are testaments to Bond's prominence in popular culture. 1960s TV imitations of James Bond such as ''[[I Spy]]'', ''[[Get Smart]]'', ''[[The Wild Wild West]]'', and ''[[The Man from U.N.C.L.E.]]'' went on to become popular successes in their own right. The latter having had contributions by Fleming towards its creation; the show's lead character, "[[Napoleon Solo]]," was named after a character in Fleming's novel ''Goldfinger'' and Fleming also suggested the character name April Dancer, which was later used in the spinoff series ''[[The Girl from U.N.C.L.E.]]''. A reunion television movie, ''[[The Return of the Man from U.N.C.L.E.]]'' (1983), is notable for featuring a cameo by George Lazenby as James Bond; for legal reasons, his character, a tribute to Ian Fleming, was credited as "JB".
==Music==
{{Main|James Bond music}}
"[[The James Bond Theme]]" was written by [[Monty Norman]] and was first orchestrated by the [[John Barry (composer)|John Barry]] Orchestra for 1962's ''Dr. No'', although the actual authorship of the music has been a matter of controversy for many years. Barry went on to compose the [[Film score|scores]] for eleven Bond films in addition to his uncredited contribution to ''Dr. No'', and is credited with the creation of "[[The 007 Theme|007]]", which was used as an alternate Bond theme in several films, and the popular orchestrated theme "[[On Her Majesty's Secret Service]]". Both "The James Bond Theme" and "On Her Majesty's Secret Service" have been [[remix]]ed a number of times by popular artists, including [[Art of Noise]], [[Moby]], [[Paul Oakenfold]], and the [[Propellerheads]].
Barry's legacy was followed by [[David Arnold]], in addition to other well-known composers and record producers such as [[George Martin]], [[Bill Conti]], [[Michael Kamen]], [[Marvin Hamlisch]], and [[Eric Serra]]. Arnold is the series' current composer of choice, and was recently signed to compose the score for the his fourth consecutive Bond film, ''Casino Royale''.
The Bond films are known for their theme songs heard during the title credits, sung by well-known popular singers (which have included [[Tina Turner]], [[Wings (band)|Paul McCartney & Wings]], [[Tom Jones (singer)|Tom Jones]], [[Madonna (entertainer)|Madonna]], and [[Duran Duran]], among many others.) [[Shirley Bassey]] performed three themes in total, and is the only singer to have been associated with more than one film. ''On Her Majesty's Secret Service'' is the only Bond film with a solely instrumental theme, though [[Louis Armstrong]]'s ballad "[[We Have All the Time in the World]]", which serves as Bond and his wife Tracy's love song and whose title is Bond's last line in the film, is considered the unofficial theme. The main theme for ''Dr. No'' is the "James Bond Theme", although the opening credits also include an untitled [[bongo]] interlude, and concludes with a vocal [[Calypso]]-flavoured rendition of "[[Three Blind Mice]]" entitled "Kingston Calypso" that sets the scene. ''[[From Russia with Love]]'' also opens with an instrumental version over the title credits (which then segues into the ''James Bond Theme''), but Matt Monro's vocal version also appears twice in the film, including the closing credits; the Monro version is generally considered the film's main theme, even though it doesn't appear during the opening credits.
==Video games==
{{Main|James Bond games}}
[[Image:Everything or Nothing.jpg|200px|right|thumb|''[[Everything or Nothing]]'' was Pierce Brosnan's final appearance as James Bond]]
In [[1983]], the first Bond video game, developed and published by [[Parker Brothers]], was released for the [[Atari 2600]], the [[Atari 5200]], the [[Commodore 64]], and the [[Colecovision]]. Since then, there have been numerous video games either based on the films or using original storylines.
Bond video games, however, didn't reach their popular stride until [[1997]]'s ''[[GoldenEye 007]]'' by [[Rare (video game company)|Rare]] for the [[Nintendo 64]]. Subsequently, virtually every Bond video game has attempted to copy ''GoldenEye 007''<nowiki>'</nowiki>s accomplishment and features to varying degrees of success. In [[2004]], [[Electronic Arts]] released a game entitled ''[[GoldenEye: Rogue Agent]]'' that had nothing to do with either the video game ''GoldenEye'' or the film of the same name, and Bond himself plays only a minor role in which he is "killed" in the beginning during a virtual mission similar to the climax at Fort Knox in the film ''Goldfinger''.
Electronic Arts has to date released seven games, including the popular ''[[Everything or Nothing]]'', which broke away from the [[first-person shooter]] element found in ''GoldenEye'' and went to a [[third-person shooter|third-person]] perspective. It was also the first game to feature well known actors including [[Willem Dafoe]], [[Heidi Klum]] and [[Pierce Brosnan]] as James Bond, although several previous games have used Brosnan's likeness as Bond. In 2005, Electronic Arts released another game in the same vein as ''Everything or Nothing'', this time a video game adaptation of ''[[From Russia with Love (video game)|From Russia with Love]]'', which allowed the player to play as Bond with the likeness of [[Sean Connery]]. This was the second game based on a Connery Bond film (the first was a 1980s [[text adventure]] adaptation of ''Goldfinger'') and the first to use the actor's likeness as agent 007. Connery himself recorded new voiceovers for the game, the first time the actor has played Bond in 22 years.
==Comic strips and comic books==
{{main articles|[[James Bond comic strips]] and [[James Bond comic books]]}}
In [[1957]] the ''[[Daily Express]]'', a newspaper owned by [[Lord Beaverbrook]], approached Ian Fleming to adapt his stories into comic strips. After initial reluctance by Fleming who felt the strips would lack the quality of his writing, agreed and the first strip ''[[Casino Royale#Comic strip adaptation|Casino Royale]]'' was published in [[1958]]. Since then many illustrated adventures of James Bond have been published, including every Ian Fleming novel as well as Kingsley Amis' ''[[Colonel Sun]]'', and most of Fleming's short stories. Later, the comic strip produced original stories, continuing until [[1983]].
[[Titan Books]] is presently reprinting these comic strips in an ongoing series of [[graphic novel]]-style collections; by the end of 2005 it had completed reprinting all Fleming-based adaptations as well as ''Colonel Sun'' and had moved on to reprinting original stories.
Several [[comic book]] adaptations of the James Bond films have been published through the years, as well as numerous original stories.
==Bond characters==
{{main articles|[[List of James Bond allies]], [[List of James Bond villains]], and [[Bond girl]]}}
The James Bond series of novels and films have a plethora of interesting allies and villains. Bond's superiors and other officers of the British Secret Service are generally known by letters such as [[M (James Bond)|M]] and [[Q (James Bond)|Q]]. In the novels (but not in the films), Bond has had two secretaries, [[List of James Bond allies#Ponsonby, Loelia|Loelia Ponsonby]] and [[List of James Bond allies#Goodnight, Mary|Mary Goodnight]], who in the films typically have their roles and lines transferred to M's secretary [[Miss Moneypenny]]. Occasionally Bond is assigned to work a case with his good friend, [[Felix Leiter]] of the [[Central Intelligence Agency|CIA]]. In the films, Leiter appeared regularly during the Connery era, only once during Moore's tenure, and in both Dalton films; however, he was only played by the same actor twice.
Bond's women, particularly in the films, often have [[double entendre]] names, leading to coy jokes, for example, "[[Pussy Galore (James Bond)|Pussy Galore]]" in ''Goldfinger'' (a name invented by Fleming), "Plenty O'Toole" in ''[[Diamonds Are Forever]]'', and "[[Xenia Onatopp]]" (a villainess sexually excited by [[strangling]] men with her thighs) in ''[[GoldenEye]]''. The aggressiveness of Bond's sexual conquests occasionally while his lovers eventually return his advances, he does not take the initial "no" for an answer. Despite Bond's philandering, most end up, if not in love with him, at least subdued by him. Since Brosnan's tenure, however, the character has taken on a (relatively) more progressive outlook on women; he respects the new, female M (played by [[Judi Dench]]) and has let a few women, particularly [[Paris Carver]] and Elektra King, get under his skin.
Throughout both the novels and the films there have only been a handful of recurring characters. Some of the more memorable ones include [[List of James Bond allies#Tanner, Bill|Bill Tanner]], [[List of James Bond allies#Mathis, Rene|Rene Mathis]], [[Felix Leiter]], and [[List of James Bond allies#Wade, Jack|Jack Wade]].
==Vehicles & gadgets==
{{main articles|[[List of James Bond vehicles]] and [[List of James Bond gadgets]]}}
[[Image:Aston.db5.coupe.300pix.jpg|200px|thumb|left|The [[Aston Martin DB5]] is the most famous and recognised Bond car]]
Exotic espionage equipment and vehicles are very popular elements of James Bond's literary and cinematic missions; these items often prove critically important to Bond removing obstacles to the success of his missions.
Fleming's novels and early screen adaptations presented minimal equipment such as ''From Russia with Love's'' booby-trapped [[attaché case]]; in ''Dr. No'', Bond's sole gadgets were a [[geiger counter]] and a wristwatch with a luminous (and [[radioactive]]!) face. The gadgets, however, assumed a higher, spectacular profile in the 1964 film ''Goldfinger''; its success encouraged further espionage equipment from Q Branch to be supplied to 007. Some films, in the opinion of many critics and fans, have had excessive amounts of gadgets or extremely outlandish gadgets and vehicles, specifically 1979's [[science fiction]]-oriented ''Moonraker'' and 2002's ''Die Another Day'' in which Bond's Aston Martin could become [[Cloaking device|invisible]] due to a technology Q refers to as [[adaptive camouflage]]. Since ''Moonraker'' subsequent productions struggled with balancing gadget content against the story's capacities, without implying a technology-dependent man, to mixed results.
Bond's most famous car is the silver grey [[Aston Martin DB5]] seen in ''Goldfinger'', ''Thunderball'', ''GoldenEye'', and ''Tomorrow Never Dies''. Although the films used a number of different Aston Martin DB5s on film and for publicity one of them was sold in January 2006 at an auction in [[Arizona]] for $2,090,000 (USD) to an unnamed European collector. That specific car was originally sold for £5,000 in 1970 {{ref|DB5}}.
In Fleming's books, Bond had a penchant for "battleship grey" [[Bentley]]s, while Gardner awarded the agent a modified [[Saab 900]] Turbo nicknamed the [[Licence Renewed#The Silver Beast|Silver Beast]] and later a [[Bentley Mulsanne]] Turbo.
==Trivia==
*Many people assume the Bond producers would never hire an American to portray the character in the official film series. However, American actors have been hired on two occasions, and approached about playing Bond on several others. [[Adam West]] was offered the chance to appear in ''[[On Her Majesty's Secret Service]]'' when Connery chose not to return to the role, but turned down the offer. [[John Gavin]] was hired in [[1970]] to replace Lazenby, but Connery was lured back at the eleventh hour and it was he who appeared in ''Diamonds Are Forever'' instead of Gavin. [[Burt Reynolds]] was also asked by Cubby Broccoli in the early '70s to replace Connery after ''Diamonds Are Forever'', but turned him down. [[James Brolin]] was hired in [[1983]] to replace Moore, and was preparing to shoot ''[[Octopussy]]'' when the producers convinced Moore to return. Several other American actors, including [[Patrick McGoohan]], and [[Robert Wagner]], have been offered the role only to turn it down. To date, the only American to play the role is [[Barry Nelson]], albeit unofficially in the Americanised version of the character in the 1954 TV adaptation of ''Casino Royale''.
*[[Michael Gambon]], who co-starred with current Bond actor Daniel Craig in ''[[Layer Cake]]'' and ''[[Sylvia (movie)|Sylvia]]'', was asked by Cubby Broccoli to audition for the role in 1970 to replace Lazenby. Gambon spoke of the situation in an interview: ''When he told me he was considering me for the part of 007 himself, I was amazed. I objected, "But I'm bald." "So was Sean — we'll get around it." he replied. "But I've got breasts like a woman," I continued. "Then we'll use ice packs before the love scenes like we did with Sean," he replied.'' [http://www.femalefirst.co.uk/entertainment/48252004.htm]
*While initially skeptical about Connery being chosen to play Bond (at one point dismissing him as an "overgrown stuntman"), Fleming liked his portrayal so much that he eventually added background to the character in the novels so that his father was Scottish.
*Accounts vary wildly in regards to which actor was Fleming's initial choice for the film version of Bond. Sources have suggested that Fleming favored [[Roger Moore]], [[James Mason]], and [[Cary Grant]], among others. According to Sir John Morgan, Ian Fleming's step son-in-law, Fleming favored little-known actor Edward Underdown, who played an Air Vice Marshall in ''[[Thunderball]]''. [http://commanderbond.net/Public/Stories/1716-1.shtml]
*Dalton was originally contracted for three films, with the third film planned for release in 1991. Although never officially confirmed, numerous sources have suggested the title was to be ''The Property of a Lady'', after the short story from the collection ''[[Octopussy and The Living Daylights#"The Property of a Lady"|Octopussy and The Living Daylights]]''. Legal wranglings over ownership of the Bond franchise, however, led to the series being put on hiatus until [[1994]].
*With the release of ''Casino Royale'', Craig will become the first actor with blond hair to have portrayed Bond; although Roger Moore did sport sandy colored hair in his first few Bond films, he is not considered a blond.
*[[Joe Don Baker]] played [[Brad Whitaker]], the villain in [[The Living Daylights]]. Baker shows up in later James Bond films, portraying [[Jack Wade]], one of James Bond's allies in both [[Goldeneye]] and [[Tomorrow Never Dies]].
*[[Desmond Llewelyn]] holds a record, appearing in 17 of the James Bond films as "Q," aka [[Major Boothroyd]], and head of Q-branch. In [[The World is Not Enough]], [[John Cleese]] is introduced as Q's assistant, whom Bond teasingly refers to as "R." Despite Cleese receiving a credit as R, there is no hint in the dialogue that this is an official title. In [[Die Another Day]], Cleese becomes the new Q, the old Q having presumably retired. In fact Llewelyn had been killed in a car crash shortly after the release of the previous film.
*Five Ian Fleming titles have thus far never been used as film titles: ''The Property of a Lady'', ''Quantum of Solace'', ''Risico'', ''The Hildebrand Rarity'', and ''007 in New York''.
*[[Sean Connery]] starred in the [[The League of Extraordinary Gentlemen (film)|Motion Picture version]] of [[The League of Extraordinary Gentlemen]], which has a 'supposed' link to the roots of James Bond's ancestry.
*[[George Lucas]] has said on multiple occasions that Connery's portrayal of the character was one of the primary inspirations for his [[Indiana Jones]] character. As a tribute to this, when casting his third Indiana Jones film, ''[[Indiana Jones and the Last Crusade|The Last Crusade]]'', Lucas chose Connery for the role of Indiana's father, with his reasoning being "Who else could play Indiana Jones' father, but the guy who inspired all of this in the first place, James Bond himself!" (Sean Connery)
*The Clive Cussler book Night Probe features an older British character who was a former MI6 agent who appears to be James Bond. This character has, however, retired due to becoming too famous, but is lured out of retirement for one last mission.
==References==
*{{Note|Chancellor}}{{cite book | last = Chancellor | first = Henry | year = 2005 | title = James Bond: The Man and His World | publisher = John Murray | id = ISBN 0719568153}}
*{{Note|filmfranchise}} {{Web reference | URL = http://www.forbes.com/2005/06/15/batman-movies-franchises-cx_lh_lr_0615batman.html | title = James Bond the second highest grossing film franchise of all time | work = Most Lucrative Movie Franchises | date = June 15 | year = 2005}}
*{{Note|AFI}} {{Web reference | URL = http://www.afi.com/tvevents/100years/quotes.aspx | title = "Bond. James Bond" 22nd greatest line in cinema history | work = AFI's 100 Years… 100 Movie Quotes | date = July 13 | year = 2005}}
*{{Note|DB5}} {{Web reference | URL = http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/uk_news/4633986.stm | title = Aston Martin DB5 auction | work = James Bond car sold for over £1m | date = February 8 | year = 2006}}
*{{cite book | last = Benson | first = Raymond | year = 1984 | title = The James Bond Bedside Companion | publisher = Dodd, Mead | id = ISBN 1401102840 }}
*{{cite book | last = Chapman | first = James | year = 1999 | title = Licence To Thrill: A Cultural History Of The James Bond Films | publisher = I.B. Tauris | id = ISBN 1860643876 }}
*{{cite book | last = Cork | first = John | year = 2002 | title = James Bond: The Legacy | publisher = Boxtree/Macmillan | id = ISBN 0810932962 }}
*{{cite book | last = Lindner | first = Christoph | year = 2003 | title = The James Bond Phenomenon: A Critical Reader | publisher = Manchester University Press | id = ISBN 0719065410 }}
*{{Web reference | URL = http://www.commanderbond.net/?action=Story&SID=2677 | title = Charlie Higson interview with CommanderBond.net | work = The Charlie Higson CBn Interview | date = February 23 | year = 2005}}
*[http://www.the-numbers.com/movies/series/JamesBond.php Bond franchise Box Office numbers] [http://www.boxofficemojo.com/franchises/chart/?id=jamesbond.htm], [http://www.the-numbers.com/movies/1967/0CARO.html Casino Royale Box Office numbers (1967)], [http://www.freewebs.com/moonrakerbondstation2/index.htm Box Office numbers + Inflation]
==See also==
{{portal}}
*[[9007 James Bond]] (Asteroid named after the character)
==External links==
{{Wikiquote}}
; Official sites:
* [http://www.jamesbond.com James Bond Official Homepage]
* [http://www.007.com Official Danjaq 007 website]
* [http://www.ianflemingcentre.com Ian Fleming Publications Official Website]
* [http://www.jamesbond.com/mmpr/index.php?cat=sites&id=mmpr Miss Moneypenny's Rolodex]
* [http://www.ianfleming.org Mr. Kiss Kiss Bang Bang! - Website of the Ian Fleming Foundation]
* [http://www.youngbond.com Young Bond Official Website]
; Fan sites:
* [http://www.ajb007.co.uk Absolutely James Bond]
* [http://commanderbond.net CommanderBond.net - News and information site]
* [http://www.mi6.co.uk MI6.co.uk - The home of James Bond]
* [http://www.klast.net/bond/ James Bond, Agent 007 OHMSS]
* [http://www.artofjamesbond.com Art of James Bond]
* [http://www.thejamesbondfanclub.com James Bond International Fan Club]
* [http://www.tjbd.co.uk The James Bond Dossier]
* [http://www.bondian.com Bondian.com: extensive Bond literature site]
* [http://www.goldeneyebooks.com/webpages/bibliographies.htm James Bond first edition bibliographies]
* [http://home.earthlink.net/~atomic_rom/007/ "Make Mine a 007..."]
* [http://www.jamesbondmm.co.uk James Bond Multimedia]
* [http://www.universalexports.net Universal Exports]
* [http://web.mac.com/zencato/iWeb/Young_Bond/Home.html The Young Bond Dossier]
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[[Category:British cultural icons|Bond, James]]
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[[Category:Fictional widows and widowers|Bond, James]]
[[Category:Fictional British people|Bond, James]]
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/* Classification */ Rewording somewhat as Polynesian - J convergence more than just "seemingly", and revising examples
{{Infobox Language
|name=Japanese
|nativename=日本語 ''Nihongo''
|familycolor=Isolate
|states=[[Japan]], [[Hawaii]], [[Brazil]], [[Guam]], [[Marshall Islands]], [[Palau]], [[Taiwan]]
|speakers=127 million
|rank=9
|fam1=[[Altaic languages|Altaic]] (disputed)
|fam2=[[Japonic languages|Japonic]]
|nation=[[Angaur]] ([[Palau]])<br>''De facto'' in [[Japan]]
|agency=None<br>[[Government of Japan|Japanese government]] plays major role
|iso1=ja|iso2=jpn|iso3=jpn}}
'''Japanese''' (日本語, {{Audio|ja-nihongo.ogg|''Nihongo''}}) is a language spoken by over 127 million people, mainly in [[Japan]], but also by Japanese emigrant communities around the world. It is considered an [[agglutinative language]] and is distinguished by a complex system of [[Japanese honorifics|honorifics]] reflecting the hierarchical nature of Japanese society, with verb forms and particular vocabulary which indicate the relative status of speaker and listener. The sound inventory of Japanese is relatively small, and it has a lexically-distinctive [[Japanese pitch accent|pitch accent]] system.
Japanese has been heavily influenced by [[Chinese language|Chinese]] over a period of at least 1,500 years. Japanese is written with a mix of [[Chinese character]]s ([[kanji]]) and a modified [[syllabary]], [[kana]], also originally based on Chinese characters. Much vocabulary has been imported from Chinese, or created on Chinese models.
==Classification==
[[historical linguistics|Historical linguists]] who specialize in Japanese agree that it is one of the two members of the [[Japonic language|Japonic]] language family, but remain divided as to the origins of the Japonic languages. An older view, still widely held by some linguists and many non-linguists, is that Japanese is a [[language isolate]].
As for its relation to other languages, there are several theories (presented roughly in descending order of certainty):
* Japanese is a member of the [[Altaic languages|Altaic language]] family. Other languages in this group include [[Mongolian language|Mongolian]], [[Tungusic languages|Tungusic]], [[Turkish language|Turkish]], and (according to most proponents) [[Korean language|Korean]]. Evidence for this theory lies in the fact that like [[Turkish language|Turkish]] and [[Korean language|Korean]], Japanese is an [[agglutinative language]]. Additionally, there are a suggestive number of apparently regular correspondences in basic vocabulary, such as ''ishi'' "stone" to Turkic ''daş'', ''yon'' "four" to Turkic ''dört'', ''kura'' "saddle" to Turkic ''kürtün'', ''kiru'' "to cut" to Turkic ''kir-'', ''inu'' "dog" to Turkic ''it'', ''kuro'' "black" and ''kurai'' "dark" to Turkic ''köl'' "shadow", etc. These examples originate from [http://starling.rinet.ru/cgi-bin/query.cgi?root=config&basename=\data\alt\altet this database], which contains a comprehensive list of comparisons and theoretical Altaic etymologies.
* Japanese is a relative of extinct languages spoken by historic cultures of [[Korea]] and [[Manchuria]]. The best attested of these is the language of [[Goguryeo]] (a.k.a. Koguryo), with the more poorly-attested languages of [[Baekje]] (a.k.a. Paekche) and [[Fuyu|Buyeo]] (a.k.a Puyo) hypothesized to also be related. <!-- COMMENTING OUT - SEE TALK PAGE Japanese is related to modern [[Korean language|Korean]] based primarily on near-identical grammar, but there is scarce lexical similarity between the two; supporters of the Buyeo languages theory generally do not include modern Korean as part of that family. -->Supporters of the Buyeo languages theory generally do not include modern [[Korean language|Korean]] as part of that family because it is thought to have derived from the ancient language of [[Silla]].The limited data on these languages, as well as these cultures' historic ties, are the primary evidence. This has been largely subsumed into the Altaic theory.
* Japanese is a relative of [[Korean language|Korean]]. This theory is based on the high degree of similarity between Japanese and Korean grammar. Proponents of this theory have also proposed Japanese-Korean cognates. The idea of a Japanese-Korean relationship has been largely subsumed into the Altaic theory.
* Japanese is a [[creole language]]. Phonological similarities and geographical proximity to [[Austronesian languages]] have led to the theory that Japanese may be a kind of creole, with an [[Altaic languages|Altaic]] [[substratum]] and an Austronesian [[superstratum]], or vice versa.
* Japanese is a ''purely'' Austronesian language. This theory enjoys little currency, since the grammar and lexis of Japanese are vastly different from those of any known Austronesian language. Proponents of this theory point out examples of convergent lexis such as Japanese ''hina'' "doll" and ''hime'' "girl" or "princess" as cognate with the [[Maori language|Māori]] word ''hine'' "girl", or Japanese ''kaku'' "to write, to scratch" with the [[Hawaiian language|Hawaiian]] ''kākau'' "to write, to tattoo". However, it is important to note that many totally unrelated languages exhibit chance occurences of convergent lexis.
* Susumu Ohno and other linguists including R. Caidwell, Susumu Shiba and Fujiwara Akira have suggested a possible relationship between Japanese and [[Tamil language|Tamil]], a member of the [[Dravidian languages|Dravidian language]] family spoken in [[South India]]. Evidence for this theory is that Japanese and Tamil are both [[agglutinative language]]s and also have similar [[phonetics]], [[vocabulary|vocabularies]], and [[retroflex consonant]]s.
Specialists in Japanese [[historical linguistics]] all agree that Japanese is related to the [[Ryukyuan languages]] (including [[Okinawan language|Okinawan]]); together, Japanese and Ryukyuan are grouped in the [[Japonic languages]]. Among these specialists, the possibility of a genetic relation to [[Goguryeo]] has the most evidence; relationship to [[Korean language|Korean]] is considered plausible but is still up to debate; the Altaic hypothesis has somewhat less currency, though it has grown significantly more respectable in recent years, primarily due to the work of [[Sergei Starostin]], et al. Almost all specialists reject the idea that Japanese could be genetically related to [[Austronesian languages|Austronesian]]/[[Malayo-Polynesian languages]] or [[Sino-Tibetan languages]], and the idea that Japanese could be related to [[Tamil language|Tamil]] is almost entirely excluded.
It should be noted that linguistic studies, like all fields, can be strongly affected by national politics and other non-academic factors. For example, most linguists would say that [[Romanian language|Romanian]] and [[Moldovan language|Moldovan]] are essentially the same language, and that they are known as two different languages for political reasons. Japan's long-standing rivalries and enmities with virtually all of its neighbours make the study of linguistic connection particularly fraught with such political tensions. However, these tensions are less prevalent among non-Japanese researchers.
==Geographic distribution==
Although Japanese is spoken almost exclusively in Japan, it has been and is still sometimes spoken in countries besides Japan. When Japan occupied [[Korea]], [[Taiwan]], parts of [[China]], and various Pacific islands, locals in [[Greater East Asia Co-Prosperity Sphere|those countries]] were forced to learn Japanese in empire-building programmes. As a result, there are still many people in these countries who speak Japanese instead of or as well as the local languages. In addition, emigrants from Japan, the majority of whom are found in [[Brazil]], where the biggest Japanese community outside Japan is found, [[Australia]] (especially [[Sydney]], [[Brisbane]], and [[Melbourne]]), and the [[United States]] (notably [[California]] and [[Hawaii]]), also frequently speak Japanese. There is also a small community in [[Davao]], [[Philippines]]. Their descendants (known as ''nikkei'' 日系, literally Japanese descendants), however, rarely speak Japanese fluently. There are estimated to be several million non-Japanese studying the language as well.
=== Official status ===
Japanese is the official language of Japan, and Japan is the only country to have Japanese as an official working language. There are two forms of the language considered standard: {{nihongo|''hyōjungo''|標準語|}} or standard Japanese, and {{nihongo|''kyōtsūgo''|共通語|}} or the common language. As government policy has modernized Japanese, many of the distinctions between the two have blurred. ''Hyōjungo'' is taught in schools and used on television and in official communications, and is the version of Japanese discussed in this article.
Standard Japanese can also be divided into {{nihongo|''bungo''|文語|}} or "literary language," and {{nihongo|''kōgo''|口語|}} or "oral language," which have different rules of grammar and some variance in vocabulary. ''Bungo'' was the main method of writing Japanese until the late 1940s, and still has relevance for historians, literary scholars, and lawyers (many Japanese laws that survived World War II are still written in ''bungo'', although there are ongoing efforts to modernize their language). ''Kōgo'' is the predominant method of speaking and writing Japanese today, although ''bungo'' grammar and vocabulary occasionally appears in modern Japanese for poetic effect.
===Dialects===
{{main|Japanese dialects}}
Dozens of dialects are spoken in Japan. The profusion is due to the mountainous island terrain and Japan's long history of both external and internal isolation. Dialects typically differ in terms of pitch accent, inflectional [[morphology (linguistics)|morphology]], [[vocabulary]], particle usage, and pronunciation. Some even differ in vowel and consonant inventories, although this is uncommon.
Dialects from less central regions, such as the [[Tōhoku Region|Tōhoku]] or [[Tsushima]] dialect may be unintelligible to speakers from other parts of the country. The dialect used in [[Kagoshima]] in southern [[Kyūshū]] is famous for being unintelligible not only to speakers of standard Japanese but to speakers of nearby dialects elsewhere in Kyūshū as well. Kagoshima dialect is 84% cognate with standard Tokyo dialect. [[Kansai-ben]], a group of dialects from west-central Japan, is spoken by many Japanese; the Osaka dialect in particular is associated with comedy, and many entertainers use Osaka dialect phrases solely for humor value.
The [[Ryukyuan languages]] are spoken in the [[Ryukyu Islands]]. Not only is each language unintelligible to Japanese speakers, but most are unintelligible to those who speak other Ryukyuan languages. Due to the close relationship of Ryukyuan and Japanese, they are still sometimes said to be only dialects of one language, but modern scholars consider them to be separate languages.
Recently, Standard Japanese has