Question: How does milk turn into cream?

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 How does milk turn into cream?

Cream is the fattiest part of the milk. It rises to the top in non-homogenized milk, so all you have to do is skim the surface for it and collect it.


Question: Can someone explain confidence interval in simple words? Also, what is the difference between confidence level and confidence interval?

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 Can someone explain confidence interval in simple words? Also, what is the difference between confidence level and confidence interval?

The general framework here is usually that you know a little bit about the distribution of something, but not the specifics. For example, a coin comes up either heads or tails, but you don't know how likely each one is (it might not be a fair coin). Or you know a distribution is normal, but don't know what the mean of the distribution is. Your goal is to take a sample of data, and from that give some sort of estimation of the parameter you care about. But not all estimations are equally precise. For example, consider the following two situations. * I flipped a coin twice, and it came up heads once. * I flipped a coin *2000* times, and it came up heads *1000* times. In both cases the coin came up heads half the time, but the second case in some sense provides a lot more evidence than the first that the actual probability of heads is close to *1/2*. Just saying something like "I estimate the probability of heads is *1/2*" doesn't make that difference clear. So instead, you want to give an estimate that includes some amount of margin of error. This is where confidence intervals come into play. What confidence intervals really are are methods for converting your sample to an estimate for a parameter. You give it your data set, it'll output some interval that "usually" (more on this in a moment) contains the actual value of the parameter. The differing uncertainties in examples like the one above are captured by this: Usually the more data you have, the better estimate you can get, which shows up in a narrower confidence interval. The difficult part about understanding confidence intervals is nailing down what exactly this "usually" is. Suppose I'm trying to estimate a parameter *a*. Formally a "*95%* confidence interval for *a*" means that no matter what my value of *a* is, *95%* of the time my method will give me an interval that contains *a*. For example, say I actually have a fair coin (but don't know it), and I ask *100* people to come in, perform an experiment, and give me a confidence interval for the probability of heads based on their own data. Because each person is using different data, they'll get different confidence intervals. But if they're using a method that constructs *95%* confidence intervals, then on average *95* of the *100* intervals they construct will contain *1/2*. If I then asked them to repeat the experiment, but this time with a biased coin that came up heads *68%* of the time, they'll get new confidence intervals. But, on average, *95* of the *100* confidence intervals they construct will contain *0.68*. (Continued in next comment, this is getting long).


Question: Why do we forget what we were supposed to do when entering new rooms?

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 Why do we forget what we were supposed to do when entering new rooms?

A door is just one way our brain compartmentalizes what we experience. Going into a new room makes the brain go “Ah yes, time for a new event,” which means you might forget something that was a part of the last “event”


Question: Why do my Cheerios in milk act like magnets with different polarities causing them to repel or attract each other?

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 Why do my Cheerios in milk act like magnets with different polarities causing them to repel or attract each other?

Milk likes milk more than it likes air. When a cheerio floats on milk, it has milk in/on it, which attracts* the other milk molecules and pulls them up. You can see the surface of the milk curves up to meet the cheerio. When you have 2 cheerios, the curved parts like each other more than they like air, so they behave like magnets. * I'm not sure if "attraction" is the right word here, it's more that the milk is taking the path of least resistance. URL_0


Question: how do coin dispensing machines know the difference between $1, $5, $10 etc. dollar bills?

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 how do coin dispensing machines know the difference between $1, $5, $10 etc. dollar bills?

Paper money printed in the United States contains, in addition to a plethora of visible security features, some very elaborate methods to assist in automated denomination recognition. The primary method vending machines use to recognize the denomination of paper money is through a magnetic scan; paper currency is printed with magnetic ink, similar to the ink on the MICR line of a check, that makes it easily identifiable to machines with magnetic scanners. In addition, each denomination is marked with different fluorescent properties. Many vending machines and other machines that read paper currency use an ultraviolet light to scan the bill, read the fluorescent response and issue the appropriate credit. Read more: How Do Vending Machines Read Money? | URL_1 URL_0


Question: Why Is Pete Buttigieg Doing So Well In The Democratic Primaries?

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 Why Is Pete Buttigieg Doing So Well In The Democratic Primaries?

He has been polling well in Iowa and NH for a while, combine that with Biden dropping, and they’re jumping ship to Pete as he is a moderate who has an Obama vibe because of his youth. This shouldn’t have come as a surprise. If he does well after New Hampshire then something curious is happening, but on the national level he’s 5th, behind Bloomberg.


Question: How do bugs survive winter?

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 How do bugs survive winter?

Some lay eggs right before winter, some survive as pupae (the stage between caterpillar and butterfly), a few survive as adults in a type of dormancy. It really depends on the species and how cold it gets in winter where you live. On top of this, most of them will also burrow into the soil, or into trees, or under the leaf litter. This plus snow cover insulates then from freezing and they kinda just hang out and wait for it to get warmer. Edit to add: insects are tiny and their bodies are pretty darn salty so they freeze at a lower temperature than water does, which helps when the above strategies don’t quite put them somewhere that doesn’t freeze at all in the winter. Second addition: insects also have the strategy of having many babies, sometimes hundreds of them, multiple times per year. This means that for some species, 95% of the population might die one winter, but the survivors will be more than adequate to rebuild the population next spring.


Question: What are the rules that must be fullfilled to create competitive telecommunications market?

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 What are the rules that must be fullfilled to create competitive telecommunications market?

The buyer has to be free not to buy, the seller has to be free not to sell, information has to be symmetrical, and there has to be enough providers that groups of providers can't affect market price. Telecoms fail at nearly all of this. Modern society almost mandates a cell phone, so the buyer is *almost* compelled. Obtuse contracts mean that information about services provided is hidden behind pages and pages of legalese. There aren't enough providers to provide meaningful competition. Prices and services are heavily dependent on where you live, not to mention that for some people there is only one provider that gets reception at places like your home, your work, or your favorite hangout.


Question: What causes the skin near the fingernails to begin to tear/rip?

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 What causes the skin near the fingernails to begin to tear/rip?

Dry skin my friend. Try using hand lotion at night or cuticle cream. Night and day difference after about 2 weeks of use.


Question: What stops humans from fully studying the bottom of the ocean? Why does it seem like there is still much to be discovered? What prevents us?

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 What stops humans from fully studying the bottom of the ocean? Why does it seem like there is still much to be discovered? What prevents us?

Pressure, temperature and light makes it a very tough zone to study. We can get a human in a tin can down there but not for long and it can be really dangerous. It means we can’t get out and collect samples by hand. Any organisms we drag up tend to die and change shape since their bodies are built for high pressure systems, not low. Organisms are extremely well spread out down there so even finding them can be purely luck. Sometimes we drop ‘laboratories’ which are basically robots we control from above. Down there they can record video and using arms can collect samples of plants and tiny organisms which might survive the journey back up.


Question: What exactly have allowed each console generation’s graphics to improve? What do we have now that we didn’t have before?

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 What exactly have allowed each console generation’s graphics to improve? What do we have now that we didn’t have before?

Graphics is just calculations, and better hardware can do more of them per second, allowing more lighting, shadows, complex models, and higher res textures to be rendered within a shorter time, leading to a higher frame rate. [I give a pretty lengthy explanation of some of these calculations in my answer here.]( URL_0 ) There are also improvements in memory access with newer hardware, which can reduce stuttering and freezing when moving from one area of a game to another as the hardware can more quickly load the data needed to render the new area. Look at how good today's games look with skyboxes, mirrors, refraction, reflection, shadows, thousands of polygons, and high resolution. We could do all of that years ago, but it would take days for hardware of a similar price to your console to render the scenes that it takes your console a fraction of a second to render. We've always been able to do the calculations needed to render these scenes, they can just be done more quickly now, to the point where they can be rendered in real time, 30+ times per second. The most important improvement to note is the increase in calculations per second per dollar. We've always been able to do the calculations, it's just gotten cheaper to do them more quickly as hardware design and manufacturing improves.


Question: what is the biological reason for sexual arousal in women before their menstruation?

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 what is the biological reason for sexual arousal in women before their menstruation?

Before a woman has her period she’s going through something called ovulation which is several days of heightened arousal where she is most likely to get pregnant. The menstrual cycle is, briefly, a repeating pattern in a woman’s ovaries and uterus preparing for pregnancy. For a couple weeks she has an egg in her ovaries that is selected to mature and develop while her uterus begins growing an inner lining that is the ideal home for a fertilized egg to implant in and grow. When conditions begin to become ideal for pregnancy, she ovulates: the egg is released from the ovary and into the tubes which carry it to the uterus. Hormones fluctuate throughout the entirety of the cycle, but this is where the arousal will be highest. If the egg is fertilized with sperm and implanted into the uterus, she is now pregnant. Otherwise vessels which supply that lining that was created cinch themselves off and the lining breaks away. This is menstruation, and the lining/egg slough off. It takes 3-7 days generally for this process to complete and reset. I understand this goes into further detail than you were asking, but a basic understanding of the cycle helps with understanding of things related to it. Edit: For clarification, [the rough timeline]( URL_0 ) is Day 0 - beginning of menses, Day 14 - ovulation and increased arousal, roughly Day 23-27 arousal tapers off, Day 27-30 risk for pre-menstrual mood swings/pain/cramps, then Day 0 again with menses. Everyone's a little bit different, though, and this is the average. Your experience may vary.


Question: If heat rises, then why are higher elevations so cold?

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 If heat rises, then why are higher elevations so cold?

while heat rises, at higher altitude the air is thinner. This means that the air is less dense and isn't as capable of holding or transmitting heat. Additionally, as hot air rises it expands and the energy to do that comes from the air itself cooling it. There's some other things as well. Air essentially acts like a blanket, trapping heat. At higher altitudes, there's less air above you trapping heat.


Question: Why do some restaurants not post prices for alcoholic beverages on their menus? Appetizers, entrees, sides and desserts have prices but beer, wine and liquor do not.

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 Why do some restaurants not post prices for alcoholic beverages on their menus? Appetizers, entrees, sides and desserts have prices but beer, wine and liquor do not.

Liquor has the highest profit margin, if the price of your favorite alcoholic beverage is not listed you're more likely to order more drinks and thus give the restaurant more of your money.


Question: Islamic banks vs ‘regular’ (?) banks

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 Islamic banks vs ‘regular’ (?) banks

Islamic banks follow sharia law. IIRC there are no interests on loans. And the bank can't invest in non-sharia ventures.


Question: How does soap help remove body odor im comparison to plain water?

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 How does soap help remove body odor im comparison to plain water?

A lot of the stuff that makes us dirty and smelly is accumulated on our body because of oil. Oil traps in dirt and odors. And if you know anything about oil, you should know that it doesn't mix or dissolve in water. So while rubbing with just water might get rid of some surface oils, we use soap, which breaks down the oil (along with the dirt and odors in it) into smaller pieces that can be dissolved into the water and washed away.


Question: - How are large crowds at rallies and events calculated?

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 - How are large crowds at rallies and events calculated?

Assuming there is no door they have to enter through or some other choke points you can count them at the only way to do it is with math. So you pick an area, say 100 sq ft, then you count the number of people in several of those sized areas, then you take your counts and average them together. Now that you have an average you can multiply by the area of the group and you have a rough count of the number of people in the group. It's not perfect, there is a large margin for error, but when you're talking about variances of even +/- 10,000 out of groups of 500,000 that's considered reasonably accurate. Alternatively you can check the amount of people using public transit on an average day against those on the day you're checking, and you can see the variance and calculate the difference. And if you use both methods you can arrive at a more likely number than using either independently.


Question: What is that subtle grainy texture we see in a dimly dark room or in absolute darkness in our vision?

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[Your detailed chain-of-thought goes here]
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[Your final answer goes here]
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 What is that subtle grainy texture we see in a dimly dark room or in absolute darkness in our vision?

Your eyes have photopic and scotopic vision. Photopic vision uses reseptors called cones during the day and has good image quaility and color. Scotopic vision is your low light vision and uses light receptors called rods. It does take some time for eyes to adjust to low level light and for the rods to start working at full capacity. The rods are best at collecting and amplifying light and they do not provide color vision or high image resolution. This makes the image seen by the eye look grainy. When you see color in dim lighting, it is the cones working with the rods and it is called mesopic vision.


Question: How does the title of a classical music work? why are they so long?

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 How does the title of a classical music work? why are they so long?

Many musical compositions made my famous composers are given first a number based upon what kind of composition it is. For example, Beethoven's Symphony No. 9 was the ninth symphony he wrote. There are other concertos, rhapsodies, fugues and such he may have wrote, but symphonies are different just like movies are different from short films. Op. stands for Opus. It means which piece it is chronologically out of all the pieces that composer ever wrote. (This can vary as some composers wrote so much music they got their own dedicated numbering system, like Bach and Vivaldi.) Then the composition can have a name, which may or may not look sensical or fancy because it's probably not English. It may also indicate the key that the whole piece had been tuned to. For example, Fantasie in G-Major. Then there's the Movement. Movements are to music what scenes are to plays or movies. There's no limit to how short or long they are or how many there should be in a song, but many pieces have three or four movements about 10 minutes long. Along with the movement, they'll have a little description of the mood, speed or emotion of the movement (usually written in Italian). For example, Fuoco means "passionately, like fire", Scherzo means "like a joke, laughing and silly" and Fortissimo means "strong and loud". The description may also include some special or interesting instruments being used in the performance. Orgel is German for organ. Tl;Dr, the title includes technical information about the performance rather than just the name, as well as where it might be in the whole piece if the whole piece is very long.


Question: How do name brands compete with cheaper, generic brands?

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 How do name brands compete with cheaper, generic brands?

They rely on advertising and brand recognition. But a lot of people don't realize that many of the cheap brands are actually made by the name brand companies. I haven't seen a big list for Great Value products, but here's an article about who makes certain [Kirkland brands]( URL_0 ) (Costco). So, I would assume that they also end up getting a cut of the private label/store brand products that they manufacture.


Question: Nonpolar molecules with polar bonds?

The user asks a question, and the Assistant answers it. The assistant first thinks about the reasoning process in the mind and then provides the user with the answer. The reasoning process and answer are enclosed within <thinking> </thinking> and
<answer> </answer> tags, respectively, i.e., <thinking> reasoning process here </thinking><answer> answer here </answer>.
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<thinking>
[Your detailed chain-of-thought goes here]
</thinking>
<answer>
[Your final answer goes here]
</answer>
 Nonpolar molecules with polar bonds?

ELI20: It comes down to geometry. Carbon dioxide (CO2) is such an example, with the C=O bonds each having a dipole moment, but because of the linear geometry of the molecule, the dipole moments cancel each other out and you’re left with a net zero dipole moment — i.e. a nonpolar molecule. A slightly more complex example is methane (CH4). Each C–H bond has its own dipole moment, but the symmetric geometry of the molecule (tetrahedral) makes the dipole moments cancel. ELI5: Think of it like a seesaw. If you and your (identically-sized) friend are sitting at equivalent positions on your own ends of the seesaw (molecule), you balance each other! This situation is “nonpolar”. But if one of you moves forward or backwards, it becomes unbalanced and there is now a “polarity”. Ditto for a four-way seesaw (is that a thing?). As long as you and your friends are sitting in equivalent spots with each other, you can balance the 4saw (molecule) and keep it nonpolar. But if even one of you moves out of the right spot, that creates an imbalance, and the 4saw is now polar.


Question: Do twins in the twins paradox keep the same age if the acceleration to and from each other are added?

The user asks a question, and the Assistant answers it. The assistant first thinks about the reasoning process in the mind and then provides the user with the answer. The reasoning process and answer are enclosed within <thinking> </thinking> and
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<thinking>
[Your detailed chain-of-thought goes here]
</thinking>
<answer>
[Your final answer goes here]
</answer>
 Do twins in the twins paradox keep the same age if the acceleration to and from each other are added?

The direction of the acceleration is irrelevant. Accelerating away or accelerating towards both slow down the clocks for the accelerating twin. They don't cancel out.


Question: why is the perfect ratio of oxygen to hydrogen in rocket combustion 6:1 and not 8:1?

The user asks a question, and the Assistant answers it. The assistant first thinks about the reasoning process in the mind and then provides the user with the answer. The reasoning process and answer are enclosed within <thinking> </thinking> and
<answer> </answer> tags, respectively, i.e., <thinking> reasoning process here </thinking><answer> answer here </answer>.
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<thinking>
[Your detailed chain-of-thought goes here]
</thinking>
<answer>
[Your final answer goes here]
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 why is the perfect ratio of oxygen to hydrogen in rocket combustion 6:1 and not 8:1?

I understand why you think that, but the stoichiometric ratio is not the most important consideration when determining propellant and oxidizer ratios. Burning propellants is most efficient, in terms of heat produced per mass of propellant, at the stoichiometric ratio, which as you know is 8:1 for hydrogen and oxygen, but for a given amount of energy, the momentum is maximized by making the gas molecules as light as possible. which is why hydrolox engine ideally has a large excess of H2 molecules over H2O and other combustion products, meaning they need to run fuel-rich. It's different for every single engine, and sometimes varies per engine during the flight. For example, the RS-25, the Space Shuttle main engine, used a 6.03:1 propellant mixture ratio, the J2, which powered the 2nd and 3rd stages of the Saturn V used a 5.5:1 ratio that could be adjusted during flight, and the Vulcain 2, which power the Ariane 5, uses a 6.7:1.


Question: When a candle burns, where does the wax go?

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<thinking>
[Your detailed chain-of-thought goes here]
</thinking>
<answer>
[Your final answer goes here]
</answer>
 When a candle burns, where does the wax go?

The long chain hydrocarbons that make up the wax are burning. They then turn into mostly water vapor and carbon dioxide, plus some soot and miscellaneous products of incomplete combustion.


Question: How is nuclear Fallout removed?

The user asks a question, and the Assistant answers it. The assistant first thinks about the reasoning process in the mind and then provides the user with the answer. The reasoning process and answer are enclosed within <thinking> </thinking> and
<answer> </answer> tags, respectively, i.e., <thinking> reasoning process here </thinking><answer> answer here </answer>.
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<thinking>
[Your detailed chain-of-thought goes here]
</thinking>
<answer>
[Your final answer goes here]
</answer>
 How is nuclear Fallout removed?

By removing whatever was contaminated. They usually go and remove some centimeters to meters of ground, put it in bags and then dispose these bags as radioactive waste (which means that there are warehouses and storage areas full of this shit that waits for science to find a solution of where and how that stuff can be finally deposited...)


Question: How do pictures like the Mona Lisa and Uncle Sam work so that they are always looking at you no matter the angle?

The user asks a question, and the Assistant answers it. The assistant first thinks about the reasoning process in the mind and then provides the user with the answer. The reasoning process and answer are enclosed within <thinking> </thinking> and
<answer> </answer> tags, respectively, i.e., <thinking> reasoning process here </thinking><answer> answer here </answer>.
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<thinking>
[Your detailed chain-of-thought goes here]
</thinking>
<answer>
[Your final answer goes here]
</answer>
 How do pictures like the Mona Lisa and Uncle Sam work so that they are always looking at you no matter the angle?

Great minds think alike. Ahoy, matey! Yer not alone in askin', and kind strangers have explained: 1. [ELI5 - how the eyes of a portrait can follow you around, always staring at you regardless of where you're standing ]( URL_0 ) ^(_52 comments_) 1. [ELI5: Why do the eyes on paintings/photographs appear to follow your movements? ]( URL_5 ) ^(_3 comments_) 1. [ELI5: Why do eyes in pictures/paintings appear to "follow" you around the room? ]( URL_4 ) ^(_2 comments_) 1. [ELI5: Why do eyes in pictures follow you? ]( URL_2 ) ^(_7 comments_) 1. [ELI5: Why do eyes in photos seem to follow you? ]( URL_1 ) ^(_2 comments_) 1. [ELI5: Why do paintings of people eyes follow you around? ]( URL_3 ) ^(_1 comment_)


Question: Can someone who knows chemistry better than I do please explain octahedral (d fields) and high/low spin?

The user asks a question, and the Assistant answers it. The assistant first thinks about the reasoning process in the mind and then provides the user with the answer. The reasoning process and answer are enclosed within <thinking> </thinking> and
<answer> </answer> tags, respectively, i.e., <thinking> reasoning process here </thinking><answer> answer here </answer>.
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<thinking>
[Your detailed chain-of-thought goes here]
</thinking>
<answer>
[Your final answer goes here]
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 Can someone who knows chemistry better than I do please explain octahedral (d fields) and high/low spin?

In an octahedral field the 5 d orbitals are no longer degenerate. The 2 orbitals that align with the ligand orbitals are destabilised so raise in energy and the three orbitals that don't lower in energy. High spin/low spin comes about because when you get 4+ d electrons there are two different ways to fill the electrons in the 5 d orbitals, either pair before promote or promote before pair. This diagram shows an example of what I mean because diagrams really help: [link]( URL_0 ) Ligands can force a low or high spin configuration, what are called strong field ligands can force low spin configurations. Look up "spectrochemical series" for a ranking on how strong a ligand is. This is a really rough post, I'm quite tired (long day!) but I'm happy to go over something if it isn't super clear


Question: Why is phone hold music such terrible audio quality, even though phone conversations are great?

The user asks a question, and the Assistant answers it. The assistant first thinks about the reasoning process in the mind and then provides the user with the answer. The reasoning process and answer are enclosed within <thinking> </thinking> and
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<thinking>
[Your detailed chain-of-thought goes here]
</thinking>
<answer>
[Your final answer goes here]
</answer>
 Why is phone hold music such terrible audio quality, even though phone conversations are great?

Music has a wide range of sounds from very low bass and drums to high sounds like violins and flutes, but talking tends to be in a very narrow range of medium sound, not particularly low or high. There are so many phone calls happening at once and a limited space to fit all those signals. So to fit them all, the sound of the phone call is taken from just that middle range where talking happens. With this smaller range of sound to send to the phones the more phone calls can be sent at once. But cutting the high and low parts out of the music makes it sound weird.


Question: How does aloe vera gel help heal sunburns?

The user asks a question, and the Assistant answers it. The assistant first thinks about the reasoning process in the mind and then provides the user with the answer. The reasoning process and answer are enclosed within <thinking> </thinking> and
<answer> </answer> tags, respectively, i.e., <thinking> reasoning process here </thinking><answer> answer here </answer>.
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<thinking>
[Your detailed chain-of-thought goes here]
</thinking>
<answer>
[Your final answer goes here]
</answer>
 How does aloe vera gel help heal sunburns?

There's a compound in the clear gel of the liquid that has been shown to reduce the healing time of burns, as well as open wounds, and has antibacterial, fungal, and viral properties when applied to the area. These are from compounds that help the plant to heal itself after damage, also work on human skin. It has been used for well over 6000 years. & #x200B; The yellow part of the plant is also a great laxative. & #x200B; No other uses have been researched effectively or thoroughly enough to say its effectiveness.


Question: How come we age slower in space? If we all lived in space would be have a longer life expectancy?

The user asks a question, and the Assistant answers it. The assistant first thinks about the reasoning process in the mind and then provides the user with the answer. The reasoning process and answer are enclosed within <thinking> </thinking> and
<answer> </answer> tags, respectively, i.e., <thinking> reasoning process here </thinking><answer> answer here </answer>.
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<thinking>
[Your detailed chain-of-thought goes here]
</thinking>
<answer>
[Your final answer goes here]
</answer>
 How come we age slower in space? If we all lived in space would be have a longer life expectancy?

This has to do with time dialation. To understand this you at least needs to know the special theory of relativity which you can look up in your own time. The basic aspect is that time goes slower when you go fast. You might think of it as a time machine that only goes forward. You do not gain time yourself but everything around you loses time. So if everyone would live in orbit around the Earth then the life expectency of people would still be the same but everything left on Earth would age faster.


Question: Why were 4-speed automatic/manual transmissions so common in so many cars? What made them THE choice?

The user asks a question, and the Assistant answers it. The assistant first thinks about the reasoning process in the mind and then provides the user with the answer. The reasoning process and answer are enclosed within <thinking> </thinking> and
<answer> </answer> tags, respectively, i.e., <thinking> reasoning process here </thinking><answer> answer here </answer>.
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<thinking>
[Your detailed chain-of-thought goes here]
</thinking>
<answer>
[Your final answer goes here]
</answer>
 Why were 4-speed automatic/manual transmissions so common in so many cars? What made them THE choice?

It is possible to have 4 forward gears and reverse with only one layshaft and a reverse idler. 3F + R is even easier, only one layshaft back in the column days. To have 5 forward gears takes three layshafts. A 50% increase in parts for a 25% increase in gear ratios. This interesting [animated gif]( URL_0 ) shows how it works, minus reverse.


Question: Why is there a value for the square root of -1 (i) but not for dividing by zero?

The user asks a question, and the Assistant answers it. The assistant first thinks about the reasoning process in the mind and then provides the user with the answer. The reasoning process and answer are enclosed within <thinking> </thinking> and
<answer> </answer> tags, respectively, i.e., <thinking> reasoning process here </thinking><answer> answer here </answer>.
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<thinking>
[Your detailed chain-of-thought goes here]
</thinking>
<answer>
[Your final answer goes here]
</answer>
 Why is there a value for the square root of -1 (i) but not for dividing by zero?

Well, *i* came about because we just decided to create a new number to fill an existing gap ("you can't take the square root of a negative number"). We made the definition that, whatever the square root of -1 is, we would call it *i*. The lovely thing is that it fits perfectly with the existing body of math, and so making this jump actually makes sense. As an example, you can rewrite √(-4) as √(4)×√(-1), by using regular algebra. √(4) is just 2, so that becomes 2×√(-1) or 2*i*. Square root of -4 is twice the square root of -1, just like square root of positive four is twice the square root of positive one. This makes sense. So let's make that same jump for division by zero. Let's take 1/0 and, whatever that number is, call it *q*. We now have the relationship > 1/0 = q which we can rewrite using regular algebra as > 1 = q×0 But this has a problem. An equation that looks like this can't exist alongside the math that we already have, because we *already* have a definition for zero times a number. Zero times any number, positive negative imaginary or otherwise, is by definition zero. Zero times three million is zero, zero times -47*i* is zero, zero times *q* should also be zero. We can't assign a value to x/0, because of the way we already define zero. TL;DR: making *i* meant making some new rules, but they fit perfectly with the ones we already have. They just added extra stuff we could do. Making a value for 1/0 would require breaking rules that already exist in math. & #x200B; Edit: Thanks for all the positive feedback, it warms my heart to see so many people thinking and wondering about math. My answer is of course my own simplified slice of a very rich topic. I couldn't help but notice that some of you are naturally thinking and asking towards a bigger slice: **limits**. What if we don't just look at an isolated point like "7/0 = ?", but instead have a whole function to work with? We can get some interesting and much more satisfying answers by looking at how the function behaves as it gets closer and closer to dividing by zero. The simplest such function is y = 1/x, which is easy enough to answer for every nonzero x-value. What about at x = 0? Well let's look at the [graph]( URL_0 ). If we start on the left side and follow the curve closer and closer to the y-axis, it shoots way down towards negative infinity. If we follow the same approach from the right side, it heads towards positive infinity. You can see why, unlike *i*, there isn't a single answer when dividing by zero. Even just this one function points to two different answers depending on how we come at it. Okay, let's try [y = sin(x)/x]( URL_1 ). Just worry about how it looks right beside the y-axis, on both sides. As you get closer and closer to x = 0, since sine of 0 equals 0, you approach the question y = 0/0 = what? This time however, the function points towards an answer of 1, no matter which direction you approach from. So in this case, we can say that the *limit* of the function as you *approach* 0/0 is 1. The specific point "y = 0/0" isn't calculatable and has no defined value, but the nice and simple behaviour of the function through that point lets us say the *limit* at that point is 1. Mind you, this is only when you approach it from inside that exact function. In *general*: * The limit as you approach a "1/0" case will be positive or negative infinity, depending on the function and the direction you approach. * The limit as you approach a "0/0" case can be any number, infinity, or no definite value, depending on the same.


Question: What is space time, how can dimensions be fused, and how is time a dimension?

The user asks a question, and the Assistant answers it. The assistant first thinks about the reasoning process in the mind and then provides the user with the answer. The reasoning process and answer are enclosed within <thinking> </thinking> and
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<thinking>
[Your detailed chain-of-thought goes here]
</thinking>
<answer>
[Your final answer goes here]
</answer>
 What is space time, how can dimensions be fused, and how is time a dimension?

The dimensions aren't fused. Think about it in terms of degrees of freedom to move - generally there is an intuition that there are 3 dimensions. There is no "preferential" direction in physical terms - so all 3 are treated equally, which doesn't mean they are fused but simply recognizing that anything that happens in one dimension can also happen in the other identically. The idea of spacetime is something that comes from Einstein's theory which has now been experimentally verified. Before Einstein, time was considered invariant - one second to you means one second to me or to anything else in the universe. Time passes the same for everyone and everything. With relativity proven, it is now clear that time is NOT an absolute or invariant and that how time passes varies depending on the relative speed of the measurer. This ties together motion in space with motion in time - no longer were these two independent - moving quickly in space means moving less quickly in time. From a mathematical viewpoint, time is no longer "invariant" and enters into the equations governing motion, therefore it is, conceptually, another dimension. Objects "move" through time as well as space.


Question: Why does it appear that, during a newscast, there is a delay at the studio end, but not at the reporters end?

The user asks a question, and the Assistant answers it. The assistant first thinks about the reasoning process in the mind and then provides the user with the answer. The reasoning process and answer are enclosed within <thinking> </thinking> and
<answer> </answer> tags, respectively, i.e., <thinking> reasoning process here </thinking><answer> answer here </answer>.
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<thinking>
[Your detailed chain-of-thought goes here]
</thinking>
<answer>
[Your final answer goes here]
</answer>
 Why does it appear that, during a newscast, there is a delay at the studio end, but not at the reporters end?

We are seeing the conversation from the studio's point of view. Regardless of how long it's taking for the signal from the reporter to get there, we're seeing it arrive. When the anchor asks a question, we have to wait for that signal to get to the reporter and for the reporter's response to come all the way back. From the reporter's point of view, the opposite is true. They *could* rig it up so that we were watching from behind the reporter, and he was watching a feed from the studio. In that case, the studio feed would come in and the reporter could instantly respond, and then the delay would be in the studio acknowledging the response. Fun fact: the moon landings had to deal with this problem, as the moon is about 1.5 light-seconds away. Most of the footage we're familiar with has been edited to remove the delays, but if you can find raw footage (CBS streamed its real-time feed on the anniversary this year), it's been recorded from NASA's perspective and there's a delay between when Houston says something and when the astronauts respond. If we were able to hear the same recordings from the spaceship's point of view, the delay would be in the opposite direction.


Question: How does therapy work/repair years of low self esteem and feeling worthless?

The user asks a question, and the Assistant answers it. The assistant first thinks about the reasoning process in the mind and then provides the user with the answer. The reasoning process and answer are enclosed within <thinking> </thinking> and
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<thinking>
[Your detailed chain-of-thought goes here]
</thinking>
<answer>
[Your final answer goes here]
</answer>
 How does therapy work/repair years of low self esteem and feeling worthless?

You’re thinking of something called “cognitive behavioural therapy”. Basically, when you’ve thought you’re a worthless sack of shit for years...your brain has formed certain habits. Your brain is **meant** to form habits (that’s how you learn anything at all) but in this case, the habits you’ve built up over time are negative ones. The way you talk to yourself. The way you respond when something goes wrong. You’ve been doing things in particular ways for so long that this is the only path your brain knows how to take. Every time it happens, you’re so used to following the same pattern that you start doing it again without even noticing. CBT with a therapist is a process of breaking down your old habits, and training your brain into adopting new, healthier ones. It’s gradual. It takes a while, and at first you **do** find yourself consciously stopping when you notice old habits and going *no, I don’t want to react this way; I’m going to reset and choose THIS instead* Talking to someone in general can help in some of the same ways that therapy does. But it’s a lot easier to learn and reinforce new habits (they have to be reinforced before they can become automatic) when you’re supported by a therapist who knows exactly what you’re trying to do.


Question: Why does a double pendulum motion create such a sporadic, random pattern?

The user asks a question, and the Assistant answers it. The assistant first thinks about the reasoning process in the mind and then provides the user with the answer. The reasoning process and answer are enclosed within <thinking> </thinking> and
<answer> </answer> tags, respectively, i.e., <thinking> reasoning process here </thinking><answer> answer here </answer>.
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<thinking>
[Your detailed chain-of-thought goes here]
</thinking>
<answer>
[Your final answer goes here]
</answer>
 Why does a double pendulum motion create such a sporadic, random pattern?

It's "chaotic": very small differences in the initial conditions (like exactly how the pendulum is started, exactly how far it is held up before being released, etc.) make very significant differences in the final motion. There are equations that govern how it work, and there are patterns to how it moves. It's just hard to replicate the motion, because of the difficulty in swinging a pendulum *exactly* the same twice. Weather works like this, too: the strength of a mere breeze halfway across the world can make the difference in whether or not a storm hits your home or misses it a couple weeks later. That's why weather prediction takes lots of computing power, and why long-term forecasts tend to kinda suck.


Question: with regards to phone technology- what is 5G exactly?

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<answer> </answer> tags, respectively, i.e., <thinking> reasoning process here </thinking><answer> answer here </answer>.
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<thinking>
[Your detailed chain-of-thought goes here]
</thinking>
<answer>
[Your final answer goes here]
</answer>
 with regards to phone technology- what is 5G exactly?

It's the fifth generation of cellular network standards that is being rolled out over the next year or two. It's not one thing, it's a lot of updates to the network infrastructure (and devices) to increase the capacity of the networks as whole, as well as an increase in the number and kinds of devices that can be connected. The marketing crap is just marketing crap. Most of it is a lie anyway.


Question: Why does water feel cold when evaporating from your skin?

The user asks a question, and the Assistant answers it. The assistant first thinks about the reasoning process in the mind and then provides the user with the answer. The reasoning process and answer are enclosed within <thinking> </thinking> and
<answer> </answer> tags, respectively, i.e., <thinking> reasoning process here </thinking><answer> answer here </answer>.
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For example, your response follow this format:
<thinking>
[Your detailed chain-of-thought goes here]
</thinking>
<answer>
[Your final answer goes here]
</answer>
 Why does water feel cold when evaporating from your skin?

TL;DR: It's because water moving from a liquid to a gas form requires heat input, and it "steals" that heat from your skin. Water basically has three "states" - solid (ice), liquid, and gas (water vapour). If you want to move water from one of these states to another you either have to add or remove a little burst of energy. You have to add energy to go solid-to-liquid or liquid-to-gas, or remove it to go the other way. And because energy's not free, it has to come from somewhere. So a film of water on your skin evaporates and goes from liquid to gas, and so it has to get energy from somewhere to do that, right? That energy comes from your skin that the water was sitting on, and as it evaporates that water actually robs your skin of its heat. The faster that water evaporates, such as if a dry wind is blowing across that film of water on your skin, the faster your skin gets robbed of its heat and the colder the wet region will feel. That's why getting out of a swimming pool on a cool breezy day instantly chills you.


Question: Say we were to colonise one of these planets. How would communication back to Earth work. Is there any possibility of faster than light communication or would everything we send between colonies take 40 years to get to one another?

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 Say we were to colonise one of these planets. How would communication back to Earth work. Is there any possibility of faster than light communication or would everything we send between colonies take 40 years to get to one another?

Communication would be limited to 40 year lag. Speed of light is an absolute max speed given our current understanding of science. Some people think that doing really tricky things with entangled particles could allow for faster than light communication. You can put information "in" to entangled particles and this change will be reflected instantaneously anywhere in the galaxy which is pretty cool. However it's impossible to get information "out" of an entangled particle. (Note even calling this "information" is misleading since it's not information if you can't read). So short answer: no we're limited to speed of light. Long answer: no we're limited to speed of light and quantum entanglement doesn't solve this but it's really cool check it out.


Question: how do volcanoes create so much ash?

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 how do volcanoes create so much ash?

The explosion is throwing up a fine mist of liquid rock. Because the droplets are tiny, they lose heat fast and solidify. It's the same process we use to make snow on ski resorts, but with rock instead of water. You don't want to breathe it because some of it is tiny shards of volcanic glass, which would give you the same lung problems asbestos does. ~~In addition to that, you do have a bunch of incomplete combusion going on, both of stuff in the lava and of all the dirt/trees/other biomass being incinerated. Our cars would put out a ton of smoke as well if we didn't have catalytic converters completing the combustion, and volcanos definitely don't have those. So instead of the stuff that's burning becoming pure CO2 and water, it becomes all kinds of other nasty stuff.~~ see below


Question: How do embers stay burning for hours, even while buried beneath soot/ash?

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 How do embers stay burning for hours, even while buried beneath soot/ash?

The oxygen in the air is burning the fuel in the wood. Imagine the oxygen as a thirsty person, and the wood/charcoal/whatever as a glass of water. If the embers are completely open to the air, the oxygen can just drink it all up quickly. When the fuel is covered up with ashes and soot, it is more like trying to drink through a cocktail straw, as there is a much smaller path for the oxygen to get to the wood. So, the fuel takes longer to burn (and doesn't burn as hot)


Question: when we overuse antibiotics we worry about creating antibiotic resistant bacteria. Why do we not worry about making soap resistant bacteria with washing hands considering we wash our hands much more often?

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 when we overuse antibiotics we worry about creating antibiotic resistant bacteria. Why do we not worry about making soap resistant bacteria with washing hands considering we wash our hands much more often?

Antibiotics attack a specific enzyme that a bacteria used to function or reproduce. The classic example is penicillin which inhibits the repair/building of the bacterial cell wall. They have a beta-lactam ring as part of their structure. Some bacteria have a beta-lactamase, an enzyme that will render penicillins useless. These bacteria can then continue to proliferate even if their cousins who don't have this enzyme are killed off. This leads to what we call antibiotic resistant strains. We of course create new drugs as work around like augmentin which has a beta-lactamase inhibitor or vancomycin which works on a different pathway. Though now we have species of bacteria that are resistant to vancomycin such as VRE, so a never ending arms race. Soap doesn't attack enzymes which are adaptable, in that the DNA that codes for the enzyme can mutate and provide new blue prints. These new adaptations if successful can be shared with neighbors. Soap is a working mechanically on the chemistry of the cell membrane. It breaks down the lipid layer coating holding bacteria together, the same way it pockets grease on your dirty dishes and then carries it away down the drain. To adapt to soap would require bacteria to fundamentally change their structure.


Question: Why do streaming providers supply different content to different countries? Can't they just provide the same content to everyone?

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 Why do streaming providers supply different content to different countries? Can't they just provide the same content to everyone?

Different countries have different laws in regards to content shown, tv regulations and licensing rights. Netflix US has Arrested Development S5 but Netflix AUS doesn’t due to Foxtel having first airing rights. Some programs are banned from certain countries for religious reasons or what is portrayed culturally. While some shows have to be censored or edited to comply with some countries which the streaming service may not have access to. All in all if a streaming provider breaches a countries laws in regards to their content, they are held responsible and have to face legal repercussions


Question: Is it just a coincidence that the color spectrum "loops" around?

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 Is it just a coincidence that the color spectrum "loops" around?

Actually it doesn't loop around, but due to some clever hardware exploiting our visual sensory organs, it can be made to seem that way. In our eyes we have 3 types of sensors, reacting to (grossly) simplified red, green and blue. The bands of the sensors overlap slightly giving us the ability perceive 'colors" of the spectrum as ratios of stimulation in each band. By having 3 light sources corresponding to the center frequency of each sensor, we can generate the perception of any color simply by varying the intensity of those three light sources. By modulating them with 3 sine waves 120 degrees out of phase, you can get the effect of a color wheel that perfectly loops around.


Question: Why does honey crystallize in the container, and how does putting it in warm water reverse what is happening?

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 Why does honey crystallize in the container, and how does putting it in warm water reverse what is happening?

Honey is mostly made of sugar, plus some protein and a tiny bit of water. Sugars like to stick together, and this is what happens with honey in the bottle. As honey ages it can squeeze out the little bit of water in its structure, and this forms the crystals. Warming up the honey lets the water reenter the solution.


Question: Why is a state like New York so cold compared to a country in the same latitude like Spain?

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 Why is a state like New York so cold compared to a country in the same latitude like Spain?

The Gulf Stream. It's an ocean current that carries warm water from the Gulf of Mexico across the Atlantic Ocean all over to Europe, making it warmer than it would have been otherwise.


Question: why it's a crime to buy stocks based off insider information?

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 why it's a crime to buy stocks based off insider information?

It's not "a little rumor", it's hard facts only known to you because of your position. It's akin to watching a lottery drawing before it's aired, and buying a ticket after that. Insider trading is something very different than just being good at judging a company's moves or the overall economic situation. It's specifically if you're using restricted information to make your calls.


Question: How does a phone restart? What part makes it turn on by itself?

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 How does a phone restart? What part makes it turn on by itself?

It's never fully off. It can almost completely turn off, but it doesn't go all the way. Take a look at the power button. It's not like your light switch on your wall that physically disconnects the wires. With this type of switch, the wires are always connected, and when the phone is "off", it's still on enough to monitor if the power button has been pressed. It's also why when your phone is "on", pressing the power button doesn't instantly cut power to your phone.


Question: Why are glasses always drier than plastic cups after the dishwasher's done?

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 Why are glasses always drier than plastic cups after the dishwasher's done?

Glass absorbs and conducts heat better so it essentially dries itself faster. Plastic is also more poreous so it holds more water on its surface


Question: Why is it a big deal that 1 in 200 of people alive today can trace their lineage back to Genghis Khan?

The user asks a question, and the Assistant answers it. The assistant first thinks about the reasoning process in the mind and then provides the user with the answer. The reasoning process and answer are enclosed within <thinking> </thinking> and
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 Why is it a big deal that 1 in 200 of people alive today can trace their lineage back to Genghis Khan?

> So Genghis Khan's DNA has had 800/25 = 32 generations (more if 20) to spread around the world. In that time, an unbroken line would need to average less than 2 progeny per person per generation (1.73^32 = 40 million) to get to ~40 mio descendents now. This seems quite normal as people did tend to have a lot of children historically. > What am I missing? Your maths is good, but it's a very clean theoretical model you're using. In reality, most populations inbreed *a lot*. For example, if we look at your ancestry over the same 32 generations you describe, and assume no overlap in your family trees, we see that each generation of grand parents is twice the size of the one before. And the rung of your family tree from 32 generations ago consisted of 4.2billion individuals. Now, that's certainly much larger than the estimated world population at the time, being only 360-400 million people. ( URL_0 ) We can see here the scale of the overlapping and intermingling of heritage. Now, almost all people alive 800 years ago have very far reaching progeny at this point, and this is a result of the earlier discussed overlapping of great-great-...-great grandparents. But due to the lack of easy transport and human mobility over the last millenium, most people's genes remained largely insulated in a single population and pervading only that localised group, whereas Ghengis Khan managed to spread into and propagate inside many different world populations. Khan's promiscuity and incredible reach sets him apart. He raped a *fucktonne* of women selected from the peoples he conquered, and thus has a higher percentage of the current world population as his descendants than is typical.


Question: How do they determine the total human population of the world when so many nations are too underdeveloped or corrupt to be able to keep track of all their citizens effectively?

The user asks a question, and the Assistant answers it. The assistant first thinks about the reasoning process in the mind and then provides the user with the answer. The reasoning process and answer are enclosed within <thinking> </thinking> and
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 How do they determine the total human population of the world when so many nations are too underdeveloped or corrupt to be able to keep track of all their citizens effectively?

Census is the scientific term for taking account of a national asset such a population, number of households etc. There is no one methodology for carrying out a population census. In most developed countries all citizens have social security number and births/deaths are recorded. This type of date gives a lot of insight into population statistics, such a growth pr. generation, fertility rate and more. In countries where citizens do not have a social security number and where births and deaths are not tracked, a population census will have to do with proxy data. Proxy data can be other data sources which can serve as a reliable indicator of population information. Such data will not be final and will involve uncertainties. One common proxy is questionnaires which are distributed not to all households but a representative selection. Questions in such a questionnaire will include, how many people live in a house hold, how many children are born in last year and how many have died. Another typical source of proxy data is aerial and satellite photography. This data can give an insight into changes in settlements on a larger scale. If a city has grown/diminished can be used to derive amount of people living in a given area and other information.


Question: What would it be like to be in the bottom of the Mariana Trench if the ocean was drained?

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 What would it be like to be in the bottom of the Mariana Trench if the ocean was drained?

The air would be quite dense, about 4x that of sea level, and might result in a mild case of decompression sickness if an individual were returned to sea level without regular stops, but milder than an actual scuba dive. Breathing would be very efficient, though. It would be very cold, getting only a few hours of daylight depending on the orientation of the trench (I don't have any images handy). Gravity would hardly change at all, with the 7 mile depth being only a tiny fraction of Earth's overall radius.


Question: How do towns operate where they make animals as mayors?

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 How do towns operate where they make animals as mayors?

A mayor is just a figurehead - all proposals, votes etc are undertaken by the remaining councillors.


Question: Why does the price point of a digital camera increase drastically with larger sensor sizes (4:3, full frame, medium format), when it seems like you would need fewer photoreceptors per square inch, and would otherwise be much easier to fit the image technology over a larger space?

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 Why does the price point of a digital camera increase drastically with larger sensor sizes (4:3, full frame, medium format), when it seems like you would need fewer photoreceptors per square inch, and would otherwise be much easier to fit the image technology over a larger space?

In semiconductor manufacturing you don't really pay for complexity up to a point. Once you've picked a manufacturing technology cost scales most strongly with area, not number of parts you fit in that space. A 1mm x 1mm device costs way less than a 2mm x 2mm device with the same design even though the second device is 1/4 the density. The only way going bigger saves money is if you switch to an entirely different manufacturing technology that is dramatically cheaper. But then you have to re-design your device from scratch so it's definitely not a free bit of savings.


Question: If I cut something into 3 equal pieces, there are 3 defined pieces. But, 1÷3= .333333~. Why is the math a nonstop repeating decimal when existence allows 3 pieces? Is the assumption that it's physically impossible to cut something into 3 perfectly even pieces?

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 If I cut something into 3 equal pieces, there are 3 defined pieces. But, 1÷3= .333333~. Why is the math a nonstop repeating decimal when existence allows 3 pieces? Is the assumption that it's physically impossible to cut something into 3 perfectly even pieces?

* The problem isn't math. * The problem isn't the laws of nature either. * It's just a quirk of the number system we invented. * Imagine this: * You have 10 marbles. * Using all 10 marbles, make three equal groups. * You can't since if you did three groups of three you still have a marble left over. * Now imagine each marble is made up of 10 smaller marbles stuck together. * Now try it again. You still can't do it because you'd still have one of those smaller marbles left over. * Now image you had 9 marbles instead. * You can easily split those up in to three equal groups. * But what if you had to split them into two groups? * You can't because you'd still have a marble left over. * What if each marble was really a group of 9 marbles stuck together that could be broken apart? * You still have the same issue of a marble left over. * With any number system (Base 10, Base 9, Base Whatever) you're going to run into numbers that are hard to represent cleanly