MODELLING:Lytton and Romney (1991) meta-analysis of many studies found evidence of parental initiation of sex-typed activities, eg. Mothers cooking with daughters rather than sons. REINFORCEMENT: Moccoby and Jacklin’s (1974) review, and others, have found little evidence for direct parental reward or punishment of gender role behaviour in children, although Langlois and Downs (1980) found greater discouragement of cross-sex play in fathers. Influence of schools: TEACHER EXPECTATIONS SUBJECT CHOICE AND CAREER ADVICE Influence of Peers: Conforming to gender roles avoids ambiguity of social behaviour, peer group ridicule and identity confusion. Fagot (1985) cited in Shaffer (1966) reports peer pressure for sex-appropriate play is even shown at 2 years of age- boys criticize and disrupt each other for playing with girls or their toys, while girls are also critical of other girls who choose to play with boys. Influence of the media Cross cultural studies of gender role: Mead’s (1935) study of different sex-role behaviour in three New Guniea tribes seems to count against innately, fixed gender roles: The Arapesh men and women both showed stereotypically Western ‘feminine’ characteristics, as boys and girls were raised to be sensitive to others, co-operative and The Mundugumor raised both sexes to show aggressive and emotional traits typical of Western gender roles. ‘masculine’ The Tchambuli tribe showed a reversal of Western stereotypical gender roles- women were dominant and independent, men were passive, socially sensitive, and participated in child birth . Durkin (1995) cites a study (Goodale, 1980) of another Papua New Guinea tribe, the Kaulong, who raise their girls to strike and chase boys with sticks in preparation for later gender roles as women who dominate mate selection (sometimes even capturing men) Gender role norms and influences can change within cultures over time as well as between cultures The tendency for males to participate in warfare more than women (even in Arapesh) Innate evolutionary adaptive tendencies, biosocial suitability/ predispositions of anatomy, and environmental upbringing strategies. Alternative methodology Aggression towards other people
MODELLING:Lytton and Romney (1991) meta-analysis of many studies found evidence of parental initiation of sex-typed activities, eg. Mothers cooking with daughters rather than sons. REINFORCEMENT: Moccoby and Jacklin’s (1974) review, and others, have found little evidence for direct parental reward or punishment of gender role behaviour in children, although Langlois and Downs (1980) found greater discouragement of cross-sex play in fathers. Influence of schools: TEACHER EXPECTATIONS SUBJECT CHOICE AND CAREER ADVICE Influence of Peers: Conforming to gender roles avoids ambiguity of social behaviour, peer group ridicule and identity confusion. Fagot (1985) cited in Shaffer (1966) reports peer pressure for sex-appropriate play is even shown at 2 years of age- boys criticize and disrupt each other for playing with girls or their toys, while girls are also critical of other girls who choose to play with boys. Influence of the media Cross cultural studies of gender role: Mead’s (1935) study of different sex-role behaviour in three New Guniea tribes seems to count against innately, fixed gender roles: The Arapesh men and women both showed stereotypically Western ‘feminine’ characteristics, as boys and girls were raised to be sensitive to others, co-operative and The Mundugumor raised both sexes to show aggressive and emotional traits typical of ‘masculine’ Western gender roles. The Tchambuli tribe showed a reversal of Western stereotypical gender roles- women were dominant and independent, men were passive, socially sensitive, and participated in child birth . Durkin (1995) cites a study (Goodale, 1980) of another Papua New Guinea tribe, the Kaulong, who raise their girls to strike and chase boys with sticks in preparation for later gender roles as women who dominate mate selection (sometimes even capturing men) Gender role norms and influences can change within cultures over time as well as between cultures The tendency for males to participate in warfare more than women (even in Arapesh) Innate evolutionary adaptive tendencies, biosocial suitability/ predispositions of anatomy, and environmental upbringing strategies. Alternative methodology Aggression towards other people
bandura-notes.docx