managers at each lower level. As yet, there is only very limited evidence for cascading of leader behaviors (Bass et al., 1987; Chun et al., 2009). There is no evidence that key CEO behaviors will be imitated by low-level managers, or that lower-level members of an organization will embrace the CEO’s vision without a credible strategy and major changes in programs, reward systems, and cultural values. Facilitating Conditions According to Bass (1996, 1997), transformational leadership is considered effective in any situation or culture. The theory does not specify any conditions which authentic transformational leadership is irrelevant or ineffective. In support of this position, the positive relationship between transformational leadership and effectiveness has been replicated for many leaders at different levels of authority, in different types of organizations, and in several different countries (Bass, 1997). The criterion of leadership effectiveness has included a variety of different types of measures. The evidence supports the conclusion that in most if not all situations, some aspects of transformational leadership are relevant. However, universal relevance does not mean that transformational leadership is equally effective in all situations or equally likely to occur. A number of situational variables may increase the likelihood that transformational leadership will or may enhance the effect of such leadership on followers (Bass, 1985, 1996; Hinkin & Tracey, 1999; Howell & Avolio, 1993; Pawar & Eastman, 1997; Pettigrew, 1988; Purvanova & Bono, 2009; Waldman et al., 2001). The change-oriented components of transformational leadership are likely to be more important in a dynamic, unstable environment that increases the need for change, and such leadership is more likely when leaders are encouraged and empowered to be flexible and innovative (e.g., a decentralized organization with an entrepreneurial culture). The cross-cultural research on perceived importance of transformational leadership suggests that it may be used more often in some cultures than in others (see Chapter 14). Finally, there is growing evidence that the traits and values of followers may determine how they respond to a leader’s transformational or charismatic behaviors (e.g., de Vries, Roe, & Taillieu, 2002; Ehrhart & Klein, 2001). Research on Charismatic and Transformational Leadership
managers at each lower level. As yet, there is only very limited evidence for cascading of leader behaviors (Bass et al., 1987; Chun et al., 2009). There is no evidence that key CEO behaviors will be imitated by low-level managers, or that lower-level members of an organization will embrace the CEO’s vision without a credible strategy and major changes in programs, reward systems, and cultural values. Facilitating Conditions According to Bass (1996, 1997), transformational leadership is considered effective in any situation or culture. The theory does not specify any conditions which authentic transformational leadership is irrelevant or ineffective. In support of this position, the positive relationship between transformational leadership and effectiveness has been replicated for many leaders at different levels of authority, in different types of organizations, and in several different countries (Bass, 1997). The criterion of leadership effectiveness has included a variety of different types of measures. The evidence supports the conclusion that in most if not all situations, some aspects of transformational leadership are relevant. However, universal relevance does not mean that transformational leadership is equally effective in all situations or equally likely to occur. A number of situational variables may increase the likelihood that transformational leadership will or may enhance the effect of such leadership on followers (Bass, 1985, 1996; Hinkin & Tracey, 1999; Howell & Avolio, 1993; Pawar & Eastman, 1997; Pettigrew, 1988; Purvanova & Bono, 2009; Waldman et al., 2001). The change-oriented components of transformational leadership are likely to be more important in a dynamic, unstable environment that increases the need for change, and such leadership is more likely when leaders are encouraged and empowered to be flexible and innovative (e.g., a decentralized organization with an entrepreneurial culture). The cross-cultural research on perceived importance of transformational leadership suggests that it may be used more often in some cultures than in others (see Chapter 14). Finally, there is growing evidence that the traits and values of followers may determine how they respond to a leader’s transformational or charismatic behaviors (e.g., de Vries, Roe, & Taillieu, 2002; Ehrhart & Klein, 2001). Research on Charismatic and Transformational Leadership
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