Comparison of Levels of Measurement 74 Ordinal Level of Measurement 78 Did We Measure What We Wanted to Measure? 75 Interval of Measurement 78 Measurement Validity 75 Level of Measurement 78 Face Validity 75 Comparison of Levels of Measurement 79 Content Validity 76 Careers and Research: Dana Hunt, Principal Scientist 80 Criterion Validity 76 Did We Measure What We Wanted to Measure? 80 Construct Validity 76 Measurement Validity 81 Reliability 77 Face Validity 81 Test-Retest Reliability 78 Criterion Validity 81 Interitem Reliability (Internal Consistency) 78 Construct Validity 81 Alternate-Forms Reliability 78 Reliability 82 Interobserver Reliability 78 Can We Achieve Both Reliability and Validity? 83 Can We Achieve Both Reliability and Validity? 79 Conclusion 84 Conclusion 79 Key Terms 85 ■ Key Terms 80 ■■ Highlights 85 Highlight s 81 ■ ■■ Student Site 86 Exercises 81 ■ ■■ Exercises 86 Discussing Research 81 ■ Finding Research 82 Critiquing Research 82 Doing Research 82 Ethics Questions 84 5. Sampling 85 How Do We Prepare to Sample? 86 Define Sample Components and the Population 86 Evaluate Generalizability 88 Assess the Diversity of the Population 88 Consider a Census 89 Chapter 5: Sampling and Generalizability 91 What Sampling Method Should We Use? 90 How Do We Prepare to Sample? 92 Probability Sampling Methods 90 Define Sample Components and the Population 92 Research in the News: Sample Polls Indicate Latino Evaluate Generalizability 93 Turnout Likely to Lag 91 Assess the Diversity of the Population 94 Simple Random Sampling 92 94 Consider a Census Systematic Random Sampling 93 Cluster Sampling 93 Research That Matters 95 Stratified Random Sampling 95 What Sampling Method Should We Use? 96 Nonprobability Sampling Methods 96 Probability Sampling Methods 96 Availability Sampling 97 Research in the News: What Are Best Practices for Sampling Quota Sampling 97 Vulnerable Populations? 98 Purposive Sampling 97 Simple Random Sampling 99 Snowball Sampling 99 Systematic Random Sampling 99 Conclusion 99 Cluster Sampling 99 Key Terms 99 ■■ Stratified Random Sampling 101 Highlight s 100 ■■ Nonprobability Sampling Methods 103 Exercises 100 ■■ Availability Sampling 103 Discussing Research 100 Careers and Research: Ross Koppel, Sociologist 103 Finding Research 101 Quota Sampling 104 Critiquing Research 101 Purposive Sampling 105 Doing Research 101 Snowball Sampling 105 Ethics Questions 102 Conclusion 105 6. Causation and Experimental Design 103 Key 106 Causal Explanation 104 ■ What Causes What? 104 Highlights 106 ■
Comparison of Levels of Measurement 74 Did We Measure What We Wanted to Measure? 75 Measurement Validity 75 Face Validity 75 Content Validity 76 Criterion Validity 76 Construct Validity 76 Reliability 77 Test-Retest Reliability 78 Interitem Reliability (Internal Consistency) 78 Alternate-Forms Reliability 78 Interobserver Reliability 78 Can We Achieve Both Reliability and Validity? 79 Conclusion 79 ■■ Key Terms 80 ■■ Highlight s 81 ■■ Exercises 81 Discussing Research 81 Finding Research 82 Critiquing Research 82 Doing Research 82 Ethics Questions 84 5. Sampling 85 How Do We Prepare to Sample? 86 Define Sample Components and the Population 86 Evaluate Generalizability 88 Assess the Diversity of the Population 88 Consider a Census 89 What Sampling Method Should We Use? 90 Probability Sampling Methods 90 Research in the News: Sample Polls Indicate Latino Turnout Likely to Lag 91 Simple Random Sampling 92 Systematic Random Sampling 93 Cluster Sampling 93 Stratified Random Sampling 95 Nonprobability Sampling Methods 96 Availability Sampling 97 Quota Sampling 97 Purposive Sampling 97 Snowball Sampling 99 Conclusion 99 ■■ Key Terms 99 ■■ Highlight s 100 ■■ Exercises 100 Discussing Research 100 Finding Research 101 Critiquing Research 101 Doing Research 101 Ethics Questions 102 6. Causation and Experimental Design 103 Causal Explanation 104 What Causes What? 104 Ordinal Level of Measurement 78 Interval of Measurement 78 Level of Measurement 78 Comparison of Levels of Measurement 79 Careers and Research: Dana Hunt, Principal Scientist 80 Did We Measure What We Wanted to Measure? 80 Measurement Validity 81 Face Validity 81 Criterion Validity 81 Construct Validity 81 Reliability 82 Can We Achieve Both Reliability and Validity? 83 Conclusion 84 ■ Key Terms 85 ■ Highlights 85 ■ Student Site 86 ■ Exercises 86 Chapter 5: Sampling and Generalizability 91 How Do We Prepare to Sample? 92 Define Sample Components and the Population 92 Evaluate Generalizability 93 Assess the Diversity of the Population 94 Consider a Census 94 Research That Matters 95 What Sampling Method Should We Use? 96 Probability Sampling Methods 96 Research in the News: What Are Best Practices for Sampling Vulnerable Populations? 98 Simple Random Sampling 99 Systematic Random Sampling 99 Cluster Sampling 99 Stratified Random Sampling 101 Nonprobability Sampling Methods 103 Availability Sampling 103 Careers and Research: Ross Koppel, Sociologist 103 Quota Sampling 104 Purposive Sampling 105 Snowball Sampling 105 Conclusion 105 ■ Key 106 ■ Highlights 106
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