choices have little to do with health (53). Although the government-constructed latrines are used less and the people, in general, report a decided preference for OD, the authors concluded that this does not the government from its responsibility. India needs a “excuse large-scale campaign to change sanitation preferences and promote latrine (54). Thus, use” these studies primarily framed the problem-solution as biological-technological. In a different study, Coffey (2014) pointed to the as missing ‘middle rung’ theory crucial to explaining the continuing to ending OD. The WHO, persistent ‘resistance’ UNICEF, and JMP (Joint Monitoring Program) described latrine use on a ladder from OD to varied forms of pit latrines moving eventually to the highest rung of “improved sanitation” (i.e., defined as flush toilets, covered sewers and sewage treatment plants). According to the study, only 16% of India is on the middle rung whereas in Bangladesh and sub-Sahara Africa the percentages are 40% and 45%, respectively. This theory presupposes a proper means of moving from the lowest to the middle rung before scaling up to flush sewers. Today, the Rachel Carson National Life Refuge in Maine has moved to a for the sake of “middle rung” the environment by providing eco-friendly, composting toilets within the preserve. To think of water-based, enclosed sewage systems as the highest rung may be to promote the elitism of the ‘western’ nations. Postcolonial concerns must be taken into consideration or researchers are likely to repeat mistakes of the colonial past (Said 1978; Spivak 1988) and contribute to ecological damage as well. Indeed, researchers might need to rethink the lower, middle, and higher rungs entirely as in our study no one from the most rural village was familiar with such a higher-rung system, so it is not that they are turning down the middle rung sanitation in hopes for the top tier. Srivastav (2014) reported stories in which people said defecating in the open
choices have little to do with health (53). Although the government-constructed latrines are used less and the people, in general, report a decided preference for OD, the authors concluded that this does not “excuse the government from its responsibility. India needs a large-scale campaign to change sanitation preferences and promote latrine use” (54). Thus, these studies primarily framed the problem-solution as biological-technological. In a different study, Coffey (2014) pointed to the missing ‘middle rung’ theory as crucial to explaining the continuing persistent ‘resistance’ to ending OD. The WHO, UNICEF, and JMP (Joint Monitoring Program) described latrine use on a ladder from OD to varied forms of pit latrines moving eventually to the highest rung of “improved sanitation” (i.e., defined as flush toilets, covered sewers and sewage treatment plants). According to the study, only 16% of India is on the middle rung whereas in Bangladesh and sub-Sahara Africa the percentages are 40% and 45%, respectively. This theory presupposes a proper means of moving from the lowest to the middle rung before scaling up to flush sewers. Today, the Rachel Carson National Life Refuge in Maine has moved to a “middle rung” for the sake of the environment by providing eco-friendly, composting toilets within the preserve. To think of water-based, enclosed sewage systems as the highest rung may be to promote the elitism of the ‘western’ nations. Postcolonial concerns must be taken into consideration or researchers are likely to repeat mistakes of the colonial past (Said 1978; Spivak 1988) and contribute to ecological damage as well. Indeed, researchers might need to rethink the lower, middle, and higher rungs entirely as in our study no one from the most rural village was familiar with such a higher-rung system, so it is not that they are turning down the middle rung sanitation in hopes for the top tier. Srivastav (2014) reported stories in which people said defecating in the open
Identity,%20Resistance,%20and%20Desire%20for%20Discourse.docx