Energy cost 150 €/kWh When looking at the above targets, one should keep in mind that it can be difficult or impossible to achieve all performance criteria for a given technology concurrently (e.g. life time versus energy density). Furthermore, some performance parameters strongly depend on use conditions (e.g. cycle life depending on frequency of fast charge). Gaps between targets and present performance Lead-acid technology: there is a need to improve its cycle life time and operation at partial state of charge without increasing investment costs (€/kWh). High temperature battery technology (sodium based): it must simultaneously improve its life time (cycle life time and calendar life time) and decrease its investment costs (€/kW). Li-ion technology: although Li-ion batteries are commercially available in systems and offer considerable advantages already today, there are still significant potential for improvements both in performance and in cost. A further reduction of LCOSE will broaden the spectrum of grid applications that are becoming economically viable with storage. The decrease in LCOSE is expected to be reached by improvements in production technology, value chain restructuring, the use of low cost materials, the increase of the specific energy, and the increase in life duration (cycle life and calendar life). Another possibility will be the use of second hand batteries provided by the transport sector. A clearer standardisation into three segments (power/hybridisation battery, lowest cost option, range option) can be expected. Appreciable gains in terms of performance are expected from batteries, including those still in early development stage. Li-S technology: it must improve both its cycle and calendar life time, increase its energy density using less electrolytes, and reduce its high level of self-discharge. The use of metallic lithium as anode can lead to improvements in safety. M-air technology: only Zn-air batteries are currently available for demonstration purposes. This technology must improve its round-trip efficiency and its ratio. Li-air are at prototype level and must improve their cycle life and energy density (tested in air and not only in pure oxygen). Na-ion technology: only Na-ion batteries based on a neutral pH aqueous based electrolyte are available for demonstration purposes. No suitable cathode materials exist today at industrial scale. This technology must improve its specific energy,
Energy cost 150 €/kWh When looking at the above targets, one should keep in mind that it can be difficult or impossible to achieve all performance criteria for a given technology concurrently (e.g. life time versus energy density). Furthermore, some performance parameters strongly depend on use conditions (e.g. cycle life depending on frequency of fast charge). Gaps between targets and present performance Lead-acid technology: there is a need to improve its cycle life time and operation at partial state of charge without increasing investment costs (€/kWh). High temperature battery technology (sodium based): it must simultaneously improve its life time (cycle life time and calendar life time) and decrease its investment costs (€/kW). Li-ion technology: although Li-ion batteries are commercially available in systems and offer considerable advantages already today, there are still significant potential for improvements both in performance and in cost. A further reduction of LCOSE will broaden the spectrum of grid applications that are becoming economically viable with storage. The decrease in LCOSE is expected to be reached by improvements in production technology, value chain restructuring, the use of low cost materials, the increase of the specific energy, and the increase in life duration (cycle life and calendar life). Another possibility will be the use of second hand batteries provided by the transport sector. A clearer standardisation into three segments (power/hybridisation battery, lowest cost option, range option) can be expected. Appreciable gains in terms of performance are expected from batteries, including those still in early development stage. Li-S technology: it must improve both its cycle and calendar life time, increase its energy density using less electrolytes, and reduce its high level of self-discharge. The use of metallic lithium as anode can lead to improvements in safety. M-air technology: only Zn-air batteries are currently available for demonstration purposes. This technology must improve its round-trip efficiency and its ratio. Li-air are at prototype level and must improve their cycle life and energy density (tested in air and not only in pure oxygen). Na-ion technology: only Na-ion batteries based on a neutral pH aqueous based electrolyte are available for demonstration purposes. No suitable cathode materials exist today at industrial scale. This technology must improve its specific energy,