(a) Calculate values for for the Cu transitions. Comment on any differences you  observe. (b) Draw an energy-level diagram for copper (lines separated by a distance proportional to the energy separation and clearly labelled). Use  calculated for K. What energy would be needed to remove an innermost electron entirely from a copper atom? The K series of lines are so-called because the final state is the or K shell of the atom. n=1 Other shells exist for = 2, 3 etc and are called the L,M, etc shells. n The L series of lines results from transitions which finish at = 2, so that the L line is n produced when = 3 = 2. n n What wavelength would you predict for this line? (Ignore the screening effect). Could you detect such radiation with your apparatus? [Consider equations 1 and 2]. 5. Effect of Passage through Foils When X-radiation passes through a foil its intensity is reduced according to the equation where: is the linear absorption coefficient;  is the thickness of the foil; x is the incident intensity; I0 is the transmitted intensity. Ix Replace the circular aperture in the detector carriage position 17 by a copper foil and determine the magnitude of for absorption of (a) K and (b) K radiation.  6. X-ray Absorption The absorption coefficient is heavily dependent on the wavelength of the X-rays. This can be best understood if we consider the physics of the absorption process. As X-rays pass through matter they interact with the atoms and lose energy. The main energy-loss process is ionization. The X-rays interact with the electrons which are bound to atoms of the absorber and lose the energy which is required to remove the electrons from the atom. This process is described by where is the frequency of the X-rays after absorption; is the incident frequency '  and B.E. is the energy required to ionize the electron concerned. “binding” Thus the energy lost in any one such ionization process will depend on: a) the absorbing atomic species; b) the from which the electron is removed as the B.E. for an electron say, the L n, shell will differ from that for an electron in the K shell. Consider a simple case where X-rays pass through an absorber which is composed of atoms which have electrons only in the K and L shells. X-rays of the smallest energies
(a) Calculate values for  for the Cu transitions. Comment on any differences you observe. (b) Draw an energy-level diagram for copper (lines separated by a distance proportional to the energy separation and clearly labelled). Use  calculated for K. What energy would be needed to remove an innermost electron entirely from a copper atom? The K series of lines are so-called because the final state is the n=1 or K shell of the atom. Other shells exist for n = 2, 3 etc and are called the L,M, etc shells. The L series of lines results from transitions which finish at n = 2, so that the L line is produced when n = 3 n = 2. What wavelength would you predict for this line? (Ignore the screening effect). Could you detect such radiation with your apparatus? [Consider equations 1 and 2]. 5. Effect of Passage through Foils When X-radiation passes through a foil its intensity is reduced according to the equation where:  is the linear absorption coefficient; x is the thickness of the foil; I0 is the incident intensity; Ix is the transmitted intensity. Replace the circular aperture in the detector carriage position 17 by a copper foil and determine the magnitude of  for absorption of (a) K and (b) K radiation. 6. X-ray Absorption The absorption coefficient is heavily dependent on the wavelength of the X-rays. This can be best understood if we consider the physics of the absorption process. As X-rays pass through matter they interact with the atoms and lose energy. The main energy-loss process is ionization. The X-rays interact with the electrons which are bound to atoms of the absorber and lose the energy which is required to remove the electrons from the atom. This process is described by where ' is the frequency of the X-rays after absorption;  is the incident frequency and B.E. is the “binding” energy required to ionize the electron concerned. Thus the energy lost in any one such ionization process will depend on: a) the absorbing atomic species; b) the from which the electron is removed as the B.E. for an electron n, say, the L shell will differ from that for an electron in the K shell. Consider a simple case where X-rays pass through an absorber which is composed of atoms which have electrons only in the K and L shells. X-rays of the smallest energies