might otherwise control their real-world behaviour, into becoming online perpetrators of hate. The resulting proliferation of internet-based hate incidents, combined with the anonymity that the internet can give its users, means that regulating and policing online hate speech is perhaps the most challenging contemporary aspect of preventing hate crime (Bakalis, forthcoming). 3. Commonalities and differences across strands of hate crime In this next section we examine some of the commonalities and differences in the nature and dynamics of hate crime across the five strands. We do not attempt to explore all similarities and differences but instead show how different types of can be linked more or less with different types of crimes. We conclude this section by highlighting how most, if not all, hate crimes (regardless of strand) can be linked to individuals’ perceptions of threat, and it is this issue which practitioners must therefore focus on when attempting to address the causes of hate crime more generally. Differences There remains a lack of empirical research that specifically compares and contrasts differences in causation across types of hate-motivation. That said, a number of themes have emerged within the literature which identify some important differences between the five hate crime strands. We highlight several of these key differences below.
might otherwise control their real-world behaviour, into becoming online perpetrators of hate. The resulting proliferation of internet-based hate incidents, combined with the anonymity that the internet can give its users, means that regulating and policing online hate speech is perhaps the most challenging contemporary aspect of preventing hate crime (Bakalis, forthcoming). 3. Commonalities and differences across strands of hate crime In this next section we examine some of the commonalities and differences in the nature and dynamics of hate crime across the five strands. We do not attempt to explore all similarities and differences but instead show how different types of can be linked more or less with different types of crimes. We conclude this section by highlighting how most, if not all, hate crimes (regardless of strand) can be linked to individuals’ perceptions of threat, and it is this issue which practitioners must therefore focus on when attempting to address the causes of hate crime more generally. Differences There remains a lack of empirical research that specifically compares and contrasts differences in causation across types of hate-motivation. That said, a number of themes have emerged within the literature which identify some important differences between the five hate crime strands. We highlight several of these key differences below.