"Confederation Poets" is the name given to a group of Canadian poets born in the decade of Canada's Confederation (the 1860s) who rose to prominence in Canada in the late 1880s and 1890s. The term was coined by Canadian professor and literary critic Malcolm Ross, who applied it to four poets – Charles G.D. Roberts (1860–1943), Bliss Carman (1861–1929), Archibald Lampman (1861–1899), and Duncan Campbell Scott (1862–1947) – in the Introduction to his 1960 anthology, Poets of the Confederation , which began: "It is fair enough, I think, to call Roberts, Carman, Lampman, and Scott our 'Confederation poets.'"Malcolm Ross, Introduction, Poets of the Confederation (Toronto: McClelland and Stewart, 1960), vii-xii. Charles G. D. Roberts (recognized in his lifetime as "the father of Canadian poetry") led the group, which had two main branches: One, in Ottawa, consisted of the poets Archibald Lampman, Duncan Campbell Scott, and William Wilfred Campbell. The other were Maritime poets, including Roberts and his cousin, Bliss Carman. The four major poets in the group were Roberts, Carman, Lampman and Scott, with Lampman "most often regarded as the finest poet" in the group , according to the Twentieth-Century Literary Movements Dictionary. Isabella Valancy Crawford, c.1919 The group, which thrived from the 1890s to the 1920s, generally paid attention to classical forms and subjects, but also realistic description, some exploration of innovative technique and, in subject matter, an examination of the individual's relationships both to the natural world and modern civilization. None of the above poets ever used the term "Confederation Poets", or any other term, for themselves as a distinct group. Nothing indicates that any of them considered themselves  a group. In fact, they "were in no way a cohesive group."W.J. Keith, "Poetry in English 1867-1918," Canadian Encyclopedia (Edmonton: Hurtig, 1988), 1696. As a group, the "Confederation Poets" were formed by a retroactive process of canonization: "Malcolm Ross's retrospective application of the term ‘Confederation poets’ is a good example of canon-making along national lines. Several reasons have been given for treating the Confederation Poets as a distinct group. Roberts, Lampman, Carman, and Scott were among the first critically acclaimed poets to be published after the formation of the Dominion of Canada". As "Confederation Poet" Archibald Lampman said about encountering "Confederation Poet" Charles G.D. Roberts's work: There are biographical and literary connections among the Confederation poets. They were about the same age, b born in the early 1860s. Francis Zichy motes: "Roberts and Carman were cousins; Roberts briefly edited Goldwin Smith's Toronto literary magazine The Week, in which Carman published his first poem." Lampman also published in the Week, and he and Roberts became friends by mail. In the early 1890s, when Carman worked on the editorial staffs of The Independent and The Chapbook, and other American magazines, he published poems by the other three. The original idea was to raise some money for Campbell, who was in financial difficulty. As Lampman wrote to a friend: "Campbell is deplorably poor.... Partly in order to help his pockets a little Mr. Scott and I decided to see if we could get the Toronto "Globe" to give us space for a couple of columns of paragraphs & short articles, at whatever pay we could get for them. They agreed to it; and Campbell, Scott and I have been carrying on the thing for several weeks now."John Coldwell Adams, "William Wilfred Campbell ," Confederation Voices: Seven Canadian Poets, Canadian Poetry, UWO. Web, Mar. 21, 2011. Campbell expressed some unorthodox opinions in the column, including an outline of the history of the cross as a mythic symbol ; when readers of the Globe demanded an apology, Campbell apologized for overestimating their intelligence, further angering the readership and his fellow columnists."Campbell, William Wilfred," Dictionary of Canadian Biography Online. Web, Mar. 20, 2011. The column ran only until July 1893. In that year Campbell left to take a full-time  position in the Department of Militia and Defence. With his financial crisis over, the column to an end . As is clear from the Lampman quote, what Roberts was striving for, and what Lampman was responding to, was not the idea of a distinctly Canadian poetry, a poetry 'of our own'. Rather, it was that of a Canadian, 'one of our own,'  writing "great" poetry. Irrespective of their explicit statements about nationalism, in terms of their aesthetics  the Confederation Poets were not Canadian nationalists, but thorough-going cosmopolitans. They did not aim to create a Canadian literature; they aimed at a world class literature created by Canadians. In the late 19th century world class literature meant British literature, which was Victorian by definition. The Confederation Poets were writing in the tradition of late Victorian literature ; and like most in that tradition, the most obvious influences on them  were the Romantics. The Confederation poets were the first to publish works in this traditional style while using Canadian events and places in their poetry: Roberts's Tantramar, Carman's  Grand Pré,  Lampman's  Lake Temiscamingue,  Scott's  Height of Land,  Campbell's  Lake Region.  Canadian readers for the first time had the opportunity to read poetry by Canadians , with Canadian content . As Frye put it , Canonization Bliss Carman Like Thomson and the Group of Seven, the Confederation Poets became the new country's canon. This canon-building began even in their lifetimes . In 1883 Roberts's friend Edmund Collins published his biography, The Life and Times of Sir John A. MacDonald, which devoted a lengthy chapter to "Thought and Literature in Canada , ." Collins lost no time in dethroning what had been English Canada's top poets, the 'three Charleses': Charles Heavysege, Charles Sangster, and Charles Mair. "Collins allots Heavysege only one paragraph, dismisses Sangster’s verse as 'not worth a brass farthing,' and ignores Mair completely." In contrast, Collins devoted fifteen pages to Roberts. "  more than anyone else, Edmund Collins is probably responsible for the early acceptance of Charles G.D. Roberts as Canada’s foremost poet." In Songs of the Great Dominion (1889), anthologist W.D. Lighthall pronounced that "The foremost name in Canadian song at the present day is that of Charles George Douglas Roberts." Lighthall  included poetry by Roberts (who had published two books by then), by Lampman, Campbell, and F.G. Scott ( one book each ), and also by Carman and D.C. Scott,  although neither had  published a book at that time .  "The publication in 1893 of a little anthology called Later Canadian Poems, edited by J.E. Wetherell, was a defining event in bringing attention to the Confederation Poets as a group." The 'three Charleses' are gone: Roberts, Lampman, Carman, Campbell, the Scotts, and George Frederick Cameron are the male poets represented. That would be the pattern repeated in subsequent anthologies, with minor variations: like A Treasury of Canadian Verse (1900) , which Campbell boycotted; or The Oxford Book of Canadian Verse (1913), which Campbell edited, and " devoted more pages to his own poetry than that of anyone else." The same poets were included in the books on Canadian literature that began appearing in the new century: Archibald MacMurchy's Handbook of Canadian Literature (1906), followed by T.G. Marquis's English Canadian Literature (1913). "The decade following the First World War saw the appearance of five more handbooks on Canadian literature.... As different as these five books are from each other, they all recognize the accomplishments of the Confederation Poets as an important advance in Canadian literature." Debunking William Wilfred Campbell As the canon, the Confederation Poets set the standard. Their work became the type of poetry Canadian readers wanted and expected, and therefore Canadian magazines published. Since that standard was Romantic and Victorian, the Confederation Poets were blamed by some for retarding the development of Modernist poetry in Canada. For example, the Twentieth-Century Literary Movements Dictionary says of them that: "Their legacy of Realism, Romanticism, and nationalism was so powerful that it lasted well into the first decades of the 20th century, beyond when much of their best work had been published." Certainly that was a complaint of the Montreal Group or McGill Movement , "a group of young intellectuals under the influence of Ezra Pound and T.S. Eliot.... In Montreal the assault was spearheaded by The McGill Fortnightly Review (1925-1927), edited chiefly by two graduate students, A.J.M. Smith and F. R. Scott (son of Frederick George Scott)." "In various editorials, Smith argued that Canadian poets must go beyond the ‘maple-leaf school’ of Bliss Carman, Archibald Lampman, Duncan Campbell Scott, and Charles G.D. Roberts in favour of free verse, imagistic treatment, displacement, complexity, and a leaner diction free of Victorian mannerisms."Geoff Hancock, "McGill Fortnightly Review - (1925 – 7)," Encyclopedia of Literature, JRank.org. Web, Mar. 25, 2011. The intentionally disparaging term "Maple Leaf School" was picked up from the progressive magazine Canadian Forum, which was waging a similar crusade for literary modernism. However , such complaints ignore that modernist poetry was being written in the 1920s: by W.W.E. Ross, Dorothy Livesay, Raymond Knister, and even  a couple of the Confederation Poets themselves . By the 1930s Roberts had begun introducing the themes and techniques of Modernist poetry into his work. (See, for example, "The Iceberg" from 1931.) Scott had been doing the same since the early 1920s. (See, for example, "A Vision" from 1921.) After he had won a reputation as an anthologist of Canadian poetry (The Book of Canadian Poetry 1943, Modern Canadian Verse 1967), Smith changed his opinion of the Confederation Poets' work , blaming his earlier disparagement on youthful ignorance: "Bliss Carman was the only Canadian poet that we had heard of and what we heard, we didn't care for much. It was only later, when I began to compile books on Canadian poetry, that I found that Lampman, Roberts and Carman had written some very fine poetry."Anne Burke, Critical Introduction , "Some Annotated Letters of A.J.M. Smith and Raymond Knister," Canadian Poetry: Studies/Documents/Reviews, Number 11 (Fall/Winter 1982), UWO, Web, Mar. 26, 2011. Re-evaluation Frederick George Scott The rehabilitation of the Confederation writers began with a rise of Canadian nationalism during the late 1950s, in what has been called "a cultural moment inspired by the founding of the Canada Council (1957), and the establishment of the New Canadian Library, with [Malcolm] Ross himself as general editor." Ross's Poets of the Confederation rolled off the press as New Canadian Library Original N01. "As Hans Hauge puts it, Ross ‘is beginning to construct a national literature and he does so by providing it with a past, that is to say, by projecting the project of a Canadian national literature into the past’ (‘The invention of national literatures’, in Literary responses to Arctic Canada, ed. Jørn Carlsen, 1993)." Ross 's claim was that his four Confederation Poets were Canadians who "were poets – at their best, good poets." "Here, at least, was skill, the possession of the craft, the mystery. Here was another – one like oneself. Here was something stirring, something in a book by one of ourselves,' something as alive and wonderful in its own way as the [achievements] of the railway builders. Our empty landscape of the mind was being peopled at last." Indeed, fashions and techniques do change; and by the mid-1980s the modernist presumptions behind the Montreal Group's debunking were themselves being questioned. "A proper recognition of his nineteenth-century contexts can enhance our appreciation of Carman, and of his Confederation peers," Tracy Ware wrote in Canadian Poetry in 1984 "I am suggesting that Confederation poetry be given the respect that is customarily accorded the poetry of the McGill movement. Such a critical approach might succeed in removing the pervasive but dubious anti-Romantic tenets of Canadian modernism, tenets that have lingered here long after they have been questioned elsewhere."Tracy Ware, "The Integrity of Carman’s 'Low Tide on Grand Pré'," Canadian Poetry: Studies/Documents/Reviews No. 14, UWO, Web, Apr. 16, 2011. </ref> In the same issue, Canadian Poetry editor D.M.R. Bentley, using Lampman's term for himself, dubbed the Confederation school "Minor Poets of a Superior Order , " and argued that "What James Reaney has recently written of Crawford, Lampman and Roberts can be extended to Carman, Scott, Campbell, Sherman, Pickthall and others: they 'wrote well and were of note.'"<ref name=bentley>D.M.R. Bentley, "Preface: Minor Poets of a Superior Order," Canadian Poetry: Studies/Documents/Reviews No. 14, UWO, Web, Apr. 16, 2011.  External links The Confederation Poets at the Canadian Poetry Press website Poets of the Confederation: Current Approaches Canadian Poetry: Studies/Documents/Reviews  No. 14 (Spring/Summer 1984) The Confederation Poets at The Poets’ Pathway Committee website
"Confederation Poets" is the name given to a group of Canadian poets born in the decade of Canada's Confederation (the 1860s) who rose to prominence in Canada in the late 1880s and 1890s. The term was coined by Canadian professor and literary critic Malcolm Ross, who applied it to four poets – Charles G.D. Roberts (1860–1943), Bliss Carman (1861–1929), Archibald Lampman (1861–1899), and Duncan Campbell Scott (1862–1947) – in the Introduction to his 1960 anthology, Poets of the Confederation . He wrote, "It is fair enough, I think, to call Roberts, Carman, Lampman, and Scott our 'Confederation poets.'"Malcolm Ross, Introduction, Poets of the Confederation (Toronto: McClelland and Stewart, 1960), vii-xii. Charles G. D. Roberts (recognized in his lifetime as "the father of Canadian poetry") led the group, which had two main branches: One, in Ottawa, consisted of the poets Archibald Lampman, Duncan Campbell Scott, and William Wilfred Campbell. The other were Maritime poets, including Roberts and his cousin, Bliss Carman. The four major poets in the group were Roberts, Carman, Lampman and Scott, with Lampman "most often regarded as the finest poet" among them , according to the Twentieth-Century Literary Movements Dictionary. Isabella Valancy Crawford, c.1919 The group, which thrived from the 1890s to the 1920s, generally paid attention to classical forms and subjects, but also realistic description, some exploration of innovative technique and, in subject matter, an examination of the individual's relationships both to the natural world and modern civilization. None of the above poets ever used the term "Confederation Poets", or any other term, for themselves as a distinct group. Nothing indicates that any of them considered themselves to be a group. They "were in no way a cohesive group."W.J. Keith, "Poetry in English 1867-1918," Canadian Encyclopedia (Edmonton: Hurtig, 1988), 1696. The "Confederation Poets" became known as a group by a later, retroactive process of canonization: "Malcolm Ross's retrospective application of the term ‘Confederation poets’ is a good example of canon-making along national lines. Several reasons have been given for treating the Confederation Poets as a distinct group. Roberts, Lampman, Carman, and Scott were among the first critically acclaimed poets to be published after the formation of the Dominion of Canada". Lampman wrote about his excitement in encountering Roberts's work: The Confederation poets had some biographical and literary connections among They were about the same age, born in the early 1860s. Francis Zichy motes: "Roberts and Carman were cousins; Roberts briefly edited Goldwin Smith's Toronto literary magazine The Week, in which Carman published his first poem." Lampman also published in the Week, and he and Roberts became friends by mail. In the early 1890s, when Carman worked on the editorial staffs of The Independent and The Chapbook, and other American magazines, he published poems by the other three. Originally they wrote the column in order to raise some money for Campbell, who was in financial difficulty. As Lampman wrote to a friend: "Campbell is deplorably poor.... Partly in order to help his pockets a little Mr. Scott and I decided to see if we could get the Toronto "Globe" to give us space for a couple of columns of paragraphs & short articles, at whatever pay we could get for them. They agreed to it; and Campbell, Scott and I have been carrying on the thing for several weeks now."John Coldwell Adams, "William Wilfred Campbell ," Confederation Voices: Seven Canadian Poets, Canadian Poetry, UWO. Web, Mar. 21, 2011. Campbell expressed some unorthodox opinions in the column, including an outline of the history of the cross as a mythic symbol . When some readers of the Globe demanded an apology, Campbell apologized for overestimating their intelligence, further angering the readership and his fellow columnists."Campbell, William Wilfred," Dictionary of Canadian Biography Online. Web, Mar. 20, 2011. The column ran until July 1893. In that year Campbell left to take a full-time civil service position in the Department of Militia and Defence. With his financial crisis over, the writers ended their column . As is clear from the Lampman quote, what Roberts was striving for, and what Lampman was responding to, was not the idea of a distinctly Canadian poetry, a poetry 'of our own'. Rather, it was that a Canadian, 'one of our own,' was writing "great" poetry. Regardless of their explicit statements about nationalism, in terms of their aesthetics , the Confederation Poets were not Canadian nationalists, but thorough-going cosmopolitans. They did not intend to create a Canadian literature; they aspired to world-class literature created by Canadians. In the late 19th century , world-class literature among English speakers meant British literature, which was Victorian by definition. These poets were writing in the tradition of late Victorian literature . The most obvious influences on them and others in that tradition were the Romantics. The Confederation poets were the first to publish works in this traditional style while referring to Canadian events and places in their poetry: Roberts's "Tantramar," Carman's " Grand Pré, " Lampman's " Lake Temiscamingue, " Scott's " Height of Land, " Campbell's " Lake Region. " Canadian readers for the first time had the opportunity to read poetry by Canadians that had content related to their country. As Northrop Frye said in 1954 , Canonization Bliss Carman Like Thomson and the Group of Seven, the Confederation Poets became the new country's canon. This canon-building began in their lifetimes but, as noted, they were not identified as a group by that name until 1960. In 1883 Roberts's friend Edmund Collins published his biography, The Life and Times of Sir John A. MacDonald, which devoted a lengthy chapter to "Thought and Literature in Canada ." Collins dethroned men who had been ranked as English Canada's top poets, the 'three Charleses': Charles Heavysege, Charles Sangster, and Charles Mair. "Collins allots Heavysege only one paragraph, dismisses Sangster’s verse as 'not worth a brass farthing,' and ignores Mair completely." In contrast, Collins devoted fifteen pages to Roberts. " ... more than anyone else, Edmund Collins is probably responsible for the early acceptance of Charles G.D. Roberts as Canada’s foremost poet." In Songs of the Great Dominion (1889), anthologist W.D. Lighthall said "The foremost name in Canadian song at the present day is that of Charles George Douglas Roberts." Lighthall also included poetry by Roberts (who had published two books by then), Lampman, Campbell, and F.G. Scott ( who had each published one book ), and also by Carman and D.C. Scott, who had published in magazines although neither had yet published a book . Adams suggests, "The publication in 1893 of a little anthology called Later Canadian Poems, edited by J.E. Wetherell, was a defining event in bringing attention to the Confederation Poets as a group." Roberts, Lampman, Carman, Campbell, the Scotts, and George Frederick Cameron are the male poets represented. That would be the pattern repeated in subsequent anthologies, with minor variations: Campbell boycotted being published in A Treasury of Canadian Verse (1900) . He edited The Oxford Book of Canadian Verse (1913), devoting " more pages to his own poetry than that of anyone else." These same poets were included in the books on Canadian literature that were published in the early 20th century: Archibald MacMurchy's Handbook of Canadian Literature (1906), followed by T.G. Marquis's English Canadian Literature (1913). "The decade following the First World War saw the appearance of five more handbooks on Canadian literature.... As different as these five books are from each other, they all recognize the accomplishments of the Confederation Poets as an important advance in Canadian literature." Debunking William Wilfred Campbell As the canon, the Confederation Poets set the standard. Their work became the type of poetry Canadian readers wanted and expected, and therefore Canadian magazines published. Since that standard was Romantic and Victorian, the Confederation Poets have since been "blamed" by some for retarding the development of Modernist poetry in Canada. For example, the Twentieth-Century Literary Movements Dictionary says of them that: "Their legacy of Realism, Romanticism, and nationalism was so powerful that it lasted well into the first decades of the 20th century, beyond when much of their best work had been published." The Montreal Group or McGill Movement complained of the influence of the older poets. They were "a group of young intellectuals under the influence of Ezra Pound and T.S. Eliot.... In Montreal the assault was spearheaded by The McGill Fortnightly Review (1925-1927), edited chiefly by two graduate students, A.J.M. Smith and F. R. Scott (son of Frederick George Scott)." "In various editorials, Smith argued that Canadian poets must go beyond the ‘maple-leaf school’ of Bliss Carman, Archibald Lampman, Duncan Campbell Scott, and Charles G.D. Roberts in favour of free verse, imagistic treatment, displacement, complexity, and a leaner diction free of Victorian mannerisms."Geoff Hancock, "McGill Fortnightly Review - (1925 – 7)," Encyclopedia of Literature, JRank.org. Web, Mar. 25, 2011. The term "Maple Leaf School" was picked up from the progressive magazine Canadian Forum, which was waging a similar crusade for literary modernism. But , such complaints overlook that modernist poetry was being written in the 1920s: by W.W.E. Ross, Dorothy Livesay, Raymond Knister, and even by a couple of the Confederation Poets . By the 1930s Roberts had begun introducing the themes and techniques of Modernist poetry into his work. (See, for example, "The Iceberg" from 1931.) Scott had been doing the same since the early 1920s. (See, for example, "A Vision" from 1921.) After Smith had gained a reputation as an anthologist of Canadian poetry (The Book of Canadian Poetry 1943, Modern Canadian Verse 1967), he changed his opinion of the Confederation Poets' work . He said that his earlier disparagement of them was due to youthful ignorance: "Bliss Carman was the only Canadian poet that we had heard of and what we heard, we didn't care for much. It was only later, when I began to compile books on Canadian poetry, that I found that Lampman, Roberts and Carman had written some very fine poetry."Anne Burke, Critical Introduction , "Some Annotated Letters of A.J.M. Smith and Raymond Knister," Canadian Poetry: Studies/Documents/Reviews, Number 11 (Fall/Winter 1982), UWO, Web, Mar. 26, 2011. Re-evaluation Frederick George Scott The rehabilitation of the Confederation writers began with a rise of Canadian nationalism during the late 1950s, in what has been called "a cultural moment inspired by the founding of the Canada Council (1957), and the establishment of the New Canadian Library, with [Malcolm] Ross himself as general editor." Ross's Poets of the Confederation was published as New Canadian Library Original N01. "As Hans Hauge puts it, Ross ‘is beginning to construct a national literature and he does so by providing it with a past, that is to say, by projecting the project of a Canadian national literature into the past’ (‘The invention of national literatures’, in Literary Responses to Arctic Canada, ed. Jørn Carlsen, 1993)." Ross said that his four Confederation Poets were Canadians who "were poets – at their best, good poets." "Here, at least, was skill, the possession of the craft, the mystery. Here was another – one like oneself. Here was something stirring, something in a book by one of ourselves,' something as alive and wonderful in its own way as the [achievements] of the railway builders. Our empty landscape of the mind was being peopled at last." Similarly, by the mid-1980s the modernist presumptions behind the Montreal Group's debunking were themselves being questioned. "A proper recognition of his nineteenth-century contexts can enhance our appreciation of Carman, and of his Confederation peers," Tracy Ware wrote in Canadian Poetry in 1984. "I am suggesting that Confederation poetry be given the respect that is customarily accorded the poetry of the McGill movement. Such a critical approach might succeed in removing the pervasive but dubious anti-Romantic tenets of Canadian modernism, tenets that have lingered here long after they have been questioned elsewhere."Tracy Ware, "The Integrity of Carman’s 'Low Tide on Grand Pré'," Canadian Poetry: Studies/Documents/Reviews No. 14, UWO, Web, Apr. 16, 2011. In the same issue, Canadian Poetry editor D.M.R. Bentley, using Lampman's term for himself, dubbed the Confederation school "Minor Poets of a Superior Order . " He argued that "What James Reaney has recently written of Crawford, Lampman and Roberts can be extended to Carman, Scott, Campbell, Sherman, Pickthall and others: they 'wrote well and were of note.'"<ref name=bentley>D.M.R. Bentley, "Preface: Minor Poets of a Superior Order," Canadian Poetry: Studies/Documents/Reviews No. 14, UWO, Web, Apr. 16, 2011. </ref> External links The Confederation Poets at the Canadian Poetry Press website Poets of the Confederation: Current Approaches Canadian Poetry: Studies/Documents/Reviews '' No. 14 (Spring/Summer 1984) The Confederation Poets at The Poets’ Pathway Committee website
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