From the perspective of public health, in The Healthy Citizen (1996), Alana R. Petersen and Deborah Lupton said that manners assisted the diminishment of the social boundaries that existed between the public sphere and the private sphere of a person's life, and so gave rise to “ a highly reflective self, a self who monitors his or her behavior with due regard for others with whom he or she interacts, socially ” ; and that “ the public behavior of individuals came to signify their social standing; a means of presenting the self and of evaluating others, and thus the control of the outward self was vital. ” Petersen A., Lupton D., "The Healthy Citizen" in The New Public Health – Discourses, Knowledges, Strategies (1996) London: Sage. Moreover, the sociologist Pierre Bourdieu applied the concept of habitus towards understanding the societal functions of manners. The habitus is the set of mental attitudes, personal habits, and skills that a person possesses, his and her dispositions of character that are neither self-determined, nor pre-determined by the external environment, but which are produced and reproduced by social interactions; and are “ inculcated through experience and explicit teaching ” —yet tend to function at the subconscious level.Jenkins R. "Pierre Bourdieu (Key Sociologists) (2002) Cornwall, Routledge. Therefore, manners are likely to be a central part of the dispositions that guide a person’s ability to decide upon socially-compliant behaviours.Bourdieu Pierre, "Outline of a Theory of Practice (1977) Cambridge, Cambridge University Press. Anthropological perspectives In Purity and Danger: An Analysis of Concepts of Pollution and Taboo (2003) the anthropologist Mary Douglas said that the unique manners, social behaviors, and group rituals enable the local cosmology to remain ordered and free from those things that may pollute or defile the integrity of the culture. That ideas of pollution, defilement, and disgust are attached to the margins of socially acceptable behaviour in order to curtail unacceptable behaviour, and so maintain “ the assumptions by which experience is controlled ” within the culture.Douglas M., "Purity and Danger – An Analysis of Concepts of Pollution and Taboo London, Routledge, 2003 Evolutionary perspectives In studying the expression of emotion by humans and animals, the naturalist Charles Darwin noted the universality of facial expressions of disgust and shame among infants and blind people, and concluded that the emotional responses of shame and disgust are innate behaviours.Darwin C., The Expression of the Emotions in Man and Animals London, Penguin, 2009 The public health specialist Valerie Curtis said that the development of facial responses was concomitant with the development of manners, which are behaviours with an evolutionary role in preventing the transmission of diseases, thus, people who practise personal hygiene and politeness will most benefit from membership in their social group, and so stand the best chance of biological survival, by way of opportunities for reproduction.Curtis V. Don ’ t Look, Don't Touch – The Science Behind Revulsion Oxford, Oxford University Press, 2013.Curtis V., Aunger R., and Rabie T. "Evidence that Disgust Evolved to Protect from Risk of Disease Royal Society B: Biological Sciences, 271 Supplement: S131–33., 2004. From the study of the evolutionary bases of prejudice, the social psychologists Catherine Cottrell and Steven Neuberg said that human behavioural responses to ‘otherness’ might enable the preservation of manners and social norms.Neuberg SL., Cottrell CA. "Evolutionary Bases of Prejudices" in Evolution and Social Psychology, Schaller M. et al., Eds., New York, Psychology Press, 2006. That the feeling of "foreignness"—which people experience in their first social interaction with someone from another culture—might partly serve an evolutionary function: ' Group living surrounds one with individuals [who are] able to physically harm fellow group members, to spread contagious disease, or to "free ride" on their efforts ' ; therefore, a commitment to sociality is a risk: ' If threats, such as these, are left unchecked, the costs of sociality will quickly exceed its benefits. Thus, to maximize the returns on group "living", individual group members should be attuned to others ’ features or behaviors. ' Therefore, people who possess the social traits common to the cultural group are to be trusted, and people without the common social traits are to be distrusted as ‘others’ , and thus treated with suspicion or excluded from the group. That pressure of social exclusivity, born from the shift towards communal living, excluded uncooperative people and persons with poor personal hygiene. The threat of social exclusion led people to avoid personal behaviours that might embarrass the group or that might provoke revulsion among the group.Curtis V. "Don ’ t Look, Don't Touch – The Science Behind Revulsion" Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2013 (iii) Cultural Norm Manners – are the manners of culture and society by which a person establishes his and her identity and membership in a given socio-cultural group. In observing and abiding the manners of cultural norm, a person demarcates socio-cultural identity and establishes social boundaries, which then identify whom to trust and whom to distrust as 'the other' , who is not the self. Cultural norm manners are learnt through the enculturation with and the routinisation of ‘the familiar’ , and through social exposure to the ‘cultural otherness’ of people identified as foreign to the group. Transgressions and flouting of the manners of cultural norm usually result in the social alienation of the transgressor. The nature of culture-norm manners allows a high level of between-group variability, but the manners usually are common to the people who identify with the given socio-cultural group. 20th century Etiquette in Society, in Business, in Politics, and at Home (1922), by Emily Post documents the "trivialities" of desirable conduct in daily life, and provided pragmatic approaches to the practice good manners; the social conduct expected and appropriate for the events of life, such as a baptism, a wedding, and a funeral.Post, P., Post, A., Post, L., & Senning, D. P. Emily Post ’ s Etiquette, 18th Edition (2011) New York: William Morrow. As didactic texts, books of etiquette (the conventional rules of personal behaviour in polite society) usually feature explanatory titles, such as The Ladies' Book of Etiquette, and Manual of Politeness: A Complete Hand Book for the Use of the Lady in Polite Society (1860), by Florence Hartley; Amy Vanderbilt’s Complete Book of Etiquette (1957), by Amy Vanderbilt;Vanderbilt, A. (1957) Amy Vanderbilt’s Complete Book of Etiquette New York: Doubleday & Company. Miss Manners ’ Guide to Excruciatingly Correct Behavior (1979), by Judith Martin;Martin, J. (1979) Miss Manners’ Guide to Excruciatingly Correct Behavior New York: W. W. Norton & Company. and Peas & Queues: The Minefield of Modern Manners (2013), by Sandi Toksvig,Toksvig, S. (2013) Peas & Queues: The Minefield of Modern Manners London: Profile Books Ltd. present ranges of civility; socially acceptable behaviours for their respective times; yet each author cautions the reader, that to be a well-mannered person he and she must practise good manners in their public and private lives. Moreover, the How Rude! comic-book series addresses and discusses adolescent perspectives and questions of etiquette, social manners, and civility.Ellen R. Delisio, "Teaching Manners in a Manner-less World", Education World, 4 July 2005. Accessed 27 July 2018.
From the perspective of public health, in The Healthy Citizen (1996), Alana R. Petersen and Deborah Lupton said that manners assisted the diminishment of the social boundaries that existed between the public sphere and the private sphere of a person's life, and so gave rise to " a highly reflective self, a self who monitors his or her behavior with due regard for others with whom he or she interacts, socially " ; and that " the public behavior of individuals came to signify their social standing; a means of presenting the self and of evaluating others, and thus the control of the outward self was vital. " Petersen A., Lupton D., "The Healthy Citizen" in The New Public Health – Discourses, Knowledges, Strategies (1996) London: Sage. Moreover, the sociologist Pierre Bourdieu applied the concept of habitus towards understanding the societal functions of manners. The habitus is the set of mental attitudes, personal habits, and skills that a person possesses, his and her dispositions of character that are neither self-determined, nor pre-determined by the external environment, but which are produced and reproduced by social interactions; and are " inculcated through experience and explicit teaching " —yet tend to function at the subconscious level.Jenkins R. "Pierre Bourdieu (Key Sociologists) (2002) Cornwall, Routledge. Therefore, manners are likely to be a central part of the dispositions that guide a person’s ability to decide upon socially-compliant behaviours.Bourdieu Pierre, "Outline of a Theory of Practice (1977) Cambridge, Cambridge University Press. Anthropological perspectives In Purity and Danger: An Analysis of Concepts of Pollution and Taboo (2003) the anthropologist Mary Douglas said that the unique manners, social behaviors, and group rituals enable the local cosmology to remain ordered and free from those things that may pollute or defile the integrity of the culture. That ideas of pollution, defilement, and disgust are attached to the margins of socially acceptable behaviour in order to curtail unacceptable behaviour, and so maintain " the assumptions by which experience is controlled " within the culture.Douglas M., "Purity and Danger – An Analysis of Concepts of Pollution and Taboo London, Routledge, 2003 Evolutionary perspectives In studying the expression of emotion by humans and animals, the naturalist Charles Darwin noted the universality of facial expressions of disgust and shame among infants and blind people, and concluded that the emotional responses of shame and disgust are innate behaviours.Darwin C., The Expression of the Emotions in Man and Animals London, Penguin, 2009 The public health specialist Valerie Curtis said that the development of facial responses was concomitant with the development of manners, which are behaviours with an evolutionary role in preventing the transmission of diseases, thus, people who practise personal hygiene and politeness will most benefit from membership in their social group, and so stand the best chance of biological survival, by way of opportunities for reproduction.Curtis V. Don ' t Look, Don't Touch – The Science Behind Revulsion Oxford, Oxford University Press, 2013.Curtis V., Aunger R., and Rabie T. "Evidence that Disgust Evolved to Protect from Risk of Disease Royal Society B: Biological Sciences, 271 Supplement: S131–33., 2004. From the study of the evolutionary bases of prejudice, the social psychologists Catherine Cottrell and Steven Neuberg said that human behavioural responses to "otherness" might enable the preservation of manners and social norms.Neuberg SL., Cottrell CA. "Evolutionary Bases of Prejudices" in Evolution and Social Psychology, Schaller M. et al., Eds., New York, Psychology Press, 2006. That the feeling of "foreignness"—which people experience in their first social interaction with someone from another culture—might partly serve an evolutionary function: " Group living surrounds one with individuals [who are] able to physically harm fellow group members, to spread contagious disease, or to 'free ride' on their efforts " ; therefore, a commitment to sociality is a risk: " If threats, such as these, are left unchecked, the costs of sociality will quickly exceed its benefits. Thus, to maximize the returns on group "living", individual group members should be attuned to others ' features or behaviors. " Therefore, people who possess the social traits common to the cultural group are to be trusted, and people without the common social traits are to be distrusted as "others" , and thus treated with suspicion or excluded from the group. That pressure of social exclusivity, born from the shift towards communal living, excluded uncooperative people and persons with poor personal hygiene. The threat of social exclusion led people to avoid personal behaviours that might embarrass the group or that might provoke revulsion among the group.Curtis V. "Don ' t Look, Don't Touch – The Science Behind Revulsion" Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2013 (iii) Cultural Norm Manners – are the manners of culture and society by which a person establishes his and her identity and membership in a given socio-cultural group. In observing and abiding the manners of cultural norm, a person demarcates socio-cultural identity and establishes social boundaries, which then identify whom to trust and whom to distrust as "the other" , who is not the self. Cultural norm manners are learnt through the enculturation with and the routinisation of "the familiar" , and through social exposure to the "cultural otherness" of people identified as foreign to the group. Transgressions and flouting of the manners of cultural norm usually result in the social alienation of the transgressor. The nature of culture-norm manners allows a high level of between-group variability, but the manners usually are common to the people who identify with the given socio-cultural group. 20th century Etiquette in Society, in Business, in Politics, and at Home (1922), by Emily Post documents the "trivialities" of desirable conduct in daily life, and provided pragmatic approaches to the practice good manners; the social conduct expected and appropriate for the events of life, such as a baptism, a wedding, and a funeral.Post, P., Post, A., Post, L., & Senning, D. P. Emily Post ' s Etiquette, 18th Edition (2011) New York: William Morrow. As didactic texts, books of etiquette (the conventional rules of personal behaviour in polite society) usually feature explanatory titles, such as The Ladies' Book of Etiquette, and Manual of Politeness: A Complete Hand Book for the Use of the Lady in Polite Society (1860), by Florence Hartley; Amy Vanderbilt’s Complete Book of Etiquette (1957), by Amy Vanderbilt;Vanderbilt, A. (1957) Amy Vanderbilt’s Complete Book of Etiquette New York: Doubleday & Company. Miss Manners ' Guide to Excruciatingly Correct Behavior (1979), by Judith Martin;Martin, J. (1979) Miss Manners’ Guide to Excruciatingly Correct Behavior New York: W. W. Norton & Company. and Peas & Queues: The Minefield of Modern Manners (2013), by Sandi Toksvig,Toksvig, S. (2013) Peas & Queues: The Minefield of Modern Manners London: Profile Books Ltd. present ranges of civility; socially acceptable behaviours for their respective times; yet each author cautions the reader, that to be a well-mannered person he and she must practise good manners in their public and private lives. Moreover, the How Rude! comic-book series addresses and discusses adolescent perspectives and questions of etiquette, social manners, and civility.Ellen R. Delisio, "Teaching Manners in a Manner-less World", Education World, 4 July 2005. Accessed 27 July 2018.
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