Protection of natural resources The objective of protected areas is to conserve biodiversity and to provide a way for measuring the progress of such conservation. Protected areas will usually encompass several other zones that have been deemed important for particular conservation uses, such as Important Bird Areas (IBA) and Endemic Bird Areas (EBA), Centres of Plant Diversity (CPD), Indigenous and Community Conserved Areas (ICCA), Alliance for Zero Extinction Sites (AZE) and Key Biodiversity Areas (KBA) among others. Likewise, a protected area or an entire network of protected areas may lie within a larger geographic zone that is recognised as a terrestrial or marine ecoregions (see Global 200), or a crisis ecoregions for example. As a result, Protected Areas can encompass a broad range of governance types. A wide variety of rights-holders and stakeholders are involved in the governance and management of protected areas, including forest protected areas, such as government agencies and ministries at various levels, elected and traditional authorities, indigenous peoples and local communities, private individuals and non-profit trusts, among others. Most protected-area and forest management institutions acknowledge the importance of recognizing the rights of indigenous peoples and local communities, sharing the costs and benefits of protected areas and actively involving them in their governance and management. This has led to the recognition of four main types of governance, defined on the basis of who holds authority, responsibility, and who can be held accountable for the key decisions for protected areas. Indeed, governance of protected areas has emerged a critical factor in their success. IUCN Protected Area Management Categories: Category Ia – Strict nature reserve Category Ib – Wilderness Area Category II – National park Category III – Natural Monument or Feature Category IV – Habitat/Species Management Area Category V – Protected Landscape/Seascape Category VI – Protected Area with sustainable use of natural resources Protected areas are cultural artifacts, and their story is entwined with that of human civilization. Protecting places and  resources is by no means a modern concept, whether it be indigenous communities guarding sacred sites or the convention of European hunting reserves. Over 2000 years ago, royal decrees in India protected certain areas. In Europe, rich and powerful people protected hunting grounds for a thousand years. Moreover, the idea of protection of special places is universal: for example, it occurs among the communities in the Pacific ("tapu" areas) and in parts of Africa (sacred groves). Since then, it has been an international commitment on behalf of both governments and non-government organisations to maintain the networks that hold regular revisions for the succinct categorisations that have been developed to regulate and record protected areas. In 1972, the Stockholm Declaration of the United Nations Conference on the Human Environment endorsed the protection of representative examples of all major ecosystem types as a fundamental requirement of national conservation programmes. This has become a core principle of conservation biology and has remained so in recent resolutions - including the World Charter for Nature in 1982, the Rio Declaration at the Earth Summit in 1992, and the Johannesburg Declaration 2002. Recently, the importance of protected areas has been brought to the fore at the threat of human-induced global warming and the understanding of the necessity to consume natural resources in a sustainable manner. The spectrum of benefits and values of protected areas is recognised not only ecologically, but culturally through further development in the arena of Indigenous and Community Conserved Areas (ICCAs). International programmes for the protection of representative ecosystems remain relatively progressive (considering the environmental challenges of globalisation with respect to terrestrial environments), with less advances in marine and freshwater biomes. How to manage areas protected for conservation brings up a range of challenges - whether it be regarding the local population, specific ecosystems or the design of the reserve itself - and because of the many unpredicatable elements in ecology issues, each protected area requires a case-specific set of guidelines. Protected areas in many cases are in close cohesion with municipalities and require specific performance management leading both to sustainability from one side and regional development from the other. Administrations of protected areas are more targeted towards the protection of nature and ecosystems while municipalities are responsible for the social and economic development of a particular local community. - Burksiene, V. Dvorak, J. (2020). Performance Management in Protected Areas: Localizing Governance of the Curonian Spit National Park, Lithuania. Public Administration Issues, no 5, pp. 105–124 Scientific publications have identified 3,749 enacted PADDD events in 73 countries since 1892 which have collectively impacted an area approximately the size of Mexico. PADDD is a historical and contemporary phenomenon. 78\% of PADDD events worldwide were enacted since 2000 and governments in at least 14 countries are currently considering at least 46 PADDD proposals. Proximate causes of PADDD vary widely but most PADDD events globally (62\%) are related to industrial scale resource extraction and development - infrastructure, industrial agriculture, mining, oil and gas, forestry, fisheries, and industrialization. Protected areas play a large role in protecting important natural ecosystems and providing essential ecosystem services such as carbon storage and flood prevention. Scientists advocate that 50\% of global land and seas be converted to inter-connected protected areas in order to sustain these benefits. The Asian country Bhutan achieved this high-reaching target by reserving 51.4\% of the country ’ s area as protected areas interconnected through biological corridors. Although these networks are well regulated (local communities are aware of their importance and actively contribute to their maintenance), Bhutan is currently a developing country that is undergoing infrastructure development and resource collection. The country ’ s economic progression has brought about human-wildlife conflict and increased pressure on the existence of its protected areas. In light of ongoing disputes on the topic of optimal land usage, Dorji (et al.), in a study using camera traps to detect wildlife activity, summarize the results of a nationwide survey that compares the biodiversity of Bhutan ’ s protected areas versus that of intervening non-protected areas. The study indicated that Bhutan ’ s protected areas "are effectively conserving medium and large mammal species, as demonstrated through the significant difference in mammal diversity between protected areas, biological corridors, and non-protected areas with the strongest difference between protected areas and non-protected areas". Protected areas had the highest levels of mammal biodiversity. This is made possible by the restriction of commercial activity and regulation of consumptive uses (firewood, timber, etc.). The regulation of such practices has allowed Bhutan ’ s protected areas to thrive with high carnivore diversity and other rare mammals such as Chinese pangolin, Indian pangolin, mountain weasel (Mustela altaica), small-toothed ferret badger, Asian small clawed otter, the tiger, dhole (Cuon alpinus), Binturong, clouded leopard and Tibetan fox (Vulpes ferrilata). Also found to be prevalent were the large herbivore species: Asiatic water buffalo Bubalus arnee, golden langur, musk deer, and Asian elephant. The maintenance of these charismatic megafauna and other threatened species can be attributed to the intensity of Bhutan ’ s management of its protected areas and its local communities’ commitment to preserving them. European Union Natura 2000 is a network of protected areas established by the European Union across all Member States . It is made up of Special Areas of Conservation (SACs) and Special Protection Areas (SPAs) designated respectively under the Habitats Directive and Birds Directive. are designated as terrestrial sites and as marine sites. Overall, 18 percent of the EU land mass is designated. India Protected areas of India include National parks, Wildlife sanctuaries, Biosphere reserves, Reserved and protected forests, Conservation and community reserves, Communal forests, Private protected areas and Conservation areas. Nicaragua O Parks, Wildlife, and Recreation is a Private Protected Area , also known as a 'Private Reserve' predominantly managed for biodiversity conservation, protected without formal government recognition and is owned and stewarded by the O corporation International. O parks plays a particularly important role in conserving critical biodiversity in a section of the Mesoamerican Biological Corridor known as the Paso del Istmo, located along the 12-mile-wide isthmus between Lake Nicaragua and the Pacific Ocean. , according to the United Nations Environment Programme, the United States had a total of 6,770 terrestrial nationally designated (federal) protected areas. These protected areas cover , or 27.08 percent of the land area of the United States. This is also one-tenth of the protected land area of the world. Biodiversity Hotspots Coastal Reserve (Ukraine) Conservation area (United Kingdom) (urban heritage area in the UK) Conservation designation Conservation refugee: a person who has been forced to relocate from a conservation area Centres of Plant Diversity Climate change mitigation#Carbon sinks and removal Exclusion zone Ecotourism Forest Preserve Fossil park Historic district Indigenous and Community Conserved Area IUCN Protected Area Management Categories Last of the Wild List of largest protected areas in the world Listed building Marine Protected Area National heritage site National park Nature reserve Invasive species eradication Park ranger Private protected area Poaching Rural flight Special Area of Conservation (European Union) Sustainable Development Goals The Georgian Group Transboundary protected area Urban heritage park Urbanization World Commission on Protected Areas World Database on Protected Areas World Heritage Site - registered by UNESCO Zakaznik (type of protected area in former Soviet republics) WDPA dataset on Ocean Data Viewer ProtectedPlanet.net Campaign For Nature - campaigns for protecting at least 30\% of the planet by 2030 DOPA, a Digital Observatory for Protected Areas United Nations Environment Programme World Conservation Monitoring Center, Protected Areas Programme IUCN World Commission on Protected Areas IUCN Global Protected Area Programme 2010 Biodiversity Indicators Partnership Indicator Factsheet: Management Effectiveness of Protected Areas A-Z of Areas of Biodiversity Importance Brazilian Amazon Protected areas - Instituto Socioambiental
Protection of natural resources The objective of protected areas is to conserve biodiversity and to provide a way for measuring the progress of such conservation. Protected areas will usually encompass several other zones that have been deemed important for particular conservation uses, such as Important Bird Areas (IBA) and Endemic Bird Areas (EBA), Centres of Plant Diversity (CPD), Indigenous and Community Conserved Areas (ICCA), Alliance for Zero Extinction Sites (AZE) and Key Biodiversity Areas (KBA) among others. Likewise, a protected area or an entire network of protected areas may lie within a larger geographic zone that is recognised as a terrestrial or marine ecoregions (see Global 200), or a Crisis Ecoregions for example. As a result, Protected Areas can encompass a broad range of governance types. A wide variety of rights-holders and stakeholders are involved in the governance and management of protected areas, including forest protected areas, such as government agencies and ministries at various levels, elected and traditional authorities, indigenous peoples and local communities, private individuals and non-profit trusts, among others. Most protected-area and forest management institutions acknowledge the importance of recognizing the rights of indigenous peoples and local communities, sharing the costs and benefits of protected areas and actively involving them in their governance and management. This has led to the recognition of four main types of governance, defined on the basis of who holds authority, responsibility, and who can be held accountable for the key decisions for protected areas. Indeed, governance of protected areas has emerged a critical factor in their success. IUCN Protected Area Management Categories: Category Ia – Strict nature reserve Category Ib – Wilderness Area Category II – National park Category III – Natural monument or Feature Category IV – Habitat/Species Management Area Category V – Protected Landscape/Seascape Category VI – Protected Area with sustainable use of natural resources Protected areas are cultural artifacts, and their story is entwined with that of human civilization. Protecting places and natural resources is by no means a modern concept, whether it be indigenous communities guarding sacred sites or the convention of European hunting reserves. Over 2000 years ago, royal decrees in India protected certain areas. In Europe, rich and powerful people protected hunting grounds for a thousand years. Moreover, the idea of protection of special places is universal: for example, it occurs among the communities in the Pacific ("tapu" areas) and in parts of Africa (sacred groves). Since then, it has been an international commitment on behalf of both governments and non-government organisations to maintain the networks that hold regular revisions for the succinct categorisations that have been developed to regulate and record protected areas. In 1972, the Stockholm Declaration of the United Nations Conference on the Human Environment endorsed the protection of representative examples of all major ecosystem types as a fundamental requirement of national conservation programmes. This has become a core principle of conservation biology and has remained so in recent resolutions – including the World Charter for Nature in 1982, the Rio Declaration at the Earth Summit in 1992, and the Johannesburg Declaration 2002. Recently, the importance of protected areas has been brought to the fore at the threat of human-induced global heating and the understanding of the necessity to consume natural resources in a sustainable manner. The spectrum of benefits and values of protected areas is recognised not only ecologically, but culturally through further development in the arena of Indigenous and Community Conserved Areas (ICCAs). International programmes for the protection of representative ecosystems remain relatively progressive (considering the environmental challenges of globalisation with respect to terrestrial environments), with less advances in marine and freshwater biomes. How to manage areas protected for conservation brings up a range of challenges – whether it be regarding the local population, specific ecosystems or the design of the reserve itself – and because of the many unpredicatable elements in ecology issues, each protected area requires a case-specific set of guidelines. Protected areas in many cases are in close cohesion with municipalities and require specific performance management leading both to sustainability from one side and regional development from the other. Administrations of protected areas are more targeted towards the protection of nature and ecosystems while municipalities are responsible for the social and economic development of a particular local community. – Burksiene, V. Dvorak, J. (2020). Performance Management in Protected Areas: Localizing Governance of the Curonian Spit National Park, Lithuania. Public Administration Issues, no 5, pp. 105–124 Scientific publications have identified 3,749 enacted PADDD events in 73 countries since 1892 which have collectively impacted an area approximately the size of Mexico. PADDD is a historical and contemporary phenomenon. 78\% of PADDD events worldwide were enacted since 2000 and governments in at least 14 countries are currently considering at least 46 PADDD proposals. Proximate causes of PADDD vary widely but most PADDD events globally (62\%) are related to industrial scale resource extraction and development – infrastructure, industrial agriculture, mining, oil and gas, forestry, fisheries, and industrialization. Protected areas play a large role in protecting important natural ecosystems and providing essential ecosystem services such as carbon storage and flood prevention. Scientists advocate that 50\% of global land and seas be converted to inter-connected protected areas to sustain these benefits. The Asian country Bhutan achieved this high-reaching target by reserving 51.4\% of the country ' s area as protected areas interconnected through biological corridors. Although these networks are well regulated (local communities are aware of their importance and actively contribute to their maintenance), Bhutan is currently a developing country that is undergoing infrastructure development and resource collection. The country ' s economic progression has brought about human-wildlife conflict and increased pressure on the existence of its protected areas. In light of ongoing disputes on the topic of optimal land usage, Dorji (et al.), in a study using camera traps to detect wildlife activity, summarize the results of a nationwide survey that compares the biodiversity of Bhutan ' s protected areas versus that of intervening non-protected areas. The study indicated that Bhutan ' s protected areas "are effectively conserving medium and large mammal species, as demonstrated through the significant difference in mammal diversity between protected areas, biological corridors, and non-protected areas with the strongest difference between protected areas and non-protected areas". Protected areas had the highest levels of mammal biodiversity. This is made possible by the restriction of commercial activity and regulation of consumptive uses (firewood, timber, etc.). The regulation of such practices has allowed Bhutan ' s protected areas to thrive with high carnivore diversity and other rare mammals such as Chinese pangolin, Indian pangolin, mountain weasel (Mustela altaica), small-toothed ferret badger, Asian small clawed otter, the tiger, dhole (Cuon alpinus), Binturong, clouded leopard and Tibetan fox (Vulpes ferrilata). Also found to be prevalent were the large herbivore species: Asiatic water buffalo Bubalus arnee, golden langur, musk deer, and Asian elephant. The maintenance of these charismatic megafauna and other threatened species can be attributed to the intensity of Bhutan ' s management of its protected areas and its local communities’ commitment to preserving them. European Union Natura 2000 is a network of protected areas established by the EU across all member states . It is made up of Special Areas of Conservation (SACs) and Special Protection Areas (SPAs) designated respectively under the Habitats Directive and Birds Directive. are designated as terrestrial sites and as marine sites. Overall, 18 percent of the EU land mass is designated. India Protected areas of India include National parks, Wildlife sanctuaries, biosphere reserves, reserved and protected forests, conservation and community reserves, communal forests, private protected areas and conservation areas. Nicaragua O Parks, Wildlife, and Recreation is a private protected area , also known as a 'Private Reserve' predominantly managed for biodiversity conservation, protected without formal government recognition and is owned and stewarded by the O corporation International. O parks plays a particularly important role in conserving critical biodiversity in a section of the Mesoamerican Biological Corridor known as the Paso del Istmo, located along the 12-mile-wide isthmus between Lake Nicaragua and the Pacific Ocean. , according to the United Nations Environment Programme, the United States had a total of 6770 terrestrial nationally designated (federal) protected areas. These protected areas cover , or 27.08 percent of the land area of the United States. This is also one-tenth of the protected land area of the world. Biodiversity hotspots Coastal Reserve (Ukraine) Conservation area (United Kingdom) (urban heritage area in the UK) Conservation designation Conservation refugee: a person who has been forced to relocate from a conservation area Centres of Plant Diversity Climate change mitigation#Carbon sinks and removal Exclusion zone Ecotourism Forest Preserve Fossil park Historic district Indigenous and Community Conserved Area IUCN Protected Area Management Categories Last of the Wild List of largest protected areas in the world Listed building Marine Protected Area National heritage site National park Nature reserve Invasive species eradication Park ranger Private protected area Poaching Rural flight Special Area of Conservation (European Union) Sustainable Development Goals The Georgian Group Transboundary protected area Urban heritage park Urbanization World Commission on Protected Areas World Database on Protected Areas World Heritage Site – registered by UNESCO Zakaznik (type of protected area in former Soviet republics) WDPA dataset on Ocean Data Viewer ProtectedPlanet.net Campaign For Nature – campaigns for protecting at least 30\% of the planet by 2030 DOPA, a Digital Observatory for Protected Areas United Nations Environment Programme World Conservation Monitoring Center, Protected Areas Programme IUCN World Commission on Protected Areas IUCN Global Protected Area Programme 2010 Biodiversity Indicators Partnership Indicator Factsheet: Management Effectiveness of Protected Areas A-Z of Areas of Biodiversity Importance Brazilian Amazon Protected areas – Instituto Socioambiental
R
crisis ecoregions
Crisis Ecoregions
R
Monument
monument
A
natural
R
-
–
R
warming
heating
R
-
–
R
-
–
R
-
–
R
-
–
D
in order
R
’
'
R
’
'
R
’
'
R
’
'
R
’
'
R
’
'
R
European Union across all Member States
EU across all member states
R
Biosphere reserves, Reserved
biosphere reserves, reserved
R
Conservation
conservation
R
Communal forests, Private
communal forests, private
R
Conservation
conservation
R
Private Protected Area
private protected area
R
6,770
6770
R
Hotspots
hotspots
R
-
–
R
-
–
R
-
–