Eastern third (Zhetysu or Semirechye) Much of Zhetysu is in the Ili River basin. Note the Tien Shan mountains of Kyrgyzstan in the south. The area north of the Tien Shan needs special treatment because of the better documentation and the large number of peoples who moved through it. It is a type of steppe "bay" bounded on the north by the Siberian forests, on the south by the Kyrgyz mountains and on the east by low mountains. Zhetysu is Turkic and Semirechye  is Russian for "seven rivers". Sakas (before 200 BC)  The Iranian-speaking nomads in the western and central steppe were called Scythians by the Greeks, Sakas by the Persians and Sai by the Chinese , the three words meaning about the same thing. They also occupied the western Tarim basin. Iranian languages extended south to Persia and Afghanistan. Chinese: Under the Han dynasty the Chinese expanded to the west . In 125 BC Zhang Qian returned with the first reports of the Western Regions. Around 100 BC to 100 AD, with interruptions, the Chinese controlled the Tarim Basin southeast of the central steppe. Chinese historians have given us the first good information about the central steppe. c. 162-132 BC : Yuezhi: The Yuezhi were originally a major power in Gansu and Mongolia. Around 162 BC they were driven west by the Xiongnu and settled in the Ili valley, driving out the Sakas. About 132 BC they were driven out by the Wusun and moved south and later formed a major state in Bactria as the Kushans. Wusun : c. 133 BC-100 AD: The Wusun from Gansu drove the Yuezhi out of the Ili valley. By c. 80 BC they had some power in the Tarim basin. After 100 AD they declined and gradually disappear from the records. Xiongnu ( c. 40 BC-c. 155 AD): When the Northern Xiongnu were driven west by the Chinese they occupied Dzungaria and Semirechye, perhaps somewhat north of the Wusun. The Xianbei who defeated them may also  reached this area. Yueban : (c. 160-490): After the Han lost control of the Tarim basin our sources become thin . The Chinese called the local population Yueban or Yuepan. They appear to have been Xiongnu remnants. ?Ephthalites ( c. 493? -c. 560): The poorly-documented Ephthalites were based in the south and may have extended north of the Tian Shan. Tiele people (c. 100-800)  is a vague Chinese term for the probably Turkic peoples  mainly on the northern edge of the steppe  from Mongolia westward. Zhetysu ('Moghulistan') in relation to Dzungaria (east), Tarim Basin (southeast) and the steppe bays of Freghana and Bactria to the southwest Outside influences (c. 500-800): Turkic-speaking peoples spread from Mongolia and occupied the central steppe. The Chinese returned under the Tang dynasty  . Islam arrived about 750. Meanwhile, the Sogdian merchants controlled most of the long-distance trade. Gokturks ( c. 558-657): The Gokturks were the first Turkic-speakers to found an empire and were the first to rule both the eastern and central steppe , the only other case being the Mongols  . In 552 they took over Mongolia, c. 558  reached the Volga and c. 571 reached the Oxus. By 603 the Western Turkic Khaganate had definitely split from the Eastern Khaganate in Mongolia. Circa 657 they were defeated by the Chinese. Chinese again ( c. 657-756): Chinese power was restored by the Tang dynasty . They took over the Tarim basin and the mountains of Kyrgyzstan, captured Tashkent, subjugated what was left of the western Turks and lost a battle to the Arabs in 751. Around 756 they withdrew because of the An Lushan rebellion. Islam (c. 750–present): After the Arab conquest of Merv in 651 there were raids northward. From 705 Islam expanded into the area between the Oxus and Syr Darya. Muslims in central Asia soon became more Persian than Arab. From around 750 Islam expanded slowly north of the Syr Darya and into the Tarim Basin and Gansu. Sogdian Merchants ( c. 300-840): Merchants from Sogdia controlled most of the trade between China and the west. They had settlements all the way from Bukhara to northern China. Dulu Turks ( c. 603-659): were the semi-independent eastern half of the Western Turkic Khaganate. Chinese vassals (c. 658-756): After the defeat of the Gokturks the Chinese had some limited control of the peoples west and north of the mountains, but the matter is poorly documented. Turgesh ( c. 699-766): The Turgesh were Dulu who restored a kind of Turkic Khaganate. Fought Arabs and Chinese. Karluks ( c. 766-840): The Turkic Karluks drove the Turgesh out of Semirechye and later evolved into the Karakhanids. As a tribe they originated in Dzungaria and existed from at least 644 into Mongol times. Karakhanids (c. 850-1134): The Karakhanid Khaganate was founded by Karluks and others . c. 960 they adopted Islam. c. 999 they conquered Transoxiana. About 1041 they split into an eastern group in Semirechye and a western group in Transoxiana. By 1081 they were Seljuk vassals, at least in theory. Following their defeat in 1134, many Karakhanids remained as local rulers. Karakitai at greatest extent Karakitai (1134–1220): The Karakitai rulers were refugees from north China. The Manchurian Kitans ruled north China as the Liao dynasty (907–1125). After they were overthrown by the Jurchens , Kitan remnants fled west, conquered Semirechye in 1134  and by 1141 held most of the lands of the Karakhanids. They were non-Muslim, had some degree of Chinese culture and generally left the former rulers in place as vassals. In 1211 a Naiman prince who had fled the Mongols usurped power. The Mongols pursued him and by 1220 conquered most of the Karakitai lands. Mongols and after: After the Mongol conquest  in 1220 the eastern third  does not need separate treatment , so see the "Mongols and after" section below. Continuing with Zhetysu we might mention the following. Chagataids: When the Mongol empire split up  central Asia fell to the Chagataids  but they never formed a strong state and soon adopted Islam and the local language. Moghulistan ( c. 1450-1500): emerged from declining Chagataids. Zhetysu was split between Mogulistan in the east and the emerging Kazakhs. Kazakhs (1465–present) first appeared in Zhetysu and soon spread their name all over the central steppe. Semirechye was under the Senior Horde. Dzungar Khanate ( c. 1680-1758) held the area until it was destroyed by the Chinese. Russians conquered the area from the north in 1847–68. See Russian conquest of Turkestan.
Eastern third (Zhetysu or Semirechye) Much of Zhetysu is in the Ili River basin. Note the Tien Shan mountains of Kyrgyzstan in the south. The area north of the Tien Shan needs special treatment because of better documentation and the large number of peoples who moved through it. It is a type of steppe "bay" bounded on the north by the Siberian forests, on the south by the Kyrgyz mountains and on the east by low mountains. Zhetysu is Turkic and Semirechye () is Russian for "seven rivers". Sakas (before 200 BC) : The Iranian-speaking nomads in the western and central steppe were called Scythians by the Greeks, Sakas by the Persians and Sai by the Chinese ; the three words mean about the same thing. The Sakas also occupied the western Tarim basin. Iranian languages extended south to Persia and Afghanistan. Chinese: Under the Han dynasty the Chinese expanded westwards . In 125 BC Zhang Qian returned with the first reports of the Western Regions. Around 100 BC to 100 AD, with interruptions, the Chinese controlled the Tarim Basin southeast of the central steppe. Chinese historians have given us the earliest surviving good written information about the central steppe. Yuezhi ( 162-132 BC ): The Yuezhi were originally a major power in Gansu and Mongolia. Around 162 BC , driven west by the Xiongnu , they settled in the Ili valley, driving out the Sakas. About 132 BC they were driven out by the Wusun and moved south and later formed a major state in Bactria as the Kushans. Wusun , 133 BC-100 AD: The Wusun from Gansu drove the Yuezhi out of the Ili valley. By 80 BC they had some power in the Tarim basin. After 100 AD they declined and gradually disappear from the records. Xiongnu ( 40 BC- 155 AD): When the Northern Xiongnu were driven west by the Chinese they occupied Dzungaria and Semirechye, perhaps somewhat north of the Wusun. The Xianbei who defeated them may also have reached this area. Yueban : (c. 160-490): After the Han lost control of the Tarim basin , written sources become sparse . The Chinese called the local population Yueban or Yuepan. They appear to have been Xiongnu remnants. ?Ephthalites ( 493? - 560): The poorly-documented Ephthalites were based in the south and may have extended north of the Tian Shan. Tiele people (c. 100-800) : Tiele is a vague Chinese term for the probably Turkic peoples living mainly on the northern edge of the steppe , from Mongolia westward. Zhetysu ('Moghulistan') in relation to Dzungaria (east), Tarim Basin (southeast) and the steppe bays of Freghana and Bactria to the southwest Outside influences (c. 500-800): Turkic-speaking peoples spread from Mongolia and occupied the central steppe. The Chinese returned under the Tang dynasty of 618-907 . Islam arrived about 750. Meanwhile, Sogdian merchants controlled most of the long-distance trade. Gokturks ( 558-657): The Gokturks became the first Turkic-speakers to found an empire and the first to rule both the eastern and central steppe ( the only other case being the Mongols ) . In 552 they took over Mongolia, 558 they reached the Volga and they reached the Oxus. By 603 the Western Turkic Khaganate had definitely split from the Eastern Khaganate in Mongolia. Circa 657 they were defeated by the Chinese. Chinese again ( 657-756): the Tang dynasty restored Chinese power. The Tang took over the Tarim basin and the mountains of Kyrgyzstan, captured Tashkent, subjugated what was left of the western Turks and lost a battle to the Arabs in 751. Around 756 they withdrew because of the An Lushan rebellion. Islam (c. 750–present): After the Arab conquest of Merv in 651 there were raids northward. From 705 Islam expanded into the area between the Oxus and Syr Darya. Muslims in central Asia soon became more Persian than Arab. From around 750 Islam expanded slowly north of the Syr Darya and into the Tarim Basin and Gansu. Sogdian Merchants ( 300-840): Merchants from Sogdia controlled most of the trade between China and the west. They had settlements all the way from Bukhara to northern China. Dulu Turks ( 603-659): The Dulu formed the semi-independent eastern half of the Western Turkic Khaganate. Chinese vassals (c. 658-756): After the defeat of the Gokturks the Chinese had some limited control of the peoples west and north of the mountains, but the matter remains poorly documented. Turgesh ( 699-766): The Turgesh were Dulu who restored a kind of Turkic Khaganate. They fought against the Arabs and the Chinese. Karluks ( 766-840): The Turkic Karluks drove the Turgesh out of Semirechye and later evolved into the Karakhanids. As a tribe they originated in Dzungaria and existed from at least 644 into Mongol times. Karakhanids (c. 850-1134): Karluks and others founded the Karakhanid Khaganate. Around 960 the Karakhanids adopted Islam; they conquered Transoxiana. About 1041 they split into an eastern group in Semirechye and a western group in Transoxiana. By 1081 they were Seljuk vassals, at least in theory. Following their defeat in 1134, many Karakhanids remained as local rulers. Karakitai at greatest extent Karakitai (1134–1220): The Karakitai rulers were refugees from north China. The Manchurian Kitans ruled north China as the Liao dynasty (907–1125). After the Jurchens overthrew them , Kitan remnants fled west, conquered Semirechye in 1134 , and by 1141 held most of the lands of the Karakhanids. They were non-Muslim, had some degree of Chinese culture and generally left the former rulers in place as vassals. In 1211 a Naiman prince who had fled the Mongols usurped power. The Mongols pursued him and by 1220 conquered most of the Karakitai lands. Mongols After the Mongol conquest of the area in 1220 the eastern third of the central steppe does not need separate treatment : see the "Mongols and after" section below. Subsequent Zhetysu history involved the following: Chagataids: When the Mongol empire split up , central Asia fell to the Chagataids in 1266, but they never formed a strong state and soon adopted Islam and the local language. Moghulistan ( 1450-1500): Moghulistan emerged from the declining Chagatai Khanate. Zhetysu became split between Mogulistan in the east and the emerging Kazakhs. Kazakhs (1465–present) first appeared in Zhetysu and soon spread their name all over the central steppe. Semirechye was under the Senior Horde. Dzungar Khanate ( 1680-1758) held the area until it was destroyed by the Chinese. Russians conquered the area from the north in 1847–68. See Russian conquest of Turkestan.
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