from gdańsk, ships, mostly from the netherlands and flanders, carried the grain to ports such as antwerp and amsterdam. besides grain, other seaborne exports included carminic acid from polish cochineal, lumber and wood-related products such as ash, and tar. the land routes, mostly to the german lands of the holy roman empire such as the cities of leipzig and nuremberg, were used for export of live cattle (herds of around 50,000 head) hides, furs, salt, tobacco, hemp, cotton (mostly from greater poland) and linen.