beginning in the late 19th century, the french colonial authorities promoted the use of the vietnamese alphabet, which they viewed as a stepping stone toward learning french. language reform in other asian nations stimulated vietnamese interest in the subject. following the russo-japanese war of 1905, japan was often cited as a model for asian modernization. nationalists embraced the alphabet as "quốc ngữ" (the national language), and as a tool for promoting literacy. the confucian education system was compared unfavorably to the japanese system of public education. nationalist writer phan boi chau encouraged the young to "study in the east," meaning japan.