in 1934, the austrian philosopher hans kelsen continued the positivist tradition in his book the "pure theory of law". kelsen believed that although law is separate from morality, it is endowed with "normativity", meaning we ought to obey it. while laws are positive "is" statements (e.g. the fine for reversing on a highway "is" €500); law tells us what we "should" do. thus, each legal system can be hypothesised to have a basic norm ("grundnorm") instructing us to obey. kelsen's major opponent, carl schmitt, rejected both positivism and the idea of the rule of law because he did not accept the primacy of abstract normative principles over concrete political positions and decisions. therefore, schmitt advocated a jurisprudence of the exception (state of emergency), which denied that legal norms could encompass all of political experience.