the curriculum and system of graduation were reformed. entrance examinations equivalent to the school leaving certificate were introduced and average ages of entry rose to 17 or 18. standard patterns of graduation in the arts curriculum offered 3-year ordinary and 4-year honours degrees. there was resistance among professors, particularly among chairs of divinity and classics, to the introduction of new subjects, particularly the physical sciences. the crown established regius chairs, all in the sciences, including medicine, chemistry, natural history and botany. the chair of engineering at glasgow was the first of its kind in the world. by the 1870s the physical sciences were well established in scottish universities, whereas in england the battle would not be complete until the end of the century. the new separate science faculties were able to move away from the compulsory latin, greek and philosophy of the old ma curriculum. under the commissions all the universities were restructured. they were given courts, which included external members and who oversaw the finances of the institution. under the 1889 act new arts subjects were established, with chairs in modern history, french, german and political economy.