den otter (1997) challenges popular assumptions that canada built transcontinental railways because it feared the annexationist schemes of aggressive americans. instead canada overbuilt railroads because it hoped to compete with, even overtake americans in the race for continental riches. it downplayed the more realistic maritimes-based london-oriented connections and turned to utopian prospects for the farmlands and minerals of the west. the result was closer ties between north and south, symbolized by the grand trunk's expansion into the american midwest. these economic links promoted trade, commerce, and the flow of ideas between the two countries, integrating canada into a north american economy and culture by 1880. about 700,000 canadians migrated to the u.s. in the late 19th century. the canadian pacific, paralleling the american border, opened a vital link to british canada, and stimulated settlement of the prairies. the cp was affiliated with james j. hill's american railways, and opened even more connections to the south. the connections were two-way, as thousands of american moved to the prairies after their own frontier had closed.