similarly, hodkinson et al. (2003), conclude after a significant literature analysis on the topics of formal, informal, and non-formal learning, that "the terms informal and non-formal appeared interchangeable, each being primarily defined in opposition to the dominant formal education system, and the largely individualist and acquisitional conceptualisations of learning developed in relation to such educational contexts." (hodkinson et al., 2003, p. 314) moreover, he states that "it is important not to see informal and formal attributes as somehow separate, waiting to be integrated. this is the dominant view in the literature, and it is mistaken. thus, the challenge is not to, somehow, combine informal and formal learning, for informal and formal attributes are present and inter-related, whether we will it so or not. the challenge is to recognise and identify them, and understand the implications. for this reason, the concept of non-formal learning, at least when seen as a middle state between formal and informal, is redundant." (p. 314)