classical chinese was used by the royal court and for other official purposes. the temple of literature in hanoi was the best-known school for the study of chinese. the civil service examination tested knowledge of chinese. it was given once every three years. students who passed the exam could go on to become magistrates. confucian scholars saw chinese as the language of education and looked down on nôm. popular opinion favored nôm. some kings thought that all writing should be done in chinese. they suppressed nôm. other kings promoted nôm. in 1867, king tu duc issued a decree encouraging the use of nôm. only a small percentage of the population was literate in any language. but nearly every village had at least one person who could read nôm aloud for the other villagers. jean-louis taberd wrote the first nôm dictionary in 1838.