in 269, while claudius gothicus (gallienus' successor) was defending the borders of italy and the balkans against germanic invasions, palmyrene queen zenobia was cementing her authority; roman officials in the east were caught between loyalty to the emperor and zenobia's increasing demands for allegiance. the timing and rationale of the queen's decision to use military force to strengthen her authority in the east is unclear; scholar gary k. young suggested that roman officials refused to recognize palmyrene authority, and zenobia's expeditions were intended to maintain palmyrene dominance. another factor may have been the weakness of roman central authority and its corresponding inability to protect the provinces, which probably convinced zenobia that the only way to maintain stability in the east was to control the region directly.