harold innis (1894–1952), based in the history department at the university of toronto, and william archibald mackintosh (1895–1970), based in the economics department at queen's university developed the staples thesis. they argued that the canadian economy (beyond the level of subsistence farming) was primarily based on exports of a series of staples—fish, fur, timber, wheat—that shipped to britain and the british empire. industrialization came much later. the thesis explains canadian economic development as a lateral, east-west conception of trade. innis argued that canada developed as it did because of the nature of its staple commodities: raw materials, such as fish, fur, lumber, agricultural products and minerals. this trading link cemented canada's cultural links to britain. the search for and exploitation of these staples led to the creation of institutions that defined the political culture of the nation and its regions. innis, influenced by the american historian frederick jackson turner added a sociological dimension: different staples led to the emergence of regional economies (and societies) within canada. for instance, the staple commodity in atlantic canada was cod fishing. this industry was very decentralized, but also very co-operative. in western canada the central staple was wheat. wheat farming was a very independent venture, which led to a history of distrust of government and corporations in that part of the country. (also important, however, were the shocks caused by volatility in the market for wheat and by the weather itself on the growing season.) in central canada, the main staple was fur, and the fur trade dominated the economy for many years. this fur trade was controlled by large firms, such as the hudson's bay company and thus produced the much more centralized, business-oriented society that today characterizes montreal and toronto.