portuguese trade was progressively more and more challenged by chinese smugglers, japanese red seal ships from around 1592 (about ten ships every year), spanish ships from manila from around 1600 (about one ship a year), the dutch from 1609, and the english from 1613 (about one ship per year). some japanese are known to have travelled abroad on foreign ships as well, such as christopher and cosmas who crossed the pacific on a spanish galleon as early as 1587, and then sailed to europe with thomas cavendish.