in the middle of the eighteenth century, the ottomans began a series of reforms to re-stabilise and modernise their regime, however, these were only implemented with effect in the middle of the nineteenth century. the impact of the arab reforms differed throughout the empire. for example, the reform movement was heavily applied in places such as syria, beirut and aleppo whereas the reforms in baghdad and basra were more discrete, ultimately in yemen and al-hijāz there were little administrative changes. in the regions where the reforms were more heavily applied, a stronger sense of the origins of the arab national movement against the ottomans emerged in response to these changes.