Generally, to understand a metaphor, we replace the standard interpretation of A by a weaker interpretation of A, so that the statement becomes true.

metaphors are open to a number of different interpretations; there is rarely one correct meaning.


In this theory, metaphor is defined as "a cross-domain mapping in the conceptual system" (Lakoff [3]: 203).

"metaphorical expression" is used to refer to an individual linguistic expression or "a surface realization of such a cross-domain mapping" (203).


The machine is designed in such a way that several keys can be pressed simultaneously in one stroke.

there are many combinations of keystrokes within a single strike.


In a purely phonetically-based input scheme, stenographers need to learn only how to phonetically represent syllables in CAT codes without worrying about ambiguity.


However, while the agent in (2a) can be anyone, the one in (2b) is limited to the writer or the protagonist in this particular context.

i claim that these two constructions have a different propositional content.


The two lexical items are distinct in value for the category features and possibly for many other features.

(i), which is usually null, is excluded as the label of the structure earn money.


Merging the verb with (23) will produce (24): Dare ka and nagur have category features n and v, respectively; this should be a case of asymmetric projection.

the topmost label inherits the category feature v and other features only from the verb nagur.


Haiman (1978) has argued that conditionals have a correlation with topics: "Conditionals, like topics, are given, which constitute the frame of reference with respect to which the main clause is either true or felicitous."

the function of initial conditional clauses can be thought as "creating backgrounds for subsequent utterances and presenting a piece of information as given" (Wang, 1996).


(4) is from the text which talks about the influences that viagra may bring to the relation or interaction between two sexes in society.

it is not difficult to understand why speaker B in (4) makes a before-clause: she not only sets a time frame but also makes a successful topic continuation.


In other words, each disjunct in (4) is a polar question and is connected by or to form a coordinated sentence.

in this case, the disjunction is construed as a choice between two questions)) in the response, it is sufficient to reply to one disjunct.


We analyze the content of wh-questions as a propositional-object whose MODE value is wh and which has a wh-operator in its QUANTS list.

the CONTENT of a wh-question 'Who sneezed?'


The subordinate clause of the above example introduced by the subordinator tame ni is marked by ta, denoting that the event getting married precedes the event leaving the firm.

in general, the tense of a Level B subordinate clause is interpreted relying on the interpretation of that of the matrix clause.


Conversely, if one of the clauses is non-ta-marked and the other is a to-form, the interpretation from the utterance time perspective entails that from the perspective of the matrix clause time.

mihara's Principle (4) can be regarded as having chosen more general constraints.


This is even more obvious if it appears that some results obtained in connection with one category are easily generalisable to other categories: I show that the connective except occurring in EXCL phrases is in fact categorially polyvalent.

any discussion of the validity of the principle of compositionality at sentential level appears directly relevant for other levels.


The partial order in these denotational algebras is interpreted as a generalized entailment.

it is meaningful to say that an entailment holds between two NPs or between two nominal determiners, etc.


Keenan Stavi 1986, Keenan 1996) considers that they result from the application of a discontinous determiner to a common noun.

every student except Leo is a result of the application of the (discontinous) determiner every...except Leo to the common noun student.


This shows that the function computing semantic value can have, contrary to Higginbotham's claim, some of its values contingent on the nature of its argument.

if the expression M(A) is interpreted by F (a), where F is the function interpreting the functional expression M, the fact that the values F can assign to an argument can vary with the nature of that argument does not bear on the question of whether M(A) is compositionally interpreted.


b. iamwu-rato ku it-ul ha-ul.swu.iss-ta anyone-RATO that work-Acc do-can-Dec 'Anyone can do that' (ii) #na-nun ku-ka nwukwu-i-nci al-nta As we informally introduced, an arbitrary choice function denoted by amwu in Korean chooses an arbitrary object no matter what it may be.

it is a special sort of choice function which is independent of the context or the utterance situation.


The indefinite number phrase sey saram-to/-ina `(even) three people' in (17) and (18) also derives a scalar implicature that the number 'three' is the least likely number such that the number of people came.

(17) implies that the speaker expected at least three people would come, and (18) implies that the speaker expected at most three people would come, so the number 'three' is the least likely number in a pragmatic quantity scale.


In (1) Theme appears as subject Pictures of each other and Experiencer appears as object the politicians.

the thematic role, theme, in the subject position, is thematically lower than that, Experiencer, in the object position: the syntactic structure in (1) does not reflect the thematic structure directly.


According to Levin and Rappaport, the property, deletion (suppression) of external argument, follows from the fact that the adjectival passive participle is created from the verbal passive participle, which involves suppression of external argument, and the property, externalization of an argument, is a consequence of the category change; a general property of adjectives is that they require external argument.

properties other than the category conversion do not need to be stipulated in APF, according to Levin and Rappaport.


Category conversion in (22) implies externalization of an internal argument since an adjective needs an external argument according to Levin and Rappaport.

if an EO verb has an external argument, then APF should delete (suppress) the external argument; Otherwise the derived adjective would have two external arguments.


The background frame can be a "history" and the profiled entity can be some person or object that figures at some point in that history.

the word widow evokes a complex historical frame in which a woman is seen as having a particular social status because the man to whom she was (most recently) married has died.


Then we will find the constituent containing the target noun which marks the frame element in which the noun is serving, and identify that frame element.

given the target knife, for a sentence like I tried to slice the ham with a dull knife we would mark slice as the governor, indicate CUTTING as the name of the frame, select the phrase with a dull knife as the phrase containing the target which identifies a frame element of slice in that sentence, and give its name as INSTRUMENT.


In another example for the same noun, He was stabbed three times with a knife, we would tag stab as the evoker of an ATTACK frame and select with a knife and tag it as WEAPON.

for certain classes of dependent nouns, the entries would provide information in such a form as A very large number of nouns will be treated in respect to their function as FE-slot fillers, including names of tools, dwellings, geographic locations, diseases, kinship relations, body parts, species and varieties of plants and animals, etc.


This allows us to correctly annotate the occasional sentences in which constituent structure and frame element boundaries do not coincide.

(we should be able to take advantage of some of the insights, regarding the lexicon/grammar interface, of autolexical syntax (Sadock, 1991).)


In the simplest case, a lexical unit is defined as a triple consisting of a lemma, a part of speech, and a frame: a lemma in turn is a set of word form alternatives, and is named by one of its variants (the so-called "citation form").

the lemma ring as a noun has word-forms ring and rings (singular and plural); the lemma ring as a verb has word-forms ring, rings, ringing, rang, rung; the noun lemma ring when paired with a SOCIAL COMMUNITY frame (as in ring of smugglers) is one lexical unit; when paired with a JEWELRY frame (as in wedding ring) is a different lexical unit.


However, in English, 'put' has the roles of Agent, Theme and Location in its event structure, while 'set' has the three roles of Agent, Theme, and Proposition.

conceptualizations of 'set' and 'put' in English and Mandarin have different semantic and syntactic entailments.


the event in question) must be positioned in relation to a period of time, although once again, the exact position (on a timeline, for example) is not necessary.

the event structure that we have proposed for 'set' can stand for this first scenario.


(2) Japanese 'break' Rika-ga isu-o kowashi-ta Rika-NOM chair-ACC break-PAST "Rika broke the chair" Rika-ga kabin-o Rika-NOM vase-ACC break-PAST "Rika broke the vase" These examples show that different realizations have the same subcategorization in both the source and target languages.

one cannot rely on the use of syntactic surface forms to differentiate the semantic features of these verbs.


However, this approach is not applicable to words such as break' in Japanese, 'hit' in Cantonese, or 'wash' in Vietnamese, where there is no decomposable morphology.

for languages with little morphology, a different approach is necessary.


What about using sophisticated verb representations in the lexicon, such as Pustejovsky's generative framework (1993) or Jackendoff's Lexical Conceptual Structure (LCS) (1990)?

far, there has been little work done in extending these theories to deal with lexical divergences in Asian languages.


From these examples, it is clear that both theories can account for lexical gaps but the specific details that are needed have not yet been developed.

we need to first identify and describe what the divergences are and then propose a way to incorporate the fine grained differences.


Therefore, when a cluster surfaces based on conceptual categories but not collocation statistics, inaccurate translations result.

if the accuracy of an MT system is dependent on the structure of the network, then it would be important to choose a linguistically-oriented clustering network using statistical approximations rather than a conceptually-oriented one.


At this point, either footwear' has no verb associated with it which may result in a system error or the same verb for clothing' (i.e., `tsoek') is returned.

in such a network, an MT system either errors on the translation or encodes redundant categorical information which has no significance on the translation.


John-Nom Central street-Acc 100-m run-Past "John ran 100m along Central street."

we treat adverbials of degree as non-floated numeral quantifiers and differentiate them from floated quantifiers, but the properties of syntax and semantics of both floated quantifiers and adverbials of degree are similar in terms of the point we discuss here.


This means that the exceptional entities do not satisfy any predicate which is a member of a universal quantifier to which the exceptional phrase attaches.

the exceptional entities are really "exceptions", satisfying Moltmann's Negative Condition.


Among the members of the existential quantifier Q, there may be some predicates which contain the excepfion C as their member; and at the same time there may be some predicates which do not contain C. Then in the case of an existential quantifier, it does not satisfy either of "for every V -" conditions.

for such a quantifier, exception is undefined by means of the third line of the definition.


Thus, it can be concluded that Moltmann's definition of except cannot be extended to the two cases above at least.'

we should seek some other view on the exceptions.


Although it is true that von Fintel himself observes that an existential quantifier cannot go with an exception, his way of analysis can be applied to an existential quantifier.

i assume that there is basically no restriction on the quantifier which an exception attaches to.


This meaning can be captured in the line of branching quantifiers, plus assuming that else functions as obviating an entity appearing in the preceding context from the domain of the quantified noun phrase to which else is attached.

else can be paraphrased as other than X, X an entity in the preceding context.


And the following sentence of our concern disallows any individuals in the preceding context, as well as any new individuals, to stand in a new criticize-relation.

the intuition is that there are only two instances of criticize-relation as specified in the preceding context.


SAT precludes structural relations to be symmetrical.

there is no bare sisterhood relation or symmetrical c-command relation that plays a role in the grammar.


By definition, a head is in asymmetrical relation with a dependent category.

in (2) the head X is asymmetrically related to the Complement as well to the Specifier.


If the LCA extends under the word level, as suggested in (Kayne, 1994), (Keyser and Roeper, 1997), the Universal Base Hypothesis does also.

the linear order of the base constituents in morphological structures is as in (2).


Unlike the previous example, both the pivotal situation and those corresponding to the DCPs are counterfactual, because the modal operators set the mood of the sentence to counterfactual.

it is modal operators setting the level of actuality of the pivotal situation which dictate the working out of the DCPs associated with the sentence according to the conditions specified by the EP.


Polymorphism sika can be used with any NP or PP.

in the following sentence sika is attached to sanzen ('three bowls'), a noun phrase representing quantity: (10) taroo-wa san-zen-sika gohan-o tabe-nai Taroo-TOP one-bowl-SIKA rice-OBJ eat-NEG Taro° eats only three bowls of rice.'


He then defines slash-elimination rules (functional appliation rules): Polarity-preserving elimination Polarity-reversing elimination A-His account of AWN is then formulated by the following constraint: NPIs are enterned only in '-'-marked categories.

any is assigned to (S -/V P-)/CN-and ever is assigned to VP -/V P-.


To remedy this problem, the frequencies of ambiguous words are distributed equally to each of their categories.

in each of these CDs, each term is associated with a weighted term frequency (wtf) and document frequency (dj).


For instance, there are six categories for lexical word star in Roget's.

weighted frequency associated with each of these categories for ambiguous word star is assigned to 1/6.


Hence, it is inappropriate for all of these categories to appear simultaneously in a conceptual list, as we do not disambiguate the word senses during the phase of linking MRD to thesaurus.

a further step of selecting a proper category from this category set is necessary.


a comprehensive dictionary might contain thesaural information implicitly in its meaning definitions), the extraction of some information is not always straightforward, rendering the acquired information incomplete or unreliable.

a third and possibly better approach is to combine various existing resources, especially different types of them which are exemplars for representing different types of information, into an integrated repository.


Meanwhile, LDOCE and Roget's Thesaurus (ROGET) were used as exemplars for dictionary and thesaurus respectively.

words are organised in alphabetical order in LDOCE, as in other conventional dictionaries.


In other words, although the number of linked words is just about half of the ROGET collection and only about one-fifth of WN16, these shared words are nevertheless among the commonly used words, unlike the above peculiar examples.

we believe that the results from the linkage would form a usefully enriched resource for WSD, despite its limited size.


For instance, the construction of WN16 was to a certain extent corpus-based, and it contains word senses which were derived from actual usages of words in the Brown Corpus.

there may be some non-central (and perhaps mildly technical) senses in WN16 which 3 Brown Corpus c01, 4' paragraph.


In general, a DAWG has states with more than one outgoing transition after a state with two or more incoming transitions.

there is no guarantee that can determine information for each key correctly.


It calculates the path from the distant of that alphabet comparing with the path number given in the SP part.

the 0th path number of alphabet "a" is "a" and the 1st path number of alphabet "a" is "b".


For the large set of word lists, the repeated structure is increasing while the distinct structure is decreasing.

the sharing structure technique is work well for the large set of information.


One of the reasons could be that speakers of a common language share similar knowledge and competence on how to express emotion pragmatically and how to perform monitoring and repairing in a reasonable way, whenever there is a need.

the communication partners can easily decode the meaning and the function of speech disfluency in conversation, because they would encode it by using similar sequence combinations.


They mark special locations in utterances and they stress particular speaker intentions in discourse as discourse particles usually do.

long time, after a long time the behaviour patterns of the children will be the same as ours.


While the commutative multiplicative conjunction, ®, allows to swap composites, e.g., AOB B0 A, it is not the case for the non-commutative one.

the expression, have/E(i,x)1, can further be reduced to have/G[410ND without the loss of the order between i and x.


When the strictly binary moraic feet are constructed at the initial parsing level, stray moras may occur.

i assume that while stray moras are allowed in initial Foot Parsing (iFP), stray moras are adjoined in some way to achieve surface exhaustivity in Surface Foot Parsing (SFP).


(2) The children have all introduced their friends to us.

2is not interpreted as 'The children have introduced all of their friends to us.'


The latter option that derives (13) is described schematically as in 15: In 15, Q is adjacent to NP*, an NP trace, and there is an anaphoric relation between NV', the overt antecedent of Q, and the trace.

the anaphor-like behavior between the host NP and Q is captured via movement.


Dowty & Brodie (1984) propose that floating quantifiers are base-generated as VP modifiers.

in their analysis, FQs are introduced by the following syntactic rule: Their analysis focuses on providing formal semantics for FQ constructions.


(31) 's (revised entry 2) In (31), the elements in the QS of the N', indicated by are retrieved and appear in the QUANTS of the RESTR value within the QS of 's.

the retrieval of the quantifier associated with the specifier is lexically specified.


2000), then traces need not be posited in (19).

examples like (19b) are ruled out, simply because there is no VP/AP that FQs can combine with.


Finally, in (32), the universal quantifier associated with the floating quantifier is required to be retrieved lexically and take scope over the VP that it modifies.

the quantifier associated with all does not inherit into a larger phrase or the lexical head that selects the phrase.


Thus the quantifier associated with all does not inherit into a larger phrase or the lexical head that selects the phrase.

when the modified VP contains a modal or negation, all has wide scope over such scopal elements.


If it is stated that the LFFT value for a is substantial, we infer that the LFFr values for all fis are substantial, too.

the additive operator "mo" adds the object a which takes a lower value of likelihood compared to the set of objects fis each of which takes a higher value.


The particle also, whose meaning is defined in 18, is then fed with this structured meaning to yield the following interpretation for the whole sentence.

the meaning of John drinks, too is that John drinks and there is some Alternative of John who drinks.


At this point, it may be worth pointing that the phrase to which wa or mo is attached need not bear stress, and thus need not be the focus.

both the following two information structures are possible.


In light of presuppositions, however, I think the adaptation need some elaboration because topics and additives, both of which bear presuppositions, interact with each other within a sentence and there seems to be no place for projection of presuppositions in Krifka's theory unless we make some revisions.

i propose a hybrid analysis of (Krifka, 1991) and (Karttunen and Peters, 1979).


Numbers such as 3 and 16 are taken to be predicates over individuals which count the number of the singular objects.

i assume that the domain of individuals is organized into a join semilattice like the ones developed by (Ojeda, 1993), (Moltmann, 1997), and (Link, 1998).


The number cannot be greater than three, because, if we knew that more than three student had come, it might be pointless to assert that (at least) three students came, because it is already implied by the presupposition.

the presupposed number must be less than three.


As illustrated in (19a), the second NP John and the third NP Kim have the same value for PM, because they both alternate their cases.

the two NPs cannot be scrambled in terms of the PM Constraint.


Thai classifiers total approximately eighty (McFarland 1942;Haas 1964), and around forty of them are in everyday use (Carpenter 1991).

when new nouns are created, no new classifiers can be created for them.


The possibility of classifiers occurring more than once as found in Thai cannot be accommodated under this structure.

tang's analysis cannot be extended to the thai case.


Although Case is not phonetically realized in Thai, I follow the standard assumption that nominal arguments universally have Case.

d in Thai nominal structures contains abstract case.


He associates a string of terminals with a string of time slots and claims that what is paired with each time slot is not simply the corresponding terminal but the substring of terminals.

a string of terminals "abcdz" is mapped to a set of substrings "a, ab, abc, abcd, abcdz."


Let's assume that 'I' occupies the specifier of LP; therefore, the string of terminals in 14) corresponds to the substrings, [I], [I saw], and [I saw John].

'I' precedes every terminal in every substring.


In this framework, a category XP can be extended to a two segment XP.

when a category raises past a segment (assumed as a bar level in X' theory) into the specifier of a higher segment (of the same category), the raising is licensed.


After Spell-Out, since classifier features are morphological, they need to be checked for convergence at the interface of PF and LF.

nP raises into the specifier of ClassP to have its classifier feature checked against that in the classifier head.


The sentences in (23)b and (23)c are also such cases: the verbs such as has and was are all auxiliary verbs ([+AUX]) and subcategorize for a VP complement.

the VP complement of all these verbs can be elided but not that of the main verbs in (24).


Given that the indirect WH-feature checking movement is covert in English, the prediction is that an XP can be pied-piped even when the WH-phrase is not in its Spec overtly as long as it could move into the Spec covertly.

in 14, we can say that the WH-complement of P moves 'covertly' to the Spec of PP and percolates its WH-feature to the PP .4 of this 'covert' movement and feature percolation, the PP to whom undergoes 'overt' pied-piping WH-movement to the Spec of CP.


(16a), in contrast, is grammatical since in (16a), we can say that the WH-phrase has moved, covertly, to the Spec of DP and percolated its WH-feature to the DP.

of this covert movement and feature percolation, the whole DP with the percolated WH-feature has undergone overt pied-piping movement to the Spec of CP.


The GP, which is a kind of NP, can be the direct object of a transitive verb like hate in (1).

(5) can express the two-faced properties of the verbal gerund, 'verbal inside and nominal outside,' without causing any brute-force changes in the categorial status as in (4).


A simple way of accounting for ungrammatical -ing forms in (22) is to assume that the -ing complement of a perception verb is not a verbal gerund, but a participial VP.

i argue that the structure of the VP of (22b), for example, is like this: The unexpressed subject must be coindexed with the accusative direct object, just as in other object-Equi verbs, also in accordance with the Control Theory, which we will discuss shortly.


These constraints form interaction among constraints expressed in the lexical entries.

there is no need for assuming tentative labels A, B, C, and D of subordinate clauses.


luckily friend -by pro/apple -acc share-gavè Though I had intended to buy an apple, luckily, my friend gave me one.'

iHRC has a definitional problem; it is not clear whether iHRC is a construction independent of adverbial clauses or clausal complement.


The key-words of a sentence are those words of the sentence which have frequently co-occurred at the top-level of a number of example sentences with the same axiom.

the sentence zhe4 shi4 tal de ma may obtain the keywords "=shi=ma", provided "=shi=ma" occurred with a frequence above a threshold in example sentences with the same axiom.


Therefor we constrain the position of the indices by reference to the keywords.

"=" refers to a position between the beginning and the end of a sentence when no keywords are found, " =1" refers to a position between the beginning of a sentence and the first keyword, "1=2" refers to a position between the first and second keyword and "1" refers to the position of the first keyword.


Eager parsers transform every information unit in the corpus into a highly potential information unit in the internal language model.

they have to handle the ambiguities which arise during the analysis and may fail for this reason (Charniak, 1996).


The significance of the interaction between FPs and focused phrases is that it affects the truth-conditional interpretation of the sentences.

the following sentences from Rooth (1985, 2) have different truth conditions although they are composed of exactly the same string of words:1 (1) a. I only introduced BillF to Sue.


In Japanese, it is often the case that, when we have an FP in a sentence, there is no particular readily perceptible phonological stress involved.

the following sentence can be read with no particular emphasis on any potential associate of dake and could be interpreted in various ways, some of which are shown as English translations:2 (2) Watasi wa Hanako ni Taroo o syookai si ta dake da.


That is, in this case the sentence unambiguously means that we will look for a vocalist who can play the violin besides vocalists who can play other instruments.

putting the sentence in a context inconsistent with this reading results in an infelicitous discourse.


lithe FOC value appeared on this VP node out of the blue, however, the FP would have no access to the information about its associate without an extra mechanism, since the information about the FP would not be available on the VP node.

it would be reasonable instead to assume that the FOC value originates from the FP in this case.


From the constraint on initial symbols (20), which requires the FOC value of the top S node to be empty, the Focus Resolution Rule is forced to apply.

the meaning of the FP gets incorporated into the semantics and the FOC value gets deleted.


However, if the Focusing Rule does not apply, the Focus Resolution Rule, which is forced to apply in order to delete the FOC value later cannot calculate the semantics properly.

the sentence would be assigned an illicit interpretation.


But if the direct object is understood as Hanako's child (or some other person's than Taroo's), the same sentence implies the adversity.

the indirect passives have the sense of adversity when the affected subject is not related with the object of the verb; in other words, when the affected subject is not involved in the event denoted by the active verb (Wierzbicka 1979, Kuno 1983.


As shown in (17) Taroo, the affected subject, is excluded because it is not associated with any participants in the verb's event.

the property of the qualia structure is read off from the lexical representation of the construction.


a remote causer) that initiates the event denoted by the verb because the vase does not break or the chair does not fall spontaneously in a normal situation.

the initiator of the event is represented as an external causer as in the following causal chain.


In contrast, computers tend to break or people get sick without an external cause.

the subjects in (16) can be the initiator of the causal chain.


In this case, the negative counterparts are formed with the morpheme na, which is derived from nak-ar-e.

the politeness marker supports both negation and the major illocutionary force.


Unlike verbs of giving and receiving, these verbs do not contain any element of direction in their meaning.

their semantic contribution must be either aspect or voice.


In the V-te ant construction, the successful completion of the relevant event and the retention of the resultant state are denoted, which should be sufficiently informative and newsworthy.

we have identified a potential lacuna in the organization of a clause in terms of pertinent arguments.


The words listed as entries in an Indonesian dictionary are usually root words; the various affixes applicable to a root word are usually listed together in the corresponding entry.

to find a word in the dictionary, we must first find its stem before proceeding to find the corresponding entry of the root word in the dictionary.


= cos(UkcbUad) In both symmetry forms when we make SVD analysis we can only decompose matrices of the query language and the target language instead of the several times larger matrix W of all the languages.


They define a set of unknown word roles about varied internal components and contexts in their system.

their system can recognize different types of unknown words, including the case mentioned above, despite that their method is also a twostage segmentation.


Furthermore, building unknown word candidate without any restriction may yield a number of pseudo unknown words into the final result.

how to build effectively all eligible unknown word candidates for the input is crucial for integrated segmentation.


The Japanese equivalents of (9) receive the same analyses.

due to the similarity of the c-structure between Japanese and Korean and to the similarity of the mapping from c-structure to f-structure, annotated phrase structure rules already existing in the Japanese grammar could be ported without change to a Korean grammar, as illustrated here by Rule (6) and Template (8).


In this regard, Jackendoff is absolutely right, when he suggests that the mental rehearsal of sentences may be the primary means by which our own thoughts are able to become objects of further attention and reflection.

understood, language is not mere imperfect mirror of our intuitive knowledge.


They account for these facts on the basis of the assumption that the preverbal subjects occupy an A'-position.

pronouns cannot be interpreted as bound variables.


b. Japanese: unambiguous (some > every, *every > some) Dareka-ga daremo-o aisitei-m. iv*P *F "t-matching (35a) and (35b) are the schematic structures of (36a) and (36b) respectively.

assuming the notion of deactivated NPs, given in (33) and the research results in Section 2, English subject QP becomes a deactivated NP when its uninterpretable Case-feature is marked for deletion by T. English subject QP can be a probe for Fquant-matching at the completion of TP.


QP in English, resulting in the inverse scope at LF.


(Subj > 10, IO > Subj) 6 We assume that Case-feature of the kara-subject NP is vP-internally licensed by the postposition kara 'from'.

the kara-subject can be a deactivated NP in the position within vP-layer.


As for the scope interaction between subject QP and DO, the DOs in both English and Japanese are too far from the subject positions.

neither English nor Japanese allows F t-matching, resulting in unambiguous reading.


If the full scope of the context feature vector is used, data sparseness problem will seriously hurt the system performance.

partial feature vectors are used instead of full feature vectors.


Those words should be processed by other generic tagging algorithms.

we picked up words that its frequency is equal to or greater than 10 only as the target words in the experiments.


For instance, if the confidence score is set 0.6, only 10.04% of tagged words have the confidence scores less than 0.6 that cover 57.92% error tagging.

the estimated best tagging accuracy is 97.93%, if those tagged words with lower confidence score are all manual revised.


Because of the word's sense ambiguity, something should be done to disambiguity the main word.

the text representation can be summarized as below: 1) Judging the text is in English or in Chinese.


Words that appear in the text very few can also be removed away.

the text is reduced to the main word list.


( 3)  The use of the conative interjections may be to get the recipients' attention or to demand the recipients to responde.

conative interjections are not only passively used to express the speaker's mental state as the previous two are proposed to do, but the utterances are directed at the auditor.


Since we describe the onomatopoeic speech act verb as a syntactically independent monomorphemic utterance which performs perlocutionary forces, it is feasible to say that onomatopoeic speech act verbs are a subset of interjections.

onomatopoeic speech act verbs include those which have been previously classified as interjection.


The action of spitting itself represents an action to show disdain, contempt, disgust and scorn.

the imitation of the sound of spitting symbolizes the action of spitting and show the disgust and scorn.


It is suggested by previous researchers that interjections tend to be phonologically anomalous.

the conventionalized written forms do not virtually reflect the sounds speakers actually produce them.


Therefore, the conventionalized written forms do not virtually reflect the sounds speakers actually produce them.

this in turn leads to the phenomenon that multi-forms may stand for one single vocal token or one written form stands for more than one vocal token.


(Liu 1993:221) And through metaphorical and contextual manipulations, the verbal jiu is allowed to be used in a wide range of contexts.

on the basis of the metaphorical concept ACTION IS PATH or ACTION IS MOVEMENT, that speakers make a decision after negotiation with others through verbal interactions can be perceived as taking action `to accomplish a certain task' or `to achieve certain goal', which can both be perceived as moving in space towards a definite location.


We suggest that the two concerns could be compromised, possibly via the tagset, as in Kwong and Tsou (2003), and maintain the mutual relation between the treatment of categorially fluid words and empirical evidence.

in the current work we further our empirical study of categorial fluidity between verbs and nouns.


Nouns, on the other hand, can most prominently be preceded by number and classifier, and modified by adjectives.

a nominalised transitive verb cannot take an object in the normal VO order, as in (4).


A categorial shift is treated as a transitional process, moving from the "word play" end toward the genuine ambiguity end.

we distinguish three levels of ambiguity, namely "regular ambiguity", "transitional ambiguity" and "innovative ambiguity".


The first sentence does not necessarily indicate that the admission was the last thing the speaker expected.

linebarger's two-fold theory proves to be incomplete.


Although such a situation does not falsify the presupposition, the conclusion, Exactly five children ate kale for breakfast, is not inferred, therefore, (a) does not Strawson Entail (b).

the same reasoning applies to the n. Strawson DE-ness also has to account for counterexamples.


On the other hand, walking of five young men does not ensure walking of the five men, for the five men of the first sentence may refer to another group of the five men.


A document categorisation problem with only a few relevant documents for training may have similar situation with that in the right graph of Figure 1.

in order to achieve better generalisation performance, it is wise to distinguish the positive margin from the negative margin when training the SVM.


The Semantic Knowledge-base of Contemporary Chinese (SKCC) is a large scale Chinese semantic resource developed by the All of the six sub-databases can be linked to the general database through four key fields, namely ENTRY, POS, HOMOMORPHISM and SENSE.

the son knots can inherit all information from their father knots ( Figure 1).


Firstly, each entry denotes one single sense of per word in SKCC.

if a word has two or more senses, it will be regard as different entries, and the "SENSE" field will be filled with different number (as "M"in table 3).


Table 3 Two senses of Chinese noun "1" Secondly, SKCC marked all of the homographs in "HOMOMORPHISM" field, such as two verbs "A-"with different pronunciation in table 4.

a' Kan4 a see; watch; look at see * Ka.n1 B ... look after; take care of look after Table 4 Homographs in SKCC if either of the "SENSE" and "HOMOMORPHISM" fields is filled with value in SKCC, the entry must be a polysemous word or homograph.


According to a study in cognitive science, people often disambiguate word sense using only a few other words in a given context (frequently only one additional word) [8] .

the relationships between one word and others can be effectively used to resolve ambiguity.


Table 6 Different senses of verb "Ir According to table 6, the verb "1r in sentence [1] below must be "look for", because its object is "A" (person), a kind of "entity"; while "Irin sentence [2] has two objects, namely, indirect object "a" (me) and direct object "a"(money).


Proof: Recall the property of a suffix tree: all substrings that terminate in an left-open edge of a GST, except the lower node, terminate at an implicit node, which does not branch.

the suffixes reachable from these nodes are the same as the lower node.


Since the sizeof(stack) is proportional to the number of internal nodes of a Suffix Tree, it is known to be 0(N).

the above algorithm to update g' and df will take 0(N) time altogether.


if SID suirixstate < j, do df = dfs"r",s,"fe + 1; During a split operation, the suffix pointer pointing from child state to the suffix state is changed so that it points from new child state to the same suffix state.

the above update signifies that the strings represented by the new child state contribute to one more df count to the suffix state.


In addition, the time grows linearly with our corpus size.

our algorithm to construct a GDAWG based on S is online in linear space and time, and the resulting GDAWG allows the computation of FACTORIN(x, TEX7) in 0(1x1) time.


(In the following, we use class and state interchangeably.)

the two parameters used in our multigram compound discovery, i.e., MI and RIDF (as shown in Section 2.3) for the longest substring in each class, can be computed in linear time.


Following that point, we present a novel method based on an HMM model that uses constraints for set of matching rules with each input sentence.

the translation results of an input sentence are obtained by finding a set of template rules that is most likely with our HMM model.


If the rule r has n variables and each variable consists of 1 elements then the complexity is n x / 2 , while the recursive way be l n In addtion, each rule ri can be assigned a translation score as the value of the formular (3) and output translations for the input sentence can be sorted according to the score value on the whole of rules in template rules.

our method using HMM modeling can be avoided the exponential calculation problem by using the dynamic algorithm.


After obtaining a sequence of lexical rules, the sequence of observed symbols is generated because each observed symbol is a left hand side of a lexical rule.

using a set of template rules and the corpus we can generate, a training data formed as follow: Ott , 0 t2+1,.


Manually indexing keywords will cost highly.

automatically indexing keywords from text is of great interests.


In fact one document is composed of a set of terms every of which can be described by many features and must belong to a keyword or not.

the * Supported by the National Grand Fundamental Research 973 Program of China under Grant No.G1998030507-4 probability of a candidate being a keyword or not can be calculated through the maximum entropy model.


Firstly, we need acquire keyword candidates from the news documents.

it's must be decided what are possible keywords and how to get them.


They often occur in news documents, but hardly have rules of composition.

we collect such words into our proper nouns lexicon.


Due to the limit of training corpus, there are only about 2,000 cases and 100 features available for the ME model, but the final results almost reach the state-of-the-art accuracy.

we can conclude that the fault doesn't lie in the ME model itself.


computer science, medicine) mean continuous creation of new MWUs, and it is impossible to list them exhaustively in a lexicon.

automatic extraction of MWUs is a very important issue.


It is hard to use this formula to deal with n-grams (n>2), because it is a knotty problem to divide n-grams effectively into x, y parts.

we will use the parameter mi f improved by Silva & Lopes, and the calculation formula is defined as follows: is the probability that occurs in the given corpus.


It is clear that the order of words in the reduced sentence is different from the input sentence.

with our configuration the larger tree t can procedure a smaller tree s with a changeable of the word order by using a sequence of operators.


To avoid the problem, we added a parameter k for the operator DROP.

with an input tree t and an arbitrary configuration of CSTACK, RSTACK and the input list, the purpose of decision-based classifier is to define which operator from the set of 273 possible operators is used in the rewriting process.


Using the algorithm above, the word order within a reduced sentence is able to be different from the original sentences and therefore our algorithm can deal with the robust training data.

our algorithm can deal with the more robust data than the original algorithm (Knight and Marcus, 2002).


For instance, it is impossible to distinguish correctly the Japanese case marker (postpositional particle) de from the conjugated form de4 of the auxiliary verb da at the level of morphological analysis.

we ignore the SLE created for de regardless of the output of Chaser.


Then the probability of C given E, P(CIE), is formulated as follows: AC 1 E) = I,P(C M I E) = I,P(C 1 11,EAM We approximate P(CIER(M) as follows: unP(mi , m2 ,... ,m N) f 1 lP(vi u; )P(m i).

we have Then, for a given C, the best source string E can be efficiently obtained by using a dynamic programming algorithm.


As stated by Lin and Chen (2002), the similarity-based approach works better because it directly addresses the problem of similarity measurement between the source word and the target word.

we use the similarity-based approach to model the task of back-transliteration.


The EDA approach may encounter problems when such variations are encountered.

we viewed these pairs as equivalent ones individually in our experiments.


In Chinese-English machine translation, action-effect sentences follow different SC and SF (sentence format) transfer rules.

different transfer frames should be adopted so as to ensure the generation of TL sentences with proper syntactico-semantic structures.


(kao map) However, description (3) is still not clear.

we asked all the informants to describe the intersection for us again after they fmished the narration.


However, the data of serial verb construction using manner verbs is small in our corpus.

how motion is expressed in serial verb construction will need further investigation.


On the contrary, such expressions are difficult for computers to handle correctly because they can convey several meanings.

there are great advantages in being able to paraphrase adjectival predicate expressions and passive formed expressions into non-adjectival predicate expressions and non-passive formed expressions, respectively.


That study suggested that example-based paraphrasing is suitable for paraphrasing passive forms.

in this paper, we also collect paraphrases from passive forms to non-passive forms, and analyze them.


The target corpus consists of travel conversations for Japanese speakers traveling to English-speaking countries.

the Japanese examples tend to be unnatural expressions.


However, currently available topic words are very rough and there are many inconsistencies.

the methods shown in above will be very promising if we prepare proper topic words and remove the inconsistencies.


We have already showed that manually written rules are practical for local changed paraphrases in (Yamamoto, 2001;Ohtake and Yamamoto, 2001).

we expect that the examples classified into class-(A) include not local changed paraphrases but substantial changed paraphrases.


Unfortunately, almost 60% of the collected examples have feature-(L) or (S).

we cannot expect many paraphrasing examples having feature-(E) to be collected from the parallel corpus we employed.


Secondly, the semantic slot constraints in patterns manually made are usually high level concepts, so the variety and particularity in the natural language could not be reflected easily.

there will often be more than one result chosen after this stage, because many candidates have the same probability.


The distinctions between various approaches lie in the source and type of knowledge made by the lexical units in a sentence.

all these approaches can be classified into Al-based, knowledge-based, or corpus-based approaches, according to their sources and types of knowledge (Ide, 1998).


To use the ontology in natural language processing (NLP) applications, a scoring mechanism was required to determine whether the governor and dependent concepts satisfy their semantic constraints in the ontology.

in order to measure concept association, we use an association ratio based on the information theoretic concept of mutual information (MI), which is a natural measure of the dependence between random variables (Church & Hanks, 1989).


To implement this idea, source concepts (SC) and semantic relations (SR) are bound into one entity, since SR is mainly influenced by SC, not the destination concepts (DC).

if two entities, < SC, SR>, and DC have probabilities P(<SC, SR>) and P(DC), then their mutual information I(<SC, SR>, DC) is defined as: The MI between concepts in the ontology must be calculated before using the ontology as knowledge for disambiguating word senses.


Secondly, the weight given to an edge is sensitive to the context of prior edges in the path.

our mechanism restricts the number of times that a particular relation can be traversed in one path.


In addition, when there is no direct semantic constraint between concepts, our search mechanism provides a relaxation procedure.

the quality and usefulness of the ontology were indirectly proved by these results.


Although the STIB tree already gives us an initial partition of the page, but STIBs in different levels represent information blocks of different granularities.

before semantic clustering we have to select information blocks with appropriate granularity for clustering.


The hyperlink semantic, which has diverse presentation and is hard to be identified by some simple heuristic rules depict different functions and intent of page author to organize the information.

we use machine-learning method to automatically generate the judgment rule.


For instance, "Hyperlink carrier type" and "size of the hyperlink carrier" emerge at the same time.

we runs experiments with all subsets of 2 from BFS, and select the pair with best accuracy as the BFP.


In Chinese, anaphors are frequently omitted, termed zero anaphor (ZA), from text due to their prominence.

the information carried by ZAs in text can not be used to contribute the calculation of text categorization.


Then it goes on to the second and repeats the grouping further on until the end.

all possible overlapping bi-grams are obtained.


I also assume that incomplete phi-features on a DP match with incomplete phi-features on T. The incomplete phi-features could be interpreted as incompleteness or absence of phi-features.

due to the absence of agreement on T, caki with incomplete features, rather than Chulswu with full phi-features can check its own Case features and the EPP features on T. the Agree operation applies to caki and the lower T. Chulswu with unchecked features must move to Spec vP to obtain an external theta role and then moves to Spec TP to check its nominative Case and the EPP and phi-features of T. Another assumption is needed to obviate the distance crossing over the CP 1.


Looking in wider context shows that the sequence of a nasal and an approximant can neither be found.

i will say that in general the language does not tolerate any sequence of a voiced consonant followed by an approximant.


The label reflects their missing distribution.

we now have three groups of clusters, as seen in (5).


The stimuli in Gap Dense were not rated high enough over those in Legal Sparse to be considered significant.

it can be said that segmental neighborhood effects gain support only when the difference of mean ratings within, not across, groups is taken into consideration.


A phrase together with a following FS functions as an adverb.

we postulate the phrase structure rule and lexical entry constraint shown in (20).


On the other hand, if we find the priming effect in [2] only in the case of Japanese speakers, then we must conclude that the explicit grammar teaching had created the empty categories in L2 acquisition.

our experimental design can be used to test Carroll's hypothesis as well (given that the result of native speakers support the no-emptycategory approach).


we need some special mechanisms to account for the ungrammaticality of (9a).


ten-minutes-ago Hon-hot-water-Nom (come-to-the-)boil-Past 'The water came to the boil ten minutes ago.'

it seems that the ta version of (2a) and (2b) concerns the resulting state.


That is, the perfectivizer "PERF" operates at the predicate level.

dRS (6b) does not involve an assertion of an event.


X = TOPIC (Erteshik-Shir 1997:14, ex.11) Erteshik-Shir also defines the topic as the subject of the predication.

in (4) The children is the topic, and the predicate represents the assertion made about the topic.


(20c) also match the characterization, since under Vallduví's system the Information Structure of a sentence is restricted to at most one link but any number of focus and tail elements, and moreover the property of topic in (20c) is consistent with his original conception of links as exclusively sentence-initial.

we conclude that topic wa and (N)RF wa function as link and focus marker, respectively.


This is sufficient to identify the informational contribution of such a NP as focus.

two options are available within the principle in (16): (i) accounts for instructions with narrow focus in (25a): it requires a mother to inherit the INFO-ST value of its daughters, as represented by the structure-sharing using 2 in (30a).


Then, we tested our method on some common words and the large DSO dataset, and obtained results that were better than the best previously published results.

our work shows that WSD using Naive Bayesian classifier with richer features can obtain high accuracies.


The reason for us not wanting to use Spearman's rank correlation in its original form is that most verbs cannot be construed as fulfilling the telic or agentive roles of a given noun.

if we calculate Spearman's rank correlation over the entire ranking, the high concentration of low-relevance items at the tail of the ranking will have a greater effect on the final correlation value than the items at the top of the ranking, which are the focus of interest in terms of generating a qualia structure.


It used to be difficult to compare the accuracy of various systems because the experiments had been done on different corpora.

this bakeoff intended to standardize the training and testing corpora, so that a fair evaluation could be made.


Furthermore, the same unknown word found in one context may be missed out at another context.

after unknown word detection, we could rerun the overall segmentation again to include those missing unknown words.


We assume that if the unknown word forms a known word with adjacent characters or words, then it is not a valid unknown word.

if any one of the following words exists in the dictionary, then we delete the unknown word from the list: (the last four characters) exists in the dictionary (except those words that are numbers, alphabets or symbols), then we delete the unknown word candidate from the list.


Figure 2 also indicates that the number of common types was relatively large even when the ranking increased.

students will have an opportunity to learn new types while continuing to see previously learned types.


We used the specialized vocabulary for the TOEIC as the target vocabulary and made the courseware from The Daily Yomiuri newspaper articles.

usage discrepancies between the TOEIC and The Daily Yomiuri caused mismatches in the meanings of some words.


In natural language comprehension, entities or concepts to be recognized are usually described by nouns or compound nouns.

acquiring translations for compound nouns is extremely important in machine translation and cross-language information retrieval [Cao and Li, 2002;Nakagawa, 2001].


Through searching the English translation on the Chinese web, we found such text: "中国社 会学-名词解释-…都市社会学(urban sociology)社会学的分支学科之一…".

we obtained the Chinese translation "都市社会学" for the Japanese compounding word "アーバンソシオ ロジー" .


These three words are the members of the set Y.

the members of the intersection of the two sets X and Y are saigai "disaster" and ho "law", and the members of the union of the two sets are saigai "disaster", taisaku "measure", kihon "base", ho "law" and boshi "prevention".


It could be performed on the basis of orthographic form (transliteration) or pronunciation (transcription) or both.

many systems of romanization are in use.


An accuracy of 70-90% on running text reported in many Thai text-to-speech systems is not adequate for this task.

we aim to develop a romanization system that is highly accurate, at least 99%.


Since we assume that the pronunciation of each word is not affected by other words, the probability of pronunciation of word sequence w 1 ..w n is estimated as the product of the pronunciation of each word.

as seen in the last line, the model of Thai transcription is viewed as composing of two models: the language model and the pronunciation model.


Adding a linking syllable is quite common when pronouncing these names.

it is not surprising why the accuracy is dropped to 94.44% when romanizing these geographical names.


Incorrect word segmentation can cause an error in romanization.

performance of romanization system relies heavily on the word segmentation algorithm.


Our system is designed to work at the syllable level, which is more suitable to the Thai transcription problem than systems that work mainly at the character level.

any NLP systems should be carefully designed to suit the analysis of the linguistic problems.


So, the weakest bound in a given situation must be negatively rendered.

total negation of the maximization of the relevant wh-domain is possible if the bound is the lowest like hana or one in any language.


In contrast, when it combines with a prepositional phrase to the store, modification by a frame adverbial is well formed, while that by a durative adverbial is ill formed.

what (8b) expresses is an accomplishment.


This algorithm requires all the specifications of relationships between source language texts and their phonetic representation, source language phonemes and the target language counterparts, and the target language phonemes and their textual data.

a source language letter-to-sound system, a cross-language phoneme conversion, and a target language sound-to-letter mapping are required to transliterate a term cross-linguistically.


travel routes) in a choice set and "chooses" one route.

route choice behaviour can be expressed as a two-stage process that places the "cognition result" between the travel route and the behaviour as shown in Figure 1.


Extracted cognition results are handled in the second stage.

we have to see the second stage to clarify the requirements of the first stage.


The structure of decision making can be plainly analyzed from open-ended questionnaire texts because the words that represent such aspects as "comfortable" appear in them.

the requirements of this paper are as follows.


The words in the expression "even if" should be ignored.

the following considerations were added to the steps.


teiji Allowed: (arrival time) (particle) (unsettled).

we have to train the following contents: (a) Vocabulary knowledge for Step 1.


Newspaper texts are widely used in natural language processing (NLP), however, they are inappropriate for this study because the articles are usually written objectively without subjective views.


On the other hand, subjects are required to be active in our study.

we must realize that the amount of linguistic resources in our case is not as large as other NLP tasks, such as machine translations, because of the difficulty of collection.


In this sentence, " (fast)" expresses another route, not the focused route.

the hayakat words in the expression " " should be ignored.


Rather, " (fast)" is recognized, and " " only modifies " ."

modifiers that express the kakujitsu hayai degree of cognition results should be ignored.


Many of the unseen simple words are covered in the thesaurus.

even if they do not appear in the training texts, cognition results have been correctly extracted by referring to the thesaurus.


Only the first term can be obtained according to the western pronunciation rules (Jurafsky, 2000), which combines a leading consonant cluster, a vowel and a following consonant cluster together, using an English letter-to-sound system and syllabifying English syllables.

in the case of "Tienanmen", "Tien-an-men" is selected to generate phonetic information in extracting terms transliterated from Chinese using pinyin detection algorithm.


However, but different Chinese linguists might have different opinions when talking about whether a certain character string constitute a word.

in a segmented corpus, both "民主" and "民主集中制 2 " are segmented as word.


Currently, one of the major focuses of language instruction is to enhance learners' ability to communicate, that is, to enhance their oral communication skills.

language assessment should emphasize the competent use of language in spoken communication.


In addition, the -desu and -masu forms are taught by many of the textbooks for beginning learners of Japanese such as Genki published by The Japan Times and Japanese for Busy People I published by the Association of Japanese-Language Teaching.

sJT test items employ the -desu and -masu forms more than any other forms of honorifics.


The immediate following sibling and immediate following axes, and their converses, cannot be expressed in X .

x ->{}$ is strictly more expressive than x , and so L is also strictly more expressive than x .


That is, the expressiveness of LPath (L) lies strictly between Core XPath (X ) and Conditional XPath (X + ).

l is a new member of the XPath family of languages, and not a notational variant of one of the existing languages.


Now we can write an expression equivalent to //B(->A)+ Along with the proof, Marx (2005, Theorem 2) provides a method for finding the complement of any X + path set.

we now have a concrete method for translating L + expressions into X + .


As such, there do not appear to be any such (unconditional) relations lacking in the L + axis set.

l + appears to have the complete set of axes necessary for linguistic tree query.


Nonetheless, MWPs with basic verbs have been granted relatively little attention in the computational linguistics community.

fundamental issues about such expressions are only beginning to be addressed, such as: automatic extraction and acquisition of relevant properties; adequate representation in a computational lexicon; and appropriate treatment in various natural language processing tasks.


The complete text of the address appears the following day in major newspapers and in on-line news resources.

these addresses constitute a narrow, but influential media genre, since subsequent discourse in the news media often reports on the proposals put forth by the president in his own terminology (Barrett 2000).


Seven specific men are mentioned by name, all of them are heroes, and 'wise' or 'brave' or 'good' or 'exceptional'.

it seems while there has been advances in recognizing the fact that women serve alongside men in the Armed Forces, and that 'man' is not a gender-inclusive term, still women face an uphill battle to have their deeds and accomplishments recognized -to be held up as the standard bearer for others to follow.


However, the use of 'mother(s),' 'father(s)' did not yet demonstrate the variety of roles that each parent plays in the family and society.

the gains American women have made over the past half a century are not yet reflected in the eyes of the American presidents.


As for linguistic data, we have proposed a new XML structure in which we have compiled heterogeneous linguistic data including dictionaries, a Japanese pronunciation guide, technical terms and proper name resources.

this module preprocess linguistic data in various formats and creates XML XLD (XML Linguistic Data) for each resources, which are then stored in centralized database.


(When I was a child, elders asked about my hope for the future) (b) [나 (I) + 아이 (child) + 때 (time) + 어른들 (elders) + 묻다 (ask about) + 앞으로 (future) + 희망 (hope) The sign language vocabulary is much smaller than that of the Korean language.

it is desirable to rephrase unknown words in an explanatory manner or to express them with the use of fingers for exact spelling.


Reserved positions and corresponding personal pronouns are shown in Figure 1.

pointing at these positions while expressing verbs can effectively signal the respective personal pronouns.


The instances that describe how the market falls (plunges and crashes) may reflect the speakers' concerns with the maintenance of their power in the market rather than the competitiveness of their market.

through using quantitative data, this paper is able to infer the economic status of these speech communities.


The next rule adds n to a strong root when it is followed by +GEN+ and a nonbilabial consonant: XFST also defines cleanup rules to remove tags such asˆStrongRoot.

the XFST transducer relates the following two strings: (6) XFST Upper: akanjoˆStrongRoot +GEN+ olona Surface: akanjon-olona 'a person's clothes' When the XFST transducer is composed with the LEXC transducer, the result is: akanjo +Noun +GEN+ olona +Noun LEXC Lower = XFST Upper: akanjoˆStrongRoot +GEN+ olona Surface: akanjon-olona 'a person's clothes' Our current treatment of genitive compounding depends on the presence of the hyphen or apostrophe to signal the compound boundary; however, in a minority of cases genitive compounding involves only concatenation of roots, and is not signaled by special punctuation.


However, this means that when the featuresˆWeakKTRootˆFtr2r are added by the continuation class TR2RWeak, they are not immediately next to the root but ratherˆFpassi stands in the way.

the rule (9) above for the transformation of the weak syllable -tra to -r, which precedes passive suffixation, cannot apply.


On no shape match trials, the shape of neither the solid object nor the non-solid substance matched the shape specified by the count classifier in the puppet's request.

we expected that participants who knew the shape specified by the classifer should choose the closed box.


Importantly, for the shape match non-solid trials, they overwhelmingly selected the closed box (picking it 89% of the time) while avoiding the non-solid substance (picking it only 11% of the time).

their behavior corroborated Cheng and Sybesma's analysis that count classifiers refer to individuated entities -in this case, solid objects.


Although count classifiers do not normally occur in mass frames, a count classifier used in a mass frame should force quantification over stuff just as an English count noun used in mass syntax ("There is dog all over the road").

the two pictures for the count classifiers ( Figure 5a) contrasted whether there was an entire object or part of one (i.e., a portion of the stuff).


If grammatical rules judges that hoteru may modify the top element in the stacks (yoi) they may have dependency.

the process generates candidates in which hoteru modifies yoi and candidates where it doesn't.


These two homographic words are all in nominal form, but the latter occurrence of '과장(kwacang)' in example (7) can be combined with a suitable suffix such as '-하-(-ha-)', whereas '과장(kwacang)' in example (6) can not.

when a homographic word '과장(kwacang)' appears with a conjunctive suffix, the first syllable of this word will always be pronounced as long vowel sound.


To express the possibility of conjunction with a suffix, we have incorporated '+suffix' and '-suffix' features into CCG categories.

in Figure 5, '~하여(~haye)' can only be combined with a noun with the '+suffix' feature, whereas in Figure 4, '~으로(~ulo)' can be conjoined with every noun.


However, an SVM can handle only two categories at a time.

we used a pairwise method in addition to the SVM to handle more than two categories (Moreira and Mayoraz, 1998).


Shimoyama (1999) claims that when IHRC appears within the scope of a universal quantifier, the interpretation of IHRC exemplifies E-type anaphora:  (Shimoyama 1999:156)," and the interpretation of the matrix object is paraphrased by the definite description the term papers he or she wrote this semester.

the interpretation of the relative clause is an instance of E-type anaphora.


(7) a. b. Shimoyama assumes that the nominalizer no is interpreted as the function from a set to the maximality of the set, adopting Link's (1983) analysis of definite descriptions.

3 the denotation of IHRC is equivalent to English definite description 'the apples that Hanako peeled.'


The environment is the operator bound variable identifier and is associated with the propositional body of the interpretation.

the transitive verb loves has the following category with its environment being the empty set: 5 (12) Application of a rule induces environment passing in the following way: if a function with environment F is applied to an argument with environment A , the environment of the argument in the resulting LF is the union of the two (F U A).


Since the Skolem term is in the scope of the universal quantifier, it takes the bound variable u as its argument.

the resulting generalized Skolem term refers to different sets of term papers, according to the value of u.


This solution conforms to a prediction using Rule 1.

they claimed this thought experiment proves that rule 1 of CT can be derived from MG. Table 2 shows correspondence between MG and CT concepts.


The regression function with three features in Table 3 is Pr It takes a huge amount of time to perform MLR on 1,073,781 samples.

we made five regression models using 12,000 subsamples per model.


In (18a), the observer takes an objective view of the region and both nei4 and wai4 are of the same transparency.

nei4 and wai4 are symmetric as in (1a)-(1d): guo2nei4 國內 'inside the country; domestic'/guo2wai4 國外 'outside the country; abroad'; nei4meng2 內 蒙 'Inner Mongolia'/ wai4meng2 外蒙 'Outer Mongolia'; nei4xiao1 內銷 'sell domestically'/wai4xiao1 外銷 'export', etc.


(2b) implies that apple/bread-eating activity by Bill took place for one minute.

jBNs seem to have dual roles; they sometimes behave like indefinites and sometimes behave like mass nouns 3 .


It is obvious that the probability distribution for each event is quite different.

it is unreasonable to assign same probability to each incoming unseen events.


Invalid values: IE techniques make mistakes in segmenting sequences of words or in associating words to attributes.

attribute values are invalid either at the syntactical or the semantic level.


Our person name list corpora also have language-specific n-gram frequency in person names.

we examined the possibility of language identification for person names based only on automatically-extractable statistical information.


As described above, the SJT is intended to measure the ability to understand spoken Japanese on everyday topics and to respond intelligibility at a native-like conversational pace.

the vocabulary and sentence structure used in the SJT reflect common everyday Japanese.


sVO type sentences are the least marked ones.


CWS is the primary processing in Chinese language processing.

it is difficult or even impossible to use derivative features like other Chinese language processing tasks.


In a bigram sense, the reason of such segmentation is bigram probability of " -" to be a word is much higher than any other bigram probabilities of " -", " -" and " -".


However, sub-words tagging method did not work very well alone.

another dictionary-based n-gram method was used to strengthen known words identification as an additional technique.


It is different from standard CRF that semi-CRF permits labelling continuous cliques with the same tags.

it can been regarded as word-based CRF learning in some sense.


Here, the node, which represents the first NP in the sentence, is interpreted as having a thematic role Proto-Agent.

in distinction from the original Dynamic Syntax version, we adopt a Davidsonian representation of case roles and by so doing strictly differentiate between the syntactic representation (i.e., the tree) and the semantic role representation (i.e., semantic role predicates).


2005) does not allow more than two nodes remaining unfixed simultaneously, since otherwise the nodes will not be distinguished from each other.

the seemingly natural solution of underspecifying multiple case NPs until reading in the verb is prohibited.


For example, given a string ABCD, B, CD, C, and D are all potential affixes.

4 the key of intersectional ambiguity is to decide where the morphological boundary is.


In our system, we have resorted to an approximation which takes the most frequently used affix as analysis result.

in example 3, the result is "ion"which happens to be right.


That is, given a wordform AB in which B is a potential suffix, we have to decide whether AB is a word form alone and B is not an affix, or B is a real affix and A is the stem.

the key to combinatory ambiguity is to decide whether there is a morphological boundary inside the wordform.


So we think the relations these words described are the same.

we combine these relations, and use the aggregation of these words to describe 2 nd level relations after combination.


For example, character "ܤ" with word initial "ა" (type xC) shows the number of 3,707 times, but "ܤ" with initial "Ё" only 3 times.

it is definite that there are some errors within the handwriting process.


A particular meaning can also be represented by more than one word.

whether we can determine the meaning of the word in a document will affect the accuracy of an IR system.


The language works in the same way [16] .

some research teams began to investigate the language conceptual space and the expression of the space using symbolic system.


Huang concluded 57 types of primitive sentence category expressions and 57*56 compound ones [16] [18] .

not only Chinese sentences but also English sentences can be expressed by one of the 57 primitive forms or their compounds.


There are no experiential parameters available in the literature.

how to generate the clusters symmetrically becomes most important.


On the other hand, the feature of machine translation is different from that of speech recognition or speech synthesis, because neither the speaker nor the listener using the system can confirm the result of machine translation.

an error in the machine translation is critical in a speech-to-speech translation system.


However, for a fact, in method A users need to judge whether the result of machine translation is correct, and few users of speech translation systems are thought to make good judgments.

in method A, higher is the cost that the users judge whether the result of machine translation is correct (Select Parallel Text-Based Translation in Method A shown Figure 5).


It is different in our method that we consider both feature template selection and tag set selection, instead of feature template focused only method in existing work.

there comes an empirical comparison study of performance among different tag sets in this paper.


Knowledge is most often and directly expressed with natural language.

the representation and acquisition of knowledge play a key role in studies on information processing and natural language interpretation.


Only implication of language project can information products (such as electronic dictionary, machine translation system) be developed.

computer technicians should devote themselves to the embodiment of certain advanced linguistic ideas, to constructing basic studies platform, application key-technique platform, and system development platform for language information processing.


It is also been proven untrue for Chinese corpus [20].

the χ 2 -test is used in this work because it does not assume normal distribution probabilities. "


In Stage Two, different AMs are applied to investigate their contribution to noun phrase collocation extraction.

for each AMs, the improvement of precision is evaluated against the loss of recall by sorting the first-n candidate collocations obtained from Stage One.


However, a question type is not a sufficiently detailed and reliable information to be used in the manual/FAQ retrieval system on a mobile device.

our idea is to solve the manual/FAQ retrieval problem by using an identification approach along with a conventional retrieval approach.


Phrase structure and dictionary rules for Request C. Our approach allows us to identify user requests with high accuracy, but lacks robustness when applied to a new request sentence.

we created a hybrid information retrieval method that combines our syntactic-parsing-based request identifier and a character-unigram/bi-gram-based similar document search method, which is robust enough for a wide variety of request sentences.


In machine translation systems we translate the NEs in the sentences according to a bilingual NE list.

the list should be constantly updated to ensure correct translation of new NEs, since new NEs appear on the Internet everyday.


From the basic types, we construct simple types: if a is a simple type, then so are a l and a r .

if a is a basic type, then are simple types.


The paraphrases in dictionaries are generalized from the collection of example sentences which are gathered from the fields that seemed most feasible.

compiling a dictionary always cost a great deal manpower, material resources and time.


We think that definitions are for terms, the paraphrases are suitable for letter-word phrases (hereinafter we will use "LWP" to denote "letter-word phrase") in live Chinese texts in general field.

in this paper we'll discuss the principles of paraphrases of LWPs firstly, and then generalize their formalized patterns based on the collection of paraphrases of LWPs.


As the chunk with its own construction, it is necessary to think over the chunk share from another view, the whole and part.

there are four types of the chunk share.


It exerts its effect over the first clause only when the first clause is a subordinate clause.

we have no reason to believe that the tense marker in the second conjunct of a coordinate structure has its scope over the whole sentence including the first conjunct.


In order to see how the rules in (11b) and (11c) interact, consider (12), the case of topicalization in English: In (12), loves of category (S\NP)/NP cannot combine with the object Mary because it is preposed.

it has to combine with the subject John by function composition (11b) first, which is type-raised into the function taking a verb phrase as argument.


The point is that the set of referents or information conveyed by expressions marked with the contrastively stressed WA must also be familiar from previous context.

the contrastive WA seems to play the same role as the ordinatory topic marker WA does except that the former receives the phonetic prominence, highlighing the existence of a set of alternative elements.


However, except the base letters, any other letters may be absent in the structure.

any structures with vacant letters will make special Tibetan graphic structures, which will change the order of different graphic forms ( Figure 2).


According to the experience of processing Tibetan-transliterated letters from Sanskrit, (ph) may be viewed as a subjoined letter, which is not in conflict with the traditional subjoined letters.

it may appear before subjoined letter w in line with the alphabet sequence.


They can focus on the search topic and give stronger indications of relevance.

only the documents contain both w q and w d can be affected.


On the condition that the SC is rejected, the parser must remount the next Eg candidate to carry out the 'Hypothesis-Test' of the corresponding SC.

the final targets of all rules are to hypothesize a SC from the Eg candidates.


In some applications of opinion mining in text, it is important to distinguish what an author is talking about from the subjective stance towards the topic.

it needs to find the relation between sentiment expression and target.


It means we should not only extract the sentiment expressions, but also find the targets.

it needs to mine the relation between sentiment expression and target [9].


As all the characters in the corpus are in lowercase, which increases difficulty to do name entity extraction.

the proper nouns, such as titles of films are not included in the targets.


But each probability is so small and it has no sense to distinguish a small difference.

we round a co-occurrence probability down to integer where INT is the function to round down to integer.


This procedure allows us to integrate local preference of (Japanese) clause structure estimated from a fragmental and sequential input, syntactic preference derived from grammar rules, and semantic preference calculated on co-occurrence probabilities.

we can effectively acquire totally preferable structures.


Worsened 2 utterances are caused by lack of transfer rules.

the analysis process enhanced by our method contributes to improvements.


But, different subject can make the same listening perception of a specified monophthong.

although the statistical survey of monophthong formants is very useful for monophthong synthesizing and the study of voice source mechanism, more important study should be conducted to explore the listening perception mechanism of monophthongs.


Even among the studies of TS, only third TS receives great attention in previous studies while the others have long been neglected.

the first purpose of this study is to describe the fact of acquisition of all four TS rules in Mandarin, based on the observation of three Mandarin-speaking children (1,5; 2,2; 3,0) for three months.


And the expectation for TS4 is that TS4 should appear when children start combining these two lexemes with other lexemes, on early period of stage III.

the expectation of tone acquisition is T1>T4>T2>T3 as Xu suggested.


All tokens in the videotaping and testing sessions are elicited, for this child rarely spontaneously utters any speech.

table 1 shows the accuracy rate of the (1,5) subject's repeated production.


Though adult's input seems to have immediate effect, we want to know if, or specifically how, adult's input really help the acquisition.

a follow-up observation of (2;2) subject three weeks after the testing session is made to see if the subjects can apply correct TS rules after given recasts in testing session.


Furthermore, among those cases where (ii) causes deactivation, we also want to distinguish cases where there is only a silence and cases where there is an overt lingusitic expression.


Since av(X, NP) = 0 at this point, subsequent coordination of the NP conjunct with the forthcoming CP does not cause a label clash.

the sentence is predicted to be acceptable.


The difference between (5a) and (5b) is the difference between the deactivation values; in (5a), the deactivation value is " t c a" while the degree of deactivation value of the "NP" label in (5b) is " t c a + b".

the acceptability status of (5b) is better than (5a).


But the stock market is not only with nonlinearity but also chaos, and it is a dynamic system related to time (time is a independent variable).

the network for predicting itself is a dynamic system, it requires us to introduce short-time memory function in network.


This issue is specially important because it forbids us, when trying to propose a structure for the list, to posit a stable list of concept.

a room for subjective appreciation remains open for introducing new concepts in the list.


To build a practical system, this number is too small.

we tried to enlarge the system dictionary using unknown word extraction methods.


In our dictionary, only a-ｚ and Ａ-Ｚ are registered as POS tag FW.

we must cut the foreign words into smaller units, meaning onecharacter units, in our training corpus.


In these examples, there are some characters in the words which are not numbers.

we introduce 6 new POS tags to tag these numeral words.


we must find some ways to increase the number of entries in the dictionary.


We found many errors when identifying organization name abbreviations.

some strategies are adopted to deal with abbreviations.


It is impractical to construct a lexical database containing semantic information for all words.

it would be valuable to have a good design of semantic representation system which can easily compose the necessary information for new words.


The similarity shows that the features linked by the relation "telic" is most similar to 牧.

the correct relation between 牧 and 工 is established which helps to derive the sense representation of 牧工 as (6): (6) 牧工 "hired herdsman" def:{labor|工人:telic={herd|放牧:agent={~}}} To solve the problem between string processing and conceptual processing, we propose a universal concept representation mechanism, called E-HowNet.


For example, these concepts did not exit during the primitive society.

they have the maximum degree of concept differentiation and they have the highest priority among the concrete concept.


The fundamental physical concept, which has its own semantic network, is defined as hanging over the semantic network of concrete concept.

the differentiation of concept depends on the concept differentiation of hanging level, the decreasing sequence is：concrete concept, synthesis concept, elementary concept and fundamental concept.


Consider a sequence of characters: , the MI of characters and is computed by equation 5: is the occurrence probability of the character sequence , which is estimated by the number of times that is followed by , normalized by N which is the total number of words in the corpus.

is the probability of character which is estimated by the total occurrences of the word normalized by N, namely: equation 5 is represented as follows: 3 WS under Chinese Sign Language Environment In the course of WS, efficiency will be reduced gradually with the increase of the length of sentence, so it performs the preprocessing to the target text got from the Web.


The meaning expressions of the above sentences are shown below: taneously.

in the case of the former sentence I specify that the eventuality of the main clause does not always follow that of the toki clause but not-precedes it.


It is more and more difficult for the reader to skim over websites and get a quick idea of their content.

based on reporting intensity and updating speed, we select several Chinese news Home sites as the resource of news collection.


This approach is termed the extraction approach.

at the current stage, it is better to use statistical information in automatic extraction.


The second assumption says that important sentence often appears at the beginning of paragraphs and sentences with strong generality are longer than the others.

our calculation of importance of a sentence also depends on these two components.


The theory of ancient Chinese characters is a type of an abstruse knowledge.

to most of researchers, the threshold may be too high.


However, the Longman dictionary analyzed in the paper was published nearly 20 years ago, in 1988, while the electronic dictionaries were invented in the last few years.

we cannot simply assume that dictionaries 3 and 4 are better than the Longman one.


In common sense, when the user inputs {bank; credit} as a query, we may well conclude that he is most likely looking for information about " " and " ", although we cannot completely exclude the small possibility of interpreting "bank" as the meaning of " " in this context.

the retrieval algorithm should rank among all the retrieval results the documents containing the keyword " " before those containing the keyword " ".


This is a transformation of perspective that is effected by the progressive aspect in English.


This axiom encodes the "body" of the STRIPS operators of Fikes and Nilsson (1971).

to achieve a goal, an agent must satisfy all the prerequisites, removing all the barriers to the goal, and then choose something that will cause the goal to come about.


Thus, In any w, either ϕ ∈ w or ¬ϕ ∈ w. 2 If (s)he believes ψ, then such w that w ψ is in Mod(K).

κ(¬ψ) > 0 implies that Mod (K) ∩ Mod (¬ψ) = ∅ and Mod (K) ⊆ Mod (ψ).


Also, if we assume a long history of communication, the protocol may emerge, evolve, and change.

the study may contribute to the study of language evolution (Nakamura, Hashimoto, and Tojo, 2006;Matoba, Nakamura, and Tojo, 2006).


It is plausible to assume that the subject Mary-ka in (1b) is "frozen" in the subject position, Spec-T, due to the scrambled object John-ul.

(1b) sharply contrasts with (1a) in that Nominative Case must be marked unlike Accusative.


Note that this option is excluded if a bare NP occurs outside of V domain.

we can account for the grammatical contrast between (6a) and (6b).


Note that the speaker's or hearer's existence or coming into existence is presupposed in a regular conversational discourse.

it is implausible for the speaker to talk about his or addressee's existence or appearance at the place of his speaking as if it were an entirely new event.


In other words, the presence of Nom Case is compulsory in canonical subject position, viz., in non-dislocated position.

overt Nom Case should cover wider range of discourse information in contrast to overt Acc Case considering pragmatic division of labor.


In other words, it is naturally expected that malfunctioning items will be returned to the store within a warranty period.

the appearance of Acc marker on the object in (22) is predicted to be unnatural in the usual context under our conception of the functional role of overt Acc Case.


(24a), in contrast, induces only literal reading.

it seems that "ppyam + chi-" in (24b) is conventionalized as an idiom unlike "kwutwu ttakk-" in (24b).


', while the word should be judged negative in a sentence such as `that portable audio player is too big to me.'

we assert that it is necessary to use a longer unit as a sentiment expression instead of using an unit of word in which conventional works do so.


In contrast, using the whole syntactic structure for opinion extraction is computationally very expensive.

we think the notion of syntactic piece is considered to have advantages of both n-gram and (whole) tree structure.


Compared with labeling p/n information to words, we need to tag more since the number of syntactic pieces are far more than number of words in general.

it is necessary to extend given information to other unlabeled pieces.


We observe that the syntactic piece score was almost `1' or `-1'.

this means that the semantic orientation of syntactic piece is aptly separated into p and n. this fact have also proven that a unit of the syntactic piece has little ambiguity in deciding semantic orientation.


It is well known that a sentence style and a dominant translation for a word vary with domains.

if the domain to be translated is fixed to patents, a adaptation of bilingual dictionary to the patent domain and a customization of natural language analyzer to the linguistic specificity of patent style would be one of effective ways to improve the translation quality of MT system.


The POS tagging module of English-to-Korean patent machine translation system is based on lexicalized HMM (Pla & Molina, 2005).

the best simple strategy for the second and third customization phase is retrained from a very large tagged patent corpus.


The general forms of the patent-specific patterns are composed of lexical words and syntactic nodes.

for the recognition of the patterns, the lexical words are firstly matched, and then the ranges between the lexical words are parsed.


However, like many other resources, Sketch Engine is unable to determine which of the results in the list are meaningful linguistically.

when provided with collocation lists, most linguists report the top "few," based on their preferences.


This is because Kilgarriff and Tugwell (2001) suggest that frequency alone may not be a reliable score because frequency of the collocates are relative to the number of both words in the whole corpus.

they suggest using a more reliable account to standardize all frequencies for the collocations based on the overall performance of the collocates in a particular condition.


Therefore, there is possibly a threshold after the first sense to make the first sense more distinctive in use than the others.

this paper suggests that there should be some objective methods which can help determine the threshold of linguistic listings as such.


The output of the axis-x is also displayed on a scale ranging from 0 to 1 (which is also the percentage of the saliency values).

from the results, we can see that three different methods provide different threshold values.


Each concept can be further analyzed into atomic meaning units called sememes named after HowNet.

a word in E-HowNet can be defined with simple concepts, sememes, or a mixture of simple concepts and sememes interacting with features.


Specifically, there were documents retrieved that are closely-related Philippine languages to the identified minority language Tagalog.

in this study, we considered the three most closely-related languages in the Philippines, Bicolano, Cebuano and Tagalog, as identified by Fortunato 4 , that belong to the Austronesian family of languages.


These are called general or standard navigation hyperlinks 6 .

words used as labels to general navigation hyperlinks are also pruned if they appear in any two or more sets of documents.


The results show that with common word pruning, fewer documents in closely-related languages where retrieved since most common words had already been removed in the language models of the target languages.

the terms that were selected by the query generator for the relevant set are most likely unique to each of the target languages.


Modal verbs have similar semantic functions and cannot be easily distinguished in terms of their lexical senses.

they are considered to be interchangeable.


It finds out that there are ambiguities between an episode reading and a generic reading in VbN construction which require further investigations and explanations.

the goal of this paper is to account for the ambiguities lying in the negative VbN construction.


Lin (2003) has proposed that mei aspectually selects an event as its complement while bu aspectually selects as its complement a stative situation that requires no input of energy.

the comparison between Mandarin and Southern Min negative markers shown above suggests an interesting point that bo 'not' in VbN construction has overlapping aspectual properties of mei and bu.


As noted by Zanuttini (1997), TP-2 is the projection which hosts adverbs in its specifier that correspond to English 'already'; therefore, TP-2 presupposes the event and testifies that it has happened before a certain moment of time.

of this fact, the negative marker bo which occupies head of NegP-2 has the potential for contribution of a telic event, and that makes clauses containing such kind of VbN construction comply with an episode reading.


According to the interpretations, the negation marker bo cannot take scope over such adverb.

bo is assumed to occupy a position lower than long, namely NegP-4, and yields the clause a generic reading.


He proposes that m 'not' is the only 'simple negation' in Taiwanese Southern Min and that the other negation markers are simply derived from m plus other verbs through fusion.

under his analysis bo is composed of m and u through fusion, where u still exists in the underlying form but does not appear in the phonetic form.


If we are to stipulate that C2 has an EPP while C1 does not, it would be too costly and ill-motivated.

a feature-driven approach is not favored.


Our target is to create a variety of output texts, but to keep the algorithm complexity low.

when selecting rules from the rule set, if two or more rules are satisfied, the rules will be chosen by the following policy: -All rules whose LHS starts with [frame_ are chosen.


For example, the table column Full name is mapped with the attribute studname of the entity tbl_student.

values in this columns are filled in slots [studname] of the considering frames.


Several frame types (e.g., the List frame) reuse some parts of the user's question in their content.

a syntactic parser is integrated with the TGEN to get the syntactic structure of sentences.


It then looks at the SQL query and finds that all data are attribute values of the entity tbl_student.

it chooses the frame [frame_student_description].


The next sentence in the frame is a grammatical one, and it has the same subject with the ungrammatical sentence.

the system merges these two sentences into one.


Steps 3 and 4 do not modify the above output.


(Jackendoff 2007:198) (2a-c) shows rolled, made, and entered are Actions and accordingly, the ball, the wind, and Bill are Actors, while the subjects and the predicates of (2d-f) cannot be Actors and Actions.


Of course, only nominal (and pronominal) categories will always bear the CASE feature and clauses will never carry any CASE feature.

we will need a non-defeasible constraint like (17): (17) (1) No clause-type categories carry the CASE feature.


These unfixed nodes need to find their fixed position by the end of parsing by means of the application of MERGE.

the DS formalism is non-deterministic because the processing of the same sentence initial NP may yield multiple different tree structures.


In order to process Japanese sentences efficiently we need to take into account when lexical rules are applied together with transition rules.

purver and Otsuka's approach is efficient to parse English sentences, but it does not apply directly to Japanese.


The figure shows that at step 1 the sentence initial NP John is located at an unfixed node which is introduced by LOCAL * ADJUNCTION.

this initial NP is tentatively unfixed but will find a fixed position in the main clause (other possibilities cannot survive by the end of parsing).


CF differs from other reduplicative patterns in that rather than the general intensive function, denotation of a more prototypical and default meaning of a lexical item appears from the reduplicated form resulting as a semantic contrast with the meaning of the non-reduplicated word.

cR is in concordance with cF under the concept of contrastivity.


Without the reduplicated form placed in (2b), the sentence is ungrammatical as there exist no semantic effect of differentiation.

this type of reduplicated form differs from other reduplication process in English as emphasizing or intensifying the simple form is not the exact consequence expected.


The corresponding combination of giving word and the third person pronoun in TSM do not have the similar function.

he present paper aims at pinning down the function and features conveyed by the construction "(NP) + (intensifier) + gei 3 ta 1 + adjective" in TM from the perspective of construction grammar proposed by Goldberg(1995Goldberg( , 2006.


In the other variations, the constituent following gei 3 ta 1 is no longer a noun, instead, these elements compatible could be adjectives.

gei 3 is not a verb and ta 1 not a goal.


In the first type of variations gei 3 ta 1 is obligatory because gei 3 is still a main verb in the clause while in the other variations it is no longer essential.

there are some changes in syntax and semantics in gei 3 and ta 1 .


Because of the high degree of world immanence, eventualities are available to immediately subsequent with ta 1 .

in summary, ta 1 is an event-related argument.


(2) 我 今天 累 死 了 wo jin-tian lei si le I today tired die ASP "I'm extremely tired today."

there is coexistence of "X dao si" and "X si".


Basically, when two or more words appear together with a very high frequency, there will be syntactic or semantic changes of the composed terms.

in this study, collocation and metaphor extension will be carefully examined.