Traditional studies on tenses in complex sentences have referred to the tense marking in the subordinate clause as 'relative tense,' distinguishing it from the 'absolute tense' indicated by the matrix predicate (see for example Terarnura 1984).

this view, based on the tacit assumption that the two tenses have some essential properties in common, leaves the relationship between them totally vague.


Thus, Mihara's Principle (4) can be regarded as having chosen more general constraints.

this means, as Igarashi (1999) argues, that (4) can be reduced to a much more streamline rule: (5) The tense of a subordinate clause is interpreted ambiguously either in relation to the utterance time or in relation to the time denoted by the matrix predicate.


Ogihara (1989Ogihara ( , 1996 furnish a solid basis on which researchers interested in formal aspects of this area of study can build up their own theories.

they are not an exhaustive study of tenses in Japanese subordinate clauses: the subordinate clauses taken up there are limited to relative clauses, the quotative clause marked by to and to yu, the temporal clause introduced by toki (when), mae (before), and ato (after), and nominalization by no and Moto.


Our methodology in analyzing near synonym pairs contrasts with that of Levin (1993), who concentrates on analyzing the range of possible syntactic alternations of a single verb (or a single verb class), and extracting semantic information from syntactic behavior.

there are two reasons we have not followed Levin in examining the relationship between a verb alternation and its associated semantics.


Our methodology focuses on delimiting the lexical semantic distinctions between near-synonym pairs that differ slightly in both their syntactic behavior and in their semantics.

even in the cases where there is a difference in meaning, what we are looking for is the collateral differences in both syntax and semantics --that is, along what semantic lines do these two words differ, and how is this difference related to their syntactic behavior (and vice versa)?


For instance, the English word 'wear' could be used to discover the seeds in an English-Chinese aligned corpus.

gaps between English and Chinese may produce incomplete sets of seeds.


For some z, z is a member of the set Z and z is a book, and there is an event e, of which is Reading is predicated, and John is an Agent of the event e and z is a Patient of the event.

the meaning implied by floated quantifier is represented immediately next to the semantics.


Thus, the exceptional entities are really "exceptions", satisfying Moltmann's Negative Condition.

in the case of a negative universal quantifier, the exception entities are added to every member of the negative universal quantifier, via set union operation.


(26a) vs. (26b) below:7 Compl X Compl X (a) Specifier on the left (b) Specifier on the right It turns out there is a considerable difference both in terms of the number of LR actions performed and the stack depth required to process an example like formalize, analyzed as formal-i(z)-e in (27) below:  7Two other specifier-head-complement configurations can be obtained.

we fix the head as being to the right of the complement for reasons of linearization.


A self can be characterized as maximum relative to its colleagues when it is ranked heighest according to a certain measure.

the value negative is given to a self when it occupies the highest point of a measure whose points are negatively ordered in the sense that the least usual or desirable are ranked the higher.


The resulting topics are listed below: Blueness, Agent, Warfare, Government, Clothing, Indication.

consider the following definition: Issue: come out of.


We use only existing knowledge sources to aid semantic interpretation and then map it to prespecified categories.

the specific-domain such as law may be acquired from the general-domain by the adaptive steps on the specific texts.


Wilks, 1975;Small & Rieger, 1982;Miller et al., 1990).

this is heavy work, and the time and effort often limit the coverage.


Such a step could be built on work like Sanfilippo and Poznariski (1992), Knight and Luk (1994), and Chen and Chang (1998).

a more robust algorithm should depend only minimally on the lengths and the exact wordings of the dictionary definitions.


The linkage between WN16 and ROGET was done with steps 2, 4, and 5 of the algorithm described in Section 2.

some adjustments were made to the algorithm.


They are defined for the direct mappings as follows:  Although ideally we should make sure the mappings are all correct before putting the integrated resource to use, unfortunately full-scale checking is impractical given the huge amount of data.

we could exploit the test results for the sense-mapping algorithm as reported in Kwong (1998a;1998b) to estimate the success of the full-scale mapping.


In this case, the next relevant property is apparently related to "music", and we will be at the crossroads again since there are three alternatives (heads 410, 412, and 414).

in practice we will treat all of them as acceptable targets.


However, these senses are distinguished in the WN16 classification and in fact, they relate to head 676 in ROGET via different groups of words.

while sense 2 to 5 in WN16 are similar in the sense that they all descend from the top node of "human action", sense 2 goes to a different ROGET head from the others.


In actual WSD, the above comparison is normally between senses of different words.

comparing senses of the same word, our example serves to illustrate another potential use of the mapping results, in terms of WSD evaluation.


This scheme presented is more practical than traditional tie structure for a huge key set.

the shared part of this technique described here are one-depth tree structure.


According to Kamp and Reyle, all the past perfect clauses of (4) use the arrival time as their "point of reference" in the sense of Reichenbach.

they form a narrative progression much like the sequences such as (3).


Concerning this question, it certainly is the classical notion "point of reference" of Reichenbach that has the anaphoric property, we suppose.

the notion itself has two different discourse functions, as pointed out by Kamp and Reyle as well as by Kameyama et al.


A grammatically ill-formed sentence may just sound like a perfectly correct sentence, when it is produced with a professional and fluent intonation.

it is not the intention of interlocutors in conversation to impress each other in this way.


However, it is not the intention of interlocutors in conversation to impress each other in this way.

the speaker would rather let the addressee know that he/she made a mistake previously and what he/she is now saying is correct.


For example, IDAS "produces on-line hypertext help messages for users of complex machinery" (Reiter and Dale, 2000) (p.12); STOP "is a natural language generation system which produces personalised smoking-cessation letters" (p.16).

how to build a domain-independent generation system is still regarded to be a difficult problem.


In agent link, node "sister" is son node.

node "sister" can be regarded as the root of a sub-tree whose son node is "John" as well.


This paper deals with floating quantifiers (FQ) in English and investigates how the syntactic and semantic characteristics of floating quantifiers can be explained within the framework of the Head-Driven Phrase Structure Grammar.

to Maling (1976), Sportiche (1988), McCawley (1998), and Haegemann & Gudron (1999), who posit the movement of either the quantifier or the host noun phrase, this paper presents an analysis in which a floating quantifier is base-generated as a VP modifier.


Thus the anaphor-like behavior between the host NP and Q is captured via movement.

as Sportiche himself notes, such an analysis raises a question for the examples where Q appears before the first auxiliary verb: (16) a.


When Q is a distributive predicate, Q(y) is semantically abnormal, so only Q(x) applies.

when Q is a collective predicate, Q(x) is semantically abnormal, so only Q(y) applies.


An embedded question is not a query directed toward the addressee.

in the case of questions, as shown in (38), a sense of query is directed to the addressee: Ken-ga ki-mashi-ta-ka, Naomi-ga ki-mashi-ta-ka?


Note that, assuming an ordinary semantics of modal logic, 0-.1' is compatible with This means that even if 0---T(X) is true, it may still be possible that it is known that X did not Y.

0--.P is a weaker proposition than q -4' and asserting a weaker proposition often implicates the negation of a stronger one as 'some...' implicates 'not all.


The Adjunct Constraint is permissive in that it allows adjuncts to be located anywhere within S. In this respect, the Adjunct Constraint is a general constraint like the Head-final Constraint.

the Adjunct Constraint is restrictive in that adjuncts cannot be scrambled out of the S domain.


Furthermore, the surface case-based approach faces difficulties accounting for why the two NPs, John and ton in (19c), can be scrambled with each other, though they have the same CASE value.

like Cho & Chai (2000), our analysis can also predict that the scrambled sentence (19c) is grammatical whereas (19b) is ungrammatical.


Therefore, the two NPs cannot be scrambled in terms of the PM Constraint.

the fourth NP ton can be scrambled freely with other NPs in the given sentence as in (19c) because it does not share a value for PM or ANI with other NPs.


It is so because they need not observe the Argument Constraint.

cho & chai (2000) have no way to handle the above phenomenon simply because their case system does not contain delimiters.


Cho & Chai (2000) have been successful in dealing with the scrambling phenomenon only among arguments, which would be a challenge to Kuno (1980) and Chung (1998).

their theory still invites a number of unnecessary questions mainly because they did not provide a solution for the scrambling phenomenon related to adjuncts.


Going back to (5), notice that the genitive NP Pats's and GP eating fast food are combined to become a GP by the constraint of a noun-possessive-ex (7) and that the category of the GP is gerund all the way from bottom to top, satisfying the endocentricity condition.

the constraint (7) states that the category of a noun-possessive-cx is a noun, and the category of the GP Pat's eating fast food is not a noun but a gerund.


For a theory which always tries to establish a precisely defined set of definitions, the idea of mixed categories might be seen as a shortcoming or a barrier at first blush.

it helps to provide interesting classifications and analyses of gerundive complements.


(2000) proposed a formal treatment of Minami's hierarchy under the framework of HPSG and Discourse Representation Theory.

their analysis focused only on the interpretation of temporal relation between the events described in subordinate and matrix clauses, and it simply reformulates Minami's hierarchy as 'hierarchy feature' which can take value A, B, C, and D. Minami's (and Yoshimoto's) work seems to capture a surface ranking for such combination with using somewhat tentative levels, and there is no answer to the question: Which linguistic information is the origin of HCF (and his level of hierarchy)?


When the headed structure is complementhead structure or pseudo-lexical-rule structure, the semantic head is identical to the syntactic one.

the semantic head is the modifier when the headed structure is modifier-head structure.


Their MOD features specify their sisters as VPs.

the SUBCAT feature of the lowest VP, sitakusi-ta, is propagated up to the mothers and is canceled by the higher PP.


ADJCNT feature in nagara specifies that the adjacent VP does not have tense.

level B clauses must contain tense markers, so the ADJCNT feature in node is specified as such.


In addition, besides the part of speech information they used word information.

our system uses only part of speech information.


It is thus not surprising that TAGs may outperform SPSG (Bikel and Chiang, 2000).

the greater context sensitivity of TAGs may make them run slower than SPSG.


The additional indexing improves the performance (not only in time) if the search-space is limited correctly, similarly to document clustering in Information Retrieval (Rijsbergen, 1979), or the parsing experiments reported in (Kim, 1995).


This explains naturally the observed phenomenon in Mandarin Chinese that shi A can be placed only before the subject NP or somewhere between the subject and the main verb, but never between a verb or a preposition and its object.

this generalization holds true only in Mandarin and perhaps in some other varieties of the Chinese language but certainly not in all varieties of the language.


(Aoyagi, 1999, 39) One reviewer made a similar observation.

at least according to the intuitions of mine and some native speakers I consulted, the sentence (i) does not seem to have such drastic contrast in interpretation to its counterpart in which the case marker o is missing (i.e.


To clarify these factors is of course an important theoretical question.

since such an investigation leads us too afar from the main concern of this paper, I abstract away from contrasts like those observed above in the remainder of this paper.


Most of the typical examples of WFA are those where the associate of the FP is at most as large as the VP (that is, the largest subpart of a clause not including the subject), like the above examples.

in certain sentences, it is possible to include the subject of the clause as well in the associate.


Taro-nom Hanako-By child-ace praise-pass-pst "Taro was affected by his child's being praised by Hanako."

a closer look at this sentence reveals that it is in fact ambiguous.


The plain form also requires the relationship between Prof. Saitou and Prof. Watanabe to be fairly close.

when Tarou is talking with one of his teachers, he would use (5a) The verb form ossyaimasita is analyzed as in (5b).


In (20e), the subject noun phrase headed by kao 'face' contains the genitive possessor sensei-no 'the teacher's', which can potentially induce the o-prefixation ((20a, b)).

in (20e), sensei-no is so deeply embedded that it cannot induce the o-prefixation on kao.


When we use these two phrases as a search string in some search engine, we would expect matrix and matrices to be regarded as the same word.

if we consider computational and compute as the same word, a search on "compute matrix product" will generate pages related to computational linguistics, which are quite unrelated to what we actually search for.


The research efforts presented above are similar to what we have in mind.

they are mostly carried out on English or other European language.


The particular technique used in LSI is singular-value decomposition (SVD for short), in which a large term-by-document matrix is decomposed into a set of orthogonal factors from which the original matrix can be approximated by linear combination.

sVD on the large term-by-document matrix whose size increases with the size of the training corpus brings huge computation costs.


This is because different languages will have various amounts of synonyms to refer to the same thing or similar things, which diversify the word frequency distribution.

when we gather all these synonyms into a cluster, the frequency of the cluster appearance tends to be consistent.


Simplified LSI (SLSI for short in Figure 1) criterions with both weighting schemes suffer a loss of about 5% in both precision and recall because the symmetry is not precisely kept.

the reduction in calculation and time cost is clear, as shown in Figure 2.


This mechanism provides a word lattice to store all the possible words and use a full sentence parsing to achieve the final disambiguation.

the parser coverage may restrict its applications in practical systems.


(1995) and Wu and Jiang (2000) use word-formation power to block such combinations in word candidate construction.


For example, the Japanese grammar allows both orders for the location suffix in conjunction with the topic suffix.

in Korean, only the order location-suffix followed by topic-suffix is possible (e.g., eh nun); thus, the rule had to be further constrained for the Korean grammar.


They stated that a lexical sense entails the following properties: (A) different sense cannot appear in the same context (unless the complexity is triggered deliberately); (B) a sense is not an instance of metonymic or meronymic extension, but may be an instance of metaphorical extension (Lin and Ahrens, 2000); (C) the link between two senses cannot be inherited by a class of nouns.

a meaning facet has the properties as follows: (B) it is an extension from a core sense or from another meaning facet; (C) nouns of the same semantic classes will have similar extension to related meaning facets.


This means the meaning of quanlzi5 should be categorized into two kinds of senses in accordance with sense property (B) mentioned above.

if we consider example 7, it seems that locational meaning and metaphorical meaning of quanlzi5 are two meaning facets of one sense, because these meanings can occur in the same sentence (context).


The CM Model is a model based within the Contemporary Theory of Metaphor (Lakoff andJohnson 1980, Lakoff 1993), and shares with it the idea that metaphors have systematic source to target domain pairing.

it goes beyond the CTM to postulate that the systematic pairings are principled and that these principles can be formulated from a linguistic analysis of the conventional metaphorical expressions (Ahrens 2002).


The Spanish data are too few to make comparisons in terms of Mapping Principles.

within the source domain of OCEAN WATER, all three languages display different linguistic expressions that are being mapped.


Apparently, short texts are troublesome and quite difficult for existing methods in topic segmentation.

given a theme, a huge collection of reference texts for short texts can easily be obtained.


The expansion method is based on technique of query expansion in information extraction.

all these efforts and improvements are still not sufficient for many such other applications as student writings and internet pages.


It is suggested that expressive and phatic interjections are primary interjections, which share more typical properties of interjections than conatives.

conative interjection is a little different from the previous two and is more like what we have described as onomatopoeic speech act verb.


Even though there is CAUSE which occupies the place between NOT and NPI, (13) is grammatical, by having negative implicature which permits any.

her dual standard fails to predict that glad and happy, which lack NI, trigger NPIs.


But (a) Strawson Entails (b), under the assumption that the presupposition of (b), namely, John ate kale for breakfast, is satisfied.

even though the notion of Strawson DE-ness succeeds in solving certain problems, it fails to offer sufficient explanation for the triggerhood of exactly n and the n. ?Exactly five children ate kale for breakfast.


Generally, if the training set is representative of the whole dataset, a classifier with larger margin with respect to training set would have better generalisation performance.

if the training set is unrepresentative, we should take great care of the margin in the margin learning algorithms, because the maximal margin classifier learned from an unrepresentative training set may have poor generalisation performance as illustrated in Figure 1.


We have compared the results of ME model with the method of scoring by experience (Li 2003) and Chien's(1997) The result is not very satisfying.

we think that this method-has potential power.


Traditional approaches of MWUs extraction mainly used rules.

not all MWUs can be created by rules, there are many words which are not created by rules (SUN Honglin 1998).


(Frank et al., 2001) We adopted relatively loosely constrained mono-clausal analyses for verbs to deal with various kinds of complex predications.

we employed multi-clausal analyses when it is reasonable to consider that a verb includes multiple predicate-argument relations (PARs).


Most sentences in (A) and (B) are grammatical.

(C) includes a lot of ungrammatical and colloquial sentences, because the sentences in (C) are the transcriptions of telephone calls from customers to a customer service center.


As another example, the dependencies of noun phrases topicalized by wa were more correctly analyzed by the LFG system than the other two because of the precise grammar rules for the case detection described in 3.2.

rules for coordination in our grammar are not sophisticated enough, so the analyses for the sentences including coordination structures on the basis of the non-linguistic methods of KNP and Cabocha were better.


Many scholars have researched the grammar of space in English (Leech 1969;Bennett 1975;O'Keefe 1996), and in Austronesian languages (Utsurikawa 1993;Senft 1997).

the spatial representations in Saisiyat, an Austronesian language in Taiwan, have not been thoroughly studied.


If Saisiyat is a S-language, the tokens of Manner verbs should be higher than the tokens of Path verbs.

if Saisiyat is a V-language, the tokens of Path verbs should be higher than that of Manner verbs.


Sag's analysis would be motivated if any glimpse of the form of a finite verb or a verbal pro-form occurred immediately before the finite complementizer /to/ in B's response in (1), as in the HPSG account of tense.

no part of a finite verb or the verbal pro-form occurred between the accusative phrase and the finite complementizer in (1).


The semantic understanding of a sentences lies on the accomplishment of these two sides.

in the our viewpoint, we can only solve one problem.


Adjectival predicate expressions and passive formed expressions are frequently used in spoken language because they can express several meanings with one expression, and they are easy to use.

such expressions are difficult for computers to handle correctly because they can convey several meanings.


The contextual information is given by several topic words.

currently available topic words are very rough and there are many inconsistencies.


This is because the methods or techniques used to extract paraphrases from corpora have been premature, and few people have an interest in collecting paraphrases.


Moreover, without contextual information, it is hard to extract more examples that are directly applicable to paraphrasing.

contextual processing enables us to use the class-(B) (contextually dependent) examples that account for almost 35% of extracted paraphrases.


Resnik (1995b) suggested a measure of semantic similarity in an IS-A taxonomy, based on the notion of information content.

his method differs from ours in that we consider all semantic relations in the ontology, not taxonomy relations only.


On the other hand, Web is a hypertext environment, and hyperlink analysis has been widely used in the Web information processing system, such as Google (Sergey Brin 1998) and HITS (Jon M. Kleinberg 1999).

these systems just regard the hyperlink as the simple reference and endorsement, actually from the point view of the author of the Web page, the hyperlink tells the diverse inter-page semantic information of Web pages, such as reference, related topic and document organizing structure, etc.


We can have a word with one, two, three, four or even five "tieng".


One of such tools that we chose is GATE [8] because it can accept documents in Unicode format.

in order to use GATE for Vietnamese, we need to define our own tokenizer rules, token types, word, number, symbol, punctuation, etc.


Anaphoric relations between anaphors and their antecedents are identified based on the integration of linguistic and domain knowledge.

it is very labor-intensive and time-consuming to construct a domain knowledge base.


This approach can sort out the above problems.

it heavily relies upon the availability of sufficiently large text corpora that are tagged, in particular, with referential information (Stuckardt, 2002).


All these approaches are seeking for syntactic accounts.

it has been claimed that logophoricity plays as a licensing condition for long-distance reflexives (Kuno (1987), Sells (1987), and Zribi-Herts (1989)).


In addition, I did not include novel words with the onset Al/ in the stimuli set because the Thai script representing this sequence of sounds may mislead the speakers when they perform wellformedness judgments.

there exist a number of thai words that begin with the thai letter representing /t/ followed by the letter for they are not pronounced together as a cluster.


The filler is the antecedent for the trace, which is an argument of the selecting head.

non-phrase-structure-based theories such as HPSG (Pollard and Sag 1994, Sag 1997, Bouma et al.


It is true that a contemporary ontology necessarily differ from an historical ontology.

in order to compare the knowledge systems of two historical periods or two domains, it is necessary to have one base reference.


Lexical semantic considerations for a given adverb class on the whole correlates with more restricted distribution and its interpretation.

the above data suggest that the lexical semantic account discussed above is insufficient to handle these facts correctly.


For instance, (23a) can be paraphrased using a such that relative clause; "The machine gun is such that the police are searching for the guy who stole it."

it appears difficult for such a functional account employing the paraphrasability to explain the difference between (23a) and (23b), where an adverb is in the sentence-initial position.


The sentence would have to be grammatical in whatever order the CAs are, as far as they are under the scope of their VEs.

the grammaticality is sensitive to the relative order of the CAs in relation to their VEs, which is unusual from a semantic point of view.


The other option is to assume that the VE licenses the CA.


It indicates that an element carrying it is a syntactic licensor of the target.

in this approach, we have to assume another mechanism to account for the semantic relationship between the two elements 8 in the LiCENSEE approach, the feature can perform both syntactic and semantic roles.


Just like the LICENSOR feature, it originates from a CA and acts as the syntactic "connector" of the CA and its correspondent VE.

unlike the LICENSOR feature, it has a semantic function as well.


the examples which I discussed above illustrate the continuity between modality meanings and tense / aspect meanings.


The location of the reference point is updated forward for each event.

in (22b), there is no such involvement of a reference point, In (20c), the perfect state is introduced straightforwardly into the main DRS, and the triggering events are not introduced into the main DRS.


The two versions in (24) taken from Lee (1996) (with the identical gloss and translation) seem to support it.

based on the analysis in the discourse with sentences (25a) and (25b), she argues the dictinction between these markers.


In this case there is a unique company all salaried workers worked for.

kaisya can also be construed as a relational noun, i.e., the function from salaried workers to companies which fired them.


These VNs are common nouns with the feature [NOMINAL +, VERBAL ], unlike the true VNs [NOMINAL +, VERBAL +].

this doesn't mean that they are unrelated.


give-PAST This is rather unexpected, considering the generally free constituent order properties of the language.

(41b) requires only a minor revision: (44) the most oblique internal argument's FOCUS is instantiated, then the FOCUS of the mother is the sign itself.


In comparing NB methods with Exemplar-Based methods, Escudero (2000a) utilized most of the features used in Ng and Lee (1996), and showed that exemplar-based algorithm outperforms the NB algorithm.

these papers did not mention how to select appropriate features, so the features used in their papers do not contain enough information and some information, such as part-of-speech, may be redundant.


If the two datasets share the same ¥ items, the value of ¢ ¤ £ is , and if they have no correlation, the value of ¢ ¤ £ is .

if the two datasets have a completely negative correlation, the value of ¢ ¤ £ is less than D .


Figure 3 (b) shows a sentence predicate and its arguments, (c) a subordinate predicate and its arguments.

2 some errors might result from dependency parsing, POS tagging, and alignment.


To be sure how accurate the alignment and the acquired bilingual knowledge are, we should evaluate the accuracy.

it needs too much labor-intensive works.


It enabled us to save the development cost of a parser for target language.

research for acquiring the sub-categorization knowledge have been focused on the monolingual sub-categorization (Utsuro et al,1993) (Kawahara et al,2001).


If we make them as two separate processes, then we can focus on each problem independently.

if two problems are solved in one single process, then the processing time may be shortened, but the computation will become more complicated.


Therefore, if the WFP falls in any one of the conditions below, then the unknown word candidate is deleted.

we will accept any unknown word of one character.


We can see from this table that after the pruning, the recalls of unknown words drop, but the precisions increase.

the balance F-measures have increased after pruning.


Apparently, we need unknown word detection to  improve the overall segmentation.

while the accuracy of unknown word increases (as in the row 'With unkword detection'), the accuracy of known words drops.


CRFs consider richer domain knowledge and are discriminatively-trained, which are often more accurate.

in their experiment, the results shown do not out-perform our method.


A separate process for unknown word detection could help to increase the lexicon and improve on the segmentation accuracy.

more survey and research are needed to select the correct unknown words.


This assumption is largely attested by our study.

we also noted that our study yielded the least satisfactory results for the coordinate compounds.


There is a wide range of English reading materials for EFL (English as a foreign language) learners.

it is difficult for teachers to select appropriate materials to construct courseware that can be used for an English course.


Evaluation of the constructed courseware is ongoing.

a comparison of the courseware statistics with those of randomly sampled articles indicates that the courseware offers potential benefits for EFL learners.


The evidence discussed in Section 3.1 would be reliable in finding a translation of an MWNE, whose components are listed separately in the MT dictionary although its entry is not found.

there is a case where even the separate components of an MWNE are not listed, being typically true in finding the translation of proper names.


Phonological correspondences (S 2 ) Therefore, we first decided C and W i in the formula (3) as the values shown in the row "ED" (empirical decision) in Table 1.

we performed the logistic regression analysis to obtain those values as shown in the row "LRA" (logistic regression analysis) in Table 1.


Case marker (CM) and its marked noun (NN) are often separated in two conjoint IUs whenever the speaker needs time to recall a word.

a IU-based corpus seems to provide more information to the extent of frequent collocating constituents.


(2000) who use rules for parsing syllables, syllabification is done on the basis of statistics.

as stated before, we do not use statistical information at the character level as Chotimongkol and Black (2000), and Tarsaku et al.


With an identificational predicate nominal, as in (30), only in English is scalar and its equivalent in Korean is another morpheme, not -man.

-man in Korean is also applied to a lower element in inherent scales of numerals, quantifiers and predicates, not to a highest or higher element, as in (26), (27) and (28): (32) a. Yumi-nun sakwa-rul sey kay-man mek-ess-ta -TOP apple-ACC three CL-only eat-PAST-DEC 'Yumi only ate three apples.'


To account for such an escape of wh-phrase, two derivational theories have been generally adopted, those being PF Deletion Theory (Ross, 1969) and LF Copying Theory (CLM, 1995) respectively 1 .

sluicing in Mandarin Chinese is even more complicated since an argument-adjunct asymmetry in this wh-in-situ language is frequently demonstrated by shi-support, and little attention has been given to the point in the current related literature 2 .


From the preceding discussion, there exists a presumption that shi-support might function as a savior to rescue the ungrammaticality of Sluicing, in which the remnant wh-argument is not preceded by shi and thus is ill-formed.

as shi-support is a language-particular phenomenon, it serves only as the last resort 5 .


Such movement is more economical, and the mysteries of this argument-adjunct asymmetry will be revealed, as shown in 7and 8 Zhangsan like someone but I not know be who ' Z h a n g s a n l i k e s someone, but I don ' t k n o w wh o ' shi exists before the wh-argument Shei ' Wh o ' is that the trace of this wh-argument cannot be antecedent-governed by its antecedent in the lower hierarchical level, and thus must be lexically-governed or head-governed by a lexical head, such as the preceding verb Zhidao ' k n o w . '

there exists a barrier (Chomsky 1986) between this lexical head and the covert wh-argument trace, which has blocked the verb from governing into the intervening CPs.


Obviously, shi here functions as the last resort to help maintain the grammaticality at the LF level.

since the trace of the wh-adjunct Weishenme ' Wh y 'is able to  My investigation started with a brief introduction of the wh-phrases in Mandarin Chinese.


This verb can be modified by a durative adverbial as in (8a), not by a frame adverbial.

when it combines with a prepositional phrase to the store, modification by a frame adverbial is well formed, while that by a durative adverbial is ill formed.


As shown in Figure 3, states and activities consist of one uniform event and lack an inherent end point.

the other two types consist of more than one subevent and contain a logical culmination.


On the one hand, the verbs look or smile depict an activity with indefinite length.

these activities, when nominalized and incorporated into the 'cut+a(n)' frame, result in temporally bounded activities, as in (6) above.


If any sub-system is not available, it is impossible to transliterate a term using this algorithm.

this algorithm establishes a conceptual foundation for term transliteration.


Second, consecutive characters of the same attribute form a cluster.

some characters, such as "ch", "ng" and "ph", always combine together to form complex consonants.


They easily found language resources using product names as keywords.

evaluations of travel behaviour are difficult to collect from the Web because the awareness of habitual activity tends to be latent, and moreover, it is difficult to distinguish whether it expresses travel behaviour because it is lacking specific keywords.


If we know the relationship that code 141a expresses cognition results, we can judge "bright" as a cognition result.

the following problems were found by simply applying the above steps: (a) One morpheme is sometimes too short to understand as a cognition result, and hence thin meaning words were extracted.


For example, the cognition result "time" can be extracted from the sentence "Waiting takes time."

"time" is too short to be understood as an aspect.


If a term can be transliterated from Chinese into English, it may be represented in pinyin.

various pinyin representations have been proposed and used to represent a Chinese term.


Most of Chinese words do not have morphological variants.

but different Chinese linguists might have different opinions when talking about whether a certain character string constitute a word.


With the rapid increase of students learning Japanese, there is a growing need for a quick but reliable and accurate assessment instrument in the field of teaching Japanese.


Therefore, SJT test items employ the -desu and -masu forms more than any other forms of honorifics.

the other forms of honorifics, "respectful" form (Sonkeigo) and "humble" form (Kenjogo) and also informal sentence-finals (e.g.


"approach" and "length" were transformed into "size" and "way", respectively.

in the current system, this transformation sometimes changed the meaning of a sentence.


These extensions to XPath give LPath the ability to express a range of linguistic tree queries.

lPath cannot express closures of any sort, and it is not clear where lPath lies on the hierarchy of XPath languages.


Note, X does not include the one-step sibling axis immediate following sibling or its converse.

it does include its transitive closures, following sibling.


it is not always easy translate first-order formulas into path expressions.


This is not a problem for negated paths that do not involve the ancestor axis because such paths cannot escape the scoped subtree.

the effects of negation and scoping on the ancestor axis give the following lemma.


Now, Marx and de Rijke (2004) have shown that all X queries can be expressed in first order logic over trees using at most two variables, extended with child and immediate following sibling.

the regular expression above cannot be expressed in this signature in less than three variables (Marx, 2005).


The only other current linguistic treebank query language with this level of expressiveness is fsq (Kepser, 2003).


Moreover, L + 's path-based syntax is much more intuitive and more closely aligned to actual descriptions of structure in the linguistics literature (Palm, 1999).

there is still a price to pay for choosing this path-based variable-free approach over the variables and predicates of classical first-order logic.


While idiomatic combinations are by definition semantically idiosyncratic, LVCs show a greater degree of compositionality and hence also semantic predictability.

it is still extremely difficult to determine which nouns can combine with a given light verb to form an LVC.


(e) The speech that Azin gave was brilliant.

lVCs involving highly metaphorical uses of the light verb enforce certain restrictions on the syntactic freedom of their noun constituents (Kearns, 2002), as in 5(b-e): 5.


In terms of 'man' to stand for all people, it did not disappear until 1993, much later than hypothesized.

when we look at the use of 'men' in Figure 4, post-1970, it was used only infrequently to refer to all human beings.


Lastly, discussion of issues relating to parenting showed a slight increase in the past twenty years.

the use of 'mother(s),' 'father(s)' did not yet demonstrate the variety of roles that each parent plays in the family and society.


Many industries have made a large investment in developing useful translation-aid tools, which has resulted in commercial Computer-Aided Translation (CAT) systems such as Translation Memory (TM) in various forms, dictionaries and terminology database techniques.

these systems are not designed to be used by all translators.


Firstly, it is widely used as a document exchange format and for data storage and retrieval [10].

qRLex data is in a different text format; it is known that text format parsers are expensive.


We have developed an XLD format for compiling heterogeneous linguistic data for storing usable free dictionaries and allowing importation of new linguistic resources to centralized relational database of QRLex.

a TM constitutes a precious linguistic resource which almost all translators need for accelerating and improving quality of document translation on the web.


Earlier work in the field has mostly defined one-to-one relations between unit expressions in spoken and sign languages, along with simple translation rules.

they suffer from the problem of not really reflecting the differences in the information space that the two types of language have.


The system then applies each word to translation rules, and rephrases the sentence.

this approach works well only for specific domains where the number of used words is limited and the structure of sentences is standardized.


Distinct endings of a word or postpositions often indicate syntactic information in the Korean language.

expressions in sign language represent their syntactic information by varying word order rather than by varying words themselves, which is the very reason why they are classified as an isolating language.


Examples 12 (a) and (b) both have the preceding word '아버지', meaning 'father', and the following word '아들', meaning 'son'.

the meanings they convey are different, as '아버지' in (b) is a fronted object whereas that of (a) is the subject.


The metonymic use of MARKET was included in the PERSON domain because some of the instances such as 在藥材市場需求飽和後 'after the needs of the medicine market is filled,' the 'needs' is a metonymic extension of the needs of the people rather than the market being a person.

in other examples such as 市場正在 衰退 'the market is deteriorating (physically),' the MARKET can be interpreted as a PERSON rather than a metonymic extension of a PERSON.


The lack of such instances in the Malay data may also due to its economic status which is at the stage of competing for possession in the pie chart yet.

these are only personal interpretations of the data collected.


In addition to the above differences, both Chinese and English data have metaphors related to TRANSPORTATION (and SUBMARINE and AIRPLANE for English).

this use of transportation is not seen in the Malay data.


For example, suffixed passives are formed on the basis of a tense prefix sublexicon which contains separate past, present and future prefixes, including aˆTNSˆtag to control morphological alternations with overt tense prefixes: In this example haino is a passive root; its continuation class indicates that it is a member of the class of strong roots.

fantatra is a weak root with final syllable tra, where the TR2RWeak continuation class indicates that the tra suffix for this root is replaced with r during passive suffixation or the formation of imperatives.


For example, if we decided to implement the lexical preference for passive suffixation in -ina rather than -ana as a feature, the lexical entry for fantatra in the lexicon would be accompanied by a featureˆFpassi on the surface level as bellow.

this means that when the featuresˆWeakKTRootˆFtr2r are added by the continuation class TR2RWeak, they are not immediately next to the root but ratherˆFpassi stands in the way.


In the past two hundred years or so, a sizable corpus of Taiwanese text in Latin script has been accumulated.

due to the political and historical situation of Taiwan, few people can read these materials at present.


Homographs are traditionally regarded as a special case of word sense disambiguation problem, and are usually addressed by corpus based statistical methods.

without the means for incorporating deeper linguistic information such as syntax and semantics into the system, statistical approaches alone can not provide adequate explanation for the linguistic phenomena at hand.


Similarly, when a sentence is more complicated or less usual, it requires longer processing time.


In Experiment 3, we saw that the canonical and ba PRCs both required additional reading latency in the construction of filler-gap dependencies at the head noun and the matrix verb regions.

passive PRCs were read as fast as (at the relativizor and the head noun) or faster (at the matrix verb) than their adjunct RC counterparts.


To accommodate this argument Shimoyama posits a free variable of functional type to which the bound variable is applied, and whose denotation is determined by the context-dependent assignment function.

since there is no limit to the number of quantifiers in the matrix clause (and accordingly that of bound variables in the IHRC), the semantic type of the free variable would be highly ambiguous if the IHRC occurs within the scope of multiple quantifiers.


In the case of (5), the LF representation of the IHRC is something like (8a), in which the empty pronoun is further divided into pro and a free variable R. pro is a variable of type e bound by the universal quantifier in the matrix clause.

r is free variable of type e → (e → t), to which an assignment function g assigns the value in (8b) as a salient two-place predicate in the context.


Nakamura 1993): (17) Dareka-ga daremo-o aisiteiru.

somebody-NOM everybody-ACC love 'somebody loves everybody' if the object NP is scrambled to the sentence initial position, and precedes the putative universal quantifier daremo 'everybody', both narrow and wide scope readings are available.


It explains the relations among attention, anaphora, and cohesion (Iida, 1997).


The algorithm by Carbonell (2002) required that the pair is lexically aligned.

english and Filipino cannot always be lexically aligned.


sugar and milk in the coffee (Herskovits 1986:151) b. ka1fei1 nei4 you3 tang2 咖啡內有糖 9a.

in the clay (Herskovits 1986:151) b. nian2tu3 nei4 黏土內 English in and Chinese nei4 may behave differently.


The above ICM can account for most of cases in (1a), and the metonymic models provide us a better understanding of (1d).

nei4 and wai4 do allow different distance perspective and embodiment.


Both appear in the argument position without any determiner nor quantifier; both denote kinds; and both require classifiers or measure phrases to count.

they do not always behave like mass nouns.


It would seem at this point that we have found sources for the indefinite-like behavior and the mass noun-like behavior of JBNs in (2); namely, $ » k and k/ » k 6 .

there are two sets of data that suggest that they might not be.


(iii) Miles wants to meet sm policemen..


Static smoothing methods, as most smoothing methods, discount the probability based on the frequenc y of events in trained corpus.

dynamic smoothing method, i.e., cached-based language, discounts the probability based on the frequency of seen events in cache and trained corpus.


(2003) has developed a spoken dialogue system for appliance manuals.

they mainly focus on the dialogue strategy to select the appropriate result on screen-less systems such as VTR and FAX.


Given a targeted subject and a text collection, information extraction techniques provide the capability to populate a database in which each record entry is a subject instance documented in the text collection.

even with the state-of-the-art IE techniques, IE task results are expected to contain errors.


In addition, string feature constraints may be effective in detecting obvious errors due to IE's mistaken selection and insertion operations.

the approach is not applicable to all attributes.


In general, each attribute can be examined by any of the string features we defined.

not all pairs provide useful anomaly detection.


Language identification has been an interesting and fascinating issue in natural language processing for decades, and there have been many researches on it.

most of the researches are for documents, and though the possibility of high accuracy for shorter strings of characters, language identification for words or phrases has not been discussed much.


Thus language identification of person names can be a help for better accuracy in text processing.

there are several difficulties in identifying the language of a person name.


Those three corpora showed similarities both in length and in n-gram data, which is natural because of the language they share.

it was possible to distinguish these three with high accuracy rates with our method.


(1) ke4.ren2 lai2-le guest/client arrive-ASP 'the guest(s)/client(s) has/have arrived' The pre-verbal NP in (1) is an Agent.

the following basic sentences show that the thematic identity of the subject does not affect its positioning in the sentence.


So, she sent a third posting, which added 'Please see attachment' (P021).

as in P020, while the third posting was a repair to prior postings, it also became a trouble source, as there was no file attached, even though the 1 Transcription conventions in this study: data cut-off by transcriptionist (( )) commentary by transcriptionist → points out a phenomenon under scrutiny Underline highlights parts related to the phenomenon under scrutiny Re: original mark in the Web-based discussion board in front of topic line indicated the posting being in reply.


In the past, the teachers gave the topics to the students and the topics were related to general knowledge subjects mostly (…) 我校也推行「專題研習」多年了，以往是由老師出題目，而題目大多 數是以常識科有關的(…) In Excerpt 6, the Course Coordinator issued an initiation (P2448) to the trouble-source speaker in the previous turn P2439, requesting clarification of the method used for assessing student outcomes in project learning.

the trouble-source speaker never responded; and another speaker, Ms Wang, who did not clarify the problem raised by the Course Coordinator, offered a failure of repair in her turn (P2450).


the presence of two sentential domains over which adverbs can take scope.

scope ambiguity shown in (16)-(18) (taken from Yokota 2004:36; the numbers within the angle brackets correspond (from left to right) to conventional indicators in the literature "OK", "?


In recent work, an OOV identification model were often designed in the segmentation system, in spite of word-based method or not.

is it still necessary to integrate word-based technique into a character-based system?


Again, we meet a character-based method that adopted known word information beforehand.

sub-words tagging method did not work very well alone.


The traditional semi-CRF method was effectively improved since Liang's work, and the Fmeasure of MSRA2005 corpus has been 0.9684, which is much better than the best results in Bakeoff-2005.

we see that it is not better than character-based tagging method, which is 0.974 as seen in Table 7.


Recent developments in non-invasive measurement of brain activities have paved the way for directly observing how linguistic information is processed in the human brain.

no attempts have hitherto been made to model human sentence comprehension based on the data provided by those methods from a unified formal point of view.


Experiment shows that the method mentioned above improves the performance to a large extent.

it can not solve all combinatory ambiguities in analysis.


The number of xC type is 83 items, accounting for 8.6278% of all types.

the frequencies of these types are far more than types of characters with word endings.


Altogether, there are 15 word endings in the main body of the text.

in fact, some of them are homophones, which are caused by the writers for representing original word meaning with Chinese radical.


They are "น, ড়, ᗑ, ␒, ᬅ, ࠠ, ⒐, Ȟ, ₐ, ╻, ủ, ߫, , ⋠, ῴ, ̣, ժ, , ้, ᗱ".

the number of characters attached to with initials is 87, and that of characters with endings is 317.


The four types of characters in translated Chinese paragraphs are caused mainly by names of persons and places.

characters with initials or endings take small proportion, emerging only 1,835 times and accounting for 4.5115% of characters, in translated Chinese paragraphs.


A shortcoming of these schemes, which consider only occurrences of the terms in a document, is that they have some limitations on extracting semantically exact indexes that represent the semantic content of a document.

one word can always represent more than one meaning.


The ranking model based on query chain training set gains 20.1% relative reduction in error-rate, whereas ranking model based on human expert training set is 22.2%.

there is still a 5% gap between the ranking and the reranking model.


Similarly, when the result of speech synthesis is not correct, the listener using the system can examine the source sentence of speech synthesis on the display.

the feature of machine translation is different from that of speech recognition or speech synthesis, because neither the speaker nor the listener using the system can confirm the result of machine translation.


This retrieves the corresponding translation by referring to the registered source sentence.

in parallel text-based translation, although the quality of translation is largely guaranteed, only a limited number of sentences can be translated, because it is impossible to cover all the utterances of users by the parallel text of source language.


In this proposed method, the translated sentence in the shaded portion may not be always correct.

other choices guarantee the correctness of translation but the source language text may not correspond to what the user said.


On the other hand, other choices guarantee the correctness of translation but the source language text may not correspond to what the user said.

as long as users recognize this, they need not understand the configuration of the speech translation system.


The many attempts made to date to apply speech recognition technology to call center applications have mostly been based on IVR (Interactive Voice Response) including automatic call-routing, which is designed for taking over human operator work in recognizing and responding to customer speech.

we are developing another speech recognition application that recognizes operator speech and helps human operator work.


It can be observed that TMPT-02 gives a substantial performance improvement when it works with 6-tag set.

the best set, TMPT-01 will lose its top place when it works with 2-tag set.


It is hard to recombine the segmented characters into words.

if the character-based algorithm can first identify English words as single unit, the results of both models for English should be the same.


One way to make statistical approaches more precise is simply to reduce the context to a fixed small size window of consecutive words.

this method simply removes collocations beyond the span of the predefined window.


The performance of the proposed method with the speech input was almost the same as with the text input.

the identification recall with transcription, 35.6% in the evaluation set, was low.


Treebanks are often used as a tool and resource for training and evaluating a syntactic parser in computational linguistics [1].

treebanks are not only useful to computational linguists, they are also an important tool for linguists from other branches of linguistics.


This approach is based on the assumption that if two words in different languages have similar contexts, it is most likely that they are mutual translations.

it was not very effective with an accuracy of 30% when only the top one candidate was considered.


From the view of computer processing sentence, it also needs to be processing as sentence.

it is an important component in the association vein of the CES sentence.


The main chunk share should include two types, generalized object chunk (GBK in short) share and the eigen chunk (EK in short) share theoretically.

the eigen chunk bears the concept association vein.


This should offer a classical case of selectional restriction.

corpus data show that there are many significant counter-examples, such as "chi1 nai3 shui3" (to eat milk) or "he1 xi1 fan4" (to drink porridge).


Again, there is no doubt the milk is liquid food in the literal interpretation.

when metaphoric uses are involved, nai3sui3 refers to nourishment for either the body or the soul.


According to Cho, the first clause in sentences like (4) as well as those like (1a) is a non-tensed phrase (and, hence, is ambiguous between a conjunct reading and an adjunct reading).

as we just saw, it is not plausible to assume that the clause is (always) non-tensed.


b. TP He posits a null past tense marker -ø past to account for the fact that the first clause has a past tense interpretation.

the tense phenomenon here is not syntactic in nature.


We agree with the position, initiated by Cho ([4], [5]), that the first clause in such -ko constructions as the following is ambiguous between adjunct clauses and conjunct clauses.

clear answers to such questions as the following have not been provided in previous analyses: why such ambiguity arises and what are the differences between the two types of clauses.


Here the hypothesis that the non-past marker has a null form plays an important role.

the first clause in sentence (1a) can be an adjunct when it does not contain any tense marker.


Word segmentation for Vietnamese, like for most Asian languages, is an important task which has a significant impact on higher language processing levels.

it has received little attention of the community due to the lack of a common annotated corpus for evaluation and comparison.


In recent years, word boundary detection for Vietnamese has received more attention from the community and there have been several statistical and machine learning methods applied to the task.

most of the current methods either suffer from unsatisfactory results [1,2] (with accuracy of 91% or lower) or must combine many techniques in a multi-level processing to obtain good results [3].


For instance, the syllable "tuần" (week) has a tone mark (grave accent), a first consonant (t), a secondary vowel (u), a main vowel (â) and a last consonant (n).

except for main vowel that is required for all syllables, the other parts may be not present in some cases.


In figure 1, a Tibetan word or morpheme consists of not more than 7 letters, in which the base letter(Ba) is the core letter and the first one in structural sorting order, then the rest of the order is prefixed letters(Pr), head letters(Up), subjoined letters(Lw), vowels(V), suffixed letters(Sx).

except the base letters, any other letters may be absent in the structure.


Melvyn C. Goldstein puts retroflex letters under the corresponding letters, such as entries with ᅉ(tt) embedded in the entries with ࿖(t), (dd) in those with ࿘(d), in his Tibetan-English Dictionary of Modern Tibetan.

[9] some disorders still exist in his dictionary.


They are (gh), (ddh), (dh), (bh), (dzny), (dzh).

the processing method for these letters in modern dictionaries always disintegrates them into two independent letters, the above one is base letter, and the other is subjoined letter.


Generally the Eg roots in the head verb.

it is possible that several verbs would appear in the sentence, like 'have also continued', 'seek, reveal and develop' and 'guides' in the example sentence: 'They have also continued, in the practice of historical activities and by making comparisons, to seek, reveal and develop the truth that guides their advance'.


By evaluation on a subset of the test corpus, we get promising result.

in the dependency-based method, we find it difficult to avoid extracting redundancy relations.


But, this sort of traditional method usually premises to apply one correct syntactic structure.

our analysis target is a syntax forest that contains huge number of syntax trees.


Therefore, we round a co-occurrence probability down to integer where INT is the function to round down to integer.

the co-occurrences that denote extremely small probabilities must not be a big clue to the structure decisions.


They are useful to cut out a segment to parse, but they are deterministic and do not supply preference of a relation in each segment.

furuse [3] proposed the method splitting into well balanced translation units based on a 8 Satoshi Kamatani, Kentaro furihata, and Tetsuro Chino semantic distance calculation.


It successfully splits one utterance into stored patterns, but it is necessary to prepare rich translation patterns.

the other way to choose the optimum structure from a forest structure is to use a probabilistic GLR (PGLR) parsing method [4].


Tone sandhi (TS) constitutes an important part in Mandarin tonal system.

despite TS rules are actively applied to Mandarin tones, there exists very little data on the acquisition of TS rules in Mandarin.


(Hirsh-Pasek, Treiman, and Schneiderman 1984) It has been shown that adult speech is often assumed to be immediate input for a child's linguistic analysis.

adult input has to be comprehended by the child before its linguistic properties can be analyzed.


However, the result suggests that T4 may be acquired roughly at the time when T2 is acquired, for both tones are slanting tone.

further studies are acquired to explore into this preliminary observation.


For example, the first repeated production of 好吃 'good taste' is [hau1 tş h 1], and the second repeated production is the correct tones [hau3 tş h 1].


It seems that the subject selects the input which is comprehensible in his/her acquisition level.

although we know that children severely deprived of input and that children do not learn language from mere exposure alone, there are indications that because of the recasts, subjects have the opportunities to practice the sound pattern.


If the coverage ratio in the dictionary was high enough, attaching more tags would have been unnecessarily time consuming.

if the coverage ratio was too low, adding tags to additional adverbs that were not in the dictionary would have been necessary.


Affirmative sentences were defined as sentences whose contents are regarded as desirable by the writer.

negative sentences were defined as sentences whose contents are regarded as undesirable by the writer.


Adjectives were chosen that had affirmative and negative characteristics to become a seed, and they were used to extract other adjectives that co-occurred to judge the subjective characteristics of each in view of the co-occurrence.

no experiments to calculate the precision of document classification have yet been done that have made use of the affirmative and negative characteristics of adjectives.


Then as the predicted input is actually appeared, the activation value is 1 without problem.

if the unpredicted category is inputted in the parser, the activation value of the input phrase or word is 0 by (11).


In the current stage of the meta-grammar development, we have achieved an average of 92.08 % coverage 1 with 83.7 % cases where the correct syntactic tree was present in the result.

the process of determining the correct tree is still premature.


The trees are all consistent with the imposed meta-grammar and they are ordered by the computed tree ranks.

the ordering is still premature and the correct tree is often not in the first positions yet.


These characteristics qualify the list has an interesting starting point for building a core lexicon in many different languages and for establishing easily the translation links.

the methodology for establishing the list (essentially dictated by Swadesh's field work) introduces several issues that we have to deal with: -Although made of lexical atoms, nothing prevents many other terms to atoms too but discarded simply because of their lack of relevance for lexico-statistic purposes.


In this precise case, this ambiguity might be resolved by considering the semantic grouping that is sometimes proposed in the list (in this precise case, Snow appear together with sky, wind, ice and smoke).

more generally speaking, current lexicographic works argued convincingly that they are not such things as word senses in a traditional sense.


An alternative way to deal with "word senses" proposed by Kilgariff (but that can be identified also in the FrameNet project) is to consider a sense for a word as a set of occurrences in similar contexts.

such an approach requires annotated corpora of significant size.


We also cut the numeral words into one character unit.

it is simple if we want to combine them in the later stage.


Since the results are based on different segmentation units, we cannot do a direct comparison.

for a rough comparison, the difference between the first and second layer analysis is quite small.


We have increased the entries of our dictionary from 33,438 entries to 120,769 entries.

we still wish to add more in the future as the accuracy of the system is still not near to the perfect.


Specifically, it is verified that PFAs computing strings of words can be implemented by means of calculating strings of symbols and a characterization of PFAs.

a natural language model system in Internet is discussed.


In order to build a mixed initiative framework it is necessary to extend the knowledge base.

it is felt that the specialized knowledge required for a dialogue should be separated from the general information and facts stored in the knowledge base [7] .


If the attempt is successful the control of the dialogue is passed on to the script.

if no existing script is appropriate for that query the system prompts the user for the next query.


Through further research we found that the QFW of different classification questions has different FS.

if a word has two different first sememes at least, the different first sememe belongs to different classification.


Because the concept of aggregate person has plural meaning in nature, it holds the natural plural meanings when being decorated by " 一个 (a, an) ".

the concept of individual person will come back to singular concept certainly when it is decorate by " 一个(a, an)" , while it can mean many persons in some certain occasions.


First, for a general domain model, large amounts of training data can lead to models that are too large for realistic applications.

for specific domains, n-gram models usually suffer from the data sparseness problem, because large amounts of domain-specific data are usually not available.


The two words with similar semantic relationship may have similar associated words such as the words "医生(doctor)" and "护士(nurse)", both have the same associated words as "医 院(hospital), 病人(patient), 打针(have an injection), 吃药(drug)" etc.

associated words usually have no similarity such as the word pair "吃 (eat)" and "食物(food)" etc.


The sentence (1) has only one syntactic analysis.

the sentence has at least two possible readings semantically.


The particle dake tends to show the function of restricting its PRED(icate) noun if it precedes a case marker.

it tends to present the function of reasoning if it is included in an adjunct [13].


Therefore, in the case of the former sentence I specify that the eventuality of the main clause does not always follow that of the toki clause but not-precedes it.

tense morphemes in relative clauses are not always relative.


In brief, the elements that logic conjunctive connects are the units of sense.

these units share a set of common correlative features, and this set of features are connected by the relation of cases, and congregated in the concepts of ontology.


(Huang 1984) and to the empty category principle (ECP) (Chen 1995 pronominal is not a PRO but a pro.

when an overt pronominal like ta 'it' is substituted for the EC (e i ) in (1), the acceptability of the sentence seems to be lower.


One important branch of it is sentence analysis, including Chinese sentence analysis.

currently, no mature deep analysis theories and techniques are available.


The translation and transform algorithm presented in this paper requires a large-scale bilingual corpus as its supporting knowledge base.

it is always a tough job to build a large-scale high-quality bilingual corpus.


That is, for very few words p will we find necessary and sufficient conditions, giving us axioms of the sort Rather, we will find many necessary conditions and many sufficient conditions.

the accumulation of enough such axioms will tightly constrain the possible interpretations of the predicate, and hence the meaning of the word.


Also, Bif j ϕ and Uif j ϕ are the abbreviations of B j ϕ ∨ ¬B j ϕ and U j ϕ ∨ ¬U j ϕ, respectively, where U j ϕ means that agent j is uncertain about ϕ but the agent supposes that ϕ is more likely than ¬ϕ.

is the rational effect enough to represent our linguistic communication?


If you search a query like A NEAR B in Alta Vista, the search engine shows pages containing within near words of each other.

this operator is not provided in Japanese version.


They then gradually expand the entries of the dictionary from the pair seed.

if the accuracy of the primary pairs is not adequate, the quality of the dictionary becomes gradually poorer due to gradually involving noises.


Conventional methods have avoided this problem by (1)ignoring them, or (2) importing an idiom dictionary from outside.

our method gives them the same treatment, hence we do not need such idiom dictionary or we do not need to recognize idioms as they are.


This should also thank longer processing unit, since it decreases possibility of interference that enables coexistence and no need to switch domains.

the recall is not satisfactory at this time.


Both functionalities have been integrated using a collaborative Wiki-based technology which provides volunteer translators with a user-friendly environment.

the editor was the most important component for translators.


The type of the verb may change depending on the order of the complements.

to keep our analysis within the scope of this paper, we will consider only the most common word order and we will ignore cases of scrambling.


The sentence is incorrect since there is no agreement between the subject and the verb.

if the attribute is dropped, the typing is interpreted as a subject followed by an intransitive verb, and therefore the sentence I sleeps is accepted.


Therefore, the best simple strategy for the second and third customization phase is retrained from a very large tagged patent corpus.

there is not a tagged patent corpus and it is also very difficult to construct it.


Sketch Engine currently displays collocations in descending importance, as well as according to grammatical relations.

sketch Engine does not provide suggestions for a cutoff point such that any items above this cutoff point may be considered significantly salient.


Furthermore, most lexical resources provide wordlists according to different criteria such as frequency, Mutual Information values, collocation, saliency values, etc.

a cut-off point for any one of these lists has yet to be suggested.


The following is an example: The 可以 keyi 'may/can' in the first sentence can have either a deontic meaning or refers to the ability of the subject.

the second sentence has to denote a deontic meaning.


For general text, more training data will always improve a language model (LM).

as training data size increases, LM size increases which can lead to models that are too large for practical use 5 .


The results showed that common word pruning improved the precision of the system (Bicolano: with 52.96% highest improvement at query length 4, Cebuano: with 18.00% highest improvement at query length 1, Tagalog: with 19.78% highest improvement at query length 2).

autoCor on an open corpus yielded the following results: the highest precision values per language range from 14% to 72% and 9% to 61% for DS and NDS, respectively.


Taking this position on bo, he implies that bo has combined with its preceding verb to form a lexicon verb so that bo would not be able to undergo syntactic or semantic operations.

not only does he give analysis of bo but as the previous discussions demonstrate, bo should not be taken as a compound with its preceding verb since it has flexibility to occur in different structural positions.


means that the best is waiting in the 'future.'

for the Chinese speakers, qian suo wei jian 前 所未見 'it has never been seen before' refers to the event that has never been seen in the past.


Hsieh (2005) proposes that embedded complementizer shuo is head-initial since it precedes its TP complement, as Taiwanese kong does, according to Simpson and Wu (2002).

a head-final CP system could also reach the same outcome, shown as below: Besides, suppose C2 has a feature, assuming it is EPP, which triggers movement, then why TP does not move to [Spec,C1P]?


Database management systems (DBMSs) have been widely used thanks to their efficiency in storing and retrieving data.

retrieving information from database requires users to compose queries in a query language (e.g., QBE or SQL) or to fill some search criteria in the interface (Liu, 1995;Catarci et al., 1997).


Based on the observations we have seen earlier, one could argue that a BN forms a morphological unit with the following predicate or undergoes a lexical process.

this fails empirically in several respects: the BN's occurrence with a case or delimiter marker evidences both its syntactic and phonological independence from the following predicate: (9) a. sensayngnim-i o-si-l swu-(ka/cocha/man) eps-ta teacher-NOM come-HON-PNE BN-NOM/even/only not exist 'It is not possible that the teacher comes.'


In some sense, this approach is similar with one in two-level formalism, matching an input and an output.


In many works on reduplication patterns, CR has been unfairly regarded as a subclass of mere repetition or lexical duplications that simply function as an intensifier.

cR is understood to have distinguishable uniqueness apart from the family of reduplication forms shown in various languages which are intensively studied in phonological and morphological aspects.


His approach is based on pragmatic mechanism which shows the nature of these structures.

levinson did not distinguish CR from other reduplication forms which is of our concern in the present paper.


Contrastive Focus involves sets of alternatives with great significance to the notion of contrastiveness.

the contrast of informativeness and the range of alternatives are quite vague and still unclear.


There have been plenty of investigations on novel usages brought about by influence from TSM, including Kubler(1985), Tsai(2002) and Zeng(2003).

these previous investigations mainly focus on the differences between Mandarin and Taiwan Mandarin.


The path of change could roughly depicted as: transfer of object > evaluative situation > textual/metalinguistic meaning > subjective attitude toward proposition The adequate and explicit path of grammatical change needs deeper investigation.

there is still another way to account the change.


It is assumed that the newly developed structure originates from Taiwan Southern Min because in Taiwan Mandarin the functions of gei 3 could correspond to ka 7 in TSM.

the adequacy of the assumption needs further study.


Mentioning extent, hen is always the term for use in Mandarin, such as Ta hen mei 她很美 (She is very beautiful).


in her study, the metaphorical extensions are not presented in details; what is more, collocation is not mentioned in her study.


One is to add additional edges to graphical model structure to represent the distant dependencies and the other is to encode the non-locality with non-local features.

in the first approach, heuristic rules are used to find the dependencies (Bunescu and Mooney, 2004;Sutton and McCallum, 2004) or penalties for label inconsistency are required to handset ad-hoc (Finkel et al., 2005).


Similarly, in the most utterances of soap opera, the indirect speech act with such psychological attitudes is much closer to the negative emotion, such as anger, than to the positive emotion, such as joy.

to this realization by the interrogatives, the distinction of anger from joy is known as a difficult problem in emotion identification with speech signals, which are actively utilized as an important information source in the most studies for emotion recognition.


The expected action of the hearer when the speaker is asking a question is to provide some information for the speaker.

if the sought information is already accessible to both the speaker and the hearer, the real intention of the speaker would be different from simply asking for it.


Likewise, exclamations '아(ah)' and '글쎄(well)' in (3a) and '허(huh)' in (3c) are the clues that indicate their utterances carry the spearker's anger.

these might express several emotions depending on the co-occurring utterances, so we should analyze not only the exclamations but also other kinds of information such as interrogatives and speech acts.


The parenthesis at position p of the input string marks position [∑ i=0 p-1 number-ofwords in g i ] of the output of the tagger (or, of the input to the parsing component).

many syntactic boundaries may well fall within a group.


The answers in (16b) and (18) giving an exhaustive listing reading are often distinguished as "restrictive focus", presupposing a set specified in discourse of which the constituent is a member (Erteschik-Shir 1997).

the present theory follows Steedman (2000aSteedman ( , 2000b in assuming that restrictive and nonrestrictive rhemes are semantically and grammatically indistinguishable, and only differ in the nature of the context in which they are uttered.


On this point, it may be thought that both (37b) and (39) are only recasting under the CCG framework the mechanism of multiple nominative against V' and multiple genitive against N' case licensing proposed by Fukui (1986).

our motivation for some parallels between adjoining ga and genitive no is based on the semantics that is exactly the heart of this phenomenon.


First, the contrast between (10) and 11, and also between (12) and 13shows that the second wh-phrase in the apparent multiple sluicing construction is required to be PP, but it cannot be DP: The contrast between PP and DP as the second wh-phrase in these examples is understood as saying that only the former can undergo rightward focus movement.

it has often been noted that DP can be shifted rightwards when it counts as 'heavy'.


In other words, it can take cyclic movement which consists of QR followed by wh-movement.

in the antecedent clause of (42) the typical quantified expression takes scope by making a non-cyclic, one-fell-swoop movement (May (1985)).


A D-tree shows a relational characteristic of the syntactic representation in the form of hierarchical links between items, i.e., which items are related to which other items and in which way.

to PS-tree, class membership is not specified in a D-tree.


(2006) proposed a composite kernel that consists of two individual kernels: an entity kernel that allows for entity-related features and a convolution parse tree kernel that models syntactic information of relation examples.

their method needs to manually tune parameters in composite kernels that are often difficult to determine.


From the definition of the convolution parse tree kernel, we introduce a decay factor λ (set to 0.4 here) to make the kernel less dependent on the tree size.

this factor also decreases the contribution of the entity information on the kernel when they are attached to the bottom of the entity.


Therefore, we usually must perform actual clustering for the reduced data.

nMF does not require this, because the matrix V represents the clustering result.


We can use NMF as a refinement method for a clustering result, because the initial matrix of NMF corresponds to a clustering result.

nMF often fails to improve the given clustering result.


Clustering accuracy is the most rigorous evaluation of the clustering result.


By using these techniques, a search for an optimum solution may be constructed in a consistent manner, unlike with Mcut-rfn.

such a consistent manner cannot avoid falling into a local optimum solution.


Using the result of CLUTO as the initial value, accuracy was not improved by NMF.

in the case of Mcut, accuracy was improved by NMF, and the final accuracy was better than that of CLUTO.


There is no global cue between nakerebanaranai and nichigainai, therefore learners could perceive two modal markers have different functions from the beginning of the acquisition.

the existence of global cue between bekida and hazuda makes it difficult for learners to distinguish them.


For the tagging, we used the Brill's Tagger 4 .

we used basic features for SVMs and ME 5 .


In the method, SVMs, Scoring and ME are weak learners for the boosting.

the accuracy was lower than SVMs and the weighted voting method.


In this paper we regarded the confidence computed from the output of a classifier as a linear function.

platt (1999) has reported a method to convert the output of SVMs into probability by using the sigmoid function and showed the effectiveness as a probability function.


In this case, we can adopt the Hanja equivalent "盧武鉉" (Lu Wu-Xuan) directly.

if a Korean's Hanja name is unknown, the name is translated character by character.


Furthermore, both Li and Chang have argued that a grammaticalizational effect concerning semantic shift is demonstrated in the use of Taiwanese proximal deixis.

to the traditional analyses, all of these studies base their arguments on spoken data beyond sentence level, making their analyses more convincing.


In contrast to the traditional analyses, all of these studies base their arguments on spoken data beyond sentence level, making their analyses more convincing.

their studies still do not illustrate overall functions that demonstratives can fulfill in Taiwanese, for example, filled pause and hedge expression (These usages will be discussed in section 3 in detail); more specifically speaking, studies relating to Taiwanese demonstratives are still insufficient.


Again, when functioning referentially, hitlo does contribute its semantic content to the proposition of the sentence.

when serving non-referential condition introducing or pause filler function, its semantic content seems to reduce at most to a vacant discourse marker.


First, as recognized in the previous studies, distal demonstrative hitlo is also found to refer to an element either textually or extralinguistically.

the deictic usage is not enough to account for the complexity of hitlo in discourse level.


they correspond to the majority of the 'real' questions asked either by the large public or by professionals to the web or to textual databases.


For answering How-to questions it is obviously of much importance to recognize titles and possibly hierarchies of titles in complex texts since, in general, titles express the main goals of procedures.

for some domains (like health) additional information should be used to index a text, in addition to titles.


The title hierarchy is very difficult to identify without content analysis.

standard procedural texts are not very long and tend to be relatively linear.


Shudo (1998Shudo ( , 2002, following Kay's (1990) analysis on even, contended that the Japanese particle mo, which is equivalent to too or also and sometimes is used to generate the even-like meaning, is different from the English even.

in this paper, I will argue that the meaning of even is indeed quite similar to the Japanese mo.


The problem of (3b) is that, while even indicates the contextual effect should be obtained through the interaction between the ap and H(x), (3a) forces the contextual effect of the answer sentence to be obtained by the hp alone.

(4d) can contribute to the contextual effect that has already been pointed out in (4b) by strengthening it.


The input to description is typically documentation, and the input to development is typically documentation and description, so it is tempting to see the input role as being a defining characteristic.

it is clear that this approach fails when we consider documentation.


For instance, a general word processor or recording device might be used to create a language resource, but it is not itself a language resource.

a document giving advice on how to use such general tools in creating language resources would be.


Works on slightly supervised grammar induction, such as the works of Lari and Young(1991), Brill(1993), Sekine and Grishman(1995), and Charniak(1996), present different output formalisms to represent the grammar.

filipino is currently a resource-limited language and does not have the computational resources necessary for the algorithms presented.


The occurrence count heuristic is the measurement that most closely resembles the gold count.

as is the case with CCB JJD and CCB JJD NNC, sequences found inside constituents will have as high or possibly higher occurrence counts, but not be actual constituents.


Having one overt syntactic argument in the matrix core is not an indication that this construction is cosubordinate.

an example of this is the coordinate verb gusto 'want' in sentence (5) in which the matrix argument may be the same with the missing argument from the linked core, as shown in 5Gusto ni Lisang basahin ang libro gusto ni=Lisa-ng basa-in ang=libro want ERG=Lisa-LNK read-PaT aBS=book 'Lisa wants to read the book' the same overt syntactic argument in the matrix core may not also be the same with the actor argument in the linked core, as shown in (6) Gusto ni Lisang basahin ko ang libro gusto ni=Lisa-ng basa-in=ko ang=libro want ERG=Lisa-LNK read-PaT=1SG.ERG aBS=book 'Lisa wants me to read the book' Levels of junctures are also assigned by the nucleus of the matrix core.


The missing argument from the linked core, however, is the same with the matrix core Marta.

(7) Sumubok si Martang iluto ang puto -um-subok si=Marta-ng i-luto ang=puto ACT.PERF-try ABS=Marta-LNK PAT-cook ABS=rice.cake 'Marta tried to cook (the) rice cake' when the two verbs occur closer to each other, the argument Marta is no longer an overt sole argument of the verb sumubok 'tried' as seen in its morphosyntactic coding.


As shown in sentence (16), the matrix core binalak 'planned' assigns a patient role to its syntactic argument niya 'he or she'.

although the argument of the linked core 'sumayaw 'dance' does not appear in the clause syntactically, we can conclude that the semantic role of this argument will be absolutive as assigned by its verb.


Both models display an overall accuracy of about 60 percent.

as certain factors, e.g., unobtrusiveness, appear to be invalid predictors for the Chinese data, we attempt to improve the results by deleting inappropriate factors and by adjusting the weightings.


When hearing one of these words (e.g., dogs), we know that it refers to a quantity of discrete, naturally bounded individuals, and not some arbitrary portions thereof (e.g., pieces of dog).

mass syntax does not specify individuation (see Bloom 1994;Gordon 1988;Link 1983).


When asked to find "one CL something" (CL = classifier) among several choices, adults selected solid, shape-matched objects when presented count classifiers, but rejected things that were non-solid or that didn't match in shape.

this distinction was less available to young children, who were willing at age four to accept portions of non-solid stuff when the experimenter requested something with a count classifier, so long as the substance matched the shape specified by the classifier (e.g., toothpaste that was shaped like a rod when the experimenter asked for gen).


It is possible that speakers of Mandarin are implicitly sensitive to this property of -zi and that -zi could function as a cue to individuation.

no experiments have ever examined -zi and its relation to object individuation.


No significant difference was found between the two conditions for each of the four age groups, suggesting that children may not be sensitive to the use of the general classifier to individuate entities.

the difference in percentage of shape judgments between the bare noun and classifier conditions became gradually bigger from 3-year-olds (3.19%) to 6-year-olds (20.0%; see Figure 2).


Classifiers and the diminutive suffix in Mandarin Chinese function in much the same way as count syntax in English, and as suggested in Li et al (in press), count classifiers (e.g., ge, tiao, tou) alone may provide such support.

results obtained from Mandarin-speaking children suggested that the distinct syntactic system of individuation may be qualitatively different from mass-count syntax in English.


The most confusing pairs of classes in these two models are LOC vs NNE, B-PER vs NNE, PER vs NNE, E-ORG vs NNE and B-MISC vs MISC.

the most confusing pairs are LOC vs NNE, PER vs NNE, MISC vs NNE and E-ORG vs NNE in the SVM models.


We can obtain the best weights if we could obtain the accuracy for the 'true' test data.


Originally, words related through the HAS-A relationship were also retrieved for nouns.

initial results showed that the increase in reinforced scores caused by proxy trigrams containing HAS-A related proxy words are insignificant.


For example, less fluent sentences that are shorter were assigned higher ranks than the longer fluent ones.

there are also instances that must be solved.


Note that it could be argued that the basic concept should be HUMAN.

as mentioned earlier, we made the commitment of describing the concept classification of SuoWenJiezi in this first study and will make adjustment after the complete ontologies are completed.


In 3.2, I mentioned that Chinese adjectives are inherently comparative.


cool guy 'cool guy' 27) shuaishuai de ge cool-cool REL guy 'very cool guy' REL=relative clause marker Observing several different behaviors of the two types of adjectives, Huang concluded that simple adjectives are expressions of type <e>, while complex adjectives are of type <e,t> (Huang, 2006).

this conclusion is not attested by the most basic criterion which distinguishes the two types of adjectives, i.e.


They are already prepared for comparison, hence they sound natural in comparative construction.


Hence we can assume that maximization is not lexical, as lexical maximization usually induce comparative reading as mentioned above.

degree abstraction is lexical in Japanese-type languages as argued in Beck et al (2004).


(Wang et al., 2006) also uses a maximum entropy approach to recognize Chinese noun phrase metaphors.

both need manually annotated corpus to train the classifier.


In another follow-up study of phoneme-and stress-contrast sensitivity, Dupoux and colleagues (Dupoux, Peperkamp and Sebastian-Galles, 2001) found that adult L1 speakers of Spanish and French performed similarly on the phoneme contrast judgment (i.e., /kypi/-/kyti/).

the Spanish-native monolinguals significantly outperformed the French-native monolinguals on the stress contrast judgment (i.e, /'kipi/-/ki'pi/).


With reference to word concreteness and average concreteness of all senses, words toward the concrete side tend to be better disambiguated than those in the mid range, which are in turn better disambiguated than those on the abstract end.

looking at the predominant sense, a similar situation to SENSEVAL-1 data was found, i.e., those with the first sense at either end of the continuum are better disambiguated.


The resulting logical forms enable precise identification of answers, sometimes in cases where they are not explicitly stated in the source documents.

these deep methods typically require carefully-engineered, language-specific resources that are very costly to produce and not very robust.


Specifically, it asserts event(e2,memakan), agent(e2,a), and patient(e2,p).

due to the existence of an Indonesian WordNet fact hypernym(apel,buah), the hypernym asserts new literals for the hypernym of 'apel' (apple) term that is buah (fruit).


Consequently, some of the design decisions, particularly concerning the evaluation functions, are domain-specific.

we believe the architecture as a whole is of general-purpose interest.


In GAs, this suggests devising genetic operators that explicitly work towards realising some input semantics, and fitness functions that measure fluency factors such as readability, length, coherence, etc.


the unmapped literals show that the text fails to convey three concepts, i.e.


The results of this study revealed that all 15 Tagalog enclitic adverbs have counterparts in Cebuano and Hiligaynon except for the politeness markers such as 'ho' and 'po'.

this study used two different genres (i.e.


metaphor) could be considered as checks and balances for the semantic reconstruction method.

the process of showing a full citation from every dictionary entry was time-consuming for the researchers.


Broadening was usually used in the spoken data due to various reasons such as language contact, social conventions, technology, religion, and expressive use of language.

this study only used the twenty (20) selected Cebuano words as the data for the analysis.


Passives and causatives, for example, have been a focus of attention in many linguistic studies.

only few attempts have so far been made at desideratives by comparison.


In their analysis, reviews almost always include the attitude, nominative and object.


They do not consider trends in on-line documents.

it is required to focus attention on "time" for the sensitive topic detection.


In general, we need a large amount of training data for the classification process.

construction of training data by hand is costly.


If the number of n becomes large, the number of extracted sentences increases.


Another approach is to use domain-specific grammars and linguistic models.

these methods can not handle out of domain and spontaneous utterances.


(2004) have obtained high accuracy by using some speech recognizers' outputs.

they dealt with word error reduction only.


If an input is an order utterenace, the DSSR and the LVCSR generate similar outputs on phoneme-level because the LVCSR is domain independence.

if the input is not an order utterenace, they often generate different outputs even on the phoneme-level because the DSSR never generates the correct result for non-order uttereances.


Parallel corpora refer to a source text and its translation into one or more target languages (Ahrenberg, et al., 1999).

parallel corpora are used for lexicon extraction due to the following characteristics (Fung, 1998) acquiring parallel corpora is labor intensive and time consuming.


Part-of-speech (POS) provides syntactic information and serves as a useful clue to sense disambiguation (Stevenson et al., 2001), and imply its usefulness to sense discrimination.

current studies on discrimination are applied to monolingual corpora and syntactic information is not included in classifying word senses.


The precision and recall values were found to be within the range of values reported from previous researches, which range from 39 -84.45% (Koehn et al., 2002 andZhou et al., 2001).

to the size of the corpora and lexicon used, the system used significantly smaller sized corpora (100K for source and 300K for target), versus the resources used in the related literature, wherein the smallest corpora resource used was 39M (Sadat et al., 2003) and the lexicon resource was 16,380 (Rapp, 1999).


ten-fold cross-validation decision-tree induction (Quinlan, 1993).

this simple approach still suffers from low precision for the co-referential cases, making the resulting algorithm only partially useful for practical purposes.


However, this is not to say that subject/object information is irrelevant to our problem.

such information is most likely essential to capture a number of syntactic constraints on pronoun resolution, especially considering that in-depth parsing information is not available.


Much effort has been made to design a controlled language for major international languages such as English, German, Spanish and etc.

little effort has been made yet to design a Controlled Korean in the context of machine translation.


The short message is so widely used and rapidly communicated that it makes our lives much convenient.

on the other hand, there are a series of problems on the use and application of the short message.


This system extracts 'good' or 'bad' practices using a human-created knowledge dictionary.

the knowledge dictionary depends on the specific enterprise because it is constructed using reports from that enterprise.


But there are valid pieces for which the task of two-values classification would work if the pieces cannot be judged as troubles manually.

we must consider a score that can separate Basis (1) and (2) from Basis (3).


In Basis (3), our system can expand the pieces '報告する(inform)→ 取引する(have a deal)' and '連絡を(contact)→返事を(reply)'; these words resemble each other.

the expanded pieces are not troubles because the pieces of the expansion target are not troubles.


This solution, at first glance, seems plausible and even desirable, as J-N Kim argues, in that there is no need to posit an additional category like quasipsych-adjective or to posit two different meanings for one word.

his solution eventually ends up positing two different categories for adjectives in order to explain the polysemy-like phenomena and it is fundamentally not different from the former approaches.


(5) a. cilwuhan pulloku/kkwum/yenghwa/Jane/Tom/tongsayng … boring blog/dream/movie/Jane/Tom/brother … 'boring blog/dream/movie' b. kippun #pulloku/#kkwum/#yenghwa/Jane/Tom/ tongsayng… happy blog/dream/movie/Jane/Tom/brother … 'happy #blog/#dream/#movie/Jane/Tom/brother ' Some might argue that kipputa 'pleased' can be thought of also as a property adjective in the sense that it can modify the inanimate NPs like nal 'day' and sosik 'news' as in kippun nal 'happy day' and kippun sosik 'happy news'.

it is different from other property adjectives since it does not pass the first criterion.


Others are intrinsically "directed motions," such as being attracted, disgusted, interested, humiliated, or ashamed; these require connection to a stimulus in the environment (or in one's mind).

the "pure emotions" can also be directed at or connected to some particular stimulus.


The labels used in a DA tagger have to be predefined, and supervised methods require a corpus that is manually annotated by the labels.

it is difficult to design a tag set (labels) that can be used to annotate a corpus because the design of a tag set depends on the domain and the task.


So far, many clustering methods have been proposed and discussed for applications in natural language processing (NLP), such as works by Zhao and Karypis (Zhao and Karypis, 2005).

an utterance is very short against a document that is used in a common NLP application.


Therefore, we have started to design a DA tag set and annotate the DA tags on the corpus.

there are several problems that make it difficult for us to maintain consistency in the annotation as follows: (a) segmentation, (b) pragmatics, and (c) multifunctionality.


Ten utterances labeled "ACT-REQ" were classified in this cluster.

this phrase is too common to use as a feature.


They recognize coordinate structures in a Japanese sentence by constructing a similarity matrix between bunsetsus and searching a path with the highest parallelism in the similarity matrix using a dynamic programming method.

that method is inadequate to apply to patent documents which have usually a large number of coordinate nodes and sometimes complex modification such as an inserted clause.