However, if we assume that C is relevant to ga-marking, such a deletion operation can be eliminated.

-hosi 'want' takes a CP-complement when the embedded subject is marked with ga. We can reach a unified account for ga-marking in Takezawa's grammatical contrast as in (8) and(9), subordinate clauses as in (10), and adjective-hosi `want/prefer' type complements as in (15).


On the other hand, as discussed in Section 2, C, rather than T is involved in ga-marking in Japanese.

japanese ga-marked subjects can be a deactivated NP at the completion of CP.


Given our phase-based approach to scope calculation, scope interpretation can be derivationally determined in narrow syntax at every strong phase as far as Chomsky's (2001) PIC permits.

the derivation in narrow syntax directly feeds the interpretation.


For instance, If we take those word sequences   Table 1 as training data and c _lci as feature pattern, and set .. research' as target word, we would train with a result containing a rule pattern = PERIOD) and derive the probabilities of P(VE (VII, PERIOD)) = 2/3 and P(.1VV I (Y1-1,PERIOD))= 1/3.

suppose that the target word wo has ambiguous categories of cl , c2 c , and the context patterns of patterni , pattern 2 ,..., pattern m, then the probability to assign tag ci to the target word wo is defined as follows: x=1 y=1 the probabilities of different patterns with the same candidate category are accumulated and normalized by the total probability distributed to all candidates as the probability of the candidate category.


Markov bi-gram model looks the category of the target word and categories before/after the target words.

given a word sequence w1 ,...wn , it calculates the probability of each candidate category ck for a target word wk by P(ck I ck_1 ) P(e lc+, I C k) P(wk I ck ).


Given the right context, a boundary is followed by the context.

the beginning and the end of a boundary are often marked by high entropy as any symbol can follow a boundary and occur before a boundary.


For a punctuation mark or a Chinese word marker, there is a peak preceding it given the right context and a peak following it given the left context.

after having seen a punctuation mark or a word marker we do not know what occurs before and after it.


Although different solutions have been proposed for the task, many limitations and difficulties exist in the approaches.

most of the methods do not work well for such case as short texts, internet news and student's writings.


First, the content of the texts is complete but its length is short.

topic blocks in texts are sometimes composed of few sentences or one sentence.


When uttering IIN (wei) 'hello', speaker B intends to ask for speaker A's response.

speaker B demands speaker A to respond to him/her to show the presence.


On the contrary, only about 35% on average of the VN words have r > 1 for the Beijing texts.

many words which are verbs originally do not actually play the role of verbs in Beijing texts.


In order to make a fair comparison among the algorithms, we adopted the same process of model selection for both the SVM with uneven margin and the SVM with j-trick as for the Scut.

we used the 5-fold cross-validation on training set to choose the optimal values of the model parameters for each of categories considered.


We can see that they have the similar behaviours for Chinese categorisation with those for English.

the two algorithms the Scut and the SVM with uneven margins achieved better performance in small categories than other two algorithms, and the SVM with uneven margins is slightly better than the Scut.


Introducing a margin parameter into the SVM, which led to a new learning algorithm -the SVM with uneven margins, is a strategy for the SVM to deal with some kind of poor quality of training examples.

if we want to use the SVM to solve a very unbalanced binary classification problem where only a few positive training examples are available and are very unlikely to be representative, a larger positive margin in the SVM classifier should be beneficial to the generalisation performance of the SVM, as we argued in Section 3.


The domination range of each of the node is demonstrated in the pair [x,y].

v has a domination range of [1,2] and w, [1,3] Lemma lb: Given the set of occurrence pairs associated with the suffixes that are reachable from an (internal) node v, the fa.nd df of the substring that terminates at v are equal to the rank of the set of occurrence pairs and the distinct x-dimension integers of the set.


For instance, let us assume that the following translation examples are given: "I bought the book for John" <-> "Thi del mua mat quyen sach cho John" " I bought the ring for John" <-> "Thi aid mua mejt chi& nhcin cho John" For these translation examples, the matching algorithm obtains the following match sequence.

i bought the (book, ring) for John <-> TOi cad mua mot (quyen sach, chi& nhcin) cho John So l = i bought the, Do =(book, ring), = for John, ,S1 , =Thi del mua mot, Do =(quy6n sach, chiac nhan), si 2 =cho John.


It is worth noting that the proposed model produced more likely candidates than the EDA and WEDA approaches did, based on the phonetic similarities between candidates and given words.

sTM captured more phonetic information in the back-transliteration process than EDA and WEDA did.


!31 is a code for elliptical SF that covers sentences omitting the first generalized object chunk (JK1 r. The omitted JK1 is in fact the previously adjoining B.

b+YC is a semantically (and also syntactically to Chinese at least) complete sentence.


(3) As one of the HNC-defined SCs with an embedded EC sentence, XYJ uses the coupled Ep and Er for the complete depiction of the action link and the effect link of AEC.

xYJ's YC is indispensable to the syntactico-semantic integrality of the sentence.


Generally, when the Er of a Chinese action-effect sentence of this sort pertains to a generalized effect concept, the syntactico-semantic structure of the corresponding English translation is to be generated by way of bare SC transfer.

the SC and the SF as well of the English sentence remain the same as those of the Chinese sentence.


Listed below are some typical examples: For the other, optional SC transfer is applied instead when the Er of a Chinese action-effect sentence expresses the concepts subordinate to nodes 710 (mental reaction) and 713 (emotive expression).

the English translation may or may not inherit the SC of the source sentence, despite the fact that it does, more often than not, take a different one.


C-structure constituents that do not contribute unique information to any of the parallel structures should be eliminated.

useless or redundant c-structure constituents should not be allowed.


Saisiyat is different from English and Chinese in that it does not allow horizontal and vertical terms to co-occur in the same sentence.

it does not have expressions such as upper right, upper left, lower right, or lower left.


In Slobin (1996), the percentage of Minus Ground expressions in S-language, such as English, is lower than the percentage in V-language, such as Spanish.

the percentage of Minus Ground expressions in V-languages should be higher than the percentage in S-languages.


However, no part of a finite verb or the verbal pro-form occurred between the accusative phrase and the finite complementizer in (1).

3 in Sag's analysis, a phantom relation corresponding to a verb (a relation of a verb not occurring but its meaning existent) is postulated in syntax or semantics.


In a word, speech understanding and semantic recognition in people's language communication is from the determination of sentence function to the recognition of meaning of verb.

we recognize the semantic pattern of huaiyi sentences by its function, not by the meaning of huaiyi, which is not the fundamental basis of semantic recognition in speech communication."


The entropy H(x) of a text segment x is defined as Since the occurrence frequencies of characters and words in a document are disperse values, I use the frequencies that a pattern appears in the paragraphs of a document.

a document is firstly segmented into paragraphs, and then a pattern's frequencies in each paragraph are counted.


(C) -(B) Examples that depend on context.

there are some contexts in which applying these examples is improper.


Meanwhile, in the collected examples, some adjectival predicate sentences have examples that have both feature-(E) and feature-(L+S) 6 at the same time.

jij fik has the feature-(E) and the other ---> 41 has the feature-(L+S).


Cataphora is similar to anaphora, the difference being the direction of the reference.

we cannot detect the referent of a ZA in the following utterances, and we do not treat cataphora in this paper.


The clusters consist of /pr p hr pl phl tr kr khr kl kh1 kw/ and /khw/.

the second consonant of a legal cluster is restricted to those in the set {r, 1, w} .


In this paper, I will investigate the relationship between degrees of wordlikeness and well-formedness judgments of nonwords, having in mind the following hypotheses: Hypothesis 1: If speakers are aware of the constraint *[+voice] while performing well-formedness judgments, given a comparable amount of neighborhood density, the ratings for novel words with no violation of *j+voice] should be consistently higher than those incurring a violation of the constraint.

to argue for the psychological reality of *[+voice], novel words with illegal clusters are expected to be less acceptable than those containing legal clusters or 'Gap' clusters.


In this section, I will discuss the results of the experiment in the order of the hypotheses given in Section 2.

i will start from the discussion on the psychological reality of the constraint *[+voice].


As has been observed in many studies, various functional relations are expressed by particles in Japanese.

particles such as `kurar , `bakarr , 'clake', `nomr, `hodo' and 'made' specify focus in sentences.


If Carroll's hypothesis is correct, and if we observe the priming effect only at [1] in the experiment in (5) for native speakers, then, we should expect the priming effect only at [1] in experiments targeting Japanese speakers.

we should not expect the priming effect at [2], the position where empty category is supposed to reside.


In (20), the locative phrase in sentence-initial position is more closely related to asobu 'play' than omotta 'thought'.

omou 'think' does not normally support a locative of any type, while asobu 'play' supports a -de phrase.


With reference to sentence (1), we have seen that the CA and the VE do not occur contiguously in CACs even though they are related closely.

they show discontinuous dependencies within a clause.


One might assume that the CA pilok cannot combine with the rest of the sentence, which has a conditional meaning, because there is a mismatch between them 3 Then, however, we will be in an awkward situation because we have to say that pilok in (9a) is not allowed due to a semantic or pragmatic problem while the CA manyak in (9c) is licensed by a syntactic mechanism.

all ungrammatical sentences would have a semantic/pragmatic problem while all grammatical sentences would be licensed syntactically.


Under this approach, the CA has a LICENSEE feature and the value of this feature can be either a conditional VE or a concessive VE.

it has the feature of !L(ICENSE)E XP [COND] In this analysis, the CA is responsible for characterizing the construction concerned because it is the trigger of the construction.


In the face of this problem, it is assumed in Chae (2003Chae ( , 2004) that there is a mismatch between syntactic licensing and semantic licensing in CACs.

we need to assume that the CA licenses the VE syntactically, but the VE licenses the CA semantically.


If the ta version concerns the resulting state, then how is it different from the teiru version?

in what sense could we consider that the ta version in (2) makes an eventive description?


I analyze that the water (x) is in a after-coming-to-the-boil state ("s: x PERF(come to a boil)").

the perfectivizer "PERF" operates at the predicate level.


However, issues arise from the fact that there also exist crucial differences from the AVC.

though there is a tight syntactic cohesion between the main verb and the auxiliary verb, the VN and the light verb are rather loose in terms of syntax.


For aligning chunks and words, we utilize bilingual dictionaries and take a divide-and-conquer strategy.

after aligning chunks, the alignment of word level is consecutively tried in chunk pairs to reduce the computational complexity and improve alignment accuracy.


The system consists of two modules: a bilingual chunk aligner and a knowledge extractor which are incorporated to obtain stable chunk and word alignment as well as reliable bilingual knowledge.

using feedback from reliable bilingual knowledge, we obtain more accurate chunk and word alignment.


These decomposed sub-frames and subparts consist of a set of sub-frames, VCN and sets of subparts VC and VN, respectively.

in order to get reliable bilingual knowledge base of surface verb sub-categorization patterns, we take the following stepwise filtering method: step 1. filter out the reliable translation correspondences from all of the alignment pairs by ¾ test at a probability level of « 1 step 2. decompose the extracted verb sub-categorization pattern into sub-frames, and a sub-frame into two sub-parts such as a verb-case marker part and a verb-nominal part step 3. filter out reliable sub-parts vc and vn by ¾ test at a probability level of « 3 step 4. filter out a reliable sub-frame vcn by unifying the reliable sub-parts, vc and vn step 5. filter out reliable verb sub-categorization patterns vsubcat through the unification of reliable sub-frames Ú Ò ½ ¡ ¡ ¡ Ú Ò Ò we filter reliable sub-parts by ¾ test on vc and vn where bilingual verb pairs and nominal pairs should be ones passed the ¾ test of translation correspondences.


Second, only part of the words in the training data are used for the unknown word detection training.

the training of word patterns are not thorough too.


This paper explores the interaction between conceptual structure and morpho-syntax.

we show that ontology-based conceptual classification can be used to predict internal relations in compounds.


we demonstrate that ontology-based conceptual classification can predict the internal relations in compounds.


However, it is clear that the lexical meaning of the simplex words must be preserved in compound formation.

simplex words are building blocks of compounds that necessarily contain their grammatical information, including lexical meaning.


Our goal is to show that the different types of internal relations can be predicted with conceptual information.

we want to show that ontological information can be effectively used.


In addition to the distributional data, we also found that: (1) For the coordinate VV compound, the ten most frequent concept classes to occur at the V1  In order to empirically determine the correlation between simplex verb concepts and their compound relations, we randomly selected 2,400 VV compounds from our lexicon as the training data.

there are 800 compounds each belonging to the three types of relations.


PACLIC 18, December 8th-10th, 2004, Waseda University, Tokyo Step 2.1: The correlation vector of each component verb Vn is calculated as the sum of the likelihood score of all the possible ontology classifications for that particular verb, with each compound relation type assigned as one dimension.

for each V1 and for all its possible ontological node assignment, Wv1 = Wvci x.....x Wcn Step 2.2: For each Vector Wvcn, the three dimensions are determined by their likelihood score for a semantic relation.


Hence, we revise that assumption and try to account for all possible correlations.


In particular, we adopt a fractional voting system.

we tabulate all possible correlations and add up all their scores, and select the highest cumulative score (instead of the single highest score in the first study.)


Another type of heuristic knowledge that will be useful is the lexical knowledge of specific verbs.

the resultative compounds are predominant among a very particular subset of verbs in Mandarin.


In particular, the resultative compounds are predominant among a very particular subset of verbs in Mandarin.

chiu, Luo and chen's (2004) study identify a set of V2's that can be reliably PAcLIc 18, December 8th-10th, 2004, Waseda University, Tokyo predicted to be part of a resultative compound.


On one hand, we can take this as positive evidence.

vv compounds whose v2 belongs to the set are classified as resultative compounds.


We can also take this as negative evidence.

those V2s that do not belong to the list are not resultative compounds.


In the next and last experiment, the lexical knowledge of resultative V2's is used as negative evidence.

if the verb V2 is not among the attested list of resultative verbs, we assume the compound verb is not likely to be a resultative verb.


The result is given in   Our study shows that the conceptual information expressed in terms of ontology classification can be used to predict the semantic relations within VV compounds.

we show that the concept-based prediction can integrate other knowledge sources and yield good prediction results.


Hence, it is probably more important to show that an ontology based system can be greatly improved when other information sources are integrated, rather then showing that ontology alone can have very high rates of prediction.

ontology is the infrastructure of knowledge which does not claim to have enough knowledge by itself, but instead provides a base for incremental integration of other knowledge sources.


We estimate that to date we have spent less than a total of 3 person months between the research groups at Hong Kong and Dublin on the development of the automatic f-structure annotation algorithm for the CTB, the automatic extraction of wide-coverage PCFG-based LFG approximations, the extraction of lexical resources, the construction of a gold-standard for Chinese LFG resources and the evaluation experiments.

the (partly) manual construction of a gold-standard for evaluation is non-trivial and time-consuming.


We expect that our results to-date, while encouraging, can be improved significantly given further concerted research effort.

we will continue working on refining the annotation algorithm, extending the gold-standard and including a treatment of longdistance dependencies along the lines presented for English in (Cahill et al., 2004) to generate proper rather than proto-f-structures for the CTB.


We define efficiency in terms of the amount of reading materials that must be read to learn a required vocabulary.

efficient courseware is as short as possible, while containing the required vocabulary.


To design a system of grapheme-to-phoneme for Thai, besides the awareness of difficulties listed above, we have to choose the level of analysis that is right for the problems.

what will be problems and solutions of grapheme-to-phoneme conversion are directly related to the design of the system.


Arg Str = ARG1 = 1 : animate_ind Event Str = E1 = e1: process ARG2 = 2 a scream E2 = e2: process CONST = 3 RESTR = <o FORMAL = bounded event HEAD = e1 AGENTIVE = measure_out (e, 1 , 3 ) Qualia Str = AGENTIVE = scream_act (e1, 1 ) D-ARG1 = 3 material AGENTIVE= divide (e2, 1 , 3 ) FORMAL = scream_act (e1, 1 ) cospecification Figure 2.

representation of cut a scream in the framework of Generative Lexicon the sense of cut in a 'cut+a concrete nominal' corresponds to that of cut in 'cut+an event nominal', and both of the constructions share the same compositional process and underlying principles.


For example, both the SET-10 and the SST score report consist of one Overall score and four subscores: Sentence Mastery, Vocabulary, Fluency, and Pronunciation.

the SET-10 measures two aspects of the spoken skills: what the test-taker said and how the test-taker said it.


The SJT is designed to measure the test taker's control of these core language processing components in real time.

the SJT is designed to probe the psycholinguistic elements of spoken language performance rather than the social, rhetorical and cognitive elements of communication.


Although -> has a similar form to its closure --> it requires further constraints that are inexpressible in X .

we need to to be able to identify ancestors that are rightmost and descendants that are leftmost.


the expressiveness of LPath (L) lies strictly between Core XPath (X ) and Conditional XPath (X + ).


Others have become idioms with idiosyncratic semantics whose relation to their component words is not obvious (except possibly historically).

it is common across languages for multiword predicates (MWPs) to form around certain high frequency verbs that easily undergo a process of metaphorization (Pauwels, 2000;Newman and Rice, 2004).


However, LVCs differ from idiomatic phrases in that, in most cases, their semantics (and hence their translation) is more predictable.

the meaning of an LVC typically corresponds to a verb related to the noun complement, as with the French translation gémir related to the English noun complement groan.


This paper hypothesizes that the language used by politicians will become more inclusive from the middle of the 20 th century to the beginning of the 21 st century.

social gains from the Civil Rights Act of 1964, which prohibited employment discrimination on the basis of race, color, religion, national origin, or gender, should become apparent.


Since the corpus under consideration here identifies all uses by date and speaker, it is possible to contrast critical legislative and legal events with the occurrence of relevant terms or changing use of terms in the presidential lexicon and ask the question: How soon after this legislation was discriminatory language use dropped from presidential parlance?

i hypothesize that there should be a marked decrease in the use of 'mankind' to refer to all humankind, as well as the use of 'man' to refer to all people.


The directionality of sign language can be utilized to discern the difference sense of this kind.

we can first represent '아버지' and '아들', and then perform '사랑하다', meaning 'to love', from the position of '아버지' to the position of '아들' to represent the meaning of (a), and use the opposite directionality to represent the meaning of (b).


This appears true for all three languages investigated.

when personification takes place, it is likely that 'market' is the personified subject rather than the object.


However, the children's pattern for shape match non-solid trials differed from adults; both groups of children were willing to pick the non-solids that matched the shape.

the 4-and 5-year-olds selected the non-solid shape match most often (i.e., 52% of the time) relative to the other two boxes and at above chance level of 33% (p < .001).


The children did not prefer the shape match and avoid the closed box for the shape match non-solid trials as frequently as they did for shape match solid trials.

the fact that they chose the shape-match for the shape match solid trials significantly more often than the shape match non-solid trials showed that they were treating solids and non-solids differently when determining what could reasonably be picked out by the count classifiers (52% vs. 27%, p<.05).


the experimenter posed the following question: "One side has one CL small Noun.


CCGs provide a natural explanation for complex linguistic phenomena such as nonstandard constituent coordination and long distance dependency with a generalized notion of linguistic constituency and constituent-by-constituent combination of linguistic strings.

ccGs provide an elegant way to integrate several steps of analysis such as syntactic, semantic, pragmatic, and discourse analyses in one derivation step.


The parser does not start by probing at the NP that appeared most recently.

(the NPs were not stacked into a push-down machine for gap-filling.)


In (13a), for example, if specification applies at a point of derivation in which the Skolem term has not yet been in the scope of the universal quantifier, the resulting generalized Skolem term is sk person' .

the wide scope reading of somebody is obtained.


In (17), we observe that Skolem term dareka 'somebody' allows only the narrow scope reading.

the Japanese counterpart of (13b) fails to show scope alternation (cf.


indicated the above "he" "the man" "he" "the man" Pr("Fred")Ut("he") + Pr("Max")Ut("the man") > Pr("Fred")Ut("the man") + Pr("Max")Ut("he") Q(Pr("Fred") − Pr("Max")) (Ut("he") − Ut("the man")) > 0  high semantic bias by comparing the expected utilities of the two choices.

a solution of their MG model is that choice (A) is preferred over choice (B) in Figure 1.


The salience of an entity can be defined based on how probable the entity will also be referenced in the following utterances.

if an entity seems to be referenced in the following discourse, the entity tends to draw attention and its salience can be considered to be high.


These coefficients are assigned to each grammatical function for maximizing the correlation between them and utilities of noun phrases.

they can be regarded as rigged values to maximize the predictive ability of Preferences 1a and 1b.


We resolved the problems regarding salience in Section 2 by formulating it as a reference probability.

in our formulation, salience becomes a measurable quantity and becomes statistically verifiable based on large linguistic data.


), nei4ren2 內人 is a name for waitresses in the palace, and wai4ren2 外人 can be observed to have the meaning of outside people in Mencius 孟子 (about 385 B.C.-304 B.C.).

the original conceptualization is symmetric based on the area defined by the palace.


Cf ranking for Japanese is ordered by discourse grammatical function as follows (Walker, (2) (GRAMMATICAL OR ZERO) TOPIC > EMPATHY > SUBJECT > OBJECT2 > OBJECT > OTHERS (Walker, Iida and Cote, 1994) This ranking explains that the higher element in the Cf is likely to become the Cb ('backward-looking center') in the current utterance.

in English, the subject is the highest candidate of the center, while in Japanese the topic is the highest candidate of the center.


'push' is the new discourse segment (what is called 'side sequence' by conversation analysts) and 'return pop' is the subsequent discourse segment following push.


This is important because, depending on the size of cache, a cache model enables us to explain the link between the last utterance prior to the push and the initial utterance in the return pop.

the center is accessible as far as the cache is within the limited size.


This paper discusses the behavior of Japanese Bare Nouns (JBNs) 1 .

we focus on their interpretation when they appear as a theme of accomplishment verbs.


P esc is usually shared by all the unseen events.

p esc is redistributed uniformly to each unseen event, p esc /U, where U is the number of unseen events of a language model.


Given a set of n-tuple, r = {t 1 , t 2 , …, t m }, in the database initially loaded by an IE task, we will apply the set of string features to the set of n-tuple such that each value v i in the database is evaluated by six string features.

, for each and every v i in the database.


All SJT test items are integrated 'listen-then-speak' type requiring the test-taker to employ real-time receptive and productive spoken language skills.

the SJT is designed to measure the test taker's control of these core language processing components.


Li & Thompson (1989: 19) also argue that MC is a topic prominent language.

"the order in which basic words and phrases occur is governed to a large extent by considerations of meaning rather than of grammatical functions".


The fact that no special positions are dominant for a character means that this character can occur in every possible positions in a word.

this character is free for word formation.


Both sentences consist of three words and the same parts-of-speech of the words.

a preposition, general place noun and verb are in the sequence.


Further, the data from row 2, 3 and 4 shows that the odds are increased if the advanced skill of figure-of-speech is used.

graders tend to grade essays containing advanced writing skills to higher score against common skills.


Combinatory ambiguity in morphological analysis refers to the fact that the analyzer can not decide whether a wordform should have an affix or not.

given a wordform AB in which B is a potential suffix, we have to decide whether AB is a word form alone and B is not an affix, or B is a real affix and A is the stem.


), and "shigai he iku renraku basu ha arimasuka" (Is there an airport bus to the town?).

the user can select a translated sentence only by reading the source language text as long as he or she recognizes that the accuracy of translation is not always 100% on the shaded portion of the display.


It is different in our method that we consider This work was finished while the first author visited Microsoft Research Asia both feature template selection and tag set selection, instead of feature template focused only methods in previous work.

feature template selection was the main work if it was not the unique one before, while tag set is empirically specified aforehand.


Sentence (2) have two different syntactic forms in accordance with different foci, while its basic structure "N0 N1-을 V" remains constant.

surface structure may be extended to different forms depending on pragmatic needs.


In the design of the knowledge database, we adopt an integrational approach, trying to integrate the lexicon and the grammar.

we try to grammaticalize the lexicon and lexicalize the grammar.


From either an engineering or linguistic angle, our motive in constructing this knowledge database is to describe whether certain linguistic forms are acceptable or not, and what transformational relations exist between the acceptable ones.

the transformation between linguistic forms can be defined formally by way of computation.


Automatic term extraction is the first step in the automatic or semi-automatic extraction of terminology.

we must identify terms first before validating that they are domain specific terms, which is the second step called terminology extraction.


According to our experiments statistics, in the top 500 extracted words in the word-based model, there are 62 wrong words because of overlapping ambiguity error among a total of 157 wrong words, taking nearly 40%.

the overlapping ambiguity error causes more than 10% reduction on the precision.


The ideas of dependency analysis are found more or less in traditional grammar of many languages.

the school grammars in many countries are similar with the syntactic principles based on dependency relations.


Our task is for building a dependency syntax to annotate a treebank, which is a time-consuming and labor-intensive task, we have to think how to automate the process and find more competent workers from early beginning.

we should use the available resource as far as possible.


In (10b), sensei is the subject of yonda and the subject of kaita is omitted.

sensei modifies yonda rather than kaita.


We explore the possibility of deeper linguistic research based on corpus and computational linguistic tools in this paper.

we adopt Chinese Word Sketch, the application of Word Sketch Engine to Chinese GigaWord Corpus, for linguistic research.


When we examine the sketch difference for "chi1" and "he1", in terms of their objects, the significant results are shown as from  Table4: The common patterns for "chi1" and "he1" We propose that a more appropriate theory to account for the semantic selection facts are concept rather the feature based.

we propose that the rich knowledge structure of an ontology is more appropriate for semantic content and selection.


A wedding banquet is a sub-type of banquet, where both eating and drinking are the most salient activities.

xi3jiu3 will be assigned a conceptual location of being a banquet.


Secondly, the non-past tense marker is not -n or -nun but a null form element -ø.

the marker does not have an explicit form, contrary to the general belief.


To begin with, we assume that the conjuncts in a Korean verbal coordinate structure should have the same finiteness status with respect to whether they are tensed or tenseless.

all the conjuncts in a coordinate structure should be tensed/finite or all of them should be tenseless/non-finite.


(7) c + A-WA B = c \ (c + A \ c + A + B) 3 The instruction of WA is to conjoin the current context with the presuppostion A, and the resulting context is updated by the new information B.

c (= the current context) admits "A-WA B" only if c admits A and c + A admits B.


1998:27) It should be noted here that expressions marked with WA often do not stand for the whole background in information structures.

speaking, they corresponds to the notion of link in the sense of Vallduvi (1992), or that of S-Topic of Buring (1999).


Since our definition of the type shift rule for the topic marker in (13) has no restriction on the category of topicalized expressions, it can topicalize a clause and explicitly specify it to be presupposed in context.

we do not need any special rule for cleft sentences.


A crucial claim of the WSE is that this methodology can be easily adapted to new languages.

each language would require a different set of collocational patterns for relation extraction.


In this paper, we showed that rich grammatical knowledge can be utilized to improve results of automatic grammatical information acquisition.

we applied the ICG lexical grammar to the WSE to support the claim that its methodology can be easily adapted in different languages.


SVMs [11] find the separating hyperplane which maximizes its margin.

this problem becomes equivalent to solving the following optimization problem: 1.


CRFs with SC 3 CRFs with SC + VSD 4 CRFs with SC+VSD+ Dict 5 CRFs with SC+ VSD+ Dict + ERS 6 CRFs with SC+ VSD + Dict + ERS + Misc 7 SVMs with SC 8 SVMs with SC+VSD 9 SVMs with SC+ VSD+ Dict For evaluating in each experiment, we used 5-fold cross-validation test.

we randomly divide the corpus into five partitions; in each fold we take one partition as the testing set and all the others for training.


H.Ä.Jaschke views the retroflex letters as the same positions and layers as base letters in his A Tibetan-English Dictionary, however he only collects two of them, and gives the order like ᅉ(tt), (dd), ࿖(t), ᅊ(tth).

[8] to say, the Tibetan-transliterated letters emerge prior to Tibetan letters in the sequence of dictionary entries.


Our topic word pair selection process is based on Probabilistic Latent Semantic Indexing (PLSI).

we look for the pairs with the strongest correlation in latent semantic space.


Supported by the success of experimental studies in which features hypothesized to be helpful were actually shown to promote syntactic acquisition provided incontrovertible evidence in support of the value of appropriate input (Baker and Nelson 1984), behaviorism was enthusiastically received.

the most powerful input indicated in the training experiments were recasts: responses to child utterances that provided corrected or alternative versions, showing clearly feedback are utilized by children.


It will be proved by the result of this paper that adult's input does influence greatly on children's language acquisition.

the output-as-input hypothesis explains best children's TS rules acquisition in Mandarin.


(Li & Thompson's four stages are adopted) Stage I (1,0): before segments acquisition, T1 and T4 are acquired.

t1 appears earlier than t4 for the reason that level tone is acquired earlier than contour tone.


In conclusion, from the observation of three subjects, the results generally accord with our expectations.

the tone acquisition order and TS rules acquisition order are the expected T1>T4>T2>T3 and TS3/TS4>TS2>TS1, which shows that the order of TS acquisition is influenced by tone acquisition.


av takes two arguments; If variables are typed, the type declaration of av(X, CAT) is: 7If α = av(X, CAT), then α ∈ N X is a node and CAT is a syntactic catogory label of X.

x states the information of the node itself including linguistic expression which x dominates, and the category label of x is CAT.


Next we assume another function wf 2 , which takes in a node and returns its wellformedness as determined by the well-formedness of its daughters.

this function is defined as: the mother's well-formedness is the product of the well-formedness of its daughters.


We consider the difference of "highest weighted" parse and the other "lower weighted" parses represents the degree of garden-path effect.

the larger the values of chosen parse and unchosen parses differs, the more the time complexity by disambiguation costs.


These unknown words are not only compound words but are also word morphemes.

the initial dictionary created from the corpus is different from a normal dictionary prepared for language learners that even some common words are not in there.


We get 72.2% recall for tokens, 72.1% for types, and 50.6% precision for types.

we get quite high recalls but the precision is not so good.


This paper is to deal with probabilistic finite automata (PFAs) by inputting strings of words (probability distributions) in web pages of Internet, and investigates the development of a natural language (NL) interface for mixed initiative dialogues within a constrained domain and demonstrates the applicability.

it is verified that PFAs computing strings of words can be implemented by means of calculating strings of symbols and a characterization of PFAs.


In the paper, we deal with PFAs with input strings of words.

we can derive the probability for PFAs computing strings of words by means of calculating these probabilities of PFAs recognizing strings of symbols (Theorem 1), and thus shows that PFAs for inputting strings of words can be transferred to PFAs computing the convention all strings of symbols, at the expense of more steps of computation, which may be called computation tractability.


For the calculation in the natural language on line, it is necessary to introduce several formulas as follows:  σ 1) W2(σ 2) …Wk(σ k) We now describe an example to illustrate the application of Theorem 1. δ is defined as follows:  In this paper, we have considered some basic probabilistic models of computation by inputting strings of words, and some new conclusions have been discovered.

we have studied PFAs with input strings of words, and verified that PFAs computing strings of words can be implemented by means of calculating strings of symbols.


Sense example E-HowNet definition 工人 搬運工 "porter" def:{labor|工人: "labor" telic={transport|運送: patient={goods|貨物}, agent={~}}} 女工 "female labor" def:{labor|工人:gender={female|女}} 童工 "child labor" def:{labor|工人:age={child|幼兒}} 工業 化工 "chemical industry" def:{industry|工業: "industry" domain={chemistry|化學}} 機工 "engineering industry" def: {industry|工業: domain={machine|機器}} 技術 刀工 "cutting skill" def:{skill|技術: "skill" predication={cut|切削: method={~}}} 畫工 "painting skill" def:{skill|技術: predication={draw|畫: method={~}}} The meaning of 牧工 "hired herdsman", 核工 "nuclear industry" ,or 唱工 "art of singing" are then determined by comparing the similarity between their modifiers and the modifiers of each class of examples.

we compare 牧、核 and唱 separately with 搬運、女、童、化、機、刀...etc.


But we will find from the concept-sememe tree of concept "医生(doctor)" that the father node of concept node "agent={~}" is "NONAME={doctor|医治}"，and so to the concept-sememe tree "护士 (nurse)", the father node of "agent={~}" is "NONAME={doctor|照顾}"，that is ,their corresponding father nodes are different, so we consider the concept node "agent={~}" of concept "医生(doctor)" is different from that of concept "护士(nurse)" in structure.

in these two concepts with five concept nodes, the same number of concept nodes is three, which is the most important reference to similarity computation between concepts.


Employing linear logic, it guarantees the semantic completeness and coherence of its results.

all of the requirements of the premises are satisfied and no unused premises remain in linear logic derivations.


The double-subject construction is classified into several types, and in the case of the above sentence, the topic marker wa is a proxy for the particle no representing a noun modifier [12].

the subject word hana and the topicalized word zoo have a part-whole relation.


If the language PROLOG can deal with all the sentences, then sense of Chinese characters mainly composed of sentences is not beyond the power of PROLOG.

fOPC can provide solid computational foundation to express the original sense of Chinese characters.


The well-known Distributional hypothesis (Harris 1964) claims that a sense of an ambiguous word is dependent on collocations around it.

an analysis on the collocations elucidates the sense of their keyword(s).


However, it is always a tough job to build a large-scale high-quality bilingual corpus.

when it comes to minority languages, the cost becomes almost unbearably expensive.


While the conventional view is that there exists an unbridgable gulf between DLR development and statistical NLP, in practice an increasingly symbiotic relationship has developed between the two (Baldwin et al., 2007).

indeed, statistical NLP has provided a strong consumer base for DLRs, as illustrated by the "core" English language technologies of: • POS tagging (developed primarily using the Penn Treebank (Marcus et al., 1993)) • treebank parsing (based almost exclusively on the Penn Treebank (Marcus et al., 1993)) • word sense disambiguation (based on SemCor (Landes et al., 1998) and the Senseval tasks) • semantic role labelling (based on PropBank (Palmer et al., 2005) and FrameNet (Baker et al., 1998)) not to say that it has been a one-way street, however, and modern-day DLR developers are calling upon statistical NLP techniques in more and more of their day to day work.


As the name suggests, in vitro DLA is based on analysis of lexemes in a context independent of the DLR we are looking to learn lexical items for.

we make use of a secondary LR or independent preprocessor to model lexical similarity, and use the target DLR only in classifying training instances.


using the tokeniser built in to a precision grammar), independent of any external pre-processor.

dLA which aligns templates from raw corpus data directly with classes in the target dLR is considered to be in vivo dLA.


Here, partially-specified lexical features are generated for an unknown word in a given sentence context via the constraints of syntacticallyinteracting words, and combined to form a consolidated lexical entry for that word.

rather than relying on indirect feature signatures to perform lexical acquisition, the DLR itself drives the incremental learning process.


But since semantic annotations capture semantic characteristics of linguistic material, it ought to be possible to interpret them as partial descriptions of the meaning of that material.

it should be possible to view semantic annotations as expressions in a language which has a well-defined semantics.


The treatment of annotation structures for semantic roles in connection with plural NPs brings all the issues relating to quantification.

the distributivity and relative scopes of quantified NPs in a sentence is nearly always only partially specified by the sentence and even not even fully by information from the context in which the sentence is used.


In general, we cannot hope to find definitions for words.

for very few words p will we find necessary and sufficient conditions, giving us axioms of the sort Rather, we will find many necessary conditions and many sufficient conditions.


At any point in this ascent, we can coarsen the granularity and view the complex entity that has been constructed as an indecomposable entity, itself ready to become the basis for another ascent.

this ascent is reflected in the common pattern or decomposition for verbs, which we can represent, not quite formally, as cause (a, change(at(b, c) a causes there to be a change of state from b being at c to b being at d. this schema, or something similar to it, has been central in much work on lexical semantics, including Gruber (1965), Jackendoff (1976), Hobbs (1974), talmy (1983), and Croft (1991).


Otherwise, there are no general constraints on the Hi and Lo regions.

the bottom of the Hi region and the top of the Lo region may be indeterminate with respect to the elements of the scale.


In any given context, the Hi and Lo operators will identify different regions of the scale.

the inferences we can draw from the fact that something is in the Hi region of a scale are context-dependent; indeed, inferences are always context-dependent.


In this paper, to avoid an overgrowth of notation, I will write where, strictly speaking, I should, in the ontologically promiscuous notation of Hobbs (1985a), write change(e 1 , e 2 ) ∧ p (e 1 , x) ∧ q (e 2 , x) This says that there is a change from the situation of p being true of x to the situation of q being true of x.

a very common pattern involves a change of location: there is a change from the situation of x being at y in s to x being at z in s. Here, at is the abstract figure-ground relation, so any domain conceptualized in terms of that automatically inherits the vocabulary provided by a theory of change.


The general pattern is this: where if y < z on s 1 , then u < v on s 2 .

if there is a change from x being at y on s 1 to x being at a higher point z on s 1 , then this causes there to be a change from w being at u on s 2 to w being at a higher point v on s 2 .


A concept closely related to causality is enablement.

it can be defined as follows: (∀ e 1 , e 2 )enable(e 1 , e 2 ) ≡ cause(not(e 1 ), not(e 2 )) e 1 enables e 2 if e 1 not happening will cause e 2 not to happen.


This again will not be defined, but axioms will link it in the right way with axiomatizations of belief and action, to make available intentional interpretations of human and other behavior.

these core theories should insure that people's actions can be seen as attempts to achieve their goals, given their beliefs.


According to this, in the rational result, agent j should know that i already had known ϕ, and i would know that j came to know ϕ.

rational effect (revised) : This formalization implies that the future states bifurcates into future dependent on whether the communication has been successful or not.


We suggest that bare NPs can occur in the complement position of V since it can be part of a syntactic complex predicate.

the bare NP object has dual function: namely, it fulfills as an argument of the subcategorizing verb, and it also forms a predicate with the selecting verb in syntax.


This minimal difference implies that our syntactic treatment of Nom/Acc asymmetry is on the right track.

the presence of Nom Case is compulsory in canonical subject position, viz., in non-dislocated position.


In normal context, it is not necessary to focalize the item you are going to return if it has a problem.

it is naturally expected that malfunctioning items will be returned to the store within a warranty period.


Hence, the distribution of bare NP subjects is closely related to discourse properties.

we have shown that such structural difference between bare NP subjects and bare NP objects results in various kind of asymmetries: high occurrence rate of bare NP objects, person/definiteness effects in bare NP subjects, and presence or absence of D-linked interpretation for bare WHs.


To build a support system that deals adequately with this situation, for this situation, we need to understand the requirements and the needs of communities, considered as integrated entities, and those of translators, considered as separate entities (Figure 1).

it is important to help translators at two levels: the translator level and the community level.


This argument can be supported by Giannakidou (2002)  If the hypothesis in (14) holds ture, we can presume that (12) is identical with (13).

we may also mean (13) only mentioning (12).


He argues that ne explétif represents a force as a movement from the positive to the negative.

ne explétif pre-captures movement toward the negative.


Martin (1987) argues that ne explétif occurs only in the context where there exists a contradiction between the real world and the alternative world and where the real world and the alternative world are both the possible world 5 .

the verbs or expressions causing ne explétif should presuppose that its complement is neither factive nor non-factive.


An examination of this corpus showed that the corpus also contained documents in languages that are closely-related to the identified minority language.

there were documents retrieved that are closely-related Philippine languages to the identified minority language Tagalog.


The goal in evaluating an Information Retrieval (IR) system is to measure its effectiveness, that is, the ability of the system to retrieve relevant documents.

precision and recall are used to measure the effectiveness of an IR system 10 .


Da3 is one if the most frequently used verbs, being ranked 16 in the list of most frequently used verbs in Chinese (Bei and Zhang, 1988).

gao (2001) explored the semantic properties of da3 and its prototypical meaning and categorized its semantic representations to show the systematic patterning of its meaning extensions.


Huang (2003) found out a semantic property for VbN construction in which bo+NPs only occur with accomplishment verbs, or activity verbs which are turned into accomplishments by adding bo+NP.

bo+NP cannot co-occur with stative verbs which cannot be changed into a telic event, as shown in (13).


Thus, it makes good biological sense that time should be understood in terms of things and motion."

the comprehension of the abstract time understood via space is biologically determined.


The rescue comes from Moro's (2000) idea that movement is driven by the search for antisymmetry.

"symmetry-breaking" serves as the driving force of "too-local" movement.


A well-known syntactic property of V-e-kata compounds is the intervention of other morpho-syntactic elements.

such elements as a topic marker, delimiters like -man 'only' and -to 'also', plural/manner markers, and even a case marker can intervene between the V-e and -kata (K-H Kim 1996, C-S Suh 1996, C-H Lee 2006).


My present study opens a direction for such study.

instead of building as many ontologies as the languages we study, we build a general ontology that has conceptual primitives like [ Figure], [MOVE], [Path], [Ground], [Co-Event], etc.


Kim K-H 2003, Hong 1991, Yeon 1996 argue psych-constructions have [+VOLITION] and it is one of the differences between psych-adjectives and their -eha-counterparts.

yeon (1996) does so by insisting acceptability of sentences in (8) which have adverbs ilpwule/uytocekulo 'on purpose' in them.


These two types are also different with respect to the projection of a full NP.

when BNs combine with its complement (dependent clause or determiner), not all can function as a full NP.


Just like the Head-Complement type of BNs, the complex-predicate BNs also select a dependent sentence realized as the complement: Notice that there is one difference from BNs like swu.

complex-predicate BNs are marked as carrying the feature LEX to reflect that it will form a head-lex-ph.


The Korean BNC (bound noun construction) display complex syntactic, semantic, and constructional properties.

their combinatorial possibilities with respect to the complement and predicate types call for a much finer-grained syntax.


NPS is similar to Chierchia's LPS, but different in (i) that NPS stores the indexes for other types of NPs in addition to pronouns and (ii) that NPS is not local.

the indexes stored in NPS can be percolated up beyond the minimal S domain.


(26) is the algorithm for calculating reflexive-antecedent pairs.

(26) is an implementation of idea in (12).


(4) jing-ming yi jie re dao si 精明一街熱到死 jing-ming first street hot DAO death "It is extremely hot on Jing-ming lst Street.

(5) na shi wu-liao dao si de jing-dian 那是無聊到死的景點 that be boring DAO death tourist place "an extremely boring place for visiting."


When it is an extreme state that plays the role of goal, the excessive dao appears.

the excessive meaning of dao is mainly brought by the element(s) following it.


We also see an interesting phenomenon in MSRA corpus that many named entities are consecutive without punctuations, especially the person names.

in MSRA testing data, nearly 20% named entities appear consecutively.


For instance, interrogative sentences are not only used for asking a question or making a request directly to the hearers, but also perform speech acts indirectly, including rejection, refutation, and reproach.

in an utterance, such indirect speech acts could also carry the speaker's psychological attitude (Kim, 2003), as shown in the following utterance.


This section outlines the semantic network representations of the Japanese word association databases.

the section briefly describes two separate databases of Japanese word associations-the Associative Concept Dictionary (ACD) and the Japanese Word Association Database (JWAD)-and the semantic network representations created from them.


Moreoever, Ravasz and Barabasi (2003) introduce the notion of clustering coefficient dependence on node degree as an index of the hierarchical structures found in real networkssuch as the WWW, the Actor Network based on the www.IMDB.com database-which are based on the hierarchical model of (Dorogovski, Goltsev, & Mendes, 2001).

the hierarchical nature of a network can be characterized by using the average clustering coefficient, C(k), of nodes with k degrees, which will follow a scaling law such as , where β is defined as a hierarchical exponent.


By comparing the frequency of English expressions with that of katakana expressions using the data in Tables 2 and 4, we found that adverbs and adjectives, such as "アップ" (up) and "デ ジタル" (digital), that are often used in Japanese are often expressed using katakana and that prepositions that are not used so often in Japanese are not often expressed using katakana.

we found a trend in which English expressions that have been used often in Japanese are likely to be expressed with katakana and English expressions that have not been used often in Japanese are likely to be expressed using the Roman alphabet.


The involvement of contrast in the argument clusters in (5) suggests a deeper link between such clusters and the concept of information structure.

it is natural to assume that derivation (1c), rather than (1b), applies in the case where the NPs are an information unit such as the "theme" or "rheme" in the sense of Steedman (2000aSteedman ( , 2000b.


The f-structure functional annotation algorithm assumes that each one of the syntactic units in the KTC4 representation corresponds to one sub-f-structure and that they combine with each other according to the unlabelled dependency relation provided in the KTC4 representation, to constitute one f-structure for the sentence as a whole.

what is projected from one node in a phrase-structure tree of a configurational language, such as English, is projected from one syntactic unit of Japanese.


We rather argue that multiple sluicing in English is the same kind as found in Bulgarian and Serbo-Croatian.

multiple sluicing in English is also derived by multiple wh-fronting which otherwise does not apply.


But [which] [for which] Bolinger (1978: 109) Incidentally, Bolinger notes that a certain restriction applies to the formation of more than one remnant wh-phrase.

the second remnant wh-phrase is required to be PP, not DP, which is shown by the contrast between grammatical (4) and ungrammatical (5): (5) *I know that in each instance one of the girls got something for one of the boys.


But [which] [which] The purpose of this paper is to probe into the nature of examples like (4).

we will investigate whether examples like (4) are analyzed on a par with corresponding examples in Bulgarian and Serbo-Croatian.


In (43) the moving wh-phrase which student can take scope at the embedded clause and then undergo further movement into Spec of the matrix CP (Saito and Murasugi (1992)).

it can take cyclic movement which consists of QR followed by wh-movement.


We rather have argued that two remnant wh-phrases in multiple sluicing reside in Spec of CP.

multiple sluicing in English constitutes a rare instance which is fed by multiple wh-fronting.


It has also been demonstrated that our proposed approach can provide a non-ad-hoc, principled account for the properties of the construction noted by Lasnik (2007) under the Gapping analysis.

the locality restriction on multiple sluicing, that is, the fact that multiple sluicing only occurs in a simple clause, follows from two things.


Although some problems were already raised with the Gapping analysis of multiple sluicing in the previous section, there still seems to be another problem with this analysis's treatment of the locality restriction.

it is to be noted that the similar locality restriction holds in the multiple sluicing construction of some languages which disallow rightward focus movement; for example, in Korean and Japanese, which are head-final languages.


This paper describes a preliminary work on prosody modeling aspect of a text-tospeech system for Thai.

the model is designed to predict symbolic markers from text (i.e., prosodic phrase boundaries, accent, and intonation boundaries), and then using these markers to generate pitch, intensity, and durational patterns for the synthesis module of the system.


The encoding of the prosodic structure is established by minimizing speech disrhythmy while maintaining the congruency with syntax.

each word in the sentence is assigned a prosodic feature called strength dynamic which is based on the dependency representation of syntax.


Presently, widespread use of text-to-speech technology is limited by its inability to produce highquality speech.

intelligibility and naturalness of synthetic speech is still not quite at the level acceptable by human listeners.


That is, intelligibility and naturalness of synthetic speech is still not quite at the level acceptable by human listeners.

the naturalness issue can be attributed to the lack of sophisticated prosody-generating scheme.


In grammatical analysis, discontinuity refers to the splitting of a construction by insertion of another grammatical unit.

discontinuity occurs when the elements which make up the constituents are interrupted by elements of another constituent in a sentence.


In addition, we utilize a prosodic encoding scheme that integrates both syntactic and rhythmic constraints.

the prosodic structure of an utterance is established by minimizing speech disrhythmy while maintaining the congruency with syntax.


In this paper, we construct the and through a clustering result.

if the cluster number of the i-th data is clustered into the c-th cluster, the i-th row vector of is constructed as follows: Here, is constructed via .


To overcome this problem, we evaluated the current clustering result using another object function after each iteration of NMF.


NMF-rfn in the table refers to our method.

we obtained the initial clustering results by Mcut and then improved it by performing NMF.


Figure 2 shows that the average accuracies of CLUTO, Mcut and NMF-rfn were 58.21%, 61.82% and 63.22% respectively.


It is noticeable that the constructions witheta select their verbs in restricted lexicon.


Certain parallelism between grammaticalization and the order of acquisition of polyfunctional words has been recognized in functional-cognitive linguistics.

the emergence and the acquisition of core meaning have been known to precede those of peripheral one.


An analysis was conducted of the learners' differential choice of modal markers for each block of 10 questions that required each modal marker as the correct answer from the viewpoints of L1 transfer and the development of interlanguage.

we examined the learners' differential choice of correct modal markers, i.e.


As a result, we obtained knowledge that the misclassifications of each classifier are often different, that is exclusive misclassifications.

a single classifier could classify a document correctly even though other single classifiers could not classify it correctly.


The values are computed beforehand from training data.

the values are determined from the results obtained from training data by using each classifier constructed from it.


In this paper we use the same training data for learning both the single classifier and the integration process.

this SVM obtains a hyperplane for the integration from the training data that is used in the learning process of the single classifiers.


We divided the data into three equal-sized folds in the same manner as the previous work (Pang et al., 2002).

we tested our method with three-fold cross-validation.


Our method can not classify a document into positive or negative correctly if every single classifier for the multiple classifier classifies it incorrectly.

our method contains the possibility that it can classify a document correctly if a single classifier identifies the class label (p/n) of a document correctly.


Demonstratives in Taiwanese, however, have not been fully investigated.

previous studies relating to Taiwanese demonstratives frequently restrict their analyses to syntactic patterns or semantic diversities.


The focus will be on various functions which hitlo can serve in spoken discourse.

the study will show that hitlo seems to serve an interactive function in Taiwanese Southern Min.


Hitlos occurring in this category can fulfill three different functions: to keep speech turn, to signal the planning difficulty or to indicate the boundary of discourse topics.

an interactive function in relation to the use of hitlo in spoken Taiwanese is witnessed.


According to Piaget (1926Piaget ( , 1928Piaget ( , 1929Piaget ( , 1956Piaget ( , 1958, children think in an ego-centric way up to the age of 7.

young children believe that they themselves are the center of the universe, and that all the others think in the same way like them.


Latter, they gradually grasp the impression that 'zhege' is used specifically under the context that when the speaker wants to refer to a near object while 'nage' is used to refer to a far object.

physical expressions may play a central role in assisting children to work out meanings of certain deictic terms.


Consider the sentence in (7):(7) Every student knows the same languages Informally (7) means that there are languages such that both Leo and Lea know them.

(7) should be interpreted with the object NP (its appropriate extension) taking wide scope over the subject NP.This fact can be represented precisely with the help of the notion of the case extension.


My proposal has been illustrated by some examples from Japanese and Polish, which have been used to show some interesting differences between reflexives in Japanese and in Polish.

some arguments have been given to show that the Japanese pronoun karejishin and Polish pronoun siebie correspond to the co-referential anaphors and as such are not reflexivisers.


The present study seeks to contribute to the ongoing interest in describing the discourse of advertising.

it aims to describe magazine ads in the Philippines in terms of their generic structures and linguistic properties, including speech acts performed by utterances.


Drawing upon the works of , the present study also analyzes the speech acts performed by utterances in the ads.

it uses  taxonomy of illocutionary acts consisting of five general types, namely, assertives (representatives), directives, commissives, declarations, and expressives.


That these ads contain sentence fragments may be explained in relevance-theoretic terms.

the absence of subjects and auxiliaries may make these ads more relevant to the reader because less processing effort is expended when reading them (Wilson and Sperber, 2004).


In addition, apart from the fact that all of them include the name of the product and/or company, mostly accompanied by a logo, their language is straightforward, with none of them appealing to the emotion and with all of them highlighting product features and positive benefits.

none of them may be considered 'tickle' ads.


But this probably is what makes ads persuasive in nature.

in order not to sound like direct selling which may be frowned upon by consumers, they include information to lend credibility to the claim.


First, the study found that the ads follow certain generic structures and that these structures are realized linguistically.

there are linguistic correlates with respect to the discourse structure of the print ads.


With respect to distinguishing between glossing and translation, meaning is assigned to the text through glossing only indirectly through the unavoidable fact that the ID-gloss, which is primarily intended to identify a sign, actually uses an English word that bears a relationship to the meaning of the sign.

the ID-gloss is not chosen arbitrarily or capriciously because the choice of the English word is highly motivated.


This is useful for an annotator who cannot find a particular sign because there is no gloss or keyword match to their initial enquiry (or at least one that is not expected and, hence, queried by the annotator).

an annotator is able to locate a sign with a similar form whose gloss or keyword is known or matches, and then manually search around that sign to see if the form they have seen in a text is recorded in the database despite there having been no initial gloss or keyword match (i.e., it may be entered under an unexpected gloss or keyword).


By following this convention it is possible to search for all instances of pointing signs in the corpus and on this basis analyse (or re-analyse), categorize (or re-categorize), and label (or re-label) them, as appropriate.

corpus evidence itself will assist in understanding the function of these types of signs.


In addition to the C avg , we also report the results in terms of the average equal-error-rate (EER).

we compute the EER for each of the target language and take their average as the performance measure.


In (Lee, You, and Li, 2008), we explored the use of acoustically-defined units, instead of the linguistically-defined phones, in characterizing speech utterances and spoken languages.

we train an ensemble of acoustic sound classes in a self-organized manner, each modeled with a Gaussian distribution, to form a speech sound inventory analogous to the phone inventory.


In general, it was found that the General LR tasks are relatively easier compared to the Chinese LR and the other dialect recognition (DR) tasks.

the Hindustani DR and Spanish DR tasks were the hardest, with C avg performance greater than 30%.


While better models and algorithms are certainly needed to handle word sense disambiguation the foundation of most algorithms of this sort is the availability of data on which to train the algorithms.

there is a need for both balanced and domain specific corpora where words have been manually disambiguated with respect to a lexicon.


CELT takes a certain reductionist approach to handling English grammar.

it does not attempt to handle all of English, as a full semantics of English is simply not possible at the moment.


When such a linguistic item is used, the hearer simply assumes that the required condition has been satisfied.

some information is delivered to the hearer because of the presence of the linguistic item.


The dominant approach to identify a presupposition is to try to isolate the non-truth-conditional meaning in a given sentence that includes the presupposition-trigger.

what we often assume to be a presupposition triggered by a linguistic item is discussed rather subjectively.


In this study, following the approach employed in Shudo (1998Shudo ( , 2002 and Shudo and Harada (2008), I will try to identify a presupposition by reconstructing a condition that the context must satisfy in order for the speaker to use the presupposition-trigger.

i will investigate the presupposition of even.


As for the performances of students on the quiz, not only Harry's but also those of others, the context of (2) and (3) should be identical.

what applies to the usage of even in (2), the existential presupposition, the scalar presupposition, etc, is expected to be present in (3).


Whatever the expression is, it is clear that a blind squirrel is one of the least likely candidates "to find an acorn," not "to find an acorn sometimes."

"sometimes" in (18) should be an item on a second dimension, the dimension of frequency to find an acorn.


Needless to say, we cannot expect others to have done better than expected in this case.

we can expect the correlational expectation to be preserved only when a factor affects everyone equally, such as the quiz was easy.


When the context is such that seven correct answers are more than expected of Harry's score, all of (31) should entail that Harry did better than expected (=(25)).

without the presence of even, the unexpectedness should be recognized by the hearer anyway.


On the other hand, (4d) can contribute to the contextual effect that has already been pointed out in (4b) by strengthening it.


We propose that there are six necessary and sufficient conditions for the use of a language resource.

to sustain use, the community's infrastructure must establish and maintain the following characteristics of a language resource: • The resource must be extant.


The Reference Model for an Open Archival Information System (CCSDS, 2002), the standard adopted as ISO 14721 in 2003, states that one of the fundamental functions of an archive is to ensure that the resources it archives are "independently understandable" by the designated user community.

the prospective user should be able to use the resource without needing to consult the creator to clarify any details of content.


The role of the Archive is to ensure that the resource to be preserved "is Independently Understandable to the Designated Community" (CCSDS, 2002:3-1).

the anticipated User should be able to understand the resource without needing the assistance of the Creator.


A recent World Development Report (World Bank, 2003:xiv) observes that sustainable development efforts fail when: • The actors fail to take the long view.

they opt for the short-term solution which ends up creating a bigger problem in the long term.


• The actors fail to represent dispersed interests.

powerful actors are driven by self interest with the result that they benefit at the expense of the less powerful who are adversely affected.


• The actors fail to commit to allowing assets to thrive.

over consumption or hoarding of resources leads to their ultimate loss.


When a match is found, on the other hand, among the set for a vowel verb, the stem of the vowel verb is computed to be a combination of both the preprocessed string and the initial onehiragana or syllable equivalent portion of the matched string 5 .

the stem of the vowel verb is a combination of the preprocessed string and the first one hiragana character consisting of a consonant followed by "e" or "i" or the first one hiragana character representing one of the two vowels /e/ or /i/.


The result was as follows:  Table 2 shows that errors of dictionary entries amount to 46.95% and errors of patterns cover 14.02%.

60.97% of total translation errors are caused by translation knowledge.


Here, we have splitted the 'NNE' class according to the POS information of the word.

given a POS tagset POS, we produce new |POS| classes, 'NNE-C'|CPOS .


Our analysis and comparative studies of the semantic symbol ontologies for the four hoofed-mammals show that they share similar conceptual structures strongly motivated by their functions in human society.

we show that the conceptual dependencies between the basic concept of a radical and the meanings of the derived characters can be explained by an enriched version of the Generative Lexicon.


In this paper, we take this approach further and try to account for each radical group as domain ontology headed by one basic concept.

we examine in details 4 radicals of animals: 羊 (yang2, bovid) , 鹿(lu4, deer), 牛(niu2, cattle) and 馬 (ma3, horse).


The former three languages have adpositions to introduce standards of comparison, while Dom-type languages has none.

dom-type languages cannot describe comparison in one sentence, as there is no way to introduce a standard of comparison into adjectival construction.


This formalism allows us to scope the difficult characteristics of the Korean that we can often find during automatic processing.

we are interested in the problem of cases in Korean including the phenomenon of double case.


As we have shown in this paper, this formalism allows us to scope the difficult characteristics of the Korean language.

we could consider the cases in Korean as operators which play an essential role in the Korean analysis.


In disyllabic words, for example, stress is almost always placed on the first syllable and in Korean polysyllabic words, depending on the weight of the first syllable, stress patterns of the words are divided into two categories.

if the first syllable is heavy 1 , stress is almost always placed on that syllable.


In order to examine how Korean-speaking ELLs process a stress in a Korean word, twenty-five Korean real words were selected and split into 5 subcategories with respect to their syllable structures, the number of syllables, the placement of stress in a word (see Appendix A).

nouns are dominantly employed for Korean (L1) testing items to match comparability of English (L2) items in terms of their syllable structures and stress patterns.


In particular, nouns are dominantly employed for Korean (L1) testing items to match comparability of English (L2) items in terms of their syllable structures and stress patterns.

the Korean verbs and adjectives corresponding to a syllable structure and stress pattern in English do exist but rarely.


2001), the waveforms retrieved from the recorded files were edited to measure the durations of vowels in a word.

a stress is typically assigned to the longer vowels than the neighboring vowels in the word.


The results of three language tasks suggest that Korean-speaking ELLs perform similarly on Korean real word regardless of the number of syllables and syllable structures, whereas they perform differently on English real and pseudo-word depending on the number of syllables and syllable structures.

their stress processing abilities are stable in Korean and unstable in English.


Similarly, for 3-syllable word, the significant differences were obtained between tasks, F (2, 126) = 408.93, p< .001.

multiple comparisons measured by Bonferroni analyses demonstrated the mean differences between Korean real word and English real word (p< .001), and between Korean real word and English pseudo-word (p< .001), but not between English real and pseudo-word.


More important, when the number of syllables increases, their stress processing abilities between the two languages apparently differed.

their stress awareness in Korean was stable regardless of the number of syllables, whereas that in English was unstable, thus decreases when the number of syllables increases.


Hence, we start on a preliminary study on the relationship between concreteness and WSD.

given the lexical sensitivity of the task, we are interested to see how this psycholinguistic factor bears on the difficulty of WSD, how it could be employed in fine-tuning WSD systems to accommodate the different information demand of individual target words, as well as its potential impact on evaluative measures.


Hence, we assume that the concreteness of a concept will make a difference on the most appropriate defining style.

it will be more difficult to define abstract concepts by means of genus and differentiae, and prototype, and they are more likely to be defined by synonyms and other means.


The latter has been investigated under the theme 'coherence relations'.

2 under the assumption, that the interpretation of the related segments needs to provide more information than is provided by the sum of the segments taken in isolation, text grammarians adopt the view that text segments are connected by coherence relations like CAUSE-CONSEQUENCE between them.


Its basic idea is to utilize the distinct distributions of terms and non-terms in different corpora to facilitate term extraction.

true terms are more prominent in their own subject field than in others.


The derivational morphology axioms (Table 6) can be seen as introducing frame-theoretic knowledge to the QA system.

it establishes a logical link between the semantic representations of intransitive and transitive verbs.


They are designed to equate the semantic representations of noun phrases signifying profession and sentences containing verbs signifying profession.

the presence of profession(X,Y) intrinsic noun literal results in the assertion of appropriate agent and event literals.


Firstly, due to the existence of a WordNet fact synonym(mencicipi,memakan), the synonym axiom asserts new literals for the synonym of 'mencicipi' (taste) term that is 'memakan' (eat).

it asserts event(e2,memakan), agent(e2,a), and patient(e2,p).


On the other hand, due to the existence of an Indonesian WordNet fact hypernym(apel,buah), the hypernym asserts new literals for the hypernym of 'apel' (apple) term that is buah (fruit).

it asserts object(q,buah), isA(y,q), dan(p,x,q), and patient(e,q).


Our proposed solution is to employ the genetic algorithm (GA), a widely-used heuristic search strategy that relies on random traversal of a search space with a bias towards more promising solutions.

it evolves a population of individuals over time, through an iterative process of evaluation, selection, and evolution.


We believe that handling the entire NLG process through GAs opens up the potential for various flexible approaches, which we discuss in Section 2.1.

employing GAs allows a measure of opportunistic planning (Section 1.2), where the evolutionary cycle enables fitness functions to recognize opportunities and provide feedback to the executor, i.e.


In GAs, the fitness function is where the bulk of domain-specific knowledge and heuristics is typically encoded.

for NLG, the fitness function serves as a metric, or more precisely a set of metrics, that measure whether a candidate text achieves the goals of fidelity and fluency.


Remember the semantic restriction on ga-desideratives in (7), repeated with slight modification as (15), and then compare them with their passive counterparts with gar(u) shown in (16): 6 As (16) suggests, passivization of the whole verbalized desiderative predicate is possible only when the non-passivized plain desiderative can take a nominative object.

gadesiderative predicates but not wo-desiderative predicates are passivizable.


syntactic piece : modifier => modificand A syntactic piece has useful characteristics.


(We treat the accepted E3 elements in section 3.5.)


This experiment applies requirement 2 in section 3.2 using the E3 lexicons.

the text includes words from the E3 lexicon for emotion e in greater numbers than E3 lexicon words for other emotions.


This paper describes a preliminary work on prosody modeling aspect of a spoken language understanding system for Thai.

the model is designed to integrate prosodics into a language model based on constraint dependency grammar.


The overall objective of this research is to study the role of prosody in the implementation of a spoken language understanding system for Thai since prosodic information has the potential to be used as a pruning mechanism at both the low and high levels of spoken language processing.

we specifically examine how salient prosodic features of Thai (e.g., stress) can be integrated with the overall language modeling scheme.


A maximum of two variables in a constraint allows for sufficient expressivity.

using predicate symbols and access functions, unary and binary constraints for a CDG grammar can be constructed.


We are planning to generalize the approach to cover a wider variety of sentences.

we are modifying our constraint network to tolerate multiple word candidates, which are prevalent in the spoken language domain, both for words in a particular word position (aligned) as well as for word candidates that overlap each other in time (unaligned).


On the WWW, where documents are numerous and increasing hourly, our goal is to provide an environment that supports users on finding and tracking the topics.

sensitive detection of new topics is needed there.


scores for trend-based clustering should reflect both growth and accumulative p nd Scores for Words and Document Expression ( ) n t w G , quantifies the degree of growth.

the value does not accurately reflect the current trend.


Though trend scores of words are updated whenever new documents arrive, 6 v (the vector of d 6 ) is never updated even if the new documents contain same words in d 6 .

weighted words in a document reflect the trends at the time of its arrival.


In addition, we change the value of n in each step of the bootstrap approach.

we decrease the value in the bootstrap process.


The number of sentences we extracted in this experiment is 5 for each seed sentence, that is 5-best list.

we extracted the top 5 sentences that possessed high similarity as the sentiment sentences that were estimated from each sample sentences.


In the experiment we focus on the selective usage of the multiple speech recognizer.

it is to select outputs from each recognizer.


In the alignment process of word pairs, we select pairs which have the minimum value of the edit distance.


In the experiment, the ranges of thresh utter and thresh word which were determined from training data were 0.24-0.26 and 0.08-0.13, respectively.

the changes of these thresholds were little in the cross-validation.


On the basis of this result, we evaluated our method with the edit distance measures only.

we used the rule 3 and 4 in Section 3.2.


), a semantically identifiable group of words in the sense that they all involve notions of motion, contact, and effect, do not allow causative alternations.

their subcategorization frames are affected by their meaning.


The question we raise in this paper is if the meaning restriction applies in a significant way to the realization of argument structure, if it does, to what extent it holds.

how much is a syntactic pattern tied up with the semantic properties of the English verbs?


Selectional preference, in this paper, refers to the degree of relationship between a lexicon and its relevant items.

this study seeks to figure out not merely whether a subcategorization frame can be realized or not, but how much relevance a verb has with the subcategorization frame.


Among them, the Lesk algorithm was adopted in this study, which measures incorporate information from WordNet glosses.

this algorithm 'finds overlaps between the glosses of concepts A and B, as well as concepts that are directly linked to A and B (Pedersen et al.


To begin with, we set up a critical value for discrimination.

if a value of a node is over the critical value, we assume the node and its descendant nodes are of significance.


(5b-c) are ungrammatical because the obligatory arguments are missing.

an adverbial phrase 'on the desk' in (5a) functions as an oblique complement.


On the other hand, it should be pointed out that when building the present training data, the annotators were selective in the choice of training instances of anaphora to be addressed.

ly, our work does not include instances of reference to compound antecedents (e.g., "The boy and the girl" referred as "They"), which may partially explain the higher success rates 3 .


As mentioned, in order to detect the subject-predicate semantic mismatch, many rules on the lexical level must be written.

the more lexical rules we have, the better is the the performance of the Controlled Korean Checker, hence Korean-English MT system expected to be.


We will explore it as a comparable corpus for variations of Chinese in this paper.

we propose a measure of top-bag-of-word similarity for comparing the language variants contained in Chinese GigaWord corpus.


This result indicates that the expansion is good.

our expansion method by syntactic pieces is found to be useful for this task.


In fact, the function BE/FEEL is what he made in order to distinguish the objective property of an entity from one's psychological state.

bE refers to the objective property while bE/FEEL requires experiencer as its argument and refers to one's psychological state.


First, the distinction between the two categories, correlative and non-correlative, must be made on the basis of the number of "semantic" argument that the predicate requires, and the number of arguments the predicate requires are determined ultimately by the meaning of the predicate itself.

instead of using the context or the construction as the criterion of distinguishing the two types of categories as he originally suggests, J-N Kim uses the meaning of the adjectives as the criterion for the distinction between correlative and non-correlative adjectives.


I attribute this characteristic, as H-K Yoo (1998) also noticed, to the semantic change the adjective is going through.

kipputa 'pleased' originally meant only one's psychological state but its meaning is becoming ambiguous between 'pleased' and 'pleasing' at least when it modifies the NP sosik 'news' or nal 'day' as time goes by.


The motivation for using Conceptual Semantics comes from our view on the overall architecture of the language faculty.

we take the tripartite parallel model as more realistic than Chomskyan syntactocentric models in accounting for human language faculty, and Conceptual Semantics, unlike many other LCS theories that go along with the syntactocentric models (e.g.


(11) captures important differences between see and look at.


Second, the fact that the default structure of evaluative/property adjectives, which is (13a), has only one argument but (13b) has two arguments implies that the argument Y in (13b) is optional.

it is not the main argument that the adjective necessarily takes; rather, its syntactic status is closer to adjunct.


Jackendoff 2007divides psych-adjectives into two groups according to the nature of the psychological state they refer to.

some psych-adjectives can refer to "pure feelings" or feelings connected to a particular stimulus, and others can refer to only feelings that are directed toward a stimulus.


In general, the latent variables indicate the topics of each segment (some sentences for text or some utterances for speech), and we can use the topic information indicated by the latent variables of the model as a compact surrogate expression for a given feature vector of an utterance.

we can use these models to reduce the dimension of the feature space.


Therefore, paraphrasing techniques seem to be promising approaches to understand the variety of expressions.

in Japanese, the ending of a sentence or utterance has many expressions even though they convey the same meaning.


However, numbers and proper names are generalized by eliminating this basic form.

the features of the numbers and proper names are recognized by only by their POS.


The introduction of a paraphraser that reduces the variety of expressions showed good results.

in Japanese, there are many euphemisms for asking someone to perform a particular task.


Several points remain for our future work as follows: A further analysis of the classification results would be useful.

we have to investigate whether the compressed feature space produced by PLSI is really effective for DA classification or not.


The scopes of those coordinate structures should not be crossed.

one coordinae structure either have exclusive scope with the other coordinate structures or is entirely included in the other coordinate structures.


The heuristic for approaching gesture in the present context is to use linguistic models rather than psychological or sociological ones.

gestural communication is treated formally and empirically pretty much in the same way as spoken language, with the exception of a switch from auditory to the visual modality.


The forms, structures and functions of gestures will be taken to be analogous to the forms, structures and functions of speech.

the relation of gestures to speech will be taken to be analogous to the relation of prosody as temporally parallel to speech.


computational lexicography, parsing, word sense disambiguation, semantic role labeling, information extraction, question-answering, and machine translation (Swier and Stevenson, 2004;Dang, 2004;Shi and Mihalcea, 2005;Kipper et al., 2008;Zapirain et al., 2008).

useful are classes which capture generalizations over a range of (cross-)linguistic properties, such as the ones proposed by Levin (1993).


The most common evaluation resource in English verb classification has been that of Levin (1993) supplemented with additional information from VerbNet or WordNet.

two gold standards based on (Levin, 1993) have been used to evaluate much of the recent research: GS1 The gold standard of Joanis et al.


many high frequency verbs have several senses and can therefore be members of several classes.


This semantic complex predicate is actually syntactically realized in Korean, Chinese, and Japanese.

the Korean expression kkwul-anc 'kneel.down-sit' in (17a), pao-lei 'run-tired' in the Chinese example in (17b) and the Japanese yake-sin 'burn-die' in (17c) are complex predicates.


A necessary extension is made for generating the next sentence given a previous sentence.

when generating the second sentence, we regard the first sentence as the source language sentence in a MT task and regard the second sentence as the target language sentence.


We propose a flexible framework, which can effectively complement stateof-the-art statistical IE systems with rule-based IE systems for web data, and achieves substantial improvement over other existing systems.

in our current experiment, both the rule-based IE system, which is designed according to some web specific expression patterns, and the statistical IE systems, which are developed for some homogeneous corpora, are sensitive only to specific information types.


Alternatively, some emotion theories suggest that an emotion can be represented in a compositional way.

an emotion is expressed by a vector with fixed dimensions.


On the other hand, if the universal quantifier occurred inside the restrictor DRS of another quantifier, as in (13) and (16), it must be blocked from introducing its own restrictor DRS out of it.

the restrictor DRS of a quantifier or conditional operator must play the role of a barrier which blocks a quantifier phrase in it from introducing its restrictor DRS out of it.


An important side contribution of our paper is the development of a state-of-the-art, freely distributed POS tagger for French.

1 we here adopt a maximum entropy (MaxEnt) sequential classification approach.


9 The test procedure relies on a beam search to find the most probable tag sequence for a given sentence.

each sentence is decoded from left to right and we maintain for each word w i 6 Available from http://www.cs.utah.edu/~hal/megam/.


In a learning-based tagging approach, there is another possibility to accommodate the extra information provided by Lefff : we can directly incorporate the tags associated by Lefff to each word in the form of features.

for each word, we posit a new lexical feature for each of its possible tags according to the Lefff , as well as a feature that represents the disjunction of all Lefff tags (provided there is more than one).


It predicts the POS tags based on feature information of words collected in a predefined window size while ME or CRF predicts them based on the information of the whole sentence.

sVMs achieve high generalization even with training data of a very high dimension.


The results show that it is possible to use the particular sets of adjectives and adverbs to classify genres.

speaker-oriented adverbs are found to be more effective than trait adjectives and adverbs.


This article reports an investigation into the use of adjectives to classify texts.

the investigation focuses on the density of adjectives, defined as the proportion of adjectives amongst word tokens, as a characteristic of text formality that can be applied to effective text classification.


Based on D, the Spearman rank correlation coefficient r s was calculated between the automatic ranking of adjective density and human ranking according to the formula: As a result, the value of the Spearman rank correlation coefficient is 0.833, which is significant at the level of 0.02.

there is strong evidence of agreement between the automatic ranking of adjective density and the manual ranking.


The Spearman rank correlation coefficient shows a significant degree of agreement between such an automatic ranking and manual ranking.

formal text categories tend to have a higher adjective density than informal text categories.


The results in all of the three settings show that the expected automatic ranking correlates significantly well with both manual and automatic rankings.

the adaptation of the model to test dataset demonstrates a satisfactory level of performance.


By normalizing these probabilities, we get a C-dimensional Multinomial distribution p(y = k|λ), whose parameter λ reflects the probabilities that the document belongs to each category.

is actually the logistic normal distribution taken in Correlated Topic Model (Blei and Lafferty, 2005).


As document labels are observed variables, to best generate the data, the multinomial parameter λ needs to be as sparse as possible.

the parameter component corresponding to the document's category should be large while other components should be small.


Semantic parsing of text corpora is needed to support tasks such as information extraction and question-answering.

shallow semantic parsing focuses on identifying the semantic roles of the arguments of a verb (or any predicate) rather than parsing the whole sentence in detail.


(2) To justify whether a given model would bring benefit when combined with another, the key lies in the fraction of additional information it can provide.

high performance model does not necessitate guaranteeing high performance in the combined model.


Inspired by (Yang et al., 2007b), suggesting that the last sentence plays an important role in determining the overall emotion of a blog document, at run-time we take some sentential characteristics into account.

we attempt to distinguish sentences with these characteristics from those without.


Also, we find that errors regarding the originally neutral reviews were quite spread out.

reviews labeled as 3 in the gold standard might be wrongly classified into 1, 2, 4, and 5 with some proportion.


Related question is how this can be proved by some statistical tests.

the questions that involve statistical issues to be addressed in this paper are: 1) What are the intensifying adverbs characteristically used by female and male speakers respectively?


So it seems there are some unresolved questions regarding the size of the reference corpus.

we would like to address two questions in our current research: 1) If the reference corpus should be larger than target corpus, then how much larger should it be.


It is rather remarkable that the dispersion values fluctuate along the sampling rates, which seem to indicate that some of the key words might not be stable as representative words of the subcorpus.

although the ratio of one to one gives a better result, the dispersion value of some of them, say well, drops to 0.426 from 0.825, meaning that it becomes less solid as a typical word of the subcorpus.


is given for the summarization for the information credibility.

we assume that a user enters a statement, and he/she would like to verify its credibility, such as a query in information retrieval.


Furthermore, while a user's judgment is supported by presenting the reasons of each statement in the former case, it is supported by presenting the situations of the coexistence in the latter case.

in addition to informing a user of the contents described in source documents, presenting how to interpret the contents, which may be also included in a passage extracted from Web documents, is significant for the summarization for the information credibility.


The method using uniqueness could not improve the ranking of sentences in the topic of metabolic syndrome, because expressions in an argument point of the topic are not diverse.

the number of sentences, which are not similar to other sentences and are significant, in the topic of metabolic syndrome is fewer than the ones in other topics.


Note that some of the answer sentences adopted in the experiment in section 5.2 are not used in the extractive summaries.

we adopted a stricter criterion of significant sentence in this experiment.


The precisions in the top 30 results are the highest in comparison with the precisions in the top 50 results and the top 100 results, and the precisions in the top 50 results is higher than the precisions in the top 100 results.

significant passages are ranked higher by the proposed method.


Type I LDA is characterized by the following properties: 1) The antecedent must c-command the LDA; 2) The antecedent must be clause-internal; 3) Sloppy readings are required and/or preferred in VP ellipsis contexts.

except for being bound in a larger domain than local (core) anaphors, these LDAs must be bound grammar-internally.


The following hypotheses suggest themselves: Hypothesis A: 'Caki' is a Type I LDA.

it is a core anaphor with a larger GC than 'caki-casin' (i.e., neither the TSC nor the SSC defines its GC).


The test materials were composed of 54 Korean sentences (39 target items and 15 nontarget items) illustrating various types of sentences containing LD-bound 'caki'.

the target items included sentences with LD-bound 'caki' that involved only TSC violations, those with both SSC and TSC violations, sentences where the LD antecedents differed in terms of their logophoric role (SOURCE, SELF, PIVOT and Less Logophoric antecedent), sentences instantiating different grammatical relations and structural relationships of antecedents vis-à-vis the anaphor (i.e.