Moreover, due to difficulties in utterance disentanglement similarily shown in Elsner and Charniak (2008)), we expect reduced effectiveness over our data of such information (although some degree of interaction exists).

to partly help with disentanglement, we noticed that some users mentioned the user name(s) of the users they are responding to in their posts, which allows us to identify the utterances they link to.


The semi-asynchronous nature of the interaction also poses serious issues for disentanglement, thus adding more difficulty in identifying the association between dialogue acts and structural information.

term counts and user ids improved the performance slightly over NPS casual chats.


Conventionally, DLA has been applied to high-resourced languages such as English, German or Japanese to broaden the coverage of a medium-coverage resource, or enrich existing linguistic annotation in resources.

it also has tremendous potential in accelerating the documentation of low-density languages, a fact that is often discussed but very rarely delivered on in the literature.


This follows our intuition, and that of corpus-based computational linguistics over the past few decades.

the Web will not be the provider of that data.


Any Wambaya text that was returned by the search engine was swamped by other data, to the point where a Web frequencybased system was utterly hopeless -in contrast to other observations of such a system.

machine learning provided a promising approach in terms of having a high precision system that can actually make a non-trivial number of classifications, even from a small amount of data.


The spread of corpus and lexical resources in linguistics has been led to a great level of theoretical survey and enhanced the empirical foundation, not only with respect to sampling and annotation, but also with exploratory data analysis.

more recently there have been long discussions about what the current state of art in corpus linguistics fails to do, which can be pinpointed at least in two respects: (1) the lack of socio-cultural (meta-) information reflected in the data, is incompetent for pragmatic usages and discourse analysis; (2) rather skewed with data in the public domain, heterogeneity of (individualized) language usages and development is not able to be traced.


With its versatility in processing and exploring corpus data, the limitations we encountered with this framework so far lie in two aspects: First, due to the free service provided by Google, the experiment is largely dependent on the services provided by the  Table APIs commercial company, which could be a weak point in terms of stability in the future; and (2) what is also at stake here is indeed the embedded use of other tools and APIs can be a problem due to their compatibility with Google services.

with the downside mentioned, we believe that much more can be improved with respect to the likelihood of future convergence for the open collaboration between academic and commercial fields.


Pennacchiotti and Pantel (2011) proposed a method for the automatic construction of training data for the classification approach.

these researchers did not target set expansion for multiple semantic categories.


To acquire those instances, the algorithm requires knowledge about exclusiveness constraint between categories and links between categories (e.g., an instance of the CEO category must be CEO of some instance of the company category).

the algorithm uses only the exclusiveness constraint as prior knowledge related to multiple semantic categories.


Ontology learning (Maedche and Staab, 2001;Navigli et al., 2003) is the task of constructing hierarchical structure of ontology by extracting terms and ontological relations between terms.

this study utilizes an existing resource as a hierarchical structure of ontology, and expands the list of instances of semantic categories on the hierarchical structure.


In Espresso, some instances (e.g., "Hachiman Shrine" and "Dazaifu Tenman-gu") were identified as instances of both Shinto shrine and temple categories.

espresso + exclusiveness constraint prohibits an instance from belonging to multiple categories and tries to choose the best category for the instance.


Some documents have headlines and they often have a key role to interpret the documents.

we remove the headlines from the annotation target 537 (2) Still farming village and construction-ACC focus on damage-NOM is increasing.


In web pages, some documents do not have sentences acting as an abstract and some documents cannot be understood without headlines.

if the headlines are the date of the blog articles, the documents can be understood without headlines.


In Figure 3, (Mefu shrine) appears in the 6th sentence.

does not appear in the first three sentences, so that it is difficult to understand the context that the author was going to Mefu shrine.


In Figure 1, the author appears in the discourse but there is no mention of the author.

the author/reader are mentioned in the documents by various expressions other than personal pronouns.


As an individual feature, each entropy based feature performs similarly to other features.

the combination of the entropy based features are the best performing features among all.


This ontology uses a type structure, argument structure, qualia structure and an event structure for every entry, and couples them with phrase structure schemata.

as discussed in section 2, this approach works only for nouns whose qualia are defined in the lexicon and which adhere to the type of the modifiers and the action prescribed in the qualia.


The Constituent-Context Model (CCM) achieves promising results for unsupervised grammar induction.

its performance drops for longer sentences.


The Constituent-Context Model (Klein and Manning, 2002;Klein, 2005) is the first unsupervised constituency grammar induction system that achieves better performance than the trivial right branching baseline for English.

the performance of CCM degrades on long sentences.


The strategy used in evaluating the phrasal similarity score from the component token similarity scores is critical in deciding the overall performance of the MEANT metric, as role fillers are often phrases.

to the arithmetic mean and competitive linking strategies we show that that using the geometric mean for this purpose is more reliable.


Consequently, the selection of the object mado 'window' as the semantic subject of resultative phrase in (4) still conforms to the generalization that resultative phrases with a transitive verb are object-oriented.

paraphrasing of the resultative phrase as a clause mado-ga ooki-i 'The window is big' fails because the predicative adjective ooki-i 'big' induces the interpretation of the subject mado 'window' as a physical object rather than an aperture.


In these examples in (16), the suffix -ly of beautifully and heavily is obligatory, and hence morphologically they are clearly adverbs.

they are distinct from typical manner adverbs in that beautifully does not describe the manner of their decorating the room in (16a), and it is not the manner of their loading action that is heavy in (16b).


The sentence is, however, unacceptable with the resultative phrase probably because the ground is generally perceived as a flat entity, and it is hard to interpret the adjective phrase as a description of the result of a change, or as an adverbial which describes the manner of scraping.

replacing the object with yama 'mountain', makes the sentence acceptable as shown in (18b).


(7) *张三 开始 一 本 书。 zhangsan kaishi yi ben shu Zhangsan begin one CL book 'Zhangsan began a book.'

other researches paint a different picture.


(4) ku-ka ecirep -tay [-tay: reportative] he-NOM dizzy-REPORT -DEC 'He says he is dizzy' or 'He is said to be dizzy.'

in an interrogative sentence in the present tense, the second person subject, not the first person subject, is acceptable, asking the hearer = the speaker-to-be about her/his psychological state.


Lasersohn adds a judge to the index of evaluation, which becomes a triple <w,t,j> of world, time, and judge.

x tastes good to j in w at t] (10) [[This cake is tasty]] c; w,t,j = 1 iff this cake is tasty to j in w at t. j can shift from me the speaker to him a non-speaker, depending on a judge salient in the context in English.


happiness and anger) f. occurrent thought (e.g.

the experience of reflecting and deciding) we have one finer distinction between outer-directed and inner-directed in evidentials and psych-predicates in Korean, which we need, even though they may be considered in the same wider subjective experience category.


?Nay-ka pap-ul mek-te-ra I-NOM rice-ACC eat-TE-DEC '[I observed] I was eating rice.'

there occurs a very interesting contrast between (16a) and (16b).


In addition, some NMCs expressing the formal quale with a clausal (hence structurally more complex) modifier are also noticed in the children's speech at an early age, albeit not frequently attested in the current corpus (see examples of the RC type-NMCs in Table 1).

to clarify, we are not claiming that structural complexity has no or only an insignificant role to play here.


But this analysis does not seem to have any repertoire of deep explanatory devices for the above state of affairs.

the GL mechanism offers a fundamental answer to the question of where the verb pel-'earn' comes---it is exactly the agentive quale of the (social artifact) noun head ton 'money,' which can be represented as follows: In (23), ton 'money' is something (x) that an agent (z) earns by (causal means) doing something (y).


Thus it would not be implausible to assume the adjectival modifier here is in fact a clause, as has also been suggested in Kaynean approach.

we can tentatively say that the range of GRCs under discussion does not involve any purpose (telic) role.


Basically SIs should be global because they arise by comparing strengths of whole alternative statements.

there are a lot of examples in which local SIs are preferable.


Localists' approaches may look more systematic, manageable and more constrained than globalists', because they are based on syntactic structures and calculation of SIs is precisely defined.

one theoretically serious problem with localists is that, as Horn (1989) pointed out, SIs do not arise within downward entailing contexts and that SIs are based on strengths of statements as a whole.


Horn (1972,1989) proposed a set of scalar terms to capture SIs.

there are scales that are 1 It is sometimes pointed out that there is a subtle difference between the two sentences, but the effect is clearly what we need.


I do not have to follow the Neo-Gricean tradition, because it is assumed that a SI arises by comparing the meanings of alternative statements.

scalar alternatives make themselves more salient than others.


Cs and PMs thus do seem to be largely complimentarily distributed in languages.

22 languages have both, as seen in Table 2.


Traditionally it has been claimed that C/PM do not co-occur on N in Mandarin.

recent data from corpus and the Internet indicate that C and -men, a PM for human nouns, do co-occur, indicating variation in grammaticality judgment among Mandarin speakers (e.g., Her 2012a).


More significantly, experiments conducted by Gordan (2005) and Everett and Madora (2012) show that monolingual Pirahã speakers are only able to conceptualize an exact numerical quantity equal to or smaller than three.

the notion of 'count' only requires the concept of individual via the notion of one (Yi, 2009:219).


We concur with Her (2012a) that this generalization exists because it reflects C/PM's identical mathematical function as a multiplicand with the value of 1 and the cognitive function of highlighting the discreteness, or the count nature, of the noun.

genuine exceptions, where C/PM co-occur on N in 11 languages out of 114 examined, do pose a challenge to the unification of Cs and PMs.


Previous studies provide various strategies to enrich the methods for generating utterances, thus making the conversation systems or agents appear more interesting.

most previous works tend to rely on templates and therefore are not able to perform flexible conversationutterance generation.


Abstraction is considered as a means to address the sparseness problem when generating predicate arguments.

in case two nouns with opposite polarities have the same superordinate concept, abstraction might become kind of side effect.


This database contains 31 kinds of basic emoticons belonging to five emotion categories each with its own relative strength.

as described in Section 4, our schema has nine kinds of emotion-classification, which is different from that of Kawakami.


These hybrid methods employ more or fewer rules for statistical methods to obtain an optimal efficiency of identification.

the rules these methods used are created by the people, which cause these methods are not suitable for other new word composition schemas (Zhang et al., 2006;Jiang et al., 2011;Xi et al., 2012).


In terms of process, the acoustic perception of speech inevitably introduces two systems consisting of phones, the physical property of acoustic signals; and phonemes, the mental representation or classification of meaningful sound units (Ladefoged, 1993).

the motor theory believes that we only perceive speech sounds (not other acoustic signal) through gestures because only linguistic sounds own gestural properties.


This claim has been more amplifiably proven by this experiment because variations in gestures have caused serious perceptual problems, but not the 'crucial' acoustic cue of formant transition in L2 perceivers.

empirical studies seldom provided counter-evidence to the claims it has made.


In results in L1 that distinguishes accuracy in acoustic/speech sound perception, we can either say the salient different result of perceiving full CV words and CV transitions is because of the normalization of acoustic sound into speech sound category through extensive statistical learning; or, alternatively, we can also say that gestures are the distal objects that humans perceive directly as categories.

in L2, it is easier to see whether pure acoustic sounds are perceived as linguistic sound, or if gestures play a part too.


They either deleted the [r] or substituted it to [w] (Hung, 2002;Chan, 2006).

for alveolar clusters (tr-and dr-), previous studies showed that considerable affrication was a feature of their production (Lan and Oh, 2012).


Note that the contrast of gestural scores for the [r] part in tr-i and ch-i is clear, because the [r] in /i/ environment shows both TT backward and TB retraction; whereas in ch-i, TT was always in forward position and TB always in rest position.

the contrast of in tr-u and ch-u is more opaque because the TT and TB for both trand chwords are eventually attaining the same position.


This shows that acoustic sound is not a basis for L2 speech perception and the results supports the motor theory that speech is not perceived through sounds exclusively.

the result that L2 speakers having an intermediate rate of successfully perceiving the L2 sounds raises questions towards motor theory's claim that the language modular is innate and cannot be shaped by experience.


However, they did not point out whether students had the same problems when they pronounced the disyllabic words.

there are three common errors made by Japanese students in pronouncing Chinese (Zhu 1994)-flat tone, mispronunciation of multi-syllabic words, and stress of the neutral tone.


The initial tone 2 (rising tone) requires a swift rising of the voice.

we can hardly see this tendency from the subject's pitch contour in Figure 6 and 7, in which tone 2 is even lower than the level of tone 1.


Despite some intrinsic weaknesses, word association techniques offer first-hand psycholinguistic evidence of our mental lexicon especially for revealing the extensiveness of the network and the different kinds of semantic associations among concepts in it.

large-scale association norms obtained from native Chinese speakers comparable to those in English and other languages are lacking.


Many of these studies used high-point analysis or story grammar to analyze preschoolers' narrative structure.

very little is known about older Mandarin children's ability to relate narrative events.


This suggests that it may take even longer than from grades 3 to 10 for the bilinguals to develop Cognitive  Academic Language Proficiency (CALP).Perhaps it is not until after even more years of immersion in English, such as university studies in an English speaking country the bilinguals develop CALP on par with native speakers, and then start to experience the cognitive advantages of bilingualism.

in relation to the differences between early and late bilinguals the findings of previous research are supported by this study.


Learner corpora have been used to study the written language of learners from different backgrounds, in terms of mother tongue.

little research has been done on the spoken language produced by learners.


The importance of corpus studies and applications has been stated in recent international conferences on Applied Linguistics held in Taiwan Teaching and Learning (19-21 April 2012), and the 2012 LTTC International Conference: The Making of a Translator (28-29 April 2012)).

there has hitherto been no learner corpus of spoken English available for research purposes.


In these shared tasks, datasets for English, Italian, Spanish, Chinese, and Korean are provided.

there is no such resource for the Japanese language.


The difference between @value and @valueFromSurface shows the use of the normalisation procedure.

we cannot judge whether the ⟨TIMEX3⟩ is fully normalised (fully specified) or under-specified.


Each of them is grounded on a particular framework with certain assumptions, one more suited for certain applications than the others.

to account for a fuller spectrum of the multifaceted nature of language meanings, multiple complementary resources are often linked and combined.


(ii) Or by deleting the subject Petr (the right part of the scheme).

3 this simplification results in an incorrect word order variant starting with a clitic 4 *Se bojí o otce; thus the change of word order (the shift operation) is enforced → shif t Bojí se o otce.


We already know that in order to reduce this sentence completely we need two more shift operations, therefore the total number of shifts reaches 3.

in this case the application of the option (c) mentioned in example (4), shifting the main verb, Section 4.2, brings a better result.


Since Chinese phenomena often cannot be explained using the terminology and assumptions of the Western linguistic tradition, HPSG provides us with a 'neutral' framework for the formalization of language-specific phenomena based on which more general principles can be derived.

• to most formal theories, HPSG is not a syntax-driven framework.


Besides, two dissertations, namely Gang (1997) and Gao (2000), provide overall sketches of HPSG grammars for Chinese.

there are two ongoing efforts in grammar development for Chinese, presented in Wang et al.


The statistical machine translation (SMT) has been well developed from a basis of data-drive idea since the work of (Brown et al., 1993).

a large amount of parallel corpora are always necessary to build a standard SMT system for a specific language pair, regardless of the possible useful linkages between these two languages.


In fact, Chinese, Vietnamese and Korean are the victims of a large amount of homophones in their vocabulary.

modern Korean and Vietnamese that have adopted alphabetic writing systems are more easily plagued by this problem than Chinese as the latter may respite the difficulty by assigning different Chinese characters to respectively record different meanings of the same pronunciation.


As we are finding a pivot written form for Vietnamese to Chinese MT, Chữ Nôm looks like a good candidate.

three reasons make Chữ Nôm unable to fulfill the task.


Both Korean and Japanese belong to agglutinative languages, which seems that the above second condition is not met.

using Chinese character based writing traditionally or currently, a stable correspondence between meaning and writing for both languages can be generally found 8 .


Furthermore, Stage 2 also fails to rectify this meaning-drift word due to the limitation of our synonymous dictionary.

if we only concern about the first character '赏' of the word '赏识', it will be acceptable for Chinese readers, as two basic senses of '赏' are 'enjoy' and 'award', though '赏茶' is not a usual expression in Chinese for saying 'enjoy tea'.


The language pair under consideration is Chinese-to-Japanese, which despite their common roots, it is a well known language pair for their different sentence structure.

syntax-based pre-reordering techniques are sensitive to parsing errors, but insight into their relationship has been elusive.


Our objective is to profile general parsing errors' distribution.

this does not imply that those errors are the cause of the reordering errors.


This assumption is also confirmed by the average τ value between Auto-DPC and Gold-DPC.


According to the definition, every head-error has at least one corresponding dependent-error.

in the case that a token is not the root in a gold-tree but is root in the wrong tree, this token is a dependent-error corresponding with no headerror.


In our analysis, we will compute these counts for all POS tags at every sentence in our data set.

our reordering method performed differently at each sentence in our data set, and the reordering quality varied from sentence to sentence.


The dependenterror on VV accounts for a larger proportion in low reordering accuracy sentences whereas more NN dependent-error occurred in high reordering accuracy sentences.

the proportion of PU dependent-error is more consistent.


Thus, DPC reorders not only Vb-H, but also Vb-D in a Vb, which means that the failure on identifying Vbs may also cause unexpected reordering on particles, such as aspect markers.

in this work, we only focus on reordering issues of Vb-H candidates 9 .


Root-C is the case where a Vb-H candidate has been wrongly parsed as the root of the sentence.

it only affects the reordering with two constrains, namely that RM-D of the Vb-H candidate does not exist and Vb-H is not involved in a bei-construction.


For instance, the Vb-H "should" in the example of Figure 6 was recognized as root in auto-parse tree in Figure 6b.

the actual root is the Vb-H "is" in gold tree of Figure 6a.


In Figure 7a, the word alignment shows that the Vb-H "agree" should be reordered to the end of the sentence.

it will not be reordered for the wrong parse tree shown in Figure 7b.


However, since the reduplicated verb still denotes one prolonged event, we must account for this difference from nominal reduplication (which denotes a collection of distinct, individuated members) in terms of cumulativity.

it is also possible for verb reduplication to contain non-cumulative and quantized subevents.


Therefore the multiple spots of the colour would result in a diminutive reading, through the dispersive reading.

the iconicity theory cannot explain the Cantonese examples like (26), where there cannot be a dispersive reading.


Second, the iconicity account does not explain the reduplication of adjectives that must describe the entity as a whole, but not a part, such as (26).

cumulativity can handle such cases without relying on an intermediate dispersive reading, which is not always available.


Under the causativization approach, he proposes a set tions alone suggest that the common base approach must be taken to account for equipollent alternations, as in (2)a-(2)j, which involve overt affixes for both the causative and the inchoative alternants.

the same line of reasoning also suggests that causativization of inchoative verbs and anticausativization of causative verbs may be involved in (2)k-(2)m and (2)n-(2)o, respectively.


If this head is assumed to be present, we will need to consider the following structure as a possible MIC, in addition to those in (18) (and 8 25, then the presence of an agent is necessarily implied.

if VOICE is not part of its MIC, then the presence of an agent is not required.


The argument is of a simple, brute-force nature and takes into account various alternatives including even the ones which might be dismissed as implausible without a moment's thought.

it clearly shows, by utilizing the locality requirements imposed on phrasal idioms, that the causative and inchoative verbs in the causative alternation are best analyzed in terms of the common base approach.


Therefore the result of relative pitch height could be noted as realized in one of the following situations:  R1 is the higher segment of the DR (Higher R1)  R2 is the higher segment of the DR (Higher R2)  R1 and R2 are perceived as realized in the same pitch height (Same)  No comparable result could be yield as for which segment of R1/R2 is higher (No result) From Figure 1 it is demonstrated that for most of the DR instances in both languages R2 is perceived as relatively higher when executing the repair (For French recyclings: 64/150, 42.6%; Mandarin: 79/150, 52.7%).

about 20% of the recycling instances in both languages are realized with higher R1 (For French DRs: 33/150, 22%; Mandarin: 31/150, 20.6%).


Example 5is an instance of the 'measure' group where a lot (N1) denotes quantity.

if N1 does not belong to the categories of 'measure', 'support' or 'focus' noun groups, we assign the utterance to the N1head category on the condition that only N1 is modified (denoted as m-N1).


The proportion of N1-heads is equal in each verb, with a rate of approximately 16 percent.

as for both the proportions of N2-and double-heads, the frequencies vary between the two classes.


In other words, we would expect an evaluation embedded in the of-nominals by means of modified N1 or factual nouns found in the 'support' group.

some grey areas for categorization were encountered for 'support' and 'focus' groups and nominalization.


This may explain why two pairs of spatial particles have been observed to manifest symmetrical correlation with similar sets of entities.

our interaction with the environment along the dimension of the boundedness appears rather asymmetrical.


He further concluded that the temporal reference, the aspect marker and the lexicalized phrases account for 90% of the CFs in Chinese.

we cannot easily take all these strategies as markers for CFs in Chinese.


Likewise, negation can happen in either antecedent or consequent to enhance the hypotheticality, (12)a with double affirmative can be interpreted either as a CF or as a non-CF, while the general reading of (12)b is only a CF.

both of them don't entail the counterfactuality , which can be cancelled by introducing an additional clause preceding them, like "我不知道你刚才有没有来这/ 叫住他，但是……(I don't know whether you were here / stopped him just now, but…)".


However, both of them don't entail the counterfactuality , which can be cancelled by introducing an additional clause preceding them, like "我不知道你刚才有没有来这/ 叫住他，但是……(I don't know whether you were here / stopped him just now, but…)".

the counterfactuality of a CF conditional with double negation can not easily be cancelled, like, The speaker surely knew that China had already practiced the policy when uttering this sentence.


Consider the following examples in Chinese, It is because that the proximal demonstrative pronoun pulls closer the distance between the event and the speaker, and the event in the antecedent is more likely to be presupposed to be false.

the event indicated by the distal demonstrative pronoun is relatively far in the speaker's domain of reference, and less likely to be presupposed because of the remoteness.


It is the metaphorical device from spatial and temporal distance/proximity to abstract conceptual or coginitive distance/proximity that relates temporal distance with modal distance (Fleischman, 1989).

we cannot easily attribute past tense as a CF marker as real past tense cannot signal unreality exclusively like fake past, e.g.


Considering its contribution on enhancing the hypotheticaliy, it may be more reasonable to classify them as CFE markers.

it is not the case for the fake past which can be applied indiscriminately in sentences with various temporal references like 20 But considering the high frequency of real past tense in CFs, we cannot ignore the contribution of real past tenses to CFs.


These theory organized the roles of tense and aspect forms for discourse representation structures including time representations.

these discourse representation structures are sometimes analyzed by hand.


The review from Clift (1999) on the Traditional Oppositional Model (TOM) has critically pointed out the advantage of TOM locates at its illustration in the divergence between a speaker's words, and what he/she might mean by his/her words.

this two-stage mechanism is criticized for ignoring the fact that two aspects of meaning must be perceived simultaneously to make an utterance as irony.


This divergence in ironic and sarcastic utterance would cause difficulty in machine opinion detection.

the psycholinguistic studies focus more on retrieving hearers' comprehension to ironic and sarcastic statement because the participants are the recipients of the presented designed materials.


The result of Wilcoxon test indicates that the null hypothesis is rejected [W= 78916, p < 0.01], so we can conclude that the type of the tweet (ironic tweet or sarcastic tweet) affects the sentiment score of the tweet.

from Fig.1 it shows that the distribution patterns of the two linguistic devices are different.


Example (1-e) omits the subject, so the whole utterance is more like a narration of an event.


This conforms our expectation that the easiest-first decoding is more cautious than the other.

easiest-first decoding has it's own weakness.


We noticed that when the review number of a user or a product reaches some point (|N u (r)| = 3 − 7 in the Blitzer dataset and |N p (r)| = 2 − 5 in the Maas dataset), having more reviews does not improve the accuracy any further.

higher |N u (r)| or |N p (r)| number induces lower speed of easiest-first decoding as we analyzed in Section 3.4.


At present, there are several monolingual link discovery tools for English Wikipedia, which assist topic curators in discovering prospective anchors and targets for a given Wikipedia pages.

no such crosslingual tools yet exist, that support the crosslingual linking of documents from multiple languages (Tang et al., 2012).


It can be argued that ni indicates "location of a state", while de indicates "location of an event or action".

the locational verb aru 'be' shows the following alternation between ni and de.


The cooccurrence of a de-phrase with the verbs in (23) is also licensed by the rule (9b).

some verbs in this class can also take a locative ni-phrase as well as a de-phrase.


As described in , the correspondence-based transliteration model (Oh and Choi, 2002) is also considered as a hybrid approach.

it differs from the others in that it takes into consideration of the correspondence between a source grapheme and a source phoneme, while a general hybrid approach simply uses a combination of graphemebased model and phoneme-based model through linear interpolation.


For example, the word "閉 込 め" is normalized into "閉 じ 込 め" and translated correctly into "confinement".

68% (447) of the normalized kanji-hiragana words cannot be translated into English.


Three topic features made from each topic model are added to the normal features, and the extended feature are used in learning for WSD.

regarding the topic features made from the source domain, this topic features have the weight because this topic features reduce the accuracy of WSD.


The idea of VietPad is based on the use of dictionary file and each non-diacritic word is mapped 1-1 into diacritic word.

the dictionary file also is stored many words which are rarely used so these words is incorrectly restored accent.


association rule, correlation, or causality), frequent patterns are used as intermediate data for computing final results, so there is no need to access these patterns again.

in some other tasks, such as query suggestion (or query recommendation) (Li, 2008), when a user enter a keyword, the search engine will recommend the potential phrases (or patterns) the user may want to use, in order to: (a) save time for users, (b) make the convenience of use, and even (c) guide the user in case he/she is not sure about what to search for.


Most importantly, the gold corpus derived from the treebank does not contain semantic tags, while current DanGram rules rely on them for disambiguation.

this is not relevant to the experiments we will be discussing in this paper -any accuracy figures are not intended to grade the performance of DanGram as such, but only to demonstrate possible performance improvements triggered by our grammar tuning.


The most radical solution would be to sort all rules in one go, then introduce section boundaries in (six) equal intervals to prevent heuristic rules from being used in too early a pass (exploiting the 1, 1-2, 1-3 ... rule batching property of CG compilers).

this sorting & resectioning algorithm produced poor results when used on its own -only when the original human sectionizing information was factored in by dividing rule worth by section number, was some improvement achieved (0.1 percentage points).


16 Of course, independently of rule number, the disambiguation load of a corpus remains the same, and hence the number of times some rule removes a reading.

fewer rules used means that superfluous rules could be removed from grammar, rather than trying to match their targets and contexts in vain.


Like for the original grammar, PDK performed best without sorting.

a number of performance differences can be noted.


With an F-score around 96% this corresponds roughly to a 7.5 % lower error rate in relative terms.

we found that a careful balance had to be struck for individual rule movements, with a demoting threshold of 0.25% errors being the most effective, and that general performance-driven rule sorting was less effective than threshold-based individual movements.


This finding is consistent with that given by PCA.

in the editorial date classification experiments (Exps.


Through various powerful search functions, CdE provided numerous systematic examples for learners.

overly complex functions and an excessive number of examples sometimes causes more difficulties and obstacles for learners.


CEATE facilitated the distinction of contrasting usages between two aspects of the past tense (preterit and imperfect) or two copular verbs (SER/ESTAR) through the errors made by students, and the correction revised by Spanish native speakers.

limited examples could not cover the infinite possibilities of learning situations because of the arduous work of corpus creation.


Contour types, such as rising (R = L+H) and falling (F = H+L), are also attested in Old Japanese (Okumura 1995).

in the 11 th -12 th century, contour types started to disappear (Okumura 1995: 188).


A contour like LH in Japanese might have disappeared so that Tone 3 in Chinese became the least favored choice for Japanese.

tone 3 in Chinese is preferred in Korean, due to the fact that Korean has a rising tone like LH.


In the case that there is no overt marker, we can try inserting some of those markers to verify its finiteness.

in a similar way, we can test whether the verb is non-finite by inserting infinitival markers จะ'irrealis marker', ที ่ จะ-'that+irrealis marker' and ที ่ ว่ ำ-'that+say' since a non-finite clause is usually introduced by these markers testing finiteness of verb by inserting tense, aspect, mood markers, and infinitival markers requires Thai native speaker to judge whether the sentence is valid or not.


Most Korean linguists assume that the ha-in kongpwu-ha-('to study'), for example, is a derivational affix and, hence, kongpwu-ha-as a whole is a verb.

1 as we can see shortly, ha-itself is an independent word and [kongpwu ha-] is a phrase.


Firstly, such expressions as the following are assumed to be compounds (Lee 2005: 44 It may be true that the predicates in such verbal expressions as those in (a) have some degree of idiomatic meanings.

(the degree of) idiomaticity has nothing to do with the morphosyntactic status of expressions (cf.


Under this kind of argumentation, it is assumed that [kongpwu cal ha-] has nothing to do with the "word" kongpwu-ha-.

there are serious problems with such an approach.


When we compare the two sentences in (10) and in (11), it seems to be very obvious that -(nu)n-is in a paradigmatic relation with the past tense marker -ass/ess.

if we observe the behavior of the element -(nu)n-more carefully, we will see that there are many problems with the popular belief.


오바마(Obama) would rather be expected to be linked to some international news, and no doubt Obama, as President of the most influential country of the world, would be featured in many international news.

when the collocation words of the name were checked, a crucial one seems to be '핵[haek]/nuclear'.


In the discussion on causatives above, an unambiguous trigger would be input that showed the availability of the low adverbial reading: this input is compatible only with the Verb-selecting hypothesis and not with the Root-selecting hypothesis.

implicit in Yang's discussion is that for each non-target parameter setting there must be some input that is not compatible with it.


In accordance with the Earliness Principle in (23), the percolated theta-roles in (26b) must undergo theta-identification.

there is no thetarole that can identify the percolated theta-roles.


8 It is usually known that only Theme percolates (Williams 1980).


Existing models have various ranges of their expressiveness, recursivity, and trainability.

these models have not been examined closely for their compositionality.


They formulated a generalized composition function including such a composition.

this generalized composition is too complex to learn.


Regarding the performance of these models aside from Relfunc in the same condition, Dinu et al.

rNN, relfunc, and Fulllex can compose vectors recursively.


In addition, to date, the learning rate α is constant to all matrices W r in Relfunc.

the distribution of relations in the training data is highly skewed.


When confronting a new domain, they can be adapted by adding rules that exploit the missing knowledge.

only a limited number of cases can be captured by a single rule, and increasing the number of rules could create undesired conflicts.


The VSM benefits from weighing keywords in different topics by vectors in order to discover unique words and leave out less distinctive ones in each topic, thereby outperforming the Naïve Bayes classifier.

since VSM considers similarity between two words as a cosine function with independent dimensions, it is difficult to represent the relations among many words.


In topic extraction, the aim of the data analysis is to extract latent topics.

in this work, the aim of zero-shot learning is to construct language models for which no language data is available.


For example, when we omit language data regarding actions 1, 2, 7, and 8, then the RMSE value of the estimated language model for Action 1 is degraded to 0.00469.

when we omit language data regarding actions 1, 3, 5, and 13, then the RMSE keeps low value 0.00223.


Hence this causes rather serious effect to the accuracy of the zero-shot estimation.

when we omitted actions 1, 3, 5, and 13, all component pairs are still included in the training data.


In this paper, we assumed that the matrix A which denotes the relationship between actions and components is known.

as is mentioned in the related work section, the problem setting for unknown A is also interesting.


We have previously shown that for suffixed nominalizations, differences across CME and BME are sharper in categories dealing with more serious topics but smaller in those concerned with casual topics.

this does not hold true for converted nominalizations.


Text writers in CME, mostly non-native users of English, who are aware of such informational purpose and the specialization of readership, are particularly careful with a formal style of Media English, especially in categories concerned with more serious topics.

british English is found to be influenced by the process of colloquialization, a stylistic shift which has brought many grammatical changes in English (biber, 2003;Leech et al., 2009).


Structurally, for instance, soo-da 'seem' and gat-teiru 'showing the signs of' in (7a) are attached to the stem forms of the emotion adjectives and thus replace the -i inflectional ending of these adjectives.

yoo-da 'it appears that' in (7b) and no-da 'it is that' in (7c) are attached to the finite forms of emotion adjectives.


5 In neutral contexts, the first person is the preferred interpretation for the covert subject of ISPs in Thai, and the third person is a possible interpretation only in marked contexts such as below: A: thammay khǎw hǔarɔ́ʔ daŋ yàaŋ nán Why he laugh loudly kind that 'Why did he laugh so loudly?'

b: dii-cay glad '(He) is glad' even in such marked contexts, ISPs in Japanese cannot be used for the third person subject and require morphemes such as no-da, as in (8).


The examples with omou 'think' below in (14) illustrate the situation in Japanese.

the Thai word khít 'think' exhibits no such constraint, as in 15 It should be noted furthermore that Japanese has some other verbal expressions of internal states that exhibit the person restriction in a way similar to, but still different from, the verbs of the thought processes above.


This term comes from Kuroda's characterization of the phenomena as one in which the subject of ISPs "must be first person" (Kuroda 1973: 378) and from the observations of their use in assertions as in (1) -(3).

such characterizations of the phenomena prove to be incorrect considering the fact that, in interrogative sentences, their subjects can be second person, as noted earlier.


Thus, the sentence in (18a) is infelicitous because it violates the ECI constraint: the experiencer is the speaker while the conceptualizer is the hearer (E≠C).

the sentence in (18b) does not violate the constraint and is considered felicitous: the experiencer is the addressee and so is the conceptualizer (E=C).


The work of Dr. Heisig [1][2] has made great strides in identifying common primitives within Chinese and Japanese characters.

majority of these primitives are drawn as images and have no representation in the Unicode standard or are not referenced from the Unicode standard.


As it can be observed, APAnt always outperforms the baseline.

a slightly lower performance can be noticed in Table 3, where the AP scores for adjectives are 0.65 for both antonyms and synonyms.


After performing CC, it will yield several character group which can be merged together to obtain a larger unit which approaches the notion of word.

for Thai, we do not only receive but also which usually has no meaning by itself.


To find the best combination of sentences, explicit solution techniques such as integer linear programming, branch and bound method, and so on are usually adopted.

there is a problem with them in terms of calculation efficiency.


In general, if the size of target data sets is huge, the problem of combinatorial optimization becomes NP-hard.

as an optimization method to obtain quasi-optimum solution in real time, it is reported that evolutionary computation is useful for realistic solutions.


As for document summarization using combinatorial optimization techniques, many studies employ explicit solution techniques such as branch and bound method, dynamic programming, integer linear programming, and so on (Mcdonald, 2007;Yih et al., 2007;Gillick et al., 2008;Takamura et al., 2009;Lin et al., 2010).

the explicit solution techniques often face NP-hard, they require much calculation time for solving a problem of combinatorial optimization, though they provide optimal solution.


153 the objective function of selecting best combination of important sentences, and got a good result.

as an optimization method to obtain approximate solution, it has been reported that evolutionary computation is useful -Petkovic et al.


To answer this question, the Thai language is a great case study because its five tones, shown in Table 1, have been studied quite extensively both in terms of acoustics, perception, as well as phonology.

little research has been done on the mapping between lexical tones and music in Thai, especially with respect to the treatment of contour tones.


The Friedman test provides a means to test whether several groups differ significantly and it is used for data that does not show normal distribution.

the Friedman test only tells us whether there are statistically significant differences among groups.


Likewise, successive tones in which the second note is lower than the previous one were mapped with descending melodic transitions.

tones of the same height which occurred adjacently tended to slightly map with level transitions.


This word could be revised as a positive word in the sentiment lexicon.

when the OOV word "ugh" appears many more times in negative tweets than in objective or positive tweets, it could be newly classified as a negative word.


In the DRS representing this discourse, no condition exists of the form daughter(y,j) for any variable y; thus, the presupposition cannot be resolved.

since it is plainly consistent with the rest of the discourse, it can be accommodated.


Moreover, from the viewpoint of mapping between syntactic structure and information structure, I propose that givenness will have greater effects on VP-external scrambling than on VP-internal scrambling.

heaviness seems to have stronger effect on VPinternal scrambling than on VP-external scrambling.


For example, Givón (1994) proposed that it should be 3 and Cooreman (1992) suggested that it should be 15 because there was no example with RD higher than 15.

we observed sentences with RD higher than 16, so we followed the criteria of Givón (1983).


If one factor strongly depends on the other, that concept is not necessary for explaining the function of OSV order.

it is possible that givenness is unrelated to heaviness.


Hence, heaviness correlates with scrambled objects in about 75.95% of examples, where the object is longer than one bunsetsu.

there are many short scrambled objects in two bunsetsu due to the characteristics of bunsetsu.


This supports Yamashita (2002) who observed that heaviness gave an explanation of about 74% (fourteen out of nineteen) of scrambled sentences.

it is conceivable that heaviness depends on givenness, and vice versa.


Observed agreement 4 is 0.79 for expert annotators and 0.76 for nonexperts.

using observed agreement to measure reliability does not take into account agreement that is due to chance and hence is not a good measure of reliability.


For example, in a binary class annotation task identifying pairs of emails from the same thread, where most instances are negative, cosine text similarity between the emails can be used to identify pairs of emails that are likely to be positive, so that they could be annotated and included in the resulting class-balanced corpus (Jamison and Gurevych, 2013).

this technique renders the corpus useless for experiments including token similarity (or ngram similarity, semantic similarity, stopword distribution similarity, keyword similarity, etc) as a feature; a machine learner would be likely to learn the very same features for classification that were used to identify the rare-class instances during corpus construction.


Crowdsourcing is a cheap but noisy source of annotation labels, encouraging redundant labelling.

redundant annotation on class-imbalanced datasets requires many more labels per instance.


In Spanish to Korean MT the omitted subject doesn't need to be restored in many cases as Korean also allows a zero subject.

there are some cases where the omitted subject must be identified to ensure a correct translation.


To restore the omitted subject, linguistic clues can be employed, as Spanish verbs undergo morphological flections with respect to the gender and number.

there still remain some ambiguous cases in which there are more than two possible subject candidates for the specific verb endings.


We assume that the training instances for 'yo', 'él', 'ella' were relatively enough to be trained by the system (275 for 'yo', 290 for 'él', 276 for 'ella').

the token frequency for the subject type 'tú' was far less than the three subject types above.


Comparable feature estimation is based on bilingual lexicon extraction (BLE) technology.

bLE suffers from the data sparseness problem, which makes the comparable features inaccurate.


For example, "unemployment figures" and "unemployment and bringing" in Table 1 might be generated as a paraphrase pair.

this kind of noisy pairs can be easily pruned according to their low probabilities.


(2011) propose using bilingual topic model based method to estimate topical similarity.

this method is not scalable for large data sets.


to use all the data accumulated until that point and create the model all over again.

such retraining may be a lengthy and computationally expensive process, leading to long lags between system updates.


It contains probability estimations for each orientation of a phrase pair in either direction.

to the reordering file, in the RT, each phrase pair appears only once.


The difference is not significant (see Figure 2).

for English speakers, the /θ/ and /f/ duration was much smaller, as 32 and 33 ms. As confirmed by previous studies (Flege and Wang, 1996) Figure 2).


From the data, we could see that /f/ is functionally more loaded than /s/ for Cantonese speakers, and vice versa for Sichuanese speakers.

/w/ was more functionally loaded for Sichuanese than for Cantonese.


This phenomenon also challenges learnability of some L2 categories, since according to SLM, the categories should receive even more influence on L1 and L2 input and establish an intermediate category provided exposure to the L2.

as the result suggests, the preference of /f/ by Cantonese speakers cannot be eliminated and thus cannot be learned in a small time span.


Chinese has no tense and temporal references are made with other devices, such as lexical expressions, contexts and sentence sequencing.

chinese has a rich aspectual system (Li & Thompson, 1981).


As these markers are not grammatically obligatory and their meanings and functions are quite often elusive, there is still controversy over the exact number of them and the aspectual nature of many of them.

the status of -le, -guo, -zai and -zhe as the most important aspect markers is unquestionable (Wang, 1985).


5 there is a special kind of Achievements, the so-called [verb+completive morpheme] verb compound, in which -le is quite often rendered unnecessary by the completive morpheme.


The English progressive form emphasizes the on-goingness of process, so it occurs freely on all dynamic and durative situations (Activities and Accomplishments) but seldom occurs on Statives or Achievements, which do not involve process (Carlson, 1977;Smith, 1997;Vendler, 1967).

6 the major function of -zhe in Chinese is to provide a static view of a situation, so it usually occurs with homogeneous situations, which are more likely to be viewed as states, rather than with heterogeneous situations.


Activities do not contain any natural outcomes or results, so they are not directly relevant to the meaning of the perfective viewpoint.

activities, no matter how long they last, do come to an end at a certain point of time.


Whereas in a language like Chinese, the spread of the perfective marking to Statives and Activities is conditional and exceptional, so L2 learners do not have much chance to under-use the perfective marking on these two types of situations.

their L1 habit of using the perfective marking on Statives and Activities may be transferred into their use of -le, causing a totally different kind of errors: over-using the perfective marker.


More than 60% of news articles from newspapers are classified as very easy.

the amount drops below 20% for the articles from Icchamoti children magazine.


The average SL of articles belong to medium is 7.40 and the average SL of articles belongs to easy or very easy is 12.08.

articles that are labeled as medium have higher average word entropy than articles that are labeled as easy or very easy.


Consonants (fricatives in the past) in Column 6 were also devoiced.

in the consonant chart, different places of articulation: vel(ar), pal(atal), ret(roflex), den(tal), lab(ial) and glo(ttal) are classified into six rows.


Instead of learning the phonic rules for tones consciously, the learners are recommended to learn only the relationship between the consonant-vowel spelling and the pronunciation of the whole word.

the learners should be told that they must remember the tone mark as part of the spelling by heart without linking to its actual pronunciation of tone: "Just treat the tone mark of each syllable as a kind of decoration on one hand, and remember the tone of each syllable on the other hand."


Bordes et al (2013b;2013a) conduct experiments on each subset respectively.

the result shows that TransE can only achieve less than 20% accuracy 6 when predicting the entities on the MANY-side, even though it can process ONE-TO-ONE triplets well.


In reality, however, there are roughly only 26.2% ONE-TO-ONE triplets that are suitable to be modeled by TransE.

the remainder triplets (73.8%) suffer as illustrated on the left hand side of Figure 1, where the tail entities (t 1 , t 2 , ..., t m ) are all pushed into a cramped range because minimizing loss function impels every training triplet to satisfy ||h + r t|| = 0, leading to h 1 = h 2 = ... = h m in the worst case.


WN11 and FB13) sampled from WordNet and Freebase.

both of the benchmark datasets contain much fewer relationships.


The current Web search engines have a very high retrieval performance as long as the proper retrieval terms are given.

many people, particularly children, seniors, and foreigners, have difficulty deciding on the proper retrieval terms for representing the retrieval objects, 1 especially with searches related to technical fields.


To acquire as high a generalization capability as possible, for training we use not only the small scale of manually gathered data, which is high precision, but also the large scale of automatically gathered data, which includes a certain amount of noise.

to manually gathered data, automatically gathered data might have incorrect labels, i.e., labels that do not match the descriptive texts.


King and Abney (2013) have used weakly supervised methods based on n-grams of characters.

their training data is limited to monolingual documents, which limits the capability to capture some patterns in codeswitched texts.


All the previous features we have discussed focus on individual words of a code-switched sentence on a stand-alone basis, i.e., independent of the surrounding words or context.

language usage of words in code-switched sentences may follow certain patterns, like words of a language are often surrounded by words of the same language (King and Abney, 2013).


A previous work by Rahman and Ng (2012) showed that two sources of world knowledge, including narrative chains (Chambers and Jurafsky, 2008) and page counts returned by a search engine, are useful for resolving Winograd schemas.

these two knowledge sources have their own weaknesses and need some heuristics to bridge the gap.


For example, both sentences in (1) have a contrast relation indicated by but.

narrative chains rely only on temporal relations between two events (e.g., before and after).


Since Olga was drunk, she should be the one who kicks other people.


It is generally accepted that Mandarin also has the functional Degree Phrase (DegP), dominating immediately an Adjectival Phrase (Grano & Kennedy, 2012;Xiang, 2005;Erlewine, 2007Erlewine, , 2012Liu, 2010).

most of the works listed here did not address surpass comparative, which Mandarin does have.


It is often assumed that gwo3 is a functional head above v (see Soh (2014) for a recent overview).

data from A-not-A question shows the contrary.


Similarly to Messerklinger (2006), Kiyokawa (1990) Fang (1966) and Messerklinger (2006) discussed listenability for native speakers of English, assuming that listening proficiency does not differ much among native speakers.

learners have different proficiencies; thus, individual differences of listening proficiency should be considered.


Sentence length is a well known linguistic feature for explaining syntactic complexity of a sentence and has been used for measuring listenability as well as readability.

sentence length had no statistically significant effect on listenability.


Assuming that longer words convey complex meanings, word length is a primary linguistic feature for measuring readability (Flesch 1950).

as the negative value of the standardized partial regression coefficient shows, longer words increase listenability.


7), the pitch simply falls from the high on the penultimate syllable to the end, though with a steeper slope than normal.


Stoel (2007) claims the primary phonological difference between declaratives and questions is the association of a high (H) tone with the final syllable of questions.

as stated, this analysis does not explain the final fall present in both declaratives and questions, or the alternation between rising-falling and high-falling question contours observed here.


Twitter is an online social networking service that allows users to post and read short messages, called "tweets".

twitter allows users to write short messages, i.e.


Awesome day thus far", the word "awesome" (positive) refers to the action "fell" and "broke" (both are negative words), that is contradiction of sentiments in the sarcastic tweet.

when a tweet contains contradiction of sentiment polarity without coherence between them, it could be regarded as non-sarcastic tweet.


A variety of methods have been proposed based on various kinds of techniques, including statistical models, sentiment analysis, pattern recognition, supervised or unsupervised machine learning.

the intelligence system and computation process are not sufficient to be relied on for sarcasm recognition.


After multiple iteration processes, the obtained list of negative situations and positive sentiment phrases are used to recognize sarcasm in tweets by identifying contexts that contain a positive sentiment in close proximity (occurring nearby) to a negative situation phrase.

this method relies on the assumption that many sarcastic tweets contains the following structure: the method has some limitations since it cannot identify sarcasm across multiple sentences.


From this sentence, only the word "love" has positive sentiment score, while the other words have no polarity.

using concept level and common-sense knowledge, we can know that the word "work" would refer to a tiring or stressful situation and the word "holiday" would refer to "time for rest".


contains a positive sentiment word "love" and also negative situation word "rain" whose concept is "bad weather".

it is not always true that the word "rain" refers to a negative situation.


Finally, we tested our system on balanced datasets, where the number of sarcastic and nonsarcastic tweets are equal.

this situation rarely occurs in a real situation, since the number of non-sarcastic tweets may be much higher than the number of sarcastic tweets.


Reddy and Knight (2011) developed a languageindependent model based on a Markov process that finds the rhyme schemes in poetry and the model stanza dependency within a poem.

rhyme transition in their model is used to generate a stanza; the overall flow of the poem is not captured.


Thus, wh-phrases cannot be accompanied with thematic WA, which usually requires an anaphoric antecedent.

there is no such constraint for contrastive WA.


Hence, if a contrastive relationship arose because of the superset, the processing cost of topicalization would be mitigated.

topicalization showed the slowest reaction time and the highest error rate of all conditions.


He was talking fast about something with a young man who looked like an assistant, but stopped the conversation when he caught sight of me.

in a situation where one finds an actor or a professional sports player on the street and addresses him to ask for his autograph, (34a) would be unnatural while (34b) would be fine.


the restriction on verbal arguments for primary connectives is clear, as we cannot say, for example, *a proto boj '*therefore the competition'.


Thus, the classification in our study is more appropriate for performing machine learning.

whether our method is truly more appropriate than K&B should be judged by annotating segments with our relations and comparing those results with K&B.


Many summarization techniques dealing with single document and multi-documents have been studied.

due to the increase of the documents which report the change of topics along a timeline, called time-series documents, in recent years, a summarization technique which generates a summary of timeseries documents, called timeline summarization, has been actively studied as an area of automatic summarization.


The basic approach for timeline summarization is to extract sentences which describe major events in object documents in chronological order to generate a timeline summary.

unlike the prior studies of timeline summarization, we particularly focus on online summarization of time-series documents and propose an on-line graph-based timeline summarization method.


However, as for the results shown in Table 4, i.e., H1N1 Reuters, the proposed method gets higher scores at many metrics than LexRank when evaluating the result with stop words.


In this paper, we have not yet confirmed that the usefulness of MMR'.

we think that providing a penalty for similarity of sentences should work to generate a summary, so we like to propose a better metrics which works well in the proposed algorithm.


(2011b) find that joint prediction of dialogue act labels and adjacency pair recognition improves accuracy when compared to separate classification; dialogue act classification does not require metadata.

existing dialogue act typologies are unapplicable for some forums (see Section 2.2).


In Section 7, we showed that lexical pairs are useful for adjacency pair recognition with random CV fold assignment.

it is possible that the system's good performance was due not to the lexical pairs, but to information leakage of learning a topic model on instances extracted from a single discussion.


Most language models used for natural language processing, such as n-gram approach proposed by Shannon (1948), are continuous.

the assumption that a word depends upon the preceding n-1 words is too simple to cope with data sparsity problem.


When checking the corpus, we find that AT(should) and A¡(take an examination) start by the same character A(response) and the second character share the radical Û(speak).

aT(should) contain subjectivity to some extent, but a¡(take an examination) is an objective word.


Given the amount of research done in this area, it is no surprise that significant results have been obtained.

a problematic feature of the literature is that the three strands of research mentioned above do not engage extensively with each other.


The simplest theory of honorific meanings might take the particles to directly indicate one of these speech levels.

the particles can combine with other terms with honorific content, and need not match them perfectly in register, as will be shown in the next section.


For instance, a use of khráp could be taken to preemptively change the context to a formal one, irrespective of what it was formerly.

this view would seem to obviate the analysis so far, in that the definition in (5) would become obsolete; since the use of khráp would change the context to one in which khráp was appropriate, we no longer have any means to model inappropriate use of honorific elements.


Likewise, a noun-phrase summary based on the most frequent and lengthy cohesive chains also gives the same results for Text 1 and Text 2: "Anderson's film Moonrise Kingdom".

all of the other methods show that the lexical cohesion characteristics of these two texts are very different.


That is, only the assertion of the prejacent proposition is executed and the rest of the alternative assertions are cancelled.

a parallel operation is not possible for interrogatives as shown in (7-b).


buy-HON-PAST-Q (48) ⟨w2, w2⟩ ⟨w1, w1⟩ ⟨w2, w2⟩ ⟨w1, w1⟩ ⟨w2, w1⟩ ⟨w3, w1⟩ ⟨w1, w2⟩ ⟨w2, w2⟩ ⟨w3, w2⟩ ⟨w1, w3⟩ ⟨w2, w3⟩ ⟨w3, w3⟩ ⟨w1, w1⟩ ⟨w2, w1⟩ ⟨w3, w1⟩ ⟨w1, w2⟩ ⟨w2, w2⟩ ⟨w3, w2⟩ ⟨w1, w3⟩ ⟨w2, w3⟩ ⟨w3, w3⟩ ⎫ ⎬ ⎭ Moreover, the exhaustive particle dake attempts to cancel the alternative question acts except for the foreground question, 'As for John, did he buy a newspaper?'.


In turn, MSpop must have been performed beforehand.

due to the Inquisitive Constraint, no inquisitive contexts can be popped.


Using instant messenger in real time communication is widespread worldwide.

in the communication of using cross-language (Japanese-other languages) instant messaging, the use of colloquial expressions usually degrades the efficiency of communication.


In their observation, using back translation for detecting the untranslatable text can improve the efficiency of cross-language communication.

the observations are based on manual simulation.


We cannot divide the chunk of utterances as independent conversations.

it is necessary to define the boundary of a "conversation" clearly in order to analyze the intention behind the conversation.


This means that these attributes (with high appearance probability) do not affect the translation quality in a significant way.

although the appearance probability of the attribute "Colloquial expressions of Japanese verbs" is 8%, which is less than the attribute "Other colloquial expressions" and the attribute "Using named entities", the acceptability of the utterances with this attribute (J-C:2.65, J-E:2.41) is significantly worse than the average acceptability (J-C:3.62, J-E:3.43).


After the discussion, users A and B cleared up the misunderstanding.

the number of the utterances increased in Table 7.


For instance, if x is set to two, the algorithm only allows each original sentence to be split to two simplified sentences and vice versa.

since the gaps and reorderings between sentence alignments are more prominent in monolingual setting than in bilingual, Step (6) is to recover some of the missing aligning points in the optimal complete path and acts as a straightforward insertion operation.


And their work has been suggested as the current state-of-the-art monolingual sentence aligner (Nelken and Shieber, 2006;Zhu et al., 2010).

to the previous research, we consider word keyness in aligning words during sentence alignment.


Another way to create a comma splice is to fuse two sentences together and replace the full-stop of the first sentence with a comma.

comma splices introduced with this method do not reflect well the actual mistakes that English learners make, especially in terms of lexical features.


He further proposes seven aspects in Chinese, which are "Putong Mao", "Jinxing Mao", "Wancheng Mao", "Jinguoqu Mao", "Kaishi Mao", "Jixu Mao" and "Duanshi Mao", and most of them have their counterparts in English grammar.

1 "Jinguoqu Mao" which belongs to the sphere of aspect in Wang"s theory, refers to the action that has just happened.


After I get to that place, the first play had already show finish "After I got there, the first play had already been finished."

"guo2", indicates that the action denoted by the verb has happened in the past: (3) Zheben xiaoshuo wo kan guo2.


When these verbs are followed by "guo2" it means the psychological states denoted by these verbs existed in the past, just like (15b) and (16b), with the implication that these psychological states no longer exist now.

some verbs, such as "zhi dao" (which means "know") in Chinese, denote the psychological state that usually lasts forever, thus do not appear in the past tense.


Luggage check finish (complete) no problem "The luggage has already been checked, and there is no problem."

semantically, "guo1" does not specify the result of an action as those typical complements do.


And "guo1" appears in all of these sentences, which contrasts greatly with "guo2", since "guo2"only appears in the sentences denoting past events.

"guo1" and "guo2" are similar in that both of them can be represented by a point, rather than a segment: Figure 3.


When the disambiguating context comes before the complex NP, N1 attachment might be favored in order to increase text coherence.

n1 bias might be weaker when context comes after the nP.


The results showed that when the two nouns were animate, N1 attachment was preferred.

this advantage for the non-local noun should be interpreted with caution for two reasons.


A crucial theme in the research of RC attachment has been the observation that preferences vary across languages.

the corpus count suggests that surrounding context can play a role in RC attachment and the bias is often but not exclusively to N1.


Then, P a implies H since "at most ten" is downward-entailing in the predicate argument; the system produces a wrong answer.

in the "Selec-tion+Relation" setting, "a lot of" is encoded as selection and accompanied with the quantification marker "✓", which can take a narrow scope and is explained as a division operator.


Such decisions should be made with caution because unguarded free variables easily lead to undecidability, as suggested by the research on description logics.

further exploration on this topic should be a future direction but out of the scope of this work.


(5) Context: Danai saw a beautiful vase at the pottery shop and wanted to buy it.


(1-b) with a sentence-final particle HO2 is used when the speaker is biased toward the positive answer, while (1-c) with ME1 is asked when the speaker has a bias toward the negative answer.

1 (1) a. zi3ming4 Jimmy an AA4 question like (2), which is simply marked with a final question particle AA4 is not as restricted.


annoy him Intended: "This stupid question annoys him."

in the case of the mental verb fan "get annoyed", the Causer, in the form of a grammatical object, has no restrictions on its animacy.


That means, the verb fan in 20 Conversely, the agentive verb fan in Taiwan Mandarin, as illustrated in (21) and (22), rejects degree modification.

it goes well with the volitional verbs qu "go" and/or hui "will".


Moreover, both khɨn3 and up can be used to denote non-directional meanings (such as man4 caj1 khɨn3 'be more confident' and speed up), and this is also true with the pair loŋ1 and down (such as sin3sut2 loŋ1 'end' and close down).

while khɨn3 and loŋ1 occur as main verbs or subsidiary verbs in serial verb constructions in Thai, up and down rarely occur in verb slots in English; they usually appear as satellites accompanying verbs.


Nonetheless, there were contexts in which khɨn3 and loŋ1 were not used in Thai, when n and xi were used in Mandarin.

it was not clear from Sae-Jia's work why khɨn3 and loŋ1were absent in those contexts.


They may reflect a greater variety of perspectives and opinions than traditional media.

the large volume of material and the greater variety of language use mean that new unsupervised automated techniques are required.


The RRF for a unit is computed as: Note, there can be an issue with division by zero in the RRF equation when FU is zero in corpus B.

this situation did not arise in the current analysis.


the method described by Touri and Koteyko (2014).

this would entail extensive reading of concordance lines.


Therefore, lexical simplification and paraphrasing that conserves a particular meaning are expected by paraphrasing the headword with the words in the definitions.

definition statements are short sentences that consist of several words.


On one hand, (Marton et al., 2009) applied the idea that the frequently co-occurring context is the important context.

(Bhagat and Ravichandran, 2008) argued that the biasedly cooccurring context is important.


In the results of the proposed method, there is a significant gap in the numbers of first-ranked and second-ranked nouns.

in the results of (Bhagat and Ravichandran, 2008)'s method, the gap is insignificant.


Phrase alignment can be automatically conducted using the GIZA++ toolkit (Och and Ney, 2003) and phrase alignment heuristics (Koehn et al., 2003).

in this study, we evaluate the performance of our generation method independently from the quality of automatic word or phrase alignment algorithms.


We anticipate this method to be used as an informed baseline before building a full stack anonymization system.

our approach may be prone to false positives, because rare sequences do not necessarily express private information, especially when the given source of the text statistics is small.


It is found that this false impression results to some degree from the ban of multiple class membership especially for self-reference lexemes advocated by leading scholars like Zhu (1985), Guo (2002), and Shen (2009), who argue for multifuntionality of Chinese word classes rather than Chinese lexemes.

this has obviously led to indeterminacy of Chinese word classes.


This approach still works well on different length of n-grams in fact.

this method is a necessary condition but not sufficient when applying to translation issue.


WORDNET-WALK generated words in (Boyd-Graber et al., 2007) but our WORDNET-WALK generates word senses.

the word senses sometimes do not correspond to leaf nodes but to internal nodes in our model and that causes a problem: the sum of the probabilities is not one.


The details are similar to those in (Sasaki et al., 2014).

we performed the experiments three times and calculated the accuracies but they only performed the experiments twice.


Compared with the raw scores (see Figure 1), the adjusted normalized results from the Mechanical Turk-and laboratory-based experiments agree with each other better, but the agreement is not as good as the standardized results (see Figure 3).

the adjusted normalization method has an advantage over the standardization method, that is the adjusted normalization will yield results from 0 to 1 and this scale is accord with the definition of semantic transparency value.


5, our proposed method (RNN + DP + diff)     highest accuracy (accuracy = 0.43), and the results of McNemar's testing reveal a significant difference between the (Word pair) and (RNN + DP + diff) methods (p = 0.0046, p < 0.001) and between the (RNN sentence) and (RNN + DP + diff) methods (p = 0.0077, p < 0.001).

the difference between the (Vector centroid) and (RNN + DP + diff) methods was only marginally significant (p = 0.12).


Supervised methods with carefully handcrafted features from lexical and semantic resources have achieved high performance (Hendrickx et al., 2010;Rink and Harabagiu, 2010).

the selection of features and the effective integration of knowledge sources into relation classification seem to be difficult.


To build a training dataset for disambiguating a set of entities with the same name, we can firstly collect the sentences that mention that name from webpages, such as Wiki pages 5 , and then manually annotate each entity mention with its unique machine identifier (MID) in Freebase given the contexts of sentences that it occurs in.

hand-labeled data is time consuming and usually applicable to some specific classes of entities, such as person (PER), location (LOC) and organization (ORG).


Our approaches are innovative because we utilize the biographical information in CBDB to provide semantic information about the DFZ texts.

the literature that we reviewed in Section 1 carried out grammar induction with such linguistic knowledge as part-of-speech tags and syntactic structures.


Some studies employed vector representations of a fixed dimension, e.g., Principal Component Analysis (PCA) (Collins et al., 2002) and Latent Dirichlet Allocation (LDA) (Yao et al., 2011;Riedel et al., 2013).

the previous work did not compare the effectiveness of these representations when applied to a collection of large-scaled unstructured texts.


The simplest approach is to define a vector of a relational pattern in which an element in the vector presents the cooccurrence frequency between a pattern and an entity pair.

the use of raw frequency counts may be inappropriate when some entity pairs cooccur with a number of patterns.


For computation time, we verify that PCA is important in this aspect.

feature vectors based on word2vec worsened the performance against not only approximate counting but also exact counting.


(2012) also reduced the number of similarity computations by using entity types obtained from existing knowledge bases such as Yago (Suchanek et al., 2007) and Freebase (Bollacker et al., 2008).

it is not so straightforward to determine the semantic type of an entity in advance because the semantic type may depends on the context.


Then, in 98.8% instances of such a state in the training data, the golden label action is Reduce-Left, suggesting a strong tendency of the state to become a parallel structure of adjectives, such as "black and white".

when we parse New York Times data using the baseline parser, the proportion of Reduce-Left action when facing the state decreases to 96.7%, suggesting that this tendency is not fully generalized as a rule for parallel structure of adjectives.


This is not astonishing, because POStags and surface forms of lexical features are diverse in the training data.

when we use our modified parser, the proportion of Reduce-Left action turns out to be 99.4%, significantly higher than using the baseline parser according to a permutation test.


This restriction is indeed essential for ensuring verb-finality of non-colloquial register of Japanese.


with the best performance are those built using supervised learning approaches for resourcerich languages (where manually annotated corpora are available) such as English, French, German, Chinese and Arabic.

for a large number of resource-poor languages, annotated corpora do not exist.


According to (Gan, et al., 2005;Hu, 2015), the average length of PPs in news texts has 4.9 characters, while 12.3 characters in patent texts.

pps tend to have much more complex structures, which can be composed of prepositions and various kinds of phrases, or even clauses.


Identification precision of some individual prepositions even reached 100%, indicating that the rules can describe the linguistic information of PPs more accurately, especially for those PP chunks with long distance and collocations.

recall rates of rule-based method were much lower than CRF, which were also clearly reflected in the line chart, there exists significant differences between the recall rates of various prepositions, what's more, fluctuation ranges of recall rates of rule-based method were greater than CRF.


(2010) proposed a sentiment analysis model that used dependency trees with polarities assigned to their subtrees.

their proposed model requires specialized knowledge to design complicated feature templates.


Their proposed method works well with words registered in a dictionary.

building a polarity dictionary is expensive and their approach is not able to cope with unknown words.


However, building a polarity dictionary is expensive and their approach is not able to cope with unknown words.

our proposed approach does not use a polarity dictionary and works robustly even when there are infrequent words in the test data.


The dependency information enables them to take syntactic structures into account in order to model polarity flip.

their proposed method is so complex that it has to create multiple feature templates.


All the data of Wikipedia can be accessed through its official MediaWiki web API 5 .

the downloaded webpages contain multiple kinds of information -such as references, external links, and the infobox, rather than simple plain descriptive text.


We can speculate that Polish people feel involved in this war, as a Polish engineer was kidnapped and killed by Pakistani extremists.

some official languages of belligerents seems to be not that negative towards the wars they were involved in.


Concretely, a document is shown in the form of a vector in which each term appearing in the document is considered as a feature.

with a large set of documents, the dimension of a bag-of-words vector can reach thousands (Fragoudis et al.


FCFS is superior to CHI, IG, CMFS and OCFS at the small number of selected features and they show the competition at the larger number of features.

based on dimension reduction rate formula presented in Eq.


They demonstrate that these features do not help the identification of irony and sarcasm in isolation.

they do when they are combined in a complex framework.


As explained earlier, the contradiction of the polarity in a tweet is a useful clue.

if positive and negative sentences mention different topics (i.e.


The performance is effective on sarcastic and ironic data, since the module 1 achieved the cosine value of 0.896 and 0.918, respectively.

the performance is rather poor when we attempted to predict the sentiment score for metaphor and non-figurative tweets.


Thai stock news is an important source of information for stock traders to make a decision on stock trading.

a usual Thai stock news has a long message and sometimes not easily to interpret or conclude.


For instance, Hu and Liu (Hu and Liu, 2004) and Esuli and Sebastiani (Esuli and Sebastiani, 2005) classify polarity using emotion words and semantic relations from WordNet, WordNet Gloss, WordNet-Affect and SentiWordNet respectively.

in corpus-based approach, we use patterns in particular syntactic ones to mine large domain specific corpora and extract opinion terms.


In Arabic language, sentiment resources are in general rare.

in the task of document sentiment classification, there are many used data collections since they are easy to collect and to annotate.


In English language, several features ranging from lexical to deep analysis features were tested in the sentiment classification task.

in Arabic, research works were focused on lexical or statistical features in particular n-grams.


In fact, although the documents are in the same domain, they talk about 18 different sports, which make the dataset relatively heterogeneous.

dS3 is derived from political specific domain which is a very large domain, but all docu-ments discuss only one political issue, which explain why the classification results were good.


The sentence in (1a) has the canonical order of the noun phrases in terms of agenthood and patienthood.


The notion of logophoricity has long played a crucial role in understanding the co-referential relations between certain anaphoric expressions cross-linguistically, especially for longdistance anaphors violating a locality constraint and syntactic prominence conditions within the framework of pure syntactic accounts.

pan (2001) has shown that the long-distance binding of Chinese ziji should not be treated with the logophoric accounts in some aspects.


More specifically, if ziji functions as a logophor in a certain reported discourse context, it should exhibit the three properties which are the characteristics of a logophoric pronoun.

it genuinely seems to be the case that the binding behaviors of ziji do not show any of them.


That is, the camera is placed at equal distance from both John and Mary.

the speaker is describing the event with his standpoint closer to John in (15b) and closer to Mary in (15c), respectively.


This extraction, however, violates the Sentential Subject Constraint, resulting in the RRC effect.

(Whitman, 2000: 458) the analysis above is empirically problematic, because (3) would be excluded in the 5 Whitman (2000) claims that his analysis is also applicable to the RDC in Japanese and Korean.


Chow (2012) investigated the interface between the semantic and syntactic realizations of RVCs in Mandarin and Cantonese, suggesting that most RVCs in Mandarin have parallel syntactic realizations with their corresponding Cantonese sentences.

the prevailing use of illformed Cantonese RVCs produced by non-native speakers will be unexplained if RVCs in Mandarin and Cantonese share the same structure.


If the distributions of the data follow the normal distribution, the parametric tests are available, such as t-tests, ANOVAs, or (ordinary) linear regression tests.

if the distributions do not follow the normal distribution, the nonparametric tests must be applied such as Wilcoxon tests, Friedman tests, or generalized linear regression tests.


As observed in these plots, all the lines are not parallel.

the slopes of the lines are not clearly different.


The results demonstrated that the native speakers of Korean are sensitive to the two interpretive conditions.

kim (2015) focused on the Possessor-type MSCs only and did not examine the Adjunct-type MSCs in her study.


It also seems that P-type MSCs are judged better than Atype MSCs.

lee's (2014) study had different classification in the type of MSCs and there were not enough tokens for the clear division of the two types of MSCs.


8 This 8 If given a specific context, this property can characterize an individual, becoming what Yoon (2007Yoon ( , 2009 dub a characterizing (contextually characteristic) property.

becomes clear when (9a) is compared to (9b), where the SP '(someone's) height is tall', can be understood easily as a characteristic property of an individual.


Because of the characteristic property condition on SPs, optimal P-type MSCs are those with an inalienable possession relation between the MS and the GS.

most P-type MSCs used in the experiment had an alienable possessor relation, which possibly reduced the felicity of P-type MSCs.


However, most P-type MSCs used in the experiment had an alienable possessor relation, which possibly reduced the felicity of P-type MSCs.

the P-type stimuli used in Lee (2014) contained mostly inalienable possession, which probably contributed to the increased felicity of the MSCs overall.


This is not always the case, and for languages such as Myanmar it has been shown (Thu et al., 2013) that syllable segmentation can give rise to machine translation scores that are competitive with other approaches.

for Khmer the proposed word segmentation strategy gave rise to considerable gains in performance and is therefore to be preferred in all cases.


It is not surprising that is was able to exceed the performance of the phrase-based approach which it extends.

in all-but-one of the evaluations involving Japanese and Korean the HPB-SMT approach gave rise to the highest scores.


These works have shown that CSLMs can improve the BLEU scores of SMT when compared with BNLMs, on the condition that the training data for language modeling are in the same size.

in practice, CSLMs have not been widely used in SMT mainly due to high computational costs of training and using CSLMs.


The 4-gram BLEU score is broadly accepted as the evaluate standard when we tune the other parameters using the minimum error rate training, which means that the MERT stage will not stop until it reaches the highest 4-gram BLEU on the development set.

the same sentence  To evaluate this hypothesis, the alignment model is set the same as the best performance in Table 3, and 5-gram LM with improved KN smoothing is set for LM.


Since these two approaches still adopt head-dependent structure as the backbone of the translation rule, the freedom of generating translation candidates is limited.

we propose to use BTG grammar to combine the translations of two adjacent wellformed structures.


For example, if "布什" is replaced with a pronoun "他" in a testing sentence, this rule can still be applied.

r1 cannot be applied in this case even if it is generalized, since the POS tag of "他" does not match that of "布什".


This is done thanks to the importance of lexical, positional and acoustic features in determining these differences.

our system has to improve as soon as contextual information becomes more important like for identifying answer or confirmation.


To build such characters, utterances suitable for the designated characters are usually manually prepared.

it is expensive to do this for a large number of utterances for various types of characters.


There are currently many types of smart devices in our daily life and most of them have spoken dialogue interfaces, although they are basically limited to questionanswering.

there are cases where people do not always have the clear intent on searching for something but they just want to know whether there is anything interesting they should know.


In such cases, if the systems could offer a chats function instead, people may be able to make such unconscious or potential intentions clear by themselves through chats with these systems.

it is quite challenging for dialogue systems to automatically generate chat responses because of the wide variety of topics in user utterances.


We limited them to 27 keywords from the genres of current affairs news, sports, entertainment, and TV programs which were covered by the corpus we constructed.

our dialogue system failed to generate a response for one of them, so we omitted that keyword.


The complex metaphor refers to the metaphor which has no direct and independent correlation to our sensory-motor experiences.

we still need the knowledge of our bodily experience or socio-cultural practices to comprehend such metaphor.


the strength of the power) is profiled in language.

the speaker's left palm faces up as if he held an object.


The 'lag' curriculum emphasises listening and speaking while some Chinese writing -but not everything that CFL beginners have acquired in oral/aural skills -is taught at the early stage.

this may lead to a discrepancy between listening/speaking and reading/writing skills at a later stage.


In this case, alphabetic reading can be helped by learning orthographic representations, which in turn contribute to the development of writing skills.

the contribution of writing to reading development may be moderate in English or any alphabetic languages compared to Chinese (Cao et al., 2013b;Guan et al., 2011).


The results presented in Table 2 indicate that stroke count and training mode had no significant effect on correct responding.

having already encountered a character in class had, as one would hope, a significant effect on recognition (|z| =3.46; p<0.001).


There is, therefore, potential for reciprocal connections to be reinforced between motor and visual representations, allowing visual representations to evoke motor ones, and vice versa (e.g., Garagnani et al., 2008).

in the case of the pinyin encoding, there is an intermediate step involvedthe sound has to be converted to the abstract pinyin code, which in turn is mapped to a motor programme involved in writing the pinyin.


Generalising this finding beyond the experimental paradigm to the broader topic of reading, we can argue that readers who draw characters as opposed to pinyin build a memory reserve for characters that can be used to augment their subsequent retrieval and recognition.

readers who rely more extensively on pinyin input will not have this memory support to draw upon.


(2004), most learner corpora have covered written but not spoken language; therefore, they proposed a speaking corpus for EFL learners.


Therefore, it is reasonable to view infant language acquisition process from the perspective of consciousness.

linguistic theories rarely touch upon consciousness.


This is possibly why we see 4-month-old babies play with vocalizations (babbling & vocal play) and produce repetitive syllables.

all the actions under LoC 1 are restricted to present intero-and exteroreceptor stimulation (Now), which are only triggered by present stimuli.


It can only receive and respond to signals, with no awareness of their existence and attributes.

a baby-agent with a higher LoC can realize that some agents or signals are special for it.


This is the basis of the discovery of new rules and the modification of extant rules.

as they reach a higher level of consciousness, they may consider more about the rules.


The level of consciousness and its impact on a baby-agent's behavior rules have already been emphasized.

consciousness development is a continuous process, and the increase in LoC is a quantum leap from the accumulation of drip growth.


With parallel and monolingual corpora at hand, contrastive studies of collocation can also shed new light on contrastive linguistic and translation studies, as well as bilingual lexicography.

the study of collocation across languages from a contrastive angle is still in its infancy.


Thanks to this framework, Lefff can be directly used in NLP applications.

this lexicon needs to be improved regarding its precision and its coverage.


脈 mai "meridian": "The blood vessels, distributed all over the human body and animal body, carry blood everywhere."

following the traditional Chinese medicine, we think the concept of 脈 should be regarded as part of the body in which life-sustaining substances are held through, rather than merely the blood vessels in anatomy.


(12) does NOT mean 'That paper is 2 pages long.'


Second, POS normally represents a "vague" degree crosslinguistically (Kennedy 2007).

hayashishita's POS is not vague as it provides a measurable differential degree.


When a cause/effect relation holds, it also relates two clauses.

the two clauses involved are non-parallel.


We saw that passive-active alternation (i.e., voice mismatch) in the antecedent and ellipsis pair is permissible in a cause/effect relation.

neither causative-unaccusative nor transitive-middle alternation in the antecedent and ellipsis pair is allowed.


As predicted in the plots of interactions for each island type in Figure 1, the 2x2 factorial design analysis with a linear mixed-effects regression model reveals that KLEs recognize the island effects of GAP-POSITION and STRUCTURE for both Complex NP and Whether island types.

because the interaction effects are present in the island STRUCTURE within the embedded GAP-POSITION, it is possible that the embedded island condition is driving these main effects.


The function of classifiers is to modify nouns.

it is found that the generic kind classifier zhong 'kind' (Huang 2015), in the form of gezhong 'each-kind; all kinds of', is frequently utilized to modify a verb phrase or an adjectival phrase in the social media.


The former is basically referential while the latter indicates events or states along the dimension of time.

as far as both grammatical behaviors and conceptual bases are concerned, the distinction is usually unclear.


A kind classifier is conditionally applicable to an event noun, when it is interpreted as a manner of conducting an action.

it seems to us that the addition of a light manner noun, e.g., fangshi 'manner', is preferred in this case of a kind classifier.


These methods are a deterministic algorithm which always produces the same output in a given particular condition.

even if the condition is applied, the output can be wrong.


Consequently, even using 4-gram or 5-gram, sequences consisting of 'soon' and its nearby words tend to be lowfrequency because the connection of 'as...as' is still interrupted.

the HWS model extracts sequences in a discontinuous way, even 'soon' is replaced by another word, the expression 'as...as' won't be affected.


Furthermore, after taking directional information into account, DHWS models perform even better than the original HWS models.

in DHWS models, since almost each word is distinguished as 'two words' ('-L' and '-R'), the coverage and usage tend to be relatively lower than the original HWS models.


Being easy to learn and use, pinyin IME is becoming the first choice of more and more Chinese users.

there are only under 500 pinyin syllables in standard Chinese, mandarin, but over 6,000 common Chinese characters, bringing huge ambiguities for pinyin-to-characters mapping (Jia and Zhao, 2014;Xu and Zhao, 2012;Zhang et al., 2014).


Its advantage comes from its simplicity.

it suffers from data sparseness, that is, the probability of the history h i not appearing in the training will be zero.


Experiments have shown that the NNLM has lower perplexity than the BNLM trained on the same corpus (Schwenk, 2010;Huang et al., 2013).

the computational complexity of NNLMs is quite high.


An additional challenge is how to sort and present the newborn news microblogs according to their importance, Most of the current news detection platforms sort the microblogs by their pub-lication time or their popularity.

at any point in time, there can be lots of newborn news microblogs all of which have close publication time; thus, sorting them by the publication time may fail to show important news on the top.


not a bad recall on news), the predicted news microblogs are mixed with a significant number of non-news microblogs.

our method uses the PA values of experts as confidences of the individual classifiers in the ensemble and this gives a large improvement in the accuracy of news microblogs classification.


One useful approach is based on machine learning techniques such as SVMs.

trouble information is a fraction of a percent of all tweets on Twitter.


Another approach is to extract trouble information by using handwritten rules.

constructing high coverage rules by handwork is costly.


There are many studies which handled news articles (Sakai et al., 2006), review documents (Ivanov and Tutubalina, 2014), financial documents (Leider and Schilder, 2010), daily reports (Kakimoto and Yamamoto, 2008), a failure database on the Web (Awano et al., 2012) and so on, as the target data.

these information sources are not usually instantaneous and exhaustive.


One solution is to increase the number of TEs for the extraction process.

constructing TEs with high coverage by handwork is costly.


One solution is to add NG rules to the extraction process.

we cannot solve a problem of the following sentence, which is also a negative result, by addition of NG rules.