We can even obtain better results than the whole corpus when selecting 80% of the corpus, which suggests that the corpus may contain noisy data and decrease the quality of the translation.

through the graph-based corpus selection approach, we can select only a part of corpus to train the translation model, which will reduce the time and space complexity largely when building machine translation system, while not decreasing the translation quality significantly.


Myanmar language is inflected language and there are very few creations and researches of corpora in Myanmar, comparing to other language such as English, French, and Czech etc.

myanmar phrases translation model is based on syntactic structure and morphology of myanmar language.


Myanmar language likes other Southeast Asia languages that do not place spaces between words.

the system used Myanmar Word Segmenter (MWS) which is implemented in UCSYNLP Lab which is available for research purpose.


This is reflected in the Myanmar words for "language": စာ sa refers to written, literary language, and စကား sa-ka refers to spoken language.

myanmar language can mean either "ျမန္ မာစာ mran-ma-sa" (written myanmar language), or "ျမန္ မာစကား mran-ma-sa-ka:" (spoke myanmar language).


Our system does not consider word order of Myanmar and English language.

we ignore the word order of candidate and reference sentences.


One way of helping the disambiguation of ambiguous words is use syntactic structure of language and to annotate words with their part-of-speech (POS).


This prevents the systems from treating them as a single unit.

one prime requirement for an MT system is to be able to maintain the semantic bond between the components, even when they are non-adjacent (Constable and Curran, 2009).


However, the Hindi verbs being used in the translations are different and depend on the object as well as its semantics used.

finding the object and its semantics will play a very important role in deciding what the Hindi verb for a particular VPC will be.


Both these senses can be represented by one Hindi verb "lagaanaa".

we have lesser Hindi verbs to accommodate WordNet senses.


the solution scheme needs to find answers to the following questions: -whether the verb + preposition combination is a true VPC, as opposed to the preposition being used to take care of an intransitive verb; -how to identify the VPC even when the preposition is not adjacent to the underlying verb; -how to identify the exact sense of the VPC, given that the same VPC may have multiple senses, as per WordNet; -how to choose the proper translation in the target language.


The largest difference when compared with the non-pruned translation table (Table 7 (d)) is visible in the cell corresponding to 1-1 entries: a substantial decrease of almost 200,000 entries is observed, which corresponds to a reduction of 76%.

the most numerous entries are now 2-2 phrase pairs, which account for 19% of the total number of phrase pairs.


As the F-score of SegT and CRF-SegT are 0.9694 and 0.9512 respectively, it means the latter 0.9512/0.9694 = 0.9812 fits the former.

the CRF-SegT fits the training corpus at a percentage of 98.12%.


Some nominal shapes are restricted to a single gender class.


The low frequency 'ə' and 'ū' classes contribute a fair number of neuter nouns.

neuter nouns are both less frequent in absolute numbers and also not uniquely identifiable.


Feminine nouns ending in 'ī' are more frequent than masculine nouns and subjects preferred the feminine to masculine gender when intuiting gender for such tokens.

nouns ending in 'ī' are intuited to be feminine and 'ī' ending nouns are predominantly feminine.


However, in the English data, the initial restriction of the past tense form to achievements is almost absolute (95% or higher), whereas in the mothers" speech the association is about 60% (Shirai and Andersen, 1995).

the results found in this experimentation are quite striking, even though some differences between English and Korean must be accounted for.


It is undeniable in the results of this experiment that children will show an overall distribution of -ko iss-/-a iss-similar to their caretakers.

we can conclude that the input a child receives plays a decisive role in their use of imperfective aspect markers.


The second is that the evaluations have poor reproducibility due to the difficulty of reaching agreement on the scoring criteria among the evaluators.

in the past decade, evaluation methods that automatically evaluate MT quality based on its similarity to a reference translation have become common (Papineni et al., 2002;Doddington, 2002;Banerjee and Lavie, 2005;Snover, et al., 2006;Melamed et al., 2007;Isozaki et al., 2010;Birch and Osborne, 2011).


However, all the evaluation methods mentioned that include human subjective evaluation provide less information for error analysis because they give only one score for each document or sentence.

evaluation methods have been proposed that present questions to human evaluators asking whether a sentence contains grammatical error(s) or other type of errors (Isahara, 1995;Joans et al., 2007;Uchimoto et al., 2007;Nagase et al., 2009).


The answer to this type of question depends on the evaluator's language skills.

the questions newly added to test set ver.


Chinese word boundaries are very ambiguous and difficult to define, different from in western languages.

we segmented Chinese sentences by each character to calculate the scores of conventional evaluation metrics in our experiment.


• The extraction of SCFG rules is merely based on the word alignment information.


• Sometimes the preposition and verb are far from each other so that they exceed the coverage of one hierarchical rule, e.g., 10 words conventionally.

they are split into different SCFG rules.


It is too ambiguous to capture collocations only referring to the POS tags.

too much noise was obtained when training our model.


As a result, too much noise was obtained when training our model.

though linguistic knowledge is beneficial, if we want to employ more useful linguistic rules, language analysis toolkit must be involved.


Furthermore, the maximum entropy model makes it convenient to incorporate various features.

in the future, we will apply language analysis tools to extract more beneficial features to improve our model.


For endings with multiple readings, only the most frequent ones will be included in the annotation and passed on to the CG disambiguation grammar.

of this strategy, corpus errors, misspellings and hapaxes will automatically be weeded out, and the noisy frequency tail of the word inventory ignored.


While the former is a better model for a bare-bones system relying heavily on endings also for common words, the latter is better suited to predict the analysis of a small remaining percentage of rarer, unknown words.

in out evaluation, we used one method for the lexicon-free system, and the other for experiments with lexicon sizes.


The value of two features may be identified, creating reentrancies.

the feature structures are DAGs (cycles are disallowed).


Each row in this table denotes the types subsumed by the current type.

even without the direct inheritance information from Figure 2, we can tell from Figure 3 that type b is equal to or more general than type b, d, e, f, and glb1.


However, this rule is incorrect by comparing the trained sentence patterns.


Evaluating approaches to identifying diachronic semantic change is difficult; indeed, most previous studies have relied on rather small datasets (e.g., Sagi et al., 2009;Cook and Stevenson, 2010) or human judges' intuitions about changes in meaning, which might not accurately reflect changes in meaning observed in corpora (e.g., Gulordava and Baroni, 2011).

taking inspiration from evaluation approaches in word sense disambiguation that make use of artificiallyambiguous words (e.g., Schütze, 1992;Gale et al., 1992), we propose evaluation methods that use synthetic examples of semantic change.


Many words have multiple related senses; i.e., many words are polysemous.

when a word takes on a novel sense, it is often related to its older senses.


Another problem is that the rule updating task requires an exhaustive knowledge about REs and a considerable amount of time modifying the rules.

the automated learning process to capture patterns using REs is particularly difficult.


Automated lexical verification and high accuracy clinical spelling suggestion are supported in the LMS interface which then enable high accuracy and efficiency at manual resolution of unknown tokens.

the proofed corpus becomes much more informative for automatic information extraction as well as human comprehension and interpretation.


Synonym judgements: Paradigmatic associations are heavily used in the process of making synonym judgements.

we will evaluate our paradigmatic measure on the synonym-finding task in the TOEFL, after using the TASA (Touchstone Applied Science Associates, Inc.) corpus to build our semantic space.


A review of past papers using the TOEFL synonym test as a benchmark 1 , suggests that the corpus used, preprocessing of documents and resulting vocabulary size may impact the performance achieved (Stone et al., 2008).

comparisons of TOEFL performance between papers is likely unreliable.


We see that, for some of the selected words, there have been more senses created in BibSonomy, and for others more in Delicious.

the number of senses does not seem to depend much on the size of the resource.


The idea is borrowed from the observation that ambiguous words appear in topic related sentences contained in the same article often share common meanings.

we can retrieve a small number of sentences containing the ambiguous word from the same article.


However, we notice that ambiguous sentence usually have fewer words than document, and a lot of topic related sentences can barely share same word except some empty words.

if we use cosine measure to compute similarity between sentences, we cannot differentiate similarity between sentences pairs and thus fall back on a reasonable knowledge context for ambiguous sentence.


To obtain completness we will have to offer annotators superset of all valid answers what is not possible with automatic tools and obtain perfect inter-annotator agreement.

the last position that completeness occupies on the priority list is in fact a necessity.


For example, the Vietnamese word "quốc tế" mean international but the individual "word" separated by the space does have its meaning ("quốc" means country and "tế" means to run).

the JVnSegmenter module within JVnTextPro (Nguyen and Phan, 2007) was used to tokenize the Vietnamese data.


The accuracy of the human annotation might be primed by what the POS tagger had tagged.

the human verifications were not treated as the "gold standard" but an inter-annotation agreement (IAA) score that was derived from the annotators" identification of the mis-segmented and mis-tagged tokens 3 .


For the Japanese POS evaluation, there was no human annotator available.

a different POS tagger, ChaSen morphemic analyzer, was used to calculate IAA.


Although it is possible to create more alignments through other pivoting permutations, generating pivoted alignments from crude -dic alignments will be perpetuating the original mis-alignments that hunalign had produced.

only the pivoted Gold Standard alignments was worth the effort as it can be able to produce word-level alignments of similar quality to the +human alignments.


Most of the approaches for this task were based on provided seed instances or patterns to initiate the process.

the result of the extraction depends largely on the quality of the instances and patterns.


Kozareva and Hovy (2010) mentioned that seed selection plays an important role in this kind of semi-supervised approaches.

how to select high quality seeds in the initial stage is a critical issue.


However, a portion of the retrieved sentences can be, to a certain degree, not relevant in describing the intended relation.

the patterns built on top of them can deviate from the original goal.


However, the scalability of such an approach is not promising.

we need an approach to automatically assess the utility of each seed instance in evaluating the extraction patterns.


However, there may be some overly-general patterns that are characterized by high coverage and low precision.

we need to prune those possibly unreliable patterns and utilize the remaining ones to evaluate the quality of seed instances.


Among these 3 groups, the first one is the most difficult to be recognized because the structures of the names are complicated and the contexts they occur are varying.

a number of research on NER as well as this study have focused on the first group.


In addition, most of previous research did not distinguish metonymic names, which are location names referring to organizations and organization names referring to locations.

apart from presenting the NER systems, this study is conducted to find out if the more informative answers can improve the system performance of Thai NER like in Chinese or not.


For example, the location names, in fact, could not co-occur with verbs since only persons and organizations can do some actions.

whenever the location names co-occur with verbs, it implies that these names are used as metonymic names referring to the organization.


Moreover, one word can have more than one part of speech.

considering only forms of words like in our work is not enough for recognizing the differences between common names and metonymic names.


ทวี ศั กดิ ์ ส งเสริ ม" (Assistant Prof. Dr. Taweesak Songserm) is in fact a last name but has the same form like a verb "ส งเสริ ม", which means 'support' in Thai.


Moreover, in Thai, lots of names, especially location and organization names, are in the same forms as general phrases.

if they do not appear in the obvious context which can indicate that they are actually proper names, the systems could not differentiate between them and general phrases.


Nevertheless, the systems have the problem of extracting names without clue words or in ambiguous context.

for future work, we may consider using POS as a feature in our model.


This task plays an important role in a large number of NLP applications such as Information Retrieval, Question Answering and Machine Translation.

it has attracted many attentions within the NLP community.


CEAF (Luo, 2005) The BCUB metrics still has its own problems: for example, the mention precision/recall is computed by comparing entities containing the mention and therefore an entity can be used more than once.

they proposed Constrained Entity-Aligned F-measure or CEAF metric.


That is to say, the dependency parse tree structure mainly concerns the dependency relationship between individual words, instead of the phrase structure contained in the constituent parse tree structure.

these two kinds of syntactic parse tree structures may behave quite differently in capturing different aspects of syntactic phenomena.


all the mentions are already known from the annotated corpus).

the actual effect of this joint ILP formulation on fully automatic coreference resolution is still unclear.


Actually, this characteristic is preferred since a coreference resolution system can often detect some nonanaphoric NPs when failing to find their antecedent candidates while it is almost impossible to recover those filtered anaphoric NPs caused by anaphoricity determination.

keeping more anaphoric NPs is always preferred over filtering out more non-anaphoric NPs in anaphoricity determination from the viewpoint of overall coreference resolution.


The account for varying word-oder in terms of the syntax of object is most sensible only if the basic clause structure is as in (15).

to the extent that varying word-order cannot be derived in any other principled way, the Universal Order Hypothesis has some empirical basis.


In the follow-up interview, participants said they were clearly aware that they could not afford a long pause in such exams as with fixed duration set for interpretation; they also said that when they vaguely heard others around start interpreting they would force themselves to start as well even without a full preparation.

it seems that adequate stress from the exam may play a positive role in controlling pause.


The investigation shows that the problems of overusing fillers and repeated words may be prevalent among CI beginning learners, while notable pause seems to be under the participants' better control in the language lad environment.

pedagogical implications of the study can be gained in the following aspects.


Under this circumstance, crosslingual applications such as machine translation, cross-lingual information retrieval, cross-lingual text categorization and clustering etc., become more and more attractive.

crosslingual word semantic similarity measure becomes a meaningful research topic.


(6) Chén yìxùn yīnyuèhuì 'the concert of Eason Chan' Qualia = AGENTIVE = Chén yìxùn 'Eason Chan' sings on the concert The agentive role of Chén yìxùn yīnyuèhuì 'the concert of Eason Chan' is the same as the 'sing' agentive role of yīnyuè 'music' as shown in (3).

eason Chan modifies yīnyuè 'music' rather than .


However, "shattered" is not an absolute specification, but can be specified "in greater degrees of accuracy" (Gruber 1985: 82).

a (9), are only allowed to follow a delimiter with a state that is non-absolute specification, i.e.


two-point closed scale motion morphemes such as jin "enter" and chu "exit", as in (5).

(5) gun/luo/hui/jin-dao xuexiao roll/fall/return/enter-arrive school "roll to/fall to/return to/enter the school" to better reflect the possible motion constructions that exist and do not exist in Chinese, we propose a revised Motion Morpheme Hierarchy in which multi-point and two-point closed scale motion morphemes are grouped together, whereas the special motion morpheme dao "arrive" is listed separately in a box with dotted-line border in the rightmost position of the hierarchy; the new hierarchy is given in (6).


However, there are instances in which the morpheme searched for is not used in a MMMC, or even not used as a motion morpheme.

the numbers of MMMCs collected for analysis is much less than 7,000 (1,000 for each motion morpheme), as shown in Figures 2-8.


First, in terms of degree of specification about a scale, nonscalar change motion morphemes (e.g., gun "roll") do not provide any information about the scale, open scale motion morphemes (e.g., luo "fall") specify the existence of a scale, whereas (both multi-point and two-point) closed scale motion morphemes such as hui "return" and jin "enter" not only specify the existence of a scale, but also the existence of an endpoint for the scale.

to satisfy the Scalar Specificity Constraint, when these morphemes form a hierarchy to predict morpheme order, they must follow an order as represented by the three boxes with solid-line border in (6).


Second, in terms of the degree of specification of a scale, a two-point closed scale motion morpheme (e.g., jin "enter)" is not more specific than a multi-point closed scale motion morpheme (e.g., hui "return)", or vice versa: both specify the existence of a scale and the existence of an endpoint for the scale.

conforming to the Scalar Specificity Constraint, two closed scale motion morphemes do not co-occur, as in *hui-jin fangjian returnenter room.


they all specify the existence of a scale, as well as the existence of an endpoint for the scale.

the fact that dao "arrive" can follow closed scale motion morphemes represents an exception to the Scalar Specificity Constraint.


A gazetteer contains a list of words of the same kind of NE.

each type of NE will have its own gazetteer.


Besides that, due to the texts corpus is paper format.


These foreign words are mainly borrowed from English vocabulary.

we kept the English gazetteers available in ANNIE to ensure the recognition of all NEs, either native or foreign words, in Iban texts.


The difference is on the words used to introduce the father's name.

we built a JAPE rule that can recognize the pattern <Name><Father's affiliation><Father's name>.


able to identify some NEs in Iban texts, which as we mentioned earlier are generally from English vocabulary.

we try to keep the default English gazetteers and add new named entities related to Malaysian locations to improve the performance of NERSIL.


Both spelling mistakes and error in capital letters need another approach to solve it, for example, using a spelling checker for Iban language.

cannot be found in this problem Homonymy is another source of errors.


Except for the headword of a sentence as a whole, all words in the sentence have their own headword.

the dependency accuracy is measured by obtaining and matching the headwords.


For such a framework to work properly, the training data should contain a large number of analogies between sentences.

such a framework can only work properly with short and repetitive sentences.


The self-information of a word that appears C(w) times in a corpus of N words is: In an ideal code, thus: the length of the word, C(w) its number of occurrences and N the total number of words in the text.

a word in a corpus of N words can be said to be informative if its length is much greater than its self-information in this text: again, words with the smallest values for the following function can be said to be informative.


(6-gram) dramatically increased the number of extracted expressions, while achieving higher precision than the baseline methods.

the recall was tremendously improved, and the F-measure was also largely improved.


This means that a number of parallel sentences of the corpora are in free translation relationships.

the English words used are usually different to the translations of the Japanese words obtained from the Japanese-English dictionary, and the expressions in correct parallel translations might be judged as incorrect and removed from the final extraction results.


Also, since there were no translations for the n-grams such as " " [(1) chiu masao, (2) chiu paul, (3) paul chiu] and " " [(1) zaiseibuchou, (2)(3) finance minister], the words in the "nonmatching list" could not be moved to the "matching list".

the parallel translation expression was judged as incorrect and removed from the final extraction results.


Thus, we also make n-grams with arbitrary lengths and regard them as single words for dictionary searching.

we obtain the following eight expressions 6 : " " [gulf coast], " " [war], " " [victory], " " [gulf war], " " [of war], " " [victory of war], and " " [victory in the gulf war].


In step (2), we first check the English translation candidates of the independent words and the English expressions.

" " and "war" and " " and "victory" are matched and classified into the "matching list", while " " and "gulf" are not matched and are classified into the "non-matching list".


The categories we deal with are similar to each other but different from the conventional ones used in genre detection or topic classification.

it is desirable for our index to be able to deal with the relative position of a document in a document set.


As reported in (Fragopanagos and Taylor, 2005), emotion analysis could suffer from insufficient or misleading emotion features if context is not taken into account.

we explore an automatic document emotion analysis model, which takes the dynamically annotated emotional words as features and explores the statistic parameters extracted from the Ren-CECps 1 (Quan and Ren, 2010) to help correctly predict the document emotions from previously generated word emotions.


As the emotional word " 善 长 (good at)" is modified by the negative word " 不 (not)", the sentence emotion express a opposite emotion to the word emotion.

the appearance of the negative modifications would be considered as a feature.


The conjunction " 虽 然 ... 但 (although)" is employed in the sentence, so the sentence can express much stronger emotion.

we judge whether each word is under a conjunction modification or not, and employ this conjunction modification as a feature.


The denominator part of equation (4.1) counts the appearance of words , which is represented by j i n , , from each document j D .

equation (4.1) gives us an evaluation of the confidence, which we call the term relevance tr , that the emotion of word i w is compatible with the emotion of the document which it belongs to.


Table Table Table Table 4 Compared with the three precisions of comparative experiment, experiment which utilizes term relevance gets the better performance.

we believe that term relevance makes a contribution to the document emotion analysis.


Little context information is available.

it is a challenge for monitoring and analyzing them.


The model could not be trained for a certain organization.

our method aims to utilize both training data and the test data to improve the accuracy of the performance.


The words in homepage are more related and indicative to the organization.

these words (removed the stopwords) are chosen to represent the organization.


However, some organization webpages are created by java-scripts or even flash, no text information could be extracted from them at present.


Maximum Entropy classifier gives a confidence value for each tweet which is classified to True or False.

we choose N True and False tweets tagged by Maximum Entropy classifier as seeds according to its confidence value.


However, there are still some weaknesses in the parser, which does not remove tags that should be removed and remove parts that should not be removed.

we made a preprocessing parser to handle the lack of JWPL parser.


This problem happened because keywords that are used as query appear less in relevant document/paragraph or appear more in irrelevant documents / paragraphs.

the answer was not in the top 30 documents or top 20 documents.


This is where cross-linguistic similarity or universality is represented.

the equivalent sentences of English Wayan will help Mary in Indonesian and Tagalog are, respectively, Wayan akan menolong Mary and Tatulong si Wayan kay Mary.


The general rule for -i composition appears to be that arguments of thematically similar types tend to fuse.

the actor-like ARG1 of the matrix PRED tends to fuse with the actor-like ARG1 of the embedded PRED.


First of all, the crossed control reading is not possible when the matrix verb is in AV.

sentence (25) is strange in its ordinary-control reading (i), and it can never mean (ii) (i.e.


the wanter), indicated by (SUBJ), to be shared with the embedded complement (XCOMP)'s agent-OBL (or OBJ).

when the verb mau occupies the terminal note V, the SVC would take the whole PRED mau, but would make the experiencer of mau (i.e.


CG systems are modular, hierarchical sets of rule-based grammars targeting different linguistic levels, and while higher level analysis can be performed within the same formalism, it is a challenging task.

most of the existing CG systems perform only morphosyntactic and dependency annotation, with some notable exceptions in the area of NER and semantic role annotation.


Even in a case-poor language like English, we found some clear likelihood relations between thematic roles and syntactic functions (table 2).

agents ( §AG, §COG, §SP) are typical subject roles, while patients ( §PAT), messages ( §MES) and results ( §RES) are typical direct object roles, and recipients ( §REC) and beneficiaries ( §BEN) call for dative object function.


The TMP: tags are intermediate tags used for string matches.

the additional TMP: §$2 role tag will be used by rules handling coordination of same-role arguments.


*\)>r)) ; While helping to distinguish between verb senses with the same syntactic argument frame, using semantic noun classes as context restrictions raises the issue of circularity in terms of corpus example extraction, and also reduces overall robustness of frame tagging, not least in the presence of metaphor.

all frame mapping rules are run twice -first with semantic noun class restrictions in place, then -if necessary -without.


bsài 'competition' ARGSTR = D-ARG 1 = x: individual D-ARG 2 = y: individual D-ARG 3 = z: organizer D-ARG 4 = r: rule EVENTSTR = E 1 = e 1 : process QUALIA = FORMAL = a: activity CONSTITUTIVE = {x, y, z, r, c } TELIC = [e 1 satisfies r ĺ (x ש y) win] AGENTIVE = organize (z, a) A competition usually sets rules so that the participant who has the best performance will be the winner.

the purpose of bsài 'competition', which is the telic role, is to win with some rules satisfied during the competing process e 1 .


For example, the telic role of where x is an argument that is selected.

the function of xunbásài 'selection contest' is f i : [TELIC=select(x)].


This compound can be represented as School- yùndònghuì kƗimùshì 'sports meet opening ceremony' Ȝxy[opening ceremony (x) ר sports meet (y) ר part of (x, y)] yùndònghuì 'sports meet' QUALIA= CONSTITUTIVE={opening ceremony, ……} yùndònghuì 'sports meet' is an event that includes many subevents, such as the opening ceremony, competitions and the closing ceremony.

in the compound yùndònghuì kƗimùshì 'sports meet opening ceremony', the N 2 kƗimùshì 'opening ceremony' is a constituent of the N 1 yùndònghuì 'sports meet'.


On the other hand, the method Target Only will never be able to output the correct word sense for the instances whose word senses do not appear in the training data.

the method with more training data, i.e., Random Sampling, should be used for these instances.


For example, if a verbal item takes 100 different nouns as its objects, 2 100 -1 subsets will be examined, which is too huge to calculate within a common development environment.

8 it is highly necessary to devise a means to overcome the problem in calculation.


However, due to the considerable number of unstructured data, it is unrealistic to go through and obtain the panoramas of relationships manually.

automatically relation extraction and visualization techniques become ever more important and necessary.


Due to the complicated structure of multiple relation-bearing sentences, traditional methods could not perform effectively to extract food and disease relationships.

we have to simplify them, and then adopt extraction models to obtain food and disease relationships.


In these encyclopedias, concepts belonging to the same class are organized together.

we select 11 related categories such as " 健康饮 食 (healthy food)", " 营养学(nutrition)" and " 疾病 (disease)".


Even if IUMs model a class (plamodel) different from user prediction topic (train), interactive topic information is also effective for alleviating semantic drift.

"car" class as the interactive positive topic, its topic words are more pure like "turbo" and "shijou (test drive)" than in the parent positive topic.


The consistency of a user's sentiment regarding a target's stance on an issue is not a property of a single document, and it depends on the label for each document that mentions the targetissue pair in question.

this property is not appropriately expressed as an SVM feature; instead, we incorporate Hypothesis 3 as follows: we cluster the documents authored by the same user and target (for tweets) or the same user, target, and issue (for forum posts) into one cluster.


The contexts of tweets are artificially compressed (each tweet message limited to 140 characters), so each single tweet message rarely includes a targettarget pair or a pair target-issue pair.

in this section we focus on evaluating the impact of Hypothesis 3 on tweets.


Small business owners confirm #Obamacare is a job killer: http://t.co/If7yNqVo 132 Approach Accuracy Baseline 59.61% + Hypothesis 1 62.89% + Hypothesis 2 62.64% + Hypothesis 3 67.24% + Hypothesis 1+2 64.21% + Hypothesis 1+2+3 71.97% Table 6: Impact of New Hypotheses on Forum Data The baseline approach misclassified the first message as "Positive", but correctly classified the other two as "Negative" with high confidence.

the voting approach successfully fixed the sentiment of the first message to "Negative".


Due to the prevalence of debate in discussion forums, the users tend to list multiple argument points to support their overall opinions.

a single post often contains a mixture of sentiments.


The content at the subject node in (10) is the place-holding variable V, and it is weaker than the content at the subject node in (6).

the collapse of the two subject nodes is harmless.


For the model of pragmatics, I assume Relevance Theory (Sperber and Wilson, 1995).

if it is inferable that the speaker has in mind a definite entity, a parser may strengthen the epsilon operator ε in (41) as the iota operatorι, as in (42).


Sometimes, small feature space sizes make SVM perform equivalent to NBM as observed in Table 12.

this would explain why SVM is outperformed for small training set sizes and for small feature spaces with large training sets.


In sentiment analysis, it is very useful to recognize the person whose opinion or emotion is being expressed.


Rather, according to the writer, the Xirao-Nima states that the U.S. fears a spill-over.

the nested source of the fear can be expressed as <writer, Xirao-Nima, U.S>.


Even though a sentence bears many subjective expressions in it, the sentence can carry objective facts.

our annotation principle separates basic subjective expressions from subjectivity of a whole sentence.


For example, in the sentence John hates Mary, the experiencer is John, the attitude is hate, and the target is Mary.

in order to annotate subjective expressions, all three attributes of the private state should be properly represented.


Although each sentence consists of various numbers of subjective expressions, we feel that a sentence may be an objective fact rather than subjective.

we mark the subjectivity of a whole sentence on the basis of the speech event, i.e.


In Chinese, the canonical antonym of zhijie is jianjie, and that of hefa is feifa.

it was predicted that bu chengshi, which lacks a lexical counterpart against chengshi, would behave more like a word than bu zhijie and bu hefa.


First, gradable antonyms such as kuaile/beishang 'happy/sad' were not considered, for the negation of a gradable antonym does not entail its counterpart (i.e., bu kuaile 'not happy' does not necessarily mean beishang 'sad').

the present study selected complementary antonyms, which are mutually exclusive (Cruse, 1986); the negation of one can be regarded as near-synonymous with the other.


In (4), bing, which serves as an intensifier, cannot modify zhijie if bu is not present.

bing is analyzed as modifying bu rather than bu zhijie.


However, automatic topic detection would introduce errors and manual topic detection would involve high cost and time.

we leave this issue for our future work.


Furthermore, other nodes encode places and are connected to characters who were active there.

these networks present an overview of the "who", "what", and "where" in large text corpora, visualizing associations between people and places.


As described in Section 3.2, these descriptions involve social interactions, typically actions (e.g., 'kiss') performed by one or both of the people concerned (e.g., 'Jacob kissed Rachel and began to weep').

to determine whether the two people are involved in a social interaction, we first check whether the two named entities were marked in the dependency tree either as a subject-object pair of a verb, or as a pair connected by a coordinating conjunction (e.g., 'and'), serving as a subject or object.


14 Third, one might try to derive it by moving the embedded CP first and then deleting all other elements except for the object, as follows: (20) [ CP Yuni-ka [Cheli-lul] coha-n-ta-ko] i na-nun e i sayngkakha-n-ta // [Yuni-ka e i coha-n-ta-ko] As pointed out in , this is not legitimate, either, because ellipsis has applied to a non-constituent expression.

there seems to be no way to derive the structure in (17) under a non-mono-clausal analysis of the RDC.


Therefore, there seems to be no way to derive the structure in (17) under a non-mono-clausal analysis of the RDC.

the restriction on the extraction out of a post-verbal, i.e., RDed, embedded clause, naturally follows without making any stipulation.


The conventional lexical level features are not effective for classifying different organization names, because these organizations may belong to different domains.

we try to generate more general features from the web sources, train a classifier on training data, and classify the tweets corresponding to the unseen organization names in test set.


The scale of tweets retrieved from Twitter is much larger than that of test data.

the coverage of lexical features of adaptive-U is larger than that of adaptive-T, the performance of adaptive-U is better than that of adaptive-T.


In question (b), we also found that the final answer is located in a sequence of PP-NP-O.

if we can learn these kinds of related structures between question answer pairs for any EAT, we will have useful information to predict the location of the final answer in a textual passage.


Dubinsky, 1985Dubinsky, , 1997Pylkkänen, 2002), while niyotte-passives involve the suppression of the external argument of the base verb by another type of -rare, the passive voice head (Kratzer, 1996), as in (5)b.

5 I assume two homophonous morphemes which function completely differently.


Finally, there is great variability in acceptability judgments, especially when unaccusative-based indirect passives are involved.

when I cite examples from the previous literature, I cite their reported judgments as well, with minor changes made to the examples when necessary.


1AEX is originally a law proposed in the framework of Relational Grammar (Perlmutter and Postal, 1984), which states, in informal terms, that raising to subject occurs at most once in a single clause.

it precludes cases such as double passives and passives based on unaccusatives, both of which require raising to subject to occur more than once.


(Kuno and Takami, 2002 with changes) However, the restriction can still be defended if the verb is variable in such a way that it is unaccusative in (10)a but unergative in (10)b, as in (9).

for (10)b to be true counterevidence, it must be demonstrated that the verb is unaccusative in its behavior in the syntactic context of (10)b.


Taking the preceding two arguments together, we can conclude that non-alternating unaccusatives are neither unergatives nor variable behavior verbs functioning as such in indirect passives.

they also falsify the unaccusative restriction.


All in all, substantial evidence points to the unaccusative restriction being too strong.

the alleged generalization is a tendency at most, and unaccusatives, monadic or dyadic, can appear as the base verb in indirect passives.


asymmetrically entails, the latter, with the difference being that the former expresses a relation in which the individual introduced by the indirect passive morpheme is adversely affected by the embedded event.

if it is unclear to the hearer how the adverse relation is established between the individual and the embedded event, then the use of an indirect passive makes the utterance irrelevant and unnecessary, and that of its corresponding active form suffices.


In other words, they can contribute to pragmatic meaning as well as lexical semantic meaning.

it is possible that, even when a predicate does not entail the sentience of an argument that it takes, the argument should be understood as sentient as imposed by the I-Principle and allowed by the context.


To sum up, the aversion to unaccusative-based indirect passives is in fact the preference for such alternatives as causative-based indirect passives or unaccusative actives, which can be explained in terms of the general neo-Gricean principles.

pragmatic inferences play a crucial role in deriving the unaccusative restriction effects.


According to the reports 1 , users applying micro- 1 The Eleventh China Network Media Forum blog have exceeded 300,000,000.

of releasing diversely and writing randomly, microblog post is more and more popular in China, and it has brought a tremendous effect on network opinions and human society.


Our work is slightly different from the previous work in that each instance purchased at a time is regarded as an independent 'entity'.

the temporal information about each candidate target works as an essential clue as compared to the previous work.


However, due to the small amount of sequence data sets for the P p , the minded patterns are not effective.

we argue that the mined patterns by CSR are not that effective for product name distinction.


We therefore encode lexical information only on one of the two ends of the subtree in each time, while for all nodes we encode their grammatical and positional information.

for the subtree (e) in Figure 5, a feature can appear as: A binary value, here we denote as "left" and "right", is used to indicate the direction of branch of a node from its head.


The capability of answering in this strategy depends on amount of data warehouse.

to improve this as well as increase accuracy of answer, we observed other method based on obtained results of search engine.


Being a core component of Chinese input method, PTC is sensitive to the computational cost.

time cost of decoding for the two models is reported as follows.


These words generally have many varieties of notations and conjugations, and they lack versatility.

many of them are not registered in the dictionaries, making morphological analysis more difficult.


Because the notation of Wakamono Kotoba is various, many Wakamono Kotoba are generally low-frequency words in the corpus.

we attempted to improve the estimation accuracy by using the emotion expressions with strong relation with Wakamono Kotoba as feature instead of using Wakamono Kotoba as feature.


Of course, the WKRC includes the sentences that do not express any emotion.

the emotional expressions whose emotions are different from the emotions of the Wakamono Kotoba are sometimes extracted.


As described in section 3.1, due to low matching rate of the emotions in between emotional expression and sentence, we thought that estimation accuracy would decrease.

the feature weight was changed in T 4 , T 5 depending on whether both emotions matched or not.


Because Wakamono Kotoba tend to appear less frequently due to their varieties of notations even though they are expressing emotions.

they were difficult to be used as a trigger for emotion estimation.


Unlike most European languages, there are no explicit typographic boundaries like white spaces between words in many written Asian languages such as Chinese, Japanese, Korean, Thai, Lao and Vietnamese.

word segmentation for such languages is usually the first important step in most Natural Language Processing (NLP) applications especially in statistical machine translation.


Phrase translation tables generated with our method are not limited to words, but also contain phrases, fragments and short sentences that may not be included in the EDR bilingual lexicon.

we filtered the EDR lexicon to produce a filtered lexicon that contains only those entries which can actually be extracted from the training corpus.


The ensuing Answer Extraction operation assumes that one of the passages retrieved would, by itself, contain sufficient evidence to recognize and extract the answer.

the reliance on a particular passage to answer a question renders the task of question answering essentially a local operation with respect to the corpus as a whole.


We call this the locality constraint of factoid QA.

special methods are needed to overcome this locality constraint in order to successfully handle CEQs.


the number of sub-questions to which an answer candidate is the answer, which we call simply votes from now on) ignores the possibility that multiple answers can tie for the same maximum votes, especially if this number is small compared to the number of subquestions.

there is the need for a method to rank the answers with the same number of votes.


The joining of answers to sub-questions are done automatically, however, using a specially added postprocessing module.

this QA system is a simulation of a fully-automatic CEQ handling QA system.


the conventional approach requires different set of textual evidence (passages) to be assembled based on the decomposition of the question as we have presented in the previous section, whereas in the Direct Answer Retrieval approach, only one answer document needs to be located.

there are three advantages for using Direct Answer Retrieval method over the conventional IR with the special sub-question method: • No multiplication of questions.


The addressing in current annotation is via the global address of the chunk in the document.

re-considering example(2) annotated with chunk information as follows : Ram's broken hand is being treated in hospital.


Multiple instances have been found where a part of the referent can be moved via scrambling, movement or where elements can be inserted in between.

it is natural to mark the referent in a way that enables maximum retrieval of information about the referent.


In order to annotate multiple referents, in the proposed scheme the chunk address/id of these multiple referents is specified in the 'ref ' attribute separated by a delimiter(comma).

reconsidering the chunked example 3 as follows : 'Ram went to mohan's home yesterday evening.


These modifiers are required for the correct interpretation of the pronoun; address values of all such modifier chunks are assigned in the 'refmod' attribute separated by a delimiter(/).

reconsidering example(4) as follows : 'My elder brother is coming tomorrow.


In addition, they found that rated context availability makes a better predictor for lexical decision time than imageability, familiarity, and age-of-acquisition.

the concreteness effects are rather attributable to the ease of retrieving related contextual information from prior knowledge for individual words, that is, context availability matters.


Utterance (1b), for example, involves the notion of someone named Perry, i.e., Perry nnamed-perry.

the self-notion axiom, Necessarily, ∀x[ContentOf( x nself)=x], applies to the former, but not to the latter, and this explains why Perry is likely to fix the sugar sack when he holds the belief in (1d).


The fact is that the first person pronoun is possibly interpreted de se/non-de se with respect to the matrix subject, meaning that its reference to the speaker is not direct, and it is indirect via the matrix subject.

wechsler's (2010) self-ascription monopoly does not apply to all uses of the first and second person pronouns, and actually it only applies to all the first and second person pronouns that are interpreted directly to the speaker in the context, i.e., not via the matrix subject.


(9) wo hui weixiao-zhe-de gaosu ni I will smile-ZHE-MOD tell you 'I will tell you with a smile.'

(Baidu example) as for SVCs with overt aspectual markers, their heads can be identified by looking at the distribution of the aspectual markers in the SVCs.


Yes because the "NPI"-ness of dare-mo is now characterized not as a feature of dare-mo on its own, but an epiphenomenon mirroring its interaction with its environment whatever it is.

dare-mo is now better termed as "Pseudo-NPI" and will be analyzed as such in the following.


As the variable bound by ∀ is a sortal one for humans, the domain of the universal quantifier is naturally restricted to the set of humans; however, as the restrictor is lacking, there will be no more restriction on the domain.

the content of the nominals construed with dare-mo will be entered into the nuclear scope.


When the subject is inanimate, the unaccusativity feature holds; the verb does not occur with adverb of volitionality as is true for other unaccustive verb.

the following sentence is illegitimate: (11 a.)


Feature Values Class kUDa jump 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 DUba sink -1 -1 -1 -1 -1 -1 1 2 baNa get build -1 -1 -1 -1 -1 -1 -1 3  -Ani -Vol] subjects and comprises of 67% of the total intransitive verbs.

even after classifying the verb to the unaccusative class, one is not able to predict its properties as one does not know whether that verb belongs to the fuzzy group.


The classification accomplished by the classifier confirms the fact that verbs of class 2 perform most inconsistently.

the paper argues that the model developed in this paper can be used for a better classification of intransitive verbs.


Also, many researches about transliteration have been accomplished for clean data, however, as far as we know, there have been no research about transliteration for noisy query data.

we investigated which method is the best for query transliteration, using the parallel data of the alphabetic queries which did not provide any products when non-Japanese people searched (i.e., the Alphabet Queries) and the Japanese queries which are transcribed from them (i.e., the Correct Queries).


This paper, based on Nam's (1995) semantic typology of locatives, aims to characterize the formal (syntactic/morphological) structures of locative expressions in natural language, and identifies typological implications among the different types of locatives.

for example, we show that locative PPs are relatively free to scramble (fronting/extraposing) but locative VPs are not; and that if goal arguments can be expressed in a PP in a language L, then source arguments can, too.


Chinese also makes use of locative verbs as well as locative prepositions.

a source argument or a stative locative shows up as a PreP, whereas the goal argument accompanies a locative verb.


Nam (2004) claims that goal PPs in English are generated as a VP internal complement as illustrated in (26b) below (under the lower VP2), and that source PPs are generated as an adjunct of a higher VP1 as shown in (27b).

his claim predicts that a goal argument is less free in scrambling out of the VP than a source argument is.


Further, Nam claims that the source argument is interpreted as a modifier of the event denoted by the VP, and the goal argument is interpreted as a result state of the event.

we have the following event structures (Nam 2004 We will provide with various syntactic phenomena from different languages, which show (i) a goal phrase is more closely united to the lexical verb than a source is, (ii) the source phrase is relatively free to move/scramble, while the goal phrase is much restricted to, and (iii) the goal phrase can be an object of an applicative (PI) verbal complex.


Korean is another language which use several locative verbs for symmetric path locatives.

we have the list of locative verbs in (24), and (25) illustrate some of their uses.


In the Chinese version of Wikipedia, entries including entry titles are usually written in traditional Chinese characters and equivalent terms in simplified Chinese characters are listed as redirects of terms in traditional Chinese characters.

e C is denoted as e C = T 0 , {S 1 r , .


In this evaluation result, one erroneous topic alignment from Japanese to Chinese and one of the two erroneous topic alignments from Chinese to Japanese are the ones about domestic economies.

if we remove those erroneous alignment results of topics on domestic economies, we have the correct rate of Japanese to Chinese topic alignment as 100% (=5/5) and that of Chinese to Japanese direction as 80.0% (=4/5).


When the requester uses factor F5, he/she assumes that explaining the reasons to the requestee and requestee's potential understanding of reasons of request may increase the likelihood of the fulfilment of a request.

the requester appeals to the empathy and imagination of the requestee, since he/she considers their influence as an effective strategy.


These instances obscure the characteristics of the target semantic category.

the patterns extracted in the next iteration might not represent at the semantic category of the seed instances.


The filter pattern is expected to cover all correct instances of the sibling group.

a pattern co-occurring with many seed instances is desirable.


Because set expansion is the task to obtain unknown instances, it is difficult to measure recall.

we compare the precision of each method when each method acquires fixed quantities of instances.


We suspect that the lack of commonality of categories in the sibling group (e.g., motor vehicle manufacture and medical supplies manufacture) does not fit well to the assumption of using filter patterns.

investigating the impact of choosing sibling groups would be an interesting future direction of this research.


The number of documents in the web is much more than the target number of documents.

we first filter out inadequate documents automatically by simple rules.


Web pages have structure information such as HTML tag, but the headlines are sometimes described by tags other than the <h> tag, which renders headlines, and there is non-headline text which are marked up with <h> tags.

we determine the headline by the content of the text.


However, does not appear in the first three sentences, so that it is difficult to understand the context that the author was going to Mefu shrine.

if the word in the headline only appears after the first three sentences, we determine that removing the headline makes the semantic relation difficult to be understood and we remove the document from the corpus 538 automatically.


In Example (7), the hyponym of (language study) refers to (English) in the first sentence and is a bridging reference and it is impossible to express " " (language study of English).


Additionally, since personal pronouns are little-used in Japanese, it is difficult to identify which element is the author/reader 6 .

identifying which elements are the author/reader requires to annotate the mentions of the author/reader expricitly.


The remaining documents fall into "No appearance."

the author appeared in the discourse on about 63% of documents and the reader appreared on about 39%.


There is a Bangla OCR (Hasnat et al., 2007) available but it is unable to extract text from the scanned PDF books.

we only considered textbooks that were converted to PDF from typed text.


This phase of our experiments is built on a hypothesis that states that 'a compound can be interpreted, at least in part, by knowledge about the meanings of similar compounds' (Ó Séaghdha, 2008).

we define our experiments on the unpredicted compounds of phase 1 in such a way that by understanding and interpreting similar compounds formed by each of their constituents taken individually, we can interpret the underlying semantic relation for our target compound instance.


A wine bottle can be interpreted as a bottle used to serve wine, a glass furniture is furniture made up of glass, and orange juice is juice made from orange.

in case of such compounds, both type and purpose, type and source can be considered as the appropriate annotations.


Most of the verbs are event-selecting words, such as fāshēng 'occur', chùfā 'trigger', yǐnfā 'cause', jīngguò 'go through', zàochéng 'cause'.

they predict that the object dìzhèn 'earthquake' is an event.


To confirm further the frequency of [entity type noun+ hou] construction, I have consulted Modern Chinese corpus of Peking University which consists of more than 1.5 hundred million words.

only 2 instances are found which is presented below.


We suggest that the implicit predicate could be the paraphrase verb that reveals the semantic relations between the modifier and the head in noun compounds.

the aim of this paper is to discover the implicit predicate of the noun compounds and to generate the paraphrases of the noun compounds.


If we can decote these different meanings of the compound "蔬菜大王", we can provide the different searching results for the user.

to recover the implicit predicates of the noun compounds is helpful to understand the users' search intentions.


The listener usually intends to decode the noun compounds in the background events, which is built on the basis of common sense.

we can interpret the noun compounds just in a reverse process.


The situation in Japanese, however, is considered to be more complex because there are some cases where type coercion does not seem to take place, as pointed out in Section 1.

we adapt the four mechanisms suggested by Pustejovsky (2011) and show that all of the mechanisms occur when classifiers count nouns in Japanese.


The paper shows that this incomplete realization of the cause-effect relation can be fully recovered from the lexical-semantic(-pragmatic) information specified under the GL framework.

the qualia structure of GLT can successfully fill the meaning of the best hidden relative verb in the GRC for the correct interpretation.


KES-Top money-be-Dec 'What father earned by selling an ox is money.'

overt coercion of the addition of the relevant predicate is necessary in the topic and pseudo-cleft constructions for coherence.


The interpretation 'the money which father earns by selling an ox' can be easily obtained by applying this agentive quale.

argument coherence of identity between the agent 'father' of the ox-selling causal event that appears in the adjunct clause and the agent 'father' of the money-earning effect that appears in the event phrase or clause is well observed (Pustejovsky 1995).


According to Tsai (2008: 116-118), Ning (1993) proposes the VP adjunct analysis for GRCs in Chinese, treating the overtly added or coerced verbal part as a VP adjunct containing a gap.

in the following corresponding Korean examples, repeated below as (28,29,30), the phrase enclosed by bracelets is a VP adjunct and contains a trace left by the usual relative movement involved.


Since there is no gap here, there arises no adjunct island violation.

tsai's argument against Ning's wrong adjunct approach is in fact based on false ground.


The plain meaning of an expression α is represented as [[α]] and the implicature is ¬S(α ALT ), where S(α ALT ) is the weakest alternative of α that entails α.

the strengthened meaning of α is the conjunction of the two meanings: [[α]] ∧ ¬S(α ALT ), which entails other strengthened meanings from the stronger alternatives of α. Chierchia introduces the negation operator to get a stronger meaning.


(= p) (16) a. ScalAlt(p) = {John spilt wine and broke all glasses, John spilt wine and broke some glasses, John spilt wine, John broke all glasses, John broke some glasses, p} The assumption of the operators L and R has the effect of projecting a local implicature from each disjunct into the main context.

the statement implicates the following: (17) ¬(John spilt wine and broke all glasses) ¬(John spilt wine and broke some glasses) ¬(John broke all glasses) Here the SI that John did not break all glasses arises from a stronger alternative of the second disjunct.


But (15) and the stronger alternative share the possible worlds in which the first disjunct holds.

the net effect of the stronger alternative is the same as the effect of the second disjunct.


This is the effect of restricting the SI to the consequent clause.

the global SI has the effect of a local SI.


The conditional does not have the effect of a conditional but the consequent clause.

the (global) SI from the use of some in the consequent clause affects the current information state directly and has the effect of a global SI: (30) s + "you want to have some apples" = s s + "If you want to, you may have some apples" = s\((s+"you want to have some apples")\(s+ "you want to have some apples"+"you may have some apples")) = s\(s\(s+"you may have some apples")) = s+"you may have some apples" As shown above, the conditional has the same meaning as the consequent clause, which makes a SI from the consequent clause a global effect on the current information state.


In my analysis, since a SI is calculated after the sentence is interpreted, all infomation in the sentence can be considered to be presuppositions, following Stalnaker (1978Stalnaker ( , 2006.

even X can be bound by X in the main DRS.


Variables like Z and k are introduced by presuppositions and are supposed to be bound by Z and k respectively.

conditions on them are not negated: This leads to the following SIs: All conditions considered, we get (47a) as a SI, but intuitively it is not plausible.


Indeed, like Chinese C, which is generally required, the generally required -s can be omitted without affecting the meaning.

though (7a) is ill-formed in an argument position, its meaning is unmistakable.


The unification of Cs and PMs as the same category means that they occupy the same syntactic position and share the same constituency structure.

cs and PMs must be mutually exclusive on N. Yet, there has not been any serious attempt in finding out to what extent this prediction is borne out empirically.


In other words, the existence of C/PM in a language entails a count/mass distinction in that language.

to the extent that C/PM is universal, so is the count/mass distinction.


But maximality effects are shown to be derived pragmatically.

for (2) to be felicitous, a situation must be the one where each passenger puts no more than one ticket in the checker, even though he has multiple tickets, provided our world knowledge that the insertion of multiple tickles may cause malfunction of the checker (Kubota & Smith, 2007: 154).


These operators may be used in conjunction with labels.

<↓ 0 >(e S ) states that the argument daughter is of type-e S .


In the ChR account, the null OP at Spec of ChRP may undergo successive cyclic A'-movement.

it must be assumed that the null OP does not move up to Spec of CP within the matrix clause.


The snippet is extracted randomly instead of using any restriction rule.

long utterances are easily generated whose focuses tend to spread around too widely.


The coherence achieved in a successful dialog is a shared coherence, one that is constructed through interactions of participants to discover and overcome respective inadequacies of information state.

in addition to imitative speech patterns, prosodic convergence and divergence are considered as information-rich A key goal for participants in language communication is to bring about a mutually shared experience of ideas, event narratives, and emotional responses.


The marker 'dui'right occurs more frequently in areas of convergence and stretches of extended rise as the hearer provides added encouragement or confirmation respectively.

feedback markers often provide explicit marking of the same underlying relational states that are provided by synchrony phenomena.


To NW22 schema, both the degree of combination between two existing words and the context of two words are important features.

we use the base feature model for NW22 schema only.


Although the character and character co-occurrence features (adopted in most current approaches) are able to partially characterize the internal structure of words (Sun, 2010), and some OOV words are indeed correctly handled when compared to pure wordbased approaches (Zhang et al., 2003;Gao et al., 2005), suffix related errors still remain as an important type of errors.

it is natural to expect that suffixes can be explicitly utilized to provide further help.


Beginning, Middle, End and Single) (Xue, 2003) of the current character.

incorporating suffix information of the next character is supposed to be a promising supplement for the generative approach.


For the tagging bias feature, the scoring function will be: is selected according to which tagging bias probability factor is used and whether 1 i i c  is seen.

we will have eight different , tq k  in this case.


Please note that qs (also ql and qr ) is not adopted because it will always be qs in the training-set (and thus will be over-fitted).

only qf is adopted to make the training and testing conditions consistent.


When no context is available (the last column; the suffix-list approach), it drops dramatically.

many over-generalized words are produced when qf must be adopted.


Therefore, the sparseness problem gets more serious for the n-gram with a larger "n" (i.e., with wider context) because its number of possible distinct types would become much greater.

there will be much more unseen bigrams than unseen unigrams in the testing set (Of course, unseen trigrams will be even more).


Firstly, almost all combination patterns of monosyllabic words in spontaneous speech are included in disyllabic words.

disyllabic words could be regarded as the foundation.


Moreover, /màmǎ/ is another pattern, which may have the meaning of "scolding the horse" but it is not a typical disyllabic word.

in this study all tonal patterns of /mama/ will be treated as pseudo-words ignoring any possible meaning transfer.


However, we can hardly see this tendency from the subject's pitch contour in Figure 6 and 7, in which tone 2 is even lower than the level of tone 1.

it sounds like tone 3 of the first syllable in the native evaluation.


50 out of the 60 learners will be sent to the LINDSEI team, who will further process them.

the data in the Taiwanese subcorpus of LINDSEI reported in this paper will differ slightly from the final version included in the second version of LINDSEI.


The argument structure are labelled arg0, arg1, arg2, etc., based on the semantic role they play in a sentence and regardless of their syntactic positions.

in the sentences: John broke the window, and The window broke, although the window is the syntactic object in the first and subject in the second, it is given the same argument label.


The word Marii (indirect object of the verb nekoupit 'not-to-buy') cannot be reduced as it is 'separated' from its governing verb by the main predicate rozhodl 'decided' (i.e., by the root of the dependency tree) and thus the relation Marii -nekoupit 'to-Mary -not-to buy' is represented by the non-projective edge in the dependency tree.

within projective AR, the shift must be performed to make the reduction possible: → shif t Petr se rozhodl Marii tu knihu nekoupit.


A (principal) filter generated by the set A ⊆ E is the following quantifier: F t(A) = {X : X ⊆ E ∧ A ⊆ X}.

ultrafilters are principal filters generated by singletons.


The following example show that reflexives and reciprocals can be arguments of a verb taking three arguments: The difference pointed out by the above examples is related to the difference in the categorial status of reflexives on the one hand and reciprocals on the other.

it is usually assumed that ANPs with reflexive meaning are "argument" reducers: when applied to a di-transitive verb phrase they give a transitive verb phrase, and when applied to a transitive verb phrase they give just a VP.


Then their denotational type is e, t t t .

sentences of the form (1) are true iff the quantifier denoted by the N P is an element of the set denoted by T V P GN P .


A Trale grammar can be distributed between an arbitrary number of files, different files containing sets or subsets of linguistic generalizations of a certain type.

file sharing by multiple grammars is straightforward, which eases multilingual grammar development since constraints shared by multiple languages can be organized into separate files (Omitted 2013).


In the basic form, the serial verb construction (SVC) resembles unmarked coordination: two VPs are juxtaposed without overt marking of the relation between them: Depending on the ways in which the two described events can be related by virtue of our world knowledge, different semantic relations can be established between the two VPs.

in (8), the relation would most probably be interpreted as one of purpose: Zhangsan goes to the city in order to buy clothes.


For example, marking of the first VP with the durative aspect marker zhe enforces a manner-or-instrument reading:  This is captured by complex antecedent constraints which relate aspectual relations of the daughters to the relation in the C-CONT feature of the mother.

the following constraint applies for 9 In this case, the reading is always a purpose reading: In order to establish coreference between the objects in the two VPs and to prevent the realization of the object in the second VP, we make use of the REALIZED feature.


Different from Chinese on word order, Vietnamese is head-initial, i.e., displaying modifiedmodifier ordering, but number and noun classifier being before the modified noun.

for example, the Vietnamese language in Vietnamese grammar order should not be Vietnamese language (Việt Nam tiếng) but language Vietnamese (tiếng Việt Nam ).


As Vietnamese uses a different modifiermodified order, which is the most difference from Chinese, its text, even though written in Chinese characters, cannot be fully understood by one who only knows Chinese.

we introduce this stage of processing to polish the Chinese character sequences in Vietnamese word order.


Cognates and loanwords play important roles in the research of language origins and cultural interchange.

extracting plausible cognates or loanwords from historical literature is a key issues in historical linguistics.


The extracted terms in the list are retained and the frequency of each Chinese character can be calculated.

the probability of a given Chinese character c in transliteration can be defined as: where f req trans (c) is c's frequency used in transliterations, and f req all (c) is c's frequency appearing in the whole Chinese Buddhist Canon.


The probability of a sequence of m words can be transformed  into a conditional probability: In practice, we can assume the probability of a word only depends on its previous word (bi-gram assumption).

the probability of a sequence can be approximated as: We collect person and location names from the Buddhist Authority Database 1 and the known Buddhist transliteration terms from The Buddhist Translation Lexicon (翻 譯 名 義 集) 2 to create a dataset with 4,301 transliterations for our bi-gram language model.


For example, there are some cases like 耆闍崛山 (qidu-jui-san, Vulture mountain), 拘薩羅國 (jü-saluo-guo, Kosala state), and 瞻部洲 (zhan-bu-zhou, Jambu continent).

we collect the Chinese characters that are usually used as appellation or quantifiers following transliterations and then design this feature.


In addition, we want to evaluate if the supervised learning model trained by one Buddhist scripture can be applied to another Buddhist scrupture translated in different era.

we choose another scripture, the Lotus Sutra (妙法蓮 華經), to create another test set.


To avoid wasting time on the useless information, a method should be able to extract correct transliterations from literature as possible.

we also use precision, defined as follows: With precision and recall, the F-score measurement is also adopted as a weighted average of the precision and recall.


Although our method sometimes might extract incomplete transliterations with incorrect boundary, checking the boundary of a transliteration is not difficult to a human expert.

the extracted incorrect transliteartions also have the benefits to help humanity researchers quickly find and check plausible transliterations.


However, if "book" was wrongly recognized as the dependent of "went" in the dependency structure, "went" will be wrongly reordered to the righthand side of "book".

syntactic structure based reordering methods highly rely on the parsing accuracy.


However, the actual root is the Vb-H "is" in gold tree of Figure 6a.

since "should" does not have any dependent as either BEI or RM-D in both GT and CT, it will be reordered incorrectly to the end of     the sentence according to the CT whereas it will not be reordered according to GT, which is already in the same position as its Japanese counterpart.


A proper subset of 'every child' cannot be also described as 'every child', for the reason that if a set y is the proper subset of a larger set x, y is necessarily smaller and thus does not include at least one of the members in x.

it is impossible to describe set y with the same denotation of x and we can conclude that the reduplicated noun phrase denotes a quantized predicate as well.


(Kouwenberg and LaCharité, 2005) claim that '(t)he real-world effect of such scattered distribution of colour is to tone down rather than intensify the colour'.

the multiple spots of the colour would result in a diminutive reading, through the dispersive reading.


Moreover, while structural complexity per se is independent of the issue of the derivational relationship between the causative and inchoative alternants, it has been also standard to assume that causatives are virtually derived from their inchoative counterparts via operations like Predicate Raising in Generative Semantics or Head Movement in the GB/MP framework.

the causativization approach, which views causatives as based on inchoatives, has been influential across a variety of theoretical perspectives.


Since there are no a priori reasons to reject the possibility that more than one system coexists in a language, the issue remains unsettled as to whether these two processes are called for to account for the above examples.

this paper takes up the issue by investigating data involving (2)k-(2)o in a different light, with the availability of idiomatic interpretations.


However, it clearly shows, by utilizing the locality requirements imposed on phrasal idioms, that the causative and inchoative verbs in the causative alternation are best analyzed in terms of the common base approach.

it is not the case, at least morphosyntactically, that causatives are derived from their inchoative counterparts or the other way around.


Z. did so, too' The upshot is that, even though some causative idioms involve an MIC like (25) and thus an analysis invoking structural disruption can account for the impossibility of idiomatic interpretations in, say, (20)b, causative idioms like (19)a cannot be analyzed as having the MIC in (25), and the contrast found in (19) remains a problem to the anticausativization approach.

we can conclude that the anticausativization approach fails for the same reason as the causativization approach: it makes too strong predictions concerning idiomatic interpretations.


couper-Kuhlen and Selting, 1996; also conversational phonology by Kelly and Local, 1989) suggests incorporating the following theoretical points toward the study of the sound system of conversational interaction:  The material considered derives entirely from naturally occurring face-to-face conversational interaction  The analysis attempts to prejudge as little as possible the salience of phonetic features  The analysis seeks explicitly to motivate and warrant the functional categories employed by reference to the observable behaviour of the conversational participants (Kelly and Local, 1989: 263) one of the features of the interactional prosody approach is that it advocates an 'impressionistic' analysis by closely listening to the production of real speech and notating phonetic details which a trained ear could perceive, including properties such as pitch, loudness, tempo, and others (Kelly and Local, 1989).


As mentioned in 3.3, the measurement of pitch height is reported as the relative pitch realization perceived between R1/R2.

the result of relative pitch height could be noted as realized in one of the following situations:  R1 is the higher segment of the DR (Higher R1)  R2 is the higher segment of the DR (Higher R2)  R1 and R2 are perceived as realized in the same pitch height (Same)  No comparable result could be yield as for which segment of R1/R2 is higher (No result) From Figure 1 it is demonstrated that for most of the DR instances in both languages R2 is perceived as relatively higher when executing the repair (For French recyclings: 64/150, 42.6%; Mandarin: 79/150, 52.7%).


Moreover, based on the result summarized in Figure 4, Mandarin interlocutors incorporate less frequently longer pauses, even rarely filled pauses in between R1/R2.

the more commonly used method of initiating and accomplishing recycling repair by Mandarin speakers can be described as a quick initiation by the cut-off at the end of R1, followed immediately by the direct repetition in R2 without further delay.


Linguists seem to have agreed that languages tend to be more resistant to adding a new lexical item to the existing set of closed-class words (Tyler & Evans, 2003).

english Preposition Constructions often serve as a good candidate for the study of the conceptualization of spatial orientation.


In other words, the contrast partners of the spatial particles along the same dimensions may not be straightforwardly oppositional.

the present study would like to investigate whether bipolar spatial particles (e.g., up/down) on the same spatial dimension (e.g., vertical axis) exhibits a symmetrical extension to similar sets of target domains in the real language use.


162-169), performed the best as a measure of association for weighting context words in the task of profiling semantic similarity.

we also computed the t-test statistic as our measure of association in comparison with the collostrength.


Among these, the cosine was the most frequently-used measure in the comparison of semantic similarity (Curran, 2004;Manning & Schütze, 1999, p. 299).

a pairwise cosine similarity matrix was generated and submitted to hierarchical clustering, using Ward's amalgamation rule.


In our experience, the flexibility of moving forward and backward is symmetrical in the sense that such dimension makes most sense biologically.

we suggest that the symmetrical embodied interaction with the two poles along the front-back dimension may have left its footprints in our linguistic recurring practices.


Physical operations within our body are much easier to moderate and control, while the activities and developments in the outer world routinely fall outside of our sovereignty.

we suggest that this spatial dimension may be the least one to manifest a symmetrical extension on its two ends.


The more of the features that are present, the greater probability it implies to express counterfactuality.

the continuum nature of Comrie's description may correspond to variations in the number of features present in the sentences.


In contrast, the event indicated by the distal demonstrative pronoun is relatively far in the speaker's domain of reference, and less likely to be presupposed because of the remoteness.

(19)a with na(that) shows an ambiguous interpretation, either counterfactual or factual , while(19)b with zhe(this) creates a higher level of counterfactuality and can only be understood counterfactually.


The purpose of this research is definitely not to design a specific model for the "trip" event concept.

we should carefully design the structure of the event sequence model so that the model can be applied to a wide variety of event concepts.


The first sense of irony is equal to aggressive sarcasm with speaker awareness.

tweets of first sense of irony may attack a specific target, and the speaker may tag his/her tweet irony because the tweet itself is ironic.


Kreuz (2000) has pointed out that psycholinguistic researchers focus more on "top-down" strategy in studying irony by manipulating key phrases in materials, instead of studying verbal irony "in the wild."

complementary studies are needed to form the whole picture and to include other variety of the phenomenon.


The speaker may be or may be not aware of ironic utterance, but the/she must be aware of his/her sarcastic utterance.

there should be overlapped feature between sarcasm and irony based on the speaker awareness.


Though Clift (1999) takes sarcasm as one type of irony, empirical psycholinguistic study from Lee and Katz (1998) shows that hearers perceive aggressiveness as the feature that distinguishes sarcasm from irony.

it is with interest to understand how speakers use emotion words in these two types of language creativity.


The densities of irony and sarcasm both are not symmetrical distribution.

the nonparametric test, the Wilcoxon test is used when there is serious violation on normality assumption.


The "my" does indicate the subjectivity of the utterance.

the tweet is not to objectively describe an event.


Most of the content of the tweets tagged # sarcasm are subjective utterance from the speaker, but to tweets tagged with #irony, the content is more about the description of an event.

the tag #irony is more used by the users' to classify an event as irony.


For example, Internet language is hard to operate auditory paralinguistic cues, but to utilize visual cues as in capitalization, emoticons, punctuation, and hashtags to show the real intention of the speaker in order to achieve the effect of sarcasm and irony.

to make comparison between the paralinguistic cues used in oral and internet language is a direction to further understand this issue.


The arg max operation takes O(log N ) time in each iteration by using a heap structure.

the total time complexity in this step is O(N log N ) for N iteration.


When citing other people's comments or statements, however, they have to convey the exact words of the speaker.

cited sentences could include more direct opinionated expressions showing obvious polarity.


However, no such crosslingual tools yet exist, that support the crosslingual linking of documents from multiple languages (Tang et al., 2012).

the work is mainly taken by manual, which is obviously tedious, time consuming, and error prone.


The correspondence rules correlate with semantic distinction of verb classes: the semantic field distinction between Spatial and Temporal with respect to the BE-function encoded in the lexical conceptual structure of several verbs.

this paper elucidates the mechanism of locative alternation of the verb aru 'be', which has not been fully explicated.


In sentence (21) below, the BE Temp takes as its second argument a temporal Place-constituent [ Place AT Temp ([ Time 7:00])], which corresponding to 7 ji-ni 'at 7:00', a syntactic PP headed by ni.

the desired syntactic realization of PP and semantic interpretation of the sentence are obtained by the correspondence rule (9a).


Since MOVE does not take a Place-argument, any Place-constituent co-occurring with the verb must occupy the modifier position in conceptual structure as in (26).

a Place-constituent co-occurring with MOVE is always syntactically realized as a PP headed by de by the correspondence rule (9b).


In their study, the topic model is built from the target domain corpus, and topic features constructed from the topic model are added to training data in both source and target domains.

the accuracy of the classifier made by training data in the source domain is improved; however, in their study, the topic model is made by only the target domain.


However, the dictionary file also is stored many words which are rarely used so these words is incorrectly restored accent.

vietPad can only restore vietnamese accent texts with accuracy about 60-85% and this accuracy is depended on content of text.


In information retrieval, one of the contemporary methods for fast retrieval of documents containing a certain word (or phrase) is inverted indexing (Manning, et al, 2008), which manages a mapping from a keyword to a set of documents containing it.

given a keyword, we will quickly have the list of related documents.


We found that FP-tree can be used as an inverted indexing which can provide us a list of patterns containing a certain item.

we propose to modify FP-tree to store the frequent patterns for later fast retrieval.


Changes and extensions will usually be made at the level of individual rules, not rule interactions or rule regrouping.

with thousands of interacting rules, it is difficult for a human grammarian to exactly predict the effect of rule placement, i.e.


Though with certain parameter combinations this might take dozens of rounds, and though secondary, relative performance peaks were observed, we never actually found absolute maximum values beyond the 3rd iteration for either recall or precision.

most later runs were limited to 3 iterations in order to save processing time.


Secondly, the order of rules is also important.

running efficient rules first, will increase speed, i.e.


Apart from rule movements, rule changes were explored as a means of grammar optimization, by either increasing (for wellperforming rules) or decreasing (for badly performing rules) the amount of permitted ambiguity in rule contexts.

removing C (unambiguity) conditions was beneficial for precision, while adding C-conditions ("stricting") improved recall.


Otherwise, word order would be rearranged.

the NP is adjoined to a root CP, and the licensing condition in (5) subsequently attempts to apply in order to assure that the PVE can be licensed.


They are non-distinct in terms of Case features.

the matrix subject has priority over the embedded counterpart for association with the PVE.


In other words, Hanako-ga is construed as an argument of sonkeisiteiru 'respect.'

there are no appropriate elements with which the PVE can be associated.


That is, the clause is not similar to the null argument in the sense of (9).

the clause does not prevent the PVE from being associated with the null argument, and hence (20) is acceptable.


In the past decade, the majority of corpus users have been researchers and teachers.

we are interested in extending the usage of corpus to foreign language learners, and studying how the perspective of corpus application can benefit these learners.


Besides, it is not clear whether or not in the two historical sources Chinese tones can represent Japanese pitchaccent and Korean tones.

the goal of this study is to investigate prosody in Early Ming dynasty based on the historical records for foreign languages, and I would like to address two questions: a) Do tones in Early Ming phonology represent Japanese pitch-accent and Korean tones?


The fact that Early Mandarin Chinese in the 14 th -15 th century is close to modern Mandarin Chinese in the numbers and types of tones does not necessarily indicate that the tonal values are identical with each other in the two different periods of Chinese.

when transcribing the tonal values of the selected entries, I will pay more attention to categories instead of the real tonal value, even though the tonal values of modern Mandarin Chinese tones are also helpful in determining the categories.


carson and Marcu (2001) had developed a guideline for determining an EDU in English, which is used for tagging discourse tree structure.


For example, the word แล้ ว can be a sequential marker meaning 'then' and also a perfective marker meaning 'already'.

pOS tagging has to be applied correctly before doing automatic EDU segmentation.


But in order to do this, a corpus which is EDU segmented using the principles proposed in this study has to be built first.

the guideline proposed in this paper is the essential first step for this line of study.


The matrix is used to operate dot matrix with the input of training set of tweets shown in Figure 1 (b).

table of the most associated documents to the training set is obtained.


Under the constraint of 100 tweets/query and 7 days search back, we repeatedly issue the query using Twitter search API with the set of keywords (Kumar et al., 2011).

339,148 tweets centering on the date of coup d'etat on May 22, 2014 are collected.


Matthiessen 28th Pacific Asia Conference on Language, Information and Computation pages 5-26 do; and language is modelled as a probabilistic system (long before the advent of today's "probabilistic linguistics", as formulated in Bod, Hay & Jannedy, 2003, and used within "statistical natural language processing", Manning & Schütze, 1999).

variation can be -and has been -characterized in probabilistic terms within the overall theory of language as a probabilistic system (e.g.


Derewianka, 1995;Christie & Derewianka, 2008).

the realization of rhetorical nexuses is gradually "pushed down" in the lexicogrammar from cohesive sequences of clauses and clause complexes to clauses, phrases and groups.


Likewise, global warming and the subsequent climate change is one of the grave issues that largely bother the minds of the general public.

the 2009 United Nations Climate Change Conference, or the Copenhagen Summit was apparently covered well in the newspaper as the keywords in 'ci7: Copenhagen summit failed to meet the expectation' show in Table 5.


I then propose a model for parameter setting that uses a simple Bayesian learning procedure to learn from implicit negative evidence and arrive at the target parameter setting.

1 I assume that such adverbials can modify eventualities but not nominal arguments such as the subject or object.


Pylkkänen's argument is based on the following assumption about how event semantics are computed: when the lower caused eventuality is existentially closed, eventuality modifiers adjoined to CauseP can modify only the higher causing event introduced by the Cause-head.

lower modification of the caused eventuality by verbal modifiers is simply impossible in (3a), and this is an immediate consequence of the structure, given that there are no verbal projections below the Cause-head.


This means that each time that the model now chooses a grammar (based on repeated sampling of the updated dirichlet distribution), it will try to use that grammar and all subsequent choices dependent on that grammar to generate both the original first token of input and the second token as output.

when the model encounters n > 1 tokens of input, the model will (a) take the sums of successes per grammar with (n -1) tokens of input and use these sums to update the pseudo-counts of the dirichlet distribution; then (b) generate the entire corpus of n tokens of input 500 times using posterior probabilities from the updated dirichlet distribution.


Notice that just one theta-role can be identified as Character.

the newly-formed adjective given can assign just one theta role.


However, there is no thetarole that can identify the percolated theta-roles.

there is no way for the theta-roles of give to be discharged: that is, (26b) cannot produce a well-formed sentence.


As a result, the complex predicate [en (char)  , not an argument of upon.


If so, the Theme role of upon percolates, and it must be identified as Agent when sit upon is merged with the Agent-assigning v. However, the Theme and the Agent cannot refer to the same object: one cannot sit upon oneself.

sit must be merged with a PP like upon the hat.


Third, the quiz question construction employs the echo wh-question strategy, thereby the interrogative complementizer in the construction not requiring for the expected Agree relation with an expression with the wh-feature.

the dropping of the wh-expression in this construction does not lead to a derivational crash.


Vectors obtained using this method are high-dimensioned and sparse.

some methods compress vectors using a dimension reduction method such as Principal Component Analysis (PCA) and Non-negative Matrix Factorization (NMF).


In RNN, on the other hand, all compositions are computed only by a single weight matrix.

it cannot distinguish different syntax relations in compositions.


Vector q t denotes a gold phrase vector.

the first term of Equation 9 represents a leastsquares problem (York, 1966) defined for vectors p t and q t .


In the training phase, we consider keywords, context, and semantic associations to automatically generate frames.

the obtained frames can be acknowledged as the essential knowledge for each topic that is comprehensible for humans.


Recognizing named entities from text can facilitate document comprehension and improve the performance of identifying topics (Bashaddadh and Mohd, 2011).

we construct the Named Entity Ontology semi-automatically by using Wikipedia for semantic class labeling.


It is an extension of the HowNet (Dong et al., 2010)   We can see that the definitions in E-HowNet enable us to combine or dissect the meaning of words by using its semantic components.

we use it to label the remaining texts with their sense labels after all the NEs have been tagged.


Existing algorithms cannot be executed on the original semantic class graph because the excessive execution times required makes them impractical (Baeza-Yates and Ribeiro-Neto, 2011).

selecting semantic frames closely associated with the topic would improve the performance of topic detection.


4 Performance Evaluation To the best of our knowledge, there is no official corpus for Chinese topic detection.

we compiled a news corpus for the evaluations from Yahoo!


As for the topics "Sports" and "Health", we speculate that the NEs of athletes or disease names and other organizations are common among these articles.

the frames in these topics are very extensive, leading to a broader coverage and higher recall.


If multiple nodes are unfixed with respect to the same node, they will not be distinguishable.

if supposedly distinct nodes are unfixed relative to the same node, they will lead to inconsistency in the node description.


For example, deverbal nouns such as increase derived from the verb increase cannot be retrieved by the suffixbased method.

the existing corpusbased studies have so far only focused on nominalizations derived through suffixation although researchers are aware that nominalizations include those derived by means of both suffixation and conversion (e.g.


To be more specific, deverbal nouns refer to nouns that are produced by combining suffixes with verb bases (Quirk et al., 1985(Quirk et al., :1550 and nouns that are produced through the process of conversion (Quirk et al., 1985(Quirk et al., :1558.

unlike previous corpus-based studies which only include nominalizations derived through suffixation, nominalizations in our study include both suffixed nominalizations (e.g.


As has been discussed in Section 2, the suffixbased method to identify nominalizations has certain drawbacks.

in the second step, we adopted a wordlist method which uses lexical databases to extract deverbal nouns.


We observe that problems of the J-S type are characterized by significant action language that describe changes in the possession or condition of objects.

we posit that the count of unique verb lemmas will serve as a discriminating feature.


The parameters of the random forest classifiers at the problem type, sentence type and sign prediction stages were independently tuned by 5fold cross validation on the training data set choosing the set that achieves the highest cross-validation accuracy.

with n as the number of total available features the problem type prediction classifier was set to have a maximum of p n features and allowed to reach a maximum depth of 15 nodes.


For sentence type classification, the baseline is the majority class among sentence types since the sentences are classified independently.

the baseline for J-S problems is 36.12% (majority class is Change sentence) and for PPW is 62.47% (majority class is Part sentence).


In other words, the pattern observed for the second person in (2) is not a property of the "person restriction" per se.

in order to focus on the person restriction in our discussions below, we will mainly examine the contrast in grammatical behaviors between first person and third person experiencer patterns.


3 In colloquial speech, the no of no-da 'it is that' (and of its polite variant no-desu) is almost always reduced to the socalled "mora nasal" n to render n-da (and n-desu).

in conversational discourse, the natural and more frequently attested sentence form of (c) in (7) is: (kare wa) uresii n-da.


Langacker 1985 6 ) and is defined here as the person who conceives of a situation/event for and before making an assertion/statement about it.

the conceptualizer is different from the speaker in that the latter is person-based while the former is not.


To do so, we consider the common contexts as relevant documents and their maximum salience as their rank.

1 N=100 is the result of an optimization of the model against the dataset.


Generally, small consecutive in target side which are aligned to the same word in source data should be merged together to obtain a larger unit.

this section describes our one-to-many alignment extraction process.


Then we compared the translation result with the reference in terms of BLEU score instead of F-score because it is cumbersome to construct a reliable gold standard since their annotation schemes are different.

we resegment the reference data (manually segmented data) and the translation result data based on character grouping techniques.


As mention earlier in section 3.4, we can improve the translation result by making use of alignment information from previous translation process.

we perform experiments by using a method describe in Figure 3.


Moreover, we consider latent topics in deciding the importance of a sentence, and define three fitness functions to compare the results.

we have confirmed that our proposed methods reduced the calculation time necessary to make a summary considerably, although precision is more worse than the method with an explicit solution technique.


Gandour (1974a), Yip (1982) and Morén and Zsiga (2006), argue convincingly that contour tones in Thai are in fact made up of sequences of H and L. In other words, FALLING and RISING can be represented as [HL] and [LH] respectively.

our results lend further support for decomposability of contour tones in Thai.


The phrase boundary tone occurs at the phrase end, and existence/non-existence of the tone can be accurately classified, from the text to be synthesized, by using machine learning approaches (Nakajima, et al., 2013;Ross, et al., 1996).

this paper focuses on the remaining target of emphasis positions.


Though later accent phrase locations showed higher likelihood of emphasized accent phrase, the likelihood values do not differ significantly.

we decided to use whether the IP is at the sentence end or not and whether the AP is at the end of IP or not as location features in emphasized accent phrase distribution analysis.


Cost values did not derive significant changes in accuracies for the same kernel dimension.

we fixed dimension 4 and cost 1 and examined several scopes of features and history lengths of past prediction results.


Based on these results and as we consider that both emphasized and not-emphasized cases should be correctly predicted, we chose using both future features and past prediction results.

the best accuracy was 77.4% at F i+1 i−1 and H i−1 i−1 (-1 only), then recall and precision rates of emphasized accent phrase were 64.2% and 70.6%, respectively.