Table 3 shows the relationship between the characteristics of feature in knowledge node and the number of knowledge nodes which are relevant to the sentence.

in order to solve these problems, it is necessary to enhance the use of sentence features while dealing with the similarity judgment with knowledge nodes, the methods are as follows: Only to extract the keywords in the input sentence, that is, just find out the words exists in F, the set of knowledge feature, and remove the words which is not feature as stop words.


In this experiment, in total 42 terms and 49 terms are registered on the Japanese-and Danish education system ontologies, respectively.

one single term unambigously designates one single concept.


PrefixSpan (http://prefixspan-rel.sourceforge.jp/) is a method of mining sequential patterns efficiently.

furthermore, we examined the effects on the accuracy of user identification when we relaxed the criteria of selecting learning examples.


When the user with the highest probability differs from the user submitted a series of input messages, our method determines that these users have similar styles of writing.

some users abuse the anonymity and disrupt communications in a community site.


In the following sections, we present how we detect nasty comments on a BBS with many posts using an n-gram model.

the classification result of the SVM is shown in Figure 3 and table 4.


Our proposed method can detect nasty comments based on nasty phrases and over-segmented words.

detection is difficult because we need to consider the neighboring words.


We repeat this 10,000 times and obtain 10,000 data sets.

table 4 indicates the ratios when the method eliminating only one feature and using all the remaining features obtained a higher F-measure than the method using all the features and the ratios when the method using all the features obtained a higher F-measure than the method eliminating only one feature and using all the remaining features.


5 In all cases, the relative clause does not describe a temporary state because it refers to neither an in-progressive state nor a target state, and hence all the sentences in (12) will be judged unacceptable.

this paper has proposed that kes-RCs are stages, which instantiates at the time of the main clause's event.


(10) [Cip-i olyastongan pyeyka-lo pangchi-toy-ø-n] kes-ul pucilenhan [house for a long time deserted house-as neglect-Pass-Prf-Rel] kes-Acc diligent senwen hana-ka soncilhya-ess-ta sailor one-Acc repair-Pst-Decl 'The house had been abandoned for a long time and a diligent sailor repaired the house.'

what can be deduced from (8)-(11) is that if the predicate within the relative clause describes an active event, only telic-perfect predicate is allowed, whereas such a constraint does not apply for perfect predicates describing a stative event.


Number inflections depend on the gender of noun and ending vowels/diacritics.

noun inflection FSTs discussed here are not only useful in inflected word formation but also in morphological analysis/parsing of Sindhi nouns.


Progressive marking proceeds from activity to accomplishments or achievements.

moreover, this may suggests that Japanese learners analogize from their L1 -te i-and expand the prototypical meaning of -ko iss-to the resultant state by the influence of L1 transfer.


In the interpretation task, the participants were asked to select the best matching picture for the sentence from three choices that were supplied.

there were two times as many learners who over-generalized -ko iss-as there were learners who over-generalized -a iss-.


As can be seen, the progressive -ko iss-was more frequent than the other forms, within all levels.

regarding the acquisition of Korean aspect markers -ko iss-and -a iss-by Japanese learners, we found that the acquisition order was the progressive -ko iss-→ the resultative -ko iss-→ the resultative -a iss-.


This action-inprogress meaning is obtained when the progressive marker is attached to activity verbs and accomplishment verbs.

this study tests whether this arguably universal developmental pattern (the progressive is acquired earlier than the resultative) holds true for the L2 acquisition of Korean by Japanese learners, and in addition, this study surveys the influence of instructional order and acquisition order on the L2 acquisition of Korean imperfective aspect.


In this experiment, three annotators (A 1 , A 2 , A 3 ) annotated the target reviews.

figure 1 shows the outline of our method.


However, a review basically consists of sentiments with various aspects (i.e., "image quality" and "usability" of a camera).

(2007) has estimated the valid number of clusters by statistically evaluating the clustering result.


These similar opinions have possibilities to be redundantly extracted as a summary.

we identify representative words of each cluster by using this feature.


Then, we define the tf -idf value of a word i in target reviews j as below.

it is difficult to know the optimum number of divided clusters beforehand.


In such a case, it is probably that the driver only saw a certain facial part of him, not the whole body of him; thus the compositional operation here is accommodation.

distributional information based on distributional analysis is widely used in many natural language processing tasks.


An argument like " " (screen) is just a physical object, but it is clear that in the following sentence " " (screen) refers to the information on the internet or of a computer.

in Table 2, under the sense "visual activity", the operation of "kàn" is much richer (namely: dot exploitation, artifactual exploitation, dot introduction and qualia introduction).


Since the parser was developed for news, science and teaching texts, and is currently used and optimized for the translation of Wikipedia articles, the most likely explanation for these performance variations is the difference between the formal and professionally transcribed political jargon of Europarl on the one hand and the creative and hastily written chat texts on the other.

at least in terms of 3rd person pronouns this can also be said of the Europarl corpus, which consists of isolated monologues, and employs a more abstract and elaborative style, which is also compounded by a high attribute/noun ration, and the high incidence of (pronoun-compensating) demonstratives.


Given the clear inter-corpus differences we documented, and the high chat corpus error rate in particular, it would make sense to perform a detailed error analysis of our annotation, which in turn would allow us to genre-adjust the analysis lexicon, and permit the introduction of genre-specific rules into the parser in order to improve its performance.

the Europarl data boasts the longest words and longest sentences 6 , and scores highest for subordination and infinitive subclauses, as well as the rare past participle subclauses, all of which considerably complicate syntactic trees.


This means that, at the present time, sufexbased CSEs for corpora with hundreds of millions of tokens require a relatively high, but not unrealistic, hardware investment.

for example, given a set S of words or patterns of interest, submitting a query g L sg R for each s ∈ S, where g L and g R are "gap-like" wildcard expressions for the left and right context, and having sufex generate frequency lists of the content found for g L and g R , makes it possible to iteratively refine a set of contexts, which in turn can be used to find further elements belonging to S. While such bootstrapping has already been used in many areas of NLP research, sufex improves it in two ways: (a) Contexts can be defined as complex expressions, including annotation symbols, rather than mere windows of N words; (b) Sufex is an index and provides answers within milliseconds (the more specific the queries become in the process, the faster the retrieval, due to the least-frequency property).


In this respect it allows us to match a phrase structure: It may be nested, even together with the within operator, enabling truly complex queries which are still computed efficiently.

we present extensions to the CQL 'Corpus Query Language' for intuitive creation of syntactically rich queries, and demonstrate that they can be computed quickly within our tool even on multi-billion word corpora.


Many linguists are interested in dialectology and the possibility of studying languages that differ only marginally from each other.

the latter is based on a query language of regular expressions.


This is an imperative in the attempt to make different databases interoperable with one another.

data will be added in the near future on dialects of English (FREd) and Slovene (Slovene dialect database on doubling).


McCarthy, 1991), it is undeniable that a focus on sentence-level form tends to be emphasized in many foreign language teaching contexts.

we have attempted to characterize each sub-corpus in terms of its (nominal) entity coherence within the framework of centering.


Several analyses have been done on the developed sentiment lexicons to understand the sentimental behavior of people depending upon location, age, sex, profession and etc.

the word "blue" get tagged by different players around the world.


The probability of the walker to be at a particular vertex is given by the Markov chain on the graph.

recently, Ferre-i-Cancho (Ferrer-i-Cancho and Sole, 2001) and Sigman (Sigman and Cecchi, 2002) who work on graph theory highlighted the "hierarchical small world" (HSW) structure used in language studies.


Then DicoSyn.Verb has been given symmetric and reflexive.

this Markov chain is defined by the transition Matrix If ∆ 0 is the vector in V of the initial distribution probability of the walker (that is the probability to be at any vertex at the time t 0 = 0), the vector in V of the probability distribution of this walker after t steps becomes: to measure, in G = (V, E), the proximity between a vertex s ∈ V and the initial state ∆ 0 of the walker, we define prox(G, ∆ 0 , s, t) by the t steps random walk as: For a graph G = (V, E) and an initial state ∆ 0 , we can now define the flexemity at the time t of a vertex s ∈ V : the s f lex(emity) is the s prox(imity) weighted by the inverse of s degree.


Such usage should be rather considered in terms of semantic approximations, an attempt to utter with the conventional verb due to the semantic cognitive flexibility.

those verbs used by adults are almost verbs with a specific meaning in the study.


However, we want to perform a graph analysis of the experimental data as well.

several issues have been raised however about the cross-linguistic validation.


Tuna cannot be used as an animal and food at the same time frame 6 .

the relation between constructive type theory and tIL's approach to natural language analysis needs further investigation.


The word tuna can however occur in seemingly co-predicative context, such as example (8), but only when the two stages referred to by the word tuna are separated by different time frames.

dependent sort is not a set theoretic object.


Many efforts have been paid to find out the crucial semantic elements that influence children"s extension of verbs.

given the above concerns, the present study aims to explore the research questions as the followings: (1) Can 5-and 7-year-old Mandarin-speaking children properly paraphrase and act out familiar verbs with novel instrument extensions?


The result of the production (paraphrase) task suggests that not all of them can properly paraphrase the novel instrument extensions of familiar verbs.

the block-made instruments were in no way look like the names they were labeled, children can only access the knowledge of the instrument by the provided labels (i.e., names), not by their appearance.


Twenty-two native Mandarin-speaking adults were asked to do a free recall on the instruments that could be used in these verbs.

five-and seven-yearolds in this study should be acquainted with these labels and have no difficulty recognize them.


The subject of the complete sentence, Bob, is shared by the following gapping parts, with # marking the gaps.

from the software side, the mechanism of multiple visits is easily programmed.


Typologically, in verb-framed languages (Talmy 2000) such as K/J, Hindi, Romance, Semitics, Bantu and Polynesian languages, an existential/stative location postposition/preposition such as -ey (K), -ni (J), à (French), -meN (Hindi) is further used only for basic directed motion verbs but not for manner verbs, e.g.

we can possibly represent [load the truck with hay] (pile/spray ---) as a change-of-state lcp with FORMAL = (globally) affected (e2, <2>), AGENTIVE = (e1, move_act (e1, <1>, <3>, <2>).


John is more rich than Mary is beautiful There is in (8a), (8b) and (9) an implied notional comparison of the extent or magnitude of two distinctly different but related attributes: wealth vs beauty, which is possible in English sometimes, but not in other languages, such as Chinese, where only the magnitude of the same attribute may be compared.

this equated attribute allows for comparison and pragmatic manipulation by means of logical reasoning uniquely incorporated into the human communication chain.


Lift or interestingness takes the correlation between and , it tests on two hypotheses, first is independent of , so they do not co-occur in the same webpage.

and it is computed as follow (Shi 2010).


The translation candidate extraction is based on the idea that most OOV terms have their correspondent human translation nearby (Cheng, Teng et al.

sVM works well with OOV terms that have similar properties.


In order to take the context into consideration, instead of segment pair unigrams, we also tested combined Maximum Matching with contextual n-gram probabilities for ranking.

the longest acceptable consonant sequences on the left of the vowels were then marked as onset (O), and finally all remaining consonants were marked as coda (C).


Different from other tasks, language model is incorporated under a log-linear framework in SMT.

the language model could thus play a more important role in the translating procedure, which further reveals a large value relatively.


Let D be the development dataset and T be the test dataset.

the cross entropy of test dataset increases as LM weight decreases, as shown in figure 2, in which we use the same dataset pairs as in section 3.


This difference suggests that semantic representations play significant roles since the syntactic structure of (1) and (2) are all the same, 1 and that the quantificational structure introduced by the universal quantifier makes (2) easy to interpret.

a syntactic approach with the minimal attachment cannot account for the fact that the universal quantifier reduces the GP effect.


For instance, the word "concept" is defined as "an abstract or general idea inferred or derived from specific instances" which scored 6 despite the word "abstract" explicitly appears in the definition.

the genus is also checked if it is possibly an abstract or mass noun, which is currently approximated by the absence of any indefinite articles and plural markers.


The distinction between concrete and abstract concepts is psychologically valid but so far it can hardly be quantified in any objective way, which prevents it from being further studied in computational linguistics.

very common concrete concepts may not need so much detailed explanation as others in a dictionary.


1994;Talmy 1988, Sweetser 1991.The extant knowledge has also shown that the negation of modal sentences can affect the semantic manifestation of modality.

the negative marker bu (不) is used to substitute de (得) and turns the affirmative potential construction into a negative form [Verb-bu(不)-C-O] as exemplified in (3) and (4).


Furthermore, while m5-sii2 (毋使) indicates '¬□p (not necessary)', the linguistic form of m5-zo3 (毋做) does not have the modal function.

(19) 垃圾使毋得儘採亂丟。 la2sab4 sii2-m5-ded4 cin2cai2 lon7-diu1 trash can't random litter 'Don't litter at random.'


The negative operator m5 (毋) is infixed in the modal verb zo3-ded4 (做得).

the role to denote the idea of "not necessarily" falls on m5-sii2 (毋使) exclusively.


In line with the concept of lexicalization, this study analyzes the intricate syntactic and semantic features exhibited by modal verbs in Taiwanese Hakka.

type A construction is contracted by two subclauses : the position of O is not concerned with any movement.


In these two cases, joek6 "MEDICINE" is put in the first argument position in the action tier because it is the instigator of the result "dead" The third type of resultative construction is a marked construction in Mandarin Chinese.

one major difference is that certain causing verbs or main verbs are not adjacent to the means verbs or resulting predicates.


We set the similarity threshold as 0.4, and the statistics of the graphs are shown in Table 2.

from the table we can see that about 36.3% of sentence pairs in the bilingual graph are isolated sentence pairs.


If the node v does not connected to any other node, then we call the node v as an isolated sentence pair.

their experiments showed the improvement in the translation quality.


Taking the above two steps, it avoids updating and sorting the importance of each sentence pair that the selected sentence pair can reach through a connected path.

the relationship between sentence pairs, and the importance will be updated dynamically during the selection.


We can even obtain better results than the whole corpus when selecting 80% of the corpus, which suggests that the corpus may contain noisy data and decrease the quality of the translation.

in the beginning, φ = S , and the quantity of information for each sentence pair will be the largest value.


This is more pertinent with respect to translation from English to Indian languages, Hindi in particular.

this will prove helpful in the translation process and improve the quality of the translation in a machine translation system.


2) Laughter relates to "laugh" which is translated as "hansnaa" and so on.

the major problem therefore is to identify whether the first or the second kind of semantic representation is appropriate?


the solution scheme needs to find answers to the following questions: -whether the verb + preposition combination is a true VPC, as opposed to the preposition being used to take care of an intransitive verb; -how to identify the VPC even when the preposition is not adjacent to the underlying verb; -how to identify the exact sense of the VPC, given that the same VPC may have multiple senses, as per WordNet; -how to choose the proper translation in the target language.


Finally, new kinds of data have to be created in the perspective of validating our model against spoken language corpora.

(Gibson, 2000), (Vasishth, 2003) or (Lewis and Vasishth, 2005) for example).


Longitudinal interaction data from three Korean boys was collected and analyzed.

generally speaking, the meaning of -te i-is dependent on the inherent aspectual value of the verbs to which -te i-is attached.


Two of them associated imperfective aspect marking with achievement verbs early on, but one child associated imperfective aspect marking with activity verbs.

further research is needed to verify the Aspect Hypothesis completely, including the acquisition of the progressive tense.


whereas -ko iss-is compatible with all transitive verbs, -a iss-can only be used with intransitive verbs in describing a persisting state resulting from a completed action, as in (3) (Lee, 1991).


The coefficients of correlation in every combination were very high ( Table 3).

the average score of two evaluators for each sample sentence was used in the comparisons and analyses.


However, all the evaluation methods mentioned that include human subjective evaluation provide less information for error analysis because they give only one score for each document or sentence.

it represents synonyms and phrases that should exist (or not exist) using regular expressions.


We verified that the results of our automatic evaluation method are consistent with that of human evaluation for each question, and clarified that our method can be used for error analysis of grammatical items.

our method has high correlation with subjective evaluations by humans, even when only our method is used (which is comparable to conventional automatic evaluation methods and question-based evaluation by humans).


• Baseline 5-gram: baseline system using 5-gram language model.

• The extraction of SCFG rules is merely based on the word alignment information.


Moreover, offline methods require syntax analysis which does not always produce convincing result on certain languages.

the result turned out a decline on BLEU score.


A certain degree of unavoidable over-generation of ambiguity can be handled by an ordinary disambiguation CG -the same contextual rules working for true ambiguity (e.g.

but while only generation will ensure the inclusion of all forms of a lemma, many of these forms may be very rare, and a reasonable fullform list may be built simply by extracting all unique word forms (and their different analyses) from an annotated corpus.


At the disambiguational level, early work by Chanod & Tapanainen (1995) showed that even a small set of CG rules can compete with an off-the-shelve statistical tagger.

frequencies close to the hapax level, do not contribute.


To maintain tokenization compatibility, and thus matchability with the gold standard annotation, we retained the system's own preprocessor, but for a new language a working version could be produced with a few lines of code, basically line-breaking on space and punctuation, with a few exceptions for abbreviations and -depending on the languagecontractions, enclitics and possibly names.

we reduced the original morphological analyzer to a mere look-up program with access only to a mini-lexicon of irregular and closed-class words, inactivating the real, verbo-nominal lexicon.


#spr labels a reentrancy between the values of two  The parsing and generation algorithms require that the type hierarchy be a bounded complete partial order (BCPO), i.e., for any two types that share subtypes, there must be one unique most general such type, called the 'greatest lower bound (glb)'.

the LKB uses numbers to assign each added glb-type a unique name.


Because we expect the candidates returned by our method to be manually examined by a lexicographer, we are particularly interested in whether the top-ranked items are correct.

taking inspiration from evaluation approaches in word sense disambiguation that make use of artificiallyambiguous words (e.g., Schütze, 1992;Gale et al., 1992), we propose evaluation methods that use synthetic examples of semantic change.


If correct, this would refute the universality of the noun-verb distinction in Linguistics, with significant implications for Linguistic Typology and Theoretical Syntax.

the first component of the EM algorithm (the Expectation Step) is the same as the process by which k-means assigns a data point to a cluster, however in the second step of EM (the Maximisation Step), the cluster centroids are recomputed such that the likelihood of the parameters of the distributions are maximised.


The lexical processing of each word component in compound words is similar to single word.

furthermore, the clinical staffs will be involved in the evaluation process to have a better estimation of system performance.


We can conclude that when applying an automated proof reading process, the clinical note is more informative as more medical concepts and instances are revealed.

the proofed corpus becomes much more informative for automatic information extraction as well as human comprehension and interpretation.


A review of past papers using the TOEFL synonym test as a benchmark 1 , suggests that the corpus used, preprocessing of documents and resulting vocabulary size may impact the performance achieved (Stone et al., 2008).

the main contribution of this paper is to present a novel, efficient approach to using Kronecker products to encode word order information within a semantic space.


It was created by the Knowledge and Data Engineering research group at the University of Kassel to provide a useful service to the research community and to collect data for their social bookmarking research.

next, we turn to a qualitative analysis of polysemous lexemes found in the both generated disambiguated graphs from Section 2.3.


figure 2 shows a sentence with dependency arcs (below) and its equivalent dependency tree structure(top).


The quality of the parallel text alignments was intrinsically evaluated by computing the F-score of the hunalign outputs against manually aligned data.

a second round of cleaning was carried out to 1 STB hosts a series of tourism related websites in particular websites with parallel texts, viz.


• Single primary document: the amount of text associated with a given exhibit area varies, but is generally of the order of slightly over 1000 words, in a single primary document authored by museum curators; this is complemented with a secondary document from Wikipedia which is anywhere from 600 to slightly over 3000 words in length.

it is worth noting that there are no statistically significant (p ≤ 0.05) factor combinations for "Themed" and "Unthemed" outside the top-15 factor combinations for "All" presented in the table.


Several approaches for this step have been proposed such as the longest common substring (Agichtein et al., 2001), substrings in suffix trees (Ravichandran and Hovy, 2002;Ruiz-Casado et al., 2007) and edit distance based alignment (Ruiz-Casado et al., 2007).

finally, unlike other approaches, the Espresso approach only considers the relationships between the targets and the patterns.


In Sections 5, we noted that the CEP RA achieved a stable performance on different relationships.

such an evaluation is usually done using a sentence collection different from the one used for producing the extraction patterns.


However, there may be some overly-general patterns that are characterized by high coverage and low precision.

in this section, we focus on the main concept about estimating pattern's reliability with consistency measurement between different sentence collections and measure the seed's quality by reliable patterns, described in the following sub-sections.


To explain the intuition behind our approach, consider an "oracle collection", S O , which contains all sentences describing the targeted relation that we can find on the Web.

there may be some overly-general patterns that are characterized by high coverage and low precision.


Nevertheless, the systems have the problem of extracting names without clue words or in ambiguous context.

for the organization names, although they do not appear in the regular patterns like person names, the way they appear in the text seems like a pattern.


Moreover, one word can have more than one part of speech.

moreover, in Thai, lots of names, especially location and organization names, are in the same forms as general phrases.


Apart from the highest number of samples in the corpus, the person names usually appear in regular patterns such as occurring with the titles, the first names separated from the last names by spaces, etc.

apart from presenting the NER systems, this study is conducted to find out if the more informative answers can improve the system performance of Thai NER like in Chinese or not.


Traditionally, anaphoricity determination has been tackled independently of coreference resolution using a variety of techniques.

"himself" in 2-2) often works as a short-distance anaphor and is locally bound by its antecedent (e.g.


The bi-gram "实际(…)出发" bears a higher co-occurrence frequency from the corpus based on statistical models.

the approach, aimed at low frequency word pairs which lead up to poor performance in pure statistical-based associate measure approaches, proposes distinct models reflecting diverse linguistic knowledge to improve both precision rate and recall rate.


(Naxi)  what NOM read finish 'What did Aka finish reading?'

with that in Japanese, however, the marking on the arguments in Naxi is optional.


Responding to the increasing social demand for CI interpreters and English users of certain CI skills, a number of universities and colleges in China have offered CI as a compulsory core course for English majors.

male learners might be less driven by the fixed time for interpreting and less affected by the environment.


The performance of different strategies for formula (2) will be experimentally investigated in section 6.3.

but the size of RG65 is limited, to train and test algorithms on fixed subsets of it will causes overfitting and bias.


Early research efforts have been devoted to design the knowledge-based measures, in which word synonym set in thesaurus plays an elementary role to word similarity calculation.

the average correlation coefficient between this strategy and human judgments of Rubenstein-Goodenough's is 0.8499, which does not bring a better correlation than using S 5 alone.


Note also that a substring which has not been treated before, e.g.

an English->Malay MT system with 100,000 translation examples annotated in the S-SSTC has been constructed based on the implementation frame as described above.


The dobj link between "clean" and "surface" indicates that "surface" is a direct object of "clean", and we could rely on such dobj links to identify VN pairs in the corpus.

the 100 th most frequent English verb is "lack", and it appeared 47 times.


When providing five recommendations, only about 88% of the time the recommendations of our system can include the correct translation.

we did not consider the cases that our systems could not answer in computing the statistics in Table 4.


Methods that employed more information could choose translations more precisely, but were less likely to respond to test cases.


Here, social-relationship is assumed to be represented by a combination of {relative social position among in the people in same group} and {in-group/out-group relationship} in our study.

this system uses the framework of the system proposed by Shirado, but our system is more practical than the previous one due to the following points: 1.


The system uses judgment rules constructed from textbooks of Japanese honorifics.

so, more practical system to learn linguistic honorifics is needed.


According to Lin and Peck, motion morphemes are first classified into scalar change (e.g., luo "fall", hui "return", jin "enter", equivalent to Talmy"s (1975) path verbs) and nonscalar change motion morphemes (e.g., gun "roll", equivalent to Talmy"s (1975) manner-of-motion verbs) depending on whether they lexicalize a scale or not.

a more refined explanation is necessary for the order of motion morphemes in Chinese.


Thanks to subevent analysis it is possible to isolate, and thus to represent, the contribution of the verb.

the relevant distinction here is that between individual-level (IL) and stage-level (SL) adjectives.


Hengeveld 1992: 32), verbs with predicative complement are part of the predicate, determining at least partly the content of the event and argument structure.

in this paper, i try to show the advantages of analyzing events in terms of subevent structure, by taking into consideration the case of a specific class of verbs: transitive and intransitive verbs which obligatorily require the presence of a predicative complement (e.g., English seem, consider).


The CM-group participants did not make significant progress on any of the four categories, though they received higher scores averagely in the posttest.

regarding the sentences containing metaphoric/metonymic expressions, the CM group showed no significant progress whereas the MM group showed significant differences between two tests.


We used as Optical Character Recognition (OCR) such as ABBYY FineReader software, which is able to recognize Malay texts.

we proposed a method for building rules and gazetteers for Iban language.


We tested the accuracy of NERSIL by comparing its results against human annotated texts, which have been labeled by local Iban native speaker.

we built a JAPE rule that can recognize the pattern <Name><Father's affiliation><Father's name>.


Our parser shows a competitive performance in rule-based parsing.

the scalability problem indicates the difficulty in incorporating other types of knowledge for use in parsing.


Since the corpus is not exactly aligned, we aligned nearly 400,000 sentences across 11 languages properly.

in order to be able to apply the previous proposed method to various languages, we want to segment in a fully automatic and universal way sentences in different languages into sub-sentential units like chunks.


4.1.3 was less than or equal to 0.29, a very low figure.

one is that we used very large corpora covering a much wider range of areas so that we could extract a broader range of parallel translation expressions.


In the first level of evaluation, we choose the emotion with the highest emotion value from the predicted emotion vector as the predicted document emotion.

under the relation assumption between document emotions and word emotions, we introduce term relevance and term frequency in the process.


According to Goldberg, the semantic meaning of (5) can only be derived by taking into account of the entire construction.

while induct has at least five senses, the senses fall into three semantic domains, as designated in < >, namely, social, creation and communication.


The organizations in training data are different with those in test data, which leads that we could not train a classifier to a certain organization.

the words in homepage are more related and indicative to the organization.


By mid-80s, CSLI (Center for the Study of Language and Information) was founded by these philosophers and others in linguistics, psychology, and computer science at Stanford University and at the research centers surrounding the university, namely Xerox PARC and SRI International.

this picture seems to well represent the current situation of the world in which we live by exchanging information in the most efficient way with a tiny mobile gadget.


In short, a nonthematic argument is not needed.

the grammatical space of GFs and the related voice types in Indonesian are not the same as in English.


As the grammar becomes larger, the rules and related constraints become more complex.

the parallelism is captured by having the same feature attribute VOICE-TYPE, whereas typological variation is captured by allowing different languages having to have different voice values.


Some of them, which appear in fixed forms, should be registered in a dictionary.

various parsers, based either on phrase structure grammars or on dependency structures, have been developed, applying various machine learning techniques on syntactically annotated corpora.


For example, searching for keywords relating to earthquakes or influenza allows for impressive results to be achieved in earthquake detection or influenza outbreak analysis (Sakaki et al., 2010;Ritterman et al., 2009).

as such, we might conclude that social media data is a foe of NLP, in that it challenges traditional assumptions made in NLP research on the nature of the target text and the requirements for real-time responsiveness.


Some of these underlying errors were ultimately domain-dependent and due to nonstandard language in our (spoken) corpus.

to measure frame coverage, we used BFN frame classes mapped from the assigned EngGram frame categories, checking if the frame in question was associated with a BFN sense for the verb in question.


Table 4, hángmó bsài 'model airplane competition' first requires the creation of a model airplane (the agentive role), and then the function of different models (the telic role) is compared.

according to temporal properties, the partial orderings of qualia roles are: agentive < Formal, Constitutive o Formal, and , N 1 can involve in more than one event.


In an [N 1 + bsài 'competition'] compound, N 1 specifies the subject of the competition.

when N 1 is an event nominal, pure selection is usually at work, while when N 1 is a pure event noun or an entity, type coercion happens.


It remains unanswered and should be investigated in the future how effective this method is when the DA methods used changes or when the number of DA methods increases.


This fact makes it very difficult for WSD approaches to beat the corpus baseline."

twenty-eight word types were used in the experiments in total.


We focused on the fact that these degrees of confidence are output from classifiers as the probability, and we can carry out ensemble learning by comparing them.

the method with more training data, i.e., Random Sampling, should be used for these instances.


Green cows do not necessarily exist in the real world, but we can figure them out by drawing a picture.

the second one is to look at the representative cases in which SPS can be obviously vs. hardly captured, and to set up a working hypothesis building upon the findings.


Unfortunately, large parallel corpora are not always available for some language pairs, or for some specific domains.

we employ the phrase-based Moses which uses different feature functions, such as direct phrase translation probability, inverse phrase translation probability, direct lexical weighting, inverse lexical weighting, phrase penalty, language model, distance penalty, word penalty, distortion weights et al.


Hypothesis 3 can effectively exploit information redundancy and propagate the high-confidence results from posts with relatively simpler linguistic structures to those posts with more complicated structures.

for each unique target-target pair or unique target-issue pair in the training data, we count the frequency of the sentiment labels in the training data, f p for positive and f n for negative.


(2010) identified the attitudes of participants toward one another in an online discussion forum using a signed network representation of participant interaction.

we have applied a state-of-the-art English entity extraction system (Li et al., 2012;Ji et al., 2005) that includes name tagging and coreference resolution to detect name variants from each document (e.g.


The initial state of semantic tree growth is specified by the AXIOM, which sets out an initial node to be subsequently developed.

secondly, "a" is constructed so that it reflects the predicates in the whole proposition.


The notion of keeping a low profile is revealed by the expression 知 白 守 黑 zhī-báishǒu-hēi, a line of classical drama in TM.

the color white on the other hand is located in the north-east which is the position of death in Chinese 風水 Fēng-Shuǐ.


Speakers of Taiwanese Mandarin (TM), Taiwanese Hakka (TH) and Taiwanese Southern Min (TSM) also share some similarities in the usages of the color terms black and white.

black and white are universally perceptible to all mankind and are the only two colors at stage one in berlin and Kay's (1969) sequence of color evolution.


Another approach (C. Banea.et.al, 2010) used multilingual space and meta classifiers to build high precision classifiers for subjectivity classification.

in future, we want to apply this approach on bigger datasets and also extend it to multiple class problems.


Second, can language specific tools like POS taggers, Named Entity recognizers dependency can be minimized as they vary with language.

this would explain why SVM is outperformed for small training set sizes and for small feature spaces with large training sets.


(5) a. Yumi 0 -ka 1 cip 2 -ey 3 ka 4 -n 5 il 6 -un 7 chamulo 8 yukamsulep 9 -ta 10 .

in order to annotate subjective expressions, all three attributes of the private state should be properly represented.


As a fundamental resource for sentiment corpus construction in Korean, this work takes advantage of the Multiperspective Question Answering (MPQA) Opinion Corpus which began with the conceptual structure for private states in  and developed manual annotation instructions.

the MPQA corpus distinguished different ways that private states may be expressed, i.e.


(2010a)) was mainly due to the different nature of the chats as well as the higher number of participants.

after experimenting with various features, we found that contextual and high-frequency terms w.r.t.


More recently, the SemEval-2010 keyword extraction task used 100 and 144 scientific articles with author and reader-assigned keywords for testing and training, respectively.

automatic topic detection would introduce errors and manual topic detection would involve high cost and time.


Whereas the baseline (Section 4.1) misses this relation between 'Joseph' and 'Potiphar', coreference information would enable a link to be established between the two.

these networks present an overview of the "who", "what", and "where" in large text corpora, visualizing associations between people and places.


A crucial difference between the mono-vs. non-mono-clausal approaches lies in the treatment of the RDed element.

(See J.-S. Lee 2007a,b, 2008a,b, 2010, Chung 2008a, Lee and Yoon 2009, C.-H. Lee 2009 Among various issues around the RDC are the basic word order in Koran and the grammatical relation the RDed element in the post-verbal position assumes with the rest of the construction.


In the future, we will try to select more features in the adaptive process, and find their influences for the performance of adaptive classifier.

there are little information contain in one tweet.


Sensei-ga boku-o home-ta teacher-NOM 1SG-ACC praise-PST 'The teacher praised me. '

we will turn to this in the next subsection.


* Taroo Moreover, the contrast in (8) below between the causative and inchoative forms may also help elucidate what the restriction is intended to capture: as (7) shows, while both the causative and inchoative alternants are fine in the active, they show a stark contrast when indirect passives are formed from them.

the scalar focus particle -mo 'even' is also added to the NQ and, as indicated, the lack of it slightly degrades the acceptability for some reason or other.


To obtain this kind of ambiguity, there are two conditions to be met (Inoue 1976): (i) a verb must be such that it does not necessarily select an agent (e.g., causative/inchoative verbs); (ii) there must be a "proximate" relation (e.g., inalienable possession relation) between the subject and the object.

(Perlmutter and Postal, 1984) Second, these verbs are variable in syntactic behavior, depending on the syntactic context where they appear.


Finally, when quantifying the noun, Sortal classifiers clas-sify the type of referent that is being counted, as in (1) and (2) * .

for example, in a sentence without a classifier, (N) is generated to indicate that there was no classifier.


These rules addressed the indefinite determiner and numerative classifier phrase in addition to the usual numeral-classifier phrase.

with regards to cross-linguistic interests, the NTU multilingual Corpus (Tan and Bond, 2011) contains more corpora linked to other classifier languages such as Thai, Vietnamese, Indonesian and Korean.


They are correlated with the difference not only in the GNC but also in the semantic or pragmatic interpretation.

we claim that sentences (27) and (28) above are the instances of such a construction.


The reason why 'NtoP' After analyzing the major errors, we observed that sentiment detection regarding target product names at the instance level is crucial to the class PtoN.

the system assigns +1 to the clause/sentence in the 'Positive' class and -1 to the clause/sentence in the 'Negative' class with respect to a product instance.


One might think the product name in (3) should be classified as the atemporal class because it refers to the brand and the model name of the given product.

the following case of errors as shown in (16) would be handled properly if the feature values for one product name are shared with its adjacent product name.


Agreement between the noun and its coordinated dependents (when the noun is comple-mented by two coordinated adjectives, such adjectives should both agree in gender with the noun.)

by writing safe rules we have given priority to precision over recall.


When dealing with agreement, teachers of Spanish as a foreign language and students usually focus on gender, considered the most difficult type of agreement to learn, probably because from the beginning, it requires much effort for the learner to know which is the inherent gender value of every noun than to choose the right number value depending on the context (although there are some morphological hints, gender is arbitrary and must be memorized).

second, agreement errors in texts can be identified and corrected straightforwardly by a native speaker, unlike other type of errors like article and preposition usage, for example, where annotator agreement may be problematic.


This defect makes the comparison between candidates be "unfair" and thus less reliable.

in dependency parsing, graph-based models are prevalent for their state-of-the-art accuracy and efficiency, which are gained from their ability to combine exact inference and discriminative learning methods.


So, when using parallel corpus composed of surface forms of words for training, SPE doesn't work well.

rule-based approach is better than statistical approach in the aspect of translation accuracy.


The system explored two modifications to extract answer: baseline method (Baseline) using word tokenization and CRF method in the question analysis phase (KLB).

[1] Automatic question answeringthe ability of computers to answer simple or complex questions, posed in ordinary human languageis the most exciting.


This result illustrated that our approach is completely reasonable.

this is not efficient to build a real system, thus we proposed building a two layer system (combine both of above strategy) and achieved result which illustrates that hybrid system is completely reasonable.


These strategies are described in greater detail below, and summarized in table4  Baseline: this is a basic approach to compare with our proposed method which it only uses keywords taken from question to make query for Lucence.

the statistic relation impacts on the system precision and executed time is depended on network speed.


(Hatori and Suzuki, 2011) applied the phrasebased SMT model to predict Japanese Pronunciation, however, the differences between our work and theirs lie in a visual aspects.

a Chinese character seldom has multiple pronunciations, but the same pronunciation may refer to quite a lot of Chinese characters, usually, dozens of characters.


Finally, the example sentences were manually annotated emotion tags to construct a corpus.

wakamono Kotoba has various forms of expressions.


In fact, it might decrease the accuracy.


Significant improvements in Chinese word segmentation techniques have been obtained recently and reported accuracy rates (compared to those of human Golden Standard) have reached 98%.

we also merged the 10 phrase translation tables for each value of parameter i into one phrase translation table that we name i-merge.


Otherwise, there is a need for a further way to rank these answer candidates to produce the most likely as the answer.

this is like a simple voting scheme, where each sub-question votes for an answer candidate, and the candidate with the most votes win.


This is where the Switching Technique comes in.

then, in Section 4, combinations of the proposed thai sentence paraphrasing techniques used in some of the fourteen thai sentence paraphrase patterns are identified along with one particular combination explicitly illustrated in details.


Then, the adverb is promoted to a new verb "สนุ กสนาน-vi/enjoy" while the old verb is demoted to a modifier for the new verb constituting the Promotion/Demotion Technique.

in this case, the Lexical Replacement pattern forces the process to specifically choose the trees not just only whose TLCSs are identical to the TLCS input but also whose syntactic structures are the same as that of the TLCS input tree.


In order to annotate multiple referents, in the proposed scheme the chunk address/id of these multiple referents is specified in the 'ref ' attribute separated by a delimiter(comma).

the MAtE/GNOME project has another important scheme suitable for different types of dialogue annotations (Poesio and Artstein, 2008).


In this paper we present a scheme for annotating anaphoric relations in the Hindi Dependency Tree-Bank.

it is computationally efficient to annotate the referent of NP6 as NP4 rather than NP1 since it is more nearer to NP6, hence reducing the search space.


Reordering is of essential importance for phrase based statistical machine translation (SMT).

firstly, we aim to develop the phrase-based translation model to translate from English to Vietnamese.


Agirre and Stevenson (2006) summarised from many WSD studies the different knowledge sources available or extracted from various lexical resources and corpora, and their realisation as different features in individual systems.

table 4: Partial confusion matrix for "degree" For the "degree" example, only Sense 1, 4 and 7 could be considered to have a reasonable number of training examples.


However, it is the most frequent sense and might therefore have an advantage.

from the training instances, unigrams w -3 , w -2 , w -1 , w 1 , w 2 , and w 3 , bigrams w -3 w -2 , w -2 w -1 , w 1 w 2 , and w 2 w 3 , and trigrams w -3 w -2 w -1 , w -1 w 0 w 1 , and w 1 w 2 w 3 , were extracted as features.


a second later he realized he was watching himself through the surveillance camera system and it was his own pants that were on fire.


For now, the explanation of the difference between the hierarchy concerning the availability of non-de se mode in Chinese and other language (e.g., Japanese) is still not very clear to us, and we thus leave it for future research.

we do not endorse Anand's (2006) claim on the de se and non-de se distinction of LD ziji, for we observe that LD ziji used in intensional contexts, especially in reported speech, is not obligatorily interpreted de se, either.


Based on the 10-million-word Sinica Corpus, this work investigates the distribution of aspectual markers in SVCs in order to find whether there is a systematic preference for either V1 or V2 to be marked as the head.

this is found not true for Chinese (Li, 1991;Law, 1996;Matthews, 2006;Paul, 2008;among others).


The phenomenon should rather be taken to be an epiphenomenon mirroring some interaction of the lexical semantics of dare-mo with its environment.

the accent on Greek emphatic n-word KANENA.


Although human beings are normally assumed invariably to die sooner or later, it is easy to conceive worlds such that at least some people are immortal in them.

c. Hito-wa dare-mo yume yabure, furikaeru.


We develop two models: (a) Language dependent Classifier which takes a feature vector that incorporates diagnostic scores (as shown in Table 6) and (b) Language Independent Classifier which takes feature vector with binary values as shown in Table 3.

in order to show that the tripartite classification model handles the distribution better than the bipartite model, we use a mathematical formulation which maximizes the inter-class scatter and minimizes the intra-class scatter.


In Hindi as well, syntactic behavior of intransitive verbs, in many cases, depends on which subclass the verb belongs to.

the data is first partitioned into k equally (or nearly equally) sized segments or folds.


This learned model can also be applied for the classification of new intransitive verbs.

unaccusatives do not allow ergative subjects (as in (2b)).


We employed the phonemic approach; the Alphabet Queries were transformed into phonemes and then are transliterated.

the second is the case where non-Japanese people write English product names and this would be solved by translation.


Therefore, the dictionary based approach is not so powerful for transliteration comparing with that for translation.

moreover, according to Table 3, the precisions when the CAF was used are higher than when the CF was used except the case when the CRF was used.


We also noticed that the lower recall produced the lower F-score for those dialogue acts which are hard to detect.

4 We ran 15-fold cross validation, using our 15 dialogues.


With library forum chats, we found that adding keywords to contextual features improved performance over all three learners, since some terms occur only in specific dialogue acts.

hi, bye for GREETING, or excellent for EXPRESSION.


This is based on the intuition that a given nominal will only co-occur with demonstratives that agree in gender.

the fact that we saw higher performance across the STEM data set than the INFL dataset was surprising, particularly for precision (χ 2 = 3.87, p < 0.05), somewhat less so for recall (χ 2 = 7.46, p < 0.01).


Through this small experiment of this paper, we hope to provide a practical method for linguists to deal with data in a more skilled and dynamic way.

the prior polarity lexicons thus constructed are used as training data for cloud-based prediction model in extracting more polar words and determining the overall sentiment of Plurk texts.


With those translation knowledge, we first cross-lingually align Japanese and Chinese news articles.

especially, as a topic model, this paper employs DTM, but not LDA, since it can consider correspondence between topics of consecutive dates.


When the requester uses factor F5, he/she assumes that explaining the reasons to the requestee and requestee's potential understanding of reasons of request may increase the likelihood of the fulfilment of a request.

our aim was to make an analysis of request texts written in English, Spanish and Slovak language, where we examined the occurrence of keywords, in our case the factors of politeness in mother tongue (Slovak) and in foreign languages (English and Spanish).


The algorithm employs a human judge to prevent semantic drift in the iterative process of a bootstrapping algorithm.

for example, given a few instances of car vehicles "Prius", "Lexus" and "Insight", the task outputs new car instances such as "Corolla", "Civic", and "fit".


In the previous studies on bootstrapping, if the method obtains "new type of X" as the pattern of car category, then the method does not have a mechanism to reject incorrect instances such as "iPhone".

for example, we can obtain ontological information between semantic categories easily from existing resources such as Wikipedia.


This fact indicates that sibling relation and exclusivity between categories improve the set expansion accuracy.

we demonstrate the effectiveness of sibling relations in set expansion on the dataset in which instances and sibling relations are extracted from wikipedia in a semi-automatic manner.


After the method secures new instances of each category, the method proceeds to the next iteration.

investigating the impact of choosing sibling groups would be an interesting future direction of this research.


Recent advances in NLP tools argue that linguistic features are useful for readability classification.

for example: the word biodegradable will be harder to pronounce, spell and understand for children at a lower grade level.


Rarely occurring relations (<5 times) have not been considered in the table.

a wine bottle is a type of bottle, glass furniture is a type of fur- Relation annotator 1 annotator 2  Part-Whole  184  90  Type  178  192  Purpose  132  122  Source  70  78  Property  25  22  Hypernymy  25  30  Location  34  30  Topic  12  8  Theme  8  8  Temporal  5  5   Table 4: Distribution of annotated data among the relations.


They calculated the similarity between a given test instance and every training instance in the training set, and predicted the semantic relation of the most similar training instance.

since the action features are verbs and cannot act as modifiers in a nominal compound, we extract the descriptive features D of the node corresponding to every A A and append D and D to the list of potential modifiers M .


As standard machine learning pipeline, we perform EM on training set, tune parameters on development set, and report the result of selected model on test set.

the second constituent/distituent factors (F c:x and F d:x ), are the concatenation of context features and constant feature.


Since the word vectors have non-negative components, the range is between 0 and 1, where a value of 0 indicates that the vectors are orthogonal or dissimilary and a value of 1 indicates that the vectors are parallel or similar.

in this work, we make a choice of defining the cooccurence relation as the joint cooccurence of the word within a short window of text, by the principle of occam's razor.


The strategy used in evaluating the phrasal similarity score from the component token similarity scores is critical in deciding the overall performance of the MEANT metric, as role fillers are often phrases.

the robustness experiments were conducted across various data sets following NISt Met-ricsMatr protocols, showing higher Kendall correlation with human adequacy judgments against BLEU, MEtEOR (with and without synsets), WER, PER, tER and CDER.


Previous research on the classification of these nouns is based on their semantic categories (Han 2004(Han , 2010bLiu 2004;Wang 2010;Zhong 2010).


It is because hou coerces the NP into obtaining an event denotation, one which is available from the NP's qualia structure.

(3)Type Coercion: the type a function requires is imposed on the argument type.


(2011) divide them into "numeral classifiers" and "measure specifiers" depending on their functions, which will be shown in 2.1.

bond and Paik, 1997;Huang and Ahrens, 2003;Kageyama et al., 2011;Mano and Yonezawa, to appear), and there seems to be still room for argument.


This paper is concerned with characterizing psych-predicates in Korean and possibly in Japanese in the GL spirit.

inanimate subjects in a transitive causative sentence are not fully acceptable in Korean.


the ox-Top father-Nom sell-Past-Dec 'The ox, father sold it.'

father-Nom sell-Adn KES-Top ox-be-Dec 'What father sold is an ox.'


They can be represented by some verbs of arousal, being emitted (by), or result (or leaving behind), etc.

(1) cause-effect relation with sensory head noun [sayngsen-i tha-nun] naymsay fish-Nom burn-Adn smell 'the smell that comes from fish burning' (2) cause-effect relation with non-sensory head noun [thayphwung-i cinaka-n] huncek typhoon-Nom pass-Adn trace 'the trace left after a typhoon hit' (3) cause-effect relation with non-natural phenomenon [apeci-ka so-lul phal-un] ton father-Nom ox-Acc sell-Adn money 'the money obtained by selling an ox' It is observed that there exists a semantic cause-effect relation holding between the GRC and its modifying head noun: the content of the adnominal GRC constitutes cause and the denotation of its head noun effect.


But this analysis does not seem to have any repertoire of deep explanatory devices for the above state of affairs.

the paper shows that this incomplete realization of the cause-effect relation can be fully recovered from the lexical-semantic(-pragmatic) information specified under the GL framework.


KES-Top money-be-Dec 'What father earned by selling an ox is money.'

argument coherence of identity between the agent 'father' of the ox-selling causal event that appears in the adjunct clause and the agent 'father' of the money-earning effect that appears in the event phrase or clause is well observed (Pustejovsky 1995).


It is just a coincidence that the SI goes into the relative clause.

c. John won the lottery or made some easy money.


SIs are inferences based on the maxim of quantity by Grice (1975).

the SI that it is not the case that Mary believes John broke many/all glasses does not mean that Mary believes John did not break many/all glasses.


A DRS is supported by an information state iff each pair of a possible world and an assignment supports each condition in the DRS.

this is a deviation from the standard DRS, in which each DRS is interpreted with respect to a model.


I do not have to follow the Neo-Gricean tradition, because it is assumed that a SI arises by comparing the meanings of alternative statements.

watching TV or playing games is understood as the lower limit for failing math.


Thus the global SI has the effect of a local SI.

it is the first maxim of quantity that is relevant to Sis.


Variables like Z and k are introduced by presuppositions and are supposed to be bound by Z and k respectively.

this effect is obtained in various ways.


Similarly, in (9), if either of the two requirements is sufficient to get a grade, it is more plausible to assume that no students satisfied both requirements.

contextual information should be put aside when we discuss the way that SIs are calculated.


Traditionally it has been claimed that C/PM do not co-occur on N in Mandarin.

in [1×1], either the multiplier (Num) or the multiplicand (C/PM) can be omitted without changing the result.


5 The selection of a term is pragmatically determined.


Backward-direction Markov processing starts with a noun, and extends to the left direction based on a bi-directional Markov dictionary as shown in Figure 3.

the score varies inversely with the number of morphemes in the snippet fragment, and even gets N i times lower when more than 2 potential nominatives might exist.


The relationships for oh and dui in mcdc05 are consistent with the results for mcdc01, with female oh and male dui having the higher relative frequencies, as presented earlier.

oh, dui, and umhum each has its unique different functions and occurs under different informational environments.


The Taiwan Mandarin dataset contains only very long speaker turns, thus reducing the number of shorter prosodic units which are more often produced in interactive conversational speech.

1 We had to decide which linguistic information and which part from the full corpora to include in our joint dataset.


Other measures need to be introduced (Pevzner and Hearst, 2002;Fournier and Inkpen, 2012) if one wants to measure a different aspect of the segmentation agreement.

it is striking to see in figure 3 that more than half of the time and for both language discourse units are providing the starting and ending boundaries for the prosodic units.


taking the contribution of the previous studies, this current reserach sets out to explore the variation of tense within the reporting verbs among the transitions of moves via the structural analysis in JA abstracts.


Finally, we conclude this paper and discuss future work.

section 2 presents the main framework of our ChNWI approach.


From this consideration, for a Chinese string S, if its left adjacent category value or its right adjacent categories are larger than a predetermined threshold, which means that the string S is loose with its context and it is higher possibility of being a Chinese new word.

this work is sponsored by the grant from the Shanghai Science and technology Foundation  (No.


For the tagging bias feature, the scoring function will be: is selected according to which tagging bias probability factor is used and whether 1 i i c  is seen.

furthermore, prefix/suffix related features were claimed to be useful for CWS in some previous works (Tseng et al., 2005;Zhang et al., 2006).


It is observed that the unseen ratio for qs is much larger than that for qf.

having considered that the surrounding context might be unseen for the testing instances, we introduce four different kinds of tagging bias probabilities as follows (and they will be trained in parallel for each character in the training-set): .


Although the character and character co-occurrence features (adopted in most current approaches) are able to partially characterize the internal structure of words (Sun, 2010), and some OOV words are indeed correctly handled when compared to pure wordbased approaches (Zhang et al., 2003;Gao et al., 2005), suffix related errors still remain as an important type of errors.

in comparison with the discriminative model, the generative model has the drawback that it cannot utilize trailing context in selecting the position tag (i.e.


Nonetheless, we cannot distinguish suffixes from those non-suffixes by just checking each character because whether a character is a suffix highly depends on the context.

in their works, the prefix/suffix features are just a part of adopted features.


Rather, human beings perceive speech by generalizing others' gestures, no matter he or she have such knowledge of gesture.

if the latter is true, the learnability of L2 speakers in one sound may be discovered to be different in different gestural environments.


Especially, experienced learners who are considered near-native in proficiency will often establish stable intermediate categories in an audio-based learning model, the most widely renowned being the Speech Learning Model (SLM, Flege, 1987;Flege et al., 2003).

all participants were right-handed with no reported hearing or motorcontrol defects.


This shows that acoustic sound is not a basis for L2 speech perception and the results supports the motor theory that speech is not perceived through sounds exclusively.

this model would bring fine-grained gestural percepts and frequency-based normalizing process of category formation together.


The participants were asked to circle the correct word on the answer sheet.

for alveolar clusters (tr-and dr-), previous studies showed that considerable affrication was a feature of their production (Lan and Oh, 2012).


The constitution of Chinese tones is not determined only by pitch level, but also by transition patterns.

in this study, the errors made by the 10 subjects were mostly found in tonal patterns 1-3, 2-1, 2-3, 3-2 and 4-3.


When tone 3 is in the initial position, it is likely to be heard as tone 2 or tone 4.

in the same way, if the first is with low pitch, the second must be with high pitch.


comfortable to sofa) and functions (e.g.

paradigmatic relations may be more salient for nominal concepts, whereas syntagmatic relations, especially nounverb and noun-adjective associations, are more significant for the learning and memory of verbs and adjectives.


For the experiment by the human judgement, we concluded that the types of "Word choice (SEM)", "Missing (OM)" and "Unnecessary (AD)" can be included in any other error types, which causes the confusion regardless of the machine or the human classification.

we will take those aspects into the future trial.


To extend the line of frog-story-based research and to replicate previous findings based on causal networks, the present study explored how Mandarin-speaking children maintain narrative coherence by posing the following research questions.

the reverse pattern, however, is shown for the density of causal-chained events.


Similarly, Stein and Albro (1997) suggested that causal reasoning is required to organize content and structure coherently.

in the analysis based on 'plot' components, researchers found developmental increases in children's ability to establish global plotline (Aksu- Koç and Tekdemir, 2004;Berman and Slobin, 1994).


Such research has been conducted across the eleven sub-corpora by Gilquin and Granger (2011;forthcoming).

being one of the sub-corpora of LINDSEI, without doubt, increases the visibility of Taiwan in international academia and contributes to the research on spoken English.


Each of them is grounded on a particular framework with certain assumptions, one more suited for certain applications than the others.

annotated on selected texts from the Penn Treebank, the corpus was built by a collaborative team on web-based annotation platform with several advanced features.


A number of linguistic resources annotated with shallow semantic roles have been produced over the years.

in the sentences: John broke the window, and The window broke, although the window is the syntactic object in the first and subject in the second, it is given the same argument label.


which have to be used for further specification of the relative position of the figure.

tai (tai 1989(tai , 1992(tai , 1993, seems to be a natural continuation of the descriptive tradition.


Figure 1: Structure of wū-lǐ ('in the room') The resulting structure can be used in two contexts: on the one hand, they can be used as prepositional complements in locative adjuncts, as illustrated in (3b).

• Valence Principle: in a headed phrase, for each valence feature F, the F value of the mother is determined as follows: -If the valence list of F consists of synsem objects, its value corresponds to the head daughter's F value minus the SYNSEM values of its sisters.


A Trale grammar can be distributed between an arbitrary number of files, different files containing sets or subsets of linguistic generalizations of a certain type.

in the following exposition, we often use simplified structures for purposes of illustration in order to ease understanding by non-Chinese speakers.


Second, Chinese characters that are still popularly used in modern Chinese may be only phonetically borrowed by Chữ Nôm.

for example, the Vietnamese language in Vietnamese grammar order should not be Vietnamese language (Việt Nam tiếng) but language Vietnamese (tiếng Việt Nam ).


We choose one Buddhist scripture as our data set for evaluation from the Chinese Buddhist Canon maintained by Chinese Buddhist Electronic Text Association (CBETA).

there are two types of parsing errors to a token in a dependency parse tree.


The probability of a sequence of m words can be transformed  into a conditional probability: In practice, we can assume the probability of a word only depends on its previous word (bi-gram assumption).

our approach comprises the conditional random fields method with designed features which are suitable to identify transliteration characters.


Due to the time limitation, we only focused on analyzing parsing errors that cause reordering issues on Vb-H candidates while defining the error patterns.

recall and precision are widely used measurements in many research fields, sucn as information retrieval and information extraction.


Indeed, DPC heavily relies on detecting verbal blocks that are candidates for reordering, and systems that use the same strategy should choose POS taggers that display high accuracy of VV recognition.

the language pair under consideration is Chinese-to-Japanese, which despite their common roots, it is a well known language pair for their different sentence structure.


Table 2 shows the statistics of all selected sentences in five genres respectively.

in the example of Figure 3, dependenterror counts are for VV, 2 errors, and PN, NN, CD, PU each 1 error.


As introduced in Section 2.1, DPC first identifies Vb, RM-D, and then reorders necessary words.

for scenario 1, the benchmark is manually reordered Chinese sentence on the basis of Japanese reference.


A proper subset of 'every child' cannot be also described as 'every child', for the reason that if a set y is the proper subset of a larger set x, y is necessarily smaller and thus does not include at least one of the members in x.

since these subevents are homogeneous, the whole reading event is considered atelic.


Section 4 briefly discusses ditransitive causatives and their related forms.

since the pattern observed in these examples cannot be predicted, as shown in Table 1, it is clear that the causativization approach should be excluded even in cases where it might appear to be appropriate.


Given, moreover, that it is implausible to derive the transitive from the ditransitive causative considering the morphological makeup, the common base approach is the only approach that is left to account for the contrast in (42).

(27) a. Taroo-ga sira-o kir-Ø-ta (>kit-ta), T.-NOM white-ACC √detach-CAUS-PST Ziroo-mo {soo si-ta/ kit-ta} Z.-also so do-PST/ (see above) 'Taroo dissembled.


In an attempt to answer this question, this paper examines the three approaches to the causative alternation by utilizing the possibility of having idiomatic interpretations as a probe into the syntactic structure.

it predicts that, if an idiomatic interpretation is possible with a causative, then it should be possible with its inchoative counterpart, as shown in Table 2 below.


More details concerning the corpus can be found in Cheng et al.

the values of v(t) curves are from the original un-normalised F 0 contours (and are thus in units of semitones per second) before themselves being normalised in time.


Therefore the result of relative pitch height could be noted as realized in one of the following situations:  R1 is the higher segment of the DR (Higher R1)  R2 is the higher segment of the DR (Higher R2)  R1 and R2 are perceived as realized in the same pitch height (Same)  No comparable result could be yield as for which segment of R1/R2 is higher (No result) From Figure 1 it is demonstrated that for most of the DR instances in both languages R2 is perceived as relatively higher when executing the repair (For French recyclings: 64/150, 42.6%; Mandarin: 79/150, 52.7%).

part of the result did suggest that, other than direct repetition (i.e.


In a similar vein, Kreyer (2003) investigates corpus data which also allow for a possible alternation between genitive and ofconstruction (e.g., the chairman of the committee and the committee's chairman) and shows that processability and degree of human involvement are two crucial factors influencing speakers' selection of the constructions.

category include a number of fixed expressions (e.g., point of view) and irrelevant structures (e.g., 'demonstrated approval of them' EF3660) which were excluded from further analysis (see Appendix I for raw scores).


Among the four groups, only the N2 heads with N1 'measure' nouns reach statistical significance for demonstrate.

we would expect an evaluation embedded in the of-nominals by means of modified N1 or factual nouns found in the 'support' group.


Such association measures indicated how much more often than chance the NP co-occurred with the spatial particle.

the present study would like to investigate whether bipolar spatial particles (e.g., up/down) on the same spatial dimension (e.g., vertical axis) exhibits a symmetrical extension to similar sets of target domains in the real language use.


A cluster of CFE markers, as listed above, all contribute to an overall optimum situation for expressing hypothetical events, and the more CFE markers that are present in the sentence, the higher degree of hypotheticality implied, with counterfactuality being obtainable as an inference or implicature deriving from the highest level of hypotheticality (Comrie, 1986).

if Manila weren't so far away, i'd send him to study there.


At the first stage in that the markers are restrained to past time reference (a),imply couterfactuality in the strict sense (dependence on a condition known to be false)(b), are optional(c).

we cannot easily take all these strategies as markers for CFs in Chinese.


In this case, the former interpretations were tentatively adopted by the sys-tem.

"(g) the framework for the event sequence model should determine how to achieve mutual reference to semantic information between different event sequences."


Thus, there should be overlapped feature between sarcasm and irony based on the speaker awareness.

(3) Is the tweeter aware of his/her sarcastic or ironic tweets?


Different from this, the tweets of second sense of irony is tagged to classify an event to be ironic.


This shows that ironic tweets can contain the tweets that are with speaker's awareness.

in computational linguistics irony and sarcasm are lack of quantitative distinction, but are viewed as the same in data processing (Elena 2012), which may with the danger that the true intention of the speakers on their opinions may be wrongly captured because psychological studies (Lee and Katz 1998) and qualitative study (Clift 1999) have discovered that sarcasm is the real aggressive one, but irony is not necessarily meant to attack.


#sarcasm (1-i) you always find a way to ruin my night!

in ironic tweets though the attack on specific target is rarely few, it does exist.


Different from the previous studies that are aware of the user and product of   the review, our model does not assume the training data to contain the reviews written by the same user of test reviews or written on the same product of test reviews.

since the two users are lenient and the first product is relatively popular (these characteristics are captured by our proposed method), these two reviews should still be given positive labels.


We suppose that the characteristics of news articles are the reason why nested-source and direct-speech (type) are the main features in the experimental results.

the following Figure  3 shows the best results and the experimental result of using all attributes.


This kind of methods could obtain high precision, while suffer from low recall.

automatically creating crosslingual links between Chinese and English Wikipedia would be very useful in information flow and knowledge sharing.


Wikipedia knowledge base is a collection of collaboratively written articles, each of which defines a specific concept.

we extract all n-grams of size 1 to 5, because n-grams subsume most key term candidates, which could obtain a high recall.


All the transliteration systems return transliterations, good enough to understand the text, which is strengthened from the evaluators' score as well as from the character-level ac-curacies.

in this work, we have modelled the task of transliteration as a noisy channel model with minimum error rate training (Och, 2003).


All these sentences were transliterated by all the 7 transliteration systems and the results of each were given to several evaluators 8 to rate the sentences on the scale of 0 to 4.

such a statistical modelling needs an ample amount of data for training and testing.


To measure the similarities between the transliterated word w x and target candidate word w y , the Dice coefficient (Dice, 1945) is used.

we also extracted sentences that contain out-of-vocabulary words (813 lines) from the test set.


As described in , the correspondence-based transliteration model (Oh and Choi, 2002) is also considered as a hybrid approach.

there are 50 (10.00%) and 55 (11.00%) entries contain three or more character errors.


the order of frequent items in FPtree storing the compressed frequent pattern set is the same as that of the original FP-tree (i.e.


Primary tags are tags intended to be disambiguated and evaluated, and differences in e.g.

in order to isolate the relative contributions of promoting, demoting and rule killing, these 6 Further continuous 0.05 step variation was performed, but followed the general tendency and were left out in table 2.


Secondly, the order of rules is also important.

adding new top/bottom-sections produced the highest recall gains (0.441 for DKRsS), but these did not translate into corresponding Fscore gains.


With an F-score around 96% this corresponds roughly to a 7.5 % lower error rate in relative terms.

the question is therefore, whether a handcorrected gold corpus and machine-learning techniques could be used to improve performance by data-driven rule ordering or rule adaptation, applied to existing, manual grammars.


Next, we apply random forests classification experiments using newspapers, editorial dates, and ideology types as classes in order to examine the classification performance and important features of these experiments.

this study analyzed the differences among newspaper editorials, focusing on five newspapers, two editorial dates, and ideology types.


12CP When susi-o 'sushi-ACC' is encountered, it is identified as an NP that has no theta-role assigned.

otherwise, word order would be rearranged.


It has been generally assumed that a violation of island constraints indicates that the relevant syntactic phenomena involves movement.

(15) would have the reading that Taro knows the rumor that someone respects Mr. Tanaka, which is different from what is expected.


Tables 2 and 3 show the search results and user satisfaction, respectively.

twenty-eight taiwanese learners of Spanish who studied in the Department of Foreign Languages and Literature participated in the survey.


A contour like LH in Japanese might have disappeared so that Tone 3 in Chinese became the least favored choice for Japanese.


For each verb in the list, we stop traversing if either we exhaust the nodes dominated by the verb or find another verb in its dominance.

although, in STEP 1 we will accurately include the complement clause as a part of the main clause, we don't mark the scope of complement clause itself, if it is complex i.e., made of more than one clause.


Among the two wordinternal elements, derivational affixes are more closely related to their roots than inflectional affixes to their stems.

bengkyou yoku/nagaku/... suru well/long time c) [bengkyou-to undou]-bakari/wa/... suru -and exercise Although it is not very natural for such independent words as yoku and nagaku to come between the two elements, as we can see in (b), delimiters like -bakari and -wa are allowed as in (a).


From a computational point of view, the sheer number of ha-expressions in Korean makes the popular misanalysis more difficult to maintain.

in this section, we will examine the behavior of the verbal element -(nu)n-.


When we deal with computational systems, we have to consider the understanding process and the productions process separately, just as the two areas of speech recognition and speech synthesis show.

1 as we can see shortly, ha-itself is an independent word and [kongpwu ha-] is a phrase.


In the remaining sections of this paper, we will focus on only one example from each of these two types of misanalyses: the "light verb" ha-and the assumed present tense marker -(nu)n-.

their existence has 2 The abbreviations used for grammatical terms in this paper are as follows.


The list of key words is then used to query the related tweets through the Twitter search API 2 to collect the related tweets.

table of the most associated documents to the training set is obtained.


The two moves are complementary as strategies adopted to describe registers and registerial variation; and they need to be linked up through a chain of inter-stratal realizations (cf.

the realization of rhetorical nexuses is gradually "pushed down" in the lexicogrammar from cohesive sequences of clauses and clause complexes to clauses, phrases and groups.


A third reason is that some keywords may be linked to more than one item in the T10N list.

this paper will take a careful look at this question again, using similar but more fine-tuned sets of data and different sets of tools for keyword extraction and interpretation.


In the discussion on causatives above, an unambiguous trigger would be input that showed the availability of the low adverbial reading: this input is compatible only with the Verb-selecting hypothesis and not with the Root-selecting hypothesis.

further, the model is able to learn on the basis of as few as 4 tokens of input.


!John is grumpy (high reading) !Bill is grumpy (low reading) b.

the learning mechanism will wait until an unambiguous trigger occurs in the input before setting any parameter value.


The verbal passive participle given can assign two theta-roles.

in short, i claim that the passive morpheme in the pseudo-passive is the adjectival passive-en, which is empirically supported by the fact that they display the properties of adjectival passives.


It appears that given (23), there is no room for theta-role percolation.


If take advantage of is a constituent, the preposition of cannot assign Case to Mary's honesty, and furthermore, nor can the passive morpheme -en assign Case to it.

if so, the Theme role of upon percolates, and it must be identified as Agent when sit upon is merged with the Agent-assigning v. the Theme and the Agent cannot refer to the same object: one cannot sit upon oneself.


A plausible approach to this peculiarity is to argue that in (1a) sit upon is a constituent, and the hat is the complement of sit upon, not upon (Radford 1988, Drummond & Kush 2011.

12 (34b) and (35b) show that the pseudopassive is permitted if the passive describes the characteristic of the raised Theme although it is not affected, (34) a.


It is construed as an E-type pronoun, as found in the similar structural context of (8a-b) in English.

in our analysis, the wh-expression nwu-ka 'who' in the second conjunct clause of (20) changes into an empty pronoun that is construed as a sloppyidentity one in the interpretive component.


b. John asked me why Mary bought what, but John didn't ask me how Susan did.

it is also to be noted that the phonological suppression takes place only at the right edge of the sentence.


In the future, we plan to expand this approach to include more topics, and even apply it to other applications in NLP.

those models have encountered bottlenecks due to knowledge shortage, data sparseness problem, and inability to make generalizations.


These approaches can achieve substantial performance without much human involvement.

a word with a large LLR value is closely associated with the topic.


Such information is usually represented as rules or templates.

the advancement of our system is foreseeable.


The relevant data are repeated here as (35).

irrespective of case-marking, uniformity in our analysis remains intact.


As has been discussed in Section 2, the suffixbased method to identify nominalizations has certain drawbacks.

converted nominalization is not derived through a productive derivational rule that can be easily generalized to other word by the adding of suffixes to word bases.


2In what way, if any, does Chinese Media English differ from British Media English in terms of the quantitative use of nominalizations?

nominalizations are slightly more frequent but not significantly so in social life in CME (t=0.431,p=0.666).


The t-test results in Table 5 confirm that all the five categories in BME use significantly more converted nominalizations than those in CME.

in the present study, we will adopt a syntactic approach and a different methodology to identify and retrieve nominalizations, and extend the scope of previous studies well beyond registers and genres to different English varieties.


The pivot sentence for this task is the Change sentence because it indicates the direction of change of the quantity in the Given sentence in terms of an effective increase or decrease.The last task is to combine the results of the first two stages and generate the corresponding equation.

again, in the case of PPW sentences, we notice that the sentences are not necessarily Part, Part and Whole, but the 'parts' may even be relegated to the same sentence.


For sentence type classification, the baseline is the majority class among sentence types since the sentences are classified independently.

how many dogs does henry have left to walk?


Not only are the performance gains over the baseline vastly substantial, but the performance gains of the solver when compared with stateof-the-art MWP solvers such as WolframAlpha (Barendse, 2012) are also substantial.

the baseline for J-S problems is 36.12% (majority class is Change sentence) and for PPW is 62.47% (majority class is Part sentence).


To indicate the third person experiencer's internal states, their predicate forms must be marked with some morphemes of evidentiality.

in Spanish, internal states are expressed with adjectives (e.g.


2 ] 2 The Japanese language possesses another group of adjectival words, which are called "adjectival nouns" (Martin 1975) or "nominal adjectives" (Kuno 1973 he-TOP glad it.appears.that 'It appears that he is glad.'

the internal state of a person at the speech time, first person or third person, can be expressed as the resulting state of that thought process using the resultative aspect marker te-iru.


(9) (chaň / khaw) dii-cai 5 I / he glad 'I am/He is glad.'

when the sentence (21b) above is embedded in a sentence with the third person subject, it becomes apparent that what soo-da precludes is not the first person, but the conceptualizer, which corresponds to the upper/main clause subject as shown in (22) below (modified from Ohye 1975:202).


The work of Dr. Heisig [1][2] has made great strides in identifying common primitives within Chinese and Japanese characters.

further to this, for complex characters, it is possible that there will be more than six positions of primitives.


Figure 3 shows the box-plot summarizing the vector cosine scores.

as it can be observed, aPant always outperforms the baseline.


This method can be certainly applied for the study of other semantic relations.

these models are characterized by a major shortcoming.


As a general method of automatic multi-document summarization, we often use the important sentence extraction method which obtains the most proper combination of important sentences in target documents for a summary, avoiding redundancy in the generated summary.

here, sigm(•) is a sigmoid function and is used to decrease mutation rate as generation gets close to g max .


As for document summarization using combinatorial optimization techniques, many studies employ explicit solution techniques such as branch and bound method, dynamic programming, integer linear programming, and so on (Mcdonald, 2007;Yih et al., 2007;Gillick et al., 2008;Takamura et al., 2009;Lin et al., 2010).

there is a problem with them in terms of calculation efficiency.


As expected, RISING → MID and RISING → LOW were also mapped with descending note transitions at a statistically significant level (p<0.01), providing further support for grouping RISING with HIGH.

the results also provide further evidence for the decomposability of contour tones in thai.


As for Thai, three important pioneering studies have revealed that Thai, like most tonal languages, is characterized by parallelism between the transition of lexical tones and the transitions between two adjacent musical notes.

from the phonological perspective, many phonologists, e.g.


this paper focuses on emphasis in Japanese advertisement sentences and defines accent phrases as the prediction unit, while words have been used as the unit for predicting emphasis in the conversation domain (Hovy et.


90% of emphasized accent phrases occurred within 0 to 4 accent phrases from the previous emphasized location.

though later accent phrase locations showed higher likelihood of emphasized accent phrase, the likelihood values do not differ significantly.


Based on results, a seven-stated HMM and 16coponent Gaussian Mixtures with diagonal covariance matrices yields the best accuracy result at 84.15%.

based on discussed works, in tonal languages exploiting tone information to an ASR system had directly contributed to its performances.


Without tone information, paired alphabets are difficult to differentiate their group from the other group.


For the evaluation, we test our automatically built corpus on the opinion tweet extraction and tweet polarity classification tasks.

our method also produces much larger data since we do not rely on sheer emoticon-containing tweets to collect training data.


In this case, we run experiment using the two different seed corpus construction techniques.

we can express the complete log-likelihood of the parameters, logL c (✓|T ), as follows: The last equation is used in each iteration to check whether or not the parameters have converged.


We introduce three modifications to the original TextTiling algorithm to appropriately apply it to a virtual document composed of a stream of tweets.

for example, a user X posted a tweet as follows.


Our stream data are much shorter than those assumed in the original TextTiling algorithm.

• Two target tweets, t i and t j , adjacent to each other tend to have the same source tweet (s(t i ) = s(t j )).


201 word-based window was 6, and 26.9, obtained when the size of the post-based window was 1.

it was frequently observed that the number of words is less than the window size at the end of the stream when using the word-based window.


take on the value x, the presuppositional content is integrated; in a case like this one, where an antecedent expression exists, it is eliminated from the representation.

1 PACLIC 28 Anaphoric demonstratives, on the other hand, are coreferential with a noun phrase in the preceding discourse and keep track of the referents already introduced to the discourse (and are not present in the discourse situation), as in (1).


Complex subjects modified by a relative in OSV like [[noun-ga-verb]-noun-ga] were eliminated by hand in order to control the data.

the first aim of my study is to investigate the relationship between discourse-old information and OSV word order in Japanese.


This difference must derive from the data difference; her analysis includes VPinternal and VP-external scrambling while the scope of my analysis is only VP-external scrambling.

note that RD can process type (a) and some parts of (b), but cannot deal with type (c).


In her written Japanese data, heaviness accounts for about 70% of the scrambled sentences while referentiality makes up about 25%.

it is conceivable that scrambled direct objects in OSV are both heavy and discourse-old.


In section 4 we examine the sources of disagreement among the annotators and in 5 we summarize the recommendations for reliable annotation.

(2009) raters found more than one valid construction for more than 18% of noun phrases.


The preliminary "confusion" error tag should be broken down into two tags to indicate confusion between definite and indefinite article (CA), and confusion between article and another type of determiner (CD).

we recommend simply not annotating the noun phrase if it impossible to determine the acceptability of the article usage.


There was not much change in precision in the Wiki dataset when can't tell was included as a rare annotation (such as no>0) or a common annotation (such as (no+ct)>0), so we assume that the populations of rare instances gathered are not different between the two.

the Emails dataset 1 consists of 34 positive and 66 negative instances, and simulates a server's contents in which most pairs are negative (common class).


The original classification was calculated as the mean of a pair's judgments.

in the last pair, the turn gives a quote from the article and requests a source, and the edit adds a source to the quoted part of the article, but the source clearly refers to just one part of the quote.


Redundant annotation is usually nonproblematic because individual crowdsource judgments are inconsequentially cheap in a class-balanced dataset.

this technique renders the corpus useless for experiments including token similarity (or ngram similarity, semantic similarity, stopword distribution similarity, keyword similarity, etc) as a feature; a machine learner would be likely to learn the very same features for classification that were used to identify the rare-class instances during corpus construction.


The sources of the corpus were 9 movie scripts and 12 drama episodes.

selecting one right subject among possible candidates can also be regarded as a disambiguation issue.


The values of f-measure for the subject types 'tú', 'yo', 'él', 'ella' were higher than the other subject types.

whether an antecedent exists or not may not be crucial in zero subject resolution.


We proposed 11 linguistically motivated features for ML (Machine Learning).

the 5 low rank features may be regarded as not significant ones to classify subject types.


As mentioned, B is typically much smaller than A: |P B | ⌧ |P A |, and the merged set is at least as large as the old one.

for SMT, incremental training research mainly focuses on updating the alignment probabilities from the parallel data.


This approach allows even faster updates, and in some settings yields comparable results to retraining the model.

source language phrases cannot be translated and placed in the same order in the generated translation in the target language, but phrase movements have to be considered.


the perception study was done in the same laboratory.


For the /θ/ contrast, the spectral energy concentration was analyzed for the characterization of /s/ or /f/ contrast (here, some productions were too short and taken as /t/ tokens).

also, Sichuanese speakers replace English /r/ by /z/ but Cantonese by /w/.


The difference is not significant (see Figure 2).

for the production of /r/, same task was administered and the analysis was made into checking the f3 and waveform of /r/ (ibid.).


we argue that it is this difference that leads to the differences in the occurrence patterns of -le and the English simple past.


This pattern corresponds exactly to the universal learner tendency described by Claim 1 of the Aspect Hypothesis that learners tend to restrict perfective past marking to Achievements and Accomplishments.

the status of -le, -guo, -zai and -zhe as the most important aspect markers is unquestionable (Wang, 1985).


The Aspect Hypothesis as summarized in its simplest form by Andersen (2002: 79) makes the following three claims): 1) [Learners] first use past marking (e.g., English) or perfective marking (Chinese, Spanish, etc.)

5 there is a special kind of Achievements, the so-called [verb+completive morpheme] verb compound, in which -le is quite often rendered unnecessary by the completive morpheme.


We explore the task of automatically classifying documents based on their different readability levels.

generally, most of the frequent words are shorter in length.


313 tured articles from each of the sites and pre-process in similar way as the training corpus.

the training model is used to classify the candidate news articles.


There are two more important aspects we have to consider further.

thai WS consists of 44 letters for consonants, 18 symbols for vowels and 4 tone marks (For more comprehensive descriptions, see Diller, 1996).


Learners can learn these letters after they are familiarized with the 28 letters in the left table of figure 5.

as mentioned before, choice (1) may not be proper because mixing H and L consonants may cause confusion, as syllables have different tones.


In figure 2, vowels (in black) can be represented by a combination of one to three components ( in grey is an initial consonant; in grey is a final consonant).

different processes and strategies are actually involved in L1 and L2 writing systems (L1WS and L2WS) and should not be ignored by the learning material designers or the language teachers (Bassetti, 2006).