California English
California English (or Californian English) collectively refers to varieties of American English native to California. As California became one of the most ethnically diverse U.S. states, English speakers from a wide variety of backgrounds began to pick up different linguistic elements from one another and also develop new ones; the result is both divergence and convergence within Californian English. However, linguists who studied English before and immediately after World War II tended to find few, if any, patterns unique to California, and even today most California English still basically aligns to a General or Western American accent. Still, certain newer varieties of California English have been gradually emerging since the late 20th century. Overview
A distinctive chain shift of vowel sounds, the California Vowel Shift, was first noted by linguists in the 1980s in southern California and the San Francisco Bay Area of northern California. This helped to define an accent emerging primarily among youthful, white, urban, coastal speakers, and popularly associated with the valley girl and surfer dude youth subcultures. The possibility that this is, in fact, an age-specific variety of English is one hypothesis; however, certain features of this accent are intensifying and spreading geographically. Other documented California English includes a "country" accent associated with rural and inland white Californians, which is also (to a lesser extent) affected by the California Vowel Shift; an older accent once spoken by Irish Americans in San Francisco; and distinctly Californian varieties of Chicano English mainly associated with Mexican Americans. Research has shown that Californians themselves perceive a linguistic boundary between northern and southern California, particularly regarding the northern use of hella and southern (but now nationally widespread) use of dude, bro, and like. Urban coastal California English
Varieties of English most popularly associated with California largely correlate with the major urban areas along the coast. Notable is the absence of a distinct  phoneme (the vowel sound of caught, stalk, clawed, etc. ), which has completely merged with  (the vowel sound of cot, stock, clod, etc. ), as in most of the Western United States. A few phonological processes have been identified as being particular to urban and coastal California English. However, these vowel changes are by no means universal in Californian speech, and any single Californian's speech may only have some or none of the changes identified below. These sounds might also be found in the speech of some people from areas outside of California. Front vowels are raised before , so that the traditional "short a"  and "short i"  sounds are raised to the "long a"  and "long ee"  sounds, respectively, when before the ng sound . In other contexts,  (as in bit, rich, quick, etc.) has a fairly open pronunciation, as indicated in the vowel chart here. Similarly, a word like rang  will often have the same vowel as rain  in California English, , rather than the same vowel as ran  (phonetically articulated as ; see below). In addition,  may be pronounced with a raised vowel , or even  in a nonfinite verb ending, so that thinking is pronounced  ('theenkeen'), rather than  or  and king is pronounced more like  ('keeng'), whereas bullying features two consecutive  vowels:  bull-ee-eeng or  bull-ee-een (cf. GenAm , with  followed by ). As all vowels preceding  are historically short, this does not lead to a loss of phonemic contrast. Before  or  (as in ran or ram),  is raised and diphthongized to  or  (a widespread shift throughout most of American English). Elsewhere,  is lowered and backed as a result of the California vowel shift (see below). Uptalk, meaning a high-rising intonation in certain declarative sentences, is on the rise, for example in Southern Californian English. One 2014 study found uptalk used equally by Southern Californian men and women in 16% of declarative statements. However, women were twice as likely to use uptalk in order to hold the floor (a linguistic strategy similar to a filler or discourse marker). In Northern California generally, a tense  is the pronunciation of  before  in words such as egg, beg, leg, which can thus be pronounced as /eɪg/ ayg, /beɪg/ bayg, /leɪg/ layg, respectively. California Vowel Shift

One topic that has begun to receive much attention from scholars in recent decades has been the emergence of a vowel-based chain shift in California. The image in this section illustrates the California vowel shift. The vowel space of the image is a cross-section (as if looking at the interior of a mouth from a side profile perspective); it is a rough approximation of the space in a human mouth where the tongue is located in articulating certain vowel sounds (the left is the front of the mouth closer to the teeth, the right side of the chart being the back of the mouth). As with other vowel shifts, several vowels may be seen moving in a chain shift around the mouth. As one vowel encroaches upon the space of another, the adjacent vowel in turn experiences a movement in order to maximize phonemic differentiation. For convenience, California English will be compared with a "typical" General American English, abbreviated "GA". is pulled towards  (bit and kit are sounding more like bet and ket in other dialects)  is pulled towards  (wreck and kettle are sounding more like rack and cattle),  is pulled towards , and  and  merge (cot and stock are sounding more like caught and stalk): the cot-caught merger. Other vowel changes, whose relation with the shift is uncertain, are also emerging: except before ,  is moving through  towards  (rude and true are almost approaching reed and tree, but with rounded lips), and  is moving beyond . is moving towards  (so that, for example, book and could in the California dialect start to sound, to a GA speaker, more like buck and cud),  is moving through , sometimes approaching  (duck, crust, what, etc. are sounding like how U.S. Southerners pronounce them, or like how other Americans might pronounce deck, crest, wet, etc.). New vowel characteristics of the California Shift are increasingly found among younger speakers. As with many vowel shifts, these significant changes occurring in the spoken language are rarely noticed by average speakers. For example, while some characteristics such as the close central rounded vowel  or close front rounded vowel  for  are widespread in Californian speech, the same high degree of fronting for  is found predominantly among young speakers. The effects of the California Vowel Shift have been noted in varieties of Californian Spanish, particularly in the Bay Area. Rural inland California English
One dialect of English, mostly reported in California's rural interior, inland from the major coastal cities, has been popularly described as a "country," "hillbilly," or "twang" variety. This California English variety is reminiscent of and presumably related to Southern or South Midland U.S. accents, mostly correlated with white, outdoors-oriented speakers of the Central Valley. It has been studied even as far north as Trinity County but could possibly extend farther, and as far south as Kern County (metropolitan Bakersfield). Similar to the nonstandard accents of the South Midland and Southern United States, speakers of such towns as Redding and Merced have been found to use the word anymore in a positive sense and the verb was in place of the standard English plural verb were. Related other features of note include the pin–pen merger,  fill–feel merger, and full–fool merger. The Great Depression's westward Dust Bowl migrations of settlers into California from the Southern United States, namely from Oklahoma, Texas, Missouri, and Arkansas, is the presumable cause of this rural white accent's presence in California's Central Valley. Rural northern California was also settled by Oklahomans and Arkansans, though perhaps more recently in the 1970s and 1980s, due to the region's timber industry boom. However, even in a single town, any given individual's identification with working and playing outdoors versus indoors appears to be a greater determiner of this accent than the authenticity of the individual's Southern heritage. For example, this correlates with less educated rural men of northern California documented as raising  in a style similar to the Southern drawl. Overall, among those who orient toward a more town lifestyle, features of the California Vowel Shift are more prominent, but not to the same extent as in urban coastal communities such as San Jose. By contrast, among those who orient toward a more country lifestyle, the Southern features are more prominent, but some aspects of the California Vowel Shift remain present as well. Mission brogue (San Francisco)

The Mission brogue is a disappearing accent spoken within San Francisco, mostly during the 20th century in the Mission District. It sounds distinctly like New York and possibly Boston accents, due to a large number of Irish Americans migrating from those two East Coast cities to the Mission District in the late 19th century. It is today spoken only by some of the oldest Irish-American and possibly Jewish residents of the city. From before the 1870s to the 1890s, Irish Americans were the largest share of migrants coming to San Francisco, the majority arriving by way of Northeastern U.S. cities like New York and Boston, thus bringing those cities' ways of speaking with them. In San Francisco, the Mission District quickly became a predominantly Irish Catholic neighborhood, and its local dialect became associated with all of San Francisco as a way to contrast it with the rest of California. Sounding like a "real San Franciscan" therefore once meant sounding "like a New Yorker", the speakers said to "talk like Brooklynites". Other names included the "south of the Slot" (referring to the cable car track running down Market Street) or "south of Market" accent. Pronunciation features of this accent included:
 Th-stopping
 No cot–caught merger, with /ɔ/ being raised and accompanied with an inglide, so as to produce a vowel sound approximating [oə]
 Non-rhoticity
 The use of [əɪ] for /ɜːr/ before unvoiced consonants such that  would have almost the same vowel sound as "choice"
 Glottal stop, [ʔ], instead of /t/ before syllabic /l/ such as in "bottle"; this and all the above features were reminiscent of a New York accent
 Possible  split, reminiscent of older Boston English

Overall, starting in the later half of the 20th century, San Francisco has been undergoing dialect levelling towards the broader regional Western American English, for example: younger Mission District speakers now exhibit a full cot–caught merger, show the vowel shift of urban coastal Californians, and front the  and  vowels. Other varieties
Certain varieties of Chicano English are also native to California, sometimes even being spoken by non-Latino Californians. One example is East Los Angeles Chicano English, which has been influenced by both Californian and African American Vernacular English. The coastal urban accent of California traces many of its features back to Valleyspeak: a social dialect arising in the 1980s among a particular white youthful demographic in the San Fernando Valley, including Los Angeles. Boontling is a jargon or argot spoken in Boonville, California, with only about 100 speakers today. Lexical overview
The popular image of a typical southern California speaker often conjures up images of the so-called Valley girls popularized by the 1982 hit song by Frank and Moon Zappa, or "surfer-dude" speech made famous by movies such as Fast Times at Ridgemont High. While many phrases found in these extreme versions of California English from the 1980s may now be considered passé, certain words such as awesome, totally, for sure, harsh, gnarly, and dude have remained popular in California and have spread to a national, even international, level. A common example of a northern Californian colloquialism is hella (from "(a) hell of a (lot of)", and the euphemistic alternative hecka) to mean "many", "much", "so" or "very". It can be used with both count and mass nouns. For example: "I haven't seen you in hella long"; "There were hella people there"; or "This guacamole is hella good". The word can be casually used multiple times in multiple ways within a single sentence. Pop culture references to "hella" are common, as in the song "Hella Good" by the band No Doubt, which hails from southern California, and "Hella" by the band Skull Stomp, who come from northern California. California, like other Southwestern states, has borrowed many words from Spanish, especially for place names, food, and other cultural items, reflecting the linguistic heritage of the Californios as well as more recent immigration from Mexico and elsewhere in Latin America. High concentrations of various ethnic groups throughout the state have contributed to general familiarity with words describing (especially cultural) phenomena. For example, a high concentration of Asian Americans from various cultural backgrounds, especially in urban and suburban metropolitan areas in California, has led to the adoption of the word hapa (itself originally a Hawaiian borrowing of English "half") to mean someone of mixed European/Islander or Asian/Islander heritage. In 1958, essayist Clifton Fadiman pointed out that northern California is the only place (besides England and the area surrounding Ontario and the Canadian Prairies) where the word chesterfield is used as a synonym for sofa or couch. Freeways
In the Los Angeles metropolitan area, Inland Empire, Coachella Valley and San Diego, freeways are often referred to either by name or by route number but with the addition of the definite article "the", such as "the 405 North", "the 99" or "the 605 (Freeway)". This usage has been parodied in the recurring Saturday Night Live sketch "The Californians". In contrast, typical northern California usage omits the definite article. When southern California freeways were built in the 1940s and early 1950s, local common usage was primarily the freeway name preceded by the definite article, such as "the Hollywood Freeway". It took several decades for southern California locals to start to commonly refer to the freeways with the numerical designations, but usage of the definite article persisted. For example, it evolved to "the 605 Freeway" and then shortened to "the 605". See also

 African-American Vernacular English
 Boontling
 Chain shift
 Chicano English
 Hyphy
 North American English regional phonology
 Sociolect
 Sociolinguistics
 Spanglish
 Valspeak
 Vowel shift
 Western American English

References

Citations

General and cited sources

Further reading 
 Vowels and Consonants: An Introduction to the Sounds of Languages. Peter Ladefoged, 2003. Blackwell Publishing. Language in Society: An Introduction to Sociolinguistics. Suzanne Romaine, 2000. Oxford University Press. How We Talk: American Regional English Today. Allan Metcalf, 2000. Houghton Mifflin. External links
 PBS.org: "Do you speak American? − ''California English"
 Stanford.edu: Penelope Eckert Bolg − Vowel Shifts
 Phonological Atlas of North America
 USC.edu: "A hella new specifier" by Rachelle Waksler, discussing usage of "hella"
  Binghamton.edu: "Word Up: Social Meanings of Slang in California Youth Culture" — by Mary Bucholtz Ph.D., UC Santa Barbara Department of Linguistics, includes discussion of "hella"

American English
California culture
Cultural history of California
Languages of California
Northern California
Southern California
Vowel shifts