Tawhid al-Mufaddal
The  (, 'Declaration by al-Mufaddal of the Oneness of God'), also known as the  ('Book on the Beginning of Creation and the Incitement to Contemplation'), is a ninth-century treatise concerned with proving the existence of God, attributed to the early Shi'i Muslim leader al-Mufaddal ibn Umar al-Ju'fi (died before 799). The work presents itself as a dialogue between al-Mufaddal and the Shi'i Imam Ja'far al-Sadiq (–765), who is the main speaker. Like most other works attributed to al-Mufaddal, the  was in fact written by a later, anonymous author who took advantage of al-Mufaddal's status as one of the closest confidants of Ja'far al-Sadiq in order to ascribe their own ideas to the illustrious Imam. However, it differs from other treatises attributed to al-Mufaddal by the absence of any content that is specifically Shi'i in nature, a trait it shares with only one other Mufaddal work—also dealing with a rational proof for the existence of God—the  ('Book of the Myrobalan Fruit'). Though both preserved by the 17th-century Shi'i scholar Muhammad Baqir al-Majlisi (died 1699), the only thing that connects the  and the  to Shi'ism more generally is their ascription to Ja'far al-Sadiq and al-Mufaddal. Rather than by Shi'i doctrine, their content appears to be influenced by Mu'tazilism, a rationalistic school of Islamic speculative theology (). The  is a revised version of a work falsely attributed to the famous Mu'tazili litterateur al-Jahiz (died 868) under the title  ('Book of Proofs and Contemplation on Creation and Administration'). Both the  and pseudo-Jahiz's  likely go back on an earlier ninth-century text, which has sometimes been identified as the  ('Book of Thought and Contemplation') written by the ninth-century Nestorian Christian Jibril ibn Nuh ibn Abi Nuh al-Nasrani al-Anbari. The teleological argument for the existence of God used in the  is inspired by Syriac Christian literature (especially commentaries on the Hexameron), and ultimately goes back on Hellenistic models such as the pseudo-Aristotelian  ('On the Universe', third/second century BCE) and Stoic theology as recorded in Cicero's (106–43 BCE) . Contents

The work sets out to prove the existence of God based on the argument from design (also called the teleological argument). It consists of a series of lectures about the existence and oneness () of God presented to al-Mufaddal by Ja'far al-Sadiq, who is answering a challenge made to him by the self-declared atheist Ibn Abi al-Awja'. In four 'sessions' (), Ja'far argues that the cosmic order and harmony which can be detected throughout nature necessitates the existence of a wise creator. The Twelver Shi'i bibliographer al-Najashi (–1058) also refers to the work as the  (), a reference to the fact that Ja'far often begins his exhortation with the word  (think!). The  is in fact not an original work. Instead, it is a revised version of a work also attributed to the famous Mu'tazili litterateur al-Jahiz (died 868) under the title  ('Book of Proofs and Contemplation on Creation and Administration'). The attribution of this work to al-Jahiz is probably spurious as well, though it was still likely written in the ninth century. Compared to pseudo-Jahiz's , the  adds an introduction that sets up the frame story involving al-Mufaddal, Ibn Abi al-Awja', and Ja'far al-Sadiq, as well rhymed praises of God at the beginning of each chapter, and a brief concluding passage. According to Melhem Chokr, the versions attributed to al-Mufaddal and to al-Jahiz are both based on an unknown earlier work, with the version attributed to al-Mufaddal being more faithful to the original. Both Hans Daiber and Josef van Ess identify this original work as the  ('Book of Thought and Contemplation'), written by the ninth-century Nestorian Christian Jibril ibn Nuh ibn Abi Nuh al-Nasrani al-Anbari. In any case, Jibril ibn Nuh's , the  and pseudo-Jahiz's  are only the three earliest among many extant versions of the work: adaptations were also made by the Nestorian Christian bishop Elijah of Nisibis (died 1056) in his , by the Sunni mystic al-Ghazali (died 1111) in his , and by the Andalusian Jewish philosopher Bahya ibn Paquda (died first half of 12th century) in his . The / contains many parallels with Syriac Christian literature, such as the commentaries on the Hexameron (the six days of creation as described in Genesis) written by Jacob of Edessa (–708) and Moses bar Kepha (–903), as well as Job of Edessa's encyclopedic work on natural philosopy called the Book of Treasures (). Its teleological proof of the existence of God—based upon a discussion of the four elements, minerals, plants, animals, meteorology, and the human being—was likely inspired by the pseudo-Aristotelian work  ('On the Universe', third/second century BCE), a work also used by the Syriac authors mentioned above. In particular, the / contains the same emphasis on the idea that God, who already in the  is called "one", can only be known through the wisdom permeating his creative works, while his own essence () remains hidden for all. The idea that contemplating the works of nature leads to a knowledge of God is also found in the Quran. However, in the case of the /, the idea is set in a philosophical framework that clearly goes back on Hellenistic models. Apart from the  (3rd/2nd century BCE), there are also many parallels with Cicero's (106–43 BCE) , especially with the Stoic views on teleology and divine providence outlined in Cicero's work. According to Melhem Chokr, the original on which both the  and the  were based was translated into Arabic from the Greek, perhaps from an unknown Hermetic work. Some of the enemies cited in the work are Diagoras (5th century BCE) and Epicurus (341–270 BCE), both reviled since late antiquity for their alleged atheism, as well as Mani (–274 or 277 CE), the founding prophet of Manichaeism; a certain Dūsī, and all those who would deny the providence and purposefullness (Arabic: ) of God. Reception

Often transmitted together in the manuscripts, both the  and the  may be regarded as part of an attempt to rehabilitate al-Mufaddal in the Twelver Shi'i tradition. Al-Mufaddal was known to have for some time been a follower of Abu al-Khattab (died 755), a leader of the early branch of Shi'ism known as the  ('exaggerators', thus known for their supposed 'exaggerated' veneration of the Imams). Many treatises attributed to al-Mufaddal also belong to the tradition of the . Twelver Shi'is generally rejected the ideas of the , but al-Mufaddal was important to them as a narrator of numerous hadiths from the Imams Ja'far al-Sadiq and his son Musa al-Kazim. Apart from al-Majlisi (died 1699), both works were also known to such Twelver scholars as al-Najashi (–1058), Ibn Shahrashub (died 1192), Ibn Tawus (1193–1266). References

Sources used
 ( in vol. 3, pp. 57–151;  in vol. 3, pp. 152–198)

 (reprinted in )

9th-century Arabic books
Islamic philosophical texts
Pseudepigraphy
Shia theology books