Irish orthography
Irish orthography is the set of conventions used to write Irish. A spelling reform in the mid-20th century led to , the modern standard written form used by the Government of Ireland, which regulates both spelling and grammar. The reform removed inter-dialectal silent letters, simplified some letter sequences, and modernised archaic spellings to reflect modern pronunciation, but it also removed letters pronounced in some dialects but not in others. Irish spelling represents all Irish dialects to a high degree despite their considerable phonological variation, e.g. ("tree") is read   in Mayo and Ulster,  in Galway, or  in Munster. Some words may have dialectal pronunciations not reflected by their standard spelling, and they may have dialectal spellings to reflect this. Alphabet
Latin script has been the writing system used to write Irish since the 5th century, when it replaced Ogham which was used to write Primitive Irish and Old Irish. Prior to the mid-20th century Gaelic type () was the main typeface used to write Irish; now, it is usually replaced by Roman type (). The use of Ogham and Gaelic type today is restricted to decorative or self-consciously traditional contexts. The dot above a lenited letter in Gaelic type is usually replaced by a following  in Roman type (e.g. → ). Letters and letter names

The traditional Irish alphabet () consists of 18 letters: . It does not contain , although they are used in scientific terminology and modern loanwords/words of foreign origin. occurs in a small number of (mainly onomatopoeic) native words (e.g. "to quack" and  "caw") and colloquialisms (e.g. for  "chirp" and  for  "screw"). , when not prefixed to a word initial vowel to show aspiration or after a consonant to show lenition, primarily occurs word initially in loanwords, e.g. "hat". is the only letter not listed by Ó Dónaill. Vowels may be accented with an acute accent (; see below). Accented letters are considered variants of their unaccented equivalent so they are ignored for purposes of alphabetisation, they follow their unaccented equivalents in dictionaries (i.e. , , , ...). English letter names are generally used in colloquial and formal speech but there are modern Irish letter names (based on the original Latin names), similar to other languages that use a Latin script alphabet. Tree names were historically used to name the letters. Tradition taught that they all derived from the names of Ogham letters, though it is now known that only some of the earliest were named after trees. Grapheme to phoneme correspondence

Table key and guide 

Grapheme to phoneme correspondence tables on this page follow the layout shown above, in this layout  stands for Mayo and Ulster Irish,  for southern Connacht Irish, and  for Munster Irish. In the consonant & exceptions in verb forms tables, 1 and 2 stand for broad and slender, respectively, while in the vowel tables they stand for stressed and unstressed. Initially and finally mean word initial or final unless stated otherwise. means silent, i.e. that the letter(s) are not pronounced. The IPA transcriptions of examples on this page are in Connacht Irish. See Irish phonology for an explanation of the symbols used and Irish initial mutations for an explanation of eclipsis and lenition. Consonants 
Consonants are "broad" (velarised) when beside  and "slender" (palatalised) when beside . Vowels 
Vowel sequences are common in Irish spelling due to the "" ("slender with slender and broad with broad") rule, i.e. that the vowels on either side of any consonant (or consonant cluster) must be both slender () or both broad (), to unambiguously determine if the consonant(s) are broad or slender. An apparent exception is , which is followed by a broad consonant despite the . The pronunciation of vowels in Irish is mostly predictable from the following rules:

 Unstressed short vowels are generally reduced to . is silent before a broad vowel. is silent before  and after a vowel (except sometimes in ). have multiple pronunciations that depend on adjacent consonants. Accented vowels () represent long vowels and in digraphs and trigraphs containing them, surrounding unaccented vowels are silent, but there are several exceptions, e.g. when preceded by two unaccented vowels. Accented vowels in succession are both pronounced, e.g. "sixth",   "royal, kingly, majestic",   "sympathy", etc. and  are long before , e.g. "wild",   "twine"
 A following  lengthens some vowels and in Munster and Connacht a following syllable-final  or word-final  may lengthen or diphthongise some vowels depending on dialect. Followed by  
When followed by , a short vowel usually forms a diphthong or lengthens. For , see - in exceptions in verb forms. Epenthesis 
After a short vowel, an unwritten epenthetic  gets inserted between  +  (as well as , when derived from devoiced ), when within a morpheme boundary, e.g. "blue",   "red",   "dark",   "name",   "prickly, thorny"’   "child",   "silver, money". The main exception to this is  which is mainly used for  or . Epenthesis does not occur after long vowels and diphthongs, e.g. "term" or   "duty", or across morpheme boundaries (i.e. after prefixes and in compound words), e.g. "grandson" (from  "close, near" +  "son"),   "very quiet" (from  "very" +  "quiet"),   "carriageway, roadway" (from  "car" +  "way, road"). In Munster, epenthesis also occurs across morpheme boundaries, when  follow  (after any vowel) or  (after short vowels), and when  follows . Exceptions in verb forms 
In verb forms, some letters and letter combinations are pronounced differently from elsewhere. Diacritics

 currently uses one diacritic, the acute accent, though traditionally a second was used, the overdot. If diacritics are unavailable, e.g. on a computer using ASCII, the overdot is replaced by a following , e.g. →  "He/It was" and there is no standard for replacing an acute accent, though sometimes it is indicated by a following slash, e.g. →  "truth". The acute accent (;  or  "long (sign)") is used to indicate a long vowel, as in   "boat". However, there are other conventions to indicate a long vowel, such as:

 A following , e.g. "high",   "destruction",   "fist", and, in Connacht, a word-final , e.g. "time". The digraphs , e.g. "gay",   "bare",   "music". The tri/tetragraphs , e.g. "neighbour",   "Munster". and  before  or , e.g. "wild",   "twine". The overdot (;   "dot of lenition",  "struck", or  "lenition") was traditionally used to indicate lenition, though  uses a following  for this purpose. In Old Irish, it was only used for , while the following  was used for  and the lenition of other letters was not indicated. Later the two methods were used in parallel to represent the lenition of any consonant and competed with each other until the standard practice became to use the overdot in Gaelic type and the following  in Roman type. Thus  are equivalent to . Lowercase  has no tittle in Gaelic type, and road signs in the Republic of Ireland. However, as printed and electronic material like books, newspapers and web pages use Roman type almost invariably, the tittle is generally shown. Irish does not graphemically distinguish dotted i and dotless ı, i.e. they are not different letters as they are in, e.g. Turkish and Azeri. Punctuation

Irish punctuation is similar to English. An apparent exception is the Tironian et (; ) which abbreviates the word  "and", like the ampersand () abbreviates "and" in English. It is generally substituted by a seven () in texts. A hyphen () is used in Irish after  when prefixed to a masculine vowel-initial word as an initial mutation, e.g. "the bread",  "their daughter". However, it is omitted when the vowel is capitalised, e.g. "the Scotsman",  "Our Father". No hyphen is used when  is prefixed to a vowel-initial word, e.g. "her daughter". A hyphen is also used in compound words under certain circumstances:

 between two vowels, e.g. "misfortune"
 between two similar consonants, e.g. "bad language",  "prompt payment"
 in a three-part compound, e.g. "permanent joint committee"
 after the prefixes , ,  before a word beginning with , e.g. "bad tasting",  "subsume",  "mortality"
 in capitalised titles, e.g. "the Chief Justice"
 after  "very" and  "good", e.g. "very big",  "goodwill"

An apostrophe () is used to indicate an omitted vowel in the following cases:

 the prepositions  "from" and  "to" both become  before a vowel or  + vowel, as in  "She fell from a horse" and  "Give it to the landlord"
 the possessive pronouns  "my" and  "your (singular)" become  and  before a vowel or  + vowel, as in  "my youth",  "your tooth"
 the preverbal particle  becomes  before a vowel or  + vowel, as in  "I raised",  "he would wait"
 the copular particle  becomes  before a vowel or  + vowel, as in  "I found that odd" and  "maybe". However,  is used before the pronouns , , , as in  "It was the generals who kept the power"

Capitalisation

Capitalisation rules are similar to English. However, a prefixed letter remains in lowercase when the base initial is capitalised ( "China"). For text written in all caps, the prefixed letter is kept in lowercase, or small caps ( "THE HISTORY OF IRELAND"). An initial capital is used for:

 Start of sentences
 Names of people, places (except the words , , ), languages, and adjectives of people and places ( "Michael Murphy";  "Mary McEntee";  "Burke";  "Slievenamon";  "French";  "Italian food")
 Names of months, weeks and feast-days ( "September";  "Monday";  "Christmas Eve")
  "day" ( "on Monday")
 Definite titles

Abbreviations
Most Irish abbreviations are straightforward, e.g. →  ("page → p.") and  →  (" (for example) → e.g. "), but two that require explanation are:  →  ("that is → i.e.") and  →  ("et cetera (and so forth) → &c./etc."). Like  in English,  follows an ordinal numeral, e.g. "St. Patrick's day is the 17th [day] of March". Spelling reform
The literary Classical Irish which survived till the 17th century was archaic; the first attempt at simplification was not until 1639. The spelling represented a dialect continuum including distinctions lost in all surviving dialects by the Gaelic revival of the late 19th century. The idea of a spelling reform, linked to the use of Roman or Gaelic type, was controversial in the early decades of the 20th century. The Irish Texts Society's 1904 Irish-English dictionary by Patrick S. Dinneen used traditional spellings. After the creation of the Irish Free State in 1922, all Acts of the Oireachtas were translated into Irish, initially using Dinneen's spellings, with a list of simplifications accumulating over the years. When Éamon de Valera became President of the Executive Council after the 1932 election, policy reverted to older spellings, which were used in the enrolled text of the 1937 Constitution. In 1941, de Valera decided to publish a "popular edition" of the Constitution with simplified spelling and established a committee of experts, which failed to agree on recommendations. Instead, the Oireachtas' own translation service prepared a booklet, , published in 1945. Some pre-reform spellings criticised by T. F. O'Rahilly and their modern forms include:  → ,  → ,  → ,  → ,  → . The booklet was expanded in 1947, and republished as  "The Official Standard" in 1958, combined with the standard grammar of 1953. It attracted initial criticism as unhistorical and artificial; some spellings fail to represent the pronunciation of some dialects, while others preserve letters unpronounced in any dialect. Its status was reinforced by use in the civil service and as a guide for Tomás de Bhaldraithe's 1959 English–Irish dictionary and Niall Ó Dónaill's 1977 Irish–English dictionary. A review of the written standard, including spelling, was announced in 2010, aiming to improve "simplicity, internal consistency, and logic". The result was the 2017 update of . See also
 Irish Braille
 Irish manual alphabet
 Scottish Gaelic orthography

Notes
  Vowels with an acute accent are read as [á/é/í/ó/ú]  "long [á/é/í/ó/ú]". In the verbal adjective suffix, -- becomes  after  ( are deleted before it is added) and it becomes  after  which are deleted before it is added. After consonants,  is silent, but devoices preceding voiced consonants. See Irish phonology. References

Bibliography

 

Orthography
Indo-European Latin-script orthographies