Mianguan
The  (), also called  in Japan,  in Korea, and  in Vietnam, is a type of crown traditionally worn by the emperors of China, Japan, Korea, and Vietnam, as well as other kings in the East Asia. Originating in China, the  was worn by the emperor, his ministers, and aristocrats. The mianguan was the most expensive Chinese headware, reserved for important sacrificial events. Regulations on its shape and its making were issued under the Eastern Han dynasty and applied in the succeeding dynasties only to be ended at the fall of the Ming dynasty in the 16th century AD. In Japan, the  has been worn by emperors since the Nara period when the Chinese-style  was introduced by the Tang dynasty. Emperor Shōmu was reportedly in 732 AD, during the New Year court assembly, the first emperor in Japan to fully dress into  (a form of Chinese ceremonial clothing), which included the Chinese-style . It is also worn in Vietnam, and the monarchs of the Joseon dynasty also wore an equivalent crown, the . (China) 

Among all the type of Chinese headwear, the  was the most expensive type; it was reserved especially for important sacrificial events. The  and the  were worn beginning in the Zhou dynasty. The  was abolished in the Qin dynasty by the First Emperor of Qin in favour of the  instead, the  was however recorded. The  was not worn in the Western Han. In the Qin and Western Han, the emperor wore another type of crown known as the . In the Eastern Han, Emperor Ming created new clothing regulations for ritual sacrifices and other official occasions, prescribing which types of clothing and accessories could be worn by the different social ranks; this included the . The  revived crown based on literature, after which it was worn in rituals and important ceremonies under several dynasties. However, the descriptions in the documents contradict one another, and each dynasty revised them often. The basic shape of the  remained the same from ancient times to the Ming dynasty. The crown worn by the Ming dynasty's Wanli Emperor has been excavated from the Dingling Mausoleum, while the painting "Illustrated Scrolls of the Emperors of the dynasties" by  depicted emperors from the Former Han dynasty to the Sui dynasty, whose  was almost the same shape as the crown depicted, with minor differences in decoration. Many of the non-Han Chinese dynasties that ruled China also adopted the . (Liao, which did not adopt the ritual system of the Han dynasty, and Yuan, which is considered to have a strong Mongolian flavor, also adopted the .) The  stopped being used in China since the fall of the Ming dynasty and the establishment of the Qing dynasty by the Manchu. Instead, a unique Manchu crown called the 'morning crown' ( in Manchu) was used. The Manchu crown was shaped like an umbrella, and the top of the crown was decorated with a special pearl-encrusted ornament called the morning pearl. (Japan)

Emperor's crown
The  is a type of ceremonial crown in Japan, also known as the emperor's ceremonial crown, and was once used together with  (imperial robes) in ceremonies such as accession to the throne and morning prayers. In the , it is said that "the crown at the time of the Daijosai is that of Emperor Ōjin", and that the crown of Emperor Ōjin was used at the Daijosai until the Heian and Kamakura periods. However, the crown has not survived to the present day. Among the Shōsōin treasures, there is a  worn by Emperor Shōmu that has been damaged and is called . The crown does not retain its original form, but there are metal openwork pieces with phoenix, clouds and arabesque patterns, as well as pearls, coral and glass beads threaded through the crown. The  worn by Japanese emperors is often referred to as a "Tang-style crown", but it is actually quite different from the  worn in China. The  worn by the emperor in the Edo period consisted of a metal frame placed on top of an openwork gilt-bronze base called the "heavenly crown", with forty-eight jewels hanging from the edge of the frame, twelve on each side. The painting Silken Painting of Emperor Go-Daigo prominently displays the benkan of Emperor Go-Daigo, which is said to be the crown of Emperor Jimmu. The crown differs greatly from the Chinese crown, in that there is a bright vermillion sun decoration protruding from the front of the crown. The crown has twelve tassels spread across all sides rather than merely two as in the Chinese form (six strands as only two sides of the crown are shown in the image), indicating that this is the crown used by the emperor when he is dressed in formal attire. The  worn by Emperor Go-Sai and his successors during the coronation ceremony is preserved in the Imperial Collection of the Kyoto Imperial Palace. The  was used until the coronation of Emperor Kōmei, but since Emperor Meiji, the  has been replaced by a  () as the government reformed the coronation to be more Shinto-based rather than Chinese inspired. Empress' crown ()

The crown of an empress is called a . Whether it can be considered as a type of  or a different type of crown is a matter of opinion. The  does not have a crown board or similar metal frame on top of the crown, and there is no hair hanging from the crown board. The other difference between the  and the  is the phoenix attached to the front of the . There are ornaments hanging from both ears and the beak of the phoenix, which are decorated with flowers. However, the top of the head is decorated with the same sun emblem as the  and the same design of Yatagarasu and Zuiun. The  is accompanied by a hairpin, a foreign object and a small bow. The Order of the Precious Crown, established in 1888 (the 21st year of the Meiji) to be awarded to women, is a reference to this, and the center of the insignia is decorated with the image of a precious . (Vietnam) 

The Chinese-style  was also used in Vietnam, where it was known as the . Construction and design 

The  is composed of:

A long, rectangular wooden board called the  board ( in the Han dynasty) was placed on top of the , with fulls hanging from the front and back of the  board. In the Han dynasty, the  was round in the front but flat in the back; it was about  in width and  in length. On both sides of the mianguan, there was a hole where an emerald hairpin could pass through so that the crown could be fastened to the hair bun of its wearer. A red band called the  was attached to the centre of the  and wraps around it. The silk cord was tied on one end of the hairpin and would then be tied on the other side of the hairpin passing under the chin. There was also a  () located on both side of the  around the ear area; the  was a pearl or a piece of jade which symbolized that the wearer of  should not believe in any slander. The number of tassels depended on the status of the wearer, and the  of the emperor had 12 tassels at the front and back, for a total of 24 tassels. The 12 tassels dangles down the shoulders and were made of jade beads of multiple colours which would sway with the wearer's movement. In addition, there was the nine-tasselled crown, worn by dukes and the crown prince's servants. The eight-tasselled crown was worn by princes and dukes. The  (, seven-tasselled crown) was worn by ministers. The five-tasselled crown (, ) was worn by viscounts and barons. The quantity and quality of the jewellery were an important marker of social ranking. In the Han dynasty, the emperor would use 12 strings of white jade, 7 strings of blue jade were used by dukes and princes, and black jade were used for ministers. Cultural significance 
The  was designed to strengthen the charismatic authority of its wearer which was conferred by the head. This is similar to the Mandate of Heaven concept in which there is a rationalization of divine authority. Related items 

Since China was a crown-wearing culture, there were many crowns for different ranks, positions, and times. – a crown worn by an empress (e.g. – crowns of Empress Xiao Danxian and Empress Dowager Xiao Jing excavated from the Dingling site, two each)

See also 
 
 Imperial crown
 List of Hanfu headwear

References 
Notes
Sources

Bibliography 

 松平乘昌『図説宮中柳営の秘宝』 河出書房新社、2006年。。
 『服周之冕』中華書局、2009年。

External links 

Vietnamese clothing
Chinese clothing
Hats
Headgear
Crowns (headgear)
Pages with unreviewed translations
Japanese monarchy
Chinese headgear