Hardware tokens <i>are</i> general purpose computers that have been locked down to the vendor&#x27;s walled gardens. Yubikey is a JavaCard (in USB stick form factor) running some closed-source applets. There is a key that would allow you to load your own applets onto it but Yubico won&#x27;t tell you what it is.<p>From a software freedom perspective, hardware tokens&#x2F;smart cards are no better than smartphones.