In recent years, there has been growing interest in the varied applications of nanobubble technology. Given their unique physicochemical properties, such as minuscule size (< 1 µm), surface charge, and high internal pressure, nanobubbles (NB) could provide new opportunities in the fields of environmental engineering (including environmental remediation, water treatment, aerobic fermentation, anaerobic digestion, and algal biomass production), and agriculture (including agronomy, horticulture, aquaculture, aquaponics, bioponics, and hydroponics). In addition, applying NB-derived reactive oxygen species (ROS) can inactivate pathogens in water treatment, remove harmful microorganisms on food, and remove persistent organic pollutants from wastewater (removal efficacies > 60%). NB technology can also maintain high aqueous phase dissolved oxygen levels compared to conventional aeration, as demonstrated in hydroponics and intensive crop farming, where NB-treated water led to increases in plant yields (10–40%). However, a concise and comprehensive source of information on the fundamental mechanisms involving NB technology is lacking. As NB applications advance into the biological frontier, these mechanisms serve as critical knowledge areas toward understanding the NB–biomolecular and cellular mechanisms of action. In addition, mass transfer performance is not stringently assessed. To advance and summarize current understanding, this review provides an updated, in-depth discussion of the fundamental mechanisms and performance of NB technologies for various applications in environmental and agricultural fields. Mechanistic details focusing on electrostatic and hydrophobic attachment, the formation of ROS, and gas–liquid mass transfer are discussed. This review further outlines the opportunities and challenges and concludes with important research needs in NB technology.
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