Formosan rock macaques (Macaca cyclopis) are found in the mountainous terrain of northeastern and southwestern Taiwan. They may once have been associated with the sea coast but have now been largely restricted to inland hills because of human activity (Kuntz and Myers, 1969).
Biogeographic Regions: oriental (Native )
Introduced feral subpopulations have become established at four localities in Japan: Oshima (south of Tokyo), Nojima (south of Nagoya), Wakayama prefecture (south of Osaka, where it has hybridized with Macaca fuscata), and the Shimokita Peninsula (northern Honshu) (Fooden and Wu 2001).
Formosan rock macaques are quadrupedal (Fleagle, 1988). They use cheek pouches to carry food in while foraging. The pelage is dark gray to brown in color. Tail length varies from 26 to 46 cm and body lengh ranges from 36 to 45 cm. They typically weigh 5 to 12 kg, though some adult males can be over 18 kg. The hairs are soft, a dark gray color in winter and an olive drab in summer; abdominal skin is slightly blue (Grzimek, 1988).
Range mass: 5 to 18 kg.
Range length: 36 to 45 cm.
Other Physical Features: endothermic ; homoiothermic; bilateral symmetry
Sexual Dimorphism: male larger
Formosan rock macaques inhabit primarily mixed coniferous-hardwood temperate forest, as well as bamboo and grassland at elevations between 100 and 3600 m . They are also found in coastal areas. (Grzimek, 1988)
Range elevation: 100 to 3600 m.
Habitat Regions: temperate ; terrestrial
Terrestrial Biomes: savanna or grassland ; forest
Habitat and Ecology
It is terrestrial and arboreal, diurnal, and feeds on fruits, leaves, berries, seeds, insects, and small vertebrates.
Reproduction is strongly seasonal in this species. Birth occurs between February and August, with birth frequency peaking during April and June (Fooden and Wu 2001; Hsu et al. 2006). Females first give birth at 4 or 5 years of age. Annual birth rate is around 0.70 (Fooden and Wu 2001), in lowland broadleaved forest, it is reported to be 0.69 in a wild troop (Wu and Lin 1992) and 0.78 in a provisioned subpopulation (Hsu et al. 2006). Annual birth rate may be lower in troops inhabiting higher elevation (Fooden and Wu 2001).
Formosan rock macaques consume a wide variety of foods, including fruits, leaves, berries, seeds, insects, animal prey, buds, young shoots, and small vertebrates. These macaques reportedly raid crops (Rowe, 1996).
Animal Foods: insects
Plant Foods: leaves; seeds, grains, and nuts; fruit
Primary Diet: omnivore
These animals may be important in local food webs, and in helping to disperse seeds.
Ecosystem Impact: disperses seeds
Humans are reported to hunt these animals for their meat. They may also fall victim to raptors. However, Clouded leopards are the primary predators of these animals
- Clouded leopards
Life History and Behavior
Formosan rock macaques emit 'scream calls' when approached by a non-group members. Group members answer this call with a sound that sounds like "kyaw-kyaw".
A fear grimace is when the lips are retracted so that the teeth are shown and clenched (Estes, 1991). This display functions as an appeasement signal to reduce aggression in aggressive encounters (Estes, 1991).
Staring with an open mouth but with the teeth covered indicates aggression (Estes, 1991).
As in other macaques, it is likely that tactile communication (grooming, playing, fighting, mating) is also important. There may be some chemical communication in the form a pheromones.
Communication Channels: visual ; tactile ; acoustic
Perception Channels: visual ; tactile ; acoustic ; chemical
Most species in the genus Macaca live to be about 30 years old in captivity. Lifespans in the wild are probably shorter. It is reasonable to assume that M. cyclopis is like other members of the genus in this respect.
Most macaques are polygynous. Given the sexual dimorphism in size seen in M. cyclopis, it is reasonable to assume that this species is, also.
Mating System: polygynous
Formosan rock macaques give birth to a single offspring per pregnancy. During estrus the perineum of the female swells at the base of the tail and along the thighs.
Gestation period is about 165 days. Young weigh an average of 400 g at birth. The mating season occurs from November through January, with births occuring from April through June. The mating season coincides with the peak of fruit availability. Females 5 to 9 years old usually give birth every other year, older females give birth every year (Rowe, 1996).
In most macaques, nursing lasts for about one year. Young are typically independent after about two years, although may retain life-long associations with their mother.
Breeding interval: Females 5 to 9 years old usually give birth every other year, older females give birth every year.
Breeding season: The mating season occurs from November through January.
Average number of offspring: 1.
Average gestation period: 165 days.
Average weaning age: 12 months.
Key Reproductive Features: iteroparous ; seasonal breeding ; gonochoric/gonochoristic/dioecious (sexes separate); sexual ; viviparous
Most parental care is provided by the mother. She grooms, nurses, protects her infant until it becomes independent. In most macaques, the period of nursing is about a year. Young are typically independent by two years of age. However, females may have relationships with their female kin for the remainder of their lives. Females remain in their natal group with the onset of maturity, but males disperse shortly before adolescence. There is a hierarchical dominance system among group members based upon the matriline.
Parental Investment: pre-fertilization (Provisioning, Protecting: Female); pre-hatching/birth (Provisioning: Female, Protecting: Female); pre-weaning/fledging (Provisioning: Female, Protecting: Female); pre-independence (Provisioning: Female, Protecting: Female); post-independence association with parents; extended period of juvenile learning; inherits maternal/paternal territory; maternal position in the dominance hierarchy affects status of young
Situated in a subtropical zone, Taiwan possesses a warm and moist climate and a large variety of plants and wild life. Of the world's approximately 4,500 species of mammals, Taiwan has 61. In order to protect these precious natural resources in the face of growing economic development the Taiwanese government has in recent years actively promoted concepts of, and measures for, environmental conservation which have become widely accepted by the general public. Taiwan actively participates in important international treaties and organizations such as the Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species (CITES) and the International Union for the Conservation of Nature (IUCN).
Macaca cyclopis once occured throughout Taiwan, but is now restricted to remote highlands by human encroachment. Macaques are killed for food, medicinal preparations, and taken as pets and for research purposes. The primary threat to their populations is habitat destruction.
US Federal List: no special status
CITES: appendix ii
IUCN Red List of Threatened Species: least concern
IUCN Red List Assessment
Red List Category
Red List Criteria
- 1994Vulnerable(Groombridge 1994)
- 1990Vulnerable(IUCN 1990)
- 1988Vulnerable(IUCN Conservation Monitoring Centre 1988)
Date Listed: 10/19/1976
Lead Region: Foreign (Region 10)
Where Listed: Entire
Population location: Entire
Listing status: T
For most current information and documents related to the conservation status and management of Macaca cyclopis , see its USFWS Species Profile
At one time it was found in large groups of up to 100, in recent years average group size has become much smaller (typically 2-10) owing to human pressures (M. Richardson pers. comm.).
Recent conservation measures appear to be working, with numbers believed to be on the rise; however, this increase is also contributing to the level of conflict with humans (for example crop raiding, and even a few instances of monkey attacks on people). Elsewhere, the species is becoming dependent upon food handouts (M. Richardson pers. comm.).
Relevance to Humans and Ecosystems
Parasites that infect M. cyclopis may be transmitted to humans, this is particularly a problem in recent years as tourism increases in the regions they inhabit and contact with humans becomes more frequent. They also are known to raid crops.
Negative Impacts: injures humans (carries human disease); crop pest
Macaques are popular zoo animals because of their active lifestyle and adaptability. They are also useful in biological, medicinal, and psychological research because of their similarity to humans in physiology and disease susceptibility. These animals may also be hunted for food.
Positive Impacts: food ; research and education
Formosan rock macaque
The Formosan rock macaque (Macaca cyclopis), Formosan rock monkey, or Taiwanese macaque, is a macaque endemic to the island of Taiwan and has been introduced to Japan. Besides humans, Formosan Rock Macaques are the only native primates living in Taiwan.
Rock macaques measure 50-60 cm and weigh 5-12 kg, generally females are smaller. Their tails are moderately long and measure 26-45 cm. This macaque is brown or gray in color. The monkey has specialized pouch-like cheeks, allowing it to temporarily hoard its food. The gathered morsels are eaten sometime later, in safe surroundings.
Life and behavior
Formosan rock macaques lives in mixed coniferous-hardwood temperate forest, as well as bamboo and grassland at 100-3600m (328-11,812ft). The social structure of macaques is generally characterized as often occurring as a large stable multimale-multifemale troop. Formosan macaque is considered to be female-bonded which is similar to other species in the genus Macaca. Based on the study of Hsu and Lin, the average overall sex ratio was approximately 1:1, and the average adult sex ratio was close to 0.53. Solitary adult males were accounted for 5% of the entire population, and they were seen interacting with social troops especially during mating season.
Rock macaques are diurnal, arboreal, and terrestrial. More often they stay in trees and less so on the ground. They rest in forest and forage in grassland. Their diet consists of fruits, tender leaves, buds, grass stems, insects, snails, and bird eggs.
The Formosan rock macaque gives birth to a single offspring. During estrus, the perineum of the female swells at the base of the tail, and there is also swelling along the thighs. Their mating season is from October to January. Gestation may last about five and a half months. Females give birth to babies between spring and summer. Nursing are entirely on females. Youngsters are carried in mother's arms for 2-3 months. Not until one year old, will youngsters be fully separated from their parents carrying.
Formosan rock macaques are hunted for their meat and for the damage they do to crops. They are also hunted for the purpose of exports for medical experimental use.
- Groves, C. P. (2005). Wilson, D. E.; Reeder, D. M, eds. Mammal Species of the World (3rd ed.). Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press. p. 161. OCLC 62265494. ISBN 0-801-88221-4.
- Hai Yin, W. & Richardson, M. (2008). Macaca cyclopis. In: IUCN 2008. IUCN Red List of Threatened Species. Retrieved 4 January 2009.
- Hsu, Minna J.; Lin, Jin-Fu (2001). "Troop size and structure in free-ranging Formosan Macaques (Macaca cyclopis) at Mt. Longevity, Taiwan". Zoological Studies 40 (1): 49–60.
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