In a 2009 paper, Ceballos and Ãlvarez showed that the extent of inbreeding increased over the reign of the Habsburgs, so that Charles II was more inbred than is typical of a child of a brother and sister.
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Jeremy Bentham, the founder of utilitarianism, described utility as the sum of all pleasure that results from an action, minus the suffering of anyone involved in the action. Utilitarianism is a version of consequentialism, which states that the consequences of any action are the only standard of right and wrong. Unlike other forms of consequentialism, such as egoism, utilitarianism considers all interests equally.