Bismuth subsalicylate may cause ringing in the ears, but that side effect is rare. Possible side effects from loperamide include skin rash, constipation, drowsiness, dizziness, tiredness, dry mouth, nausea, vomiting, and swelling, pain, and discomfort in the abdomen.
In the United States, the annual cost of soil erosion for both on-site and off-site effects has been estimated at 44 billion dollars a year (Pimentel et al., 1995). In the European Union, the figure is 38 billion Euros a year (Montanarella, 2007).
Advances in estimating soil erosion costs were made after the development of the Land Use Capability System (Klingebiel, 1958; Klingebiel & Montgomery, 1961) and the Universal Soil Loss Equation (USLE) (Wischmeier & Smith, 1965, 1978).