George Berkeley
Berkeley argued that forces and gravity, as defined by Newton, constituted "occult qualities" that "expressed nothing distinctly". He held that those who posited "something unknown in a body of which they have no idea and which they call the principle of motion, are in fact simply stating that the principle of motion is unknown." Therefore, those who "affirm that active force, action, and the principle of motion are really in bodies are adopting an opinion not based on experience." Forces and gravity existed nowhere in the phenomenal world. On the other hand, if they resided in the category of "soul" or "incorporeal thing", they "do not properly belong to physics" as a matter. Berkeley thus concluded that forces lay beyond any kind of empirical observation and could not be a part of proper science. He proposed his theory of signs as a means to explain motion and matter without reference to the "occult qualities" of force and gravity.
Torque
The term "torque" was introduced into English scientific literature by James Thomson, the brother of Lord Kelvin, in 1884. However, torque is referred to using different vocabulary depending on geographical location and field of study. This article refers to the definition used in US physics in its usage of the word "torque". In the UK and in US mechanical engineering, torque is referred to as "moment of force", usually shortened to "moment". In US physics and UK physics terminology these terms are interchangeable, unlike in US mechanical engineering, where the term "torque" is used for the closely related "resultant moment of a couple".