Is there treatment for phytophthora ramorum?
Phytophthora ramorum
Detection of "P. ramorum" in watercourses has emerged as the earliest of early detection methods. This technique employs pear or rhododendron baits suspended in the watercourse using ropes, buckets, mesh bags, or other similar devices. If plants in the watershed are infected with "P. ramorum", zoospores of the pathogen (as well as other "Phytophthora" spp.) are likely present in adjacent waterways. Under conducive weather conditions, the zoospores are attracted to the baits and infect them, causing lesions that can be isolated to culture the pathogen or analyzed via PCR assay. This method has detected "P. ramorum" at scales ranging from small, intermittent seasonal drainages to the Garcia, Chetco, and South Fork Eel Rivers in California and Oregon (144, 352, and 689 mi2 drainage areas, respectively). It can detect the existence of infected plants in watersheds before any mortality from the infections becomes evident. Of course, it cannot detect the exact locations of those infected plants: at the first sign of "P. ramorum" propagules in the stream, crews must scour the watershed using all available means to find symptomatic vegetation.
Rhododendron album
Pseudomonas cichorii
In 1995, the bacteria "Pseudomonas cichorii" was discovered on container-grown rhododendrons in a nursery in Georgia, USA. The spots were at first very small, one to five millimeters in diameter, but soon grew into large, reddish brown blotches. (Uddin & McCarter, 1996).
Phytophthora ramorum
In 2002 and 2003, studies in nurseries throughout California and Oregon tested for "Phytophthora ramorum". The symptoms of the disease were large necrotic spots with water soaked outside borders and rust colored centers. Symptomatic plants were collected, and DNA was extracted from the spots. After amplifying it with a PCR assay, GenBank matched the DNA to that of "Phytophthora ramorum" and "P. lateralis". In 2004, Rhododendron leaves with similar symptoms were studied and showed the host range of P. hibernalis as well (Blomquist et al. 2005).
Saccharum robustum
"Eumetopina flavipes", the island sugarcane planthopper, a species of planthopper present throughout South East Asia and is a vector for the Ramu stunt disease, a plant disease which affects sugarcane, occurs also on "S. robustum".
Trichophyton tonsurans
Treatment options include antifungal shampoo, systemic antifungals, or both. Oral therapy is indicated for complicated infections of those that fail to respond to topical treatment. Still, the use of selenium sulphide or povidone-iodine shampoos greatly reduce fungal viability and may be helpful in person-to-person transmission. Advancements have been made in detection of "T. tonsurans" in patients with Tinea capitis, using TaqMan PCR assay and primers and probes designed to detect this fungus rapidly and specifically, excluding contaminating skin microorganisms.
Phytophthora cinnamomi
Some chemical means of control include: fumigating and certain phosphonate fungistats. A tactic that may be effective, dependent on spores, would be fumigating before planting. However, this would not be effective for eradicating chlamydospores since they are present deeper down in the soil, so fumigation may not reach them. Some experts do not recommend fumigation as "P. cinnamomi" is often able to re-invade fumigated soil and could cause worse damage since the competing microorganisms in the soil microbial community may be reduced by fumigation. Phosphonate fungistats can improve the ability of a tree to tolerate, resist, or recover from disease by "Phytophthora cinnamomi". Phosphite has been used to limit the disease with some success and has been recognized as a major strategy for disease prevention. Phosphite is administered to plants through direct foliage sprays, aerial application by aircraft or through direct injection.
Phytophthora ramorum
Since "P. ramorum" can persist for an undetermined period of time within the soil profile, management programs in nurseries should also deal with delineating the pathogen’s distribution in nursery soil and eliminating it from infested areas. A variety of chemical options has been tested for soil disinfestation, including such chemicals as chloropicrin, metham sodium, iodomethane, and dazomet. Lab tests indicated that all of these chemicals were effective when applied to infested soil in glass jars. Additionally, tests on volunteer nurseries with infested soil demonstrated that dazomet (trade name Basamid) fumigation followed by a 14-day tarping period successfully removed "P. ramorum" from the soil profile. Other soil disinfestation practices under investigation, or in which interest has been expressed, include steam sterilization, solarization, and paving of infested areas.
Phytophthora ramorum
As mentioned above, "P. ramorum" does not kill every plant that can be used as a host, and these plants are most important in the epidemiology of the disease as they act as sources of inoculum. In California, California bay laurel ("Umbellularia californica") seems to be the main source of inoculum. Green waste, such as leaf litter and tree stumps, are also capable of supporting "P. ramorum" as a saprotroph and acting as a source of inoculum. Because "P. ramorum" is able to infect many ornamental plants, it can be transmitted by ornamental plant movement.
Phytophthora ramorum
Another area of research and evolving practice deals with eliminating "P. ramorum" from nursery environments in which it is established to prevent human-mediated pathogen movement within the ornamental plant trade. One way of approaching this is through a robust quarantine and inspection program, which the various federal and state regulatory agencies have implemented. Under the federal "P. ramorum" quarantine program implemented by USDA APHIS, nurseries in California, Oregon, and Washington are regulated and must participate in an annual inspection regimen; nurseries in the 14 infested counties in coastal California, plus the limited infested area in Curry County, Oregon, must participate in a more stringent inspection schedule when shipping out of this area.
Phytophthora ramorum
Research and development in managing "P. ramorum" in nursery settings extends from "P. ramorum" in the individual plant, to "P. ramorum" in the nursery environment, to the pathogen’s movement across state and national borders in infected plants.
Waratah
There are also issues of fungal infection. Fungal species cause stem rot ("Phytophthora" spp.) and root rot ("Rhizoctonia" spp.) that can ultimately cause plant death but can usually be controlled by adequate drainage.
Phytophthora kernoviae
Phytophthora kernoviae is a plant pathogen that mainly infects European beech ("Fagus sylvatica") and "Rhododendron ponticum". It was first identified in 2003 in Cornwall, UK when scientists were surveying for the presence of "Phytophthora ramorum". This made it the third new "Phytophthora" species to be found in the UK in a decade. It was named "Phytophthora kernoviae", after the ancient name for Cornwall, Kernow. It causes large stem lesions on beech and necrosis of stems and leaves of "Rhododendron ponticum". It is self-fertile. It has also been isolated from "Quercus robur" and "Liriodendron tulipifera". The original paper describing the species, stated it can infect "Magnolia" and "Camellia" species, "Pieris formosa", "Gevuina avellana", "Michelia doltsopa" and "Quercus ilex". Since then many other plants have been identified as natural hosts of the pathogen. Molecular analysis has revealed that an infection on "Pinus radiata", recorded in New Zealand in 1950, was caused by "P. kernoviae".
Phytophthora palmivora
"Phytophthora" root rot of papaya seedlings is most serious during rainy periods. Under waterlogged conditions, "P. palmivora" may attack roots of papaya older than three-months of age, the time at which they become resistant to the pathogen under normal conditions. Therefore, "Phytophthora" root rot may occur on papaya at any age in poorly drained areas. Waterlogged conditions appear to weaken the defense mechanism of papaya roots against invasion by the pathogen. Mobility of zoospores of "P. palmivora" under such conditions also may contribute to the severity of the disease due to their attraction by papaya roots.
Phyllodes tumor
The common treatment for phyllodes is wide local excision. Other than surgery, there is no cure for phyllodes, as chemotherapy and radiation therapy are not effective. The risk of developing local recurrence or metastases is related to the histologic grade, according to the above-named features. Despite wide excision, a very high percentage of surgeries yielded incomplete excision margins that required revision surgery. Radiation treatment after breast-conserving surgery with negative margins may significantly reduce the 
local recurrence rate for borderline and malignant tumors. The authors of a 2012 study have derived a risk calculator for relapse risk of phyllodes tumors after surgery.
Phytophthora infestans
If adequate field scouting occurs and late blight is found soon after disease development, localized patches of potato plants can be killed with a desiccant (e.g. paraquat) through the use of a backpack sprayer. This management technique can be thought of as a field-scale hypersensitive response similar to what occurs in some plant-viral interactions whereby cells surrounding the initial point of infection are killed in order to prevent proliferation of the pathogen.
Refsum disease
Since phytanic acid is not endogenously produced in the human body, individuals with Refsum disease are commonly placed on a phytanic acid-restricted diet and avoid the consumption of fats from ruminant animals and certain fish, such as tuna, cod, and haddock. Grass feeding animals and their milk are also avoided. Recent research has shown that CYP4 isoform enzymes could help reduce the over-accumulation of phytanic acid "in vivo". Plasmapheresis is another medical intervention used to treat patients. This involves the filtering of blood to ensure there is no accumulation of phytanic acid.
Phytophthora cactorum
The best way to manage "P. cactorum" is by implementing an integrated management plan. The combination of soil fumigation and proper cultural controls will be the best option for plant health. Recommended chemical controls products include fosetyl-Al, metalaxyl, and etridiazole. Prevention and sanitation are crucial because this pathogen is usually transmitted through cuts or injuries on the plant. The spores are easily transported through irrigation water and will splash to nearby plants. Elevating your plants above the ground can help to prevent infection. The pathogen thrives in moist soils therefore it is important to avoid very saturated soils as much as possible and one should work to prepare their soil for adequate drainage during the wet periods. Soil drainage and low soil pH may help to reduce the disease. Fertilizer regimen methods have been used to control against "P. cactorum". These fertilizers include organic materials that release ammonia, nitrous acid, and amendments to reduce the pH to less than 4. The use of raised beds and a carefully managed drip irrigation system will be important cultural practices that can be implemented. There are some form of biological controls that have been found to be somewhat successful with "Enterobacter aerogenes" and "Trichoderma".
Hippophae rhamnoides
Methods to control the disease include removing and burning infected branches, not replanting "H. rhamnoides" at the same site for 3–5 years, and avoiding to make cuttings from infected plants. Antagonistic fungi like "Trichoderma" sp. or "Penicillium" sp. can be used to combat wilt disease in plants infected by "Plowrightia hippophaes". Additionally, four strains of "Cladothrix actinomyces" were found to be usable as antagonistic fungi in "H. rhamnoides" plants infected by "Fusarium sporotrichioides". Cultivars of "H. rhamnoides" that were relatively resistant to wilt disease have also been identified.
Phytophthora ramorum
"P. ramorum" is heterothallic and has two mating types, A1 and A2, required for sexual reproduction. The European population is predominantly A1 while both mating types A1 and A2 are found in North America. Genetics of the two isolates indicate that they are reproductively isolated. On average, the A1 mating type is more virulent than the A2 mating type, but more variation occurs in the pathogenicity of A2 isolates. It is currently not clear whether this pathogen can reproduce sexually in nature and genetic work has suggested that the lineages of the two mating types might be isolated reproductively or geographically given the evolutionary divergence observed.
Larix kaempferi
In late 2009 "Phytophthora ramorum" or sudden oak death disease was first found in Japanese larch trees, in the English counties of Devon, Cornwall and Somerset. The disease was found in Counties Waterford and Tipperary in Ireland the following year.
Lupus erythematosus
Treatment consists primarily of immunosuppressive drugs (e.g., hydroxychloroquine and corticosteroids). An interesting second line drug is methotrexate in its low-dose schedule. In 2011, the U.S. Food and Drug Administration (FDA) approved the first new drug for lupus in more than 50 years to be used in the US, belimumab. In addition to medicative therapy, due to the psychological and social impacts that Lupus may have on an individual, Cognitive Behavioural Therapy (CBT) has also been demonstrated to be effective in reducing stress, anxiety, and depression in lupus sufferers.
Recent studies show promising therapeutic efficacy of N-acetylcysteine and sirolimus which block a pathogenic pathway heralded by the activation of the mechanistic target of rapamycin.
Phytophthora megakarya
In certain regions of Africa, "Trichoderma asperellum" is used as a biological control agent. It is applied as a wettable powder, containing cassava flour and "T. asperellum." Though this method has shown positive results, the formulation is not practical for such a wet, tropical region. Research is being done into examining different formulations that can more effectively be applied.
Bullous pemphigoid
Treatments include class I topical steroids (clobetasol, halobetasol, etc.) which in some studies have proven to be equally effective as systemic, or pill, therapy and somewhat safer. However, in difficult-to-manage or widespread cases, systemic prednisone and powerful steroid-free immunosuppressant medications, such as methotrexate, azathioprine or mycophenolate mofetil, may be appropriate. Some of these medications have the potential for severe adverse effects such as kidney and liver damage, increased susceptibility to infections, and bone marrow suppression. Antibiotics such as tetracycline or erythromycin may also control the disease, particularly in patients who cannot use corticosteroids. The anti-CD20 monoclonal antibody rituximab has been found to be effective in treating some otherwise refractory cases of pemphigoid. A 2010 meta-analysis of 10 randomized controlled trials showed that oral steroids and potent topical steroids are effective treatments, although their use may be limited by side-effects, while lower doses of topical steroids are safe and effective for treatment of moderate bullous pemphigoid.
Cannock Chase
Efforts are underway to increase the amount of heathland on the chase, reintroducing shrubs such as heather in some areas where bracken and birch forest have crowded out most other plants. The local flora also includes several species of Vaccinium, including the eponymous Cannock Chase berry ("Vaccinium ×intermedium" Ruthe). In January 2009, an outbreak of the plant pathogen "Phytophthora ramorum" was discovered on the chase, at Brocton Coppice. Various restrictions were put in place in an attempt to prevent its spread.
Woodland
Sudden oak death (SOD), an oak disease, results from "Phytophthora ramorum", a pathogen that thrives in moist, humid conditions. This causal agent attacks the phloem and cambium of oaks, allowing beetle and fungi infestation. It has killed millions of tanoaks since it was discovered in the mid-1990s. SOD does not affect white oaks and drier areas like foothill woodlands, but affects forests and more moist conditions like live oak woodlands and forests, which have been significantly impacted.
Phytophthora ramorum
In tanoaks, the disease may be recognized by wilting new shoots, older leaves becoming pale green, and after a period of two to three weeks, foliage turning brown while clinging to the branches. Dark brown sap may stain the lower trunk's bark. Bark may split and exude gum, with visible discoloration. After the tree dies back, suckers try to sprout the next year, but their tips soon bend and die. Ambrosia beetles ("Monarthrum scutellare") will most likely infest a dying tree during midsummer, producing piles of fine white dust near tiny holes. Later, bark beetles ("Pseudopityophthorus pubipennis") produce fine, red boring dust. Small black domes, the fruiting bodies of the "Hypoxylon" fungus, may also be present on the bark. Leaf death may occur more than a year after the initial infection and months after the tree has been girdled by beetles.
Phytophthora ramorum
It was first discovered in California in 1995 when large numbers of tanoaks ("Notholithocarpus densiflorus") died mysteriously, and was described as a new species of "Phytophthora" in 2000. It has subsequently been found in many other areas, including Britain, Germany, and some other U.S. states, either accidentally introduced in nursery stock, or already present undetected.
Phytophthora ramorum
In 2009, the pathogen was found to be infecting and killing large numbers of Japanese larch trees ("Larix kaempferi") in the United Kingdom at sites in the English counties of Somerset, Devon, and Cornwall. It was the first time in the world that "Phytophthora ramorum" had been found infecting this species. Since then, it has also been found extensively in larch plantations in Wales and in southwest Scotland, leading to the deliberate felling of large areas. The UK Forestry Commission noted that eradication of the disease would not be possible, and instead adopted a strategy of containing the disease to reduce its spread. Symptoms of the disease on larch trees include dieback of the tree's crown and branches, and a distinctive yellowing or ginger colour beneath the bark. In August 2010, the disease was found in Japanese larch trees in Counties Waterford and Tipperary in Ireland. It had spread to Japanese larch plantations across the south of the country by February 2014. Coillte, who owned twenty forests where the disease was present, felled 16,000 trees in one of its forests, having already felled 150 hectares to contain the disease.
Phytophthora ramorum
The course that "P. ramorum" management should take depends on a number of factors, including the scale of the landscape upon which one hopes to manage it. Management of "P. ramorum" has been undertaken at the landscape/ regional level in Oregon in the form of a campaign to completely eradicate the pathogen from the forests in which it has been found (mostly private, but also USDA Forest Service and USDI Bureau of Land Management ownership). The eradication campaign involves vigorous early detection by airplane and watercourse monitoring, a U.S. Department of Agriculture Animal and Plant Health Inspection Service (USDA APHIS) and Oregon Department of Agriculture-led quarantine to prevent movement of host materials out of the area where infected trees are found, and immediate removal of "P. ramorum" host vegetation, symptomatic or not, within a buffer around each infected tree.
Phytophthora ramorum
Where "P. ramorum" originated remains unclear, but most researchers feel Asia is the most likely, since many of the hosts of "P. ramorum" originated there. Since certain climates are best suited to "P. ramorum", the most likely sources are the southern Himalayas, Tibet, or Yunnan province.
Podophyllotoxin
Podophyllotoxin (PPT), also known as podofilox, is a medical cream that is used to treat genital warts and molluscum contagiosum. It is not recommended in HPV infections without external warts. It can be applied either by a healthcare provider or the person themselves.
It is a non-alkaloid toxin lignan extracted from the roots and rhizomes of "Podophyllum" species. A less refined form known as podophyllum resin is also available, but has greater side effects.
Podophyllotoxin was isolated in 1880. In the United Kingdom the price for the NHS of 3.5 ml of medication is about 14.49 pounds. In the United States the price of a course of treatment is more than $200.
Phytophthora cactorum
"Phytophthora cactorum" has an extremely wide host range, and can infect over 200 species or 160 genera of trees, ornamentals, and fruit crops. In general, "P. cactorum" is capable of infecting both young and old plants, and causes root rots and crown rots of the many genera it infects. Although the symptoms this pathogen produces varies between the types of organisms it infects, in general disease occurs during periods that are both wet and warm. Furthermore, most infections are caused by zoospores entering the plant through wounds.
Cladophialophora carrionii
Minor cases of chromoblastomycosis can be resolved by surgery or antifungal medications. Cold therapy (cryosurgery) by applying cool liquid nitrogen onto lesions can be effective if combined with antifungal therapy and chemotherapy. More serious cases must be treated for a prolonged period of time (6 to 12 months) with the antifungals itraconazole and terbinafine. Antifungals have a wide range of effectiveness, curing between 15-80% of cases. However, "C. carrionii" is sensitive to commonly used antifungals so cure rates are higher than seen in chromoblastomycosis infections caused by "Fonsecaea pedrosoi". Treatments less effective if the infection is chronic, resulting in high relapse rates.
Lymphedema
Treatment varies depending on edema severity and the degree of fibrosis. Most people with lymphedema can be medically managed with conservative treatment. The most common treatments are a combination of manual compression lymphatic massage, compression garments or bandaging. Complex decongestive physiotherapy is an empiric system of lymphatic massage, skin care and compressive garments. Although a combination treatment program may be ideal, any of the treatments can be done individually. In these last years the Godoy Method brings a new concept in the treatment of lymphedema and proposes the normalization or near normalization in all clinical stages including in elephantiasis with normalization of the skin.[22,23]
Black pod disease
There is no specific variety of cocoa that shows resistant to "Phytophthora" infections and the establishment and utilization of resistant variety will be most likely depends on the region. Numerous breeding programs have been established worldwide in order to screen and test for local hybrids for disease resistant of P"hytophthora spp". For example, a study in Cameroon assessed the performance of local cocoa cultivars (the southern and northern Cameroon cultivar) compared to the local and international gene bank cultivars. The local genebank cultivar consisted of F1 hybrid of Upper Amazon X Trinidad, and an international cultivar from Papua New Guinea, and Latin America were provided through International Cocoa Genebank, Trinidad. Based on the information provided by farmers and leaf disc test to assess resistant variety, the local cultivars selected from farmers field showed some resistant to "P. megakarya" compared to other varieties. Thus, it was concluded that there are some potential resistant varieties available in this area. In addition, some molecular work on developing resistant varieties to black pod is being done by CEPLAC (Executive Plan of Cocoa Farming) agency in Brazil and hopefully more breeding program focusing on black pod resistant will be established and produced commercialized resistant varieties.
Phytophthora cactorum
"P. cactorum" is also one of the causal agents of black rot of orchids. When infecting orchids, this organism first produces small black lesions on the pseudobulbs of the orchid, which then enlarge and may engulf the entire pseudobulb, leaf, or move through the rhizomes to other portions of the plant prior to killing it. Diagnosis of orchid black rot by "P. cactorum" is through the identification of lemon shaped zoosporangia with either a papilla or a short pedicel, the presence of oospores, or molecular identification. Since there are multiple species of "Phytophthora" that are capable of causing disease on orchids, classification only to the genus level is required for proper prescription of disease management techniques.
Phytophthora capsici
Crop rotation may reduce the number of pathogens in the soil and, "a minimum of a 3 years crop rotation which alternates with non-host species is recommended to avoid build-up of "P. capsici" spores." Crops should also avoid conditions that would be conducive to the pathogen by using well drained soils and raised beds. As stated above, "Excess moisture is the single most important component to the initial infection and subsequent spreading of Phytophthora capsici." Overall, a study by K.H. Lamour and M.K. Hausbeck found that "crop rotation and mefenoxam are not likely to provide economic control". Mefenoxem is the active enantiomer contained in the racemic fungicide metalaxyl used to defend against "Phytophthora capsici". Sexual recombination provides the genetic diversity to promote resistance towards fungicides in "P. capsici". The failure of crop rotation as a means to control "P. capsici" may also be due to weeds playing the role of an alternative host in the absence of common hosts. According to a study done by the University of Florida, "In Florida, and perhaps elsewhere, weeds may contribute to pathogen survival in the absence of a host crop or when propagules may not readily survive in soil or plant debris." To avoid fruit rot of vegetable crops in the Cucurbitaceae family, trellising cucurbit fruits and other ways to keep the fruit off the ground is a way to control secondary inoculants (zoospores) from physically being splashed from the soil onto the fruit. Control of "Phytophthora capsici" is easier in drier climates with less rainfall such as California. In these areas, it is important to practice placing drip irrigation emitters away from the stems of pepper plants in order to reduce the incidence of crown rot in peppers.
Phytophthora ramorum
Researchers have also developed numerous molecular techniques for "P. ramorum" identification. These include amplifying DNA sequences in the internal transcribed spacer region of the "P. ramorum" genome (ITS polymerase chain reaction, or ITS PCR); real-time PCR, in which DNA abundance is measured in real time during the PCR reaction, using dyes or probes such as SBYR-Green or TaqMan; multiplex PCR, which amplifies more than one region of DNA at the same time; and single strand conformation polymorphism (SSCP), which uses the ITS DNA sequence amplified by the PCR reaction to differentiate "Phytophthora" species according to their differential movement through a gel.
Phytophthora ramorum
Species of "Phytophthora" have been shown to have evolved by the interspecific hybridization of two different species from the genus. When a species is introduced into a new environment, it causes episodic selection. The invading species is exposed to other resident taxa, and hybridization may occur to produce a new species. If these hybrids are successful, they may outcompete their parent species. Thus, "P, ramorum" is possibly a hybrid between two species. Its unique morphology does support this. Also, three sequences studied to establish the phylogeny of "Phytophthora": ITS, cox II and nad 5, were identical, supporting "P. ramorum" having recently evolved.
Phytophthora ramorum
Hikers, mountain bikers, equestrians, and other people engaged in various outdoor activities may also unwittingly move the pathogen into areas where it was not previously present. Those travelling in an area known to be infested with SOD can help prevent the spread of the disease by cleaning their (and their animals') feet, tyres, tools, camping equipment, etc. before returning home or entering another uninfected area, especially if they have been in muddy soil. Additionally, the movement of firewood could introduce sudden oak death to otherwise uninfected areas. Both homeowners and travelers are advised to buy and burn local firewood.
Phytophthora kernoviae
Since 2003, "Phytophthora kernoviae" has caused marked damage to ornamentals and species of trees in the Southwest United Kingdom. The oomycete pathogen was first discovered in the 1990s, yet only gained widespread attention when it was identified as one of the causal agents, along with "P. ramorum," of sudden oak death. Although the main concentration of this pathogen is primarily in South West England, its reach has extended to South Wales, Cheshire, and even further north into Scotland. Recently, this pathogen has been found on the steams and foliage of "Rhododendron", most significantly on "R. ponticum." Furthermore, the aggressive nature of "Phytophthora kernoviae" makes it an even more significant concern considering that the mainland of the UK has diverse ecosystems that are susceptible to the impact of this plant pathogen. From the "Rhododendron" host, infection is able to spread via the air to the bark of tree species, with the European beech tree ("Fagus sylvatica)" being especially susceptible. As of 2005, it was confined to a relatively small area of Cornwall but has also been found in Wales and Cheshire suggesting that the pathogen may be being spread by the horticultural trade. Due to the national and international demand of these plant products, "Phytophthora kernoviae" has initiated recent concern after being found "Vaccinium myrtillus", commonly called Bilberry. This pathogen causes significant necrosis on leaves, bleeding stem lesions, and stem dieback as the primary symptoms, which occur at an impressive rate. Countless species including "V. myrtillus", "V. vitis-idaea", "Arctostaphylos uva-ursi", and "Rhododendron ponticum" are all especially vulnerable to "P. kernoviae".
Erythrasma
Recent research for Erythrasma is mainly focused on the treatments and which methods work best to treat the patient depending on the severity of the condition. In a 2016 study performed by Prathyusha Prabhakar and H. Hema, they looked into comparing 2% clotrimazole cream and 2% Fusidic cream in treating erythrasma. This was a one year long hospital based study in South India that resulted in stating that the groin was the most common site for the symptoms of itching and discloloration being predominant and also mostly in men. The general conclusion made was that topical 2% fusidic acid cream was found to be more effective than 2% clotrimazole cream in patients with erythrasma. The topical 2% clotrimazole cream was more effective only when an associated fungal infection was present.
Dichapetalum cymosum
Treatment often consists of helping animals to remain calm and rested. Animals are usually removed from the infected camp, but without exciting them. It is thought that withholding water for 48 hours can improve prognosis. There are no confirmed therapeutic measures that have been developed for the prevention or treatment of giflbaar poisoning. Removing all known plants from pastures may reduce risk of exposure.
Rosellinia bunodes
Despite best management practices, black root rot can still occur necessitating human intervention.  Root pruning and digging various styles of trenches to eliminate root contacts is one way of preventing disease spread. This approach is labor-intensive and may only be feasible for small-scale growers or for very localized outbreaks. Fungicide treatments usually include broad-spectrum approaches such as metam sodium, benzimidazoles, chlorophenyls, imidazole, morpholine, oxathiin, triazoles, and some inorganic compounds. Some research has shown biocontrols using mycorrhizal or mycoparasitic fungi (i.e.: "Trichoderma" spp., "Clonostachys" spp., "Glomus manihotis", and "Entrophospora colombiana") to be effective in suppressing the disease, but it is not clear if these interventions are successful only in certain environments or in specific host-pathogen combinations. Biocontrol interventions, however, are most effective when used in conjunction with cultural practices like canopy pruning and liming soil to raise pH. Crop rotation or including non-host species as part of planting schemes can also restrict the spread of the pathogen. Soil solarization has also shown to eliminate up to 75% of inoculum for closely related "Rosellinia" spp., but has not been evaluated with "R. bunodes".
Phytophthora inflata
Phytophthora inflata is an oomycete plant pathogen. It was first identified in 1949 in Michigan, USA causing a pit canker on elm trees. It was found in the United Kingdom in 1992 in the roots of "Sambucus tenuifolium" and Lilac ("Syringa vulgaris"), in 2003 it was found in a UK nursery infecting "Rhododendron ponticum". In the same year it was found in a nursery in Ohio also infecting "Rhododendron".
Phytophthora medicaginis
"P. medicaginis" is an water mould pathogen that causes root rot and damping off of seedlings. "P. medicaginis" is specific to alfalfa and chickpea and can reside in soil or water, but since it is a water mold, it requires free water to infect another plant. This disease is most prevalent in newly seeded fields that experience flooding but can also be found in mature plants. "P. medicaginis" commonly causes seedling death but if this pathogen is present in mature crops, "P. medicaginis" causes root rot which limits the plant’s ability to acquire nutrients and water. This leads to secondary symptoms such as chlorosis, wilting, stunting, root decay, lesions and death. This disease is difficult to identify but reddish-brown or black root lesions will exist and oospores, sporangia, zoospores, antheridia, and oogonia are spore types that will be visible under a microscope. An ELISA test can confirm the presence of "Phytophthora", but to confirm the species, a PCR test is effective. Several host factors will affect disease development including damage/stress to the plant and also the degree of resistance of host cultivar.
Gibberella zeae
The control of this disease can be achieved using a combination of the following strategies: fungicide applications, resistance breeding, proper storage, crop rotation, crop residue tillage, and seed treatment. The correct usage of fungicide applications against Fusarium head blight can reduce the disease by 50 to 60 percent. "Fusarium" refers to a large genus of soil fungi that are economically important due to the profound effects they have on crops. Application of fungicides is necessary at early heading date for barley and early flowering for wheat, where the early application can limit the infection of the ear. Barley and wheat differ in fungicide application because of their differences in developmental traits. The disease generally develops late in the season or during storage, so fungicide use is only effective in the early season. Management against insect pests such as ear borers, for corn, will also reduce the infection of the ear from wounds caused by insect feeding.
Fungicide use in the United States
Crown and root rot of almonds is caused by at least 14 different "Phytophthora" species. The risk of root or crown infection is greatest during cool to moderate temperatures with prolonged or frequent soil saturation. A tree infected with "Phytophthora" can either undergo a period of slow decline that may last years or it can suddenly collapse and die in spring with the advent of warm weather. Eventually, leaves drop, terminal shoots die back, and death of the tree follows. Once in the root or crown the infection may extend into the crown, trunk, or branches. Currently, crown and root rot are a problem affecting 20% of California's almond orchards with potential yield losses of 50%.
Dimethomorph
Dimethomorph is a fungicide with systemic function. It is used for treating mildew and root rot caused by organisms such as "Pythium" and "Phytophthora" species.
Phytophthora erythroseptica
Chemical control can be difficult due to resistance development to some fungicides. Also there are few fungicidal modes of action that are effective. This includes the formerly successful metalaxyl, which is now widely ineffective due to resistance exhibited in the pathogen. Mefenoxam is another fungicide that pink rot pathogens have shown resistance against. However, research has shown that a combination of mefenoxam and oxathiapiprolin has demonstrated effectiveness on suppressing pink rot. There have been studies done on phosphorous acid (Phostrol) as a systemic and contact fungicide against pink rot, but the exact mode of action has not yet been determined. Fluopicolide, part of the benzamide class of fungicides, has been shown to be effective at reducing pink rot on field scales. There has not yet been cross-resistance between fluopicolide and mefenoxam, meaning these fungicides can be used rotationally to minimize the development of resistance.
Phytophthora ramorum
In Europe, "Ramorum" blight was first observed on rhododendron and viburnum in the early 1990s, where it was initially found mainly on container-grown plants in nurseries. The principal symptoms were leaf and twig blight. By 2007, it had spread throughout nurseries and retail centers in 16 European countries, and had been detected in gardens, parks, and woodlands in at least eight countries. It has not caused significant harm to European oak species.
Erythrasma
Another study performed in early 2017 by Tanya Grewal and Philip Cohen looked directly at mupirocin 2% ointment monotherapy. This study was done with nine males who showed a presence of erythrasma at bilateral inguinal folds, medial thighs, and axillae. After initial diagnosis by Wood lamp's examination to confirm the diagnosis, the antibiotic cream was distributed. Mupirocin is a topical antibiotic that is usually used to treat Streptococcus and Staphylococcus infections. After 2-4 weeks of use, the erythrasma seemed to clear up. They were able to conclude that the application of 2% Mupirocin ointment monotherapy twice a day, everyday is a great consideration for a first line of treatment for erythrasma.
Phytophthora citrophthora
Phytophthora citrophthora, also known as brown rot of citrus, is a soil borne oomycete that infects several economically important citrus crops. A diagnostic symptom of "P. citrophthora" is gummosis, wherein lesions around the base of the tree exude sap. Other common symptoms include dark longitudinal lesions forming at the soil line, a sour smell, and eventual cracking of the bark. Advanced symptoms include yellowing and necrosis of the tree canopy. Girdling action caused by the pathogen around the trunk can often cause the collapse of the tree. Resistant lemon varieties have been developed and their implementation has been effective at controlling the spread of the disease. Fruits that have been infected with "P. citrophthora" exhibit symptoms of brown rot characterized by a distinct odor.
Leptospermum lanigerum
"Leptospermum lanigerum" is a potentially highly susceptible host species to the pathogen "Phytophthora ramorum". This pathogen currently causes widespread damage to gardens, nurseries and natural habitats in America and Europe, and although is not currently present in Australia, has been identified as a potential problem that may have widespread effects throughout Australia in the future.
Curry County, Oregon
In 2001, the native tanoak in the county were afflicted by sudden oak death, caused by infection of "Phytophthora ramorum". The pathogen, which by 2016 had killed hundreds of thousands of tanoaks in the county, thrives in moist places along the coast. It has killed other kinds of oaks such as California black oak in a region that includes many California counties as well as Curry County, and it has infected and damaged a variety of conifers and shrubs such as camellia. In Curry County, it threatens timber production, plant nurseries, and Christmas tree farms.
Phytophthora ramorum
Much of the research into disinfesting nurseries has focused on the voluntary best management practices (BMPs) that nurseries can implement to prevent "P. ramorum’s" introduction into the nursery and movement from plant to plant. In 2008, a group of nursery industry organizations issued a list of BMPs that includes subsections on pest prevention/management, training, internal/external monitoring/audits, records/traceability, and documentation. The document includes such specific recommendations as “Avoid overhead irrigation of high-risk plants”; “After every crop rotation, disinfect propagation mist beds, sorting area, cutting benches, machines and tools to minimize the spread or introduction of pathogens”; and “Nursery personnel should attend one or more "P. ramorum "trainings conducted by qualified personnel or document self-training”.
Phytophthora infestans
Fungicides for the control of potato blight are normally only used in a preventative manner, optionally in conjunction with disease forecasting. In susceptible varieties, sometimes fungicide applications may be needed weekly. An early spray is most effective. The choice of fungicide can depend on the nature of local strains of "P. infestans". Metalaxyl is a fungicide that was marketed for use against "P. infestans", but suffered serious resistance issues when used on its own. In some regions of the world during the 1980s and 1990s, most strains of "P. infestans" became resistant to metalaxyl, but in subsequent years many populations shifted back to sensitivity. To reduce the occurrence of resistance, it is strongly advised to use single-target fungicides such as metalaxyl along with carbamate compounds. A combination of other compounds are recommended for managing metalaxyl-resistant strains. These include mandipropamid, chlorothalonil, fluazinam, triphenytin, mancozeb, and others. In the United States, the Environmental Protection Agency has approved oxathiapiprolin for use against late blight.
Entomophthoramycosis
Treatment for phycomycosis is very difficult and includes surgery when possible. Postoperative recurrence is common. Antifungal drugs show only limited effect on the disease, but itraconazole and terbinafine hydrochloride are often used for two to three months following surgery. Humans with "Basidiobolus" infections have been treated with amphotericin B and potassium iodide. For pythiosis and lagenidiosis, a new drug targeting water moulds called caspofungin is available, but it is very expensive. Immunotherapy has been used successfully in humans and horses with pythiosis. Treatment for skin lesions is traditionally with potassium iodide, but itraconazole has also been used successfully.
Phytophthora sojae
"Phytophthora" root and stem rot of soybean was first observed in the United States in Indiana in 1948 and its causal agent, "Phytophthora sojae", first identified in 1958. In the 1970s, soybean plants only had one single-resistance gene, meaning they were more susceptible to an infection. Eventually plants with this gene were killed by new races of "Phytophthora sojae". As a result, several states suffered significant yield losses particularly in the state of Ohio, which lost 300,000 acres of soybean plants in a year. Soon thereafter, a variety of new disease prevention methods were implemented and as a result this disease is currently one of the well-managed and well-known soybean diseases in the USA.
Situm
In the 1940s Taro Leaf Blight caused by Phytophthora colocasiae was estimated to cause up to 50% loss in production. In 1993, a National Taro breeding program, with the focus on breeding Taro varieties resistant varieties, commenced.
Phytophthora rubi
Phytophthora rubi is the principal cause of root rot in red raspberry. Originally classified as a variant of "P. fragariae" some now consider it a distinct species. This organism has been isolated from raspberries in Europe, North America, Chile, and many other countries around the world. It is best controlled through a combination of good management practices and use of resistant varieties. It is a significant cause of crop loss in poor draining soils.
Afan Forest Park
Large numbers of larch trees infected with "Phytophthora ramorum" have been felled, to be replaced by mixed species for timber production.
Farinomalein
Farinomalein has shown potent and selective inhibition (0.15-5 μg/disk) against eight isolates of plant pathogenic "Phytophthora sojae". These results suggest that farinomalein might be useful as a candidate pesticide for the treatment of Phytophthora stem rot in soybean.
Phytophthora ramorum
"P. ramorum" produces both resting spores (chlamydospores) and zoospores, which have flagella enabling swimming. "P. ramorum" is spread by air; one of the major mechanisms of dispersal is rainwater splashing spores onto other susceptible plants, and into watercourses to be carried for greater distances. Chlamydospores can withstand harsh conditions and are able to overwinter. The pathogen will take advantage of wounding, but it is not necessary for infection to occur.
VIPoma
For metastatic disease, peptide receptor radionuclide therapy (PRRT) can be highly effective. This treatment involves attaching a radionuclide (Lutetium-177 or Yttrium-90) to a somatostatin analogue (octreotate or octreotide). This is a novel way to deliver high doses of beta radiation to kill tumours.
Chamaecyparis lawsoniana
"Chamaecyparis lawsoniana" thrives best in well-drained but moist soils, in a fairly sheltered position in full sun.Several hundred named cultivars of varying crown shape, growth rates and foliage colour have been selected for planting in parks and gardens. In the UK the following have gained the Royal Horticultural Society's Award of Garden Merit (confirmed 2017):- 
In the wild, the species is seriously threatened by a root disease caused by the introduced oomycete pathogen, "Phytophthora lateralis". This disease is also a problem for horticultural plantings in some parts of North America. The tree is sometimes killed, though less often, by other species of "Phytophthora".
Hypoparathyroidism
Long-term treatment of hypoparathyroidism is with vitamin D analogs and calcium supplementation, but may be ineffective in some due to potential renal damage. The N-terminal fragment of parathyroid hormone (PTH 1-34) has full biological activity. The use of pump delivery of synthetic PTH 1-34 provides the closest approach to physiologic PTH replacement therapy. Injections of recombinant human parathyroid hormone are available as treatment in those with low blood calcium levels.
Phytophthora palmivora
Cultural practice is also important in the management of "Phytophthora" diseases of papaya. Incidence of "Phytophthora" root rot of mature trees in waterlogged areas during the rainy periods can be greatly reduced by improving drainage in the orchards. Infected fruit on the trees and those that have fallen to the ground should be removed to reduce the inoculum for aerial infection of fruit and stems, and infection of seedling roots in subsequent plantings.
Phytophthora nicotianae
Chemical control is most successful if used with resistant varieties. Metalaxyl or mefenoxam are chemistries used to control "Phytophthora nicotianae". Ridomil Gold is an example a systemic pesticide with a Metalaxyl chemistry. Mefenoxam is twice as active as metalaxyl, but they both have the same mode of action. Successful chemical control is difficult because we are limited to these two chemistries that are basically identical. A study by A. S. Csinos and P. F. Bertrand found out at a rate of 3.36 kg/ha would not inhibit many of the common races used in their study. Overall, from their study they observed that Black Shank severity was increasing in Georgia due to Metalaxyl sensitivity and resistant races of Black Shank.
Phytophthora cinnamomi
"Phytophthora cinnamomi" is a diploid and heterothallic species with two mating types, A1 and A2. Sexual reproduction in heterothallic "Phytophthora" species ordinarily occurs when gametangia of opposite mating type interact in host tissue. This interaction leads to the formation of oospores that can survive for long periods in or outside the host. "Phytophthora cinnamomi" is also capable of self-fertilization (i.e. it can be homothallic). "Phytophthora cinnamomi" mating type A2 cultures can be induced to undergo sexual reproduction by exposure to damaging conditions, that is by exposure to hydrogen peroxide or mechanical damage.
Phytophthora ramorum
Early detection of "P. ramorum" on a landscape scale begins with the observation of symptoms on individual plants (and/or detecting "P. ramorum" propagules in watercourses; see below). Systematic ground-based monitoring has been difficult within the range of "P. ramorum" because most infected trees stand on a complex mosaic of lands with various ownerships. In some areas, targeted ground-based surveys have been conducted in areas of heavy recreation or visitor use such as parks, trailheads, and boat ramps. In California, when conducting ground-based detection, looking for symptoms on bay laurel is the most effective strategy, since "P. ramorum" infection of true oaks and tanoaks is almost always highly associated with bay laurel, the main epidemiological springboard for the pathogen. Moreover, on many sites in California (though not all), "P. ramorum" can typically be detected from infected bay laurel tissues via culturing techniques year-round; this is not the case for most other hosts, nor is it the case in Oregon, where tanoak is the most reliable host.
Phytophthora erythroseptica
A multi-faceted approach is recommended to control pink rot. Sanitation of fields to reduce the amount of residues and volunteer potatoes is important to remove sources of inoculum or places the pathogen can overwinter. A crop rotation of 3–4 years is recommended to limit the amount of surviving spores in the soil, which is the main form of inoculum. Most cultivars of potatoes currently in production are susceptible to pink rot; however, some are more resistant than others. Varieties that are particularly susceptible are Dark Red Norland, Red LaSoda, Russet Norkotah, and Snowden.
Ferret health
As in humans, ferret lymphosarcoma can be treated surgically, with radiation therapy, chemotherapy or a combination thereof. The long-term prognosis is rarely bright, however, and this treatment is intended to improve quality of life with the disease.
Epizootic catarrhal enteritis (ECE) is a viral disease that first appeared in the northeastern US in 1994, is an inflammation of the mucous membranes in the intestine. The condition manifests itself as severe diarrhea (often of a bright green color), loss of appetite, and severe weight loss. The virus can be passed via fluids and indirectly between humans. Although it was often fatal when first discovered, ECE is less of a threat today.
Phytophthora ramorum
California, though, faces significant obstacles that preclude it from mounting the same kind of eradication effort. For one thing, the organism was too well established in forests in the Santa Cruz and San Francisco Bay areas by the time the cause of sudden oak death was discovered to enable any eradication effort to succeed. Even in still relatively uninfested areas of the north coast and southern Big Sur, regionally coordinated efforts to manage the pathogen face huge challenges of leadership, coordination, and funding. Nevertheless, land managers are still working to coordinate efforts between states, counties, and agencies to provide "P. ramorum" management in a more comprehensive manner.
Krishi Vigyan Kendra Kannur
Crop loss due to severe incidence of Phytophthora foot rot disease of black pepper and poor adoption of the technological recommendations against the disease — as they are labour- and cost-intensive — is a major problem for the pepper farmers of Kannur district. Hence, an OFT was undertaken to tackle this problem.
Garden roses
Fungal leaf diseases affect some cultivars and species more than others. On susceptible plants fungicidal sprays may be necessary to prevent infection or reduce severity of attacks. Cultivation techniques may also be used, such as ensuring good air circulation around a plant. Stem cankers are best treated by pruning out infection as soon as it is noticed. Root diseases are not usually possible to treat once infection has occurred; the most practical line of defence is to ensure that growing conditions maximise plant health and thereby prevent infection. "Phytophthora" species are waterborne and therefore improving drainage and reducing waterlogging can help reduce infection.
Phytophthora ramorum
The mortality caused by this emerging disease is expected to cause many indirect effects. Several predictions of long-term impacts have been discussed in the scientific literature. While such predictions are necessarily speculative, indirect impacts occurring on shorter time scales have been documented in a few cases. For instance, one study demonstrated that redwood trees ("Sequoia sempervirens") grew faster after neighboring tanoaks were killed by sudden oak death. Other studies have combined current observations and reconstruction/projection techniques to document short-term impacts while also inferring future conditions. One study used this approach to investigate the effects of SOD on the structural characteristics of redwood forests.
Phytophthora capsici
Although resistance has been developed in the cultivars Adra (Abbott and Cobb Seed Co.) and Emerald Isle (Harris Moran Seed Co.), they do not possess sufficient horticultural characteristics accepted by bell pepper growers in the U.S.. Paladin (Novartis Seed Co.) has excellent resistance to the crown rot phase of "Phytophthora" rot and is acceptable to most growers. Paladin does not possess resistance to the foliar phase of this disease and one must use copper fungicides along with the resistant strain for control.
Xiphinema index
Infected roots should be removed from the vineyard, and a non-host should be grown for several years, if possible. Historically, this pest has been managed by the use of chemical fumigants, such as 1,3-Dichloropropene and Methyl Bromide. There are few post-plant chemical options to manage this pest. These fumigants must be applied deeply in the soil to be effective, as the nematode can reside deeply in the soil and thus resist attempts to eradicate it completely. Rootstocks that are bred for resistance to both GFLV and "X. index" have proven to be effective at managing the disease. An effective rootstock must be resistant to both the virus and the nematode. Hot water treatments of rootstocks to be planted ensures there will be little chance of the introducing the disease into the field. Preventing the introduction of infected plant or soil material is essential to manage both "X. index" and GFLV.
Pyelonephritis
In people who do not require hospitalization and live in an area where there is a low prevalence of antibiotic-resistant bacteria, a fluoroquinolone by mouth such as ciprofloxacin or levofloxacin is an appropriate initial choice for therapy. In areas where there is a higher prevalence of fluoroquinolone resistance, it is useful to initiate treatment with a single intravenous dose of a long-acting antibiotic such as ceftriaxone or an aminoglycoside, and then continuing treatment with a fluoroquinolone. Oral trimethoprim/sulfamethoxazole is an appropriate choice for therapy if the bacteria is known to be susceptible. If trimethoprim/sulfamethoxazole is used when the susceptibility is not known, it is useful to initiate treatment with a single intravenous dose of a long-acting antibiotic such as ceftriaxone or an aminoglycoside. Oral beta-lactam antibiotics are less effective than other available agents for treatment of pyelonephritis. Improvement is expected in 48 to 72 hours.
Phialophora verrucosa
Antifungal drugs like itraconazole and terbinafine are typically used to treat infections caused by "P. verrucosa". Amphotericin B, another antifungal drug, is only used occasionally, as it is cardiotoxic and is unsuitable for long-term therapy. While the spread of chromoblastomycosis to the muscle and bone is usually rare, in cases where antifungal drugs alone are insufficient in controlling the dissemination of the infection, limb amputation is required. Topical heat therapy, such as the use of disposable pocket warmers that sustain a temperature of 40 °C or greater for a period of 12 hours, as well as localized cryotherapy, may be effective in preventing the growth of "P. verrucosa" and treating lesions. "P. verrucosa" exhibits some resistance to antifungal drugs, and prescribed treatments often require a combination of antifungal drugs. The use of fluconazole, followed by the combined use of oral itraconazole and the topical application of copper sulphate solution, was reportedly successful in treating a phaehyphomycotic ulcer caused by "P. verrucosa". In vitro, different isolates of "P. verrucosa" respond differently to the same combinations of antifungal drugs. The combination of amphotericin B and terbinafine was observed to cause a synergistic effect for some isolates but cause no effect in others.
Neon tetra
Generally the best 'treatment' is the immediate removal of diseased fish to preserve the remaining fish, although some occasional successful treatments have been performed that include fish baths and a "medication cocktail". The use of a diatom filter, which can reduce the number of free parasites in the water, may help. As with Pleistophora neon tetra disease, prevention is most important and this disease is rare when good preventative measures are performed.
Phytophthora infestans
"P. infestans" is diploid, with about 11-13 chromosomes, and in 2009 scientists completed the sequencing of its genome. The genome was found to be considerably larger (240 Mbp) than that of most other "Phytophthora" species whose genomes have been sequenced; "Phytophthora sojae" has a 95 Mbp genome and "Phytophthora ramorum" had a 65 Mbp genome. About 18,000 genes were detected within the "P. infestans" genome. It also contained a diverse variety of transposons and many gene families encoding for effector proteins that are involved in causing pathogenicity. These proteins are split into two main groups depending on whether they are produced by the water mould in the symplast (inside plant cells) or in the apoplast (between plant cells). Proteins produced in the symplast included RXLR proteins, which contain an arginine-X-leucine-arginine (where X can be any amino acid) sequence at the amino terminus of the protein. Some RXLR proteins are avirulence proteins, meaning that they can be detected by the plant and lead to a hypersensitive response which restricts the growth of the pathogen. "P. infestans" was found to encode around 60% more of these proteins than most other "Phytophthora" species. Those found in the apoplast include hydrolytic enzymes such as proteases, lipases and glycosylases that act to degrade plant tissue, enzyme inhibitors to protect against host defence enzymes and necrotizing toxins. Overall the genome was found to have an extremely high repeat content (around 74%) and to have an unusual gene distribution in that some areas contain many genes whereas others contain very few.
Notholithocarpus
Tanoak is one of the species most seriously affected by "sudden oak death" ("Phytophthora ramorum"), with high mortality reported over much of the species' range.
Frank Leslie Howard
He published a paper entitled "Anti-doting the toxin of "Phytophthora cactorum" as a means of Plant Disease Control" (Howard, 1941) and was included as a landmark in the fungicide history in the text "Fungicides and Their Action" (Horsfall, 1945). This paper described the control of tree diseases by chemotherapy and provides an alternative of vascular tree diseases such as Dutch elm disease.
Phytophthora ramorum
Because of these difficulties, researchers have developed some other approaches for identifying "P. ramorum". The enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay test can be the first step in nonculture methods of identifying "P. ramorum", but it can only be a first step, because it detects the presence of proteins that are produced by all "Phytophthora" species. In other words, it can identify to the genus level, but not to the species level. ELISA tests can process large numbers of samples at once, so researchers often use it to screen out likely positive samples from those that are not when the total number of samples is very large. Some manufacturers produce small-scale ELISA “field kits” that the homeowner can use to determine if plant tissue is infected by "Phytophthora".
Fluopicolide
Fluopicolide has been shown to be effective at controlling "[[Phytophthora infestans]]", "[[Phytophthora capsicii]]", "[[Phytophthora porri]]", "[[Plasmopara viticola]]", "[[Perenospora parasitica]]", "[[Peronospora tabacina]]", "[[Peronospora sparsa]]", "[[Pseudoperonospora cubensis]]" and "[[Bremia lactucae]]". As of 2007, it was only available commercially as a co-formulation with [[Fosetyl-Al]] for use in vines (as Profiler) and as a co-formulation with [[propamocarb]] for use on potatoes and vegetables (as Infinito). Other products were in development.
Phytophthora ramorum
The disease is known to exist in California's coastal region between Big Sur (in Monterey County) and southern Humboldt County. It is confirmed to exist in all coastal counties in this range, as well as in all immediately inland counties from Santa Clara County north to Lake County. It has not been found east of the California Coast Ranges, however. It was reported in Curry County, Oregon just north of the California border, in 2001. Sonoma County has been hit hardest, having more than twice the area of new mortality of any other county in California.
Phytophthora cactorum
Phytophthora cactorum is a plant pathogen that causes root rot on rhododendron and many other species.
Gene therapy of the human retina
Since apoptosis can be the cause of photoreceptor death in most of the retinal dystrophies. It has been known that survival factors and antiapoptoic reagents can be an alternative treatment if the mutation is unknown for gene replacement therapy. Some scientists have experimented with treating this issue by injecting substitute trophic factors into the eye. One group of researchers injected the rod derived cone viability factor (RdCVF) protein (encoded for by the Nxnl1 (Txnl6) gene) into the eye of the most commonly occurring dominant RP mutation rat models. This treatment demonstrated success in promoting the survival of cone activity, but the treatment served even more significantly to prevent progression of the disease by increasing the actual function of the cones. Experiments were also carried out to study whether supplying AAV2 vectors with cDNA for glial cell line-derived neurotrophic factor (GDNF) can have an anti-apoptosis effect on the rod cells.
In looking at an animal model, the opsin transgene contains a truncated protein lacking the last 15 amino acids of the C terminus, which causes alteration in rhodopsin transport to the outer segment and leads to retinal degeneration. When the AAV2-CBA-GDNF vector is administered to the subretinal space, photoreceptor stabilized and rod photoreceptors increased and this was seen in the improved function of the ERG analysis. Successful experiments in animals have also been carried out using ciliary neurotrophic factor (CNTF), and CNTF is currently being used as a treatment in human clinical trials.
Phytophthora tentaculata
Phytophthora tentaculata is a plant pathogen that causes root and stalk rot. It was first isolated in 1993 in a nursery in Germany infecting "Chrysanthemum", "Verbena", and "Delphinium ajacis". It has since been found infecting a "Verbena" in Majorca, Spain in June 2001 but was thought to be restricted to nurseries in Germany and the Netherlands. Other species have since been found to be infected, "Santolina chamaecyparissus" (Lavender cotton) in Spain in 2004, "Gerbera jamesonii" in Italy 2006, and "Aucklandia lappa" in China in 2008.
Aphthous stomatitis
Surgical excision of aphthous ulcers has been described, but it is an ineffective and inappropriate treatment. Silver nitrate has also been used as a chemical cauterant. Apart from the mainstream approaches detailed above, there are numerous treatments of unproven effectiveness, ranging from herbal remedies to otherwise alternative treatments, including aloe vera, myrtus communis, Rosa damascena, potassium alum, zinc sulfate, nicotine, polio virus vaccine and prostaglandin E2.
Moniliophthora perniciosa
Generally, there are four major strategies that can be used for disease control of Witches’ Broom. One strategy is phytosanitation, which is the removal and destruction of diseased plant parts. This can only be conducted during dry periods, or one risks spreading the disease further. Other strategies for control are chemical control, genetic resistance and biological control. Genetic resistance is currently being researched. In order to achieve durable resistance to a specific pathogen, extensive knowledge of the genetics of specific host-pathogen interaction is required. Host-pathogen interaction for "M. perniciosa" is not fully known. Some of these strategies can be tedious and expensive, for example, 95% phytosanitation is required to achieve 50% reduction in pod loss. Among the endophytic fungi associated with cacao are many species of "Trichoderma". Several species of "Trichoderma" have been isolated from cacao and is one of the most often used biofungicides. One of the isolates, "T. stromaticum" parasitizes the saprotrophic mycelium and basidiocarps of M. perniciosa, which reduces the formation of basidiocarps by 99% when brooms are in contact with soil and 56% in brooms remaining on trees. It can reduce pod infection by 31%. This biofungicide has shown variable performance due to environmental conditions of high humidity and moisture from rainfall, which is ideal for disease development, but not necessarily ideal for optimizing biocontrol efficacy.
Arbutus menziesii
Increasing development pressures in its native habitat have also contributed to a decline in the number of mature specimens. This tree is extremely sensitive to alteration of the grade or drainage near the root crown. Until about 1970, this phenomenon was not widely recognized on the west coast; thereafter, many local governments have addressed this issue by stringent restrictions on grading and drainage alterations when "Arbutus menziesii" trees are present. The species is also affected to a small extent by sudden oak death, a disease caused by the water-mold "Phytophthora ramorum".
Pythium dissotocum
As a root rot, it tends to have more severe effects on young plants and seedlings, where it can damage and kill newly forming roots necessary for plant growth and nutrient acquisition. As a result, many control methods involve limiting the amount of exposure early in the season. Effective measure include application of fungicides like mefenoxam and phosphonates, often in conjunction. Additionally, inoculation with "Pseudomonas chlororaphis," a common biocontrol inoculant used in horticulture, has potential to suppress symptoms of "P. dissotocum" infection, but is currently inconsistent in current trials, and doesn't block colonization. Like most root rots, "P. dissotocum" thrives in wet conditions. Preventing over-watering will help reduce infection in soil. Engaging in sanitation or fungicide treatment of tools and water can help reduce transmission and infection of "P. dissotocum" especially in irrigation or hydroponic systems. If infection has occurred, recovery can sometimes occur by trimming off damaged roots, and sterilizing those that are still white and healthy.
Phytophthora cinnamomi
"Phytophthora cinnamomi" is the leading cause of damage to avocado trees, and is commonly known as "root rot" amongst avocado farmers. Since the 1940s various breeds of root rot-resistant avocados have been developed to minimize tree damage. Damaged trees generally die or become unproductive within three to five years. A 1960 study of the Fallbrook, California area correlated higher levels of avocado root rot to soils with poorer drainage and greater clay content.
Aphanomyces euteiches
In alfalfa, "A. eutiches" is especially damaging in conjunction with "Phytophthora medicaginis", which causes Phytophthora root rot (PRR) in alfalfa. After initial studies in Wisconsin, "A. euteiches" was identified as an economically significant alfalfa pathogen in other states as well. In Wisconsin, Iowa and Kentucky it often exceeds "P. medicaginis" in prevalence in fields where alfalfa is grown. Due to these diseases, conventional advice was to avoid growing alfalfa in any wet soils. However, with the development of ARR- and PRR-resistant varieties, wet soil conditions have become less of a concern for alfalfa production, at least as far as disease pressure is concerned. Today, modern alfalfa varieties are required to have both PRR and ARR resistance.
Nightcap National Park
"Phytophthora cinnamomi" is a microscopic soil-borne pathogen (a fungus), that causes root rot of plants and may eventually lead to the death of the plant. It has now spread across much of Australia primarily in areas of rainfall above 600mm and south of latitude 30°. On the EPBC Act the disease caused by this pathogen is listed as a key threatening process and has the potential to impact the Nightcap oak.
Plantar fibromatosis
Cortisone injections, such as Triamcinolone, and clobetasol ointments have been shown to stall the progression of the disease temporarily, although the results are subjective and large-scale studies far from complete. Injections of superoxide dismutase have proven to be unsuccessful in curing the disease while radiotherapy has been used successfully on Ledderhose nodules.
Phytophthora fragariae
Scientist thought at first that there are 2 varieties of "Phytophthora fragariae": "P. fragariae" var. "fragariae", which refers to the pathogen that attacks strawberries, and "P. fragariae" var. "rubi", which refers to the variety that is the raspberry pathogen. Recently, the latter is considered a distinct species, "Phytophthora rubi".
Mycetoma
While treatment will vary depending on the cause of the condition, it may include antibiotics or antifungal medication. Actinomycetoma, the bacterial form, can be cured with antibiotics. Eumycetoma, the fungal form, is treated with antifungals and surgery. For both forms, extended treatment is necessary.
Phytophthora kernoviae
"Phytophthora kernoviae" spreads most quickly and detrimentally in moist conditions such as direct rainfall and also those of heavy humidity. Rain and heavy winds help in the dispersal of spores for further infection. This disease has an optimal growing range of . This range suggests that it may have originated in a temperate climate, possibly China, before being introduce to the UK. In some genus of the disease such as "P. ramorum" water transportation through the use of streams and rivers is seen from outbreak sites. This is a unique characteristic of the "P. ramorum" and has not been seen in the "kernoviae" species While there are no known insect vectors for the disease humans can transport spores via agricultural equipment, on shoe bottoms and direct plant movement. These are the most significant vectors for the disease.