Where is platinum most abundant?
Platinum
Platinum exists in higher abundances on the Moon and in meteorites. Correspondingly, platinum is found in slightly higher abundances at sites of bolide impact on Earth that are associated with resulting post-impact volcanism, and can be mined economically; the Sudbury Basin is one such example.
Platinum
In 1786, Charles III of Spain provided a library and laboratory to Pierre-François Chabaneau to aid in his research of platinum. Chabaneau succeeded in removing various impurities from the ore, including gold, mercury, lead, copper, and iron. This led him to believe he was working with a single metal, but in truth the ore still contained the yet-undiscovered platinum-group metals. This led to inconsistent results in his experiments. At times, the platinum seemed malleable, but when it was alloyed with iridium, it would be much more brittle. Sometimes the metal was entirely incombustible, but when alloyed with osmium, it would volatilize. After several months, Chabaneau succeeded in producing 23 kilograms of pure, malleable platinum by hammering and compressing the sponge form while white-hot. Chabeneau realized the infusibility of platinum would lend value to objects made of it, and so started a business with Joaquín Cabezas producing platinum ingots and utensils. This started what is known as the "platinum age" in Spain.
Platinum
The first European reference to platinum appears in 1557 in the writings of the Italian humanist Julius Caesar Scaliger as a description of an unknown noble metal found between Darién and Mexico, "which no fire nor any Spanish artifice has yet been able to liquefy". From their first encounters with platinum, the Spanish generally saw the metal as a kind of impurity in gold, and it was treated as such. It was often simply thrown away, and there was an official decree forbidding the adulteration of gold with platinum impurities.
Economy of South Africa
In 2008, South Africa's estimated share of world platinum production amounted to 77%; kyanite and other materials, 55%; chromium, 45%; palladium, 39%; vermiculite, 39%; vanadium, 38%; zirconium, 30%; manganese, 21%; rutile, 20%; ilmenite, 19%; gold, 11%; fluorspar, 6%; aluminium, 2%; antimony, 2%; iron ore, 2%; nickel, 2%; and phosphate rock, 1%. South Africa also accounted for nearly 5% of the world's polished diamond production by value. The country's estimated share of world reserves of platinum group metals amounted to 89%; hafnium, 46%; zirconium, 27%; vanadium, 23%; manganese, 19%; rutile, 18%; fluorspar, 18%; gold, 13%; phosphate rock, 10%; ilmenite, 9%; and nickel, 5%. It is also the world's third largest coal exporter.
Osmium
Osmium was discovered in 1803 by Smithson Tennant and William Hyde Wollaston in London, England. The discovery of osmium is intertwined with that of platinum and the other metals of the platinum group. Platinum reached Europe as "platina" ("small silver"), first encountered in the late 17th century in silver mines around the Chocó Department, in Colombia. The discovery that this metal was not an alloy, but a distinct new element, was published in 1748.
Chemists who studied platinum dissolved it in aqua regia (a mixture of hydrochloric and nitric acids) to create soluble salts. They always observed a small amount of a dark, insoluble residue. Joseph Louis Proust thought that the residue was graphite. Victor Collet-Descotils, Antoine François, comte de Fourcroy, and Louis Nicolas Vauquelin also observed iridium in the black platinum residue in 1803, but did not obtain enough material for further experiments. Later the two French chemists Antoine-François Fourcroy and Nicolas-Louis Vauquelin identified a metal in a platinum residue they called ‘"ptène"’.
Ore genesis
Platinum and palladium are precious metals generally found in ultramafic rocks. The source of platinum and palladium deposits is ultramafic rocks which have enough sulfur to form a sulfide mineral while the magma is still liquid. This sulfide mineral (usually pentlandite, pyrite, chalcopyrite, or pyrrhotite) gains platinum by mixing with the bulk of the magma because platinum is chalcophile and is concentrated in sulfides. Alternatively, platinum occurs in association with chromite either within the chromite mineral itself or within sulfides associated with it.
Mototolo mine
The Mototolo mine is a large platinum mine located in the north-eastern part of South Africa in Burgersfort, Limpopo. Mototolo represents one of the largest platinum reserves in South Africa, having estimated reserves of 5.5 million oz of platinum. The mine produces around 57,000 oz of platinum per year.
Platinum
In 1735, Antonio de Ulloa and Don Jorge Juan y Santacilia saw Native Americans mining platinum while the Spaniards were travelling through Colombia and Peru for eight years. Ulloa and Juan found mines with the whitish metal nuggets and took them home to Spain. Antonio de Ulloa returned to Spain and established the first mineralogy lab in Spain and was the first to systematically study platinum, which was in 1748. His historical account of the expedition included a description of platinum as being neither separable nor calcinable. Ulloa also anticipated the discovery of platinum mines. After publishing the report in 1748, Ulloa did not continue to investigate the new metal. In 1758, he was sent to superintend mercury mining operations in Huancavelica.
Platinum
Platinum is one of the least reactive metals. It has remarkable resistance to corrosion, even at high temperatures, and is therefore considered a noble metal. Consequently, platinum is often found chemically uncombined as native platinum. Because it occurs naturally in the alluvial sands of various rivers, it was first used by pre-Columbian South American natives to produce artifacts. It was referenced in European writings as early as 16th century, but it was not until Antonio de Ulloa published a report on a new metal of Colombian origin in 1748 that it began to be investigated by scientists.
Ruthenium
Though naturally occurring platinum alloys containing all six platinum-group metals were used for a long time by pre-Columbian Americans and known as a material to European chemists from the mid-16th century, not until the mid-18th century was platinum identified as a pure element. That natural platinum contained palladium, rhodium, osmium and iridium was discovered in the first decade of the 19th century. Platinum in alluvial sands of Russian rivers gave access to raw material for use in plates and medals and for the minting of ruble coins, starting in 1828. Residues from platinum production for coinage were available in the Russian Empire, and therefore most of the research on them was done in Eastern Europe.
Platinum as an investment
Other ways of investing in platinum include spread betting or contracts for difference on the price of the metal, owning shares in mining companies with substantial platinum assets or exposure, owning traded options in platinum (only available in the US market).
Platinum
In nickel and copper deposits, platinum-group metals occur as sulfides (e.g. (Pt,Pd)S), tellurides (e.g. PtBiTe), antimonides (PdSb), and arsenides (e.g. PtAs), and as end alloys with nickel or copper. Platinum arsenide, sperrylite (PtAs), is a major source of platinum associated with nickel ores in the Sudbury Basin deposit in Ontario, Canada. At Platinum, Alaska, about was mined between 1927 and 1975. The mine ceased operations in 1990. The rare sulfide mineral cooperite, (Pt,Pd,Ni)S, contains platinum along with palladium and nickel. Cooperite occurs in the Merensky Reef within the Bushveld complex, Gauteng, South Africa.
Platinum, Alaska
In 1926, Walter Smith, an Eskimo, discovered what he thought was "white gold" at the mouth of Fox Gulch, a tributary of Platinum Creek. Samples sent to the United States Bureau of Mines in Fairbanks determined it was actually platinum. In 1928, Charles Thorsen discovered platinum in Clara Creek, while Edward St. Clair discovered platinum in Squirrel Creek. Consolidation of the subsequent mining claims resulted in Goodnews Bay Mining Co. and Clara Creek Mining Co. becoming the major operators mining these placer deposits containing 60 per cent platinum and 22 percent iridium. The largest nugget was found on Squirrel Creek and weighed 1.5 ounces. These placers are found in the drainage east of Red Mountain, which is composed of dunite. However, platinum has not been found on the mountain. Goodnews Bay Mining Co. started operating a dragline excavator on Squirrel Creek on 11 Aug. 1934, and on Platinum Creek and Fox Gulch in 1937. The company started operations with a dredge in Nov. 1937. The Clara Creek Mining Co. started mining operations on Clara Creek in 1936. A total of 3000 ounces of platinum metals were recovered from all mining operations between 1927 and 1934, and 18,000 ounces between 1934 and 1937.
Osmium
Within Earth's crust, osmium, like iridium, is found at highest concentrations in three types of geologic structure: igneous deposits (crustal intrusions from below), impact craters, and deposits reworked from one of the former structures. The largest known primary reserves are in the Bushveld Igneous Complex in South Africa, though the large copper–nickel deposits near Norilsk in Russia, and the Sudbury Basin in Canada are also significant sources of osmium. Smaller reserves can be found in the United States. The alluvial deposits used by pre-Columbian people in the Chocó Department, Colombia are still a source for platinum group metals. The second large alluvial deposit was found in the Ural Mountains, Russia, which is still mined.
Platinum
The most common use of platinum is as a catalyst in chemical reactions, often as platinum black. It has been employed as a catalyst since the early 19th century, when platinum powder was used to catalyze the ignition of hydrogen. Its most important application is in automobiles as a catalytic converter, which allows the complete combustion of low concentrations of unburned hydrocarbons from the exhaust into carbon dioxide and water vapor. Platinum is also used in the petroleum industry as a catalyst in a number of separate processes, but especially in catalytic reforming of straight-run naphthas into higher-octane gasoline that becomes rich in aromatic compounds. PtO, also known as Adams' catalyst, is used as a hydrogenation catalyst, specifically for vegetable oils. Platinum also strongly catalyzes the decomposition of hydrogen peroxide into water and oxygen and it is used in fuel cells as a catalyst for the reduction of oxygen.
Tumela mine
The Tumela mine is a large underground and open cast mine located in the north-western part of South Africa in Thabazimbi, Limpopo. Tumela represents one of the largest platinum reserves in South Africa having estimated reserves of 56.5 million oz of platinum. The mine produces around 280,000 oz of platinum/year.
Placer mining
Placer mining continues in many areas of the world as a source of diamonds, industrial minerals and metals, gems (in Myanmar and Sri Lanka), platinum, and of gold (in Yukon, Alaska and British Columbia).
Iridium
Iridium is found in nature as an uncombined element or in natural alloys; especially the iridium–osmium alloys, osmiridium (osmium-rich), and iridosmium (iridium-rich). In the nickel and copper deposits, the platinum group metals occur as sulfides (i.e. (Pt,Pd)S), tellurides (i.e. PtBiTe), antimonides (PdSb), and arsenides (i.e. ). In all of these compounds, platinum is exchanged by a small amount of iridium and osmium. As with all of the platinum group metals, iridium can be found naturally in alloys with raw nickel or raw copper. A number of iridium-dominant minerals, with iridium as the species-forming element, are known. They are exceedingly rare and often represent the iridium analogues of the above-given ones. The examples are irarsite and cuproiridsite, to mention some.
Calliostoma platinum
This species occurs in the Pacific Ocean off California, USA.
Palladium
When platinum became a strategic resource during World War II, many jewelry bands were made out of palladium. Palladium was little used in jewelry because of the technical difficulty of casting. With the casting problem resolved the use of palladium in jewelry increased, originally because platinum increased in price while the price of palladium decreased. In early 2004, when gold and platinum prices rose steeply, China began fabricating volumes of palladium jewelry, consuming 37 tonnes in 2005. Subsequent changes in the relative price of platinum lowered demand for palladium to 17.4 tonnes in 2009. Demand for palladium as a catalyst has increased the price of palladium to about 50% higher than that of platinum in January 2019.
Eskom
In January and February 2008 global platinum and palladium prices hit record highs as mines were first shut down and subsequently restricted in their electricity use. South Africa supplies 85% of the world's platinum and 30% of palladium. Mining companies estimate that hundreds of thousands of ounces of both gold and platinum production will be lost every year until the crisis passes. Estimates on the direct economic impact are not yet available, but given South Africa's reliance on precious metals exports to finance its current account deficit, traders have severely downgraded the currency.
Platinum
During periods of sustained economic stability and growth, the price of platinum tends to be as much as twice the price of gold, whereas during periods of economic uncertainty, the price of platinum tends to decrease due to reduced industrial demand, falling below the price of gold. Gold prices are more stable in slow economic times, as gold is considered a safe haven. Although gold is used in industrial applications, its demand is not so driven by industrial uses. In the 18th century, platinum's rarity made King Louis XV of France declare it the only metal fit for a king.
Platinum
One suitable method for purification for the raw platinum, which contains platinum, gold, and the other platinum-group metals, is to process it with "aqua regia", in which palladium, gold and platinum are dissolved, whereas osmium, iridium, ruthenium and rhodium stay unreacted. The gold is precipitated by the addition of iron(II) chloride and after filtering off the gold, the platinum is precipitated as ammonium chloroplatinate by the addition of ammonium chloride. Ammonium chloroplatinate can be converted to platinum by heating. Unprecipitated hexachloroplatinate(IV) may be reduced with elemental zinc, and a similar method is suitable for small scale recovery of platinum from laboratory residues. Mining and refining platinum has environmental impacts.
Sperrylite
Sperrylite is the most common platinum mineral, it generally occurs with a wide array of other unusual minerals, including cooperite [(Pt,Pd,Ni)S], laurite [RuS], kotulskite [Pd(Te,Bi)], merenskyite [(Pd,Pt)(Te,Bi)], iridium-osmium (Ir-Os) alloys, sudburyite [(Pd,Ni)Sb], omeiite [(Os,Ru)As], testibiopalladite [PdTe(Sb,Te)], and niggliite [PtSn], to name a few. It does not readily decompose through normal weathering processes and, consequently, has been reported in widely scattered alluvial deposits.
Platina, California
During the 1920s, Noble and others discovered platinum in Beegum Creek, causing Noble's Station to quickly become known as "Platina". Platina is a native alloy of platinum with osmium and other related metals.
Period 6 element
Osmium is a chemical element with the symbol Os and atomic number 76. It is a hard, brittle, blue-gray or blue-black transition metal in the platinum family and is the densest naturally occurring element, with a density of (slightly greater than that of iridium and twice that of lead). It is found in nature as an alloy, mostly in platinum ores; its alloys with platinum, iridium, and other platinum group metals are employed in fountain pen tips, electrical contacts, and other applications where extreme durability and hardness are needed.
Thorium
In the Earth's crust, thorium is much more abundant: with an abundance of 8.1 parts per million (ppm), it is one of the most abundant of the heavy elements, almost as abundant as lead (13 ppm) and more abundant than tin (2.1 ppm). This is because thorium is likely to form oxide minerals that do not sink into the core; it is classified as a lithophile. Common thorium compounds are also poorly soluble in water. Thus, even though the Earth contains the same abundances of the elements as the Solar System as a whole, there is more accessible thorium than heavy platinum group metals in the crust.
Ruthenium
As the 74th most abundant element in Earth's crust, ruthenium is relatively rare, found in about 100 parts per trillion. This element is generally found in ores with the other platinum group metals in the Ural Mountains and in North and South America. Small but commercially important quantities are also found in pentlandite extracted from Sudbury, Ontario, Canada, and in pyroxenite deposits in South Africa. The native form of ruthenium is a very rare mineral (Ir replaces part of Ru in its structure).
Bathopele mine
The Bathopele mine is a mechanised mine located in the north-western part of South Africa in Rustenburg, North West. Bathopele represents one of the largest platinum reserves in South Africa having estimated reserves of 5.3 million oz of platinum. The mine produces around 120,000 oz of platinum/year.
Platinum as an investment
Platinum is relatively scarce even among the precious metals. New mine production totals approximately only five million troy ounces (150 Mg) a year. In contrast, gold mine production runs approximately 82 million ounces (2,550 Mg) a year, and silver production is approximately 547 million ounces (17,000 Mg). As such, it tends to trade at higher per-unit prices.
Platinum
Unlike palladium acetate, platinum(II) acetate is not commercially available. Where a base is desired, the halides have been used in conjunction with sodium acetate. The use of platinum(II) acetylacetonate has also been reported.
Platinum
Large platinum deposits are present in the state of Tamil Nadu, India.
Tellurium
With an abundance in the Earth's crust comparable to that of platinum (about 1 µg/kg), tellurium is one of the rarest stable solid elements. In comparison, even the rarest of the stable lanthanides have crustal abundances of 500 µg/kg (see Abundance of the chemical elements).
Ruthenium
Roughly 12 tonnes of ruthenium are mined each year with world reserves estimated at 5,000 tonnes. The composition of the mined platinum group metal (PGM) mixtures varies widely, depending on the geochemical formation. For example, the PGMs mined in South Africa contain on average 11% ruthenium while the PGMs mined in the former USSR contain only 2% (1992). Ruthenium, osmium, and iridium are considered the minor platinum group metals.
Platinum nanoparticle
Among the precious metals, platinum is the most active toward the hydrogen oxidation reaction that occurs at the anode in hydrogen fuel cells. In order to meet cost reductions of this magnitude, the Pt catalyst loading must be decreased. Two strategies have been investigated for reducing the Pt loading: the binary and ternary Pt-based alloyed nanomaterials and the dispersion of Pt-based nanomaterials onto high surface area substrates.
Platinum as an investment
The price of platinum changes along with its supply and demand; during periods of sustained economic stability and growth, the price of platinum tends to be as much as twice the price of gold; whereas, during periods of economic uncertainty, the price of platinum tends to decrease because of reduced demand, falling below the price of gold, partly due to increased gold prices. Platinum price peaked at US$2,252 per troy ounce in March 2008 driven on production concerns (brought about partly due to power delivery problems to South African mines). It subsequently fell to US$774 per troy ounce ($25/g) in November 2008. As of 15 October 2018, the platinum spot price in New York was $845.10 per ounce, compared to $1,222 per ounce for gold and $15.16 per ounce for silver. Platinum is traded in the spot market with the code "XPT". When settled in United States Dollars, the code is "XPTUSD". As of 3/4/2018, the price of platinum has fallen below the price of gold, platinum being valued at US$963 an ounce vis-à-vis gold at US$1322 an ounce, respectively.
Platinum nanoparticle
The SPR of platinum nanoparticles is found in the ultraviolet range (215 nm), unlike the other noble metal nanoparticles which display SPR in the visible range Experiments were done and the spectra obtained are similar for most platinum particles regardless of size. However, there is an exception. Platinum NPs synthesized via citrate reduction do not have a surface plasmon resonance peak around 215 nm. Through experimentation, the resonance peak only showed slight variations with the change of size and synthetic method (while maintaining the same shape), with the exception of those nanoparticles synthesized by citrate reduction, which did not exhibit and SPR peak in this region..
Peak uranium
About 96% of the global uranium reserves are found in these ten countries: Australia, Canada, Kazakhstan, South Africa, Brazil, Namibia, Uzbekistan, the United States, Niger, and Russia. The world's largest deposits of uranium are found in three countries. Australia has just over 30% of the world's reasonably assured resources and inferred resources of uranium – about .
Kazakhstan has about 12% of the world's reserves, or about . And Canada has of uranium, representing about 9%.
Platinum coin
The first and only case when platinum coins were used as a regular national currency was in Russia, where coins were circulated between 1828 and 1845. These coins proved to be impractical: platinum resembles many less expensive metals, and, unlike the more malleable and ductile silver and gold, it is very difficult to work. However, merchants valued platinum coins because it did not melt in fires like gold or silver. The minting of platinum coins resumed only after 130 years. Between 1977 and 1980, in preparation for the 1980 Summer Olympics, the Soviet Union produced five commemorative coin sets, and since 1988 commemorative platinum coins were issued every year. The practice of regularly issuing platinum coins has continued in modern Russia, and since 1992 the Central Bank of Russia has released 16 sets of platinum coins.
Bushveld
The Bushveld is one of the most mineral-rich regions of the world. This is due to the Bushveld igneous complex, an extremely rich saucer-shaped geological formation that stretches over more than 50,000 square kilometers. This formation contains most of the world's reserves of minerals such as andalusite, chromium, fluorspar, platinum and vanadium. The complex includes the Merensky Reef, which is the world's biggest source of platinum as well as platinum-group metals.
Royal Bafokeng Nation
In 1925 the world's largest deposits of platinum group metals, such as platinum, rhodium and palladium were discovered on Bafokeng lands. Mining companies now pay royalties to the RBN in exchange for the right to mine these metals. Also, a court settlement in 1999 with Impala Platinum Mining (Implats), the second-largest platinum company in South Africa, gave the RBN a 22 percent royalty on all platinum taken from their territory and an ownership stake in Implats. The value of the Bafokeng's stake in Impala had tripled to more than $50 million by 2001. The Bafokeng receive annual royalties of approximately $63 million from platinum mining.
Skaergaardite
Skaergaardite contains palladium (Pd), one of the six platinum group metals (PGM) that are some of the rarest elements on earth. With the cost of palladium expected to increase as demand becomes greater, Skaergaardite could begin to be mined for its valuable palladium resources.
Kroondal mine
The Kroondal mine is a large open pit mine located in the north-western part of South Africa in Rustenburg, North West. Kroondal represents one of the largest platinum reserves in South Africa having estimated reserves of 6.2 million oz of platinum. The mine produces around 217,000 oz of platinum/year.
Platinum in Africa
World's leading platinum producer.
There are 6 platinum group elements:
Tantalite
Tantalite occurs in granitic pegmatites that are rich in rare-earth elements, and in placer deposits derived from such rocks. It has been found in Australia, Brazil, Canada, Colombia (Guainía and Vichada), Egypt, northern Europe, Madagascar, Namibia, Nigeria, Rwanda, The Democratic Republic of Congo, the United States (California, Colorado, Maine, and Virginia), and Zimbabwe. Brazil has the world's largest reserve of tantalite (52.1%). In 2006, 75% of world tantalite production came from Australia.
Southern Africa
In terms of natural resources, the region has the world's largest resources of platinum and the platinum group elements, chromium, vanadium, and cobalt, as well as uranium, gold, copper, titanium, iron and diamonds.
Zimbabwe
The mining sector remains very lucrative, with some of the world's largest platinum reserves being mined by Anglo American plc and Impala Platinum. The Marange diamond fields, discovered in 2006, are considered the biggest diamond find in over a century. They have the potential to improve the fiscal situation of the country considerably, but almost all revenues from the field have disappeared into the pockets of army officers and ZANU-PF politicians.
Platinum
Platinum has six naturally occurring isotopes: Pt, Pt, Pt, Pt, Pt, and Pt. The most abundant of these is Pt, comprising 33.83% of all platinum. It is the only stable isotope with a non-zero spin; with a spin of /, Pt satellite peaks are often observed in H and P NMR spectroscopy (i.e., Pt-phosphine and Pt-alkyl complexes). Pt is the least abundant at only 0.01%. Of the naturally occurring isotopes, only Pt is unstable, though it decays with a half-life of 6.5 years, causing an activity of 15 Bq/kg of natural platinum. Pt can undergo alpha decay, but its decay has never been observed (the half-life is known to be longer than 3.2 years); therefore, it is considered stable. Platinum also has 31 synthetic isotopes ranging in atomic mass from 166 to 204, making the total number of known isotopes 39. The least stable of these is Pt, with a half-life of 300 µs, whereas the most stable is Pt with a half-life of 50 years. Most platinum isotopes decay by some combination of beta decay and alpha decay. Pt, Pt, and Pt decay primarily by electron capture. Pt and Pt are predicted to have energetically favorable double beta decay paths.
Platinum
In 1865, chromites were identified in the Bushveld region of South Africa, followed by the discovery of platinum in 1906. In 1924, the geologist Hans Merensky discovered a large supply of platinum in the Bushveld Igneous Complex in South Africa. The specific layer he found, named the Merensky Reef, contains around 75% of the world's known platinum. The large copper–nickel deposits near Norilsk in Russia, and the Sudbury Basin, Canada, are the two other large deposits. In the Sudbury Basin, the huge quantities of nickel ore processed make up for the fact platinum is present as only 0.5 ppm in the ore. Smaller reserves can be found in the United States, for example in the Absaroka Range in Montana. In 2010, South Africa was the top producer of platinum, with an almost 77% share, followed by Russia at 13%; world production in 2010 was .
Platinum
Platinum is a precious metal commodity; its bullion has the ISO currency code of XPT. Coins, bars, and ingots are traded or collected. Platinum finds use in jewellery, usually as a 90–95% alloy, due to its inertness. It is used for this purpose for its prestige and inherent bullion value. Jewellery trade publications advise jewellers to present minute surface scratches (which they term patina) as a desirable feature in attempt to enhance value of platinum products.
Bafokeng mine
The Bafokeng mine is a large open pit mine located in the north-eastern part of South Africa in Rustenburg, North West. Bafokeng represents one of the largest platinum reserves in South Africa having estimated reserves of 47.9 million oz of platinum. The mine produces around 171,000 oz of platinum/year.
Anglo American Platinum
Anglo American Platinum Limited () is the world's largest primary producer of platinum, accounting for about 38% of the world's annual supply.
Neodymium
Neodymium is rarely found in nature as a free element, but rather it occurs in ores such as monazite and bastnäsite (these are mineral group names rather than single mineral names) that contain small amounts of all rare-earth metals. In these minerals neodymium is rarely dominant (as in the case of lanthanum), with cerium being the most abundant lanthanide; some exceptions include monazite-(Nd) and kozoite-(Nd). The main mining areas are in China, the United States, Brazil, India, Sri Lanka, and Australia. The reserves of neodymium are estimated at about eight million tonnes. Although it belongs to the rare-earth metals, neodymium is not rare at all. Its abundance in the Earth's crust is about 38 mg/kg, which is the second highest among rare-earth elements, following cerium. The world's production of neodymium was about 7,000 tonnes in 2004. The bulk of current production is from China. the Chinese government has imposed strategic material controls on the element, raising some concerns in consuming countries and causing skyrocketing prices of neodymium and other rare-earth metals. As of late 2011, 99% pure neodymium was traded in world markets for US$300 to US$350 per kilogram, down from the mid-2011 peak of US$500/kg. The price of neodymium oxide fell from $200/kg in 2011 to $40 in 2015, largely due to illegal production in China which circumvented government restrictions. The uncertainty of pricing and availability have caused companies (particularly Japanese ones) to create permanent magnets and associated electric motors with fewer rare-earth metals; however, so far they have been unable to eliminate the need for neodymium.
Rubidium
Rubidium is the twenty-third most abundant element in the Earth's crust, roughly as abundant as zinc and rather more common than copper. It occurs naturally in the minerals leucite, pollucite, carnallite, and zinnwaldite, which contain as much as 1% rubidium oxide. Lepidolite contains between 0.3% and 3.5% rubidium, and is the commercial source of the element. Some potassium minerals and potassium chlorides also contain the element in commercially significant quantities.
Anglo American Platinum
Based in South Africa, most of the group's operations lie to the northwest and northeast of Johannesburg. A majority of the company's operations take place in the Bushveld Igneous Complex, a large region that contains a range of mineral commodities including chromium, vanadium, titaniferous magnetite and platinum group metals.
Metal
Chemically, the precious metals (like the noble metals) are less reactive than most elements, have high luster and high electrical conductivity. Historically, precious metals were important as currency, but are now regarded mainly as investment and industrial commodities. Gold, silver, platinum and palladium each have an ISO 4217 currency code. The best-known precious metals are gold and silver. While both have industrial uses, they are better known for their uses in art, jewelry, and coinage. Other precious metals include the platinum group metals: ruthenium, rhodium, palladium, osmium, iridium, and platinum, of which platinum is the most widely traded.
Pandora mine
The Pandora mine is a large open pit mine located in the north-eastern part of South Africa in Rustenburg, North West. Pandora represents one of the largest platinum reserves in South Africa having estimated reserves of 28.4 million oz of platinum. The mine produces around 39,000 oz of platinum/year.
Platinum in Africa
Platinum, and platinum group metals, are produced in Zimbabwe and South Africa. Of the multitudes of companies involved in producing platinum group metals in these two countries, these are the principal operators:
Period 6 element
As a member of the platinum group of elements, as well as of the group 10 of the periodic table of elements, platinum is generally non-reactive. It exhibits a remarkable resistance to corrosion, even at high temperatures, and as such is considered a noble metal. As a result, platinum is often found chemically uncombined as native platinum. Because it occurs naturally in the alluvial sands of various rivers, it was first used by pre-Columbian South American natives to produce artifacts. It was referenced in European writings as early as 16th century, but it was not until Antonio de Ulloa published a report on a new metal of Colombian origin in 1748 that it became investigated by scientists.
Sub-Saharan Africa
The region is a major exporter to the world of gold, uranium, chromium, vanadium, antimony, coltan, bauxite, iron ore, copper and manganese. South Africa is a major exporter of manganese as well as chromium. A 2001 estimate is that 42% of the world's reserves of chromium may be found in South Africa. South Africa is the largest producer of platinum, with 80% of the total world's annual mine production and 88% of the world's platinum reserve. Sub-Saharan Africa produces 33% of the world's bauxite, with Guinea as the major supplier. Zambia is a major producer of copper. Democratic Republic of Congo is a major source of coltan. Production from Congo is very small but has 80% of proven reserves. Sub-saharan Africa is a major producer of gold, producing up to 30% of global production. Major suppliers are South Africa, Ghana, Zimbabwe, Tanzania, Guinea, and Mali. South Africa had been first in the world in terms of gold production since 1905, but in 2007 it moved to second place, according to GFMS, the precious metals consultancy. Uranium is major commodity from the region. Significant suppliers are Niger, Namibia, and South Africa. Namibia was the number one supplier from Sub-Saharan Africa in 2008. The region produces 49% of the world's diamonds.
Suhanko mine
The Suhanko mine is one of the largest platinum group element projects in Finland and in the world. The mine is located in the north of the country in Lapland. The project is estimated to host over 10 million ounces of combined palladium and platinum, with valuable quantities of copper, nickel and gold.
Iridium
Within Earth's crust, iridium is found at highest concentrations in three types of geologic structure: igneous deposits (crustal intrusions from below), impact craters, and deposits reworked from one of the former structures. The largest known primary reserves are in the Bushveld igneous complex in South Africa, (near the largest known impact crater, the Vredefort crater) though the large copper–nickel deposits near Norilsk in Russia, and the Sudbury Basin (also an impact crater) in Canada are also significant sources of iridium. Smaller reserves are found in the United States. Iridium is also found in secondary deposits, combined with platinum and other platinum group metals in alluvial deposits. The alluvial deposits used by pre-Columbian people in the Chocó Department of Colombia are still a source for platinum-group metals. As of 2003, world reserves have not been estimated.
Palladium
Palladium can be found as a free metal alloyed with gold and other platinum-group metals in placer deposits of the Ural Mountains, Australia, Ethiopia, North and South America. For the production of palladium, these deposits play only a minor role. The most important commercial sources are nickel-copper deposits found in the Sudbury Basin, Ontario, and the Norilsk–Talnakh deposits in Siberia. The other large deposit is the Merensky Reef platinum group metals deposit within the Bushveld Igneous Complex South Africa. The Stillwater igneous complex of Montana and the Roby zone ore body of the Lac des Îles igneous complex of Ontario are the two other sources of palladium in Canada and the United States. Palladium is found in the rare minerals cooperite and polarite. Many more Pd minerals are known, but all of them are very rare.
Kalatongke mine
The Kalatongke mine is a large open pit mine located in the northern part of China in Inner Mongolia. Kalatongke represents one of the largest platinum reserves in China having estimated reserves of 55.7 million oz of platinum. The mine produces around 64,000 oz of platinum/year.
Bushveld Igneous Complex
The "Reef" contains an average of 10 ppm platinum group metals in pyrrhotite, pentlandite, and pyrite as well as in rare platinum group minerals and alloys. The Merensky and UG-2 reefs contain approximately 90% of the world's known PGM reserves. About 80% of the platinum and 20% of the palladium mined each year are produced from these horizons.
Nib (pen)
According to Mathur et al., "the modern fountain pen nib may be traced back to the original gold nib which had a tiny fragment of ruby attached to form the wear-point." Following the discovery of the platinum group of metals which include ruthenium, osmium and iridium, "a small quantity of iridium was isolated and used on the iridium-tipped gold dip pen nibs of the 1830s". Today, nibs are usually made of stainless steel or gold alloys, with the most popular gold content being 14 carat (58⅓%) and 18 carat (75%). Titanium is a less common metal used for making nibs. Gold is considered the optimum metal for its flexibility and its resistance to corrosion, although gold's corrosion resistance is less of an issue than in the past because of better stainless steel alloys and less corrosive inks.
Platinum, Alaska
During World War II, the Alaska Territorial Guard served to safeguard it against Japanese attack as it was the only source of the strategic metal platinum in the Western Hemisphere.
Platinum-iridium alloy
Typical alloy proportions are 90:10 or 70:30 (Pt:Ir). These have the chemical stability of platinum, but increased hardness. The Vickers hardness of pure platinum is 56 HV while platinum with 50% of iridium can reach over 500 HV. This improved hardness has also been considered as beneficial for use in platinum jewellery, particularly watch cases.
Plug-in electric vehicle
Some of the largest world reserves of lithium and other rare metals are located in countries with strong resource nationalism, unstable governments or hostility to U.S. interests, raising concerns about the risk of replacing dependence on foreign oil with a new dependence on hostile countries to supply strategic materials.The main deposits of lithium are found in China and throughout the Andes mountain chain in South America. In 2008 Chile was the leading lithium metal producer with almost 30%, followed by China, Argentina, and Australia. In the United States lithium is recovered from brine pools in Nevada.
Palladium
Palladium is a chemical element with symbol Pd and atomic number 46. It is a rare and lustrous silvery-white metal discovered in 1803 by William Hyde Wollaston. He named it after the asteroid Pallas, which was itself named after the epithet of the Greek goddess Athena, acquired by her when she slew Pallas. Palladium, platinum, rhodium, ruthenium, iridium and osmium form a group of elements referred to as the platinum group metals (PGMs). These have similar chemical properties, but palladium has the lowest melting point and is the least dense of them.
Unki mine
The Unki mine is an underground mine located in the center part of Zimbabwe in Gweru, Midlands Province. Unki represents one of the largest platinum reserves in Zimbabwe having estimated reserves of 34 million oz of platinum. The mine produces around 64,000 oz of platinum/year.
Carbon
Today, most commercially viable diamond deposits are in Russia, Botswana, Australia and the Democratic Republic of Congo. In 2005, Russia produced almost one-fifth of the global diamond output, reports the British Geological Survey. Australia has the richest diamantiferous pipe with production reaching peak levels of per year in the 1990s. There are also commercial deposits being actively mined in the Northwest Territories of Canada, Siberia (mostly in Yakutia territory; for example, Mir pipe and Udachnaya pipe), Brazil, and in Northern and Western Australia.
Thembelani mine
The Thembelani mine is a large open pit mine located in the north-western part of South Africa in Rustenburg, North West. Thembelani represents one of the largest platinum reserves in South Africa having estimated reserves of 15.6 million oz of platinum. The mine produces around 100,000 oz of platinum/year.
Tamboti mine
The Tamboti mine is a large open pit mine located in the north-western part of South Africa in North West. Tamboti represents one of the largest platinum reserves in South Africa having estimated reserves of 27.1 million oz of platinum. The mine produces around 500,000 oz of platinum/year.
Bokoni mine
The Bokoni mine is a large open pit mine located in the north-eastern part of South Africa in Polokwane, Limpopo. Bokoni represents one of the largest platinum reserves in South Africa having estimated reserves of of platinum. The mine produces around of platinum/year.
Khuseleka mine
The Khuseleka mine is a large underground mine located in the north-western part of South Africa in Rustenburg, North West. Khuseleka represents one of the largest platinum reserves in South Africa having estimated reserves of 10.2 million oz of platinum. The mine produces around 130,000 oz of platinum/year.
Period 6 element
Platinum is used in catalytic converters, laboratory equipment, electrical contacts and electrodes, platinum-resistance thermometers, dentistry equipment, and jewelry. Because only a few hundred tonnes are produced annually, it is a scarce material, and is highly valuable and is a major precious metal commodity. Being a heavy metal, it leads to health issues upon exposure to its salts, but due to its corrosion resistance, it is not as toxic as some metals. Its compounds, most notably cisplatin, are applied in chemotherapy against certain types of cancer.
Platinum group
Metallic iridium is found with platinum and other platinum group metals in alluvial deposits. Naturally occurring iridium alloys include osmiridium and iridosmine, both of which are mixtures of iridium and osmium. It is recovered commercially as a by-product from nickel mining and processing.
Ricardo Basta
Basta has also become recognized in his field as a platinum expert. In the mid-80s, when information was scarce on the subject, he began to cast in platinum. Most design houses weren’t using platinum quite yet. Through the process of trial and error, he developed an understanding of the best way to work with the precious metal. Since then, the learning curve has decreased due to the popularity of the metal and the development of resources, equipment and technology. Also, due to his experience with platinum, he has written contributing articles for the Platinum Guild International on the subjects of casting and antique jewelry restoration.
Platinum coin
A "new Siberian metal", platinum, became known in Russia in 1819. Though it was first observed only as minor inclusions in rocks, richer deposits were discovered in the late 1824 which were mined beginning in 1825. These discoveries prompted Demidov to start looking for platinum around his Nizhny Tagil plants, where it was quickly found along the river beds. In late 1826, P. G. Sobolevsky (the father of powder metallurgy in Russia) invented a simple way of processing platinum that prompted the idea to use platinum in coins. The decree of 24 April 1828 noted that "among the treasures of the Ural Mountains also occurs platinum, which priorly was located almost exclusively in South America. For easy sale of this precious metal, it is desirable to introduce it in coins" and also described the design of new coins.
Native metal
Natural alloys of the platinum group metals include: native osmium (Os,Ir,Ru), rutheniridosmine (Ir,Os,Ru), ruthenium (Ru,Ir), palladium (Pd,Pt), platinum Pt, and rhodium (Rh,Pt). In addition gold, copper, iron, mercury, tin and lead may occur in alloys of this group. As with gold, salts and other compounds of the platinum group metals are rare; native platinum and related metals and alloys are the predominant minerals bearing these metals. These metals occur associated with ultramafic intrusions and placer deposits derived from those intrusions.
Hans Merensky
In 1924 he followed up the discovery of alluvial platinum by A F Lombard on his farm in Lydenburg and discovered its source in the Bushveld Igneous Complex which set him on the road to financial recovery. This deposit came eventually to be known as the Merensky Reef, which contains 75 per cent of the world's known platinum resources.
Impala mine
The Impala mine is a large open pit mine located in the north-western part of South Africa in North West. Impala represents one of the largest platinum reserves in South Africa having estimated reserves of 68.9 million oz of platinum. The mine produces around 800,000 oz of platinum/year.
Pierre-François Chabaneau
Chabaneau was able to easily remove most of platinum's natural impurities, including gold, mercury, lead, copper, and iron, leading him to believe that he was working with pure platinum. However, the metal displayed inconsistent characteristics. At times it was malleable, yet at times it was highly brittle. Sometimes it was entirely incombustible, yet sometimes it burned readily. These inconsistencies were a result of various impurities: rhodium, palladium, osmium, iridium, and ruthenium. These elements would later come to be known as the platinum group metals, but at the time of Chabaneau's research, they had not yet been discovered.
Platinum group
As of 1996, the largest applications of platinum metals were, in thousands of troy ounces/year: Pd for autocatalysts (4470), Pt for jewelry (2370), Pd for electronics (2070), Pt for autocatalysts (1830), Pd for dental (1230), Rh for autocatalysts (490), and Pd for chemical reagents (230).
Platinum group
Osmiridium is a naturally occurring alloy of iridium and osmium found in platinum-bearing river sands in the Ural Mountains and in North and South America. Trace amounts of osmium also exist in nickel-bearing ores found in the Sudbury, Ontario region along with other platinum group metals. Even though the quantity of platinum metals found in these ores is small, the large volume of nickel ores processed makes commercial recovery possible.
Ruthenium
Ruthenium is a chemical element with symbol Ru and atomic number 44. It is a rare transition metal belonging to the platinum group of the periodic table. Like the other metals of the platinum group, ruthenium is inert to most other chemicals. Russian-born scientist of Baltic-German ancestry Karl Ernst Claus discovered the element in 1844 at Kazan State University and named it after the Latin name of his homeland, "Ruthenia". Ruthenium is usually found as a minor component of platinum ores; the annual production has risen from about 19 tonnes in 2009 to some 35.5 tonnes in 2017. Most ruthenium produced is used in wear-resistant electrical contacts and thick-film resistors. A minor application for ruthenium is in platinum alloys and as a chemistry catalyst. A new application of ruthenium is as the capping layer for extreme ultraviolet photomasks. Ruthenium is generally found in ores with the other platinum group metals in the Ural Mountains and in North and South America. Small but commercially important quantities are also found in pentlandite extracted from Sudbury, Ontario and in pyroxenite deposits in South Africa.
Rhenium
Rhenium is one of the rarest elements in Earth's crust with an average concentration of 1 ppb; other sources quote the number of 0.5 ppb making it the 77th most abundant element in Earth's crust. Rhenium is probably not found free in nature (its possible natural occurrence is uncertain), but occurs in amounts up to 0.2% in the mineral molybdenite (which is primarily molybdenum disulfide), the major commercial source, although single molybdenite samples with up to 1.88% have been found. Chile has the world's largest rhenium reserves, part of the copper ore deposits, and was the leading producer as of 2005. It was only recently that the first rhenium mineral was found and described (in 1994), a rhenium sulfide mineral (ReS) condensing from a fumarole on Kudriavy volcano, Iturup island, in the Kuril Islands. Kudryavy discharges up to 20–60 kg rhenium per year mostly in the form of rhenium disulfide. Named rheniite, this rare mineral commands high prices among collectors.
Krasnoyarsk Krai
The krai is among the richest of Russia's regions in natural resources. Eighty percent of the country's nickel, 75% of its cobalt, 70% of its copper, 16% of its coal, and 10% of its gold are extracted here. Krasnoyarsk also produces 20% of the country's timber. More than 95% of Russian resources of platinum and platinoids are concentrated in the krai.
Fountain pen
According to Mathur et al., "the modern fountain pen nib may be traced back to the original gold nib which had a tiny fragment of ruby attached to form the wear-point." Following the discovery of the platinum group of metals which include ruthenium, osmium and iridium, "a small quantity of iridium was isolated and used on the iridium-tipped gold dip pen nibs of the 1830s." Today, nibs are usually made of stainless steel or gold alloys, with the most popular gold content being 14 carat (58⅓%) and 18 carat (75%). Titanium is a less common metal used for making nibs. Gold is considered the optimum metal for its flexibility and its resistance to corrosion, although gold's corrosion resistance is less of an issue than in the past because of better stainless steel alloys and less corrosive inks.
Visconti uses a nib made out of palladium, as it acts like gold, but is rarer and more exotic.
Platinum group
Palladium is preferentially hosted in sulphide minerals, primarily in pyrrhotite. Palladium is found as a free metal and alloyed with platinum and gold with platinum group metals in placer deposits of the Ural Mountains of Eurasia, Australia, Ethiopia, South and North America. However it is commercially produced from nickel-copper deposits found in South Africa and Ontario, Canada. The huge volume of nickel-copper ore processed makes this extraction profitable in spite of its low concentration in these ores.
Nuclear power
Uranium is a fairly common element in the Earth's crust: it is approximately as common as tin or germanium, and is about 40 times more common than silver.
Uranium is present in trace concentrations in most rocks, dirt, and ocean water, but is generally economically extracted only where it is present in high concentrations.
As of 2011 the world's known resources of uranium, economically recoverable at the arbitrary price ceiling of US$130/kg, were enough to last for between 70 and 100 years.
Platinum
Hexachloroplatinic acid mentioned above is probably the most important platinum compound, as it serves as the precursor for many other platinum compounds. By itself, it has various applications in photography, zinc etchings, indelible ink, plating, mirrors, porcelain coloring, and as a catalyst.
Period 6 element
Platinum has six naturally occurring isotopes. It is one of the rarest elements in the Earth's crust and has an average abundance of approximately 5 μg/kg. It is the least reactive metal. It occurs in some nickel and copper ores along with some native deposits, mostly in South Africa, which accounts for 80% of the world production.
Lead
Lead's per-particle abundance in the Solar System is 0.121 ppb (parts per billion). This figure is two and a half times higher than that of platinum, eight times more than mercury, and seventeen times more than gold. The amount of lead in the universe is slowly increasing as most heavier atoms (all of which are unstable) gradually decay to lead. The abundance of lead in the Solar System since its formation 4.5 billion years ago has increased by about 0.75%. The solar system abundances table shows that lead, despite its relatively high atomic number, is more prevalent than most other elements with atomic numbers greater than 40.
Twickenham mine
The Twickenham mine is a large open pit mine located in the north-western part of South Africa in Mokopane, Limpopo. Twickenham represents one of the largest platinum reserves in South Africa having estimated reserves of 39.6 million oz of platinum. The mine produces around 45,000 oz of platinum/year.
Khomanani mine
The Khomanani mine is a large open pit mine located in the north-western part of South Africa in Rustenburg, North West. Khomanani represents one of the largest platinum reserves in South Africa having estimated reserves of 5.3 million oz of platinum. The mine produces around 120,000 oz of platinum/year.
Peridotite
Layered intrusions with cumulate peridotite are typically associated with sulfide or chromite ores. Sulfides associated with peridotites form nickel ores and platinoid metals; most of the platinum used in the world today is mined from the Bushveld Igneous Complex in South Africa and the Great Dyke of Zimbabwe. The chromite bands found in peridotites are the world's major source of chromium.
Platinum group
The six platinum-group metals are ruthenium, rhodium, palladium, osmium, iridium, and platinum. They have similar physical and chemical properties, and tend to occur together in the same mineral deposits. However they can be further subdivided into the iridium-group platinum-group elements (IPGEs: Os, Ir, Ru) and the palladium-group platinum-group elements (PPGEs: Rh, Pt, Pd) based on their behaviour in geological systems.
Bushveld Igneous Complex
Platinum is more likely to be affected by social, environmental, political and economic issues where as gold not as much. This is because platinum has large mineral resources already identified and is not expected to be depleted for many decades (potentially up to year 2040). Furthermore, the resource is geographically restricted with the 3 by far most significant resources BIC, The great dyke (Zimbabwe) and Noril'sk-Talnakh in Russia. An important detail to note is palladium has been and is considered as the alternative to platinum. Recently (2017), the supply-demand gap has greatly decreased. Looking at political and social issues, there have been quite a few platinum mining-related strikes since before the 21st century: 1986 Impala strike, 1986 Gencor, 2004 Impala & Anglo Plats strikes, 2007 South Africa miners' strike, 2012 Marikana killings, Lonmin 2013 strike, 2014 South African platinum strike.
Dishaba mine
The Dishaba mine is a large open pit mine located in the north-western part of South Africa in Thabazimbi, Limpopo. Tumela represents one of the largest platinum reserves in South Africa having estimated reserves of 24.6 million oz of platinum. The mine produces around 160,000 oz of platinum/year.