Is Ritalin the same as Focalin?
Attention deficit hyperactivity disorder management
There are two major medications derived from methylphenidate's isomers: a racemic mixture of half d-threo-methylphenidate and half l-threo-methylphenidate called methylphenidate (Ritalin, Concerta), and an enantiopure formulation containing just d-threo-methylphenidate called dexmethylphenidate (Focalin).
Flavin reductase
Flavin reductase is in a class of enzymes which catalyzes the reduction of a substrate. There are a variety of flavin reductases, (i.e. FRP, FRE, FRG, etc.) which bind free flavins and through hydrogen bonding, catalyze the reduction of these molecules to a reduced flavin. Riboflavin, or vitamin B, and flavin mononucleotide are two of the most well known flavins in the body and are used in a variety of processes which include metabolism of fat and ketones and the reduction of methemoglobin in erythrocytes. Flavin reductases are similar and often confused for ferric reductases because of their similar catalytic mechanism and structures.
Rafoxanide
Rafoxanide is a salicylanilide used as an anthelmintic. It is most commonly used in ruminant animals to treat adult liver flukes of the species "Fasciola hepatica" and "Fasciola gigantica".
Attention deficit hyperactivity disorder predominantly inattentive
The fast-acting methylphenidate (Ritalin), is a dopamine reuptake inhibitor. In the short term, methylphenidate is well tolerated. However, long term studies have not been conducted in adults and concerns about increases in blood pressure have not been established.
Miracle (2004 film)
Elvis Mitchell of "The New York Times" stated that the movie "does a yeoman's job of recycling the day-old dough that passes for its story." Kenneth Turan of the "Los Angeles Times" referred to the movie as "a classically well-made studio entertainment that, like "The Rookie" of a few years back, has the knack of being moving without shamelessly overdoing a sure thing." O'Callahan said in an interview that while the fight between him and McClanahan was fictional the film accurately portrayed the "pretty intense" rivalry between Boston University and Minnesota players, and was overall "pretty darn close" to actual events.
Single Convention on Narcotic Drugs
The Single Convention allows only drugs with morphine-like, cocaine-like, and cannabis-like effects to be added to the Schedules. The strength of the drug is not relevant; only the similarity of its effects to the substances already controlled. For instance, etorphine and acetorphine were considered sufficiently morphine-like to fall under the treaty's scope, although they are many times more potent than morphine. However, according to the Commentary:
Prevention of migraines
A wide range of other pharmacological drugs have been evaluated to determine their efficacy in reducing the frequency or severity of migraine attacks. These drugs include beta-blockers, calcium antagonists, neurostabalizers, nonsteroidal anti-inflammatory drugs (NSAIDs), tricyclic antidepressants, selective serotonin reuptake inhibitors (SSRIs), other antidepressants, and other specialized drug therapies. The US Headache Consortium lists five drugs as having medium to high efficacy: amitriptyline, divalproex, timolol, propranolol and topiramate. Lower efficacy drugs listed include aspirin, atenolol, fenoprofen, flurbiprofen, fluoxetine, gabapentin, ketoprofen, metoprolol, nadolol, naproxen, nimodipine, verapamil and Botulinum A. Additionally, most antidepressants (tricyclic, SSRIs and others such as Bupropion) are listed as "clinically efficacious based on consensus of experience" without scientific support. Many of these drugs may give rise to undesirable side-effects, or may be efficacious in treating comorbid conditions, such as depression.A transcutaneous electrical nerve stimulation device called Cefaly was approved by the Food and Drug Administration in the United States on March 11, 2014 for the prevention of migraines; this was the first medical device to get FDA approval for this purpose.
Rosiglitazone
In 2011 the FDA has decided on revising its prescribing information and medication guides for all rosilitazone containing medicines. The US label for rosiglitazone (Avandia, GlaxoSmithKline) and all rosiglitazone-containing medications (Avandamet and Avandaryl) now include the additional safety information and restrictions. The revised labels restrict use to patients already taking a rosiglitazone-containing medicine or to new patients who are unable to achieve adequate glycemic control on other diabetes medications and to those, who in consultation with their healthcare provider, have decided not to take Actos (pioglitazone) or other pioglitazone-containing medicines for medical reasons.
Stimulant
Methylphenidate is sold in many forms, its most common trade name is the oral tablet Ritalin. Other versions include the long lasting tablet Concerta and the long lasting transdermal patch Daytrana.
Cathine
Like amphetamines, cathinone, and ephedrine, cathine acts as a norepinephrine releasing agent (NRA). It also acts as a dopamine releasing agent (DRA) to a lesser extent.
Richard Scruggs
A short time after the tobacco lawsuit, Scruggs led and became a spokesman for the plaintiffs in the Ritalin class action lawsuits. He asserted that the makers of Ritalin "manufactured a disease" and that Ritalin "has been grossly over-prescribed. It is a huge risk." Following a ruling by the Illinois Supreme Court stating that HMOs could be sued, as opposed to only doctors, Scruggs led a new set of lawsuits against American HMOs. In June 2004, Scruggs also led a lawsuit against 13 non-profit hospital groups, alleging they hoarded funds gained from tax breaks while dispensing inadequate care. All five class actions in five states were dismissed before trial.
Attention deficit hyperactivity disorder management
The treatment of ADHD in the presence of tic disorders has long been a controversial topic. Past medical practice held that stimulants (such as Ritalin) could not be used in the presence of tics, due to concern that their use might worsen tics; however, multiple lines of research have shown that stimulants can be cautiously used in the presence of tic disorders. Several studies have shown that stimulants do not exacerbate tics any more than placebo does, and suggest that stimulants may even reduce tic severity. A 2011 Cochrane Collaboration review concluded that most major ADHD medications were effective in children with tics, and that stimulants did not generally worsen tics outside of individual cases. Methylphenidate, guanfacine, clonidine, and desipramine were associated with improvement of tic symptoms. Controversy remains, and the PDR continues to carry a warning that stimulants should not be used in the presence of tic disorders, so physicians may be reluctant to use them. Others are comfortable using them and even advocate for a stimulant trial when ADHD co-occurs with tics, because the symptoms of ADHD can be more impairing than tics.
Prevention of migraines
Tricyclic antidepressants (TCAs) such as amitriptyline and the newer selective serotonin reuptake inhibitors (SSRIs) such as fluoxetine are sometimes prescribed. Tricyclic antidepressants have been found to be more effective than SSRIs. Selective serotonin reuptake inhibitors are no more effective than placebo. Another meta-analysis found benefit from SSRIs among patients with migraine or tension headache; however, the effect of SSRIs on only migraines was not separately reported.
Dexmethylphenidate
Dexmethylphenidate has a 4–6 hour duration of effect (a long-acting formulation, Focalin XR, which spans 12 hours is also available and has been shown to be as effective as -TMP (threo-methylphenidate) XR (extended release) (Concerta, Ritalin LA), with flexible dosing and good tolerability.) It has also been demonstrated to reduce ADHD symptoms in both children and adults. d-MPH has a similar side-effect profile to MPH and can be administered without regard to food intake.
Red yeast rice
The US Food and Drug Administration (FDA) position is that red yeast rice products that contain monacolin K, i.e., lovastatin, are identical to a drug and, thus, subject to regulation as a drug. In 1998, the FDA initiated action to ban a product (Cholestin) containing red yeast rice extract. The U.S. District Court in Utah allowed the product to be sold without restriction. This decision was reversed on appeal to the U.S. Court of Appeals. (Moore, 2001) (see External links: PDRhealth). Thereafter, the FDA sent Warning Letters to companies selling red yeast rice. The product disappeared from the market for a few years.
Hydromorphinol
Hydromorphinol (RAM-320, 14-Hydroxydihydromorphine), also is an opiate analogue that is a derivative of morphine, where the 14-position has been hydroxylated and the 7,8- double bond saturated. It has similar effects to morphine such as sedation, analgesia and respiratory depression, but is twice as potent as morphine and has a steeper dose-response curve and longer half-life. It is used in medicine as the bitartrate salt (free base conversion ratio 0.643, molecular weight 471.5) and hydrochloride (free base conversion ratio 0.770, molecular weight 393.9)
Morphine
A number of salts of morphine are used, with the most common in current clinical use being the hydrochloride, sulfate, tartrate, and citrate; less commonly methobromide, hydrobromide, hydroiodide, lactate, chloride, and bitartrate and the others listed below. Morphine diacetate, which is another name for heroin, is a Schedule I controlled substance, so it is not used clinically in the United States; it is a sanctioned medication in the United Kingdom and in Canada and some countries in Continental Europe, its use being particularly common (nearly to the degree of the hydrochloride salt) in the United Kingdom. Morphine meconate is a major form of the alkaloid in the poppy, as is morphine pectinate, nitrate, sulfate, and some others. Like codeine, dihydrocodeine and other (especially older) opiates, morphine has been used as the salicylate salt by some suppliers and can be easily compounded, imparting the therapeutic advantage of both the opioid and the NSAID; multiple barbiturate salts of morphine were also used in the past, as was/is morphine valerate, the salt of the acid being the active principle of valerian. Calcium morphenate is the intermediate in various latex and poppy-straw methods of morphine production, more rarely sodium morphenate takes its place. Morphine ascorbate and other salts such as the tannate, citrate, and acetate, phosphate, valerate and others may be present in poppy tea depending on the method of preparation. Morphine valerate produced industrially was one ingredient of a medication available for both oral and parenteral administration popular many years ago in Europe and elsewhere called Trivalin (not to be confused with the current, unrelated herbal preparation of the same name), which also included the valerates of caffeine and cocaine, with a version containing codeine valerate as a fourth ingredient being distributed under the name Tetravalin.
Ritalin class-action lawsuits
The Ritalin class-action lawsuits were a series of federal lawsuits in 2000, filed in five separate US states. All five lawsuits were dismissed by the end of 2002. The lawsuits alleged that the makers of methylphenidate (brand name Ritalin) and the American Psychiatric Association had conspired to invent and promote the disorder ADHD to create a highly profitable market for the drug. The lawsuit also alleged that CHADD (children and adults with attention deficit/hyperactivity disorder) deliberately attempted to increase the supply of Ritalin and ease restrictions on the supply of Ritalin to help increase profits for Novartis.
Rizatriptan
Rizatriptan (trade name Maxalt) is a 5-HT receptor agonist of the triptan class of drugs developed by Merck & Co. for the treatment of migraine headaches. It is available in strengths of 5 and 10 mg as tablets and orally disintegrating tablets (Maxalt-MLT).
Methylone
Methylone acts as a mixed reuptake inhibitor/releasing agent of serotonin, norepinephrine, and dopamine. In comparison to MDMA, it has approximately 3x lower affinity for the serotonin transporter, while its affinity for the norepinephrine and dopamine transporters is similar. Notably, methylone's affinity for the vesicular monoamine transporter 2 (VMAT2) is about 13x lower than that of MDMA. The results of these differences in pharmacology relative to MDMA are that methylone is less potent in terms of dose, has more balanced catecholaminergic effects relative to serotonergic, and behaves more like a reuptake inhibitor like methylphenidate than a releaser like amphetamine; however, methylone has relatively robust releasing capabilities, perhaps due to its ability to phosphorylate the monoamine transporters being similar in potency relative to MDMA.
RTI-120
(–)-2β-Carbophenoxy-3β-(p-tolyl)tropane (RTI-"4229"-120) is a phenyltropane derivative which acts as a reasonably selective dopamine reuptake inhibitor, along with weaker inhibition of noradrenaline and serotonin reuptake. It has a reasonably fast rate of occupancy of dopamine transporters in the brain, though slower than that of cocaine itself. RTI-120 has a short duration of action, along with other p-methyl substituted phenyltropanes such as RTI-150, RTI-171 and RTI-199, giving it a more similar pharmacological profile to cocaine compared to longer acting analogues like RTI-121 and RTI-177.
Vesicular monoamine transporter
Unlike methamphetamine, the psychostimulant cocaine interacts with VMAT2 in such a way that mobilizes VMAT2-expressing vesicles, causing a shift in VMAT2 protein from a plasmalemmal (synaptosomal) membrane fraction to a vesicle-enriched fraction that is not associated with the synaptosomal membrane and not retained in synaptosomal preparations. The drug methylphenidate (branded Ritalin and Concerta) is believed to interact with VMAT2 in a similar fashion.
Metformin
In November 2013, the FDA lifted its earlier restrictions on rosiglitazone after reviewing the results of the 2009 RECORD clinical trial (a six-year, open label randomized control trial), which failed to show elevated risk of heart attack or death associated with the medication.
Bilastine
Clinical studies using different dosages were done on histamine-induced wheal and flare reaction over a 24-h period, compared with a single 10-mg oral dose of cetirizine. The results of this research indicated that bilastine was at least as efficient as cetirizine in reducing histamine-mediated effects in healthy volunteers. Remarkably, 20 and 50 mg of bilastine reduced the wheal and flare reaction significantly more quickly than cetirizine.
Ritalin class-action lawsuits
The first class action was filed in Texas by the law firm Waters & Kraus in 2000. They created a webpage called Ritalinfraud.com which had an online form to seek additional participants in class action lawsuits. According to Breggin, plaintiff Andy Waters had previously read his book "Talking back to Ritalin" before filing his lawsuit. The firm believed that the improper conduct of Novartis rivaled the improper conduct of the tobacco and asbestos industries and that the drug company could be liable for billions of dollars. The firm claimed that Novartis specifically took the following steps to dramatically increase the sale of Ritalin.A spokesperson for Novartis responded to the Texas suit, "Ritalin has been used safely and effectively in the treatment of millions of ADHD patients for over 40 years, and is the most studied drug prescribed for the disorder."
List of cocaine analogues
Many phenethylamines are dopamine releasers, however, certain drugs of the family inhibit dopamine reuptake & transport which may be loosely classed as cocaine analogs. Dependent upon their specific configurations. Like has been shown with cocaine, methylenedioxypyrovalerone (MDPV) has been shown to similarly be neuroprotective against the neural damage caused by amphetamine type drugs ("i.e." releasers)Nicotinic agonist which stimulates the release of dopamine.Being a carboxylic acid, amfonelic acid could potentially be used as a carboxylate for the protonation to the free base of another compound; even conceivably creating a 'cocaine amfonelate' or 'cocaine AFA' as opposed to cocaine HCl, cocaine citrate or cocaine HBr "et cetera" wherein such a case it's conjugate used to form it as a salt would additionally be dopaminergic.
Modafinil
In any case, there is nonetheless a good deal of evidence to indicate that modafinil is producing at least a portion of its wakefulness-promoting effects by acting as a DRI, or at least via activation of the dopaminergic system. In support of modafinil acting as a dopaminergic agent, its wakefulness-promoting effects are abolished in DAT knockout mice (although it is important to note that DAT knockout mice show D and D receptor and norepinephrine compensatory abnormalities, which might confound this finding), reduced by both D and D receptor antagonists (although conflicting reports exist), and completely blocked by simultaneous inactivation of both D and D receptors. In accordance, modafinil shows full stimulus generalization to other DAT inhibitors including cocaine, methylphenidate, and vanoxerine, and discrimination is blocked by administration of both ecopipam (SCH-39166), a D receptor antagonist, and haloperidol, a D receptor antagonist. Partial substitution was seen with the DRA dextroamphetamine and the D receptor agonist PNU-91356A, as well as with nicotine (which indirectly elevates dopamine levels through activation of nicotinic acetylcholine receptors).
Methylphenidate
Ritalin LA capsules are marked with the letters "NVR" (abbrev.: Novartis) and followed by: "R20", "R30", or "R40", depending on the (mg) dosage strength. Ritalin LA provides two standard doses – half the total dose being released immediately and the other half released four hours later. In total, each capsule is effective for about eight hours.
Novartis
In September 2008, the US Food and Drug Administration (FDA) sent a notice to Novartis Pharmaceuticals regarding its advertising of Focalin XR, an ADHD drug, in which the company overstated its efficacy while marketing to the public and medical professionals.
Vesicular monoamine transporter
Cocaine and methylphenidate (MPD, also known as Ritalin and Concerta) are believed to interact with VMAT2 in such a way that causes a shift in VMAT2 protein "from a plasmalemmal membrane-associated fraction to a vesicle-enriched, nonmembrane-associated fraction."
Serotonin–norepinephrine reuptake inhibitor
Since the late 1980s, SSRIs have dominated the antidepressant drug market. Today, there is increased interest in antidepressant drugs with broader mechanisms of action that may offer improvements in efficacy and fewer adverse effects. In 1993, a new drug was introduced to the US market called venlafaxine, a serotonin-norepinephrine reuptake inhibitor. Venlafaxine was the first compound described in a new class of antidepressive substances called phenylethylamines. These substances are unrelated to TCA and other SSRIs. Venlafaxine blocks the neuronal reuptake of serotonin, noradrenaline, and, to a lesser extent, dopamine in the central nervous system. In contrast with several other antidepressant drugs, venlafaxine can induce a rapid onset of action mainly due to a subsequent norepinephrine reuptake inhibition. See timeline in figure 1.
Date rape drug
Rohypnol is believed to be commonly used in DFSA in the United States, the United Kingdom, and throughout Europe, Asia and South America. Although Rohypnol's use in DFSA has been covered extensively in the news media, researchers disagree about how common such use actually is. Law enforcement manuals describe it as one of the drugs most commonly implicated in DFSA, but according to research conducted by Michael Robertson from the San Diego Medical Examiner's office and Dr. Mahmoud El Sohly of El Sohly Laboratories, test results indicated that flunitrazepam was only used in around 1% of reported date rapes according to Robertson and 0.33% according to urine lab tests done by El Sohly, of the rape-kits that actually get tested in time. Despite having a long half-life (18–28 hours) an incorrect belief is that Rohypnol is undetectable 12 hours after administration which may result in victims failing to get a blood or urine test the following day.
Moclobemide
Moclobemide is a benzamide, derivative of morpholine, which acts pharmacologically as a selective, reversible inhibitor of monoamine oxidase A (RIMA), a type of monoamine oxidase inhibitor (MAOI), and increases levels of norepinephrine (noradrenaline), dopamine, and especially serotonin. in neuronal cells as well as in synaptic vesicles; extracellular levels also increase which results in increased monoamine receptor stimulation and suppression of REM sleep, down regulation of 3-adrenoceptors. A single 300 mg dose of moclobemide inhibits 80% of monoamine oxidase A (MAO-A) and 30% of monoamine oxidase B (MAO-B), blocking the decomposition of norepinephrine, serotonin and, to a lesser extent, dopamine. There is also some evidence pointing towards moclobemide possessing neuroprotective properties. There is no cumulative effect of moclobemide centrally when taken long-term. With long-term use of moclobemide, there is a significant down-regulation of B-adrenoceptors. Single or repeated dosing with 100–300 mg of moclobemide leads to a reduction in deaminated metabolites of amines such as 3,4-dihydroxyphenylacetic acid, 3,4-dihydroxyphenylethylglycol as well as 5-HIAA. Excretion of homovanillic acid and vanillylmandelic acid via urine is also reduced. There is also a temporary increase in prolactin during initial intake of 100–300 mg of moclobemide. L-dihydroxyphenylalanine is also reduced. However, suppression of the serotonin metabolite is less pronounced than the inhibition of the metabolite of noradrenaline which suggest there are other major metabolic pathways for serotonin other than MAO-A.
Pregabalin
Pregabalin was synthesized in 1990 as an anticonvulsant. It was invented by medicinal chemist Richard Bruce Silverman at Northwestern University in Evanston, Illinois. Silverman is best known for identifying the drug pregabalin as a possible treatment for epileptic seizures. During 1988 to 1990, Ryszard Andruszkiewicz, a visiting research fellow, synthesized a series of molecules for Silverman. One looked particularly promising. The molecule was effectively shaped for transportation into the brain, where it activated L-glutamic acid decarboxylase, an enzyme. Silverman hoped that the enzyme would increase production of the inhibitory neurotransmitter GABA and block convulsions. Eventually, the set of molecules were sent to Parke-Davis Pharmaceuticals for testing. The drug was approved in the European Union in 2004. The US received FDA approval for use in treating epilepsy, diabetic neuropathic pain, and postherpetic neuralgia in December 2004. Pregabalin then appeared on the US market under the brand name" Lyrica" in fall of 2005. In 2017, FDA approved pregabalin extended-release "Lyrica CR" but unlike the immediate release formulation it was not approved for the management of fibromyalgia or as adjunctive therapy for adult patients with partial onset seizures.
Retinal migraine
The terms "retinal migraine" and "ocular migraine" are often confused with "visual migraine", which is a far-more-common symptom of vision loss, resulting from the aura phase of the common migraine. The aura phase of migraine can occur with or without a headache. Ocular or retinal migraines happen in the eye, so only affect the vision in that eye, while visual migraines occur in the brain, so affect the vision in both eyes together. Visual migraines result from cortical spreading depression and are also commonly termed scintillating scotoma.
Lecirelin
Lecirelin, or lecirelin acetate, sold under the brand names Dalmarelin, Ovucron, and Reproreline, is a short-acting gonadotropin-releasing hormone agonist (GnRH agonist) medication which is used in veterinary medicine in Europe and Israel. It is a GnRH analogue and a synthetic peptide, specifically a nonapeptide. The drug was introduced for veterinary use by 2000.
Renal colic
The renal colic must be differentiated from the following conditions:Most small stones are passed spontaneously and only pain management is required. Above 5 mm the rate of spontaneous stone passage decreases. NSAIDs (non-steroidal anti-inflammatory drugs), such as diclofenac or ibuprofen, and antispasmodics like butylscopolamine are used. Although morphine may be administered to assist with emergency pain management, it is often not recommended as morphine is very addictive and raises ureteral pressure, worsening the condition. Vomiting is also considered an important adverse effect of opioids, mainly with pethidine. Oral narcotic medications are also often used. There is typically no antalgic position for the patient (lying down on the non-aching side and applying a hot bottle or towel to the area affected may help). Larger stones may require surgical intervention for their removal, such as shockwave lithotripsy, ureteroscopy or percutaneous nephrolithotomy. Patients can also be treated with alpha blockers in cases where the stone is located in the ureter.
Functional analog (chemistry)
In chemistry and pharmacology, functional analogs are chemical compounds that have similar physical, chemical, biochemical, or pharmacological properties. Functional analogs are not necessarily structural analogs with a similar chemical structure. An example of pharmacological functional analogs are morphine, heroin and fentanyl, which have the same mechanism of action, but fentanyl is structurally quite different from the other two.
Norepinephrine
Attention deficit hyperactivity disorder is a psychiatric condition involving problems with attention, hyperactivity, and impulsiveness. It is most commonly treated using stimulant drugs such as methylphenidate (Ritalin), whose primary effect is to increase dopamine levels in the brain, but drugs in this group also generally increase brain levels of norepinephrine, and it has been difficult to determine whether these actions are involved in their clinical value. Also there is substantial evidence that many people with ADHD show "biomarkers" involving altered norepinephrine processing. Several drugs whose primary effects are on norepinephrine, including guanfacine, clonidine, and atomoxetine, have been tried as treatments for ADHD, and found to have effects comparable to those of stimulants.
Modafinil
In Russia modafinil is Schedule II controlled substance like cocaine and morphine. Possession of few modafinil pills can lead to 3–10 years imprisonment.
CRL-40,940
CRL-40,940 (also known as flmodafinil, bisfluoromodafinil and lauflumide) is the bisfluoro analog of modafinil. It is a eugeroic as well as a weak dopamine reuptake inhibitor. Its inventors claim that it is more effective than modafinil and adrafinil, with fewer side effects. It was patented in 2013, and Phase I clinical trials have been underway since December 2015.
Serotonin–dopamine reuptake inhibitor
Medifoxamine (Cledial, Gerdaxyl) is an antidepressant that appears to act as an SDRI as well as a 5-HT receptor antagonist. Sibutramine (Reductil, Meridia, Siredia, Sibutrex) is a withdrawn anorectic that itself as a molecule "in vitro" is an SNDRI but preferentially an SDRI, with 18.3- and 5.8-fold preference for inhibiting the reuptake of serotonin and dopamine over norepinephrine, respectively. However, the metabolites of sibutramine are substantially more potent and possess different ratios of monoamine reuptake inhibition in comparison, and sibutramine appears to be acting "in vivo" mainly as a prodrug to them; accordingly, it was found to act as an SNRI (73% and 54% for norepinephrine and serotonin reuptake inhibition, respectively) in human volunteers with only very weak inhibition of dopamine reuptake (16%).
Impulsivity
The primary pharmacological treatments for ADHD are methylphenidate (Ritalin) and amphetamine. Both methylphenidate and amphetamines block re-uptake of dopamine and norepinephrine into the pre-synaptic neuron, acting to increase post-synaptic levels of dopamine and norepinephrine. Of these two monoamines, increased availability of dopamine is considered the primary cause for the ameliorative effects of ADHD medications, whereas increased levels of norepinephrine may be efficacious only to the extent that it has downstream, indirect effects on dopamine. 
The effectiveness of dopamine re-uptake inhibitors in treating the symptoms of ADHD has led to the hypothesis that ADHD may arise from low tonic levels of dopamine (particularly in the fronto-limbic circuitry), but evidence in support of this theory is mixed.
Fungal isolate
Penicillin, cephalosporins, fusafungine, usnic acid, fusidic acid, fumagillin, brefeldin A, verrucarin A, alamethicin, are antibiotic fungal isolates. Antibiotics retapamulin, tiamulin, and valnemulin are derivatives of the fungal isolate pleuromutilin. Griseofulvin, echinocandins, strobilurin, azoxystrobin, caspofungin, micafungin, are fungal isolates with antifungal activity.
Timeline of psychiatry
Ritalin (Methylphenidate) was synthesized.
Amitriptyline
Amitriptyline, sold under the brand name Elavil among others, is a medicine primarily used to treat a number of mental illnesses. These include major depressive disorder and anxiety disorders, and less commonly attention deficit hyperactivity disorder and bipolar disorder. Other uses include prevention of migraines, treatment of neuropathic pain such as fibromyalgia and postherpetic neuralgia, and less commonly insomnia. It is in the tricyclic antidepressant (TCA) class and its exact mechanism of action is unclear. Amitriptyline is taken by mouth.
Common side effects include a dry mouth, trouble seeing, low blood pressure on standing, sleepiness, and constipation. Serious side effects may include seizures, an increased risk of suicide in those less than 25 years of age, urinary retention, glaucoma, and a number of heart issues. It should not be taken with MAO inhibitors or the medication cisapride. Amitriptyline may cause problems if taken during pregnancy. Use during breastfeeding appears to be relatively safe.
Amitriptyline was discovered in 1960 and approved by the US Food and Drug Administration (FDA) in 1961. It is on the World Health Organization's List of Essential Medicines, the most effective and safe medicines needed in a health system. It is available as a generic medication. The wholesale cost in the developing world was between 0.01 and US$0.04 per dose. In the United States it costs about US$0.20 per dose.
List of off-label promotion pharmaceutical settlements
Cephalon, a Pennsylvania-based drug company, paid out $425 million, $50 million of which was paid to resolve a criminal indictment for violations of the FDCA, and $375 million to dispose of claims brought under the False Claims Act. Four "qui tam" relators who filed suits collectively recovered $46,469,978 as their share. The FDA approved Actiq, a fentanyl product manufactured as a lollipop, for use in cancer patients for whom morphine-based painkillers are no longer effective. According to the government, Cephalon promoted Actiq for use in non-cancer patients to treat such conditions as migraines, sickle-cell pain crises, and other injuries. Gabitril, meanwhile, received FDA approval as a treatment for partial seizures, but the manufacturer allegedly marketed the drug for anxiety, insomnia, and pain. Provigil was initially approved to treat excessive daytime sleepiness resulting from narcolepsy, and later approved the drug for further label indications. Cephalon allegedly promoted Provigil for a five-year period as a non-stimulant drug for the treatment of sleepiness, tiredness, decreased
activity, lack of energy, and fatigue.
Ritalinic acid
Ritalinic acid is a substituted phenethylamine and an inactive major metabolite of the psychostimulant drugs methylphenidate and ethylphenidate. When administered orally, methylphenidate is extensively metabolized in the liver by hydrolysis of the ester group yielding ritalinic acid. The hydrolysis was found to be catalyzed by carboxylesterase 1 (CES1).
Ritalinic acid is used as an intermediate in the synthesis of methylphenidate and its analogues, such as ethylphenidate and isopropylphenidate.
Vitamin R (Leading Us Along)
"Vitamin R (Leading Us Along)" is a single from Chevelle's album "This Type of Thinking (Could Do Us In)". It was their second number-one hit on the "Billboard" Hot Mainstream Rock Tracks chart and reached number three on the "Billboard" Hot Modern Rock Tracks chart. In interviews, it has been stated that "Vitamin R" is Ritalin. The song was written about a friend of the Loeffler brothers, who was misdiagnosed with ADHD, and developed an addiction to Ritalin.
Norepinephrine transporter
Certain antidepressant medications act to raise noradrenaline, such as serotonin-norepinephrine reuptake inhibitors (SNRIs), norepinephrine-dopamine reuptake inhibitors (NDRIs), norepinephrine reuptake inhibitors (NRIs or NERIs) and the tricyclic antidepressants (TCAs). The mechanism by which these medications work is that the reuptake inhibitors prevent the reuptake of serotonin and norepinephrine by the presynaptic neuron, paralyzing the normal function of the NET. At the same time, higher levels of 5-HT are maintained in the synapse increasing the concentrations of the latter neurotransmitters. Since the noradrenaline transporter is responsible for most of the dopamine clearance in the prefrontal cortex, SNRIs block reuptake of dopamine too, accumulating the dopamine in the synapse. However, DAT, the primary way dopamine is transported out of the cell, can work to decrease dopamine concentration in the synapse when the NET is blocked. For many years, the number one choice in treating mood disorders like depression was through administration of TCAs, such as desipramine (Norpramin), nortriptyline (Arentyl, Pamelor), protriptyline (Vivactil) and amoxapine (Asendin). SSRIs, which mainly regulate serotonin, subsequently replaced tricyclics as the primary treatment option for depression because of their better tolerability and lower incidence of adverse effects.
Metapramine
Metapramine has desipramine-like effects, acting as a norepinephrine reuptake inhibitor without affecting the reuptake of serotonin or dopamine. It has also been shown to act as a low-affinity NMDA receptor antagonist. Metapramine's direct effects on serotonin, histamine, and muscarinic acetylcholine receptors have not been assayed, but uniquely among most TCAs, it has anecdotally been reported to lack anticholinergic effects.
Dexmethylphenidate
Dexmethylphenidate, sold under the trade names Focalin among others, is a potent central nervous system (CNS) stimulant used in the treatment of attention deficit hyperactivity disorder (ADHD) and narcolepsy.
Escaline
Escaline (3,5-methoxy-4-ethoxyphenethylamine) is a psychedelic drug and entheogen of the phenethylamine class of compounds. Escaline was first synthesized and reported in the scientific literature by Benington, et al., in 1954, but was later re-examined in the laboratory of David E. Nichols, who prepared a series of mescaline analogues that included escaline, proscaline, and isoproscaline. The effects of this and related mescaline analogues in humans were first described by Alexander Shulgin. In his book "PiHKAL (Phenethylamines i Have Known And Loved)", Shulgin lists the dosage range as 40 to 60 mg, consumed orally. The duration of action was stated to be 8–12 hours.
Ceftaroline fosamil
Ceftaroline is being developed by Forest Laboratories, under a license from Takeda. "
Ceftaroline has received approval from the U.S. Food and Drug Administration for the treatment of community-acquired bacterial pneumonia and acute bacterial skin infections on October 29, 2010. "In vitro" studies show it has a similar spectrum to ceftobiprole, the only other fifth-generation cephalosporin to date, although no head-to-head clinical trials have been conducted. Ceftaroline and ceftobiprole are on an unnamed subclass of cephalosporins by the Clinical and Laboratory Standards Institute (CLSI).
Richard Bruce Silverman
Silverman is well known for inventing the drug pregabalin as a possible treatment for epileptic seizures. During 1988-1990, Ryszard Andruszkiewicz, a visiting research fellow, synthesized a series of molecules for Silverman. One looked particularly promising. The molecule was transported into the brain, where it activated the enzyme L-glutamate decarboxylase. Silverman anticipated that the enzyme would increase production of the inhibitory neurotransmitter GABA and block convulsions. Eventually, the set of molecules were sent to Parke-Davis Pharmaceuticals for testing. In addition to treating seizures, pregabalin was found to be effective in treating fibromyalgia pain, neuropathic pain, and generalized anxiety disorder. It was approved by the FDA in 2004 and marketed by Pfizer (which bought Parke-Davis) under the trade name Lyrica.
Nortilidine
Nortilidine is the major active metabolite of tilidine. It is formed from tilidine by demethylation in the liver. The racemate has opioid analgesic effects roughly equivalent in potency to that of morphine but virtually all of the opioid activity resides in the (1S,2R) isomer. The (1R,2S) isomer has NMDA antagonist activity. The drug also acts as a dopamine reuptake inhibitor. The reversed-ester of nortilidine is also known which has almost identical properties to nortilidine.
Cocaine and amphetamine regulated transcript
CART is a neuropeptide that produces similar behaviour in animals to cocaine and amphetamine, but conversely blocks the effects of cocaine when they are co-administered. The peptide is found in several areas, among them the ventral tegmental area (VTA) of the brain. When CART is injected into rat VTA, increased locomotor activity is seen, which is one of the signs of "central stimulation" caused by substances such as cocaine and amphetamine. The rats also tend to return to the place where they were injected. This is called conditioned place preference and is seen after injection of cocaine.
Punicalin
Punicalin is an ellagitannin. It can be found in "Punica granatum" (pomegranate) or in the leaves of "Terminalia catappa", a plant used to treat dermatitis and hepatitis. It is also reported in "Combretum glutinosum", all three species being Myrtales, the two last being Combretaceae.
Articaine
It was approved by the FDA in April 2000, and became available in the United States of America two months later under the brand name Septocaine, an anesthetic/vasoconstrictor combination with Epinephrine 1:100,000 (trade name Septodont). Zorcaine became available there a few years later, also. Articadent (Dentsply) became available in the United States in October 2010. The three brands currently available in the United States are all manufactured for these companies by Novocol Pharmaceuticals Inc. (Canada). Ubistesin and Ubistesin Forte (3M ESPE) are also widely used in the United States and Europe. Orabloc (Pierrel) is aseptically manufactured and was approved by the FDA in 2010, became available in Canada in 2011, and in Europe from 2013.
Scoulerine
Scoulerine, also known as discretamine and aequaline, is a benzylisoquinoline alkaloid that derives from reticuline and is a precursor of berberine. It is found in many plants, including Opium poppy, "Croton flavens", and certain plants in the Erythrina genus.
Ropinirole
Ropinirole (INN; trade names Requip, Repreve, Ronirol, Adartrel) is a dopamine agonist of the non-ergoline class of medications. It is manufactured by GlaxoSmithKline (GSK), Cipla, Dr. Reddy's Laboratories and Sun Pharmaceutical. It is used in the treatment of Parkinson's disease and restless legs syndrome (RLS). Ropinirole is one of three medications approved by the FDA to treat RLS, the other two being pramipexole (Mirapex) and gabapentin enacarbil (Horizant). The discovery of the drug's utility in RLS has been used as an example of successful drug repurposing.
Racemorphan
Racemorphan, or morphanol, is the racemic mixture of the two stereoisomers of 17-methylmorphinan-3-ol, each with differing pharmacology and effects:Racemorphan itself is under international control per the Single Convention on Narcotic Drugs 1961 and is therefore listed as a Schedule II Narcotic controlled substance in the US Controlled Substances Act 1970; it has an ACSCN of 9733 and in 2014 it had an aggregate annual manufacturing quota of zero. The salts in use are hydrobromide (free base conversion ratio 0.741), hydrochloride (0.876), and tartrate (0.632).
Controlled Substances Act
These drugs vary in potency: for example fentanyl is about 80 times as potent as morphine (heroin is roughly two times as potent). More significantly, they vary in nature. Pharmacology and CSA scheduling have a weak relationship.
AH-7921
AH-7921 is an opioid analgesic drug selective for the µ-opioid receptor, having around 90% the potency of morphine when administered orally. It was discovered in the 1970s by a team at Allen and Hanburys located in the United Kingdom. The drug is considered a new psychoactive substance (NPS) in which it is synthetically created in laboratories to mimic that of controlled substances. The substance has also been sold on the internet since 2012 as a "research chemical". When sold online it may be called the alternative name doxylam, not to be confused with doxylamine. AH-7921 has never progressed to clinical trials. The DEA is not aware of any medical usage in the United States, and has not insisted the Health and Human Services department (HHS) to conduct any medical research of the substances uses.With doses that usually range from 10 to 150 mg, users are likely to experience effects similar to heroin, morphine, and fentanyl such as euphoria and respiratory depression. When an overdose occurs users often experience tachycardia, hypertension, and seizures. Mice, dogs, and monkeys, have been used in tests which showed the drug was almost equivalently potent to morphine, and had a very steep dose response curve. Rats given 20 mg doses three times a day for five days, experienced withdrawal symptoms similar to other opioids. Reports have shown users to experience depression and insomnia when withdrawing from this drug.
List of cocaine analogues
Convolamine: 
Phyllalbine: 
Meteloidine: 
Similarly, many natural tropane alkaloids found in plants of various families have benzoyl tropane structures. Including; catuabine, convolamine of the "convolvulaceae" & phyllalbine of "euphorbiaceae" ("Phyllanthus discoïdes") families. The latter is a central and peripheral sympathomimetic drug. Phyllalbine is also to methylvanillylecgonine what tropacocaine, as a metabolite, is to cocaine. Likewise vanillin would be a hydrolytic degradation product of phyllalbine just as methyl benzoate is for cocaine. The alkaloid Meteloidine, found in Datura & Brugmansia, is tentatively also extant in the Australian Erythroxylum species.
Acetylcholine
Partly because of its muscle-activating function, but also because of its functions in the autonomic nervous system and brain, a large number of important drugs exert their effects by altering cholinergic transmission. Numerous venoms and toxins produced by plants, animals, and bacteria, as well as chemical nerve agents such as Sarin, cause harm by inactivating or hyperactivating muscles via their influences on the neuromuscular junction. Drugs that act on muscarinic acetylcholine receptors, such as atropine, can be poisonous in large quantities, but in smaller doses they are commonly used to treat certain heart conditions and eye problems. Scopolamine, which acts mainly on muscarinic receptors in the brain, can cause delirium and amnesia. The addictive qualities of nicotine are derived from its effects on nicotinic acetylcholine receptors in the brain.
Fertirelin
Fertirelin, or fertirelin acetate, sold under the brand name Ovalyse, is a gonadotropin-releasing hormone agonist (GnRH agonist) which has been marketed in the United Kingdom and Austria. It may no longer be available. Fertirelin has been used in veterinary medicine. It may have been used in the treatment of sex hormone-dependent conditions and infertility in women. The drug was first introduced in 1981 in Japan to treat various kinds of ovarian failure in cattle. Fertirelin is a synthetic peptide and GnRH analogue. It is used as the acetate salt.
Medifoxamine
Medifoxamine has been found to act preferentially as a relatively weak dopamine reuptake inhibitor, but also as an even weaker serotonin reuptake inhibitor (IC = 1,500 nM) and as a weak antagonist of the 5-HT and 5-HT receptors (IC = 950 and 980, respectively; notably greater affinity relative to amitriptyline and imipramine). It is known to produce two active metabolites during first-pass metabolism in the liver, CRE-10086 (N-methyl-2,2-diphenoxyethylamine) and CRE-10357 (N,N-dimethyl-2-hydroxyphenoxy-2-phenoxyethylamine). The IC values of CRE-10086 for serotonin transporter, 5-HT, and 5-HT binding are 450 nM, 330 nM, and 700 nM, respectively, while those of CRE-10357 are 660 nM, 1,600 nM, and 6,300  M. Medifoxamine and its metabolites lack affinity for other serotonin receptors including 5-HT, 5-HT, 5-HT, and 5-HT (>10,000 nM). As medifoxamine is metabolized extensively in the liver during first-pass metabolism, and as these metabolites have as much as 3-fold greater activity relative to medifoxamine, it is likely that they contribute significantly to the pharmacology of the parent drug.
Anticoagulant
Another type of anticoagulant is the direct thrombin inhibitor. Current members of this class include the bivalent drugs hirudin, lepirudin, and bivalirudin; and the monovalent drugs argatroban and dabigatran. An oral direct thrombin inhibitor, ximelagatran (Exanta) was denied approval by the Food and Drug Administration (FDA) in September 2004  and was pulled from the market entirely in February 2006 after reports of severe liver damage and heart attacks.  In November 2010, dabigatran was approved by the FDA to treat atrial fibrillation.
Pregabalin
Pregabalin, marketed under the brand name Lyrica among others, is a medication used to treat epilepsy, neuropathic pain, fibromyalgia, and generalized anxiety disorder. It is a gabapentinoid and acts by inhibiting certain calcium channels. Its use for epilepsy is as an add-on therapy for partial seizures with or without secondary generalization in adults. Some off-label uses of pregabalin include restless leg syndrome, prevention of migraines, anxiety disorders, and alcohol withdrawal. When used before surgery, there have been varying accounts of its perioperative analgesia effects, specifically as it relates to chronic pain. However, some suggest that pregabalin improves postoperative analgesia compared with placebo, at the expense of increased sedation and visual disturbances.
Common side effects include: sleepiness, confusion, trouble with memory, poor motor coordination, dry mouth, problem with vision, and weight gain. Potentially serious side effects include angioedema, drug misuse, and an increased suicide risk. When pregabalin is taken at high doses over a long period of time, addiction may occur, but if taken at usual doses the risk of addiction is low. 
Parke-Davis developed pregabalin as a successor to gabapentin and was brought to market by Pfizer after the company acquired Warner-Lambert. There was no generic version available in the United States until 2018. A generic version is available in Canada, the United Kingdom, Australia and Germany. In the US it costs about $300–$400 per month. Pregabalin is a Schedule V controlled substance under the Controlled Substances Act of 1970.
Pregabalin is useful when added to other treatments, when those other treatments are not controlling partial epilepsy. Its use alone is less effective than some other seizure medications. It is unclear how it compares to gabapentin for this use.
Methylphenidate
The dextrorotary enantiomer of methylphenidate, known as dexmethylphenidate, is sold as a generic and under the brand names Focalin and Attenade in both an immediate-release and an extended-release form. In some circumstances it may be prescribed instead of methylphenidate, however it has no significant advantages over methylphenidate at equipotent dosages and so it is sometimes considered to be an example of an evergreened drug.
Modafinil
Against the hypothesis that modafinil exerts its effects by acting as a DRI, tyrosine hydroxylase inhibitors (which deplete dopamine) fail to block the effects of modafinil in animals. In addition, modafinil fails to reverse reserpine-induced akinesia, whereas dextroamphetamine, a dopamine releasing agent (DRA), is able to do so. Moreover, one of the first published structure-activity relationship studies of modafinil found in 2012 that DAT inhibition did not correlate with wakefulness-promoting effects in animals among modafinil analogues, and a variety of analogues without any significant inhibition of the DAT still produced wakefulness-promoting effects. Furthermore, "[the] neurochemical effects [of modafinil] and anatomical pattern of brain area activation differ from typical psychostimulants and are consistent with its beneficial effects on cognitive performance processes such as attention, learning, and memory", and a study found that modafinil-induced increased locomotor activity in animals was dependent on histamine release and could be abolished by depletion of neuronal histamine, whereas those of methylphenidate were not and could not be. As such, although it is established that modafinil is a clinically significant DRI, its full pharmacology remains unclear and may be more complex than this single property (i.e., may also include DAT-independent actions, such as "activation of the orexin system").
Fatal Beauty
Detective Rita Rizzoli (Whoopi Goldberg) an undercover narcotics police officer, stages an undercover buy with drug dealer Tito Delgadillo. During the bust she sees her friend and informant Charlene being dragged out of the bar by her pimp and runs to her aid, thus alerting Delgadillo of her being an undercover cop. After saving Charlene and shooting the pimp, Rizzoli notices all the money used for the buy is missing. Delgadillo retreats to a warehouse in Los Angeles where a family of Asian immigrants is preparing plastic envelopes of imported cocaine stamped with the gang's brand name "Fatal Beauty". One worker, however, has been sampling too much of the drug and, in his intoxicated state, prepares envelopes with a fatally high concentration of cocaine and a misaligned stamp. Delgadillo discovers the error but before they can correct it, the house is attacked by two small-time hoods, Leo Nova and Earl Skinner (Brad Dourif and Mike Jolly) who kill everyone within including Delgadillo and steal the lethal product.
Double depression
Hirschfield et al. (1998) conducted a 12-week randomized controlled trial (RCT) that involved the administration of sertraline or imipramine that 324 of 623 patients either qualified for remission or experienced a substantive improvement in clinical presentation. In a double-blind, fixed-dose trial that involved the use of either the monoamine oxidase inhibitor (MAOI) moclobemide or the selective serotonin reuptake inhibitor (SSRI) fluoxetine, Duarte, Mikkelsen, and DeliniStula (1996) were able to facilitate a minimum of a 50% score reduction on the Hamilton Depression Rating Scale (HDRS). 71% of cases that involved moclobemide—versus 38% of cases that involved fluoxetine—were determined to achieve the aforementioned desired outcome. As a result, the researchers concluded that both antidepressants were similar in their abilities to treat double depression in an effective fashion. However, the lack of a placebo control undermines the extent to which the results can be applied.
List of cocaine analogues
In animal studies, certain of the local anesthetics have displayed residual dopamine reuptake inhibitor properties, although not normally ones that are easily available. These are expected to be more cardiotoxic than phenyltropanes. For example, dimethocaine has behavioral stimulant effects (and therefore not here listed below) if a dose of it is taken that is 10 times the amount of cocaine. Dimethocaine is equipotent to cocaine in terms of its anesthetic equivalency. has been shown to reverse the cardiotoxic effects of sodium channel blockers and presumably those effects when from cocaine administered intravenously as well.
Cocaine-"N"-oxide: 
Hydroxytropacocaine: 
"m"-Hydroxybenzoylecgonine: 
Common analogues to prototypical D-RAs:
Histrelin
Histrelin acetate, sold under the brand names Vantas and Supprelin LA among others, is a nonapeptide analogue of gonadotropin-releasing hormone (GnRH) with added potency. When present in the bloodstream, it acts on particular cells of the pituitary gland called gonadotropes. Histrelin stimulates these cells to release luteinizing hormone and follicle-stimulating hormone. Thus it is considered a gonadotropin-releasing hormone agonist or GnRH agonist.
CADASIL
No specific treatment for CADASIL is available. While most treatments for CADASIL patients' symptoms – including migraine and stroke – are similar to those without CADASIL, these treatments are almost exclusively empiric, as data regarding their benefit to CADASIL patients is limited. Antiplatelet agents such as aspirin, dipyridamole, or clopidogrel might help prevent strokes; however, anticoagulation may be inadvisable given the propensity for microhemorrhages. Control of high blood pressure is particularly important in CADASIL patients. Short-term use of atorvastatin, a statin-type cholesterol-lowering medication, has not been shown to be beneficial in CADASIL patients' cerebral hemodynamic parameters, although treatment of comorbidities such as high cholesterol is recommended. Stopping oral contraceptive pills may be recommended. Some authors advise against the use of triptan medications for migraine treatment, given their vasoconstrictive effects, although this sentiment is not universal. As with other individuals, people with CADASIL should be encouraged to quit smoking.
Protriptyline
Protriptyline acts by decreasing the reuptake of norepinephrine and to a lesser extent serotonin (5-HT) in the brain. Its affinity for the human norepinephrine transporter (NET) is 1.41 nM, 19.6 nM for the serotonin transporter and 2,100 nM for the dopamine transporter. TCAs act to change the balance of naturally occurring chemicals in the brain that regulate the transmission of nerve impulses between cells. Protriptyline increases the concentration of norepinephrine and serotonin (both chemicals that stimulate nerve cells) and, to a lesser extent, blocks the action of another brain chemical, acetylcholine. The therapeutic effects of protriptyline, like other antidepressants, appear slowly. Maximum benefit is often not evident for at least two weeks after starting the drug.
Rubin causal model
Rubin defines a causal effect:
Intuitively, the causal effect of one treatment, E, over another, C, for a particular unit and an interval of time from formula_1 to formula_2 is the difference between what would have happened at time formula_2 if the unit had been exposed to E initiated at formula_1 and what would have happened at formula_2 if the unit had been exposed to C initiated at formula_1: 'If an hour ago I had taken two aspirins instead of just a glass of water, my headache would now be gone,' or 'because an hour ago I took two aspirins instead of just a glass of water, my headache is now gone.' Our definition of the causal effect of the E versus C treatment will reflect this intuitive meaning."
According to the RCM, the causal effect of your taking or not taking aspirin one hour ago is the difference between how your head would have felt in case 1 (taking the aspirin) and case 2 (not taking the aspirin). If your headache would remain without aspirin but disappear if you took aspirin, then the causal effect of taking aspirin is headache relief.
List of psychiatric medications
Quetiapine
Synephrine
Experiments conducted by Hibino and co-workers also showed that synephrine (stereochemistry unspecified) produced a dose-dependent constriction of isolated rat aorta strips, in the concentration range 10–3 × 10 M. This constriction was found to be competitively antagonized by prazosin (a standard α antagonist) and ketanserin, with prazosin being the more potent antagonist (pA = 9.38, vs pA = 8.23 for ketanserin). Synephrine constrictions were also antagonized by BRL-15,572, but not by SB-216,641 (used here as a selective 5-HT antagonist), or by propranolol (a common β antagonist).
Noxiptiline
Noxiptiline (brand names Agedal, Elronon, Nogedal), also known as noxiptyline and dibenzoxine, is a tricyclic antidepressant (TCA) that was introduced in Europe in the 1970s for the treatment of depression. It has imipramine-like effects, acting as a serotonin and norepinephrine reuptake inhibitor, among other properties. Of the TCAs, noxiptiline has been described as one of the most effective, rivaling amitriptyline in clinical efficacy.
Loratadine
As of 2017, in a combination drug with phenylephrine, it was available as Bramin-Flu, Clarityne D, Clarityne Plus, Clarityne-D, Histafax D, Brafelix, Loramine R, Loraped, Maxiclear Cold & Nasal, Maxiclear Hayfever & Sinus Relief, and Rinavent, and in combination with phenylephrine and paracetamol it was available as Sensibit D NF.
Aspirin
On 9 July 2015, the FDA toughened warnings of increased heart attack and stroke risk associated with nonsteroidal anti-inflammatory drugs (NSAID). Aspirin is an NSAID but is not affected by the new warnings.
Metaescaline
Metaescaline, or 3,4-dimethoxy-5-ethoxyphenethylamine, is a lesser-known psychedelic drug. It is an analog of mescaline. Metaescaline was first synthesized by Alexander Shulgin. In his book "PiHKAL (Phenethylamines i Have Known And Loved)", the dosage range is listed as 200–350 mg, and the duration listed as 8–12 hours. Metaescaline produces mental insights, entactogenic, MDMA-like effects, and TOMSO-like activation. Very little data exists about the pharmacological properties, metabolism, and toxicity of metaescaline.
Cafaminol
Cafaminol (brand names Rhinetten, Rhinoptil), also known as methylcoffanolamine, is a vasoconstrictor and anticatarrhal of the methylxanthine family related to caffeine which is used as a nasal decongestant in Germany. It was introduced in 1974 and was still in use as of 2000.
RTI-126
RTI-126 (RTI-"4229"-126 or (–)-2β-(1,2,4-oxadiazol-5-methyl)-3β-phenyltropane) is a phenyltropane derivative which acts as a potent monoamine reuptake inhibitor and stimulant drug. It is around 5 times more potent a stimulant than cocaine, but is relatively unselective. It binds to all three monoamine transporters, although still with some selectivity for the dopamine transporter. RTI-126 has a fast onset of effects and short duration of action, and its pharmacological profile in animals is among the closest to cocaine itself out of all the drugs in the RTI series. Its main application in scientific research has been in studies investigating the influence of pharmacokinetics on the abuse potential of stimulant drugs, with its rapid entry into the brain thought to be a key factor in producing its high propensity for development of dependence in animals.
Ribavirin
Ribavirin's carboxamide group can make the native nucleoside drug resemble adenosine or guanosine, depending on its rotation. For this reason, when ribavirin is incorporated into RNA, as a base analog of either adenine or guanine, it pairs equally well with either uracil or cytosine, inducing mutations in RNA-dependent replication in RNA viruses. Such hypermutation can be lethal to RNA viruses.
Timmy 2000
The other boys have actually started to take their Ritalin medication, making them very calm and rather boring. Cartman develops a side effect from Ritalin that causes him to see pink Christina Aguilera monsters (one of which causes him to accidentally kill Kenny). The adults are uncomfortable among them, but accept their new kind and obedient children when they also start taking Ritalin. Chef and the pharmacists are the only people left who are not under the drug's influence.
Dimetacrine
Dimetacrine (brand names Istonil, Istonyl, Linostil, Miroistonil), also known as dimethacrine and acripramine, is a tricyclic antidepressant (TCA) used in Europe and formerly in Japan for the treatment of depression. It has imipramine-like effects; though, in a double-blind clinical trial against imipramine, dimetacrine was found to have lower efficacy in comparison and produced more weight loss and abnormal liver tests. Little is known about the pharmacology of dimetacrine, but it can be inferred that it acts in a similar manner to other TCAs. If this is indeed the case, dimetacrine may induce severe cardiac toxicity in overdose (a side effect unique to the tricyclic class of antidepressants).
Peter Breggin
"The New York Times" has labeled Breggin as the nation's best-known Attention-deficit hyperactivity disorder (ADHD) critic. As early as 1991 he sardonically coined the acronym DADD, stating, "... most so-called ADHD children are not receiving sufficient attention from their fathers who are separated from the family, too preoccupied with work and other things, or otherwise impaired in their ability to parent. In many cases the appropriate diagnosis is Dad Attention Deficit Disorder (DADD)". Breggin has written two books specifically on the topic entitled, "Talking Back to Ritalin" and "The Ritalin Factbook". In these books he has made controversial claims, such as "Ritalin 'works' by producing malfunctions in the brain rather than by improving brain function. This is the only way it works".
Methylphenidate
Methylphenidate, sold under the trade names Ritalin among others, is a stimulant medication used to treat attention deficit hyperactivity disorder (ADHD) and narcolepsy. It is a first line medication for ADHD. It is taken by mouth or applied to the skin. Different formulations have different durations of effect.
Common side effects include trouble sleeping, anxiety, and weight loss. More serious side effects may include psychosis, allergic reactions, prolonged erection, abuse, and heart problems. Methylphenidate is believed to work by improving the action of catecholamines in the brain. It achieves this by blocking dopamine and norepinephrine reuptake by neurons. Methylphenidate is a central nervous system (CNS) stimulant of the phenethylamine and piperidine classes.
Methylphenidate was first made in 1944 and was approved for medical use in the United States in 1955. It was originally sold by CIBA, now Novartis Corporation. It is estimated that in 2013 2.4 billion doses of methylphenidate were taken worldwide. About 80% of this was taken by people in the United States making it the 47th most prescribed medication in that country. It is available as a generic medication. In the United States the wholesale cost of the immediate release formulation is less than US$0.30 per dose as of 2018.
Methylphenidate is most commonly used to treat ADHD and narcolepsy.
Celgene
In April 2000, Celgene reached an agreement with Novartis Pharma AG to license d-MPH, Celgene's chirally pure version of RITALIN. The FDA subsequently granted approval to market d-MPH, or Focalin, in November 2001.
Eletriptan
Eletriptan was approved by the U.S. Food and Drug Administration (FDA) on December 26, 2002, for the acute treatment of migraine with or without aura in adults. It is available only by prescription in the United States and Canada. It is not intended for the prophylactic therapy of migraine or for use in the management of hemiplegic or basilar migraine. It is available in 20 mg and 40 mg strengths.
Butriptyline
However, in small clinical trials, using similar doses, butriptyline was found to be similarly effective to amitriptyline and imipramine as an antidepressant, despite the fact that both of these TCAs are far stronger as both 5-HT antagonists and serotonin–norepinephrine reuptake inhibitors. As a result, it may be that butriptyline has a different mechanism of action, or perhaps functions as a prodrug in the body to a metabolite with different pharmacodynamics.
Opipramol
Unlike other TCAs, opipramol does not inhibit the reuptake of serotonin or norepinephrine. However, it does act as a high affinity antagonist of the histamine H receptor and as a low to moderate affinity antagonist of the dopamine D, serotonin 5-HT, and α-adrenergic receptors. H receptor antagonism accounts for its antihistamine effects and associated sedative side effects. In contrast to other TCAs, opipramol has very low affinity for the muscarinic acetylcholine receptors and virtually no anticholinergic effects.
Minoxidil
On February 12, 1996, the FDA approved both the over-the-counter sale of the drug and the production of generic formulations of minoxidil. Upjohn replied to that by lowering prices to half the price of the prescription drug and by releasing a prescription 5% formula of Rogaine in 1997.
(+)-CPCA
Like cocaine, (–)-cis-CPCA and (+)-CPCA bind to the dopamine transporter and inhibit dopamine uptake, stimulate motor activity in rodents and completely substitute for cocaine in discrimination tests. Pretreatment with (–)-cis-CPCA or (+)-CPCA enhances the cocaine discriminative stimulus in rats. However, there are a number of differences; the locomotor stimulant effects of the piperidine derivatives are much less than those induced by cocaine, and pretreating mice with (–)-cis-CPCA or (+)-CPCA does not increase cocaine induced convulsions, and actually reduced cocaine induced locomotor stimulation. The (–)-cis-CPCA isomer has similar reinforcing effects to cocaine as shown by fixed-ratio self-administration tests in rats, but (+)-CPCA has a flat dose-response curve, and similarly while (–)-cis-CPCA and cocaine had nearly identical break points in a "punished responding" (?) self-administration test, (+)-CPCA had a lower break point than either of the other drugs.
List of phenyltropanes
Like cocaine, phenyltropanes are considered a 'typical' or 'classical' (i.e. "cocaine-like") DAT re-uptake pump ligands in that they stabilize an "open-to-out" conformation on the dopamine transporter; despite the extreme similarity to phenyltropanes, benztropine and others are in suchwise not considered "cocaine-like" and are instead considered atypical inhibitors insofar as they stabilize what is considered a more inward-facing (closed-to-out) conformational state.
Tricyclic antidepressant
The TCAs were used in the past in the clinical treatment of ADHD, though they are not typically used anymore, having been replaced by more effective agents with fewer side effects such as atomoxetine (Strattera, Tomoxetin) and stimulants like methylphenidate (Ritalin, Focalin, Concerta), and amphetamine (Adderall, Attentin, Dexedrine, Vyvanse). ADHD is thought to be caused by an insufficiency of dopamine and norepinephrine activity in the prefrontal cortex of the brain. Most of the TCAs inhibit the reuptake of norepinephrine, though not dopamine, and as a result, they show some efficacy in remedying the disorder. Notably, the TCAs are more effective in treating the behavioral aspects of ADHD than the cognitive deficits, as they help limit hyperactivity and impulsivity, but have little to no benefits on attention.
Bufotalin
Knowing this it is advisable to monitor those functions continuously using an EKG. As there is no antidote against bufotalin all occurring symptoms need to be treated separately or if possible in combination with others. To increase the clearance theoretically, due to the similarities with digitoxin, cholestyramine, a bile salt, might help. Recent animal studies have shown that taurine restores cardiac functions.