How was microglia discovered?
Microglia
The ability to view and characterize different neural cells including microglia began in 1880 when Nissl staining was developed by Franz Nissl. Franz Nissl and F. Robertson first described microglial cells during their histology experiments. The cell staining techniques in the 1880s showed that microglia are related to macrophages. The activation of microglia and formation of ramified microglial clusters was first noted by Victor Babeş while studying a rabies case in 1897. Babeş noted the cells were found in a variety of viral brain infections but did not know what the clusters of microglia he saw were. Pío del Río Hortega, a student of Santiago Ramón y Cajal, first called the cells "microglia" around 1920. He went on to characterize microglial response to brain lesions in 1927 and note the "fountains of microglia" present in the corpus callosum and other perinatal white matter areas in 1932. After many years of research Rio-Hortega became generally considered as the "Father of Microglia." For a long period of time little improvement was made in our knowledge of microglia. Then, in 1988, Hickey and Kimura showed that perivascular microglial cells are bone-marrow derived, and express high levels of MHC class II proteins used for antigen presentation. This confirmed Pio Del Rio-Hortega's postulate that microglial cells functioned similarly to macrophages by performing phagocytosis and antigen presentation.
Micromygale
Micromygale is a genus of spiders in the family Microstigmatidae containing the sole species Micromygale diblemma. The species was described in 1982 by Platnick and Forster and is found in Panama.
Pío del Río Hortega
Pío del Río Hortega (1882 – 1945) was a Spanish neuroscientist who discovered microglia.
Microbial genetics
Since the discovery of microorganisms by Robert Hooke and Antoni van Leeuwenhoek during the period 1665-1885 they have been used to study many processes and have had applications in various areas of study in genetics.
For example: Microorganisms' rapid growth rates and short generation times are used by scientists to study evolution. Robert Hooke and Antoni van Leeuwenhoek discoveries involved depictions, observations, and descriptions of microorganisms. Mucor is the microfungus that Hooke presented and gave a depiction of. His contribution being, Mucor as the first microorganism to be illustrated. Antoni van Leeuwenhoek’s contribution to the microscopic protozoa and microscopic bacteria yielded to scientific observations and descriptions. These contributions were accomplished by a simple microscope, which led to the understanding of microbes today and continues to progress scientists understanding.  
Microbial genetics also has applications in being able to study processes and pathways that are similar to those found in humans such as drug metabolism.
Microglia
Although historically frequently used, the term "activated" microglia should be replaced by "reactive" microglia. Indeed, apparently quiescent microglia are not devoid of active functions and the "activation" term is misleading as it tends to indicate an "all or nothing" polarization of cell reactivity. The marker Iba1, which is upregulated in reactive microglia, is often used to visualize these cells.
Beth Stevens
Stevens has found that microglia play a role in synapse loss in a range of disease states, including West Nile virus infection and neurodegenerative diseases such as Alzheimer's disease, where synapse loss precedes neuron death. Microglia may contribute to disease both by phagocytosing synaptic material and activating neurotoxic astrocytes. Her research indicates that neurodegenerative diseases may represent a local reactivation of microglial pruning pathways that are beneficial during development but detrimental in the mature brain. Stevens has also identified microglia as a contributor to Rett syndrome progression. This is independent of MECP2 mutation, which is known to cause the disease.
Microelectrode array
The first implantable arrays were microwire arrays developed in the 1950s. The first experiment involving the use of an array of planar electrodes to record from cultured cells was conducted in 1972 by C.A. Thomas, Jr. and his colleagues. The experimental setup used a 2 x 15 array of gold electrodes plated with platinum black, each spaced 100 µm apart from each other. Myocytes harvested from embryonic chicks were dissociated and cultured onto the MEAs, and signals up to 1 mV high in amplitude were recorded. MEAs were constructed and used to explore the electrophysiology of snail ganglia independently by Guenter Gross and his colleagues at the Center for Network Neuroscience in 1977 without prior knowledge of Thomas and his colleagues' work. In 1982, Gross observed spontaneous electrophysiological activity from dissociated spinal cord neurons, and found that activity was very dependent on temperature. Below about 30˚C signal amplitudes decrease rapidly to relatively small value at room temperature.
Ultrastructure
In 1931, German engineers Max Knoll and Ernst Ruska invented the first electron microscope. With the development and invention of this microscope, the range of observable structures that were able to be explored and analyzed increased immensely, as biologists became progressively interested in the submicroscopic organization of cells. This new area of research concerned itself with substructure, also known as the ultrastructure.
Jean Weigle
As a physicist he was awarded for his research on x-ray diffraction to the study of crystal structure; the effects of temperature on this diffraction; the diffraction of light by ultrasonics.
He was working as professor of Physics at the University of Pittsburgh in the 1920s.
At the University of Geneva he became director of the Institute of Physics in 1931. He developed the first electron microscope made in Switzerland, an important factor for the studies of molecular biology leading to creation in 1964 of the Institute of Molecular Biology (MOLBIO) in Geneva by Edouard Kellenberger and others.
Microglia
For a long time it was thought that microglial cells differentiate in the bone marrow from hematopoietic stem cells, the progenitors of all blood cells. However, recent studies show that microglia originate in the yolk sac during a remarkably restricted embryonal period and populate the brain mesenchyme. Additionally, they continuously renew themselves and persist throughout life without replenishment from peripheral monocytic precursors.
Monocytes can also differentiate into myeloid dendritic cells and macrophages in the peripheral systems. Like macrophages in the rest of the body, microglia use phagocytic and cytotoxic mechanisms to destroy foreign materials. Microglia and macrophages both contribute to the immune response by acting as antigen presenting cells, as well as promoting inflammation and homeostatic mechanisms within the body by secreting cytokines and other signaling molecules.
Pier Antonio Micheli
Pier Antonio Micheli (December 11, 1679 – January 1, 1737) was a noted Italian botanist, professor of botany in Pisa, curator of the Orto Botanico di Firenze, author of "Nova plantarum genera iuxta Tournefortii methodum disposita". He discovered the spores of mushrooms, was a leading authority on cryptogams, and coined several important genera of microfungi including "Aspergillus" and "Botrytis".
Mitchell Sogin
Dr. Sogin’s molecular phylogeny from ribosomal RNA sequences provided a framework for reconstructing the evolution of microbial eukaryotes. He documented early diverging eukaryotic lineages, giving the earliest evidence of a link between animals and fungi, to the exclusion of all other eukaryotes. His work demonstrated that the AIDS-related pathogen "Pneumocystis" shares a recent common ancestor with fungi instead of with the parasitic protozoa that cause malaria. He also discovered the “rare biosphere” which represents most of Earth’s microbial diversity. Sogin was the first to use PCR to amplify and sequence ribosomal RNA genes and to use next generation DNA sequencing to characterize complex microbial communities, which now dominates the field of molecular microbial ecology, including efforts underway within the Human Microbiome Project. He has contributed to analytical strategies to determine the taxonomic identity of marker gene surveys and with David Mark Welch of the Josephine Bay Paul Center has established the Visualization of Microbial Population Structures (VAMPS) website, which offers tools for comparing microbial community populations. As part of the Census of Marine Life, Sogin formed and led the International Census of Marine Microbes. His group currently collaborates on studies of human microbiome dynamics with Dr. Eugene Chang of the University of Chicago. They study pouchitis, a model for ulcerative colitis. Dr. Sogin also serves on the editorial boards of the "Journal of Eukaryotic Microbiology" (formerly "Journal of Protozoology"), "Molecular Phylogenetics and Evolution", "Protist" (formerly "Archiv fur Protistenkunde"), "Applied and Environmental Microbiology", and "Environmental Microbiology".
Micropsalliota
The genus was circumscribed by Austrian mycologist Franz Xaver Rudolf von Höhnel in 1914 with "Micropsalliota pseudovolvulata" as the type species. This species was collected in 1907 by Höhnel in the Bogor Botanical Gardens in Bogor, Indonesia. The generic name refers to the similarity of the slender fruitbodies to those in "Psalliota" (a genus that has since been synonymized with "Agaricus"). Emendations were made to the genus in 1969 by Pegler and Rayner, and then in 1976 by Heinemann. Molecular phylogenetics has shown that the genus represents a monophyletic lineage in the family Agaricaceae that is sister to the genus "Hymenagaricus".
Japanese encephalitis
Increased microglial activation following Japanese Encephalitis infection has been found to influence the outcome of viral pathogenesis. Microglia are the resident immune cells of the central nervous system (CNS) and have a critical role in host defense against invading microorganisms. Activated microglia secrete cytokines, such as interleukin-1 (IL-1) and tumor necrosis factor alpha (TNF-α), which can cause toxic effects in the brain. Additionally, other soluble factors such as neurotoxins, excitatory neurotransmitters, prostaglandin, reactive oxygen, and nitrogen species are secreted by activated microglia.
Role of microglia in disease
Microglia are the main target of HIV-1 in the brain. When activated by HIV-1 or viral proteins, they secrete or induce other cells to secrete neurotoxic factors; this process is accompanied by neuronal dysfunction (HAD).
Microglia
A large part of microglial cell's role in the brain is maintaining homeostasis in non-infected regions and promoting inflammation in infected or damaged tissue. Microglia accomplish this through an extremely complicated series of extracellular signaling molecules which allow them to communicate with other microglia, astrocytes, nerves, T-cells, and myeloid progenitor cells. As mentioned above the cytokine IFN-γ can be used to activate microglial cells. In addition, after becoming activated with IFN-γ, microglia also release more IFN-γ into the extracellular space. This activates more microglia and starts a cytokine induced activation cascade rapidly activating all nearby microglia. Microglia-produced TNF-α causes neural tissue to undergo apoptosis and increases inflammation. IL-8 promotes B-cell growth and differentiation, allowing it to assist microglia in fighting infection. Another cytokine, IL-1, inhibits the cytokines IL-10 and TGF-β, which downregulate antigen presentation and pro-inflammatory signaling. Additional dendritic cells and T-cells are recruited to the site of injury through the microglial production of the chemotactic molecules like MDC, IL-8, and MIP-3β. Finally, PGE and other prostanoids prevent chronic inflammation by inhibiting microglial pro-inflammatory response and downregulating Th1 (T-helper cell) response.
Microcotyle polymixiae
Microcotyle polymixiae is a species of monogenean, parasitic on the gills of a marine fish. It belongs to the family Microcotylidae. It was first described and illustrated based on 82 whole mounts, from the gills of the silver eye, "Polymixia japonica" (Polymixiidae) off Hawaii. .
Microcotyle neozealanica
"Microcotyle neozealanica" was first described by Dillon & Hargis in 1965 as "Microcotyle neozealanicus". Caballero y Caballero and Bravo-Hollis erected the genus "Paramicrocotyle" to describe "Paramicrocotyle tampicensis" and "Paramicrocotyle atriobursata" off Mexico, and placed whithin this genus sixteen species previously assigned to the genus "Microcotyle" including "Microcotyle neozealanica". However, "Microcotyle neozealanica" was returned to the genus "Microcotyle" and "Paramicrocotyle" is considered a junior subjective synonym of "Microcotyle".
"Microcotyle neozealanica" was redescribed by Dillon et "al"., in 1985 from a single specimen from the gills of "Chloropthalmus nigripinnis". The authors stated that additional specimens from this host were needed to verify this record. 
According to the World Register of Marine Species,"neozealanicus" is a malformed suffix. The current accepted name is "Microcotyle neozealanica"
Linaclotide
The drug was discovered at Microbia, Inc, which had been spun out of the Whitehead Institute in 1998 by postdocs from the lab of Gerald Fink to commercialize the lab's know-how and inventions related to microbial pathogens and biology. In 2002 the company hired Mark Currie who had worked at the Searle division of Monsanto and then had gone to Sepracor. Currie directed the efforts that led to the discovery of linaclotide, which was based on an enterotoxin produced by some strains of "Escherichia coli" that cause traveler’s diarrhea. The company started Phase I trials in 2004.
Carl Benda
Carl Benda (30 December 1857 Berlin – 24 May 1932 Turin) was one of the first microbiologists to use a microscope in studying the internal structure of cells. In an 1898 experiment using crystal violet as a specific stain, Benda first became aware of the existence of hundreds of these tiny bodies in the cytoplasm of eukaryotic cells and assumed that they reinforced the cell structure. Because of their tendency to form long chains, he coined the name "mitochondria" ("thread granules"). These bodies had first been noted in 1857 by the physiologist and pioneer of the light microscope, Albert von Kölliker, and were later termed "bioblasts" by Richard Altmann in 1886.
Microchlora
Microchlora is a genus of snout moths. It was described by George Hampson in 1901.
Microorganism
The possible existence of unseen microbial life was suspected from ancient times, such as in Jain scriptures from 6th century BC India and the 1st century BC book "On Agriculture" by Marcus Terentius Varro. Microbiology, the scientific study of microorganisms, began with their observation under the microscope in the 1670s by Antonie van Leeuwenhoek. In the 1850s, Louis Pasteur found that microorganisms caused food spoilage, debunking the theory of spontaneous generation. In the 1880s, Robert Koch discovered that microorganisms caused the diseases tuberculosis, cholera and anthrax.
Mitochondrion
The first observations of intracellular structures that probably represented mitochondria were published in the 1840s. Richard Altmann, in 1890, established them as cell organelles and called them "bioblasts". The term "mitochondria" was coined by Carl Benda in 1898. Leonor Michaelis discovered that Janus green can be used as a supravital stain for mitochondria in 1900. In 1904, Friedrich Meves, made the first recorded observation of mitochondria in plants in cells of the white waterlily, "Nymphaea alba" and in 1908, along with Claudius Regaud, suggested that they contain proteins and lipids. Benjamin F. Kingsbury, in 1912, first related them with cell respiration, but almost exclusively based on morphological observations. In 1913, particles from extracts of guinea-pig liver were linked to respiration by Otto Heinrich Warburg, which he called "grana". Warburg and Heinrich Otto Wieland, who had also postulated a similar particle mechanism, disagreed on the chemical nature of the respiration. It was not until 1925, when David Keilin discovered cytochromes, that the respiratory chain was described.
Microglia
Another difference between microglia and other cells that differentiate from myeloid progenitor cells is the turnover rate. Macrophages and dendritic cells are constantly being used up and replaced by myeloid progenitor cells which differentiate into the needed type. Due to the blood–brain barrier, it would be fairly difficult for the body to constantly replace microglia. Therefore, instead of constantly being replaced with myeloid progenitor cells, the microglia maintain their status quo while in their quiescent state, and then, when they are activated, they rapidly proliferate in order to keep their numbers up. Bone chimera studies have shown, however, that in cases of extreme infection the blood–brain barrier will weaken, and microglia will be replaced with haematogenous, marrow-derived cells, namely myeloid progenitor cells and macrophages. Once the infection has decreased the disconnect between peripheral and central systems is reestablished and only microglia are present for the recovery and regrowth period.
Gliosis
Microglial activation has been shown to be a reactive process in which microglia respond to signals given off by injured neurons. Because various characteristics of microgliosis occur in different time frames after the initial triggering insult, microgliosis must depend on mechanisms which fluctuate temporally based on injured neuronal signals. Studies have shown that in cases of reversible neuronal injury, such as axotomy, neuron signals cause microglia to produce trophic factors, which promote neuron survival. In cases of irreversible injury, however, microglia are induced to release neurotoxic factors that promote increased degeneration of the neuron and more rapid phagocytosis by the microglia. Such specificity of the process of microgliosis indicates that it primarily serves a beneficial purpose, selectively conserving some neural tissue while eliminating others, based on the specific initial CNS insult.
Beth Stevens
In 2012, Stevens’s team published evidence that microglia 'eat' synapses, especially those that are weak and unused. The findings pinned down a new role for microglia in wiring the brain, indicating that adult neural circuitry is determined not only by nerve cells but also by the brain’s immune cells; this helped to explain how the brain, which starts out with a surplus of neurons, trims some of the excess away. Neuron named the paper its most influential publication of 2012.
Radiation-induced cognitive decline
Radiation therapy usually results in chronic inflammation, and in the brain this inflammatory response comes in the form of activated microglia cells. Once activated, these microglia cells start to release stress hormones and various pro-inflammatory cytokines. Some of what is released by the activated microglia cells, like the glucocorticoid stress hormone, may result in a decrease in neurogenesis. To investigate this concept, an animal study was performed by Monje et al. in order to determine the specific cytokines or stress hormones that were released by activated microglial cells that decrease neurogenesis in an irradiated hippocampus. In this study, microglia cells were exposed to bacterial lipopolysaccharide to elicit an inflammatory response, thus activating the microglia cells. These activated microglia were then co-cultured with normal hippocampal neural stem cells. Also, as a control, non-activated microglia cells were co-cultured with normal hippocampal neural stem cells. In comparing the two co-cultures, it was determined that neurogenesis in the activated microglia cell culture was 50% less than in the control. A second study was also performed to ensure that the decrease in neurogenesis was the result of released cytokines and not cell-to-cell contact of microglia and stem cells. In this study, neural stem cells were cultured on preconditioned media from activated microglia cells and a comparison was made with a neural stem cells cultured on plain media. The results of this study indicated that neurogenesis also showed a similar decrease in the preconditioned media culture versus the control.
Microcotyle brevis
"Microcotyle brevis" was first described by Dillon & Hargis in 1965, based on one specimen from the gills of striped triplefin, "Forsterygion varium". Dillon & Hargis (1965) noted the need for a study of this species based on more adequate material due to the contracted nature of the single specimen used for the description and thus the limitations of the given measurement. 
The type and only specimen of "Microcotyle brevis" was inadvertently destroyed during shipment to the U. S. National Museum.
Boronia microphylla
"Boronia microphylla" was first formally described in 1825 by Franz Sieber and the description was published in Ludwig Reichenbach's "Iconographia Botanica Exotica". The specific epithet ("microphylla") is derived from the Ancient Greek words "mikros" meaning "little" and "phyllon" meaning "leaf".
Microcotyle stenotomi
Microcotyle stenotomi is a species of monogenean, parasitic on the gills of a marine fish. It belongs to the family Microcotylidae and was first described by Goto in 1899.
Role of microglia in disease
Microglia synthesize amyloid precursor protein (APP) in response to excitotoxic injury. Plaques result from abnormal proteolytic cleavage of membrane bound APP. Amyloid plaques can stimulate microglia to produce neurotoxic compounds such as cytokines, excitotoxin, nitric oxide and lipophylic amines, which all cause neural damage. Plaques in Alzheimer's disease contain activated microglia. A study has shown that direct injection of amyloid into brain tissue activates microglia, which reduces the number of neurons. Microglia have also been suggested as a possible source of secreted β amyloid.
Microplasma
In 1857, Werner von Siemens, a German scientist, originated
ozone generation using a dielectric barrier discharge apparatus for biological decontamination. His observations were explained without the knowledge of “microplasmas”, but were later recognized as the first use of microplasmas to date. The early electrical engineers, such as Edison and Tesla, were actually trying to prevent the generation of such "micro-discharges", and used dielectrics to insulate the first electrical infrastructures. Subsequent studies have observed the Paschen breakdown curve as being the prime cause of microplasma generation in an article published in 1916.
Microglia
Microglia are a collective type of neuroglia (glial cell) located throughout the brain and spinal cord., found to have 9 distinct subtypes with different functions, appearance, and presence. Microglia account for 10–15% of all cells found within the brain. As the resident macrophage cells, they act as the first and main form of active immune defense in the central nervous system (CNS). Microglia (and other neuroglia including astrocytes) are distributed in large non-overlapping regions throughout the CNS. Microglia are key cells in overall brain maintenance—they are constantly scavenging the CNS for plaques, damaged or unnecessary neurons and synapses, and infectious agents. Since these processes must be efficient to prevent potentially fatal damage, microglia are extremely sensitive to even small pathological changes in the CNS. This sensitivity is achieved in part by the presence of unique potassium channels that respond to even small changes in extracellular potassium.
Glia
Most glia are derived from ectodermal tissue of the developing embryo, in particular the neural tube and crest. The exception is microglia, which are derived from hemopoietic stem cells. In the adult, microglia are largely a self-renewing population and are distinct from macrophages and monocytes, which infiltrate the injured and diseased CNS.
Micronucleus test
Micronuclei were first used to quantify chromosomal damage by H.J. Evans et al., in root tips of the Broad Bean, "Vicia faba". Subsequently the "in vivo" assay was developed independently by W. Schmid and by J.A. Heddle and their colleagues. The mouse peripheral blood assay was developed by J.T. MacGregor and has now been adapted for measurement by flow cytometry by A. Tometsko and colleagues. The first use of micronuclei in cultured cells was by J.A. Heddle and colleagues in human lymphocytes. The assay has been improved by M. Fenech and colleagues for use in lymphocytes and other cells in culture cells.
Micropia
Micropia was discovered after micro-cloning experiments carried out on Y-chromosomal lampbrush loops by Prof. Wolfgang Hennig. Similar loops can be found in lampbrush chromosomes (see Lampbrush chromosome) that are characteristic for the female germ cells of most animals, except mammals. The name micropia is an artificial word, i.e. a concoction of "microcloning" and "copia-like element".
Christopher Hills
Hills and Nakamura had a vision of feeding the world from lakes, seas and backyard aquaculture and in 1975 they authored a book, "Food from Sunlight" which published all their proprietary research as open source for the world to use in the cause against global famine and malnutrition. Their company, Microalgae International, invested in research and technology to find a super food for solving World Hunger. Early research focused on chlorella but its cellular structure was too small to be collected without expensive centrifuges. However, in 1967, while Dr Nakamura was living at Centre House, they discovered that women at Lake Chad were harvesting an algae in baskets to make dihé, a highly nutritious sun-baked biscuit. After studying the lakes of Africa, Hills and Dr Nakamura developed seed culture for a strain of 70% protein algae called spirulina that they had collected from Lake Aranguachi in Ethiopia. Later, in 1981, Dr Hills made an expedition to Lake Chiltu at the invitation of Mr. Wollie Chekal, Minister of Trade for the Ethiopian Revolutionary Government and brought back a new set of spirulina samples to his California laboratory for hybridizing an optimal strain for commercial cultivation.
Microcotyle hiatulae
Microcotyle hiatulae is a species of monogenean, parasitic on the gills of a marine fish. It belongs to the family Microcotylidae. This species was first described by Goto in 1899.
Microhologram
Microholograms were invented by the anti-counterfeit research organization, OPTAGLIO, in 2004.
Microcotyle constricta
"Microcotyle constricta" was first described by Robinson in 1961 from the gills of the New Zealand blue cod "Parapercis colias" (Pinguipedidae) based on one specimens (one sectioned). . In 1965, Dillon & Hargis redescribed this species based on 20 specimens and gave additional information regarding buccal organs, seminal receptacle position and egg.
Microcotyle victoriae
"Microcotyle victoriae" was first described by Woolcock in 1936. In the same paper, Woolcock re-examined "Microcotyle bassensis" and included essential data of its structure and measurements, and described a second new species "Microcotyle sillaginae" from the gills of "Sillaginodes punctatus" (Sillaginidae). The latest monogenean is currently included in the genus "Polylabris." 
In 1971, "Microcotyle victoriae" was included in the subgenus "Microcotyle" as "Microcotyle" ("Microcotyle") "victoriae".
This species was transferred by Caballero & Bravo-Hollis to the genus "Paramicrocotyle" as "Paramicrocotyle victoriae" n. comb. Mamaev, in his revision of the family Microcotylidae, suppressed this combination, reassigned the species to the genus "Microcotyle" as "Microcotyle victoriae" and considered "Paramicrocotyle" a junior subjective synonym of "Microcotyle".
Pterostylis micromega
"Pterostylis micromega" was first formally described in 1853 by Joseph Dalton Hooker and the description was published in "Flora Novae-Zelandiae". The specific epithet ("micromega") is derived from the Ancient Greek words "mikros" meaning "small" or "little" and "mega" meaning "large".
Microglia
The main role of microglia, phagocytosis, involves the engulfing of various materials. Engulfed materials generally consist of cellular debris, lipids, and apoptotic cells in the non-inflamed state, and invading virus, bacteria, or other foreign materials in the inflamed state. Once the microglial cell is "full" it stops phagocytic activity and changes into a relatively non-reactive gitter cell.
Andrew McKellar
In 1940, McKellar made the first detection of molecular matter in the interstellar medium, identifying the spectrum of the organic compounds cyanogen ("CN") and methyne. ("CH"). The following year, his analysis of the spectra of the cyanogen molecules showed that the surrounding space was very cold with a temperature of approximately -271 °C. At the time, the significance of this was not appreciated; the distinguished Canadian chemist and future Nobel Laureate Gerhard Herzberg said that the temperature measurement "...has of course a very restricted meaning". Almost 25 years later Arno Penzias and Robert Woodrow Wilson detected microwave radiation coming from all regions of the sky corresponding to the same temperature of -271 °C found by McKellar, thus revealing its ubiquity and relation to the radiation left over from the Big Bang. McKellar's early death, after a prolonged illness, in 1960 precluded him from consideration for the Nobel Prize awarded to Penzias and Wilson in 1978.
Role of microglia in disease
Infected microglia contain viral particles intracellularly. There is a correlation between the severity of dementia and microglial production of neurotoxins.
Microrheology
with
Micrographia
Micrographia: or Some Physiological Descriptions of Minute Bodies Made by Magnifying Glasses. With Observations and Inquiries Thereupon. is a historically significant book by Robert Hooke about his observations through various lenses. It is particularly notable for being the first book to illustrate insects, plants etc. as seen through microscopes. Published in January 1665, the first major publication of the Royal Society, it became the first scientific best-seller, inspiring a wide public interest in the new science of microscopy. It is also notable for coining the biological term "cell".
James Lovelock
On 8 May 2012, he appeared on the Radio Four series "The Life Scientific", talking to Jim al-Khalili about the Gaia hypothesis. On the program, he mentioned how his ideas had been received by various people, including Jonathan Porritt. He also mentioned how he had a claim for inventing the microwave oven. He later explained this claim in an interview with "The Manchester Magazine". Lovelock said that he did create an instrument during his time studying causes of damage to living cells and tissue, which had, according to him, "almost everything you would expect in an ordinary microwave oven". He invented the instrument for the purpose of heating up frozen hamsters in a way that caused less suffering to the animals, as opposed to the traditional way which involved putting red hot spoons on the animals' chest to heat them up. He believes that at the time, nobody had gone that far and made an embodiment of an actual microwave oven. However, he does not claim to have been the first person to have the idea of using microwaves for cooking.
Role of microglia in disease
When microglia are activated they take on an amoeboid shape and they alter their gene expression. Altered gene expression leads to the production of numerous potentially neurotoxic mediators. These mediators are important in the normal functions of microglia and their production is usually decreased once their task is complete. In chronic neuroinflammation, microglia remain activated for an extended period during which the production of mediators is sustained longer than usual. This increase in mediators contributes to neuronal death.
Micrography
Micrography (from Greek, literally small-writing – "Μικρογραφία"), also called microcalligraphy, is a Jewish form of calligrams developed in the 9th century, with parallels in Christianity and Islam, utilizing minute Hebrew letters to form representational, geometric and abstract designs. Colored micrography is especially distinctive because these rare artworks are customarily rendered in black and white.
Small nucleolar RNA-derived microRNA
Small nucleolar RNA derived microRNA was first described in 2008. The protozoal intestinal parasite "Giardia lamblia" lacks the Drosha protein involved in pre-miRNA cleavage from pri-miRNA. However the miRNA processing protein dicer is found in "Giardia". A 26 nucleotide RNA, miR2, is processed from the "Giardia lamblia" snoRNA GlsR17 by dicer. MiR2 is a microRNA which may regulate the expression of variant surface proteins.
Gliotransmitter
Gliotransmission can also occur between two types of glial cells: astrocytes and microglia. Calcium waves within the intracellular matrix of the astrocyte can cause a response in microglia with the presence of ATP in the extracellular matrix. One study demonstrated that a mechanical stimulation caused astrocytes to release ATP, which in turn caused a delayed calcium response in microglia, suggesting that astrocyte-to-microglia communication could be mediated by ATP.
Mini Lisa
The Mini Lisa is a nanoscale replica of the "Mona Lisa". It was created in 2013 by Keith Carroll, a Georgia Institute of Technology PhD candidate, in order to demonstrate a technique called thermochemical nanolithography (TCNL) that was invented at the university. In TCNL, a tiny cantilever viewed through an atomic force microscope uses heat to activate a series of chemical reactions that create new molecules. Greater amounts of heat create more molecules which lighten the surface of the substrate, allowing a grayscale image to be created.
Gliosis
Microgliosis following a CNS insult most commonly involves the development of an altered cellular morphology, specifically the enlargement of cellular processes. The microglial immunological surface receptor CR3 is also upregulated within 24 hours after the initial injury. Within the first week following the injury, microglia begin to proliferate abnormally and while doing so exhibit several immunophenotypic changes, particularly an increased expression of MHC antigens. The population of activated microglia at the site of a CNS injury includes not only endogenous microglia of the CNS but also exogeneous perivascular cells originating in the bone marrow that migrate to the area and transform into microglia to supplement the microgliosis response.
Microfungi
Many microfungi species are benign, existing as soil saprotrophs, for example, largely unobserved by humans. Many thousands of microfungal species occur in lichens, forming symbiotic relationships with algae. Other microfungi, such as those of the genera "Penicillium", "Aspergillus" and "Neurospora", were first discovered as molds causing spoilage of fruit and bread.
Microglia
This state is actually part of a graded response as microglia move from their ramified form to their fully active phagocytic form. Microglia can be activated by a variety of factors including: pro-inflammatory cytokines, cell necrosis factors, lipopolysaccharide, and changes in extracellular potassium (indicative of ruptured cells). Once activated the cells undergo several key morphological changes including the thickening and retraction of branches, uptake of MHC class I/II proteins, expression of immunomolecules, secretion of cytotoxic factors, secretion of recruitment molecules, and secretion of pro-inflammatory signaling molecules (resulting in a pro-inflammation signal cascade). Activated non-phagocytic microglia generally appear as "bushy," "rods," or small ameboids depending on how far along the ramified to full phagocytic transformation continuum they are. In addition, the microglia also undergo rapid proliferation in order to increase their numbers. From a strictly morphological perspective, the variation in microglial form along the continuum is associated with changing morphological complexity and can be quantitated using the methods of fractal analysis, which have proven sensitive to even subtle, visually undetectable changes associated with different morphologies in different pathological states.
Glia
Microglia are specialized macrophages capable of phagocytosis that protect neurons of the central nervous system. They are derived from the earliest wave of mononuclear cells that originate in yolk sac blood islands early in development, and colonize the brain shortly after the neural precursors begin to differentiate.
Discovery of cosmic microwave background radiation
Over two decades later, working at Bell Labs in Holmdel, New Jersey, in 1964, Arno Penzias and Robert Wilson were experimenting with a supersensitive, 6 meter (20 ft) horn antenna originally built to detect radio waves bounced off Echo balloon satellites. To measure these faint radio waves, they had to eliminate all recognizable interference from their receiver. They removed the effects of radar and radio broadcasting, and suppressed interference from the heat in the receiver itself by cooling it with liquid helium to −269 °C, only 4 K above absolute zero.
When Penzias and Wilson reduced their data they found a low, steady, mysterious noise that persisted in their receiver. This residual noise was 100 times more intense than they had expected, was evenly spread over the sky, and was present day and night. They were certain that the radiation they detected on a wavelength of 7.35 centimeters did not come from the Earth, the Sun, or our galaxy. After thoroughly checking their equipment, removing some pigeons nesting in the antenna and cleaning out the accumulated droppings, the noise remained. Both concluded that this noise was coming from outside our own galaxy—although they were not aware of any radio source that would account for it.
Microcotyle cepolae
"Microcotyle cepolae" was first described by Yamaguti in 1938. In 1972, Caballero y Caballero and Bravo-Hollis erected the genus "Paramicrocotyle" to describe "Paramicrocotyle tampicensis" and "Paramicrocotyle atriobursata" off Mexico, and placed within this genus sixteen species previously assigned to the genus "Microcotyle" including "M. cepolae". However, this species was returned to the genus "Microcotyle" by Mamaev in 1986.
Megachile microsoma
Megachile microsoma is a species of bee in the family Megachilidae. It was described by Theodore Dru Alison Cockerell in 1912.
Mite
Mites were first observed under the microscope by the English polymath Robert Hooke. In his 1665 book "Micrographia", he stated that far from being spontaneously generated from dirt, they were "very prettily shap'd Insects". The world's first science documentary featured cheese mites, seen under the microscope; the short film was shown in London's Alhambra music hall in 1903, causing a boom in the sales of simple microscopes. A few years later, Arthur Conan Doyle wrote a satirical poem, "Parable", with the conceit of some cheese mites disputing the origin of the round Cheddar cheese in which they all lived.
Microglia
Unlike the other types of microglia mentioned above, "perivascular" microglia refers to the location of the cell rather than its form/function. Perivascular microglia are mainly found encased within the walls of the basal lamina. They perform normal microglial functions, but unlike normal microglia they are replaced by bone marrow derived precursor cells on a regular basis and express MHC class II antigens regardless of the outside environment. Perivascular microglia also react strongly to macrophage differentiation antigens. These microglia have been shown to be essential to repair of vascular walls, as shown by Ritter's experiments and observations on ischemic retinopathy. Perivascular microglia promote endothelial cell proliferation allowing new vessels to be formed and damaged vessels to be repaired. During repair and development, myeloid recruitment and differentiation into microglial cells is highly accelerated to accomplish these tasks.
Role of microglia in disease
"Trichobilharzia regenti" is a neuropathogenic schistosome which migrates in a central nervous system of birds and mammals. In mice, microglia accumulate in the parasite migratory tracks and around damaged or dying worms. "In vitro", microglia produce nitric oxide and proinflammatory cytokines IL-6 and TNF-alpha after exposure to parasite antigens, which suggests their role both in maintaining inflammation and tissue pathology.
Microcotyle angelichthys
"Microcotyle angelichthys" was described by MacCallum in 1913 from the gills of "Holacanthus ciliaris" (Pomacanthidae ) collected at New York Aquarium. 
Tripathi (1956) created the new subgenus "Microcotyle" in which he placed "M. angelichthys". 
As Tripathi (1956) listed species within each subgenus in alphabetical order, without designating a type species, his subgeneric names and grouping were considered invalid. Unnithan (1971) placed "M. angelichthys" in the nominal subgenus "Microcotyle" as "Microcotyle (Microcotyle) angelichthys".
Microtubule
Tubulin and microtubule-mediated processes, like cell locomotion, were seen by early microscopists, like Leeuwenhoek (1677). However, the fibrous nature of flagella and other structures were discovered two centuries later, with improved light microscopes, and confirmed in the 20th century with the electron microscope and biochemical studies.
Human interactions with microbes
Since microbes were not known until the Early Modern period, they appear in earlier literature indirectly, through descriptions of baking and brewing. Only with the invention of the microscope, as used by Robert Hooke in his 1665 book "Micrographia", and by Antonie Van Leeuwenhoek in the 1670s, the germ theory of disease, and progress in microbiology in the 19th century were microbes observed directly, identified as living organisms, and put to use on a scientific basis. The same knowledge also allowed microbes to appear explicitly in literature and the arts.
Ironwood Pharmaceuticals
Microbia was founded by postdocs from the lab of Gerald Fink at the Whitehead Institute to commercialize approaches that had been developed in the lab to improve industrial fermentation of fungi, to genetically engineer them to produce secondary metabolites more efficiently or to produce new ones as leads for drug discovery or as products for use in industry, and to identify drug targets in fungi for antifungal drug discovery. In 2002 the company hired John Talley to lead their antifungal drug discovery efforts, which at the time were focused on identifying small molecules that could inhibit fungal invasins, along with Mark Currie who had also worked at Searle division of Monsanto with Talley, and then had gone to Sepracor, and also Richard Bailey, who had run Monsanto's nutritional business. Currie directed the efforts that led to the discovery of linaclotide, which was based on an enterotoxin produced by some strains of "Escherichia coli" that cause traveler’s diarrhea.
Microplia nigra
Microplia nigra is a species of beetle in the family Cerambycidae. It was described by Monné in 1976.
Microglia
In their downregulated form, microglia lack the MHC class I/MHC class II proteins, IFN-γ cytokines, CD45 antigens, and many other surface receptors required to act in the antigen-presenting, phagocytic, and cytotoxic roles that hallmark normal macrophages. Microglia also differ from macrophages in that they are much more tightly regulated spatially and temporally in order to maintain a precise immune response.
Microdialysis
The microdialysis principle was first employed in the early 1960s, when push-pull canulas and dialysis sacs were implanted into animal tissues, especially into rodent brains, to directly study the tissues' biochemistry. While these techniques had a number of experimental drawbacks, such as the number of samples per animal or no/limited time resolution, the invention of continuously perfused dialytrodes in 1972 helped to overcome some of these limitations. Further improvement of the dialytrode concept resulted in the invention of the "hollow fiber", a tubular semipermeable membrane with a diameter of ~200-300μm, in 1974. Today's most prevalent shape, the needle probe, consists of a shaft with a hollow fiber at its tip and can be inserted by means of a guide cannula into the brain and other tissues.
Caladenia microchila
"Caladenia microchila" was first described in 2001 by Stephen Hopper and Andrew Phillip Brown and the description was published in "Nuytsia". The specific epithet ("microchila") is derived from the Ancient Greek words "mikros" meaning "small" and "cheilos" meaning "lip" referring to the relatively small labellum of this species.
Beth Stevens
Stevens has identified microglia as playing a central role in neuron-glia communication. As the resident phagocytes of the central nervous system (CNS), microglia survey their local environment, clear cellular debris, and make contact with neurons to aid in synaptic pruning during development and learning. She has proposed a "quad-partite" expansion of the tripartite synapse model by including microglia as functional participants in developing and mature synapses.
Microorganism
The discovery of microorganisms such as "Euglena" that did not fit into either the animal or plant kingdoms, since they were photosynthetic like plants, but motile like animals, led to the naming of a third kingdom in the 1860s. In 1860 John Hogg called this the Protoctista, and in 1866 Ernst Haeckel named it the Protista.
Nuda
Directly inside the mouth opening, in the lining of the gullet, can be found characteristic finger-like processes known as "macrocilia". These were first described by J.G.F. Will in 1844 and further investigated by George Adrian Horridge in 1965. He found they were complex structures composed of 2,000 to 3,000 filaments in a single, conical functional unit. Each macrocilium shows the typical eukaryote construction of nine external and two internal microtubules. The individual macrocilium is between 50 and 60 micrometres long and 6 to 10 micrometres thick, with the cilia bonded together in a hexagonal cross-sectional structure by permanent fibrils in three different planes. A system of tubules connects the basal bodies from which the macrocilia grow.
Role of microglia in disease
The infection of mononuclear phagocytes with HIV-1 is an important element in the development of HIV-associated dementia complex (HAD). The only brain cell type that is "productively" infected with the virus are microglial cells. It has also become clear that neurotoxic mediators released from brain microglia play an important role in the pathogenesis of HIV-1.
Role of microglia in disease
Microglia are the primary immune cells of the Central Nervous System, similar to peripheral macrophages. They respond to pathogens and injury by changing morphology and migrating to the site of infection/injury, where they destroy pathogens and remove damaged cells.
Cell theory
The cell was first discovered by Robert Hooke in 1665, which can be found to be described in his book Micrographia. In this book, he gave 60 ‘observations’ in detail of various objects under a coarse, compound microscope. One observation was from very thin slices of bottle cork. Hooke discovered a multitude of tiny pores that he named "cells". This came from the Latin word Cella, meaning ‘a small room’ like monks lived in and also Cellulae, which meant the six sided cell of a honeycomb. However, Hooke did not know their real structure or function. 
What Hooke had thought were cells, were actually empty cell walls of plant tissues. With microscopes during this time having a low magnification, Hooke was unable to see that there were other internal components to the cells he was observing. Therefore, he did not think the "cellulae" were alive. His cell observations gave no indication of the nucleus and other organelles found in most living cells. In Micrographia, Hooke also observed mould, bluish in color, found on leather. After studying it under his microscope, he was unable to observe “seeds” that would have indicated how the mould was multiplying in quantity. This led to Hooke suggesting that spontaneous generation, from either natural or artificial heat, was the cause. Since this was an old Aristotelian theory still accepted at the time, others did not reject it and was not disproved until Leeuwenhoek later discovers generation is achieved otherwise.
Microchilo griseofuscalis
Microchilo griseofuscalis is a moth in the Crambidae family. It was described by Rothschild in 1915. It is found in New Guinea.
Role of microglia in disease
A causal role for microglia in the pathogenesis of neuropathic pain has been demonstrated through P2X receptor. P2X receptors are upregulated following injury and the increase in purinergic signaling activates p38-mitogen-activated protein kinase (p38 MAPK). The increase in p38 MAPK signaling leads to greater microglial release of brain-derived neurotrophic factor (BDNF). BDNF released from microglia induces neuronal hyperexcitability through interaction with the TrkB receptor.
Microglia
Microglial cells are extremely plastic, and undergo a variety of structural changes based on location and system needs. This level of plasticity is required to fulfill the vast variety of functions that microglia perform. The ability to transform distinguishes microglia from macrophages, which must be replaced on a regular basis, and provides them the ability to defend the CNS on extremely short notice without causing immunological disturbance. Microglia adopt a specific form, or phenotype, in response to the local conditions and chemical signals they have detected.
Micrographia
Hooke most famously describes a fly's eye and a plant cell (where he coined that term because plant cells, which are walled, reminded him of the cells in a honeycomb). Known for its spectacular copperplate engravings of the miniature world, particularly its fold-out plates of insects, the text itself reinforces the tremendous power of the new microscope. The plates of insects fold out to be larger than the large folio itself, the engraving of the louse in particular folding out to four times the size of the book. Although the book is best known for demonstrating the power of the microscope, "Micrographia" also describes distant planetary bodies, the wave theory of light, the organic origin of fossils, and other philosophical and scientific interests of its author.
Microcotyle oceanica
Microcotyle oceanica is a species of monogenean, parasitic on the gills of a marine fish. It belongs to the family Microcotylidae. It was first described and illustrated based on two specimens from the gills of the Mexican needlefish "Tylosurus fodiator" (Belonidae), off Panama.
Pío del Río Hortega
He managed to identify microglia between 1919 and 1921 by staining the cells with silver carbonate. His method of staining also led to the discovery of oligodendroglia in 1921, which both he and Penfield are now credited with. However it was Rio Hortega who named the cells.
Camillo Golgi
An organelle in eukaryotice cells now known as Golgi apparatus or Golgi complex, or sometimes simply as Golgi, was discovered by Camillo Golgi. Golgi modified his black reaction using osmium dichromate solution with which he stained the nerve cells (Purkinje cells) of the cerebellum of an owl. He noticed thread-like networks inside the cells and named them "apparato reticolare interno" (internal reticular apparatus). Recognising them to be unique cellular components, he presented his discovery before the Medical-Surgical Society of Pavia in April 1898. After the same was confirmed by his assistant Emilio Veratti, he published it in the "Bollettino della Società medico-chirurgica di Pavia". However, most scientists disputed his discovery as nothing but a staining artefact. Their microscopes were not powerful enough to identify the organelles. By the 1930s, Golgi's description was largely rejected. It was only firmly established after 50 years of its discovery, when electron microscopes were developed.
Microplia agilis
Microplia agilis is a species of beetle in the family Cerambycidae. It was described by Audinet-Serville in 1835.
Microtis (plant)
The genus "Microtis" was first formally described by Robert Brown in 1810 and the description was published in "Prodromus Florae Novae Hollandiae". Brown described five species at the time ("M. parviflora", "M. rara", "M. media", "M. alba" and "M. pulchella") but did not nominate a type species. The name "Microtis" is derived from the Ancient Greek words "mikros" meaning "small" and "otos" meaning "ear"' referring to the small, ear-like appendages on the column.
Johannes Phocylides Holwarda
Born in Holwerd, he is best remembered for his discovery of the length of Mira's (Omicron Ceti's) varying appearance cycle. In a systematic study in 1638, he found that Mira disappeared and reappeared in a varying cycle of about 330 days.
Microbiology
The field of bacteriology (later a subdiscipline of microbiology) was founded in the 19th century by Ferdinand Cohn, a botanist whose studies on algae and photosynthetic bacteria led him to describe several bacteria including "Bacillus" and "Beggiatoa". Cohn was also the first to formulate a scheme for the taxonomic classification of bacteria, and to discover endospores. Louis Pasteur and Robert Koch were contemporaries of Cohn, and are often considered to be the father of microbiology and medical microbiology, respectively. Pasteur is most famous for his series of experiments designed to disprove the then widely held theory of spontaneous generation, thereby solidifying microbiology’s identity as a biological science. One of his students, Adrien Certes, is considered the founder of marine microbiology. Pasteur also designed methods for food preservation (pasteurization) and vaccines against several diseases such as anthrax, fowl cholera and rabies. Koch is best known for his contributions to the germ theory of disease, proving that specific diseases were caused by specific pathogenic micro-organisms. He developed a series of criteria that have become known as the Koch's postulates. Koch was one of the first scientists to focus on the isolation of bacteria in pure culture resulting in his description of several novel bacteria including "Mycobacterium tuberculosis", the causative agent of tuberculosis.
Spot 42 RNA
Spot42 was first described in 1973 as an unstable RNA species of 109 nucleotides in "Escherichia coli". It was discovered by polyacrylamide gel electrophoresis and 2-D fingerprinting in an attempt to study the accumulation of small RNAs in "E. coli" during amino acid starvation. In these experiments the electrophoretic mobility of Spot42 was similar to that of 5S rRNA. In 1979 Spot42 was found to accumulate under growth in the presence of glucose (i.e., when adenosine 3′,5′-cyclic monophosphate (cAMP) is low). During growth with a non-glucose carbon source (i.e., when cAMP concentrations are high) the Spot42 concentrations were found to be significantly lower.
History of model organisms
Insects were not the only organisms entering the laboratories as test subjects. Bacteria had also been introduced and with the invention of the electron microscope in 1931 by Ernst Ruska, a whole new field of microbiology was born. This invention allowed microbiologists to see objects that were far too small to be seen by any light microscope and thus viruses which had perplexed biologists of many fields for years, now came under scientific scrutiny. In 1932 Wendell Stanley began a direct competition with Carl G. Vinson to be the first to completely isolate the Tobacco Mosaic Virus, a virus that had been until then invisibly killing tobacco plants across England. It was Stanley who would accomplish this task first by changing the pH to one a more acidic one. In doing so he was able to conclude that the virus was either a protein or closely related to one, thus benefiting experimental research.
Melaleuca microphylla
This species was first formally described in 1812 by James Edward Smith in "The Cyclopedia" from a specimen "gathered near King George's Sound, on the West Coast of New Holland, by Mr. A. Menzies". The specific epithet ("microphylla") is from the Ancient Greek words "mikros" meaning little and "phyllon" meaning "leaf" referring to the small leaves of this melaleuca.
Microglia
This form of microglial cell is commonly found at specific locations throughout the entire brain and spinal cord in the absence of foreign material or dying cells. This "resting" form of microglia is composed of long branching processes and a small cellular body. Unlike the amoeboid forms of microglia, the cell body of the ramified form remains in place while its branches are constantly moving and surveying the surrounding area. The branches are very sensitive to small changes in physiological condition and require very specific culture conditions to observe in vitro.
Role of microglia in disease
Multiple sclerosis (MS) is a chronic inflammatory and neurodegenerative disease of the central nervous system (CNS) characterized by focal lesions of inflammation, axonal loss, gliosis, and demyelination that affect the white and gray matter. In MS patients, destruction of myelin in the CNS is associated with activated macrophages or microglia, which are thought to be involved in the disease pathogenesis.
Cancerous micronuclei
Theodor Boveri originally observed the fact that abnormal nuclear morphologies commonly occur in cancer. Micronuclei are also referred to Howell-Jolly bodies; discovered by hematologists William Henry Howell and Justin Marie Jolly in erythrocytes. Micronucleus induction by a chemical was first reported in Ehrlich ascites tumor cells treated with colchicine. The effect of environmental stressors on the expression of micronuclei was first analyzed in root tip cells under ionizing radiation. It can be inferred that nuclear abnormalities are a result of various molecular mechanisms. These events can ultimately lead to cell death.
Microcotyle fusiformis
Microcotyle fusiformis is a species of monogenean, parasitic on the gills of a marine fish, described by Seitarō Gotōin 1894. It belongs to the family Microcotylidae. This species was first .
Role of microglia in disease
One discrepancy in HAD is the limited number of HIV-1 infected microglia in comparison to the many CNS abnormalities that occur. This suggests that chemical factors that are released from microglial cells are contributing to neuronal loss. "It has become more and more apparent that HIV-1 infected microglial cells actively secrete both endogenous neurotoxins such as TNF-α, IL-1β, CXCL8/IL-8, glutamate, quinolinic acid, platelet activating factor, eicosanoids, and NO as well as the neurotoxic viral proteins Tat, gp120, and gp41."
Microglia
Activated phagocytic microglia are the maximally immune responsive form of microglia. These cells generally take on a large, ameboid shape, although some variance has been observed. In addition to having the antigen presenting, cytotoxic and inflammatory mediating signaling of activated non-phagocytic microglia, they are also able to phagocytose foreign materials and display the resulting immunomolecules for T-cell activation. Phagocytic microglia travel to the site of the injury, engulf the offending material, and secrete pro-inflammatory factors to promote more cells to proliferate and do the same. Activated phagocytic microglia also interact with astrocytes and neural cells to fight off the infection as quickly as possible with minimal damage to the healthy brain cells.
Microlite
"Microlite" was first described in 1835 for an occurrence on the Island of Uto, State of Stockholm, Sweden. A type locality is the Clark Ledges pegmatite, Chesterfield, Hampshire County, Massachusetts. The name is from Greek "mikros" for "small" and "lithos" for "stone."
Microgaza rotella
Microgaza rotella is a species of sea snail, a marine gastropod mollusk in the family Solariellidae.The depressed shell is small and grows to a length of 6.8 mm. It has five whorls, somewhat flattened above and below. The nucleus is small, translucent white, and with the two first whorls polished. The nucleus is smooth or marked only by faint growth lines. The remainder of the whorls show a narrow puckered band revolving immediately below the suture, on which the shell matter is as it were pinched up into slight elevations at regular intervals, about half a millimeter apart. In some specimens, outside of this band an impressed line revolves with the shell. The remainder is smooth, shining or with evanescent traces of revolving lines impressed from within and strongest about the rounded periphery. The base of the shell is rounded toward the umbilical
carina over which it seems to be drawn into flexuously radiating well-marked plications (about thirty-two on the last turn). These plications disappear a third of the way toward the periphery. The wall of the umbilicus is concave, overhung by the carina. The turns of the shell are so coiled that the part of each whorl uncovered by its successor forms a narrow spiral plane ascending to the apex like a spiral staircase or screw thread. The thin columella is straight and lacks a callus. The aperture is rounded except at the angle of the umbilical carina. The margin is thin, sharp, not reflected or thickened. There is no callus on the body whorl in the aperture. 
The shell is whitish or greenish. The nacre is less brilliant in dead or deep-water specimens. The shell shows zigzag brown lines variously transversely disposed and disappearing on the base.
Chlorella sorokiniana
Chlorella sorokiniana is a freshwater green microalga with a characteristic emerald-green color and pleasant grass odor. Its cell division rate is quite fast and divides into four new cells every 17 to 24 hours. The algae was found by a Dutch microbiologist Martinus W. Beijerinck in 1890. In 1951, the Rockfellar Foundation in collaboration with the Japanese Government and Dr. Hiroshi Tamiya developed the technology to grow, harvest and process "Chlorella sorokiniana" on a large, economically-feasible scale. This microalgae has also been used extensively as a model system to study enzymes involved in higher plant metabolism.
Microcotyle tanago
"Microcotyle tanago" was first described by Yamaguti in 1940 based on a single mature specimen. Caballero y Caballero and Bravo-Hollis erected the genus "Paramicrocotyle" to describe "Paramicrocotyle tampicensis" and "Paramicrocotyle atriobursata" off Mexico, they placed whithin this genus sixteen species previously assigned to the genus "Microcotyle" including "M. tanago". It was returned to the genus "Microcotyle" by Mamaev who considered "Paramicrocotyle" a junior subjective synonym of "Microcotyle".