When was evidence of the Catopsbaatar first found?
Catopsbaatar
Catopsbaatar is a genus of multituberculate, an extinct order of rodent-like mammals. It lived in what is now Mongolia during the late Campanian age of the Late Cretaceous Period, about 72 million years ago. The first fossils were collected in the early 1970s, and the animal was named as a new species of the genus "Djadochtatherium " in 1974, "D. catopsaloides". The specific name refers to the animal's similarity to the genus "Catopsalis". The species was moved to the genus "Catopsalis" in 1979, and received its own genus ("Catopsbaatar", Greek and Mongolian for "visible hero") in 1994. Five skulls, one molar, and one skeleton with a skull are known; the latter is the genus' most complete specimen. "Catopsbaatar" was a member of the family Djadochtatheriidae.
History of Ulaanbaatar
Human habitation at the site of Ulaanbaatar dates from the Lower Paleolithic. Alexey Okladnikov's archeological work in 1949 and 1960 revealed many Paleolithic sites on Mt. Bogd Khan Uul, Buyant-Ukhaa and Mt. Songinokhairkhan. In 1962 various Paleolithic tools were discovered at Mt. Songinokhairkhan as well as Buyant-Ukhaa (23 stone tools) that scholars date from 300,000 years ago to 40,000-12,000 years ago. Okladnikov also revealed an Upper Paleolithic (40,000-12,000 years ago) site on the south-east base of the Zaisan Hill on the northern edge of Mt. Bogd Khan Uul. Byambyn Rinchen mentions it as an inspiration for his prehistoric novel "Zaan Zaluudai". The lower strata of this bistratified settlement located at the present-day Zaisan Memorial revealed tools and materials fashioned according to the Levallois technique. These Upper Paleolithic people hunted mammoth and woolly rhinoceros, the bones of which are found abundantly around Ulaanbaatar.
Prehistoric Europe
This period extends from c. 2500 BC to c. 1800 or 1700 BC (depending on the region). The dates are general for the whole of Europe, and the Aegean area is already fully in the Bronze Age. ca. 2500 BC the new Catacomb culture (proto-Cimmerians?), whose origins are obscure but who are also Indo-Europeans, displaces the Yamna peoples in the regions north and east of the Black Sea, confining them to their original area east of the Volga. The Catacomb culture is the first to introduce corded pottery decorations into the steppes and shows a profuse use of the polished battle axe, providing a link to the West. Parallels with the Afanasevo culture, including provoked cranial deformations, provide a link to the East. Some of these infiltrate Poland and may have played a significant but unclear role in the transformation of the culture of the Globular Amphorae into the new Corded Ware culture.
Zamorin of Calicut
The title "Samoothiri" regularly appears in sources only after the c. 15th century, first time in the writings Ibn Batutah (visited Kozhikode in the 14th century (1342–1347)). It is safe to assume that the Eradis of Nediyirippu assumed the title of "Samoothiri" in a later period.
Ninhursag
Her symbol, resembling the Greek letter "omega" Ω, has been depicted in art from approximately 3000 BC, although more generally from the early second millennium BC. It appears on some boundary stones—on the upper tier, indicating her importance. The omega symbol is associated with the Egyptian cow goddess Hathor, and may represent a stylized womb. The symbol appears on very early imagery from Ancient Egypt. Hathor is at times depicted on a mountain, so it may be that the two goddesses are connected.
Makapansgat pebble
The pebble is interesting in that it was found some distance from any possible natural source, associated with the bones of "Australopithecus africanus" in a cave in Makapansgat, South Africa. Though it is definitely not a manufactured object, it has been suggested that some australopithecine might have recognized it as a symbolic face, in possibly the earliest example of symbolic thinking or aesthetic sense in the human heritage, and brought the pebble back to the cave. This would make it a candidate for the oldest known manuport.
History of Batumi
The earliest archaeologically confirmed settlement on the territory of present-day Batumi dates to the 8th-7th century BC. It is located along the Karolitskhali River and centered on a hillock which is now popularly referred to as Tamar’s Fortress after the medieval Georgian queen Tamar (r. 1184-1213). A number of unearthed imported items, fragments of amphorae among them, testify to the Greek influence there. The locale was a home to a Roman military fort during the reign of Hadrian (r. 117-138 AD), but was deserted for the fortress of Petra constructed under Justinian I (r. 527-565) on the site of the present-day Tsikhisdziri to the north of Batumi.
Carabao
The oldest evidence of water buffaloes discovered in the Philippines are multiple fragmentary skeletal remains recovered from the upper layers of the Neolithic Nagsabaran site, part of the Lal-lo and Gattaran Shell Middens (~2200 BCE to 400 CE) of northern Luzon. Most of the remains consisted of skull fragments, almost all of which have cut marks indicating they were butchered. The remains are associated with red slipped pottery, spindle whorls, stone adzes, and jade bracelets; which have strong affinities to similar artifacts from Neolithic Austronesian archeological sites in Taiwan. Based on the radiocarbon date of the layer in which the oldest fragments were found, water buffaloes were first introduced to the Philippines by at least 500 BCE.
Lee Rogers Berger
In August 2008, 9-year-old Matthew Berger, the son of Lee Rogers Berger, found a clavicle and a jawbone embedded in a rock near Malapa Cave in South Africa. Subsequent excavation, headed by Berger, led to the discovery of numerous bones nearby that dated back nearly two million years. Along with various co-authors, Berger published a series of articles between 2010 and 2013 in the journal "Science" that describe what they call a new species, "Australopithecus sediba", which had a mixture of primitive and modern characteristics. The finding was particularly promising because it potentially revealed a previously unknown transitional species between the more ape-like australopithecines and the more human-like "Homo habilis". Berger claimed that this new finding represented "the most probable ancestor" of modern-day "Homo sapiens".
Djadochtatherium
The species "Djadochtatherium matthewi" was also named by G. G. Simpson in 1925 and has also been known as "Catopsalis matthewi" (Simpson, 1925). It has been found in the Campanian (Upper Cretaceous)-age Djadokhta and Goyot Formations of Mongolia. This was a relatively large Multituberculate, with a skull length of about 4.5 cm. It was originally diagnosed as a species within the North American genus of "Catopsalis".
Paranthropus aethiopicus
The first specimen of "Australopithecus aethiopicus" that was discovered is known as Omo 18. Omo 18, also known as "Paraustralopithecus aethiopicus" was discovered in southern Ethiopia by French archeologists Camille Arambourg and Yves Coppens in 1967. Omo 18 serves as a predecessor to KNM-WT 17000, which was discovered by Alan Walker and named "Australopithecus walkeri" by Ferguson (1989). The finding discovered in 1985 by Alan Walker in West Turkana, Kenya, KNM WT 17000 (known as the "Black Skull" due to the dark coloration of the bone, caused by high levels of manganese), is one of the earliest examples of robust pliocene hominids. A key feature of Omo 18 is that it has a v-shaped jaw unlike the other Australopithecus species found. Although Omo 18 was the first skull discovered of these species, many paleoanthropologists ignored the finding on the basis that it was similar to the other species of australopithecines. Once KNM-WT 17000 was discovered, interest renewed in Omo 18 and it was reclassified.
Rotaurisaurus
The skull was discovered in 1960 at the Crisp and Gunn Quarry near Hobart, Tasmania. This quarry contains rock layers from the Knocklofty Formation, which is dated to the early Triassic Period. For years this skull was believed to belong to a juvenile individual of "Chomatobatrachus halei", a species of lydekkerinid common in Tasmanian quarries. It was listed as such during John Cosgriff's 1974 review of Tasmanian temnospondyls. The "Rotaurisaurus" specimen was contained in a collapsed block of red siltstone which originally overlaid the grey siltstone of the formation's Poets Road Member. The Poets Road Member contained such fossils as a skeleton of the early archosaur relative "Tasmaniosaurus triassicus", and is believed to hail between the Early Induan and Early Olenekian ages of the early Triassic, about 250 million years ago.
Roman Catholic Diocese of Kotor
The first documented bishop of Cattaro was Paulus, who participated in the Council of Chalcedon in 451. The next mention of the Diocese of Cattaro was 530, when it is mentioned as a suffragan of the Archdiocese of Salona (Solin). The late Antiquity era, relatively the early Christian origin of the bishopric of Cattaro, is testified by an early Christian baptistery from the late 5th or early 6th centuries, discovered in an archeological examination of the Church of Saint Maria of Rijeka (Crkva sv. Marije od Rijeke) following the 1979 earthquake where the probable foundations of the first cathedral in Cattaro was discovered with remains, such as the cathedra and ciborium from the 6th century.
Basilosaurus
Basilosaurus ("king lizard") is a genus of prehistoric cetacean that existed during the Late Eocene, 40 to 35 million years ago (mya). The first fossil of "B. cetoides" was discovered in the United States and was initially believed to be some sort of reptile, hence the suffix "-saurus", but it was later found to be a marine mammal. Richard Owen wished to rename the creature Zeuglodon ("yoked tooth"), but, per taxonomic rules, the creature's first name remained permanent. Fossils of "B. isis" have been found in Egypt and Jordan.
Catopsalis
The species "Catopsalis foliatus" was named by Cope E.D. in 1882. It has also been known as "C. johnstoni" (Fox R.C. 1989) and "Polymastodon foliatus" (Cope 1884). This species has been found in Puercan (Paleocene)-age strata of the San Juan Basin of New Mexico and in the Ravenscrag Formation of Canada. "C. johnstoni", from Saskatchewan, is also in the Alberta collection.
History of Madagascar
Finally, a cutmarked pygmy hippo bone from Ambolisatra has been dated and calibrated to between 60 BCE and 130 CE (2 SDs), but it is from a coastal swamp without indications of settlement in a heavily karstic region. Moreover, a similar bone from the same collection from a nearby site gave two widely divergent dates of 2020 and 3495 BP (MacPhee & Burney 1991). Transient visits to Madagascar that did not result in enduring settlement cannot be ruled out, and may have left some traces.
Factual information about the peopling of Madagascar remains incomplete, but much recent multidisciplinary research and work in archaeology, genetics, linguistics, and history confirms that the Malagasy people were originally and overwhelmingly Austronesian peoples native to the Sunda Islands. They probably arrived on the west coast of Madagascar with outrigger canoes ("waka") at the beginning of our era or as much as 300 years sooner according to archaeologists, and perhaps even earlier under certain geneticists' assumptions. The Borobudur Ship Expedition in 2003–2004 affirmed scholars' ideas that ships from ancient Indonesia could have reached Madagascar and the west African coast for trade from the 8th century and after. A traditional Borobudur ship with outriggers was reconstructed and sailed in this expedition from Jakarta to Madagascar and Ghana. These pioneers are known in the Malagasy oral tradition as the "Ntaolo", from Proto-Malayo-Polynesian "*tau-ulu", literally "first men", from "*tau", "man", and "*ulu", "head", "first", "origin", "beginning". It is likely that those ancient people called themselves *"va-waka", "the canoe people" from Proto-Malayo-Polynesian "*va", "people", and "* waka"-"canoe". Today the term "vahoaka" means "people" in Malagasy.
Aetosaur
Aetosaur material was first described by Swiss paleontologist Louis Agassiz in 1844. He named the genus "Stagonolepis" from the Lossiemouth Sandstone in Elgin, Scotland, but considered it to be a Devonian fish rather than a Triassic reptile. This may be because he considered the strata to be part of the Old Red Sandstone, and thus Paleozoic in age. Agassiz mistook the osteoderms for large rhomboidal scales, which he thought were arranged in a similar pattern to those of gars. He also thought that these supposed scales were very similar to those of the lobe-finned fish "Megalichthys" due to their large size.
Çatalhöyük
The site was first excavated by James Mellaart in 1958. He later led a team which further excavated there for four seasons between 1961 and 1965. These excavations revealed this section of Anatolia as a centre of advanced culture in the Neolithic period. Excavation revealed 18 successive layers of buildings signifying various stages of the settlement and eras of history. The bottom layer of buildings can be dated as early as 7100 BC while the top layer is of 5600 BC.
Catopsbaatar
The skull of "Catopsbaatar" was heavy-set, with a wide margin across the front. It was shorter along the midline than at the sides, because the nuchal crest at the back of the head curved inwards at the middle, creating an indention at the hind margin of the skull when viewed from above. The zygomatic arches were strongly expanded to the sides, with the skull width (across the arches) about 85 percent of the skull length. The front of the orbits (eye sockets) were further back than in other djadochtatheriids, resulting in a more elongated snout (65 percent of the skull length) and small orbits. The premaxilla (front bone of the upper jaw) extended less than two-thirds of the length of the snout in front of the eyes, shorter than that of "Kryptobaatar". The premaxilla consisted of parts of the face and the palate; djadochtatheriids had a premaxillary ridge on the boundary between the two (visible when viewing the skull from below). The palatal part of the premaxilla was concave, with many randomly arranged nutrient foramina (openings). The nasal bone—which formed the upper part of the snout—was relatively wide (becoming wider towards the back), and its front was covered with irregularly spaced vascular foramina. The suture between the nasal and frontal bones was less pointed forwards in the middle than were those of "Catopsbaatar"'s relatives. 
The maxilla (the main part of the upper jaw) was extensive, and formed most of the side of the snout. It contained all the upper teeth, except the incisors. The infraorbital foramina (openings at the lower front of the maxilla) were slit-like in some specimens and rounded in others, and varied in number from one to three. One of the most characteristic features of the face of "Catopsbaatar" was the very large anterior zygomatic ridge on the sides of the upper jaw (a site for jaw-muscle attachment). It was much higher than in other djadochtatheriids except for "Djadochtatherium", from which it differed in that the ridge was semicircular rather than roughly trapezoidal (other genera have elliptical ridges). The front margin of the anterior zygomatic ridge was thickened, which produced a bulge on the side margin of the snout when viewed from the side and above. The lower part of the suture between the maxilla and the squamosal bone extended along the hind border of the anterior zygomatic ridge. The palatal processes of the maxilla formed most of the palate. The major palatine foramina had shallow grooves extending forward. The postpalatine torus (a bony protrusion on the palate) of "Catopsbaatar" was less prominent than was that of "Tombaatar". The frontal bone was large, and formed most of the cranial roof. The suture between the frontal and parietal bones formed a U-shaped part in the middle which pointed backwards—similar to the condition in "Kryptobaatar" but less deep, with smaller U-shaped structures at the sides. This differed from "Djadochtatherium", which had a narrower V-shaped suture between the frontal and parietal bones.
The intermediate zygomatic ridge on the squamosal bone (also for jaw-muscle attachment) was much smaller and lower than the anterior zygomatic ridge in front of it. "Catopsbaatar" differed from other djadochtatheriids in that the intermediate ridge contacted the anterior ridge with its front edge. The posterior zygomatic ridge at the lower back of the squamosal bone was the weakest of the three ridges, and only marked by a depression. The postorbital processes behind the orbit on the parietal bone were very long, and the parietal ridges extended from the hind margin of the postorbital processes towards each other (but without reaching). The nuchal crest was very prominent, and extended to the sides to form "wings". The occipital plate was almost vertical and slightly concave, and was obscured by the nuchal crest when the skull was viewed from above. Though incompletely preserved, it is assumed that the occipital plate sloped back and upwards from the occipital condyles (as in some relatives). The orbito-temporal vascular system inside the skull of "Catopsbaatar" did not differ much from those of related genera.
Khabur (Euphrates)
Since the 1930s, numerous archaeological excavations and surveys have been carried out in the Khabur Valley, indicating that the region has been occupied since the Lower Palaeolithic period. Important sites that have been excavated include Tell Halaf, Tell Brak, Tell Leilan, Tell Mashnaqa, Tell Mozan and Tell Barri. The region has given its name to a distinctive painted ware found in northern Mesopotamia and Syria in the early 2nd millennium BCE, called Khabur ware. The region of the Khabur River is also associated with the rise of the Kingdom of the Mitanni that flourished c.1500-1300 BC.
Calatagan, Batangas
The town is the site of the historically and archaeologically famous Calatagan Excavation whose antique pottery and utensils contributed important facts about the culture and activities of the Filipinos before the coming of the Spaniards. Chinese pottery, unearthed from six large cemeteries by archaeologists Olov T.R Jones and Robert B. Fox led to a conclusion made by K. Otley Bayer which points out the existence of a sizable pre-Spanish population in the town. The same studies suggested that there were direct Chinese trade by water in Calatagan and centered at a place called Balong-Bato, wherein an entrance through the reef, which surrounds Calatagan, is still presently used by vessels coming from Mindoro and Manila.
The land occupied by the municipality of Calatagan was acquired by Domingo Roxas from the Spanish Crown in 1829 and was called "Hacienda de Calatagan". The successors Pedro P. Roxas and Antonio R. Roxas continued to develop it.
Timeline of ceratopsian research
The early 20th century was a fruitful time for ceratopsian research. In 1907, Hatcher and others published a monograph on ceratopsid anatomy that is still considered the single most significant publication on the topic to date. Many new species were being described, including "Centrosaurus", "Styracosaurus", and "Chasmosaurus". Not long after, the Central Asiatic Expedition led by Roy Chapman Andrews of the American Museum of Natural History discovered the primitive ceratopsians "Psittacosaurus" and "Protoceratops" in Mongolia. "Protoceratops" gained notoriety as the supposed parent of the first fossil dinosaur eggs known to science. One of these supposed "Protoceratops" nests preserved the skeleton of a new kind of theropod dinosaur, "Oviraptor". It was thought to have been preserved after being killed in the act of raiding the "Protoceratops" nest. This narrative would last until the , when the ""Protoceratops"" eggs were determined to belong to "Oviraptor" itself.
Calcar
The oldest known ancestor to present day bats, "Icaronycteris index", apparently did not have a calcar or spur as evidenced by fossil remains. 
The oldest known bat with a calcar is "Onychonycteris", which lived in the early Eocene.
"Onychonycteris" had a long calcar, indicative of a broad tail membrane.
In describing "Onychonycteris" in 2008, Simmons hypothesized that its calcar was more relevant to the mechanism of flight than capturing prey.
ANCODS
"Batavia" struck the reef surrounding the Wallaby Group of the Houtman Abrolhos in 1629. Survivors set up camp nearby and a small party was sent off in search of fresh water. When no water was found, the party was sent to Batavia (modern day Jakarta) to get help and to notify the government of a mutiny aboard the ship. The survivors left on the island suffered losses due to murder, starvation and exposure. Discovered in 1963, this site is one of the more famous due to events that led up to the wreck and the ensuing strife among the surviving crew. Between 1970 and 1974, WAM recovered many artefacts from the wreck and raised the remains of the hull for display in the museum. Also retrieved was a dismantled portico destined for Batavia’s port and human remains. The ANCODS collection holds 6,823 artefacts related to the "Batavia" and the remains of its hull. The assembled portico is on display in WAM's Fremantle Ship Wreck Galleries.
Cryobatrachus
Fossils of "Cryobatrachus" were first found by South African paleontologist James Kitching in the austral summer of 1971–72 as part of an expedition headed by the Institute for Polar Studies at Ohio State University, now known as the Byrd Polar Research Center. Paleontologists Edwin Harris Colbert of the American Museum of Natural History and John Cosgriff of Wayne State University described these fossils in 1974, positing the new genus and species "Cryobatrachus kitchingi" with the specific name honoring Kitching. All specimens were uncovered from the lower part of the Fremouw Formation, which dates back to the Early Triassic. The holotype specimen, cataloged as AMNH 9503, is a partial skull with the ventral surface of the dermal bones present. The palate and braincase are not preserved. An additional paratype specimen called AMNH 9556 includes an impression of the skull roof, but no preserved bones. AMNH 9503 was found on Kitching Ridge (which is also named after James Kitching) near Shackleton Glacier, and AMNH 9556 was found on Mount Kenyon near McGregor Glacier. Two crushed skulls from Kitching Ridge were also considered possible specimens of "Cryobatrachus", as was part of an upper jaw from Halfmoon Bluff (which is on the opposite side of Shackleton Glacier as Kitching Ridge). Colbert and Cosgriff tentatively attributed six smaller fragments from Coalsack Bluff to "Cryobatrachus", including parts of lower jaw, the clavicle, and the interclavicle. Fifteen other Coalsack Bluff fragments, attributed as possible remains of "Cryobatrachus" based on their small size alone, were described. These bones included parts of the legs, hips, vertebrae, and skull. A 1977-78 expedition found a bone fragment on Collinson Ridge and an interclavicle on Shenk Peak southeast of the paratype locality on Mount Kenyon, both of which were referred to "Cryobatrachus" in 1984.
Old Assyrian Empire
About twelve kilometers northwest of Alişar Hüyük is another important archaeological site named Çadır Höyük. Excavators of Çadır Höyük have identified this site tentatively with the Hittite city of Zippalanda. Evidence of the first known settlement at Çadır Höyük has been radio-carbon dated to the Copper Age (c. 5000 BC – c. 3300 BC); nevertheless the occupation may well be even earlier than that, and go back to the New Stone Age (c. 5500 BC.) Çadır Höyük appears to have flourished during both the Middle Bronze Age (c. 2100 BC – c. 1550 BC) and Late Bronze Age (c. 1550 BC – c. 1200 BC.) The site was excavated from 1927 to 1932 by a team from the Oriental Institute of Chicago; excavation resumed in 1992, led by Ronald Gorny as part of the Alişar Regional Project, though most of the work has been at nearby Çadır Höyük.
Coptic Cairo
There is evidence of settlement in the area as early as the 6th century BC, when Persians built a fort on the Nile, north of Memphis. The Persians also built a canal from the Nile (at Fustat) to the Red Sea. The Persian settlement was called Babylon, reminiscent of the ancient city along the Euphrates, and it gained importance while the nearby city of Memphis declined, as did Heliopolis. During the Ptolemaic period, Babylon and its people were mostly forgotten.
Catopithecus
"C. browni" is a morphologically primitive anthropoid which occurred near the base of the catarrhine radiation. Its primitive features include an unfused mandibular symphysis, relatively large olfactory bulbs, small brain size, and large dentition compared to face and braincase. "C. browni" expresses notable derived anthropoidean and catarrhine traits including an “anthropoidea-like” auditory region, a reduction in the number of premolars per quadrant of both the maxilla and mandible, and the degree of observed postorbital closure. These features have led to a general agreement on the phylogenetic affinity of "Catopithecus" as a sister taxon of propliopithecine catarrhines.
Aetosaur
Aetosaur phylogeny was first investigated in 1994 by paleontologist J. Michael Parrish. "Aetosauroides", "Aetosaurus", "Desmatosuchus", "Longosuchus", "Neoaetosauroides", "Stagonolepis", and "Typothorax" were included in the phylogenetic analysis. Aetosaurs were found to form a clade with rauisuchians, which Parrish termed Rauisuchiformes. Rauisuchiformes also included the superorder Crocodylomorpha, to which living crocodilians belong. Parrish found Aetosauria to be a monophyletic group and thus a true clade consisting of a common aetosaur ancestor and all of its descendants. To phylogenetically define Aetosauria, Parrish identified five synapomorphies, or shared characteristics. The first synapomorphy concerned the jaw, with the premaxilla at its tip being edentulous (toothless), upturned, and wide to form a "shovel". Moreover, the dentary bone in the lower jaw is also toothless, upturned, and broad. The reduced size and simple conical shape of the teeth was considered another synapomorphy. Two more synapomorphies of aetosaurs are shared with crocodylomorphs, but were not considered to be an indication of a close phylogenetic relationship; the body is covered in dorsal and ventral armor to form a complete carapace, and the paramedian osteoderms are much wider than they are long, with distinctive pitting. A final synapomorphy was found in the structure of the limb bones. In all aetosaurs, the limbs are very robust, with large muscle attachments such as the deltopectoral crest of the humerus, the fourth trochanter of the femur, the intracondylar ridge of the tibia, and the iliofibularis trochanter of the fibula.
Catonyx
Catonyx is an extinct genus of ground sloth of the family Mylodontidae, endemic to South America during the Pleistocene epoch. It lived from 2.5 Ma to about 10,000 years ago, existing for approximately . The most recent date obtained is about 9600 B.P.
Sitopayan I inscription
Sitopayan I inscription is an inscription written in a mixed of Old Malay and Old Batak languages, written mostly using Old Javanese characters with some words using Old Batak characters. The inscription was found at the Biaro (temple) Si Topayan, in Sitopayan village, Portibi District, North Padang Lawas Regency, North Sumatra Province, Indonesia. The inscription is quite short, it is written on one of the horizontal sides of a base of a stone idol. F.D.K. Bosch thought that this inscription was made in the 13th century CE, based on the shape and characteristics of the script.
Sauropoda
When more complete specimens of "Cetiosaurus" were described by Phillips in 1871, he finally recognized the animal as a dinosaur related to "Pelorosaurus". However, it was not until the description of new, nearly complete sauropod skeletons from the United States (representing "Apatosaurus" and "Camarasaurus") later that year that a complete picture of sauropods emerged. An approximate reconstruction of a complete sauropod skeleton was produced by artist John A. Ryder, hired by paleontologist E.D. Cope, based on the remains of "Camarasaurus", though many features were still inaccurate or incomplete according to later finds and biomechanical studies. Also in 1877, Richard Lydekker named another relative of "Cetiosaurus", "Titanosaurus", based on an isolated vertebra.
Cats in ancient Egypt
Flinders Petrie excavated 17 cat skeletons in a tomb at the necropolis Umm El Qa'ab dating to the 12th Dynasty 1991–1783 BC. Next to the skeletons stood small pots that are thought to have contained milk for the cats.
The first known indication for the mummification of a cat was found in an elaborately carved limestone sarcophagus dated to about 1350 BC. This cat is assumed to have been Prince Thutmose’s beloved pet.
Patagosaurus
"Patagosaurus" was uncovered in the Middle Jurassic Cañadon Asfalto Formation, which preserves a large variety of flora and fauna. In fact, Escapa "et al." noted that "the fossil record of this formation represents the most completely known biota from the continental Middle to Late Jurassic of the Southern Hemisphere and one of the most complete of the entire world". The Cañadon Asfalto Formation, which was deposited about 165 to 161 million years ago, was a lush ecosystem, in which many organisms lived. In the Middle Jurassic, the region would have been part of the great southern landmass of Gondwana. Most of the plants are conifers, although ferns and equisetales are also abundant. Directly below the formation is a layer of ash, indicating a nearby volcano.
Kattoor, Thrissur
PRE HISTORY PERIOD.
During the period between 1500 AD and 1600 AD, after the arrival of Portuguese due to their special interest, this area has been made a trade center. Hence this Kattoor and near by places had developed a lot. Different kinds of trade have been developed on the banks of Kanoli Canal in Kattoor and Edathuruthy, (the eastern part of Malabar). Kattoor and Edathuruthy busar - known as 'Chantha' and 'Angady'- was famous for trading.
Catopsbaatar
In 1970 and 1971, the Polish-Mongolian Palaeontological Expeditions collected mammalian fossils from the Red Beds of Hermiin Tsav formation in Mongolia's Gobi Desert. About 100 specimens, recovered from four localitions, are housed at the Polish Academy of Sciences in Warsaw. Two-thirds of the collected specimens were multituberculates: an extinct order of mammals with rodent-like dentition, named for the numerous cusps (or tubercles) on their molars. In 1974, Polish palaeontologist Zofia Kielan-Jaworowska named a new species of the Mongolian multituberculate genus "Djadochtatherium" as "D. catopsaloides", with specimen ZPAL MgM−I/78 from the Polish collection as the holotype. The specific name refers to the animal's similarity to the North American species "Catopsalis joyneri", which Kielan-Jaworowska thought was a possible descendant. The specimen, collected at the Hermiin Tsav I location, is an almost-complete skull of a juvenile with portions of the cranium damaged. Kielan-Jaworowska also assigned other specimens to the species: a damaged skull missing lower jaws (ZPAL MgM−I/79, an adult), a skull with partial lower jaws (ZPAL MgM−I/80), and a molar with a fragment of jaw (ZPAL MgM−I/159 from the Barun Goyot Formation of Khulsan, the only specimen not from Hermiin Tsav).
Cryptophasa catharia
Cryptophasa catharia is a moth in the Xyloryctidae family. It was described by Turner in 1917. It is found in Australia, where it has been recorded from Western Australia.
Cat organ
The instrument was first described by Athanasius Kircher in his 1650 work "Musurgia Universalis", though the lack of an image may have left doubt in the minds of some writers. ("The New York Times", for example, has carried an article claiming he described the instrument, and another stating he did not describe it in "Musurgia Universalis".). His description appears in Book 6, Part 4, Chapter 1, under the heading "Corollaria," (emphasis added):
Synodontis melanopterus
Synodontis melanopterus is a species of upside-down catfish that is native to Benin, Niger and Nigeria where it is found at Porto Novo and in the Ouémé, Niger and Ogun River basins. It was first described by Belgian-British zoologist George Albert Boulenger in 1903, from specimens collected at Oguta, Nigeria, in the Niger River delta. The species name "melanopterus" is derived from the word "melas", meaning "black", and the word "pteros", meaning "fins", referring to the color of the fish.
Makapansgat
Makapansgat Valley has been described as having one of the greatest palaeontological records of human evolution in the world. Collecting at the site began in 1925, when a local school teacher, Wilfred Eitzman, was attracted by the activities of limeworkers. Some fossil material was sent to Raymond Dart, who initiated a systematic investigation in 1947. Eitzman also discovered the so-called "Makapansgat pebble" associated with the bones. Ca. 3,000,000 BCE, the pebble is shaped naturally to resemble a human face, it is thought to have been found by an Australopithecus and carried from its source into the Makapansgat cave. It has been suggested that this pebble represents the earliest known example of symbolic thinking of early hominids.
Cantabria
Cantabria has archaeological sites from the Upper Paleolithic period, although the first signs of human occupation date from the Lower Paleolithic. The most significant site for cave paintings is that in the cave of Altamira, dating from about 37,000 BC and declared, along with nine other Cantabrian caves, as World Heritage Sites by UNESCO.
Qatar
Human habitation of Qatar dates back to 50,000 years ago. Settlements and tools dating back to the Stone Age have been unearthed in the peninsula. Mesopotamian artefacts originating from the Ubaid period (c. 6500–3800 BC) have been discovered in abandoned coastal settlements. Al Da'asa, a settlement located on the western coast of Qatar, is the most important Ubaid site in the country and is believed to have accommodated a small seasonal encampment.
Madaba Map
The Madaba Mosaic Map depicts Jerusalem with the New Church of the Theotokos, which was dedicated on November 20, 542. Buildings erected in Jerusalem after 570 are absent from the depiction, thus limiting the date range of its creation to the period between 542 and 570. The mosaic was made by unknown artists, probably for the Christian community of Madaba, which was the seat of a bishop at that time. In 614, Madaba was conquered by the Sasanian Empire. In the eighth century, the ruling Muslim Umayyad Caliphate had some figural motifs removed from the mosaic. In 746, Madaba was largely destroyed by an earthquake and subsequently abandoned. The mosaic was rediscovered in 1884, during the construction of a new Greek Orthodox Church on the site of its ancient predecessor. Patriarch Nicodemus I of Jerusalem was informed, but no research was carried out until 1896.
Cathole Cave
The cave was used as a shelter by bands of Mesolithic hunters and as a Neolithic ossuary. During the first excavation of the cave in 1864, finds were made only from the Mesolithic to medieval periods. In his "The Proceedings of the Prehistoric Society vol.25 (1959), pp. 260–69", archaeologist Charles McBurney notes that "In the Post Glacial period the cave was much used by Mesolithic hunters"; a conclusion confirmed by John Campbell's excavation of 1977.
Synodontis katangae
Synodontis katangae is a species of upside-down catfish that is native to the Democratic Republic of the Congo and Zambia where it is found in the Congo Basin. It was first described by Max Poll in 1971. The original specimens were obtained in Lukonzolwa, on Lake Mweru, in what is now the Democratic Republic of the Congo. The species name "katangae" is a reference to the Katanga province in the Democratic Republic of the Congo, where the species was first found.
Tyson Spring Cave
In 2008, Ackerman and several other cavers began to excavate a side passage in the cave and discovered an ancient bone. He brought the bone to David Mather at the St. Paul History Center, who was able to identify it as part of an elk or moose, but was unable to identify the exact species. The bone was then sent to the Illinois State Museum's assistant curator, Chris Widga. The Illinois State Museum identified the ancient bone to be a prehistoric Stag-Moose (Cervalces Scotti) antler, which is the first record of a stag-moose in Minnesota. Shortly thereafter, Chris Widga was examining the discovery site of the antler when he discovered the skull to an ancient saber-tooth cat (Homotherium serum), which is the first record of a saber-tooth cat in the Great Lakes region. The nearest discovery of a saber-tooth cat is in northern Arkansas. The Rafter Radiocarbon National Isotope Center in New Zealand used radiocarbon dating to identify that the Saber-tooth cat lived approximately 27,000 years ago. Paleontologists were stunned when Penn State lab successfully amplified and sequenced DNA from the extinct saber-tooth cat. Since the discovery of the stag-moose antler and the saber-tooth cat skull, more than 175 ancient bones dating between 27,590 and 26,200 years old have been found in Tyson Spring Cave and Bat River Cave.
Cetiosaurus
The first fossils, vertebrae and limb elements, were discovered near Chipping Norton in the early nineteenth century and were reported upon by collector John Kingdon in a letter read on 3 June 1825 to the Geological Society; they were seen as possibly belonging to a whale or crocodile. In 1841 biologist, comparative anatomist and palaeontologist Sir Richard Owen, named these as the genus "Cetiosaurus", the year before he coined the term Dinosauria. Owen initially did not recognise "Cetiosaurus" for a dinosaur but considered it a gigantic sea-dwelling reptile. This was reflected by the name, derived from Greek κήτειος, "kèteios", "sea-monster". In 1842 Owen named two species in the genus: "Cetiosaurus hypoolithicus" and "Cetiosaurus epioolithicus". The specific names reflected whether the finds had been made below (hypo) or above (epi) the so-called oolithic layers. The first species was based on the material of Kingdon; the latter on vertebrae and metacarpals found at White Nab in Yorkshire. The publication did not contain a sufficient description and the species are often considered "nomina nuda". The same year in a subsequent publication Owen named four additional "Cetiosaurus" species: "Cetiosaurus brevis", "the short one"; "Cetiosaurus brachyurus", "the short-tailed"; "Cetiosaurus medius", "the medium-sized", and "Cetiosaurus longus", "the long one". Owen had abandoned the two earlier names, as shown by the fact that their fossils were referred to several of the new species. These again were each mostly based on disparate material, from often geographically widely separated sites. As became apparent in 1849, some of these bones were not sauropod in nature at all but of Iguanodontidae. That year Alexander Melville, in a misguided attempt to clear matters up, named the authentic sauropod material of "C. brevis" as "Cetiosaurus conybeari" but thereby merely created a junior objective synonym of the former name.
Catopsbaatar
Unlike most other multituberculates and other mammals, the calcaneus bone at the back of the foot had a short tuber calcanei (like some tree kangaroos), with an expanded, anvil-shaped proximal process strongly bent downwards and to the side. "Catopsbaatar" had an os calcaris bone on the inner side of its ankle, a feature also seen in modern male monotremes (the platypus and the echidna) and other Mesozoic mammals. The os calcaris bone was plate-like and rectangular in outline; as in monotremes, it supported the cornu calcaris in forming a spur on the outer side of the tarsus (cluster of foot bones). Unlike with other Mesozoic mammals, these two elements were not fused together in multituberculates. The cornu calcaris was triangular, with a concavity in the middle, and was long. The spur was flattened, and was thicker at its conjunction with the os calcaris (where they connected via several ridges). As the spur of PM120/107 may have been moved from its original position, it is unknown whether it faced inwards (like in the platypus). Unlike in the platypus, there was no impression of a canal for venom. The cornu calcaris of "Catopsbaatar" was ossified (turned into bone) and would have been covered in keratin (the horny covering seen in nails and hoofs). The cornu calcaris of the platypus consists only of keratin, and is hollow.
Blackleg (potatoes)
The symptoms of Blackleg of Potato were first described in Germany between 1878 and 1900, but the descriptions were incomplete and cannot definitively be linked to the particular disease. The first complete descriptions of Blackleg in potatoes were formed between 1901 and 1917 by several different scientists. These descriptions consisted of many different names, such as "Bacillus phytophthorus", "Bacillus omnivorus", "Bacillus oleraceae", "Bacillus atrosepticus", "Bacillus aroideae", "Bacillus solanisaprus", and "Bacillus melanogenes". Investigations between 1918 and 1958 confirmed that these bacteria were of a single species, and were officially appointed the name "Pectobacterium carotovorum". A variety of "Pectobacterium" ("P. carotovorum var. atrosepticum", which includes "B. melanogenes" and "B. phytophthorus") can be differentiated from the rest, although it is considered the same species of bacteria.
Sarawak
The earliest known human settlement in Sarawak at the Niah Caves dates back 40,000 years. A series of Chinese ceramics dated from the 8th to 13th century AD was uncovered at the archaeological site of Santubong. The coastal regions of Sarawak came under the influence of the Bruneian Empire in the 16th century. In 1839, James Brooke, a British explorer, arrived in Sarawak. He, and his descendants, governed the state from 1841 to 1946. During World War II, it was occupied by the Japanese for three years. After the war, the last White Rajah, Charles Vyner Brooke, ceded Sarawak to Britain, and in 1946 it became a British Crown Colony. On 22 July 1963, Sarawak was granted self-government by the British and subsequently became one of the founding members of the Federation of Malaysia, established on 16 September 1963. However, the federation was opposed by Indonesia leading to a three-year confrontation. The creation of the Federation also resulted in a communist insurgency that lasted until 1990.
Catopsbaatar
The dental formula (the number of teeth of each type in the tooth row of a mammal) of "Catopsbaatar" was (two incisors, no canines, three premolars and two molars in half of the upper tooth row, and one incisor, no canines, two premolars and two molars in half of the lower). By comparison, the dental formula of humans is . Each tooth in a mammal is designated with a letter and number by position (I for incisor, C for canine, P for premolar, M for molar); the letters are capitalised for the teeth of the upper jaw, but not for those in the lower jaw. The cusp formula shows the arrangement and number of cusps in consecutive rows of a tooth, from the outer to the inner side; each row is separated by a colon.
Catopsbaatar
"Catopsbaatar" mandible was robust and very elongated. The diastema (gap between the front and cheek teeth) was concave, and extended for 20 percent of the dentary bone (the main bone of the lower jaw). Seen from above, the diastema formed a wide shelf which sloped downwards on the inner side of the jaw. The small mental foramen was close to the upper middle margin of the diastema. The coronoid process of the mandible appears to have been relatively longer and narrower than in other djadochtatherioideans. It was separated from the alveolar process (where the teeth are contained) by a wide groove. The mandibular condyle (which articulated with the skull) was slightly above the level of the molars. The front part of the masseretic crest was very prominent, forming a bulge known as a masseretic protuberance. The robustness of this crest and the presence of the protuberance varies among related genera. The masseteric fovea (pit) in front of the masseteric fossa was probably more distinct than in other djadochtatherioids. Each half of the mandibular symphysis (where the two halves of the mandible connect) was shaped like an upside-down teardrop. The pterygoid fossa on the inner side of the mandible was very large, and occupied most of the hind part of the dentary. The lower part of this fossa had a boundary, known as the pterygoideus shelf.
Catopsbaatar
All specimens of "Catopsbaatar" are known from the Red Beds of Hermiin Tsav formation, except for one molar from the Barun Goyot Formation. The formations are considered coeval (of the same geological age), contain many of the same animals, and probably date to the late Campanian age of the Late Cretaceous Period (about 72 million years ago). The rock facies of the Red Beds of Hermiin Tsav formation consist of orange-coloured, thick-bedded sandstone, with a thin interbedding of light-coloured silt stones and claystones. The rock facies of the Barun Goyot Formation are considered to be the result of an arid or semi-arid environment, with aeolian (deposited by wind) beds.
Cathorops festae
Cathorops festae is a species of sea catfish in the family Ariidae. It was described by George Albert Boulenger in 1898. It is known from Peru and Ecuador.
Catopsbaatar
"Catopsbaatar" belonged to the order Multituberculata, a group within Allotheria (an infraclass of mammals outside Theria, the group that contains modern placentals and marsupials). Multituberculates are characterized by having premolars and molars with multiple low cusps, arranged in longitudal rows. Multituberculates are the best-known group of mammals from the Mesozoic Era, when the dinosaurs dominated; although the earliest multituberculate remains are from the Jurassic Period, the group is known as recently as the Eocene Epoch (thereby surviving the Cretaceous–Palaeogene extinction event). The group may have become extinct due to competition with eutherian mammals, such as rodents. Multituberculates were mainly known from teeth and jaws until the 1920s, when more complete specimens were discovered—first in Asia, and then elsewhere. Postcranial bones (the rest of the skeleton, other than the skull) remain rare.
Synodontis batensoda
Synodontis batensoda, the upsidedown catfish, is a species of mochokid upside-down catfish. It is unevenly distributed in inland waters across Africa from Senegal to Ethiopia, and is also known as a squeaker or giant upside-down catfish. It was originally described by Eduard Rüppell in 1832 in the paper "Continuation of the description and figure of several new fish, in the Nile. p1-14".
Shark catfish
Two fossil pangasiid species are described, "Cetopangasius chaetobranchus" from the Miocene, and "Pangasius indicus", from the Eocene. However, the reported age of "P. indicus" from the Eocene is debatable, as the Sipang Fauna stratum where it is found has never been officially dated. Therefore, the earliest reliable pangasiid fossil age is of "C. chaetobranchus" from the Miocene.
Catopsbaatar
Hurum, Zhe-Xi Luo, and Kielan-Jaworowska suggested in 2006 that the spurs on the ankles of Mesozoic mammals (such as "Catopsbaatar") were homologous with those of monotremes, and were a basal (or "primitive") feature lost by later therian mammals. The male platypus uses the spur to deliver venom from a gland, but it is unknown if the extinct groups were venomous as well. Mesozoic mammals were mostly small (with exceptions such as the fox-sized "Repenomamus") and, although they were too small to be prey for large theropod dinosaurs, smaller theropods, large lizards, crocodiles, and birds could have fed on them. For example, mammal jaws have been found in the abdomen of a specimen of the small theropod "Sinosauropteryx"; the jaws belonged to "Zhangheotherium", which also had spurs, and the multituberculate "Sinobaatar". Since dinosaurs dominated Earth during the Mesozoic, this period has been called the "dark ages" of mammalian history. The spur, which would have been more effective if venomous, was probably used as a defensive weapon by small, early mammals. It could also have been used during intraspecific competition or predation.
The pelvic bones of "Catopsbaatar" specimen PM120/107 may not have been fused because fusion occurred late in development, because it was a sexually dimorphic feature only occurring in males (unfused pelvic bones might have enabled expansion of the birth canal in females), or pelvic fusion may be a taxonomic difference between "Catopsbaatar" and other multituberculates. Unlike with other mammals, the pelvis of multituberculates was very narrow; in other genera where the pelvis is known, each half of the pubis and ischium were fused together, forming a keel. The length and rigidity of the keel indicate that the pelvis could not have spread during birth. Because there would be little space for the passage of an egg (egg-laying monotremes have wide ischial archs), Kielan-Jaworowska suggested in 1979 that multituberculates were viviparous (gave live birth) and that the newborns were extremely small—similar to those of marsupials.
Kankarbagh
The archaeological remains of the Mauryan period (322–185 BCE), has been discovered here, this include the ruins of a hypostyle 80-pillared hall The excavation finding here dates back to 600 BCE, and marks the ancient capital of Ajatshatru, Chandragupta and Ashoka, and collectively the relics range from four continuous periods from 600 BCE to 600 CE.
Propliopithecoidea
Propliopithecoidea is a superfamily of catarrhine primates that inhabited Africa and Arabia during the Early Oligocene about 32 to 29 million years ago. Fossils have been found in Egypt, Oman and Angola. They are the earliest known family of catarrhines.
Kota Kapur inscription
Kota Kapur Inscription is an inscription discovered in western coast of Bangka Island, offcoast South Sumatra, Indonesia, by J.K. van der Meulen in December 1892. It was named after "Kotakapur" village, the location where this archaeological findings were discovered. This inscription is using old Malay language written in Pallava letters. It was one of the oldest surviving written evidence of ancient Malay language. The inscription dated first day of half moon Vaisakha on the year 608 Saka (28 February 686 CE), mentioned about the curse of whomever committed treason against Srivijaya and the beginning of Srivijayan invasion against Java.
Anthracotheriidae
However, the earliest known anthracotheres appear in the fossil record in the middle Eocene, well after the archaeocetes had taken up totally aquatic lifestyles. Although phylogenetic analyses of molecular data on extant animals strongly support the notion that hippopotamids are the closest relatives of cetaceans (whales, dolphins and porpoises), the two groups are unlikely to be closely related when extant and extinct artiodactyls are analyzed. Cetaceans originated about 50 million years ago in south Asia, whereas the family Hippopotamidae is only 15 million years old, and the first hippopotamids are only 6 million years old. Yet, analyses of fossil clades have not resolved the issue of cetacean relations.
Memphis, Egypt
A brief liberation of the city under the rebel-king Khababash (338 to 335 BCE) is evinced by an Apis bull sarcophagus bearing his name, which was discovered at Saqqara dating from his second year. The armies of Darius III eventually regained control of the city.
Lake Athapapuskow
The area has been inhabited since prehistoric times. Archaeological digs at Bakers Narrows revealed pottery, arrowheads, and other artifacts which were at least 2,500 years old and indicated regular habitation by the "Shield Archaic Culture", who hunted caribou in the area as far back as 7000 years ago. They were eventually supplanted by the Woodland Cree who were nomadic hunters in this region. The site of Cranberry Portage has been the primary route linking the Grass River and Saskatchewan River watersheds for at least 2,000 years. 
Many of the most important explorers in Canadian history travelled through Lake Athapapuskow. In 1763, Hudson's Bay Company explorers Joseph Smith and Isaac Batt, guided by Cree leader Meesinkeeshick, became the first European recorded to visit Lake Athapapuskow; Smith died on the return journey to York Factory. Ten years later, the Governor of Churchill sent the fur trader Joseph Hansom, also guided by Cree, inland to extend the reach of the HBC. He paddled from Lake Kississing down the Pineroot River, reaching Lake Athapapuskow. In 1774, the explorer Samuel Hearne with 2 Englishmen, 6 native guides, and 5 canoes, laden with "180 lbs. Brazil Tobacco, 130 lbs. Powder, 100 wt. of Shott & Ball, 6 Gallns Brandy and some other trifling articles of Trading goods" paddled up the Grass River to Cranberry Portage and into Lake Athapapuskow en route to establishing Cumberland House. This route became an important part of the North American fur trade, known as the "Upper Tract". It was abandoned by 1800 in favour of the Nelson River and Hayes River routes. In 1794, the fur-trader and cartographer David Thompson, surveyed the lake.
Kaladongar Formation
The Kaladongar Formation is the oldest Mesozoic geologic formation of the Kachchh basin. It is found in Patcham Island, Kachchh, Gujarat, India. It is made up of limestone and sandstone. It was later intruded by an olivine gabbroic intrusion which baked and shattered the overlying Limestone. Dinosaur remains are among the fossils that have been recovered from the formation, although none have yet been referred to a specific genus.
Crossbow
The earliest crossbow-like weapons in Europe probably emerged around the late 5th century BC when the "gastraphetes", an ancient Greek crossbow, appeared. The device was described by the Greek author Heron of Alexandria in his "Belopoeica" ("On Catapult-making"), which draws on an earlier account of his compatriot engineer Ctesibius (fl. 285–222 BC). According to Heron, the gastraphetes was the forerunner of the later catapult, which places its invention some unknown time prior to 399 BC. The gastraphetes was a crossbow mounted on a stock divided into a lower and upper section. The lower was a case fixed to the bow while the upper was a slider which had the same dimensions as the case. Meaning "belly-bow", it was called as such because the concave withdrawal rest at one end of the stock was placed against the stomach of the operator, which he could press to withdraw the slider before attaching a string to the trigger and loading the bolt; this could thus store more energy than regular Greek bows. It was used in the Siege of Motya in 397 BC. This was a key Carthaginian stronghold in Sicily, as described in the 1st century AD by Heron of Alexandria in his book "Belopoeica".
Cassope
The ruins of Kassope were visited and described by William Martin Leake in the early 19th century. Extensive excavations were performed by a Greek team under Sotiris Dakaris in 1952 and 1955, and in 1977-1983 by a team from the University of Ioannina together with the German Archaeological Institute, co-led by Dakaris, Wolfram Hoepfner, Konstantina Gravani, and Ernst-Ludwig Schwandner.
The visible remains include the Cyclopean walls, an agora, a theatre, the prytaneion.
Cataractonium
There is considerable evidence for Pre-Roman activity in the environs of the eventual Roman settlement. Evidence on both sides of the Swale suggests both Bronze Age and Iron Age activity. The Bronze Age remains take the form of a chambered cairn some 500m south-east of Catactonium, a ceramic vessel 200m north and a bronze rapier 150 north-east. The cairn has associated domestic occupation which continues into the Iron Age in the form of a multi-period roundhouse.
Though there is no definitive date for the building of the fort, it is likely to have been around  70 during the governorship of Q. Petillius Cerialis to support the campaign of Agricola in Scotland. It was also likely to have been in use during the Brigantes revolt in 155 under the governorship of Gn. Julius Verus. The first site appeared to be little more than a timber hill fort, but the later and bigger settlement was constructed in stone and had a civilian population too.
Catopsbaatar
The only "Catopsbaatar" specimen which preserves the postcranial skeleton is PM120/107, which is fragmentary. It includes elements which are unknown, or incompletely preserved, in other multituberculates. One lumbar vertebra (the fifth or sixth, from between the rib cage and the pelvis) had a spinous process which was stout in side view and long when seen from above. The clavicle was slightly less curved than that of "Kryptobaatar" (resembling a bent rod which widened at each end), and measured about . The upper part of the scapulocoracoid was relatively wide in side view, and the lower part was very narrow. It was probably about long when complete. The preserved part of the humerus (upper arm bone) was about long. Its shaft was triangular in cross-section, relatively narrow when seen from above, and most of its width was occupied by the intertubercular groove. This groove was delimited on the side by the crest of the greater tubercle, whose middle part formed the deltopectoral crest. The ulnar condyle, where the ulna of the lower arm articulated with the humerus, was more prominent than the radial condyle (where the radius articulated), oval, and delimited from the radial condyle by a groove. The radius was about long, with a prominent head. Its shaft was smooth, compressed from top to bottom, and oval in cross-section. The ulna was compressed sideways, flatter than the radius, and about long as preserved.
The contact from the ischium to the ilium and pubis of the pelvis was not fused, and the front end of the ischium formed a rugose suture. The pubis was roughly triangular, with a rough suture for the ilium above and a deep groove for the ischium at the lower front. Specimen PM120/107's pelvic bones differed from those of other multituberculates in not being fused together. The presence of sutures in the pelvis of PM120/107 indicates that it was a juvenile, although the skull appears adult; the meaning of this discrepancy is unknown. The femur (thigh bone) was proportionally similar to that of "Eucosmodon" and "Nemegtbaatar"—smaller than the former, but larger than the latter. The femur was stout relative to its length, and it may have been about long. The tibia of the lower leg was about long. Seen from behind the upper side, the tibia had a deep excavation (cavity) which may be characteristic of multituberculates.
History of Quetta
The earliest evidence of human occupation in what is now Quetta and Pakistani Balochistan is dated to the Paleolithic era, represented by hunting camps and lithic scatters (chipped and flaked stone tools). The earliest settled villages in the region date to the ceramic Neolithic (c. 7000–6000 BCE), and included the site of Mehrgarh (located in the Kachi Plain). These villages expanded in size during the subsequent Chalcolithic, when interaction was amplified. This involved the movement of finished goods and raw materials, including chank shell, lapis lazuli, turquoise, and ceramics. By 2500 BCE (the Bronze Age), the region now known as Pakistani Balochistan had become part of the Harappan cultural orbit, providing key resources to the expansive settlements of the Indus river basin to the east.
Kotumsar Cave
The cave has been known since the British era of India, but it was not taken seriously until the 1950s when the geography professor Dr. Shankar Tiwari visited the cave and attempted to explore its chambers with limited resources and equipment. The cave was first systematically mapped in the 1980s by Dr. Jayant Biswas (then a PhD scholar), guided by a Romanian caver. The map was first published in Biswas's PhD dissertation in 1990, and in 1992 by him in the internationally recognized publication of the National Speleological Society .
Gatcombe, Somerset
Roman remains were first identified at the site in 1839 when a railway cutting was being constructed. Excavations in the 1960s showed that the site was occupied from the middle of the 1st century until at least the fifth century, demonstrated by the coins of Theodosius, Magnus Maximus and Arcadius which have been found. The full extent of the site is unclear, beyond a specific villa but there is some evidence that the site is much more extensive, possibly forming a village or even a town. It has been speculated that this may be the site of Iscalis as described by Ptolemy, however it has also been suggested this may have been at Charterhouse Roman Town.
Syro-Malabar Catholic Church
The Varthamanappusthakam is the first travelogue written in the Malayalam language. It is written by Paremmakkal Thoma Kathanar. It describes the history of the Nasrani Church between the years 1773 and 1786 with emphasis on the journey of its author and Malpan Mar Ousep (Joseph) Kariattil from Malabar to Rome via Lisbon and back. Despite attempts by European ecclesiastical authorities to destroy it the major part of this book survived.
Timeline of ceratopsian research
This timeline of ceratopsian research is a chronological listing of events in the history of paleontology focused on the ceratopsians, a group of herbivorous marginocephalian dinosaurs that evolved parrot-like beaks, bony frills, and, later, spectacular horns. The first scientifically documented ceratopsian fossils were described by Edward Drinker Cope starting in the ; however, the remains were poorly preserved and their true nature was not recognized. Over the next several decades, Cope named several such genera and species. Cope's hated rival, Othniel Charles Marsh, also described ceratopsian remains. In 1887, Marsh mistook a "Triceratops" horn for one belonging to a new species of prehistoric "Bison". Marsh also named the eponymous genus "Ceratops" in 1888. The next year, he named the most famous ceratopsian, "Triceratops horridus". It was the discovery of "Triceratops" that illuminated the ceratopsian body plan, and he formally named the Ceratopsia in 1890.
Paleontology in Pennsylvania
One of the first major fossil finds of the 20th century in Pennsylvania was the 1902 discovery of dinosaur tracks at a fisher's Quarry near Graterford in Montgomery County. Another prominent early 1900s discovery was a lower jaw from the amphibian "Calamops" was discovered in the Late Triassic Stockton Formation at Holicong. This is the oldest vertebrate fossil from either the Hartford or Newark Basins. In 1923 the Reading Railroad tunnel at Gwynned was converted into an open cut, exposing many Late Triassic fossils. Later, in 1933, two "Anchisauripus" tracks were discovered near Yocumtown in York County. Dinosaur tracks dating back to the Late Triassic were discovered near the Gettysburg battle sites in 1933.
Makapansgat
The rocks that Professor Dart received from Mr Eitzman turned out to contain, amongst others, blackened fossil bones which led him to believe that they had been burnt. Although no hominid remains or stone tools were found at first, he concluded that these were the remains of bones burnt in fireplaces and therefore that Makapansgat was a site of early hominid occupation. Dart named the first hominids discovered at the site "Australopithecus prometheus" after the mythological Greek hero who stole fire from the Gods. Afterwards the black markings turned out to be manganese stains and "Australopithecus prometheus" were recognised as specimens of "Australopithecus africanus". After analysing 7,159 fossil bones, Dart concluded that these creatures, in an era before stone tools were discovered, used tools made from bone, teeth and horn, naming it the Osteodontokeratic Culture.
Ras Matbakh
During the first large-scale archaeological expedition of Qatar in the 20th century, the Danish Mission, active from 1956 to 1964, made discoveries at Ras Matbakh. The area was first introduced to archaeologists Hans Jørgen Madsen and Jens Aarup Jensen in November 1961 by Ahmed bin Jassim Al Thani, then-ruler of Al Khor. Arriving on 22 November, the two Danish archaeologists surveyed and wrote a report of the site on 23 November. They unearthed a green pot near the coastline containing long-decomposed human remains, likely those of an adult, as well as some animal bones. The Danes estimated that the pot could originate from 500–300 BC and stated it resembled the burial tradition and pottery design found in ancient Bahrain and Mesopotamia at that time. Thus, they postulated that it may have been a burial for a Bahraini or Mesopotamian sailor who passed away near the site.
Batadombalena
The Batadombalena archaeological site contains evidence of habitation from as early as 8,000 years BCE and is one of the sites whose discoveries support the "Out of Africa" hypothesis, according to Professor Paul Mellars, a Cambridge University archaeologist. Among the evidence of Balangoda Man he unearthed at the site were stone tools that are interpreted as arrow - or spearheads and carefully shaped and perforated beads made from ostrich eggshell fragments. One particular piece of an ostrich eggshell, incised with a distinctive criss-cross motif, has also been discovered.
Baqofah
The area is believed to have been settled for thousands of years, dating back to the Assyrian Empire era; in 1852, an archaeological dig uncovered artifacts with Cuneiform script. The earliest historical reference to the village dates to the 7th century, in "Life of Rabban Hormizd the Persian." Notable historical events have included devastating raids by Mongols in 1436 and 1508, an attack by Persian king Nader Shah in 1743, and an attack launched under order of the Kurdish governor of Rawandz in 1833. An 1852 document indicated that in 1850 approximately families residing in the village attended its single church.
Ouroboros
The first known appearance of the ouroboros motif is in the Enigmatic Book of the Netherworld, an ancient Egyptian funerary text in KV62, the tomb of Tutankhamun, in the 14th century BC. The text concerns the actions of the god Ra and his union with Osiris in the underworld. The ouroboros is depicted twice on the figure: holding their tails in their mouths, one encircling the head and upper chest, the other surrounding the feet of a large figure, which may represent the unified Ra-Osiris (Osiris born again as Ra). Both serpents are manifestations of the deity Mehen, who in other funerary texts protects Ra in his underworld journey. The whole divine figure represents the beginning and the end of time.
Catopithecus
Catopithecus is an early catarrhine fossil. It is known from more than 16 specimens of a single species, "Catopithecus browni", found in the Jebel Qatrani Formation of the Fayum Province, Egypt. The Jebel Qatrani Formation has been divided into two main faunal zones based on the fact that the fauna found in the lower portion of the quarry appear to be more primitive than those found in the upper section. The upper zone has been dated to older than 31 ± 1 myr based on the dating of a basalt layer that lies immediately above the formation and Nicolas Steno’s Law of Superposition. The lower zone contains the late Eocene green shale unit called Locality-41 (L-41) in which all the specimens of "Catopithecus browni" have been found. The relative dating of L-41 based on paleomagnetic correlations places it at 36 Myr according to Simons et al (1999), but Seiffert (2006) suggests this should be revised to 34.8-33.9 Myr. Either date indicates that "Catopithecus" lived during the Eocene epoch, making "Catopithecus" the earliest known anthropoid.
History of Sarawak
History of Sarawak can be traced as far as 40,000 years ago paleolithic period where the earliest evidence of human settlements is found in the Niah caves. A series of Chinese ceramics dated from 8th to 13th century AD was uncovered at the archeological site of Santubong. The coastal regions of Sarawak came under the influence of the Bruneian Empire in the 16th century. In 1839, James Brooke, a British explorer, first arrived in Sarawak. Sarawak was later governed by the Brooke family between 1841 and 1946. During World War II, it was occupied by the Japanese for three years. After the war, the last White Rajah, Charles Vyner Brooke, ceded Sarawak to Britain, and in 1946 it became a British Crown Colony. On 22 July 1963, Sarawak was granted self-government by the British. Following this, it became one of the founding members of the Federation of Malaysia, established on 16 September 1963. However, the federation was opposed by Indonesia, and this led to the three-year Indonesia–Malaysia confrontation. From 1960 to 1990, Sarawak experienced a communist insurgency.
Camarasaurus
The first record of "Camarasaurus" comes from 1877, when a few scattered vertebrae were located in Colorado, by Oramel W. Lucas. Pursuing his long-running and acrimonious competition (known as the Bone Wars) with Othniel Charles Marsh, the paleontologist Edward Drinker Cope paid for the bones and, moving quickly, named them in the same year. For his part, Marsh later named some of his sauropod findings "Morosaurus grandis", but most paleontologists today consider them to be a species of "Camarasaurus" . Such naming conflicts were common between the two rival dinosaur hunters, the most famous being "Brontosaurus" and "Apatosaurus".
Sauropodomorpha
The earliest and most basal sauropodomorphs known are "Chromogisaurus novasi" and "Panphagia protos", both from the Ischigualasto Formation, dated to 231.4 million years ago (late Ladinian age of the Middle Triassic according to the ICS; alternately called the early Carnian age of the Late Triassic in the system used by the Geological Society of America). Some studies have found "Eoraptor lunensis" (also from the Ischigualasto Formation), traditionally considered a theropod, to be an early member of the sauropodomorph lineage, which would make it the most basal sauropodomorph known. Additional fragmentary remains from Madagascar may represent an even earlier sauropodomorph from the middle Triassic.
Catopsbaatar
Kielan-Jaworowska and American palaeontologist Robert E. Sloan considered the genus "Djadochtatherium" a junior synonym of "Catopsalis", and created the new combination "C. catopsaloides" in 1979. American palaeontologists Nancy B. Simmons and Miao Desui conducted a 1986 cladistic analysis which indicated that "Catopsalis" was a paraphyletic taxon (an unnatural grouping of species), and "C. catopsaloides" required its own generic name. Kielan-Jaworowska followed Simmons and Miao's suggestion, moving "C. catopsaloides" to its own monotypic genus ("Catopsbaatar") in 1994. "Catops" is derived from the Greek word "katoptos" ("visible" or "evident"); "baatar" is Mongolian for "hero", and the name refers to "Catopsbaatar"'s similarity to the genus "Catopsalis" (as is the case for the specific name). The name "Catopsalis" itself consists of the Greek words for "visible" and "cutting shears" ("psalis").
Later in 1994, Kielan-Jaworowska and the Russian palaeontologist Petr P. Gambaryan mentioned caudal (tail) vertebrae which may have belonged to "Catopsbaatar"; this attribution is uncertain, since they may instead belong to the related "Tombaatar" (named in 1997). A fourth skull (PIN 4537/4, a juvenile), discovered during the 1975 Soviet−Mongolian Expedition, was mentioned by Gambaryan and Kielan-Jaworowska in 1995. Canadian palaontologist Phillip J. Currie found a new "Catopsbaatar" specimen during the 1999 Dinosaurs of the Gobi expedition, organised by the American Nomadic Expeditions Company. Housed at the Mongolian Academy of Sciences in Ulaanbaatar as PM120/107, this most completely preserved known specimen consists of the complete skull (which may be slightly flattened) and partial skeleton of an adult individual. The specimen has rather complete fore- and hind limbs, which were unknown for the genus until then and which are generally rarely preserved in multituberculates. Its pelvic ilia were stolen and destroyed by a schoolboy on tour at the Natural History Museum of Oslo, when it was prepared in 2000. The specimen was reported in 2002 by Kielan-Jaworowska, Norwegian palaeontologist Jørn Hurum, Currie and Mongolian palaeontologist Rinchen Barsbold, who also mentioned another skull (PIN 4537/5, a juvenile) found during the 1975 expedition. "Catopsalis joyneri", the basis of the name "C. catopsaloides", was moved to the new genus "Valenopsalis" in 2015.
Catopsbaatar
Hair, structurally similar to that of modern mammals and associated with bones of the Mongolian multituberculate "Lambdopsalis", has been identified in coprolites (fossilised feces) of carnivorous mammals from the Palaeocene Epoch. This indicates that multituberculates had hair for insulation, similar to modern mammals (and possibly fossil mammals), a feature probably related to homeothermy (warm-bloodedness).
History of Kutch
The earliest human settlements can be traced back to the Early Harappan Period of Indus valley civilization, c. 3300–2600 BCE. Several sites belonging to this civilization are discovered in Kutch. Dholavira, locally known as Kotada Timba, is one of the largest and most prominent archaeological sites in India belonging to the civilization. It is located on the Khadir island in the northern part of the Kutch. The island is surrounded by water in the monsoon season. The Dholavira site is believed to have been inhabited between 2900 BCE and 1900 BCE, declining slowly after about 2100 BCE, briefly abandoned and then reoccupied, finally by villagers among its ruins, until about 1450. Other sites include Surkotada, Desalpar Gunthli, Pabumath, Kanmer and Shikarpur. More than 60 major Harappan sites are discovered around the Rann of Kutch.
History of South Africa
At the Blombos cave Professor Raymond Dart discovered the skull of a 2.51 million year old Taung Child in 1924, the first example of "Australopithecus africanus" ever found. Following in Dart's footsteps Robert Broom discovered a new much more robust hominid in 1938 "Paranthropus robustus" at Kromdraai, and in 1947 uncovered several more examples of "Australopithecus africanus" at Sterkfontein. In further research at the Blombos cave in 2002, stones were discovered engraved with grid or cross-hatch patterns, dated to some 70,000 years ago. This has been interpreted as the earliest example ever discovered of abstract art or symbolic art created by "Homo sapiens".
Aetosaur
A later study by paleontologists Andrew B. Heckert and Spencer G. Lucas in 1999 expanded the number of synapomorphies that diagnose Aetosauria to 18. New synapomorphies included temporal fenestrae, or holes, that opened on the side of the skull rather than the top, lateral osteoderms articulating with the paramedians, and osteoderms covering the limbs. "Aetosaurus" was still found to be the most basal member, but the phylogeny of more derived aetosaurs differed in that "Typothorax" and "Paratypothorax" were split into two different clades with their sister taxa being "Desmatosuchus" and "Longosuchus", respectively. More importantly, a new aetosaur called "Coahomasuchus" was included in the analysis. "Coahomasuchus" was found to be a basal aetosaur closely related to "Stagonolepis", and also appeared early in the fossil record of aetosaurs. Previously, basal members were only known from later times, occurring after more advanced aetosaurs.
Sir John Sinclair, 1st Baronet
Sinclair's works sometimes were the first recording of details of archaeological monuments of Scotland. For example, the first recorded mention of the Catto Long Barrow in Aberdeenshire was made by Sinclair in 1795.
Patagosaurus
In the 1970s many specimens of a previously unidentified dinosaur were found associated together in the same bed and locality: a pebbly stratum near a route to Cerro Condor. The specimens were first described by Jose Bonaparte in 1979. For the fossil he erected the genus "Patagosaurus", as well as its type species "P. fariasi". The generic name of "Patagosaurus" comes from the location of its find in Patagonia, and the fact that it is a reptile. The specific name honours Ricardo Farias, on whose land the initial discovery was made. The genus was originally known from an almost complete postcranial skeleton lacking a skull as the holotype, and many referred specimens however in 2003 it was found that a dentary was referable to the species, so more specimens are probably this taxon. Its skeleton was found near those of "Piatnitzkysaurus" and "Volkheimeria" in the Callovian to Oxfordian aged Patagonian deposits of the Cañadón Asfalto Formation. "Patagosaurus" is almost completely known with many articulated specimens found covering almost all of the skeleton, including parts of the skull. Over twelve specimens have been referred to the species, although some of the material is probably from a unique taxon. Bonaparte (1986) assigned three specimens other than the holotype PVL 4170, PVL 4076, MACN CH 934, and MACN CH 933 to the genus. While the holotype includes a post cranial skeleton, the others are known from cranial material and a nearly complete juvenile skeleton and skull. MACN CH 933 is directly comparable with the type material of "Patagosaurus", which confirms its association with the genus. A specimen first referred to "Patagosaurus" in 2003, MPEF-PV 1670 (which includes just a lower jaw), is also very similar to MACN CH 934, and differences can be associated with age, so therefore, MPEF-PV 1670 presumably represents adult cranial material. However, the teeth of MACN CH 934 are very different from those of both lower jaws (MACN CH 933 and MPEF-PV 1670), so it can be identified as another sauropod from the same deposit as "Patagosaurus". Thus, the taxon only certainly includes PVL 4170, MACN CH 933, and MPEF-PV 1670.
Catoblepas
The catoblepas is described in "The Notebooks of Leonardo da Vinci":
It is found in Ethiopia near to the source Nigricapo. It is not a very large animal, is sluggish in all its parts, and its head is so large that it carries it with difficulty, in such wise that it always droops towards the ground; otherwise it would be a great pest to man, for any one on whom it fixes its eyes dies immediately.
Catonsville, Maryland
Before European colonists settled in present-day Catonsville, the area was occupied by the Piscataway tribe. These Native Americans had good relations with the first European settlers in the area, but wars and diseases caused their population to decline. The remainder of the tribe’s population gradually dispersed. In the early 1700s, colonists slowly settled in the area, and roads were built. The first of these settlements in the present-day Catonsville area was Johnnycake Town, settled in the 1720s. Johnnycake Town was named after the kind of cornbread sold to travelers at the local tavern. Although Johnnycake Town has since disappeared from maps, its main roads, Johnnycake and Rolling Road, still exist today. Rolling Road was used to transport tobacco from plantations south to the Patapsco River on horse-drawn wagons.
A new and modern business district opened along the newly built Baltimore National Pike, which is north, but parallel to the older Frederick Turnpike.
Cathole Cave
Late glacial tool finds from the Upper Palaeolithic date to c. 12,000 BP: flint blades known as Cheddar points; smaller bladelets known as Cresswell points; scrapers; burins or lithic flakes; flint and bone awls; and a bone needle. Flint rarely occurs in Wales other than in drifts, or as small pebbles on beaches. Flint tools would therefore have to have been brought to Gower from other areas, such as those now known as southern or eastern England, or Antrim, either as finished tools or as incomplete, or unworked, nodules. Remains of red fox, Arctic fox, brown bear, tundra vole, and possibly reindeer, were found at the same level as the Upper Palaeolithic tools, providing evidence of the climate c. 12,000 BP. Other animal remains excavated during the 19th century, which may predate the Late glacial finds, include mammoth, woolly rhinoceros, red deer and giant deer.
Garoth
A Stone Wheel for Mortar making at Dharmrajeshwar
These caves were first noticed by James Tod who gave a number of caves to be 170 and indicated them to be belonging to Jain culture. He identified five statues as those of tirthankaras: Rishabhadeva, Neminath, Parshavanath, Shantinath and Mahavira. The local people consider these statues to be of the five Pandavas.[3]
Later these were visited by Alexander Cunningham, Ferguson and Henry Kajins who disagreed with Tod. Dr Ferguson counted number of caves to be 60-70.[4] Alexander Cunningham was also in agreement with Dr Ferguson.[5] Ferguson considers the period of construction of caves from 408-475 AD.[6]
The important caves at Dhamnar are as under:
Badi kachahari - Cave number 6 is known by the name of Badi kachahari. There is a grand mandapa on four pillars in the cave. chatya is in the back. Badi kachahari is a large chaitya hall with pillared portion in front enclosed by a stone railing.
Chhoti kachahari - Cave number 8 is known by the name of Chhoti kachahari.
Kamini mahal or Rajlok - Cave number 11 is known by the name of Kamini mahal or Rajlok.
Bhim Bazar - Cave number 1 is known by the name of Bhim Bazar. it is the largest of Dhanmar caves. It consists of an open porch or verandah with a couple of rooms in the rear. The rectangular court has a chaitya in the centre enclosed on three sides by rows of small cells each side having a smaller chapel in the central cell. The sculptures include seated Buddhas.
Hathi bandhi - Cave number 12 is known by the name of Hathi bandhi.
Chhota Bazar - Cave number 13 is known by the name of Chhota Bazar. This is considered best of all the caves. In a big hall in north of this cave is a small devalaya in which is housed an 8 feet high statue of Buddha.
Qarmoutus
Qarmoutus is an extinct genus of catfish which fossils are first discovered in Wadi Al-Hitan, Egypt. It lived during the Eocene period around 37 million years ago, and its body length is about 6.5 feet long.
Synodontis caudovittatus
Synodontis caudovittatus, known as the white-finned synodontis, is a species of upside-down catfish that is native to the Nile basin of Ethiopia, South Sudan, and Sudan. It was first described by British-Belgian zoologist George Albert Boulenger in 1901, from specimens collected in the White Nile, at the mouth of Lake No in South Sudan. The species name "caudovittatus" comes from the Latin word "cauda", meaning "tail", and the Latin word "vitta", meaning "stripe" and refers to the coloration of the tailfin.
Utatsusaurus
Utatsusaurus hataii is the earliest-known ichthyopterygian which lived in the early Triassic period (c. 245–250 millions years ago). It is nearly 3 m (about 9 feet) long with a slender body. The first specimen was found in Utatsu-cho (now part of Minamisanriku-cho), Miyagi Prefecture, Japan. It is the only described species in the genus Utatsusaurus and the only member of the family Utatsusauridae. The name "Utatsusaurus" was given after the city. The fossils have been found from the Lower Triassic of Miyagi Prefecture, Japan and British Columbia, Canada.
Cetiosauriscus
The sauropod fossil today known as "Cetiosauriscus stewarti" was discovered in May 1898 by clay workers in the area around Fletton to the south of Peterborough and east of the Great Northern Railway. Pits in this region expose the fossil-rich sedimentary rocks of the marine Oxford Clay, which is of middle Callovian age and today regarded as one of the classic geological formations of British palaeontology. The sauropod fossil possibly stems from NPBCL pit No. 1, which was the northernmost pit operated by the New Peterborough Brick Company Limited, and which produced the most vertebrate fossils. The discovery was brought to the attention of Leeds, who, after excavation, took the sauropod specimen to Eyebury, the Leeds' family home. In mid-August, after some cleaning and repairing of the specimen, geologist Henry Woodward visited Eyebury and produced a life-sized drawing of the remains for presentation at the British Association for the Advancement of Science Meeting. Following this presentation, on 17 August 1898, Henry Woodward returned with American palaeontologist Othniel Charles Marsh, who considered the sauropod to be closely related to the North American taxon "Diplodocus". Alfred Leeds offered the sauropod to the British Museum of Natural History (BMNH, now abbreviated as NHMUK) for £250, which would equate to about £30,529 in 2017. The NHMUK had earlier in 1890 and 1892 bought the First and Second Collections of Alfred Leeds, respectively. Woodward, Keeper of Geology at the NHMUK, had "great pleasure" to recommend to the Trustees of the NHMUK the fossil be purchased. The purchase was sanctioned on 25 February 1899, along with the purchase of assorted other remains for just over £357 (~£43,596 now), where the Leeds sauropod gained the accession number BMNH R3078 (now NHMUK R3078).
Catostomidae
Catostomidae have been uncovered and dated to the Middle Eocene in Colorado and Utah. An enormous gap (36.2 million years) in the fossil record occurs from the Late Eocene to Early Pleistocene.
Catpund
Evidence of quarrying from Catpund has been recognised from the 1940s at the latest. An excavation in 1988 revealed part of the quarry floor including the hollows remaining from over one hundred soapstone vessels. Similar vessels were discovered in the later Norse levels at Jarlshof dating to the 12th and 13th centuries AD.