Who identified inclusive fitness theory?
Inclusive fitness in humans
A common source of confusion around inclusive fitness theory is that Hamilton's early analysis included some inaccuracies, that, "although corrected by him in later publications", are often not fully understood by other researchers who attempt to apply inclusive fitness to understanding organisms' behaviour. For example, Hamilton had initially suggested that the statistical correlation in his formulation could be understood by a correlation coefficient of genetic relatedness, but quickly accepted George Price's correction that a general regression coefficient was the more relevant metric, and together they published corrections in 1970. A related confusion is the connection between inclusive fitness and multi-level selection, which are often incorrectly assumed to be mutually exclusive theories. The regression coefficient helps to clarify this connection:
Social Bonding and Nurture Kinship
Holland shows that, in the 1970s and 80s, the first wave of attempts (known as "human sociobiology" or "Darwinian anthropology") to apply inclusive fitness theory to human social behavior relied on, and further reinforced, this same misinterpretation (above section) about the theory's predictions and the proximate mechanisms of social behavior. Holland also shows that this period of research was burdened with many misplaced assumptions about "universal" attributes of the human sexes, sexuality and gender roles, apparently projected from the "specific cultural values" of the researchers themselves. Holland also shows that, following the perceived failures of this early wave, and particularly its methodological agnosticism regarding proximate mechanisms of social behavior, the evolutionary psychology school grew up in its place. Although this latter school typically avoided engaging with the ethnographic data on human kinship, Holland argues that in the few cases where it did so, it repeated the misinterpretation of inclusive fitness theory that characterized the first wave. Holland also notes that Kitcher, in his critique of the sociobiological position, suggested that perhaps the expression of social behaviors in humans might quite simply be based on cues of context and familiarity, rather than genetic relatedness "per se".
Evolutionary approaches to schizophrenia
Fitness-indicator theory, a branch of sexual-selection theory, has been used to explain the evolutionary origins of schizophrenia. This model hypothesizes schizophrenia to be an extreme example of abnormal and undesirable mental and behavioral traits that function as fitness indicators. In this model, the fitness indicator related to schizophrenia is courtship ability, which involves verbal and behavioral aspects. Failure of developing this ability means impaired communication skills, which can be seen in patients with schizophrenia.
Evolution of eusociality
This insight led to inclusive fitness and kin selection becoming important theories during the 20th century to help explain eusociality. Inclusive fitness is described as a combination of one's own reproductive success and the reproductive success of others that share similar genes. Animals may increase their inclusive fitness through kin selection. Kin selection is when individuals help close relatives with their reproduction process, seemingly because relatives will propagate some of the individual's own genes. Kin selection follows Hamilton's Rule, which suggests that if the benefit of a behavior to a recipient, taking into account the genetic relatedness of the recipient to the altruist, outweighs the costs of the behavior to the altruist, then it is in the altruist's genetic advantage to perform the altruistic behavior.
Marie Jahoda
Marie Jahoda, in 1958, devised a list of characteristics which are present in the majority of people who are regarded as normal. Known as "Ideal Mental Health", these were:in addition to those cited above – Marienthal; Current concepts of positive mental health; World Futures, Technology and the Future of Europe, Freud and the Dilemmas of Psychology – her major publications include:
"Research Methods in Social Relations" by Claire Selltiz; Marie Jahoda; Morton Deutsch; Stuart W. Cook (1964)
Evolutionary psychology
In 1964, William D. Hamilton proposed inclusive fitness theory, emphasizing a gene-centered view of evolution. Hamilton noted that genes can increase the replication of copies of themselves into the next generation by influencing the organism's social traits in such a way that (statistically) results in helping the survival and reproduction of other copies of the same genes (most simply, identical copies in the organism's close relatives). According to Hamilton's rule, self-sacrificing behaviors (and the genes influencing them) can evolve if they typically help the organism's close relatives so much that it more than compensates for the individual animal's sacrifice. Inclusive fitness theory resolved the issue of how altruism can evolve. Other theories also help explain the evolution of altruistic behavior, including evolutionary game theory, tit-for-tat reciprocity, and generalized reciprocity. These theories help to explain the development of altruistic behavior, and account for hostility toward cheaters (individuals that take advantage of others' altruism).
Zuowang
The holistic psychologist John Diamond's "Behavioral Kinesiology" (1978), which is based upon the controversial applied kinesiology, involves social, physical, and psychological measures to enhance bodily well-being, which Kohn (2010:124) finds to be "very much in agreement with those described by Sun Simiao and Sima Chengzhen."
Trager approach
The Trager approach is a form of somatic education. Proponents claim the Trager approach helps release deep-seated physical and mental patterns and facilitates deep relaxation, increased physical mobility, and mental clarity. The founder, Milton Trager, called his work Psychophysical Integration. He was an athlete, dancer, and bodybuilder. He began doing bodywork with no training and later worked under a variety of practitioner licenses, including an MD earned in Mexico followed by 2 years residency in psychiatry. Trager wanted western medicine to accept his proposed mind-body connection in treating challenging conditions such as postpolio, Parkinson's, and other neuromuscular conditions. Doctors reportedly referred patients to him and were surprised by the results, but "none seemed to consider his drugless treatments as effective as surgery or medication" and the medical approach to these conditions did not fundamentally shift away from them as he had envisioned. 
Late in life, at the Esalen Institute, he was encouraged to begin teaching, which he did for the last 22 years of his life.
Selfish brain theory
After the axioms were formulated in 1998 Achim Peters sought experts in other specialties to develop his "Selfish Brain" theory further. Already at an early stage he had matched up his ideas with the views of other leading international scientists. Amongst them was the Swiss brain metabolism specialist Luc Pellerin, the renowned obesity expert Denis G. Baskin, the internationally famous stress researcher Mary Dallman and the renowned neurobiologist Larry W. Swanson. At the University of Luebeck Achim Peters compared his findings with the well-known neuroendocrinologist Prof. Dr. Horst Lorenz Fehm. A year later in 1999 an intensive collaboration was started with the psychiatrist and psychotherapist Prof. Dr. Ulrich Schweiger who also worked at the University of Luebeck.
The Genetical Evolution of Social Behaviour
Hamilton, then only a PhD student, completed his work in London. It was based on Haldane's idea, but Hamilton showed that it applied to all gene frequencies. Although initially obscure, it is now highly cited in biology books, and has gone on to reach such common currency that citations are now often unnecessary as it is assumed that the reader is so familiar with kin selection and inclusive fitness that he need not use the reference to obtain further information.
Darwinian anthropology
However, in his paper published in 1964, actually written before the 1963 paper (Hamilton 1996), Hamilton had included a subsidiary discussion on what the genetic theory might imply for how we look at the fitness of individuals:
Fitness landscape
The idea of studying evolution by visualizing the distribution of fitness values as a kind of landscape was first introduced by Sewall Wright in 1932.
Bonnie Prudden
Bonnie Prudden (January 29, 1914 – December 11, 2011) was an American physical fitness pioneer, expert rock climber and mountaineer. Her report to Eisenhower on the unfitness of American children as compared with their European counterparts led to the formation of the President's Council on Youth Fitness. 
Prudden authored 16 books on physical fitness and Myotherapy for all ages and abilities including two best sellers, "How to Keep" "Slender and Fit After Thirty" (1961) and "Pain Erasure: The Bonnie Prudden Way" (1980). She produced six exercise albums, hosted the first regular exercise spots on national television, had a syndicated television show, and wrote a column for "Sports Illustrated". Schools, prisons, summer camps, factories, hospitals, clubs, YMCAs, universities, geriatric homes and facilities for the physically and emotionally challenged all used and benefited from the many physical fitness programs she provided for them. Prudden also designed the first fitness fashions and developed numerous pieces of exercise equipment that could be built in the average garage and used by the family.
Integral theory (Ken Wilber)
Aurobindo's ideas were further explored by Indra Sen (1903–1994) in the 1940s and 1950s, a psychologist, and devotee of Sri Aurobindo and The Mother. He was the first to coin the term "Integral psychology" to describe the psychological observations he found in Sri Aurobindo's writings (which he contrasted with those of Western Psychology), and developed themes of "Integral Culture" and "Integral Man".
Inclusive fitness
Gardner "et al." (2007) suggest that Hamilton's rule can be applied to multi-locus models, but that it should be done at the point of interpreting theory, rather than the starting point of enquiry. They suggest that one should "use standard population genetics, game theory, or other methodologies to derive a condition for when the social trait of interest is favored by selection and then use Hamilton's rule as an aid for conceptualizing this result".
Cinderella effect
Evolutionary psychologists Martin Daly and Margo Wilson propose that the Cinderella effect is a direct consequence of the modern evolutionary theory of inclusive fitness, especially parental investment theory. They argue that human child rearing is so prolonged and costly that "a parental psychology shaped by natural selection is unlikely to be indiscriminate". According to them, "research concerning animal social behaviour provide a rationale for expecting parents to be discriminative in their care and affection, and more specifically, to discriminate in favour of their own young". Inclusive fitness theory proposes a selective criterion for the evolution of social traits, where social behavior that is costly to an individual organism can nevertheless emerge when there is a statistical likelihood that significant benefits of that social behavior accrue to (the survival and reproduction of) other organisms whom also carry the social trait (most straightforwardly, accrue to close genetic relatives). Under such conditions, a net overall increase in reproduction of the social trait in future generations can result.
Microbial cooperation
Theoretical explanations for the evolution of cooperation can be broadly classified into two categories: direct fitness benefits or indirect fitness benefits. This follows from Hamilton's 1964 insight that individuals gain inclusive fitness directly through their impact on their own reproduction (direct fitness effects), as well as through their impact on the reproduction of individuals with related genes (indirect fitness effects).
Health realization
Health realization (HR) is a resiliency approach to personal and community psychology first developed in the 1980s by Roger C. Mills and George Pransky, and based on ideas and insights these psychologists elaborated from attending the lectures of philosopher and author Sydney Banks. HR first became known for its application in economically and socially marginalized communities living in highly stressful circumstances (see "Community Applications" below).
Fitness landscape
Wright's mathematical work described fitness as a function of allele frequencies. Here, each dimension describes an allele frequency at a different gene, and goes between 0 and 1.
Health belief model
One of the first theories of health behavior, the health belief model was developed in the 1950s by social psychologists Irwin M. Rosenstock, Godfrey M. Hochbaum, S. Stephen Kegeles, and Howard Leventhal at the U.S. Public Health Service to better understand the widespread failure of screening programs for tuberculosis. The health belief model has been applied to predict a wide variety of health-related behaviors such as being screened for the early detection of asymptomatic diseases and receiving immunizations. More recently, the model has been applied to understand patients' responses to symptoms of disease, compliance with medical regimens, lifestyle behaviors (e.g., sexual risk behaviors), and behaviors related to chronic illnesses, which may require long-term behavior maintenance in addition to initial behavior change. Amendments to the model were made as late as 1988 to incorporate emerging evidence within the field of psychology about the role of self-efficacy in decision-making and behavior.
Inclusive fitness
It is considerations of this phenomenon that have caused Orlove (1979) and Grafen (2006) to say that nothing is being maximized.
Ingrid Romero
Ingrid Romero (born July 10, 1985) is an international fitness model, fitness competitor, and fitness coach. Training & Fitness Magazine called her "one of the most recognized faces in the fitness industry," and "one of the most accomplished female fitness stars ever."
Disability sport classification
The classification for spinal cord injury related sports system was developed by International Stoke Mandeville Wheelchair Sports Federation (ISMWSF), with the first system having been created in 1952 by Ludwig Guttmann at the Stoke Mandeville Hospital. This system was published in the Handbook of Rules, which was distributed to people involved with paraplegic sport at the time including coaches, doctors and physiotherapists in various countries. At the time, this classification system was a medical classification. The early history of amputee sport had concurrent histories, with European and American amputee sports developing during the 1950s and 1960s largely independent of each other. In Europe, unilateral and bilateral lower limb amputees participated in sports using prosthetic limbs. In the United States, these types of amputees participated in wheelchair sports instead.
Inclusive masculinity
The theory was published in 2009 by Eric Anderson in a book called "Inclusive Masculinity". and further elaborated by Mark McCormack in a 2012 book.
Barry Popkin
Barry Michael Popkin (born May 23, 1944) is an American food science researcher and the W.R. Kenan Jr. Distinguished Professor of Nutrition (as well as Carla Smith Chamblee Distinguished Professor of Global Nutrition) at the University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill School of Public Health, where he is the director of the Interdisciplinary Center for Obesity. He developed the concept of "nutrition transition". He is the author of over 490 journal articles and a book, "The World is Fat".
Theoretical foundations of evolutionary psychology
Inclusive fitness theory resolved the issue of how "altruism" evolved. The dominant, pre-Hamiltonian view was that altruism evolved via group selection: the notion that altruism evolved for the benefit of the group. The problem with this was that if one organism in a group incurred any fitness costs on itself for the benefit of others in the group, (i.e. acted "altruistically"), then that organism would reduce its own ability to survive and/or reproduce, therefore reducing its chances of passing on its altruistic traits.
Mindfulness
The British doctor Clive Sherlock developed Adaptation Practice in 1977. Adaptation Practice is a structured programme of self-discipline.
Inclusive fitness
This seems to go against Ronald A. Fisher's "Fundamental Theorem of Natural Selection" which states that the change in fitness over the course of a generation equals the variance in fitness at the beginning of the generation. Variance is defined as the square of a quantity— standard deviation — and as a square must always be positive (or zero). That would imply that e fitness could never decrease as time passes. This goes along with the intuitive idea that you can't select for lower fitness.
Kelly Starrett
Kelly Starrett (born 1973) is a CrossFit trainer, physical therapist, author, and speaker. His 2013 fitness book, "Becoming a Supple Leopard", was featured on "The New York Times" bestselling sports books list. He is a co-founder, with his wife Juliet Starrett, of the fitness website MobilityWOD. He has been described as a "celebrity" and "founding father" of CrossFit, as well as ranking on Greatist's 2017 list of the 100 most influential people in health and fitness.
Michael Gonzalez-Wallace
In October 2008 his program was introduced to the New York City Department of Education starting with an Elementary School in the Bronx, PS 277 Michael Gonzalez-Wallace designed the individualized fitness program with the supervision of Child Psychiatrist Dr Gregory Lombardo MD, PH.D. The school fitness program incorporates intense brain activity through movements requiring balance and coordination to improve concentration and attention while performing challenging exercises. The exercises are structured to advance gradually. In January 2009 WABC-TV featured the school fitness program in their local channel.
Universal design
The term "universal design" was coined by the architect Ronald Mace to describe the concept of designing all products and the built environment to be aesthetic and usable to the greatest extent possible by everyone, regardless of their age, ability, or status in life. However, it was the work of Selwyn Goldsmith, author of "Designing for the Disabled" (1963), who really pioneered the concept of free access for people with disabilities. His most significant achievement was the creation of the dropped curb – now a standard feature of the built environment.
Jay Blahnik
Jay Blahnik is a fitness instructor, consultant, author, and Director of Fitness and Health technologies for Apple Inc. Widely known as an authority on exercise and fitness issues, Blahnik has been a fitness expert for MSNBC.com and the Los Angeles Times and authored the 2004 book "Full-Body Flexibility". He currently works at Apple as the Director of Fitness for Health Technologies.
Pleiotropy
By accepting the one gene-one enzyme hypothesis, scientists instead focused on how uncoupled phenotypic traits can be affected by genetic recombination and mutations, applying it to populations and evolution. This view of pleiotropy, "universal pleiotropy", defined as locus mutations being capable of affecting essentially all traits, was first implied by Ronald Fisher's Geometric Model in 1930. This mathematical model illustrates how evolutionary fitness depends on the independence of phenotypic variation from random changes (that is, mutations). It theorizes that an increasing phenotypic independence corresponds to a decrease in the likelihood that a given mutation will result in an increase in fitness. Expanding on Fisher's work, Sewall Wright provided more evidence in his 1968 book "Evolution and the Genetics of Populations: Genetic and Biometric Foundations" by using molecular genetics to support the idea of "universal pleiotropy". The concepts of these various studies on evolution have seeded numerous other research projects relating to individual fitness.
Hugh Montgomery (physician)
Hugh Edward Montgomery is an English professor and the director of the UCL Institute for Human Health and Performance at University College London. He discovered that an allele of the gene with the DNA code for angiotensin-converting enzyme (ACE) influences physical fitness; the first discovery of a gene related to fitness.
Evolutionary psychology
W.D. Hamilton's (1964) papers on inclusive fitness and Robert Trivers's (1972) theories on reciprocity and parental investment helped to establish evolutionary thinking in psychology and the other social sciences. In 1975, Edward O. Wilson combined evolutionary theory with studies of animal and social behavior, building on the works of Lorenz and Tinbergen, in his book "".
Darwinian anthropology
Darwinian anthropology was critiqued by Symonds for its agnosticism as to the psychological mechanisms governing how social behavior is actually expressed in the human species, and its reliance on interpreting inclusive fitness theory to simply imply that "humans have evolved to be inclusive fitness maximizers". This section will review some of the relevant background discussion in inclusive fitness theory to clarify why this position was considered untenable.
Integrative body psychotherapy
Jack Lee Rosenberg, the founder of integrative body psychotherapy (IBP), began his professional career as a dentist in 1958. He was teaching, doing research, and studying at the University of California Dental School when he became the Director of Counseling at the University of the Pacific, School of Dentistry. In 1971, Rosenberg received his doctorate in clinical psychology and began practicing psychotherapy.
Integral theory (Ken Wilber)
The German indologist Georg Feuerstein first wrote about Integralism in "Wholeness or Transcendence? Ancient Lessons for the Emerging Global Civilization" (1992). Feuerstein used this term to refer to a particular outlook on spirituality which he saw present in the Indian tantric traditions. Feuerstein outlined three major approaches to life in Indian spirituality: "nivritti-marga" (path of cessation), "pravritti-marga" (path of activity) and "purna-marga" (path of wholeness). The path of cessation is the traditional path of renunciation and asceticism practiced by sanyasins with the goal of liberation from this world, while the path of activity is the pursuit of worldly goods and happiness. Feuerstein ties this integral approach to nondual Indian philosophy and the tantric tradition. According to Feuerstein the integral or wholeness approach: "implies a total cognitive shift by which the phenomenal world is rendered transparent through superior wisdom. No longer are things seen as being strictly separated from one another, as if they were insular realities in themselves, but everything is seen together, understood together, and lived together. Whatever distinctions there may be, these are variations or manifestations of and within the selfsame Being." An integral worldview also leads to body and sex positivism and anti-asceticism. Even negative experiences such as pain and disgust are seen as integral to our life and world and thus are not rejected by the integral approach, but used skillfully.
Eusociality
In 2010, Nowak, Tarnita and Wilson challenged the theoretical explanation of the evolution of eusociality. Based on the concept of inclusive fitness, the kin selection theory considers the relatedness of individuals to be one of the most important factors that lead to eusociality. This brought up issues like the irrelevance of haplodiploidy and maternal control. Nowak et al. argued that the kin selection theory is inadequate because it can explain only a subset of eusocial populations due to its assumptions (i.e. "all interactions must be additive and pairwise" which excludes any interaction that involves more than two players). To them, the standard natural selection theory, which is a more general approach than the current explanation of eusociality, is the appropriate theory to use since it explains the same phenomenon and it would work for a larger number of eusocial cases. It also requires simpler mathematical calculations when explaining the evolution of eusociality. This paper led to a large influx of publications that refuted Nowak et al.'s ideas and supported the validity and specificity of the kin selection theory. Among these, Trivers and Hare studied the haplodiploid Hymenoptera, finding that the workers were able to win the parent-offspring conflict, countering the parents' best interest and selecting the outcome that has the greater benefit for the workers (i.e. reproductive success with higher relatedness to workers than the queen). This refuted Nowak et al.'s defense that future offspring development could be based solely on the fitness of parents.
Supercompensation
The fitness level of a human body in training can be broken down into four periods: initial fitness, parietal fitness training, recovery, and supercompensation. During the initial fitness period, the target of the training has a base level of fitness (shown by the first time sector in the graph). Upon entering the training period, the target's level of fitness decreases (shown by the second time sector in the graph). After training, the body enters the recovery period during which level of fitness increases up to the initial fitness level (shown by the third time sector in the graph). Because the human body is an adjustable organism, it will feel the need to adjust itself to a higher level of fitness in anticipation of the next training session. Accordingly, the increase in fitness following a training session does not stop at the initial fitness level. Instead the body enters a period of supercompensation during which fitness surpasses the initial fitness level (shown by the fourth time sector in the graph). If there are no further workouts, this fitness level will slowly decline back towards the initial fitness level (shown by the last time sector in the graph). First put forth by Russian scientist Nikolai N. Yakovlev (1911–1992) in 1949-1959, this theory is a basic principle of athletic training.
John Sitaras
John Sitaras is an American fitness professional, the creator of the Sitaras Method and the founder of "Sitaras Fitness" in New York City. The method developed by him supposes an initial comprehensive evaluation system similar to a general medical examination, in order to design individualized routines according to each student's genetic aptitude, level of fitness, health conditions, and personal goals. As the students make progress, the evaluation is resumed periodically to reassess the routines and track their physical changes. He is the personal trainer of several high-profile people from various fields, like business magnate George Soros, economist and former Federal Reserve Chairman Paul Volcker, former General Electric CEO Jack Welch (who recovered from muscular atrophy under Sitaras' supervision), journalist Charlie Rose, record executive David Geffen or NASCAR champion Jimmie Johnson (who was the first racing driver to become the Associated Press Male Athlete of the Year and who won seven championships).
Inclusive fitness
In Hamilton's paradigm, fitnesses calculated according to in the weaning-to-weaning perspective are inclusive fitnesses, and fitnesses calculated in the conception-to-conception perspective are personal fitnesses. This distinction is independent of whether the altruism involved in child rearing is toward descendants or toward collateral relatives, as when aunts and uncle rear their nieces and nephews.
Inclusive fitness in humans
Applying evolutionary biology perspectives to humans and human society has often resulted in periods of controversy and debate, due to their apparent incompatibility with alternative perspectives about humanity. Examples of early controversies include the reactions to "On the Origin of Species", and the Scopes Monkey Trial. Examples of later controversies more directly connected with inclusive fitness theory and its use in sociobiology include physical confrontations at meetings of the Sociobiology Study Group and more often intellectual arguments such as Sahlins' 1976 book "The use and abuse of biology", Lewontin et al.'s 1984 "Not in Our Genes", and Kitcher's 1985 "Vaulting Ambition:Sociobiology and the Quest for Human Nature". Some of these later arguments were produced by other scientists, including biologists and anthropologists, against Wilson's 1975 book "", which was influenced by (though not necessarily endorsed by) Hamilton's work on inclusive fitness theory.
Wellness (alternative medicine)
The term was partly inspired by the preamble to the World Health Organization’s 1948 constitution which said: “Health is a state of complete physical, mental and social well-being and not merely the absence of disease or infirmity.” It was initially brought to use in the US by Halbert L. Dunn, M.D. in the 1950s; Dunn was the chief of the National Office of Vital Statistics and discussed “high-level wellness,” which he defined as “an integrated method of functioning, which is oriented toward maximizing the potential of which the individual is capable.” The term "wellness" was then adopted by John Travis who opened a "Wellness Resource Center" in Mill Valley, California in the mid-1970s, which was seen by mainstream culture as part of the hedonistic culture of Northern California at that time and typical of the Me generation. Travis marketed the center as alternative medicine, opposed to what he said was the disease-oriented approach of medicine. The concept was further popularized by Robert Rodale through "Prevention" magazine, Bill Hetler, a doctor at University of Wisconsin–Stevens Point, who set up an annual academic conference on wellness, and Tom Dickey, who established the Berkeley Wellness Letter in the 1980s. The term had become accepted as standard usage in the 1990s.
Inclusive fitness
In "The Selfish Gene", Dawkins reported that some question the idea that parental investment (parental care) contributes to inclusive fitness. The distinctions between the kind of beneficiaries nurtured (collateral versus descendant relatives) and the kind of fitnesses used (inclusive versus personal) in the parsing of nature are independent concepts. This orthogonality can best be understood in a thought experiment: Consider a model of a population of animals such as crocodiles or tangle web spiders. Some species or populations of these spiders and reptiles exhibit parental care, while closely related species or populations lack it. Assume that in these animals a gene, called a, codes for parental care, and its other allele, called A, codes for an absence thereof. The aa homozygotes care for their young, and AA homozygotes don't, and the heterozygotes behave like aa homozygotes if a is dominant, and like AA homozygotes if A is dominant, or exhibit some kind of intermediate behavior if there is partial dominance. Other kinds of animals could be considered in which all individuals exhibit parental care, but variation among them would be in the quantity and quality thereof.
Samuel Clarke
Clarke's ethical theory of "fitness" is formulated on the analogy of mathematics. He held that in relation to the will things possess an objective fitness similar to the mutual consistency of things in the physical universe. This fitness God has given to actions, as he has given laws to Nature; and the fitness is as immutable as the laws. The theory was criticized by Théodore Simon Jouffroy, Amédée Jacques, Sir James Mackintosh, Thomas Brown, Francis Hutcheson, and others, but substantially defended by John Balguy against Hutcheson's sentimentalist case against moral rationalism. A similar form of moral rationalism is developed by the Cambridge Platonist Ralph Cudworth.
Clark Hatch
Clark Hatch is a physical fitness "missionary" who explored Asia, bringing the word on improving health via exercise and nutrition. He has been called "a cross between Marco Polo and Jack LaLanne" by "Club Industry Magazine." Starting in 1965, Hatch opened fitness centers in 14 Far East countries, usually the first such facility in each nation, and then expanded into Australia, India, the Middle East and the United States, for a final total of 120. Now retired, he oversees an active organization of 41 centers from Honolulu to Kathmandu. Over the past 45 years he estimates he has helped some one million men and women along the path to fitness and improved health.
Double-swing model
In 1978, Muneo Yoshikawa published an essay of personal reflections upon his psychological evolution as a Japanese in the United States, highlighting the role of identity inclusiveness and identity security as the very essence of what it means to be an interculturally competent person. In 1980, he first proposed the double-swing model, developing it later in 1987. The theory became also known as the "Möbius integration philosophy" and served as a premise for the theory of "integrative philosophy", developed by Muneo Yoshikawa in collaboration with Shozo Hibino.
Gregory Joujon-Roche
Gregory Metcalfe ”Greg” Joujon-Roche (December 7, 1966 – July 31, 2016) was an American personal trainer and author who founded Holistic Fitness in Los Angeles in 1994.
Cathe Friedrich
Cathe Friedrich, born July 20, 1964, is an American ACE certified group fitness instructor, personal trainer and entrepreneur from Glassboro, New Jersey. Since releasing her first fitness video in 1989, Friedrich has released over 190 fitness videos. For several years she has taught fitness classes on the now defunct FitTV. She is the co-owner of Four Seasons Health Club in Glassboro, New Jersey, where she regularly teaches fitness classes. In 2011 she was inducted into the National Fitness Hall of Fame.
Inclusive fitness
The concept serves to explain how natural selection can perpetuate altruism. If there is an "altruism gene" (or complex of genes) that influences an organism's behavior to be helpful and protective of relatives and their offspring, this behavior also increases the proportion of the altruism gene in the population, because relatives are likely to share genes with the altruist due to common descent. In formal terms, if such a complex of genes arises, Hamilton's rule (rbc) specifies the selective criteria (in terms of cost, benefit and relatedness) for such a trait to increase in frequency in the population. Hamilton noted that inclusive fitness theory "does not by itself predict" that a species will necessarily evolve such altruistic behaviors, since an opportunity or context for interaction between individuals is a more primary and necessary requirement in order for any social interaction to occur in the first place. As Hamilton put it, ""Altruistic or selfish acts are only possible when a suitable social object is available. In this sense behaviours are conditional from the start"." (Hamilton 1987, 420). In other words, whilst inclusive fitness theory specifies a set of necessary criteria for the evolution of altruistic traits, it does not specify a sufficient condition for their evolution in any given species. More primary necessary criteria include the existence of gene complexes for altruistic traits in gene pool, as mentioned above, and especially that "a suitable social object is available", as Hamilton noted. Paul Sherman, who has contributed much research on the ground squirrels mentioned above, gives a fuller discussion of Hamilton's latter point:
John Travis (physician)
The Illness-Wellness Continuum is a graphical illustration of a wellbeing concept first proposed by Travis in 1972. It proposes that wellbeing includes mental and emotional health, as well as the presence or absence of illness.
John Abdo
John Abdo is an American health and fitness expert & coach, businessman, nutritionist, motivational speaker and a TV personality. He has worked as a Strength & Conditioning Coach for numerous U.S. Olympic team athletes for the 1976, 1980, 1984, 1988 Olympic Games. Abdo has been a part of fitness profession for more than four decades and was inducted into the National Fitness Hall of Fame in 2007. Abdo has introduced a number of line of health, nutrition and sports/fitness equipment, including No Excuses™ nutrition and fitness systems, instructional DVDs, and life coaching. He has authored several books including "Body Engineering", "Make Your Body a Fat-Burning Machine", "Ultimate Sexual Health & Performance", and "Brain Sensation & Motivation".
Tom Campanaro
Tom Campanaro is an American bodybuilder and health and fitness personality. As of 2013 he is the President and CEO of Total Gym. He was a competitive bodybuilder in the 1970s and founded Total Gym in 1974 with Dale McMurray and Doug Marino. Along with Larry Westfall they developed the Total Gym trainer, geared towards training all muscle groups. He was inducted into the National Fitness Hall of Fame in 2013.
Darwinian anthropology
Ultimately these analyses were considered unsuccessful, and were specifically criticized by other sociobiologists on a number of grounds. One problem was said to be that interpreting inclusive fitness theory to imply that individuals have evolved the characteristic of pursuing strategies to maximize their own 'inclusive fitness' is erroneous; the theory should instead be interpreted to describe selection pressures on genes:
Mickey Mehta
Mickey Mehta (born 29 August 1962) is an Indian holistic health, well-being, wellness, and fitness guru. He is a TV and radio presenter (94.3 Radio One Mumbai and Delhi) and a columnist in various publications and websites. He preaches the concept of holistic health and equipment free workouts and has done so by establishing a chain of Mickey Mehta Wellness Temples across Mumbai city. The media often refer to Mickey Mehta as 'India's Leading Holistic Health Guru'. Mehta also aspires to build the largest social media base across as many platforms possible, to reach out to his audience.
Mehta launches Yo workouts and Wellfie along with the "Times of India" at Marine Drive at the event of Yoga By The Bay.
Inclusion (education)
In 2005, comprehensive health supports were described in National Goals for Intellectual and Developmental Disabilities as universally available, affordable and promoting inclusion, as supporting well-informed, freely chose health care decisions, culturally competent, promoting health promotion, and insuring well trained and respectful health care providers. In addition, mental health, behavioral, communication and crisis needs may need to be planned for and addressed.
"Full inclusion" – the idea that all children, including those with severe disabilities, can and should learn in a regular classroom has also taken root in many school systems, and most notably in the province of New Brunswick.
Behavioral ecology
Inclusive fitness describes the component of reproductive success in both a focal individual and their relatives. Importantly, the measure embodies the sum of direct and indirect fitness and the change in their reproductive success based on the actor's behavior. That is, the effect an individual's behaviors have on: being personally better-suited to reproduce offspring, and aiding descendent and non-descendent relatives in their reproductive efforts. Natural selection is predicted to push individuals to behave in ways that maximize their inclusive fitness. Studying inclusive fitness is often done using predictions from Hamilton's rule.
Self-care deficit nursing theory
The self-care deficit nursing theory is a grand nursing theory that was developed between 1959 and 2001 by Dorothea Orem. The theory is also referred to as the Orem's Model of Nursing. This theory originates from the totality paradigm based on human beings being able to adapt to one’s environment. It is widely used in nursing literature and has displayed improved quality of care based on results from various randomized controlled trials (RCTs) in the nursing discipline. It is particularly used in rehabilitation and primary care settings, where the patient is encouraged to be as independent as possible.
The Selfish Gene
In "The Social Conquest of Earth" (2012), the entomologist E. O. Wilson contends that although the selfish-gene approach was accepted "until 2010 [when] Martin Nowak, Corina Tarnita, and I demonstrated that inclusive fitness theory, often called kin selection theory, is both mathematically and biologically incorrect." Chapter 18 of "The Social Conquest of Earth" describes the deficiencies of kin selection and outlines group selection, which Wilson argues is a more realistic model of social evolution. He criticises earlier approaches to social evolution, saying: "...unwarranted faith in the central role of kinship in social evolution has led to the reversal of the usual order in which biological research is conducted. The proven best way in evolutionary biology, as in most of science, is to define a problem arising during empirical research, then select or devise the theory that is needed to solve it. Almost all research in inclusive-fitness theory has been the opposite: hypothesize the key roles of kinship and kin selection, then look for evidence to test that hypothesis." According to Wilson: "People must have a tribe...Experiments conducted over many years by social psychologists have revealed how swiftly and decisively people divide into groups, and then discriminate in favor of the one to which they belong." (pp. 57, 59) According to Wilson: "Different parts of the brain have evolved by group selection to create groupishness." (p. 61)
Inclusive fitness in humans
In addition to the above examples, a wide variety of evidence from mammal species supports the finding that shared context and familiarity mediate social bonding, rather than genetic relatedness "per se". Cross-fostering studies (placing unrelated young in a shared developmental environment) strongly demonstrate that unrelated individuals bond and cooperate just as would normal littermates. The evidence therefore demonstrates that bonding and cooperation are mediated by proximity, shared context and familiarity, not via active recognition of genetic relatedness. This is problematic for those biologists who wish to claim that inclusive fitness theory predicts that social cooperation is "mediated" via genetic relatedness, rather than understanding the theory simply to state that social traits can "evolve" under conditions where there is "statistical" association of genetically related organisms. The former position sees the expression of cooperative behaviour as more or less deterministically caused by genetic relatedness, where the latter position does not. The distinction between cooperation mediated by shared context, and cooperation mediated by genetic relatedness "per se", has significant implications for whether inclusive fitness theory can be seen as compatible with the anthropological evidence on human social patterns or not. The "shared context" perspective is largely compatible, the "genetic relatedness" perspective is not (see below).
Co-operation (evolution)
The inclusive fitness theory provides a good overview of possible solutions to the fundamental problem of cooperation. The theory is based on the hypothesis that cooperation helps in transmitting underlying genes to future generations either through increasing the reproductive successes of the individual (direct fitness) or of other individuals who carry the same genes (indirect fitness). Direct benefits can result from simple by-product of cooperation or enforcement mechanisms, while indirect benefits can result from cooperation with genetically similar individuals.
Hard problem of consciousness
Integrated information theory (IIT), developed by the neuroscientist and psychiatrist Giulio Tononi in 2004 and more recently also advocated by Koch, is one of the most discussed models of consciousness in neuroscience and elsewhere. The theory proposes an identity between consciousness and integrated information, with the latter item (denoted as Φ) defined mathematically and thus in principle measurable. The hard problem of consciousness, write Tononi and Koch, may indeed be intractable when working from matter to consciousness. However, because IIT inverts this relationship and works from phenomenological axioms to matter, they say it could be able to solve the hard problem. In this vein, proponents have said the theory goes beyond identifying human neural correlates and can be extrapolated to all physical systems. Tononi wrote (along with two colleagues):
Darwinian anthropology
It is clear here that the formal treatment is of the selection pressures on types (genes or traits), whilst the notion of individual inclusive fitness may serve as a guide to the adaptiveness of the trait; just as consideration of effects of a trait on an individual's fitness can be instructive when considering classical selection on traits. At the same time, it is understandable that Alexander took the inclusive fitness of individuals as a heuristic device.
Australian Institute of Fitness
In 1979, sports educator and author Nigel Champion began running a Health Studio Attendants course in Perth, the first of its kind in Australia. In 1981, Champion partnered with Australian academic Dr Garry Egger to establish the ACHPER Fitness Leader group of courses in Sydney; before joining, in 1986, with fitness entrepreneur Greg Hurst to establish the Australian Fitness Network. In 2000, Hurst & Champion together with Russell Creagh, Monty Dortkamp, Dr Grant Pavia and Kerry McEvoy, merged five existing fitness training programs – ACHPER Fitness Leader; Australian Fitness Network; Institute for Fitness Professionals; National College of Fitness; and the Australian Institute of Fitness – to create the national Australian Institute of Fitness.
Institute for Integrative Nutrition
The Institute for Integrative Nutrition, previously known as Gulliver's, was founded in 1992 by Joshua Rosenthal, a health counselor and former owner of a natural food store. IIN initially offered in-person classes in New York before transitioning to an online learning platform. The school trains counselors in the practice of integrative nutrition, a broad approach to health that doesn't subscribe to one particular dietary theory. IIN is now the world's largest nutrition school and has more than 100,000 graduates worldwide.
Integral theory (Ken Wilber)
The word "integral" was independently suggested by Jean Gebser (1905–1973), a Swiss phenomenologist and interdisciplinary scholar, in 1939 to describe his own intuition regarding the next stage of human consciousness. Gebser was the author of "The Ever-Present Origin", which describes human history as a series of mutations in consciousness. He only afterwards discovered the similarity between his own ideas and those of Sri Aurobindo and Teilhard de Chardin. In his book "The Ever-Present Origin", Gebser distinguished between five structures of consciousness: archaic, magic, mythical, mental, and integral. Gebser wrote that he was unaware of Sri Aurobindo's prior usage of the term "integral", which coincides to some extent with his own.
Inclusive fitness
As well as interactions in reliable contexts of genetic relatedness, altruists may also have some way to recognize altruistic behavior in unrelated individuals and be inclined to support them. As Dawkins points out in "The Selfish Gene" (Chapter 6) and "The Extended Phenotype", this must be distinguished from the green-beard effect.
Kin recognition
The English evolutionary biologist W. D. Hamilton's theory of inclusive fitness, and the related theory of kin selection, were formalized in the 1960s and 1970s to explain the evolution of social behaviours. Hamilton's early papers, as well as giving a mathematical account of the selection pressure, discussed possible implications and behavioural manifestations. Hamilton considered potential roles of cue-based mechanisms mediating altruism versus 'positive powers' of kin discrimination:
Inclusive fitness
The green-beard effect was originally a thought experiment by Hamilton in his publications on inclusive fitness in 1964, although it hadn't yet been observed. As of today, it has been observed in few species. Its rarity is probably due to its susceptibility to 'cheating' whereby individuals can gain the trait that confers the advantage, without the altruistic behavior. This normally would occur via the crossing over of chromosomes which happens frequently, often rendering the green-beard effect a transient state. However, Wang et al. has shown in one of the species where the effect is common (fire ants), recombination cannot occur due to a large genetic transversion, essentially forming a supergene. This, along with homozygote inviability at the green-beard loci allows for the extended maintenance of the green-beard effect.
Health at Every Size
Health at Every Size (HAES) is a theory advanced by certain sectors of the fat acceptance movement. It is promoted by the Association for Size Diversity and Health, a tax-exempt nonprofit organization that owns the phrase as a registered trademark. Its main tenet involves rejection of the scientific consensus regarding the link between excessive calorie intake, a sedentary lifestyle and lack of physical exercise, improper nutrition, and greater body weight - and its effects on a person's health.
Darwinian anthropology
Inclusive fitness theory takes the form of an ultimate explanation, specifically a criterion (br>c), for the evolution of social behaviors, not a proximate mechanism governing the expression of social behaviors. What forms of social behavior might meet this criterion are cannot be "a priori" specified by the theory, nor can it shed light on whether the life history of a species provides opportunities for social interactions to occur. Thus, strictly speaking, the interpretation that organisms ‘have evolved to’ direct social behavior towards genetic relatives is not implied by the theory (see also inclusive fitness).
Inclusive business model
An inclusive business model is a commercially viable model that benefits low-income communities by including them in a company’s value chain on the demand side as clients and consumers, and/or on the supply side as producers, entrepreneurs or employees in a sustainable way. The concept was first formalized in an early United Nations report called Creating Value for All: Strategies for Doing Business with the Poor (2008) published by the Growing Inclusive Markets Initiative and guided by an Advisory Board consisting of leaders in the field such as the International Business Leaders Forum, the International Finance Corporation, key bilateral donors (USAID and AFD), the World Business Council for Sustainable Development, University of Michigan and Harvard Business School.
Integrative thinking
To develop the theory of integrative thinking, Martin interviewed more than 50 successful leaders, from the fields of business (Jack Welch, AG Lafley, Nandan Nilekani), the arts (Atom Egoyan, Piers Handling) and the not-for-profit world (Victoria Hale). He spoke with these leaders, some for more than 8 hours, about the decisions that they had made over their careers and about how they thought through those decisions. What he found was that some of them had a distinct common characteristic - "the predisposition and capacity to hold two diametrically opposing ideas in their heads. And then, without panicking or simply settling for one alternative or the other, they're able to produce a synthesis that is superior to either opposing idea."
Health realization
Health Realization ("HR") rests on the non-academic philosophy of Sydney Banks, which Mr. Banks has expounded upon in several books. Mr. Banks was a day laborer with no education beyond ninth grade (age 14) in Scotland who, in 1973, reportedly had a profound insight into the nature of human experience. Mr. Banks does not particularly attempt to position his ideas within the larger traditions of philosophy or religion; he is neither academically trained nor well read. His philosophy focuses on the illusionary, thought-created nature of reality, the three principles of "Mind", "Thought", and "Consciousness", the potential relief of human suffering that can come from a fundamental shift in personal awareness and understanding and the importance of a direct, experiential grasp of these matters, as opposed to a mere intellectual comprehension or analysis. Mr. Banks suggests that his philosophy is best understood not intellectually but by "listening for a positive feeling;" and a grasp of HR is said to come through a series of "insights," that is, shifts in experiential understanding.
John Diamond (doctor)
Diamond is the founder of Life-Energy Analysis (formerly Behavioral Kinesiology), a system based upon Applied Kinesiology. He developed what he termed "Life-Energy Analysis" in the 1970s. "Diamond was the first medical doctor trained in applied kinesiology to become a Diplomate of the International Board of Applied Kinesiology (1976) and he is the only doctor trained in applied kinesiology to have studied personally with Florence Kendall."
Andrew Weil
Andrew Weil, as individual and brand, is described by "Encyclopædia Britannica" as an "American physician and popularizer of alternative and integrative medicine," and by his 2015 publishers, Little, Brown/Hachette, as "the founder and director of the Arizona Center for Integrative Medicine" and "author of several bestselling books." He is described by Hans Baer as a "Holistic Health/New Age Guru" (alongside Deepak Chopra), and as a biomedically trained physician that has "emerged as [a] visible and financially successful spokesperso[n]" of the holistic health/New Age movement. Weil provides extensive biographical information about himself at his DrWeil.com informational and commercial website; in his about.me page, which links from his commercial site, he describes himself as "Physician, Best-Selling Author, Speaker & Integrative Medicine Thought-Leader" and "a world-renowned leader and pioneer in the field of integrative medicine, a healing oriented approach to health care which encompasses body, mind, and spirit."
Robert Rocco Cottone
Robert Rocco Cottone (born January 28, 1952) is a psychologist, ethicist, counselor, poet, and professor in the Department of Counseling and Family Therapy at the University of Missouri–St. Louis (1988-), where he is a colleague to the social activist Mark Pope. He is also the founder of the Church of Belief Science. Academically, he is best known for his socially oriented theories of counseling and psychotherapy. In the mid-1980s he developed a “systemic theory of vocational rehabilitation”, which constitutes the first comprehensive social theory of vocational rehabilitation. He has been widely cited for his later work on advanced theories of psychotherapy, and he has been rated as having one of the highest publishing records among his peers. He published his first book, “Theories and Paradigms of Counseling and Psychotherapy” in 1992, which defined Kuhnian paradigms of mental health treatment. He then developed a fully social model of decision making, the social constructivism model, taking decisions out of the head, so-to-speak, and placing them within the sphere of social discourse (c.f., consensus decision making). His social theorizing advanced from that of social systems (in the 1980s Batesonian sense) to social constructions (in the 1990s and early 21st Century postmodern sense).
Anna Jean Ayres
Building on the work of Charles S. Sherrington and others, she began developing the theory and associated intervention techniques of sensory integration in the 1950s by examining the relationship between the brain and behavior. By the 1960s, Dr. Ayres recognized and described “hidden disabilities” or “dysfunction in sensory integrative processes" (Ayres, 1963, 1968), which she later referred to as "sensory integrative dysfunction". She originated the theory to “explain the relationship between deficits in interpreting sensation from the body and the environment and difficulties with academic or motor learning.” Between 1968 and 1989, Ayres used tests of sensory integrative and practical functions with children with and without learning and sensorimotor difficulties. These were originally published as "Southern California Sensory Integration Tests" (SCSIT; 1975) and later revised as "Sensory Integration and Praxis Tests (SIPT; 1989). She published numerous factor analyses of assessment findings that allowed her to identify patterns of sensory integrative dysfunction, which were later confirmed by other researchers and expanded upon (e.g. in the context of attention deficit and hyperactivity disorder).
Kin recognition
For a recent review of the debates around kin recognition and their role in the wider debates about how to interpret inclusive fitness theory, including its compatibility with ethnographic data on human kinship, see Holland (2012).
Genetic variance
Genetic variance is a concept outlined by the English biologist and statistician Ronald Fisher in his Fisher's fundamental theorem of natural selection which he outlined in his 1930 book "The Genetical Theory of Natural Selection" which postulates that the rate of change of biological fitness can be calculated by the genetic variance of the fitness itself. Fisher tried to give a statistical formula about how the change of fitness in a population can be attributed to changes in the allele frequency. Fisher made no restrictive assumptions in his formula concerning fitness parameters, mate choices or the number of alleles and loci involved.
Integrative communication theory
Integrative communication theory is a theory of cross-cultural adaptation proposed by Young Yun Kim. The first widely published version of Kim's theory is found in the last three chapters of a textbook authored by William Gudykunst with Young Yun Kim as second author. See acculturation and assimilation.
Inclusive fitness
"Synalpheus regalis", a eusocial shrimp, also is an example of an organism whose social traits meet the inclusive fitness criterion. The larger defenders protect the young juveniles in the colony from outsiders. By ensuring the young's survival, the genes will continue to be passed on to future generations.
Optimal distinctiveness theory
Optimal distinctiveness is a social psychological theory seeking to understand ingroup–outgroup differences. It asserts that individuals desire to attain an optimal balance of inclusion and distinctiveness "within" and "between" social groups and situations (Brewer, 2003). These two motives are in constant opposition with each other; when there is too much of one motive, the other must increase in order to counterbalance it and vice versa (Brewer, 1991). The theory of optimal distinctiveness was first proposed by Dr. Marilynn B. Brewer in 1991 and extensively reviewed in 2010 by Drs. Geoffrey J. Leonardelli, Cynthia L. Pickett, and Marilynn Brewer.
Inclusive fitness in humans
This disagreement is central because of the way the association between blood ties/genetic relationships and altruism are conceptualized by many biologists. It is frequently understood by biologists that inclusive fitness theory makes predictions about "how behaviour is mediated" in both humans and other animals. For example, a recent experiment conducted on humans by the evolutionary psychologist Robin Dunbar and colleagues was, as they understood it, designed "to test the prediction that altruistic behaviour is mediated by Hamilton's rule" (inclusive fitness theory) and more specifically that "If participants follow Hamilton's rule, investment (time for which the [altruistic] position was held) should increase with the recipient's relatedness to the participant. In effect, we tested whether investment flows differentially down channels of relatedness." From their results, they concluded that ""human altruistic behaviour is mediated by Hamilton's rule ... humans behave in such a way as to maximize inclusive fitness: they are more willing to benefit closer relatives than more distantly related individuals."" (Madsen et al. 2007). This position continues to be rejected by social anthropologists as being incompatible with the large amount of ethnographic data on kinship and altruism that their discipline has collected over many decades, that demonstrates that in many human cultures, kinship relationships (accompanied by altruism) do not necessarily map closely onto genetic relationships.
Inclusive fitness
Such misunderstandings of inclusive fitness' implications for the study of altruism, even amongst professional biologists utilizing the theory, are widespread, prompting prominent theorists to regularly attempt to highlight and clarify the mistakes. Here is one recent example of attempted clarification from West et al. (2010):
Universal design
In 2012, The Center for Inclusive Design and Environmental Access at The University at Buffalo expanded definition of the principles of universal design to include social participation and health and wellness. Rooted in evidence based design, the 8 goals of universal design were also developed.The first four goals are oriented to human performance: anthropometry, biomechanics, perception, cognition. Wellness bridges human performance and social participation. The last three goals addresses social participation outcomes. The definition and the goals are expanded upon in the textbook "Universal Design: Creating Inclusive Environments." In 1960, specifications for barrier free design were published. It was a compendium of over 11 years of disability ergonomic research. In 1961, the specifications became the first Barrier Free Design standard called the American National Standard, A1171.1 was published. It was the first standard to present the criteria for designing facilities and programs for the use of disabled individuals. The research started in 1949 at the University of Illinois Urbana-Champaign and continues to this day. The principal investigator is Dr. Timothy Nugent (his name is listed in the front of the 1961, 1971, 1980 standard). In 1949 Dr. Nugent also started the National Wheelchair Basketball Association. This ANSI A117.1 standard was adopted by the US federal government General Services Administration under 35 FR 4814 - 3/20/70, 39 FR 23214 - 6/27/74, 43 FR 16478 ABA- 4/19/78, 44 FR 39393 7/6/79, 46 FR 39436 8/3/81, in 1984 for UFAS and then in 1990 for ADA. The archived research documents are at the International Code Council (ICC) - ANSI A117.1 division. Dr. Nugent made presentations around the globe in the late 50's and 60's presenting the concept of independent functional participation for individuals with disabilities through program options and architectural design.
Marc Sorenson
Dr. Marc Sorenson is a doctor of education with a background in health and fitness. He graduated from Brigham Young University in 1973. He and his wife, Vicki, founded and developed National Institute of Fitness in 1974. Dr. Sorenson and Vicki sold the resort to Franklin Quest (now Franklin Covey) corporation in 1994. They are currently directors of another health resort called National Institute of Health and Fitness (NIHF) in Midway, Utah.
CrossFit
"CrossFit is not a specialized fitness program, but a deliberate attempt to optimize physical competence in each of 10 recognized fitness domains," says founder Greg Glassman in the Foundations document. Those domains are cardiovascular and respiratory endurance, stamina, strength, flexibility, power, speed, coordination, agility, balance, and accuracy.
Inclusive fitness
In the context of sociobiology, Hamilton proposed that inclusive fitness offers a mechanism for the evolution of altruism. He claimed that this leads natural selection to favor organisms that behave in ways that correlate with maximizing their inclusive fitness. If a gene (or gene complex) promoting altruistic behavior has copies of itself in others, helping those others survive ensures that the genes will be passed on.
Jack LaLanne
Decades before health and fitness began being promoted by celebrities like Jane Fonda and Richard Simmons, LaLanne was already widely recognized for publicly preaching the health benefits of regular exercise and a good diet. He published numerous books on fitness and hosted the fitness television program "The Jack LaLanne Show" between 1953 and 1985. As early as 1936, at age 21, he opened one of the nation's first fitness gyms in Oakland, California, which became a prototype for dozens of similar gyms bearing his name. One of his 1950s television exercise programs was aimed toward women, whom he also encouraged to join his health clubs. He invented a number of exercise machines, including the pulley and leg extension devices and the Smith machine. Besides producing his own series of videos, he coached the elderly and disabled not to forgo exercise, believing it would enable them to enhance their strength.
Kinship
Early developments of biological inclusive fitness theory and the derivative field of Sociobiology, encouraged some sociobiologists and evolutionary psychologists to approach human kinship with the assumption that inclusive fitness theory predicts that kinship relations in humans "are indeed" expected to depend on genetic relatedness, which they readily connected with the "genealogy" approach of early anthropologists such as Morgan (see above sections). However, this is the position that Schneider, Sahlins and other anthropologists explicitly reject.
Resort
An all-inclusive resort includes three meals daily, soft drinks, most alcoholic drinks, gratuities, and usually other services in the price. Many also offer sports and other activities included in the price as well. They are often located in warmer regions. The all-inclusive model originated in the Club Med resorts, which were founded by the Belgian Gérard Blitz.
Group selection
In 2010, M. A. Nowak, C. E. Tarnita and E. O. Wilson argued for multi-level selection, including group selection, to correct what they saw as deficits in the explanatory power of inclusive fitness. The response was a back-lash from 137 other evolutionary biologists who argued "that their arguments are based upon a misunderstanding of evolutionary theory and a misrepresentation of the empirical literature".
Inclusive fitness in humans
Whilst the above understanding of inclusive fitness theory as necessarily making predictions about how human kinship and altruism is mediated is common amongst evolutionary psychologists, other biologists and anthropologists have argued that it is at best a limited (and at worst a mistaken) understanding of inclusive fitness theory. These scientists argue that the theory is better understood as simply describing an "evolutionary" criterion for the emergence of altruistic behaviour, which is explicitly statistical in character, not as predictive of "proximate" or "mediating" mechanisms of altruistic behaviour, which may not necessarily be determined by genetic relatedness (or blood ties) "per se". These alternative non-deterministic and non-reductionist understandings of inclusive fitness theory and human behavior have been argued to be compatible with anthropologists' decades of data on human kinship, and compatible with anthropologists' perspectives on human kinship. This position (e.g. nurture kinship) has been largely accepted by social anthropologists, whilst the former position (still held by evolutionary psychologists, see above) remains rejected by social anthropologists.
Darwinian anthropology
Investigating how inclusive fitness theory might apply to the potential emergence of social traits in any given species must begin with an analysis of the evolutionarily typical ecological niche, demographics, and patterns of interaction of that species. Where significant interaction between individuals is not present in the life history of a species, the theory is necessarily null regarding social behaviors between individuals. As Silk (2001) put it;
Inclusive fitness in humans
The debate about how to interpret the implications of Inclusive fitness theory for human social cooperation has paralleled some of the key misunderstandings outlined above. Initially, evolutionary biologists interested in humans wrongly assumed that in the human case, 'kin selection requires kin discrimination' along with their colleagues studying other species (see West et al., above). In other words, many biologists assumed that strong social bonds accompanied by altruism and cooperation in human societies (long studied by the anthropological field of kinship) were necessarily built upon recognizing genetic relatedness (or 'blood ties'). This seemed to fit well with historical research in anthropology originating in the nineteenth century (see history of kinship) that often assumed that human kinship was built upon a recognition of shared blood ties.
Total Fitness
Total Fitness was established by Kwik Save founder Albert Gubay in 1993 on the Isle of Man. It was sold to the private equity arm of Legal & General in December 2004 for £80 million (€120 million).
John Travis (physician)
Travis began developing his Continuum in 1972 and it was first published in 1975 in the Wellness Inventory. Since then the concept has been applied to fields such as medicine, nursing, counseling, physical therapy, public health, and organizational development.
Inclusive fitness
In work prior to Nowak "et al." (2010), various authors derived different versions of a formula for formula_7, all designed to preserve Hamilton's rule. Orlove noted that if a formula for formula_7 is defined so as to ensure that Hamilton's rule is preserved, then the approach is by definition ad hoc. However, he published an unrelated derivation of the same formula for formula_7 – a derivation designed to preserve two statements about the rate of selection – which on its own was similarly ad hoc. Orlove argued that the existence of two unrelated derivations of the formula for formula_7 reduces or eliminates the ad hoc nature of the formula, and of inclusive fitness theory as well. The derivations were demonstrated to be unrelated by corresponding parts of the two identical formulae for formula_7 being derived from the genotypes of different individuals. The parts that were derived from the genotypes of different individuals were terms to the right of the minus sign in the covariances in the two versions of the formula for formula_7. By contrast, the terms left of the minus sign in both derivations come from the same source.
One study suggest the c/b ratio be considered as a continuum of this behavioral trait rather than discontinuous in nature. From this approach fitness transactions can be better observed because there is more to what is happening to affect an individual's fitness than just losing and gaining (Engles, W.R. 1982).
John Travis (physician)
John W. Travis is an American author and medical practitioner. He is a proponent of the alternative medicine concept of "wellness", originally proposed in 1961 by Halbert L. Dunn, and has written books on the subject. In the 1970s, Travis founded the first "wellness center" in California. He originated the Illness–Wellness Continuum.