How much would a hyperloop cost?
Hyperloop UPV
The Hyperloop UPV concept is a levitating rail-free pod design. Using magnetic repulsion and air cushioning for levitation is expensive and can produce unpredictable forces. The pod is equipped with a hybrid system of permanent magnets and electromagnet units, being able to control lift, so it can hover from the top of the tube. That way, the pod doesn't need so much electricity to be lifted by itself. Propulsion is obtained through expansion of the air with a nozzle, located at the rear of the pod, achieving speeds of up to 1000 km/h. The turbine recovers energy from the flow allowing a more efficient journey. This clean tube layout is said to cut costs in up to 30% of the whole Hyperloop project (about 180m USD) and the possibility to comfortably fit more passengers.
Hyperloop
The Hyperloop white paper suggests that of each one-way passenger ticket between Los Angeles and San Francisco would be sufficient to cover initial capital costs, based on amortizing the cost of Hyperloop over 20 years with ridership projections of 7.4 million per year in each direction and does not include operating costs (although the proposal asserts that electric costs would be covered by solar panels). No total ticket price was suggested in the alpha design. The projected ticket price has been questioned by Dan Sperling, director of the Institute of Transportation Studies at UC Davis, who stated that "there's no way the economics on that would ever work out."
LinkSpace
The first stage would have four liquid engines, fuelled by kerolox (liquid oxygen and kerosene), each producing of thrust. It is projected to have an initial launch cost of $4.5 million, dropping to $2.25 million using a reused first stage. As of the end of 2017, the main rocket engine has been tested over 200 times, and first launch is planned for 2020.
Hyperloop
Virgin Hyperloop One (formerly Hyperloop One, and before that, Hyperloop Technologies) was incorporated in 2014 and has built a team of 280+, including engineers, technicians, welders, and machinists. It has raised more than in capital from investors including DP World, Sherpa Capital, Formation 8, 137 Ventures, Caspian Venture Capital, Fast Digital, GE Ventures, and SNCF.
Hyperloop
Musk first mentioned that he was thinking about a concept for a "fifth mode of transport", calling it the "Hyperloop", in July 2012 at a PandoDaily event in Santa Monica, California. This hypothetical high-speed mode of transportation would have the following characteristics: immunity to weather, collision free, twice the speed of a plane, low power consumption, and energy storage for 24-hour operations. The name "Hyperloop" was chosen because it would go in a loop. Musk envisions the more advanced versions will be able to go at hypersonic speed. In May 2013, Musk likened the Hyperloop to a "cross between a Concorde and a railgun and an air hockey table".
Hyperloop pod competition
The Hyperloop Pod Competition is a competition sponsored by SpaceX in 2015–2018 where a number of student and non-student teams are participating to design—and for some, build—a subscale prototype transport vehicle to demonstrate technical feasibility of various aspects of the Hyperloop concept. The competitions have been open to participants globally, although all competitions and judging has occurred in the United States.
Virgin Hyperloop One
Between June 2015 and December 2015, the company continued to hire engineers and expand its downtown campus (now up to 75,000 square feet). In December 2015, the renamed Hyperloop One announced it would hold an open-air propulsion test at a new Test and Safety Site in Nevada. At the time, the company disclosed it had raised $37 million in financing to date and was completing a Series B round of $80m, which they closed on in May 2016. In October 2016, Hyperloop One announced that it had raised another $50 million, led by an investment from DP World.
Sherpa Capital
One of Sherpa Capital's founders has become embroiled in a legal issue regarding one of its venture capital investments. Pishevar and Brogan BamBrogan, a former senior engineer at SpaceX, began building Hyperloop One to build a very-high-speed train from San Francisco to Los Angeles. BamBrogan and three other individuals were fired by Pishevar and a senior Hyperloop One manager. BamBrogan and the other former executives filed a suit in California Superior Court in Los Angeles in July 2016 against Hyperloop, stating that they were defamed, wrongfully fired, and harassed and claiming breach of contract. A lawyer representing Hyperloop One, Orin Snyder, said, "Today's lawsuit brought by former employees of Hyperloop One is unfortunate and delusional. These employees tried to stage a coup and failed. They knew that the company was aware of their actions, and today's lawsuit is their pre-emptive strike. The claims are pure nonsense and will be met with a swift and potent legal response."
SuperLoop
Traffic pattern studies show that 60% of vehicles traveling in University City make internal trips. The SuperLoop is expected to reduce the number of vehicles on the road by absorbing the traffic created by internal travelers. The 8-mile loop featured 15 stops served by as many as 12 dedicated New Flyer hybrid buses.
Hyperloop Transportation Technologies
On February 15, 2018, HTT signed an agreement with both the North Ohio Areawide Coordinating Agency & the Illinois Department of Transportation to begin work on a feasibility study concerning a possible Hyperloop route between Cleveland and Chicago. The study will consider the viability of the project and will focus on determining the ideal corridor for transit. According to HTT CEO Dirk Ahlborn, these agreements represent the “first real public-private partnership to bring Hyperloop travel to the US”.
WALLY
Initial start-up costs were projected at $2.9 million, with annual operating costs at $4.8 million. Backers of the project estimate 884,000 rides per year, 1,300 daily, with a fare revenue of $2.4 million. The remainder would be subsidized by state and local governments. The project has received funding commitments from the Michigan Department of Transportation, the Ann Arbor Downtown Development Authority, and the Northfield Township Downtown Development Authority. Attempts to obtain a $1 million grant from the Federal government fell through. Both the University of Michigan and the Ann Arbor offices of the Environmental Protection Agency would pay the fares of any employees who took the train in lieu of commuting. Backers conducted a $150,000 feasibility study of the line, with money pledged by the University of Michigan, the Great Lakes Central Railroad, the Southeast Michigan Council of Governments (SEMCOG), Washtenaw and Livingston Counties. The study reported back that the project is viable, but placed start-up costs at $32.4 million, much higher than initial estimates. Most of the outlay would be for infrastructure improvements. After three years of service the line would become eligible for federal transportation funding.
Hyperloop
On January 29, 2017, approximately one year after phase one of the Hyperloop pod competition, the MIT Hyperloop pod demonstrated the first ever low-pressure Hyperloop run in the world. Within this first competition the Delft University team from the Netherlands achieved the highest overall competition score. The awards for the "fastest pod" and the "best performance in flight" were won by the team WARR Hyperloop from the Technical University of Munich (TUM), Germany. The team from the Massachusetts Institute of Technology (MIT) placed third overall in the competition, judged by SpaceX engineers.
Hyperloop pod competition
The design of the pod test track varies significantly from the Hyperloop tube design shown in the initial alpha-level Hyperloop design concept document released in 2013.
The Hypertube test track is designed to enable competitors who implement a wide array of designs and build pods that will test a variety of subsystem technologies that are important to new vehicle transport systems. This will include Hyperloop-specific pods—with air-bearing suspension and low-pressure compressor designs—as well as wheeled vehicle and magnetic levitation rail designs that will support a wide array of vehicle technologies to be tested. Some pods are expected to test only particular subsystems rather than a full Hyperloop-capable pod vehicle design; as well, many pods will have no on-pod compressor to prevent the high-speed choked-flow problem, very unlike the Hyperloop alpha design.
Mumbai Metro
Expected Cost- 10,986 crore
Brooklyn–Queens Connector
Under the slightly revised plan released by the city, the route would travel with 30 wheelchair-accessible stops, with an increased construction cost of $2.5 billion. There would be sixty vehicles, costing $5 million total, that would travel at , and would be separated from vehicular traffic for 70% of the route. Two bridges over the Newtown Creek and the Gowanus Canal were proposed, in the case that the Pulaski Bridge over the Newtown Creek, and the Hamilton Avenue bridge over the Gowanus Canal, aren't able to accommodate the vehicles; the Newtown Creek bridge will probably be located at Vernon Boulevard, where another bridge previously existed. A trip between Dumbo and Greenpoint would take 27 minutes via the line. The fare for the route would equal the fare of the subway and the buses.
Hyperloop pod competition
"MIT Hyperloop Team's" design was awarded received the "Best Overall Design Award", among the 23 designs selected to move to the prototype stage. The design proposes a 250 kg (551 lb) pod with a carbon fiber and polycarbonate sheet exterior. It is elevated by a passive magnetic levitation system comprising 20 neodymium magnets that will maintain a 15 mm (0.6 in) distance above the track.
The team says with air pressure at 140 Pascals, the pod could accelerate at 2.4 G and have 2 Newton aerodynamic drag when traveling at 110 m/s. The design includes a fail-safe braking system that automatically halts the pod should the actuators or computers fail, and low speed emergency drive wheels that can move the pod 1 m/s.
Hyperloop pod competition
On 15 June 2015, SpaceX announced that they would sponsor a Hyperloop pod design competition, and would build a subscale test track near SpaceX's headquarters in Hawthorne, California, for the competitive event. The competition could be held as early as June 2016.
SpaceX stated in their announcement, "Neither SpaceX nor Elon Musk is affiliated with any Hyperloop companies. While we are not developing a commercial Hyperloop ourselves, we are interested in helping to accelerate development of a functional Hyperloop prototype."
More than 700 teams had submitted preliminary applications by July.
Hyperloop Transportation Technologies
The concept of the Hyperloop was popularized by Elon Musk, not affiliated with HTT. The project was to develop a high speed, intercity transporter using a low pressure tube train which would reach a top speed of with a yearly capacity of 15 million passengers.
Hyperloop Transportation Technologies
In 2016 the CEO, Dirk Ahlborn, announced an agreement with the Slovakian government to perform feasibility studies regarding routes connecting Vienna, Austria to Bratislava, Slovakia, and Bratislava to Budapest, Hungary. Total costs for this project are estimated to be . The resulting annual system capacity is projected to be 10 million passengers. HTT announced in March 2016 that they would be using passive Inductrack systems for their titular Hyperloop. In 2018, however, the agreement expired.
Hypertrophic cardiomyopathy screening
A full ECHO may cost $400–$1,000 in the United States, but a targeted ECHO for HCM screening may be performed in 2.5 minutes at a cost of $35, as is done by Purdue University.
Hyperloop
The alpha proposal projected that cost savings compared with conventional rail would come from a combination of several factors. The small profile and elevated nature of the alpha route would enable Hyperloop to be constructed primarily in the median of Interstate 5. However, whether this would be truly feasible is a matter of debate. The low profile would reduce tunnel boring requirements and the light weight of the capsules is projected to reduce construction costs over conventional passenger rail. It was asserted that there would be less right-of-way opposition and environmental impact as well due to its small, sealed, elevated profile versus that of a rail easement; however, other commentators contend that a smaller footprint does not guarantee less opposition. In criticizing this assumption, mass transportation writer Alon Levy said, "In reality, an all-elevated system (which is what Musk proposes with the Hyperloop) is a bug rather than a feature. Central Valley land is cheap; pylons are expensive, as can be readily seen by the costs of elevated highways and trains all over the world". Michael Anderson, a professor of agricultural and resource economics at UC Berkeley, predicted that costs would amount to around .
Frankfurt Airport loop
According to the planning status of 1971, two trains per hour and direction would operate and, after the upgrade of S-Bahn tracks towards Frankfurt, operations would be run at 10-minute intervals. Long-distance trains would not normally be routed through the airport.
The estimated cost of the project was estimated to be DM 94 million in 1968 and around DM 100 million in 1971.
Arrow 3
Arrow 3 may have a reduced 30-year life-cycle cost. It should use the same launch system as Arrow 2. Reportedly it will cost $2–3 million per unit, while program cost is estimated at some $700–$800 million over three years.
Hyperloop
Established in 2015, DGWHyperloop is a subsidiary of Dinclix GroundWorks, an engineering company based in Indore, India. DGWHyperloop's initial proposals include a Hyperloop-based corridor between Delhi and Mumbai called the Delhi Mumbai Hyperloop Corridor (DMHC). The company has partnered with many government agencies, private companies, and institutions for its research on Hyperloop. DGWHyperloop is the only Indian company working on implementing the Hyperloop system across the nation.
Virgin Hyperloop One
The original Hyperloop concept uses a linear electric motor to accelerate and decelerate an electromagnetically levitated pod through a low-pressure tube. The vehicle will glide silently for miles at speeds up to 670 mph (1080 km/h) with no turbulence. The system is designed to be entirely autonomous, quiet, direct-to-destination, and on-demand. Additionally, as Hyperloop is built on columns or tunneled underground, it eliminates the dangers of at-grade crossings and requires much smaller rights of way than high-speed rail or a highway. Virgin Hyperloop One has made substantive technical changes to Musk's initial proposal and chose not to pursue the San Francisco-to-Los Angeles notional route that Musk envisioned in his 2013 alpha-design white paper.
California High-Speed Rail
"Hyperloop" is an alternative system that Elon Musk has championed. He has criticized the high-speed rail project as too expensive and not technologically advanced enough (trains that are—according to Musk—too slow). On August 12, 2013 he released a high-level alpha design for a Hyperloop transit system concept which he claimed would travel over three times as fast and cost less than a tenth of the rail proposal. The following day he announced a plan to construct a demonstration of the concept. Musk's claims have been subject to significant debate and criticism, in particular that the costs are still unknown and likely understated, the technology is not proven enough for statewide implementation, the route proposed doesn't meet the needs of providing statewide transportation, and it does not meet the legal requirements of Proposition 1A and so would require a whole new legal underpinning. A flaw of the hyperloop is that it can carry far fewer passengers per trip compared to HSR.
High-speed rail in Sweden
Cost estimates are roughly 30 billion SEK for Borås–Linköping and 30 billion SEK for Jönköping–Helsingborg. The cost of the Helsingborg–Copenhagen line with a tunnel is hard to estimate, but 30 billion SEK is possible here too.
Hyperloop UPV
Nevertheless, a complementary off-pod propulsion system could be proposed in order to reduce the energetic costs due to the initial acceleration and downsize the battery requirements.
Hyperloop
Zeleros was founded in Valencia (Spain) in November 2016 by Daniel Orient (CTO), David Pistoni (CEO) and Juan Vicén (CMO), former leaders of the Hyperloop UPV team from Universitat Politècnica de València. The team was awarded "Top Design Concept" and "Propulsion/Compression Subsystem Technical Excellence" by SpaceX at Hyperloop Design Weekend. After building Spain's first Hyperloop prototype with the support of Purdue University, and building a 12-meter research test-track in Spain at the University, the company was awarded in November 2017 the international Everis Foundation prize and wants to develop new technologies for a more efficient and sustainable transportation.
Hyperloop
The ET3 Global Alliance (ET3) was founded by Daryl Oster in 1997 with the goal of establishing a global transportation system using passenger capsules in frictionless maglev full-vacuum tubes. Oster and his team met with Elon Musk on September 18, 2013, to discuss the technology, resulting in Musk promising an investment in a prototype of ET3's proposed design.
Ohio Hub
The initial startup cost is currently projected to be in the $500 million range. This does not include the cost of trains or the preparations needed for high-speed service. Currently, two high-speed train systems are being explored. The first, a system, is expected to cost $2.7 billion, or $3.5 million per mile. The second option, a higher-speed system is estimated to cost $3.32 billion, or $4.5 million per mile.
Launch loop
A launch loop is proposed to be a structure 2,000 km long and 80 km high. The loop runs along at 80 km above the earth for 2000 km then descends to earth before looping back on itself rising back to 80 km above the earth to follow the reverse path then looping back to the starting point. The loop would be in the form of a tube, known as the "sheath". Floating within the sheath is another continuous tube, known as the "rotor" which is a sort of belt or chain. The rotor is an iron tube approximately 5 cm (2 inches) in diameter, moving around the loop at 14 km/s (31,000 miles per hour).
Hyperloop
The solar panels Musk plans to install along the length of the Hyperloop system have been criticized by Prof. Roger Goodall, as not being feasible enough to return enough energy to power the Hyperloop system, arguing that the air pumps and propulsion would require much more power than the solar panels could generate.
Inner Loop (Rochester)
The idea for a beltway around Rochester was conceived in the 1950s. At the time, the population of Rochester was roughly 332,000, which translated into poor traffic conditions within downtown. Despite some political obstacles, construction on the highway began in the early 1950s. Many structures were demolished to make way for the route, which was constructed in a cut through the densely populated neighborhoods that surrounded downtown. In 1965, an opening ceremony headlined by then-Governor Nelson Rockefeller officially opened the Inner Loop to traffic. The final price tag on the loop's construction was $34 million (equivalent to $ in 2022). The southern part of the Loop was incorporated into the newly constructed I-490 upon completion while the rest is designated as NY 940T, an unsigned reference route.
Sherpa Capital
Hyperloop One (formerly Hyperloop Technologies) is a high-speed transportation concept launched by Elon Musk. Sherpa Capital participated in Series A and Series B rounds. Other investors were Caspian Ventures, Fast Digital, Formation 8, Khosla Ventures, and Zhen Capital.
Jumpstarter, Inc
Hyperloop Transportation Technologies, a research company organized to bring Elon Musk's idea of Hyperloop into reality is backed by JumpStartFund. After publicizing his concept of the Hyperloop in a white paper, Elon Musk declared he could not work to create a prototype because of his busy schedule and commitments to other projects with his own companies Tesla Motors and SpaceX. JumpStartFund considered it to be their first project and started work on it using their crowd collaboration platform.
On 27.02.2015, JumpStartFund announced plans to build a 5-miles test track in California, to be built from 2016 to 2019, and financed by an IPO in 2015.
Suburban Rail Loop
The plan was embraced by influential former Liberal premier Jeff Kennett, who called for bipartisan support for the project immediately after it was announced, despite expressing doubts about the accuracy of the $50 billion costing.
Quicklaunch
Projected dollar cost per pound to orbit were $500 ($1,100/kg).Dr. John Hunter left Quicklaunch in 2012. In a 2016 article, Hunter remarked that the work had been put in stasis due in part to Elon Musk's company, SpaceX, taking up the challenge of reducing costs to orbit. Hunter however invited someone with a similar level of money and motivation, to take a fresh look at the approach.
Hyperloop
The Hyperloop concept operates by sending specially designed "capsules" or "pods" through a steel tube maintained at a partial vacuum. In Musk's original concept, each capsule floats on a layer of air provided under pressure to air-caster "skis", similar to how pucks are levitated above an air hockey table, while still allowing faster speeds than wheels can sustain. Hyperloop One's technology uses passive maglev for the same purpose. Linear induction motors located along the tube would accelerate and decelerate the capsule to the appropriate speed for each section of the tube route. With rolling resistance eliminated and air resistance greatly reduced, the capsules can glide for the bulk of the journey. In Musk's original Hyperloop concept, an electrically driven inlet fan and axial compressor would be placed at the nose of the capsule to "actively transfer high-pressure air from the front to the rear of the vessel", resolving the problem of air pressure building in front of the vehicle, slowing it down. A fraction of the air is shunted to the skis for additional pressure, augmenting that gain passively from lift due to their shape. Hyperloop One's system does away with the compressor.
Hyperloop
On October 12, 2017, the company received a "significant investment" from the Virgin Group founder Richard Branson, leading to a rebrand of the name.
DH-1 (rocket)
With an estimated manufacturing cost of $65 million and a sale price of $250 million the development costs of ~$3 billion could be paid off with about 20 sales. Launch costs were estimated at $1M (launch often) to $100M (once per year) depending on how often the vehicle was operated, with launch facilities costing $100M and fitting inside a 1-mile circle. The Rocket Company asserts that globally such sales are possible. Potential clients are suggested as NASA, the USAF, NATO countries like UK, France, Germany and Japan, as well as private firms, like Virgin Galactic or Bigelow Aerospace.
Hyperion Stakes
The Hyperion Stakes is a Perth Racing Group 3 Thoroughbred horse race held under Weight for Age conditions, over a distance of 1600 metres at Belmont Park Racecourse, Perth, Australia in June. Prizemoney is A$150,000.The race was initially held in March at Ascot Racecourse. In 2011 when the race was moved to Belmont Park it was held in June.† Dead heat
Hanshin Cup Handicap
The Hanshin Cup Handicap is an American Thoroughbred horse race held annually during the last week of May at Arlington Park racetrack in the Arlington Heights suburb of Chicago, Illinois. A Grade III event open to horses three years of age and older, it is contested on Polytrack over a distance of 8 furlongs and currently offers a purse of $100,000.
Bike freeway
The cost of building a bicycle super highway depends on many things, but is usually between €300000/km (for a wide dedicated cycle track) and €800000/km (when complex civil engineering structures are needed).
Hyperloop
From late 2012 until August 2013, a group of engineers from both Tesla and SpaceX worked on the conceptual modeling of Hyperloop. An early system design was published in the Tesla and SpaceX blogs which describes one potential design, function, pathway, and cost of a hyperloop system. According to the alpha design, pods would accelerate to cruising speed gradually using a linear electric motor and glide above their track on air bearings through tubes above ground on columns or below ground in tunnels to avoid the dangers of grade crossings. An ideal hyperloop system will be more energy-efficient, quiet, and autonomous than existing modes of mass transit. Musk has also invited feedback to "see if the people can find ways to improve it". The Hyperloop Alpha was released as an open source design. The word mark ""HYPERLOOP"", applicable to "high-speed transportation of goods in tubes" was issued to SpaceX on April 4, 2017.
High Roller (Ferris wheel)
When High Roller opened to the public in March 2014, tickets for a single 30-minute ride, the time taken for the entire wheel to rotate once, cost $24.95 (daytime) and $34.95 (nighttime). Other ticket options included a $59.95 Express Pass, allowing the holder to skip the line and ride any time.
Cycling infrastructure
The cost of building a bicycle super highway depends on many things, but is usually between €300000/km (for a wide dedicated cycle track) and €800000/km (when complex civil engineering structures are needed).
Hyperloop
The MIT Hyperloop team developed the first Hyperloop pod prototype, which they unveiled at the MIT Museum on May 13, 2016. Their design uses electrodynamic suspension for levitating and eddy current braking.
Hyperloop
The early cost estimates of the Hyperloop are a subject of debate. A number of economists and transportation experts have expressed the belief that the price tag dramatically understates the cost of designing, developing, constructing, and testing an all-new form of transportation. "The Economist" said that the estimates are unlikely to "be immune to the hypertrophication of cost that every other grand infrastructure project seems doomed to suffer."
Suburban Rail Loop
Both the plausbility and practicality of the government's headline $50 billion construction cost for the project were the subject of significant commentary at the time of the SRL's original announcement.
Hyperloop
In January 2015, a paper based on the NASA OpenMDAO open-source model reiterated the need for a larger diameter tube and a reduced cruise speed closer to Mach 0.85. It recommended removing on-board heat exchangers based on thermal models of the interactions between the compressor cycle, tube, and ambient environment. The compression cycle would only contribute 5% of the heat added to the tube, with 95% of the heat attributed to radiation and convection into the tube. The weight and volume penalty of on-board heat exchangers would not be worth the minor benefit, and regardless the steady-state temperature in the tube would only reach above ambient temperature.
Virgin Hyperloop One
In August 2013, Musk released the Hyperloop Alpha white paper, generating widespread attention and enthusiasm. In the months that followed Pishevar incorporated Hyperloop Technologies, which would later be renamed Hyperloop One, and recruited the first board members, including David O. Sacks, Jim Messina and Joe Lonsdale. Pishevar also recruited a cofounder, a former SpaceX engineer named Brogan Bambrogan. Hyperloop Technologies set up shop in Bambrogan’s garage in Los Angeles in November 2014. By January 2015, Hyperloop Tech had raised $9 million in venture capital from Pishevar's Sherpa Capital and investors such as Formation 8 and Zhen Fund, and was able to move into its current campus in the Los Angeles Arts District. FORBES magazine put Hyperloop Tech on its February 2015 cover, landing the startup lots of fresh recruits and new investor interest. In June 2015, Pishevar recruited former Cisco president Rob Lloyd as an investor and, eventually, the company's CEO.
Space elevator
With a space elevator, materials might be sent into orbit at a fraction of the current cost. As of 2000, conventional rocket designs cost about US$25,000 per kilogram (US$11,000 per pound) for transfer to geostationary orbit. Current space elevator proposals envision payload prices starting as low as $220 per kilogram ($100 per pound), similar to the $5–$300/kg estimates of the Launch loop, but higher than the $310/ton to 500 km orbit quoted to Dr. Jerry Pournelle for an orbital airship system.
42nd Street Shuttle
In 1978 the U.S. Department of Transportation undertook a study to analyze and determine the feasibility of installing an Accelerating Walkway System in an urban environment. The study used the 42nd Street Shuttle as a case study. The two options the study analyzed were a one-directional reversible linear walkway and a bi-directional loop. The study found that the walkways would provide a better level of service during off-peak hours and a similar level of service during peak hours. It was estimated that it would cost between $5.4 and $13 million to install the system.
James Webb Space Telescope
The telescope was originally estimated to cost $1.6 billion, but the cost estimate grew throughout the early development and had reached about $5 billion by the time the mission was formally confirmed for construction start in 2008. In summer 2010, the mission passed its Critical Design Review with excellent grades on all technical matters, but schedule and cost slips at that time prompted Maryland US Senator Barbara Mikulski to call for an independent review of the project. The Independent Comprehensive Review Panel (ICRP) chaired by J. Casani (JPL) found that the earliest possible launch date was in late 2015 at an extra cost of $1.5bn (for a total of $6.5bn). They also pointed out that this would have required extra funding in FY2011 and FY2012 and that any later launch date would lead to a higher total cost.
Bibop Gresta
Bibop G. Gresta (born Gabriele Gresta) is the chairman of Hyperloop Transportation Technologies.
Hyperloop
In the alpha-level concept, passenger-only pods are to be in diameter and projected to reach a top speed of to maintain aerodynamic efficiency. The design proposes passengers experience a maximum inertial acceleration of 0.5 g, about 2 or 3 times that of a commercial airliner on takeoff and landing.
Launch loop
Lofstrom estimates that an initial loop costing roughly $10 billion with a one-year payback could launch 40,000 metric tons per year, and cut launch costs to $300/kg. For $30 billion, with a larger power generation capacity, the loop would be capable of launching 6 million metric tons per year, and given a five-year payback period, the costs for accessing space with a launch loop could be as low as $3/kg.
Hyperloop
Hyperloop One has a 75,000-square foot Innovation Campus in downtown LA and a 100,000-square foot machine and tooling shop in North Las Vegas. By 2017, it had completed a 500m Development Loop (DevLoop) in North Las Vegas, Nevada.
Bibop Gresta
He founded Bibop, S.p.A., a content production and distribution company. In 1999 he sold 40% of the company to Telecom Italia for 11 bln IT lira. He was involved with a number of startups and new-media ventures, until moving to the United States in 2013. At the end of 2014 he co-founded Hyperloop Transportation Technologies, and has since appeared widely as a speaker extolling the technology.
Hardware Club
Hardware Club’s thesis was that founders of hardware startups all face the same problems but do not necessarily know how to overcome obstacles. They created a community for founders to overcome bottlenecks via network effects and knowledge sharing. 
The club selects promising hardware startups worldwide and help them scale globally by providing support on key hardware issues like manufacturing, distribution and retailing.
All members benefit from free access to a dedicated set of resources: strategic partnerships with top-tier manufacturers, distributors and service providers, private events worldwide and an online platform to connect with a community of more than 800 hardware founders. Receiving over 3,000 applications per year, Hardware Club has an acceptance rate of under 7% . Currently, more than 360 startups from 30 countries are part of the community. 
Community members include: Misfit (bought by the Fossil group for $ 260 million in 2015), Hyperloop Transportation Technologies (Elon Musk-esque revolutionary transport project) and The Eye Tribe ( acquired by Facebook).
Hyperloop
In October 2013, the development team of the OpenMDAO software framework released an unfinished, conceptual open-source model of parts of the Hyperloop's propulsion system. The team asserted that the model demonstrated the concept's feasibility, although the tube would need to be in diameter, significantly larger than originally projected. However, the team's model is not a true working model of the propulsion system, as it did not account for a wide range of technological factors required to physically construct a Hyperloop based on Musk's concept, and in particular had no significant estimations of component weight.
Hyperloop UPV
The concept developed by Hyperloop UPV is distinguished by the use of magnetic levitation based on attraction to the top of the tube thanks to its levitation units located at the top of the pod, instead of air-bearing systems based on repulsion to a rail located at the bottom of the tube. Moreover, its aerodynamic design allows to a compensation of inertial forces that permit a higher radius of curvature, a lower cost for the air-evacuation and up to a 30% savings in infrastructure, with respect to other proposals. This revolutionary concept of Hyperloop is powered by detachable batteries and is propelled through compression and expansion of the air with a nozzle. A turbine recovers energy from the flow allowing a more efficient journey. With all these features it is pretended to reach velocities up to 1200 kph, in a totally efficient manner, due to the use of renewable energies and prescinding from the use of fossil fuels.
Hyperloop pod competition
Each competition has taken place on a , test track built in southern California.
Test pods may not carry any human or animal, and are to be used solely to develop new technologies and subsystems for effecting higher-velocity tube transport systems.
The track will facilitate pod test runs where each pod is accelerated, achieves a top measured speed that is reported in real-time, and then decelerates by braking, ostensibly before the end of the test track. There will be a crash pit after the end of the track to absorb the energy of any test pods that fail to come to a stop in the test track tube.
Hallandsås Tunnel
Cost overrun has been large. The cost was expected in 1992 to be 1 billion Swedish krona (SEK). The cost from 1992 to 1997 was in reality more than SEK 2 billion, for less than half the tunnel length. Since the remaining cost at the beginning of 2005 was calculated to be more than SEK 4 billion, there was initially much debate and hesitation as to whether to halt or resume work. The total cost is likely to reach over SEK 10.5 billion (approximately 1.25 billion USD as calculated in 2015), before the project is finished.
Martin Luther King Jr. Expressway (Portsmouth)
Originally, the MLK Freeway was to be tolled $1.00 for non-tunnel users and $.50 for users who also travel through the tunnel. However, Virginia Governor Terry McAuliffe announced on July 10, 2015, that $78 million of construction money originally designated for the now defunct Route 460 project (which was another PPP approved by his predecessor, Bob McDonnell) would be reallocated to buy out the MLK Freeway tolls for the remainder of the concession period.
Controlled-access highway
Currently, most of the expressways in Vietnam are 4 lanes, some routes as Ha Noi - Hai Phong, or Phap Van - Cau Gie is 6 lanes. The only elevated expressway in Vietnam is Mai Dich - Thanh Tri Bridge (also known as the third ring road in Hanoi). The cost of building Vietnam's highways is one of the most expensive in the world, with an average cost of $ 12 million per km. Compared with China, where there are similarities, their highway costs are only $ 5 million, the US and European countries are $ 3-4 million per kilometer.
Hot Wheels
There are hundreds, perhaps even thousands, of web pages dedicated to Hot Wheels collecting. Collectors are seeking everything related to Hot Wheels, from only new castings to only Red Lines and everything in between. For the most part it is a relatively inexpensive hobby, when compared with coin collecting, stamp collecting or Barbie collecting, with mainline cars costing about $0.97-$1.08 (USD) at retail. The price has not changed much in almost 40 years, although in real terms the models have dropped significantly in price (a Hot Wheels car cost $0.98 in 1968 and costs $0.98 today, in spite of inflation). After the cars are no longer available at retail the cost can vary significantly. A common car may sell for less than retail, while some of the more difficult cars can sell for many hundred or even thousands of dollars. The highest price paid for a Hot Wheels car was close to $70,000 in 2000 for a pre-production version of a "Volkswagen Rear Loader Beach Bomb" (the asking price was $72,000). The Beach Bomb is a VW microbus with a pair of surfboards poking out the rear window. This design failed initial testing, proving to be top-heavy and not functional with the Power Booster track accessory. A widened version with the surfboards mounted in side slots was designed and released for the 1969 model year, making the "rear loader" version a rarity and very sought-after piece. As of 2018, there are about 50 "rear loaders" known to exist.
Kantrowitz limit
The Kantrowitz limit is a fundamental concept in the Hyperloop, a high-speed transportation concept recently proposed by Elon Musk for rapid transit between populous city-pairs about apart. The Hyperloop moves passengers in sealed pods through a partial-vacuum tube at high-subsonic speeds. As the air in the tube moves into and around the smaller cross-sectional area between the pod and tube, the air flow must speed up due to the continuity principle. If the pod is travelling through the tube fast enough, the air flow around the pod will reach the speed of sound, and the flow will become choked, resulting in large air resistance on the pod. The condition that determines if the flow around the pod chokes is the Kantrowitz limit. The Kantrowitz limit therefore acts a "speed limit" - for a given ratio of tube area and pod area, there is a maximum speed that the pod can travel before flow around the pod chokes and air resistance sharply increases.
Arthur Kantrowitz
A recent high-speed transportation option for rapid transit between populous city-pairs about apart, the Hyperloop, has the Kantrowitz limit as a fundamental design criterion. Attempting to pass a high-speed passenger-pod through a very low pressure tube runs squarely into the Kantrowitz fluid flow limit. Historically, the solutions to working within the limit have been "go fast" and "go slow". A major innovation in the Hyperloop proposal provides a novel third approach to remain below the Kantrowitz limit while still moving at high-subsonic velocities: adding a front-end inlet compressor to actively transfer high-pressure air from the front to the rear of the high-speed transport capsule, and thus bypassing much of the air that would have resulted in the dynamic shock of the choked flow. The flow in the smaller duct through the capsule is also subject to the Kantrowitz Limit, this is relieved by increasing the pressure and the density to achieve the required mass flow. In the Hyperloop alpha design of 2013, the air-inlet pump also provides a low-friction air-bearing suspension system for traveling at over .
Elizabeth River Tunnels Project
In June 2004, the Hampton Roads Planning District Commission wanted to add the parallel Midtown Tunnel and the extension of the Martin Luther King Freeway (along with several other congestion-relieving projects) to the 2026 Regional Transportation Plan (RTP). The construction cost was estimated at $686 million. However, the Commission removed the project from the RTP after concluding that state funding would be insufficient, and because VDOT determined that "reliance on a regional gas tax [was] not a reasonably foreseeable source of revenue" for the plan.
Hyperloop
TransPod vehicles are being designed to travel at over 1,000 km/h between cities using fully electric propulsion and zero need for fossil fuels. The TransPod tube system is distinct from the hyperloop concept proposed by Elon Musk's Hyperloop Alpha white paper. The TransPod system uses moving electromagnetic fields to propel the vehicles with stable levitation off the bottom surface, rather than compressed air. TransPod is stated to contain further developments beyond hyperloop. To achieve fossil-fuel-free propulsion, TransPod "pods" take advantage of electrically-driven linear induction motor technology, with active real-time control and sense-space systems. The cargo transport TransPod pods will be able to carry payloads of 10–15 tons and have compatibility with wooden pallets, as well as various unit load devices such as LD3 containers, and AAA containers.
Hyperloop
In October 9, 2017 a report was released with information from Hardt Global Mobility and Hyperloop One. The report has been sent to the Dutch House of Representatives and judges the added value of a hyperloop test track facility. The report recommends building a test track of 5 km in Flevoland.
Orbital ring
If built by launching the necessary materials from Earth, the cost for the system estimated by Birch in 1980s money was around $31 billion (for a "bootstrap" system intended to expand to 1000 times its initial size over the following year, which would otherwise cost 31 trillion dollars) if launched using Shuttle-derived hardware, whereas it could fall to $15 billion with space-based manufacturing, assuming a large orbital manufacturing facility is available to provide the initial 180,000 tonnes of steel, aluminium, and slag at a low cost, and even lower with orbital rings around the Moon. The system's cost per kilogram to place payloads in orbit would be around $0.05.
Geothermal heat pump
Capital costs and system lifespan have received much less study until recently, and the return on investment is highly variable. The most recent data from an analysis of 2011–2012 incentive payments in the state of Maryland showed an average cost of residential systems of $1.90 per watt, or about $26,700 for a typical (4 ton) home system. An older study found the total installed cost for a system with 10 kW (3 ton) thermal capacity for a detached rural residence in the US averaged $8000–$9000 in 1995 US dollars. More recent studies found an average cost of $14,000 in 2008 US dollars for the same size system. The US Department of Energy estimates a price of $7500 on its website, last updated in 2008. One source in Canada placed prices in the range of $30,000–$34,000 Canadian dollars. The rapid escalation in system price has been accompanied by rapid improvements in efficiency and reliability. Capital costs are known to benefit from economies of scale, particularly for open loop systems, so they are more cost-effective for larger commercial buildings and harsher climates. The initial cost can be two to five times that of a conventional heating system in most residential applications, new construction or existing. In retrofits, the cost of installation is affected by the size of living area, the home's age, insulation characteristics, the geology of the area, and location of the property. Proper duct system design and mechanical air exchange should be considered in the initial system cost.
Hyperloop
Some experts are skeptical, saying that the proposals ignore the expenses and risks of developing the technology and that the idea is "completely impractical". Claims have also been made that the Hyperloop is too susceptible to disruption from a power outage or terror attacks to be considered safe.
Hyperloop Transportation Technologies
Hyperloop Transportation Technologies, also known as HTT, is an American research company formed using a crowd collaboration approach (a mix of team collaboration and crowdsourcing) to develop a transportation system based on the Hyperloop concept, which was envisioned by Elon Musk in 2013.
Everloop
EverText allowed parents to moderate the number of texts kids can send, ranging from unlimited to 250 texts per month. When a child hit the limit, parents received a note and could add text credit to the account or leave it until the next month.
The company closed a seed round of $3.1 million in 2011 backed by vFormation, Silicon Valley based Band of Angels, Envoi Ventures, Richard Chino] formerly of Overture, Wayne Goodrich formerly of Apple, Deena Burnett-Bailey of Angels of Hope and additional investors.
Santiago Calatrava
The WTC Hub has been controversial because of its cost (4 billion dollars, twice the original estimate, and the most expensive railway station ever built) and its delays (seven years on March 3, 2016, seven years behind schedule). More than $1 billion of its cost went to administrative expenses and the decision to build around the 1 train of the New York City Subway. Michael Kimmelman, the architecture critic of the "New York Times", praised the soaring upward view inside the Oculus, but condemned the building's cost, "scale, monotony of materials and color, preening formalism and disregard for the gritty urban fabric."
Hyperloop
On May 11, 2016, Hyperloop One conducted the first live trial of Hyperloop technology, demonstrating that its custom linear electric motor could propel a sled from 0 to 110 miles an hour in just over one second. The acceleration exerted approximately 2.5 g on the sled. The sled was stopped at the end of the test by hitting a pile of sand at the end of the track, because the test was not intended to test braking components.
Hyperloop
Political impediments to the construction of such a project in California will be very large. There is a great deal of "political and reputation capital" invested in the existing mega-project of California High-Speed Rail. Replacing that with a different design would not be straightforward given California's political economy. Texas has been suggested as an alternate for its more amenable political and economic environment.
Hyperloop
A number of student and non-student teams were participating in a Hyperloop pod competition in 2015–16, and at least 22 of them built hardware to compete on a sponsored hyperloop test track in mid-2016.
Hyperloop
The Hyperloop Alpha concept was first published in August 2013, proposing and examining a route running from the Los Angeles region to the San Francisco Bay Area, roughly following the Interstate 5 corridor. The Hyperloop Genesis paper conceived of a hyperloop system that would propel passengers along the route at a speed of , allowing for a travel time of 35 minutes, which is considerably faster than current rail or air travel times. Preliminary cost estimates for this LA–SF suggested route were included in the white paper— for a passenger-only version, and for a somewhat larger-diameter version transporting passengers and vehicles—although transportation analysts had doubts that the system could be constructed on that budget; some analysts claimed that the Hyperloop would be several billion dollars overbudget, taking into consideration construction, development, and operation costs.
Hyperloop
There is also the criticism of design technicalities in the tube system. Prof. John Hansman has stated problems, such as how a slight misalignment in the tube would be compensated for and the potential interplay between the air cushion and the low-pressure air. He has also questioned what would happen if the power were to go out when the pod was miles away from a city. Prof. Richard Muller has also expressed concern regarding "[the Hyperloop's] novelty and the vulnerability of its tubes, [which] would be a tempting target for terrorists", and that the system could be disrupted by everyday dirt and grime.
Bering Strait crossing
In 1994, Lin estimated the cost of a bridge to be "a few billion" dollars. The roads and railways on each side were estimated to cost $50 billion. Lin contrasted this cost to petroleum resources "worth trillions". Discovery Channel's "Extreme Engineering" estimates the cost of a highway, electrified double-track high-speed rail and pipelines, at $105 billion, five times the cost of the Channel Tunnel.
Hyperloop pod competition
The outline of the original Hyperloop concept was made public in August 2013 by the release of a preliminary—or alpha level—design document by Elon Musk, with substantial design assistance from an informal group of engineers at both Tesla Motors and SpaceX who worked on the conceptual foundation and modelling of Hyperloop. The preliminary design called for a steel tube, operating in partial vacuum (nearly airless), utilizing pressurized vehicle "pods" to carry passengers or cargo that would ride on an air cushion driven by linear induction motors and air compressors. The alpha design included a notional route running from the Los Angeles region to the San Francisco Bay Area, paralleling the Interstate 5 corridor for most of its length, so that preliminary economic analysis might be done on the concept.
Responses to the design paper release included: "a flash of brilliance" and "hypercool" to "nothing new here" to "hype", "another science-fiction dream," and "completely impractical."
Hyperloop
Developments in high-speed rail have historically been impeded by the difficulties in managing friction and air resistance, both of which become substantial when vehicles approach high speeds. The vactrain concept theoretically eliminates these obstacles by employing magnetically levitating trains in evacuated (airless) or partly evacuated tubes, allowing for speeds of thousands of miles per hour. However, the high cost of maglev and the difficulty of maintaining a vacuum over large distances has prevented this type of system from ever being built. The Hyperloop resembles a vactrain system but operates at approximately of pressure.
Hyperloop UPV
The project has its origins in August, 2015, when a team of 5 students of the Makers Community of the Polytechnical University of Valencia decided to take part in a competition organized by Elon Musk, the Hyperloop Design Weekend. This decision was taken as a result of a piece of news that one of them read, in which was said that with Hyperloop, airplanes would be useless for medium-range journeys (about 600 km) and all the universities worldwide were invited to participate in this competition in order to make Hyperloop a reality. 
The Hyperloop Makers UPV team was created in August 2015 when Daniel Orient, aerospace engineering student, read in a piece of news that with Hyperloop, airplanes would be useless for medium-range journeys (about 600 km). When he discovered that Elon Musk was organising a contest to make Hyperloop a reality and that it was open-source, he decided to ask for help to Makers UPV, a local community of makers from Valencia, Spain. That's when Ángel Benedicto, David Pistoni, Germán Torres and Juan Vicén decided to take part on the project and build together their own Hyperloop concept.
Space Launch System
The Human Exploration Framework Team (HEFT) estimated unit costs for Block 0 at $1.6bn and Block 1 at $1.86bn in 2010. However, since these estimates were made the Block 0 SLS vehicle was dropped in late 2011, and the design was not completed. The Space Review estimated the cost per launch at $5 billion, depending on the rate of launches. NASA announced in 2013 that the European Space Agency will build the Orion Service Module.
Nuremberg–Erfurt high-speed railway
The cost of planning approval section 25, between Zapfendorf (km 77.7+07) and Eierberge Tunnel (km 87.2+69), was finally established as €58,883,020 (net). Among other things, an overhauling facility with two relief loops will be built in Unterleiterbach. The work was due to be completed by the end of 2015.
Hyperloop Transportation Technologies
The company was founded by JumpStarter, Inc., utilizing the company's crowdfunding and collaboration platform JumpStartFund. The company has assembled a team of community members, attracting high level engineers and contributing corporations including Ansys for computer simulation resources and GloCal Network Corporation and UCLA Architecture & Urban Design for developing the social interface for the Hyperloop project. A December 2014 article in "Wired" revealed that the initial development work was done by approximately 100 engineers located mostly in the United States. The contributors were working in exchange for stock options, and were selected from a group of about 200 who initially applied. In 2013, HTT partnered with the engineering software developer Ansys, which ran simulation models for the fluid dynamics of the Hyperloop.
Hyperloop
By November 2015, with several commercial companies and dozens of student teams pursuing the development of Hyperloop technologies, the "Wall Street Journal" asserted that "The Hyperloop Movement", as some of its unaffiliated members refer to themselves, is officially bigger than the man who started it."
Virgin Hyperloop One
In 2016, Hyperloop One launched its Hyperloop One Global Challenge to find the locations for, and develop and construct, the world’s first Hyperloop networks. In January 2017, Hyperloop One announced the 35 semifinalist routes (spread over 17 countries) in the Hyperloop One Global Challenge. Hyperloop One held a series of events showcasing the semifinalists, Vision for India in February, Vision for America in April and Vision for Europe in June. 
On September 14, 2017, Hyperloop One announced the 10 winners for the Hyperloop One Global Challenge. The countries with teams that won include the US, UK, Canada, Mexico, and India. The winners will now be invited to work closely with Hyperloop One on viability studies to try and bring their respective loops from proposal to reality.
Hyperloop Transportation Technologies
By February 2015, the company had grown to nearly 200 people, and had announced that it would hold an initial public offering that year to raise . HTT also entered a formal agreement with GROW Holdings, the developer of Quay Valley, California, to construct a demonstration track beginning in 2016. By November, HTT had grown to just under 500 people. In August 2015, engineering design and construction firm AECOM began providing engineering services to HTT for the design of the full-scale Quay Valley prototype track. Also in August 2015, HTT announced partnerships with international engineering giant Aecom and Oerlikon, the world's oldest vacuum technology ."
Virgin Hyperloop One
Virgin Hyperloop One formerly known as Hyperloop One, is an American transportation technology company that was formed in 2014, and reorganized and renamed in 2017, working to commercialize the high-speed technology concept called Hyperloop. Hyperloop systems are intended to move passengers and/or cargo at airline speeds at a fraction of the cost of air travel. The concept of Hyperloop transportation was first introduced by Elon Musk in August 2013.
Hyperloop
In June 2015, SpaceX announced that they would sponsor a Hyperloop pod design competition, and would build a subscale test track near SpaceX's headquarters in Hawthorne, California for the competitive event in 2016. SpaceX stated in their announcement, "Neither SpaceX nor Elon Musk is affiliated with any Hyperloop companies. While we are not developing a commercial Hyperloop ourselves, we are interested in helping to accelerate development of a functional Hyperloop prototype."
Elizabeth River Tunnels Project
In 2006, the Hampton Roads Metropolitan Planning Organization (MPO) (formerly a subcommittee of the HRPDC, now known as the Transportation Planning Organization) concluded that new tolls could help secure funding for transportation projects that were removed from the 2026 RTP, including the Midtown Tunnel and MLK Extension. This would include tolling the parallel Downtown Tunnel to create a congestion-management plan to prevent the diversion of potential Midtown Tunnel traffic to a competing free facility. Both tunnels were initially tolled (25 cents, both ways) to pay off their construction bonds; both were made free in the late 1980s after the opening of the second (eastbound) Downtown Tunnel. Options included adding a 58-cent toll to the Midtown Tunnel (and a 19-cent toll to the MLK Extension), which could raise $427 million for the project; or adding a $2.05 peak/$1.50 off-peak toll for the Midtown, and a $2.20 peak/$1.60 off-peak for the Downtown Tunnel, which could raise nearly $4.8 billion. Based on this study, the MPO added the projects to the regions 2030 RTP, now estimated to cost around $779 million— if the Virginia General Assembly approved the new tolls and several tax increases.
Virgin Hyperloop One
The idea for Hyperloop One emerged from a conversation between Elon Musk and Silicon Valley investor Shervin Pishevar when they were flying together to Cuba on a humanitarian mission in January 2012. Pishevar asked Musk to elaborate on his Hyperloop idea, which the industrialist had been mulling over for some time. Pishevar suggested using it for cargo, an idea Musk hadn’t considered, but he did say he was considering open-sourcing the concept because he was too busy running SpaceX and Tesla. Pishevar pushed Musk to publish his ideas about the Hyperloop, so that Pishevar could study them.
Baltimore Belt Line
Reconstructing the Howard Street Tunnel to accommodate double-stacked intermodal containers had been once thought to cost $1–3 billion. However, in April 2016, a $425 million plan was revealed that would create the needed of additional clearance in the tunnel by trimming and notching its arched ceiling, lowering its floor, and using steel crossties, which have a lower profile than wood crossties. The Maryland Department of Transportation subsequently applied for a $155 million FY2016 FASTLANE grant to help fund a project based on this lower-cost plan, but the grant was not received. In December 2016, MDOT reapplied for a FASTLANE grant of the same amount in the FY2017 round of funding. In addition to the federal funds expected from the grant, the State of Maryland would contribute $145M, and CSX $125M, towards the cost of the project. In expectation of the grant funding, CSX is investing $25M in the tunnel$21M to improve its water discharge system, and $4M for engineering and design of the clearance improvements. The project, which would also increase the clearance at nine bridges north of the tunnel, would last 4–5 years (due to having to be scheduled around active rail traffic), create about 500 construction jobs, and would result in 178,000 containers per year being moved by rail from the Port of Baltimore instead of by truck. Maryland Governor Larry Hogan said that the state would explore other funding solutions if the FY2017 FASTLANE grant is not received.
Suburban Handicap
The Suburban Handicap is an American Grade II Thoroughbred horse race run annually at Belmont Park in Elmont, New York. Open to horses age three and older, it is now run at the mile distance on dirt for a $500,000 purse.
New Tube for London
In early 2014 the Bakerloo, Piccadilly, Central and Waterloo & City line rolling stock replacement project was renamed "New Tube for London" (NTfL) and moved from its feasibility stage to the design and specification stage. The study had shown that, for new generation trains and re-signalling:
The project is estimated to cost £16.42 billion (£9.86 bn at 2013 prices). A notice was published on 28 February 2014 in the Official Journal of the European Union asking for expressions of interest in building the trains. On 9 October 2014 Transport for London (TfL) published a shortlist of those (Alstom, Siemens, Hitachi, CAF and Bombardier) who had expressed an interest in supplying 250 trains for between £1.0 billion and £2.5 billion, and on the same day opened an exhibition with a design by PriestmanGoode. The fully automated trains may be able to run without drivers, but the ASLEF and RMT trade unions that represent the drivers strongly oppose this, saying it would affect safety. The Invitation to Tender for the trains was issued in January 2016 with the first train to run on the Piccadilly line in 2023.