Who first identified the process of autophagy?
Yoshinori Ohsumi
Christian de Duve coined the term autophagy in 1963 whereas Ohsumi began his work in 1988. Prior to that time, less than 20 papers per year were published on this subject. During the 1990s, Ohsumi's group described the morphology of autophagy in yeast, and performed mutational screening on yeast cells that identified essential genes for cells to be capable of autophagy.
List of Orthodontic Functional Appliances
It is important to note that the dento-facial Orthopedics was mainly done in Europe initially as United States was introduced to Fixed Orthodontics by Edward Angle. Norman William Kingsley was the first person to show "jumping the bite" by using an anterior bite plate. Hotz then developed the Vorbissplate which was modification of Kingsley's plate. Wilhelm Roux is credited to be the first person who studied the effects of functional forces on Orthodontics in 1883. His workings were used by other dentists in future to study the dental orthopedics. His teachings became known as Roux Hypothesis, which Karl Haupl later expanded. Monobloc developed by Pierre Robin (surgeon) in 1902 is considered to be one of the first functional appliances in Orthodontics. The Monobloc was a modification of Ottolengui’s removable plate. In 1908, Viggo Andersen developed the Activator appliance. This was the first functional appliance to be widely accepted, especially in Europe. This appliance became the "Norwegian" system of treatment in Orthodontics in early 1900s.
Autotroph
The Greek term "autotroph" was coined by the German botanist Albert Bernhard Frank in 1892. It stems from the ancient Greek word τροφή (trophḗ), meaning "nourishment" or "food".
Mitophagy
Recently, it has been shown that ATG32 (autophagy related gene 32) plays a crucial role in yeast mitophagy. It is localized to the mitochondria. Once mitophagy is initiated, Atg32 binds to Atg11 and the Atg32-associated mitochondria is transported to the vacuole. Atg32 silencing stops recruitment of autophagy machinery and mitochondrial degradation. Atg32 is not necessary for other forms of autophagy.
History of pathology
Early systematic human dissections were carried out by the Ancient Greek physicians Herophilus of Chalcedon and Erasistratus of Chios in the early part of the third century BC. The first physician known to have made postmortem dissections was the Arabian physician Avenzoar (1091–1161). Rudolf Virchow (1821–1902) is generally recognized to be the father of microscopic pathology. Most early pathologists were also practicing physicians or surgeons.also see Egyptian mummification as pre modern necropsy might suggest as early embalming and post mortem organ removal.
Autophagy (journal)
Autophagy is a monthly peer-reviewed scientific journal covering all aspects of cell autophagy. It is published by Taylor & Francis and the editor-in-chief is Daniel J. Klionsky (University of Michigan).
ATG7
Autophagy is an important cellular process that helps in maintaining homeostasis. It goes through destroying and recycling the cytoplasmic organelles and macromolecules. During the initiation of autophagy, ATG7 acts like an E-1 enzyme for ubiquitin-like proteins (UBL) such as ATG12 and ATG8. ATG7 helps these UBL proteins in targeting their molecule by binding to them and activating their transfer to an E-2 enzyme. ATG7's role in both of these autophagy-specific UBL systems makes it an essential regulator of autophagosome assembly.
Autophagy (disambiguation)
Autophagy can refer to:
Intracellular digestion
4 Glick, Danielle; Barth, Sandra; Macleod, Kay F. (21 November 2016). "Autophagy: cellular and molecular mechanisms". "The Journal of Pathology". 221 (1): 3–12. doi:. ISSN 0022-3417.
History of general anesthesia
In 1880, the Scottish surgeon William Macewen (1848–1924) reported on his use of orotracheal intubation as an alternative to tracheotomy to allow a patient with glottic edema to breathe, as well as in the setting of general anesthesia with chloroform. All previous observations of the glottis and larynx (including those of Manuel García, Wilhelm Hack and Macewen) had been performed under indirect vision (using mirrors) until 23 April 1895, when Alfred Kirstein (1863–1922) of Germany first described direct visualization of the vocal cords. Kirstein performed the first direct laryngoscopy in Berlin, using an esophagoscope he had modified for this purpose; he called this device an "autoscope". The death of Emperor Frederick III (1831–1888) may have motivated Kirstein to develop the autoscope.
Parasitism
Modern parasitology developed in the 19th century with accurate observations and experiments by many researchers and clinicians; the term was first used in 1870. In 1828, James Annersley described amoebiasis, protozoal infections of the intestines and the liver, though the pathogen, "Entamoeba histolytica", was not discovered until 1873 by Friedrich Lösch. James Paget discovered the intestinal nematode "Trichinella spiralis" in humans in 1835. James McConnell described the human liver fluke, "Clonorchis sinensis", in 1875. Algernon Thomas and Rudolf Leuckart independently made the first discovery of the life cycle of a trematode, the sheep liver fluke, by experiment in 1881–1883. In 1877 Patrick Manson discovered the life cycle of the filarial worms, that cause elephantiatis transmitted by mosquitoes. Manson further predicted that the malaria parasite, "Plasmodium", had a mosquito vector, and persuaded Ronald Ross to investigate. Ross confirmed that the prediction was correct in 1897–1898. At the same time, Giovanni Battista Grassi and others described the malaria parasite's life cycle stages in "Anopheles" mosquitoes. Ross was controversially awarded the 1902 Nobel prize for his work, while Grassi was not. In 1903, David Bruce identified the protozoan parasite and the tsetse fly vector of African trypanosomiasis.
Autophagy
Three forms of autophagy are commonly described: macroautophagy, microautophagy, and chaperone-mediated autophagy (CMA). In macroautophagy, targeted cytoplasmic constituents are isolated from the rest of the cell within a double-membraned vesicle known as an autophagosome. The autophagosome eventually fuses with lysosomes and the contents are degraded and recycled. In disease, autophagy has been seen as an adaptive response to stress, which promotes survival, whereas in other cases it appears to promote cell death and morbidity. In the extreme case of starvation, the breakdown of cellular components promotes cellular survival by maintaining cellular energy levels.
Félix d'Herelle
At the time, none, not even d'Hérelle, knew exactly what a phage was. D'Hérelle claimed that it was a biological organism that reproduces, somehow feeding off bacteria. Others, the Nobelist Jules Bordet chief among them, theorized that phages were inanimate chemicals, enzymes specifically, that were already present in bacteria, and only trigger the release of similar proteins, killing the bacteria in the process. Due to this uncertainty, and d'Herelle using phages without much hesitation on humans, his work was under constant attack from many other scientists. It was not until the first phage was observed under an electron microscope by Helmut Ruska in 1939 that its true nature was established.
MTORC1
mTORC1's ability to inhibit autophagy while at the same time stimulate protein synthesis and cell growth can result in accumulations of damaged proteins and organelles, contributing to damage at the cellular level. Because autophagy appears to decline with age, activation of autophagy may help promote longevity in humans. Problems in proper autophagy processes have been linked to diabetes, cardiovascular disease, neurodegenerative diseases, and cancer.
Pharmacogenomics
Pharmacogenomics was first recognized by Pythagoras around 510 BC when he made a connection between the dangers of fava bean ingestion with hemolytic anemia and oxidative stress. This identification was later validated and attributed to deficiency of G6PD in the 1950s and called favism. Although the first official publication dates back to 1961, circa 1950s marked the unofficial beginnings of this science. Reports of prolonged paralysis and fatal reactions linked to genetic variants in patients who lacked butyryl-cholinesterase (‘pseudocholinesterase’) following administration of succinylcholine injection during anesthesia were first reported in 1956. The term pharmacogenetic was first coined in 1959 by Friedrich Vogel of Heidelberg, Germany (although some papers suggest it was 1957 or 1958). In the late 1960s, twin studies supported the inference of genetic involvement in drug metabolism, with identical twins sharing remarkable similarities to drug response compared to fraternal twins. The term pharmacogenomics first began appearing around the 1990s.
Invalid carriage
Stephan Farffler was a Nuremberg watchmaker of the seventeenth century whose invention of a manumotive carriage in 1655 is widely considered to have been the first self-propelled wheelchair. As such it was consistent with the later designs for self-propelled invalid carriages. The three-wheeled device is also believed to have been a precursor to the modern-day tricycle and bicycle. Farffler was either a paraplegic or an amputee,
Myopathy, X-linked, with excessive autophagy
This disorder was described in 1988 by Kalimo "et al" in Finland in three brothers. The same condition affected their maternal grandfather and great-uncle.
Vojo Deretic
Vojo Deretic's main contributions to science come from studies by his team on the role of autophagy in infection and immunity. Autophagy, a cytoplasmic pathway for the removal of damaged or surplus organelles, has been previously implicated in cancer, neurodegeneration such as Alzheimer's disease, Huntington's disease and Parkinson's disease, diabetes, development, and aging. His group is one of those that made the discovery that autophagic degradation is a major effector of innate and possibly adaptive immunity mechanisms for direct elimination of intracellular microbes (such as Mycobacterium tuberculosis ). This has added immunity and infection to the repertoire of autophagy's sphere of influence.
Felix Armin Randow
Randow’s work has provided important insights into the mechanism of anti-bacterial autophagy. He discovered a new pathway of cell-autonomous defence relying on galectin-8 as the receptor for membrane-damage caused by cytosol-invading bacteria., NDP52 as the first anti-bacterial autophagy receptor, and TBK1 as specifying the sites of anti-bacterial autophagy. Because the galectin-8 pathway detects membrane damage rather than the invading pathogen "per se", its importance likely reaches well beyond anti-bacterial defence, including protection against viruses and tauopathies.
Chemosynthesis
In 1897, Wilhelm Pfeffer coined the term "chemosynthesis" for the energy production by oxidation of inorganic substances, in association with autotrophic carbon dioxide assimilation - what would be named today as chemolithoautotrophy. Later, the term would be expanded to include also chemoorganoautotrophs, which are organisms that use organic energy substrates in order to assimilate carbon dioxide. Thus, chemosynthesis can be seen as a synonym of chemoautotrophy.
Wiley Prize
Dr. Yoshinori Ohsumi for the discovery of how cells recycle their components in an orderly manner. This process, autophagy (self-eating), is critical for the maintenance and repair of cells and tissues.
Beginning of human personhood
Biochemically, this is when alpha announces its presence as part of the human community by means of its hormonal messages, which we now have the technology to receive. We also know biochemically that it is an independent organism distinct from the mother. [Note: in writing the book, "alpha" was Nathanson's term for any human before birth.]
In their book, "When Does Human Life Begin?", John L. Merritt, MD and his son J. Lawrence Meritt II, MD, present the idea that if "the breath of life" (Genesis 2:7) is oxygen, then a blastocyst starts taking in the breath of life from the mother's blood the moment it successfully implants in her womb, which is about a week after fertilization. If the end-point to human life is the moment the body stops using oxygen, then it may follow that the corresponding starting-point is the moment the body starts using oxygen.
Conduction aphasia
Wernicke predicted the existence of conduction aphasia in his landmark 1874 monograph, "Der Aphasische Symptomenkompleks: Eine Psychologische Studie auf Anatomischer Basis". He was the first to distinguish the various aphasias in an anatomical framework, and proposed that a disconnection between the two speech systems (motor and sensory) would lead to a unique condition, distinct from both expressive and receptive aphasias, which he termed "Leitungsaphasie". He did not explicitly predict the repetition deficit, but did note that, unlike those with Wernicke's aphasia, conduction aphasics would be able to comprehend speech properly, and intriguingly, would be able to hear and understand their own speech errors, leading to frustration and self-correction.
Fort Mackinac
On June 6, 1822, a fur trader named Alexis St. Martin waited to trade in his furs when a gun accidentally discharged just inches from him, blowing a hole in his abdomen. The post surgeon, Doctor William Beaumont, attended to him. Dr. Beaumont cared for the presumably doomed St. Martin the best he could. To his surprise, the man appeared to make a recovery. Beaumont took St. Martin into his home, caring for him for several years. St. Martin healed although his stomach had a hole. Beaumont seized the opportunity and began observing and conducting experiments on the man. Through these experiments, Beaumont described the process of digestion in detail, unlocking its mysteries. Beaumont wrote a book about his experiments and later became known as "The Father of Gastric Physiology."
Autophagy
Chaperone-mediated autophagy, or CMA, is a very complex and specific pathway, which involves the recognition by the hsc70-containing complex. This means that a protein must contain the recognition site for this hsc70 complex which will allow it to bind to this chaperone, forming the CMA- substrate/chaperone complex. This complex then moves to the lysosomal membrane-bound protein that will recognise and bind with the CMA receptor, allowing it to enter the cell. Upon recognition, the substrate protein gets unfolded and it is translocated across the lysosome membrane with the assistance of the lysosomal hsc70 chaperone. CMA is significantly different from other types of autophagy because it translocates protein material in a one by one manner, and it is extremely selective about what material crosses the lysosomal barrier.
Autothysis
Autothysis (from the Greek roots "autos-" αὐτός "self" and "thysia" θυσία "sacrifice") or suicidal altruism is the process where an animal destroys itself via an internal rupturing or explosion of an organ which ruptures the skin. The term was proposed by Ulrich Maschwitz and Eleonore Maschwitz in 1974 to describe the defensive mechanism of "Camponotus saundersi", a species of carpenter ant. It is caused by a contraction of muscles around a large gland that leads to the breaking of the gland wall. Some termites (such as the soldiers of "Globitermes sulphureus") release a sticky secretion by rupturing a gland near the skin of their neck, producing a tar effect in defense against ants.
Autotelic
The "Oxford English Dictionary" cites its earliest use as 1901 (Baldwin, "Dictionary of Philosophy and Psychology" I 96/1), and also cites a 1932 use by T. S. Eliot (Essays I. ii. 24).
The AIM center
The Autophagy, Inflammation and Metabolism (AIM) center is an NIH-funded Center of Biomedical Research Excellence focused on the study of autophagy as a fundamental biological process and how it intersects with metabolism and quality control processes in eukaryotic cells. A special emphasis is on the role or autophagy in a wide spectrum of diseases with metabolic, inflammatory and immunological aspects. At the fundamental level, autophagy is a cytoplasmic pathway for the disposal of damaged or surplus organelles such as mitochondria, peroxisomes, lysosomes, endoplasmic reticulum, ribosomes, protein aggregates and also serves as a catabolic process providing nutrients through autodigestion at times of starvation. Autophagy has been implicated in cancer, neurodegeneration such as Alzheimer's disease, Huntington's disease and Parkinson's disease, diabetes, development, infections and immune diseases, as well as a process of relevance for aging.
Autobiography
An autobiography (from the Greek, αὐτός-"autos" self + βίος-"bios" life + γράφειν-"graphein" to write) is a self-written account of the life of oneself. The word "autobiography" was first used deprecatingly by William Taylor in 1797 in the English periodical "The Monthly Review", when he suggested the word as a hybrid, but condemned it as "pedantic". However, its next recorded use was in its present sense, by Robert Southey in 1809. Despite only being named early in the nineteenth century, first-person autobiographical writing originates in antiquity. Roy Pascal differentiates autobiography from the periodic self-reflective mode of journal or diary writing by noting that "[autobiography] is a review of a life from a particular moment in time, while the diary, however reflective it may be, moves through a series of moments in time". Autobiography thus takes stock of the autobiographer's life from the moment of composition. While biographers generally rely on a wide variety of documents and viewpoints, autobiography may be based entirely on the writer's memory. The memoir form is closely associated with autobiography but it tends, as Pascal claims, to focus less on the self and more on others during the autobiographer's review of his or her life.
Phonograph
Direct tracings of the vibrations of sound-producing objects such as tuning forks had been made by English physician Thomas Young in 1807, but the first known device for recording airborne speech, music and other sounds is the phonautograph, patented in 1857 by French typesetter and inventor Édouard-Léon Scott de Martinville. In this device, sound waves travelling through the air vibrated a parchment diaphragm which was linked to a bristle, and the bristle traced a line through a thin coating of soot on a sheet of paper wrapped around a rotating cylinder. The sound vibrations were recorded as undulations or other irregularities in the traced line. Scott's phonautograph was intended purely for the visual study and analysis of the tracings. Reproduction of the recorded sound was not possible with the original phonautograph.
Judah Folkman
Moses Judah Folkman (February 24, 1933 – January 14, 2008) was an American medical scientist best known for his research on tumor angiogenesis, the process by which a tumor attracts blood vessels to nourish itself and sustain its existence. He founded the field of angiogenesis research, which has led to the discovery of a number of therapies based on inhibiting or stimulating neovascularization.
Metabolism
In these early studies, the mechanisms of these metabolic processes had not been identified and a vital force was thought to animate living tissue. In the 19th century, when studying the fermentation of sugar to alcohol by yeast, Louis Pasteur concluded that fermentation was catalyzed by substances within the yeast cells he called "ferments". He wrote that "alcoholic fermentation is an act correlated with the life and organization of the yeast cells, not with the death or putrefaction of the cells." This discovery, along with the publication by Friedrich Wöhler in 1828 of a paper on the chemical synthesis of urea, and is notable for being the first organic compound prepared from wholly inorganic precursors. This proved that the organic compounds and chemical reactions found in cells were no different in principle than any other part of chemistry.
Phagosome
Autophagosomes are different from phagosomes in that they are mainly used to selectively degrade damaged cytosolic organelles such as mitochondria (mitophagy). However, when the cell is starved or stressed, autophagosomes can also non-selectively degrade organelles to provide the cell with amino acids and other nutrients. Autophagy is not limited to professional phagocytes, it is first discovered in rat hepatocytes by cell biologist Christian de Duve. Autophagosomes have a double membrane, the inner one from the engulfed organelle, and the outer membrane is speculated to be formed from the endoplasmic reticulum or the ER-Golgi Intermediate Compartment (ERGIC). The autophagosome also fuses with lysosomes to degrade its contents. When "M. tuberculosis" inhibit phagosome acidification, Interferon gamma can induce autophagy and rescue the maturation process.
Paedophagy
Paedophagy (literally meaning the "consumption of children") in its general form is the feeding behaviour of fish or other animals whose diet is partially, or primarily the eggs or larvae of other animals. However, P. H. Greenwood, who was the first to describe paedophagia, defines it to be a feeding behaviour evolved among cichlid fishes.
Autofiction
Serge Doubrovsky coined the term in 1977 with reference to his novel "Fils". Philippe Vilain distinguishes autofiction from autobiographical novels in that autofiction requires a first-person narrative by a protagonist who has the same name as the author. Autofiction combines two mutually inconsistent narrative forms, namely autobiography and fiction. An author may decide to recount his/her life in the third person, to modify significant details or 'characters', using fiction in the service of a search for self. It has parallels with faction, a genre devised by Truman Capote to describe his novel "In Cold Blood".
Nikos Athanasou
As Nicholas Athanasou he has written widely on bone, joint and soft tissue pathology and on the pathobiology of osteoarticular cells and tissues. With TJ Chambers he developed the osteoclast lacunar bone resorption assay system. His work was the first to show that the human osteoclast shares specific surface antigens with macrophages and that the mononuclear human osteoclast precursor circulates in the (CD14+) monocyte fraction. This led to the discovery of cellular and molecular mechanisms of pathological bone resorption associated with primary and secondary bone tumours, particularly breast cancer metastasis, Ewing sarcoma and giant cell–rich lesions such as giant cell tumour of bone and pigmented villonodular synovitis. In addition, his work has studied synovial and inflammatory macrophages and their role in osteoarthritis, rheumatoid arthritis, infection and Paget disease. His work on hip and knee implants focused on the importance of biomaterial wear particles on promoting osteoclast formation, osteolysis and implant loosening. He also characterised inflammatory criteria for the histological diagnosis of infection using frozen section procedure and was the first to provide a pathological description of pseudotumors associated with metal on metal hip implants.
Ecophagy
Ecophagy is a term coined by Robert Freitas that means the literal consumption of an ecosystem. It derives from the Greek "οικος" (oikos) or Late Latin "oeco-", which refers to a "house" or "household", and the Greek "φᾰγεῖν" (phagein), "to eat".
ATG4B
Autophagy is the process by which endogenous proteins and damaged organelles are destroyed intracellularly. Autophagy is postulated to be essential for cell homeostasis and cell remodeling during differentiation, metamorphosis, non-apoptotic cell death, and aging. Reduced levels of autophagy have been described in some malignant tumors, and a role for autophagy in controlling the unregulated cell growth linked to cancer has been proposed. This gene encodes a member of the autophagin protein family. The encoded protein is also designated as a member of the C-54 family of cysteine proteases. Alternate transcriptional splice variants, encoding different isoforms, have been characterized.
One main function of Atg4 is to cleave the pre-protein of Atg8, leading to the non-lipidated soluble (-I) form which can be processed further by Atg3, Atg7, Atg5-12 into the lipidated form (-II) anchored to the autophagic membrane.
Sarcophaga haemorrhoidalis
"Sarcophaga haemorrhoidalis" was first described by Carl Fredrik Fallén (1764–1830), a Swedish botanist and entomologist, in 1817 during his tenure at Lund University between 1814–1827. Fallén first named this species "Musca haemorrhoidalis" in 1817 not knowing that Charles Joseph de Villers had already named an unrelated species "Musca haemorrhoidalis" in 1789. In 1826, Johann Wilhelm Meigen, a German entomologist famous for his pioneering work on Diptera, described the same species that Fallén had described in 1817 as "Sarcophaga cruentata" following Meigen's description of the genus "Sarcophaga". Since two different species can not share the same name, the "Sarcophaga cruentata" that Meigen coined would serve as the species name. According to Wharton, the exact nomenclature of this species is dynamic and currently has two accepted names: "Sarcophaga haemorrhoidalis" and "Bercaea cruentata". Thomas Pape , who is considered to be the World's foremost expert on Sarcophagidae uses "Sarcophaga" but has assigned several subgenera, including "Bercaea". Some current workers, including Ferrar, use "Bercaea haemorrhoidalis". "Sarcophaga" comes from the Greek ("sarkos"-) meaning 'flesh,' and ("phag") meaning 'eat.' "Haemorrhoidalis" comes from Greek roots ("haemo"-) meaning 'blood,' ("rhoos"-) meaning 'stream' or 'flowing,' and the Latin ("alis") meaning 'extraordinary.'
Omegasome
Autophagy (from Greek words for “self” and “eating”) is a process of digesting or degrading cytoplasmic molecules (proteins, lipids, sugars and organelles). Macroautophagy is the main autophagic pathway, used primarily to eradicate damaged cell organelles such as mitochondria, ribosomes, etc. The omegasome is present at the opening of the sack-like phagophore while items destined for degradation by macroautophagy are loaded into the phagophore. There are specific receptor proteins that recruit items to the phagophore. The phagophore expands to accommodate the items, until the omegasome is closed to produce the roughly spherical autophagosome. How autophagosomes are "detached" or "exit" from the omegasome is not clear, but autophagocytosis associated protein Atg3 and other proteins are required, and collections of thin tubules at the junction between omegasome and phagophore appear to be involved. Actin is also believed to be important.
Blanchard's transsexualism typology
"Autogynephilia" (; from Greek αὐτό- ("self"), γυνή ("woman") and φιλία ("love") — "love of oneself as a woman") is a term coined in 1989 by Ray Blanchard, to refer to "a man's paraphilic tendency to be sexually aroused by the thought or image of himself as a woman." Alternative terms proposed for this notion include "automonosexuality", "eonism", and "sexo-aesthetic inversion". The DSM-IV-TR includes an essentially equivalent definition, and recognizes autogynephilia as a common occurrence in the transvestic fetishism disorder, but does not classify autogynephilia as a disorder by itself. The paraphilias working group on DSM 5, which included Ray Blanchard, included autogynephilia and autoandrophilia as subtypes of transvestic disorder, a proposal that was opposed by the World Professional Association for Transgender Health (WPATH), stating the lack of empirical evidence for the theory.
SNARE (protein)
Macroautophagy is a catabolic process involving the formation of double-membrane bound organelles called autophagosomes, which aid in degradation of cellular components through fusion with lysosomes. During autophagy, portions of the cytoplasm are engulfed by a cup-shaped double-membrane structure called a phagophore and eventually become the contents of the fully assembled autophagosome. Autophagosome biogenesis requires the initiation and growth of phagophores, a process that was once thought to occur through de novo addition of lipids. However, recent evidence suggests that the lipids that contribute to the growing phagophores originate from numerous sources of membrane, including endoplasmic reticulum, Golgi, plasma membrane, and mitochondria. SNAREs play important roles in mediating vesicle fusion during phagophore initiation and expansion as well as autophagosome-lysosome fusion in the later stages of autophagy.
Thanatology
Russian scientist Élie Metchnikoff was famous for his work in microbiology and the discovery of phagocytosis. “Phagocytosis is the process by which a cell – often a phagocyte or protist – engulfs a solid particle to form an internal compartment known as a phagosome.” In 1903, he established a scientific discipline devoted to the study of death. He argued that those who were dying had few or no resources for the experience of dying and that an academic study would help those facing death to have a better understanding of the phenomenon and reduce their fear of it.
Autophagy
Autophagy is executed by autophagy-related (Atg) genes. Prior to 2003, ten or more names were used, but after this point a unified nomenclature was devised by fungal autophagy researchers. Atg or ATG stands for autophagy related. It does not specify gene or a protein.
Algophagy
Algophagy as a feeding behaviour was first noted in literature by Deonier (1972) in their explanation of feeding habits of shore flies "Diptera ephydridae." In this context, this term was used to describe the behaviour of these flies consuming and digesting algal matter. Deonier (1972) found results to support this behaviour, but this feeding style has also been noted in other animals in recent literature.
Iatrophysics
A key component of iatrophysical anatomy was the study of particles. This was particularly influenced by 17th century developments in microbiology, the most prominent being the microscope. Antonie von Leeuwenhoeck was a Dutch scientist who is known for his use of the microscope for identifying single-celled organisms. He was also the first to observe muscle fibers, bacteria, spermatozoa and blood flow in capillaries. Another famous figure in microbiology at the time was Robert Hooke, an English scientist most famous for his use of the microscope for the discovery of cells. In his most famous work, "Micrographia" (1665)"," he attributed “occult properties” as elementary “contrivances of nature”. Like Galileo Galilei, he shared an iatrophysical viewpoint and saw living organisms as groups of small machines. The development of the microscope was largely influential in this view.
Georg Axhausen
He specialized in pathology and surgery of bones and joints, being known for his pioneer studies of bone grafting and necrosis of the epiphysis. He is credited with introducing the term "aseptic necrosis", which is now referred to as avascular necrosis. The eponymous "Axhausen operation" is a procedure for closure of cleft palate.
Cell death
Autophagy is "cytoplasmic", characterized by the formation of large vacuoles that eat away organelles in a specific sequence prior to the destruction of the nucleus.
Bafilomycin
Bafilomycin A1 is most known for its use as an autophagy inhibitor. Autophagy is the process by which the cell degrades its own organelles and some proteins through the formation of autophagosomes. Autophagosomes then fuse with lysosomes facilitating the degradation of engulfed cargo by lysosomal proteases. This process is critical in maintaining the cell's store of amino acids and other nutrients during times of nutrient deprivation or other metabolic stresses. Bafilomycin interferes with this process by inhibiting the acidification of the lysosome through its interaction with V-ATPase. Lack of lysosomal acidification prevents the activity of lysosomal proteases like cathepsins so that engulfed cargo can no longer be degraded.
Mitophagy
Organelles and bits of cytoplasm are sequestered and targeted for degradation by the lysosome for hydrolytic digestion by a process known as autophagy. Mitochondria metabolism leads to the creation of by-products that lead to DNA damage and mutations. Therefore, a healthy population of mitochondria is critical for the well-being of cells. Previously it was thought that targeted degradation of mitochondria was a stochastic event, but accumulating evidence suggest that mitophagy is a selective process.
Neurodegeneration
Autophagy is essentially a form of intracellular phagocytosis in which a cell actively consumes damaged organelles or misfolded proteins by encapsulating them into an autophagosome, which fuses with a lysosome to destroy the contents of the autophagosome. Many neurodegenerative diseases show unusual protein aggregates. This could potentially be a result of underlying autophagic defect common to multiple neurodegenerative diseases. It is important to note that this is a hypothesis, and more research must be done.
Edwin Klebs
Klebs' works preceded some of the most important discoveries in medicine. He described acromegaly in 1884, two years before Pierre Marie. In 1878, he successfully inoculated syphilis in monkeys, antedating Élie Metchnikoff and Émile Roux by 25 years. He isolated colonies of bacteria nine years before Robert Koch. He was the first to produce tuberculosis experimentally in animals by the injection of milk from infected cows. He identified the typhoid bacillus (now named "Salmonella typhi") before Karl Joseph Eberth.
Glymphatic system
Although the first known observations of the CSF date back to Hippocrates (460–375 BCE) and later Galen (130–200 CE), its discovery is credited to Emanuel Swedenborg (1688–1772 CE), who, being a devoutly religious man, identified the CSF during his search for the seat of the soul. The 16 centuries of anatomists that came after Hippocrates and Galen may have missed identifying the CSF due to the time period's prevailing autopsy technique, which included severing the head and draining the blood before dissecting the brain. Although Swedenborg's work (in translation) was not published until 1887 due to his lack of medical credentials, he may have also made the first connection between the CSF and the lymphatic system. His description of the CSF was of a "spirituous lymph".
Autopsy
Autopsies that opened the body to determine the cause of death were attested at least in the early third millennium BC, although they were opposed in many ancient societies where it was believed that the outward disfigurement of dead persons prevented them from entering the afterlife (as with the Egyptians, who removed the organs through tiny slits in the body). Notable Greek autopsists were Galen (AD 129- c. 200/ 216), Erasistratus and
Herophilus of Chalcedon, who lived in 3rd century BC Alexandria, but in general, autopsies were rare in ancient Greece. In 44 BC, Julius Caesar was the subject of an official autopsy after his murder by rival senators, the physician's report noting that the second stab wound Caesar received was the fatal one. Julius Caesar had been stabbed a total of 23 times. By around 150 BC, ancient Roman legal practice had established clear parameters for autopsies.
Autophagy-related protein 13
ATG13 is an autophagy factor required for phagosome formation. ATG13 is a target of the TOR kinase signaling pathway that regulates autophagy through phosphorylation of ATG13 and ULK1, and the regulation of the ATG13-ULK1-RB1CC1 complex.
Autophagosome
The formation of autophagosomes is regulated by genes that are well-conserved from yeast to higher eukaryotes. The nomenclature of these genes has differed from paper to paper, but it has been simplified in recent years. The gene families formerly known as APG, AUT, CVT, GSA, PAZ, and PDD are now unified as the ATG (AuTophaGy related) family.
Ana Maria Cuervo
Cuervo was born in Barcelona, Spain on 14 July 1966. She studied medicine at the University of Valencia in 1986 and further pursued a PhD in biochemistry and molecular biology under the mentorship of Erwin Knecht, a biochemist studying lysosomes and proteosome at the time. In 1993, she published her first academic paper as a co-author on lysosomal degradation which challenged the assumption that it was non-specific. Cuervo also worked with Fred “Paulo” Dice of Tufts University on lysosomes during the summer months as Spanish labs were closed during this time of year. Cuervo later accepted a full-time post-doctorate position at Dice's laboratory and focused on understanding the lysosomal degradation pathway. In 1996 and 2000, Cuervo and Dice published their findings on this pathway, identified the lysosomal membrane protein LAMP2A as the receptor for this form of autophagy and termed it chaperone-mediated autophagy.
Autophagy
The first of the two ubiquitin-like conjugation systems involved in autophagy covalently binds the ubiquitin-like protein Atg12 to Atg5. The resulting conjugate protein then binds Atg16L1 to form an E3-like complex which functions as part of the second ubiquitin-like conjugation system. This complex binds and activates Atg3, which covalently attaches mammalian homologues of the ubiquitin-like yeast protein ATG8 (LC3A-C, GATE16, and GABARAPL1-3), the most studied being LC3 proteins, to the lipid phosphatidylethanolamine (PE) on the surface of autophagosomes. Lipidated LC3 contributes to the closure of autophagosomes, and enables the docking of specific cargos and adaptor proteins such as Sequestosome-1/p62. The completed autophagosome then fuses with a lysosome through the actions of multiple proteins, including SNAREs and UVRAG. Following the fusion LC3 is retained on the vesicle's inner side and degraded along with the cargo, while the LC3 molecules attached to the outer side are cleaved off by Atg4 and recycled. The contents of the autolysosome are subsequently degraded and their building blocks are released from the vesicle through the action of permeases.
AutoAnalyzer
The AutoAnalyzer is an automated analyzer using a flow technique called continuous flow analysis (CFA), first made by the Technicon Corporation. The instrument was invented in 1957 by Leonard Skeggs, PhD and commercialized by Jack Whitehead's Technicon Corporation. The first applications were for clinical analysis, but methods for industrial analysis soon followed. The design is based on separating a continuously flowing stream with air bubbles.
Autophagin
Autophagin-1 (Atg4/Apg4) is a unique cysteine protease responsible for the cleavage of the carboxyl terminus of Atg8/Apg8/Aut7, a reaction essential for its lipidation during autophagy. Human Atg4 homologues cleave the carboxyl termini of the three human Atg8 homologues, microtubule-associated protein light chain 3 (LC3), GABARAP, and GATE-16.
Lobotomy
Leucotomy was first undertaken in 1935 under the direction of the Portuguese neurologist (and inventor of the term "psychosurgery") António Egas Moniz. First developing an interest in psychiatric conditions and their somatic treatment in the early 1930s, Moniz apparently conceived a new opportunity for recognition in the development of a surgical intervention on the brain as a treatment for mental illness.
Chemotroph
The term "chemosynthesis", coined in 1897 by Wilhelm Pfeffer, originally was defined as the energy production by oxidation of inorganic substances in association with autotrophy - what would be named today as chemolithoautotrophy. Later, the term would include also the chemoorganoautotrophy, that is, it can be seen as a synonym of chemoautotrophy.
Alkaline hydrolysis (body disposal)
The process was originally developed as a method to process animal carcasses into plant food, patented by Amos Herbert Hobson in 1888. In 2007, a Scottish biochemist, Sandy Sullivan, started a company making the machines, and calling the process (and company) Resomation.
ATyr Pharma
Homeostasis, or the coordinated regulation of tissues within the body, is fundamental to the maintenance of the overall health of an organism. Lack of homeostasis can lead to disease and death. The process of homeostasis was first described in 1865 by the French physiologist Claude Bernard and Walter Cannon later coined the term. In the 150 years since this discovery, many proteins associated with homeostatic pathways have been discovered, ranging from insulin to erythropoietin.
Autotopagnosia
Head and Holme's studies (1911) were developed alongside those of Arnold Pick (1851–1924), who was the first to describe autotopagnosia (1908) as the inability to locate body parts on command on a whole body structure.Pick noted those afflicted with autotopagnosia as having a dissociation between the capacity to recognize and name their own body part (as commanded by an examiner) and the inability to find the same body part on command. In a series of studies, Pick focused on patients who were unable to point to their own body parts and those of the examiner. His patients could however comprehend the body part terminology as well as locate them on a painted visual; however none had a clear demonstration of body specificity. Pick concluded a disturbance of “visual” body image and body awareness. Pick's studies introduced autotopagnosia and other category specific agnosias, such as visual and tactile agnosia. Josef Gerstmann (1887–1969) first developed the term somatotopagnosia, meaning the lack of knowledge about the body space. Gerstmann studied patients whose deficits were in the body schema and thus lacked the ability to recognize, identify or name the fingers on either hand, a phenomenon known as finger agnosia. This particular ailment, known as Gerstmann syndrome, is often seen in patients with a lesion on their left angular gyrus, which is known to be frequently anatomically correlated with autotopagnosia.
ATG8
Atg8 is one of the key molecular components involved in autophagy, the cellular process mediating the lysosome/vacuole-dependent turnover of macromolecules and organelles. Autophagy is induced upon nutrient depletion or rapamycin treatment and leads to the response of more than 30 autophagy-related (ATG) genes known so far, including ATG8.
How exactly ATG proteins are regulated is still under investigation, but it is clear that all signals reporting on the availability of carbon and nitrogen sources converge on the TOR signalling pathway and that ATG proteins are downstream effectors of this pathway. In case nutrient supplies are sufficient, the TOR signaling pathway hyperphosphorylates certain Atg proteins, thereby inhibiting autophagosome formation. After starvation autophagy is induced through the activation of Atg proteins both on the protein modification and the transcriptional level.
Atg8 is especially important in macroautophagy which is one of three distinct types of autophagy characterized by the formation of double-membrane enclosed vesicles that sequester portions of the cytosol, the so-called autophagosomes. The outer membrane of these autophagosomes subsequently fuses with the lysosome/vacuole to release an inter single membrane (autophagic body) destined for degradation. During this process, Atg8 is particularly crucial for autophagosome maturation (lipidation).
Stephan Farffler
Stephan Farffler (1633 – October 24, 1689), sometimes spelled Stephan Farfler, was a Nuremberg watchmaker of the seventeenth century whose invention of a manumotive carriage in 1655 is widely considered to have been the first self-propelled wheelchair. The three-wheeled device is also believed to have been a precursor to the modern-day tricycle and bicycle.
Apoptosis
German scientist Karl Vogt was first to describe the principle of apoptosis in 1842. In 1885, anatomist Walther Flemming delivered a more precise description of the process of programmed cell death. However, it was not until 1965 that the topic was resurrected. While studying tissues using electron microscopy, John Foxton Ross Kerr at the University of Queensland was able to distinguish apoptosis from traumatic cell death. Following the publication of a paper describing the phenomenon, Kerr was invited to join Alastair R. Currie, as well as Andrew Wyllie, who was Currie's graduate student, at University of Aberdeen. In 1972, the trio published a seminal article in the British Journal of Cancer. Kerr had initially used the term programmed cell necrosis, but in the article, the process of natural cell death was called "apoptosis". Kerr, Wyllie and Currie credited James Cormack, a professor of Greek language at University of Aberdeen, with suggesting the term apoptosis. Kerr received the Paul Ehrlich and Ludwig Darmstaedter Prize on March 14, 2000, for his description of apoptosis. He shared the prize with Boston biologist H. Robert Horvitz.
Cognitive biology
Although the two terms are sometimes used synonymously, cognitive biology should not be confused with the biology of cognition in the sense that it is used by adherents to the Chilean School of Biology of Cognition. Also known as the Santiago School, the biology of cognition is based on the work of Francisco Varela and Humberto Maturana, who crafted the doctrine of autopoiesis. Their work began in 1970 while the first mention of cognitive biology by Brian Goodwin (discussed below) was in 1977 from a different perspective.
Autopoiesis
The original definition can be found in "Autopoiesis and Cognition: the Realization of the Living" (1st edition 1973, 2nd 1980):
Alex B. Novikoff
In 1956 Novikoff described a new class of membrane-bound organelles that he called "dense bodies." was the first to describe the actual lysosomal functions with respect to degradation of mitochondria. However he thought that the digestive activities he observed were due to other intracelluar organelles which he called "cytolysomes". It was at the "Ciba Foundation Symposium on Lysosomes" held in London on 12–14 February 1963, that he explained this phenomenon in which organelles such as endoplasmic reticulum, ribosomes, mitochondria and other cell debris were degraded by autolysis in the cytolysomes. Then the following speaker de Duve correctly identified that these organelles were lysosomes, and named them autophagic vacuoles, and he introduced the term "autophagy" for the process of such intracellular digestion. In 1962 he established for the first time the functional relationship between ER, Golgi and lysosomes. He specifically showed that smooth-surfaced derivatives of the ER fused with the Golgi membranes and the Golgi membranes in turn fused with lysosomes. He was the first to show that this GERL is responsible vesicular transport during synthesis and sorting of proteins. He gave this functional organisation an acronym GERL, for "G"olgi-"e"ndoplasmic "r"eticulum-"l"ysosome. Novikoff's further works became a milestone in understanding the importance of autophagy in diseases such as cancer.
T-even bacteriophages
Bacteriophages were first discovered by the English scientist Frederick Twort in 1915 and Félix d'Hérelle in 1917. In the late 1930s, T.L. Rakieten proposed either a mixture of raw sewerage or a lysate from "E.coli" infected with raw sewerage to the two researchers Milislav Demerac and Ugo Fano. These two researchers isolated T3, T4, T5, and T6 from "E.coli". Also, in 1932, the researcher J.Bronfenbrenner had studied and worked on the T2 phage, at which the T2 phage was isolated from the virus. This isolation was made from a fecal material rather than from sewerage. At any rate, Delbruck was involved in the discovery of the T even phages. His part was naming the bacteriophages into Type 1(T1), Type 2 (T2), Type 3 (T3), etc.
Biological life cycle
Some terms (haplobiont and diplobiont) used for the description of life cycles were proposed initially for algae by Nils Svedelius, and then became used for other organisms. Other terms (autogamy and gamontogamy) used in protist life cycles were introduced by Karl Gottlieb Grell. The description of the complex life cycles of various organisms contributed to the disproof of the ideas of spontaneous generation in the 1840s and 1850s.
Tracheal intubation
In 1854, a Spanish singing teacher named Manuel García (1805–1906) became the first man to view the functioning glottis in a living human. In 1858, French pediatrician Eugène Bouchut (1818–1891) developed a new technique for non-surgical orotracheal intubation to bypass laryngeal obstruction resulting from a diphtheria-related pseudomembrane. In 1880, Scottish surgeon William Macewen (1848–1924) reported on his use of orotracheal intubation as an alternative to tracheotomy to allow a patient with glottic edema to breathe, as well as in the setting of general anesthesia with chloroform. In 1895, Alfred Kirstein (1863–1922) of Berlin first described direct visualization of the vocal cords, using an esophagoscope he had modified for this purpose; he called this device an autoscope.
Autophagy
In the 1990s several groups of scientists independently discovered autophagy-related genes using the budding yeast. Notably, Yoshinori Ohsumi and Michael Thumm examined starvation-induced non-selective autophagy; in the meantime, Daniel J Klionsky discovered the cytoplasm-to-vacuole targeting (CVT) pathway, which is a form of selective autophagy. They soon found that they were in fact looking at essentially the same pathway, just from different angles. Initially, the genes discovered by these and other yeast groups were given different names (APG, AUT, CVT, GSA, PAG, PAZ, and PDD). A unified nomenclature was advocated in 2003 by the yeast researchers to use ATG to denote autophagy genes. The 2016 Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine was awarded to Yoshinori Ohsumi, although some have pointed out that the award could have been more inclusive.
Autogenic training
Autogenic training was popularized in North America and the English-speaking world by Wolfgang Luthe, who co-authored, with Schultz, a multi-volume tome on autogenic training. In 1963 Luthe discovered the significance of "autogenic discharges", paroxysmic phenomena of motor, sensorial, visual and emotional nature related to the traumatic history of the patient, and developed the method of "autogenic abreaction". His disciple Luis de Rivera, a McGill University-trained psychiatrist, introduced psychodynamic concepts into Luthe's approach, developing "autogenic analysis" as a new method for uncovering the unconscious.
Autobiography
In antiquity such works were typically entitled "apologia," purporting to be self-justification rather than self-documentation. John Henry Newman's Christian confessional work (first published in 1864) is entitled "Apologia Pro Vita Sua" in reference to this tradition.
Christian de Duve
De Duve is remembered as an inventor of important scientific terminology. He coined the word "lysosome" in 1955, "peroxisome" in 1966, and "autophagy", "endocytosis", and "exocytosis" in one instance at the "Ciba Foundation Symposium on Lysosomes" held in London during 12–14 February 1963, while he, "was in a word-coining mood."
Intracellular digestion
5 Mizushima, Noboru (15 November 2007). "Autophagy: process and function". "Genes & Development". 21(22): 2861–2873. doi:. ISSN 0890-9369.
Autophagy-related protein 101
ATG101 is a newly found important autophagy related protein, among many other proteins responsible for autophagy, a process well conserved among most eukaryotic organisms. However, ATG101 is not homologous to any of the other ATG proteins. ATG101 interacts with essential autophagy protein ATG13 in mammals, which is a ULK1 interacting protein. ULK1 (unc-51-like kinase 1) is thought to be important to the activation of macroautophagy in mammals. ATG101 is suggested to protect ATG13 from proteasomal degradation, therefore stabilizing levels of ATG13 found in cells and regulating levels of macroautophagy. According to published papers, ATG101 is said to localize to the isolation membrane, also known as a phagophore. This attachment to the phagophore could possibly explain the palmitoylation site found on the third AA, which is a cysteine. Phagophores are responsible for recognizing and surrounding materials that are to be degraded in the lysosome, by forming a membrane that completely surrounds the materials to be degraded.
Anthropophage
An anthropophage or anthropophagus (from , "people-eater", plural ) was a member of a mythical race of cannibals described first by Herodotus in his "Histories" as androphagi ("man-eaters"), and later by other authors, including the playwright William Shakespeare. The word first appears in English around 1552.
Joon Lee
He has been keeping up with one-meal-a-day diet on an average five days a week for over a year after learning about the benefits of autophagy mechanism, researched by Yoshinori Ohsumi – a recipient of Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine in 2016 for the subject matter.
Autopoiesis
The term autopoiesis () refers to a system capable of reproducing and maintaining itself. The term was introduced in 1972 by Chilean biologists Humberto Maturana and Francisco Varela to define the self-maintaining chemistry of living cells. Since then the concept has been also applied to the fields of cognition, systems theory and sociology.
TP53-inducible glycolysis and apoptosis regulator
Autophagy is when a cell digests some of its own organelles by lysosomal degradation. Autophagy is employed to remove damaged organelles, or under starvation conditions to provide additional nutrients. Normally, autophagy occurs by the TSC-Mtor pathway, but can be induced by ROS. TIGAR, even at very low levels, inhibits autophagy by decreasing ROS levels. The mechanism by which TIGAR does this is independent from the Mtor pathway, but the exact details are unknown.
Autocatalysis
Autocatalysis plays a major role in the processes of life. Two researchers who have emphasised its role in the origins of life are Robert Ulanowicz and Stuart Kauffman.
Tracheotomy
In 1000, Abu al-Qasim al-Zahrawi (936–1013), an Arab who lived in Arabic Spain, published the 30-volume "Kitab al-Tasrif", the first illustrated work on surgery. He never performed a tracheotomy, but he did treat a slave girl who had cut her own throat in a suicide attempt. Al-Zahrawi (known to Europeans as "Albucasis") sewed up the wound and the girl recovered, thereby proving that an incision in the larynx could heal. Circa AD 1020, Avicenna (980–1037) described tracheal intubation in "The Canon of Medicine" in order to facilitate breathing. The first correct description of the tracheotomy operation for treatment of asphyxiation was described by Ibn Zuhr (1091–1161) in the 12th century. According to Mostafa Shehata, Ibn Zuhr (also known as Avenzoar) successfully practiced the tracheotomy procedure on a goat, justifying Galen's approval of the operation.
Autophagy database
Autophagy database is a product of the National Institute of Genetics (NIG) NIG was founded in June 1949 by the ministry of Education, Science, Sports, and Culture, with Prof. Kan Oguma being elected the first director. Over time, many departments have been added for various applications such as Genetics, Genomics, DNA Research, and, most notably for our purposes, the DNA Data Bank. NIG is a division of the Japanese Research Organization of Information and Systems, and is currently under the supervision of its ninth director. NIG aims to conduct top-level research in the pursuit of streamlining of information, as well as the dissemination of information from research into societal application. A tool created by this organization for this purpose is the Autophagy database.
The Autophagy database is a database of proteins involved in autophagy. The Autophagy database intends to collect all relevant information, organize it, and make it publicly available so that its users can easily get up-to-date knowledge. Specifically, the Autophagy database offers a "free-for-all" tool for those with interests, research and otherwise, in autophagy. To better accomplish this aim, the available Autophagy database from NIG calls for users of the database to disseminate and share information, so that autophagy-related data can be available for free to all who need it. For an interested research community, this model of research dissemination holds promise. As of , there were 582 reviewed proteins available in this database. Including autophagic proteins available in HomoloGene, NCBI, there are over 52,000 total proteins. Autophagy database offers comparison of homologous proteins between 41 different species to search new and old autophagy-related proteins, so that current autophagy research can be streamlined. The database was made publicly available in March 2010 and currently includes 7,444 genes/proteins in 82 eukaryotes.
Yoshinori Ohsumi
His original findings about autophagy in yeast cells:
Follow up with more research on yeast:
Others
Autosuggestion
Autosuggestion is a psychological technique related to the placebo effect, developed by apothecary Émile Coué at the beginning of the 20th century. It is a form of self-induced suggestion in which individuals guide their own thoughts, feelings, or behavior. The technique is often used in self-hypnosis.
Autophone
The Autophone was an early type of organette, invented in 1878 by Henry Bishop Horton. One of the first table-top organettes to be mass-produced, it played music using punched cards to activate 22 reeds.
John K. Frost
John Kingsbury Frost (c. 1922 - 1990) was an American physician specializing in the field of cytopathology - the microscopic study of individual body cells to detect cancer and other diseases. The first area of the body to be studied in this way was the female genital tract, using the Pap smear invented by Georgios Papanikolaou. Frost and other physicians expanded the field to allow for cytopathologic evaluation of the lung, bladder, and many other body sites. Frost was best known as a teacher of cytopathology. He organized and directed a school of cytotechnology and created and led a postgraduate Institute to teach the techniques to physicians.
Autophagy
Because autophagy decreases with age and age is a major risk factor for osteoarthritis, the role of autophagy in the development of this disease is suggested. Proteins involved in autophagy are reduced with age in both human and mouse articular cartilage. Mechanical injury to cartilage explants in culture also reduced autophagy proteins. Autophagy is constantly activated in normal cartilage but it is compromised with age and precedes cartilage cell death and structural damage. Thus autophagy is involved in a normal protective process (chondroprotection) in the joint.
Autophagia
Autophagia (eating one's own body) is not classified as a mental disorder or a symptom of a mental disorder in the "Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders" (DSM), the diagnostic manual used in the United States. However, Autophagia could be classified under the DSM's Impulse-Control Disorders Not Elsewhere Classified. Impulse-Control Disorders involve failing to resist an impulse, drive, or temptation to perform an act that is harmful to the person or to others. The majority of individuals affected by this disorder will often feel a sense of tension or arousal before committing the act, and then experience pleasure, gratification or relief at the time of committing the act. Once the act has been completed, the individual may or may not feel regret, self-reproach, or guilt.
Coprophagia
In humans, coprophagia has been described since the late nineteenth century in individuals with mental illnesses and in unconventional sexual acts. Some animal species eat feces as a normal behavior, in particular lagomorphs who do so to allow tough plant materials to be digested more thoroughly by passing twice through the digestive tract. Other species may eat feces under certain conditions.
Ernst Leopold Salkowski
Salkowski specialized in the fields of physiological and pathological chemistry, also making contributions in the related fields of pharmacology, analytical chemistry and hygiene. In 1890 he was the first to describe tissue autolysis, of which he referred to as "auto-digestion". He is remembered for developing tests for detection of various compounds and substances, such as cholesterol, creatinine, glucose, carbon monoxide, and indole. In 1892 (with Jastrowitz) he was the first to describe pentosuria.
Sergei Winogradsky
Winogradsky is best known for discovering chemoautotrophy, which soon became popularly known as chemosynthesis, the process by which organisms derive energy from a number of different inorganic compounds and obtain carbon in the form of carbon dioxide. Previously, it was believed that autotrophs obtained their energy solely from light, not from reactions of inorganic compounds. With the discovery of organisms that oxidized inorganic compounds such as hydrogen sulfide and ammonium as energy sources, autotrophs could be divided into two groups: photoautotrophs and chemoautotrophs. Winogradsky was one of the first researchers to attempt to understand microorganisms outside of the medical context, making him among the first students of microbial ecology and environmental microbiology.
Iatrophysics
The Age of Enlightenment was an era of radically changing ways of thought in Western politics, philosophy, and science. Major sociological changes occurred in the Enlightenment, as well as industrial and scientific. In medicine, the Enlightenment brought several discoveries and studies that were impacted by changing ways of thought. For example, discovery of capillaries were made by Marcello Malpighi. Jean Baptiste von Helmonni (1577-1644) also was the first to consider digestion a fermentation process. He also identified hydrochloric acid in the stomach. Pathological anatomy and clinical observation were also being integrated into the medical curriculum. The Enlightenment also directly influenced the field of Iatrophysics through the development of Antonie von Leeuwenhoek's microscope, the advancement of the field of ophthalmology through the use of physics by René Descartes, and Newton's law of universal gravitation and idea of gravitational force.
Autophagy
Autophagy is essential for basal homeostasis; it is also extremely important in maintaining muscle homeostasis during physical exercise. Autophagy at the molecular level is only partially understood. A study of mice shows that autophagy is important for the ever-changing demands of their nutritional and energy needs, particularly through the metabolic pathways of protein catabolism. In a 2012 study conducted by the University of Texas Southwestern Medical Center in Dallas, mutant mice (with a knock-in mutation of BCL2 phosphorylation sites to produce progeny that showed normal levels of basal autophagy yet were deficient in stress-induced autophagy) were tested to challenge this theory. Results showed that when compared to a control group, these mice illustrated a decrease in endurance and an altered glucose metabolism during acute exercise.
Another study demonstrated that skeletal muscle fibres of collagen VI knockout mice showed signs of degeneration due to an insufficiency of autophagy which led to an accumulation of damaged mitochondria and excessive cell death. Exercise-induced autophagy was unsuccessful however; but when autophagy was induced artificially post-exercise, the accumulation of damaged organelles in collagen VI deficient muscle fibres was prevented and cellular homeostasis was maintained. Both studies demonstrate that autophagy induction may contribute to the beneficial metabolic effects of exercise and that it is essential in the maintaining of muscle homeostasis during exercise, particularly in collagen VI fibres.
ATG16L1
Autophagy-related protein 16-1 is a protein that in humans is encoded by the "ATG16L1" gene.
Microautophagy
Process of non-selective microautophagy can be observed in all types of eucaryotic cells. On the other hand, selective microautophagy is commonly observed in yeast cells.
Three types of selective microautophagy selective microautophagy can be distinguished: micropexophagy, piecemeal microautophagy of the nucleus and micromitophagy
Autophagocytosis associated protein Atg3
Autophagocytosis is a starvation-induced process responsible for transport of cytoplasmic proteins to the lysosome/vacuole. Atg3 is a ubiquitin like modifier that is topologically similar to the canonical E2 enzyme. It catalyses the conjugation of Atg8 and phosphatidylethanolamine.