When was the Campanian age?
Campanian
The Campanian is, in the ICS' geologic timescale, the fifth of six ages of the Late Cretaceous epoch (or, in chronostratigraphy: the fifth of six stages in the Upper Cretaceous series). The Campanian spans the time from 83.6 ± 0.7 Ma to 72.1 ± 0.6 Ma (million years ago). It is preceded by the Santonian and it is followed by the Maastrichtian.
Campania
The original inhabitants of Campania were three defined groups of the Ancient peoples of Italy, who all spoke the Oscan language, which is part of the Italic family; their names were the Osci, the Aurunci and the Ausones. During the 8th century BC, people from Euboea in Greece, known as Cumaeans, began to establish colonies in the area roughly around the modern day province of Naples. Another Oscan tribe, the Samnites, moved down from central Italy into Campania.
Since the Samnites were more warlike than the Campanians, they easily took over the cities of Capua and Cumae, in an area which was one of the most prosperous and fertile in the Italian Peninsula at the time. During the 340s BC, the Samnites were engaged in a war with the Roman Republic in a dispute known as the Samnite Wars, with the Romans securing rich pastures of northern Campania during the First Samnite War.
Corsicans
The island was populated since the Mesolithic ("Dame de Bonifacio") and the Neolithic by people who came from the Italian peninsula, especially the modern regions of Tuscany and Liguria. An important megalithic tradition developed locally since the 4th millennium BC. Reached, like Sardinia, by Polada culture influences in the Early Bronze Age, in the 2nd millennium BC Corsica, the southern part in particular, saw the rise of the Torrean civilization, strongly linked with the Nuragic civilization.
Campania
Raimondo di Sangro, prince of Sansevero, was a scientist and one of the last alchemists. Around this time, in 1786, German writer Goethe visited Campania and Naples. German archaeologist Johann Joachim Winckelmann also visited Naples, Paestum, Herculaneum and Pompeii in 1748 and later, studying how archaeological surveys were conducted in the kingdom of Naples. He was one of the first to study drawings, statues, stones, and ancient burned scrolls made of papyrus found in the excavations of the city of Herculaneum. Archaeological excavations in Pompeii were initiated by King Charles III of Naples in 1748. He issued the first modern laws in Europe to protect, defend and preserve archaeological sites. Neapolitan musicians of that period include Niccolò Antonio Zingarelli and Giovanni Paisiello.
Giampietro Campana
Giampietro Campana (1808 – 10 October 1880), created marchese di Cavelli (1849), was an Italian art collector who assembled one of the nineteenth century's greatest collection of Greek and Roman sculpture and antiquities. The part of his collection of Hellenistic and Roman gold jewellery conserved in the Musée du Louvre warranted an exhibition devoted to it in 2005-06. He was an early collector of early Italian paintings, the so-called "primitives" of the fourteenth and fifteenth centuries, which were overlooked by his contemporaries. And like many collectors of his generation, he coveted Italian maiolica of the 15th and 16th centuries.
Madonna del cardellino
Raphael is considered to be a “master” of the High Renaissance, a title he shares with Michelangelo and Leonardo da Vinci. He was born in 1483 and died in 1520, living a mere thirty-seven years. Despite his relatively short lifespan, he was highly influential throughout his time on earth. He produced a vast quantity of work in a variety of media. He was active in architecture, printmaking, painting, and drawing. During the first half of his career, he spent years traveling across Northern Italy and was influenced by the Florentine styles he saw there, causing this stage to be called his Florentine Period. After which, in 1508, he moved to Rome where he continued to work. Many of his commissions came from the Vatican, including the Apostolic Palace, which brought about one of his most famous works, School of Athens. Due to his relationship with the church, he and Michelangelo were fierce rivals throughout both of their careers, and often competed for the same commissions. 
During his Florentine period, this work, The Madonna Del Cardellino, was painted along with several other well-known Madonnas: The Madonna of the Meadow and La Belle Jardinière. All three share several characteristics: Madonna is clothed in red and blue, the same three subjects are painted, the pyramidal composition, the natural background, and the connection to the church through the representation of books, crosses, or, indeed, the goldfinch.
Medieval renaissances
The Carolingian Renaissance was a period of intellectual and cultural revival in the Carolingian Empire occurring from the late eighth century to the ninth century, as the first of three medieval renaissances. It occurred mostly during the reigns of the Carolingian rulers Charlemagne and Louis the Pious. It was supported by the scholars of the Carolingian court, notably Alcuin of York For moral betterment the Carolingian renaissance reached for models drawn from the example of the Christian Roman Empire of the 4th century. During this period there was an increase of literature, writing, the arts, architecture, jurisprudence, liturgical reforms and scriptural studies. Charlemagne's "Admonitio generalis" (789) and his "Epistola de litteris colendis" served as manifestos. The effects of this cultural revival, however, were largely limited to a small group of court "literati": "it had a spectacular effect on education and culture in Francia, a debatable effect on artistic endeavors, and an immeasurable effect on what mattered most to the Carolingians, the moral regeneration of society," John Contreni observes. Beyond their efforts to write better Latin, to copy and preserve patristic and classical texts and to develop a more legible, classicizing script, the Carolingian minuscule that Renaissance humanists took to be Roman and employed as humanist minuscule, from which has developed early modern Italic script, the secular and ecclesiastical leaders of the Carolingian Renaissance for the first time in centuries applied rational ideas to social issues, providing a common language and writing style that allowed for communication across most of Europe.
Zanclean
The Zanclean can be correlated with regionally used stages, such as the Tabianian or Dacian of Central Europe. It also corresponds to the late Hemphillian to mid-Blancan North American Land Mammal Ages. In California, the Zanclean roughly corresponds to the mid-Delmontian Californian Stage of from 7.5 To 2.9 Ma ago.
Taburno Camposauro
Taburno Camposauro is an isolated calcareous massif in the Campanian Apennines whose formation dates back to the Mesozoic. It lacks superficial waters. Karst phenomena including hollows and caves are frequent on the massif. The southern slopes are much steeper and more craggy than the northern ones. Because of the type of clay and the fossil sand found there it is believed that in the mid-Pliocene there was a shallow sea in the area. The oldest limestone rocks in the province are found on the massif. At the foot of the southern group is the Fizzo source, that provides water to the Royal Palace of Caserta via the Aqueduct of Vanvitelli.
Campania
In the 18th century, Naples was the last city to be visited by philosophers who created the "Grand Tour" which was the big touring voyage to visit all the important cultural sites of the European continent. Italian architect Luigi Vanvitelli son of Dutch architect Kaspar van Wittel built the Kingdom Palace in Caserta in c. 1750. He contributed to the construction of many neoclassic-style palaces in which the nobles of Naples spent their holidays. These palaces are now known worldwide as "Ville Vesuviane".
Prehistoric Italy
Located in Sardinia (with ramifications in southern Corsica), the Nuragic civilization, who lasted from the early Bronze Age (18th century B.C.) to the second century A.D. when the island was already Romanized, evolved during the Bonnanaro period from the preexisting megalithic cultures that built dolmens, menhirs, more than 2,400 Domus de Janas and also the imponent altar of Monte d'Accoddi.
Capri Leone
The town was originally called just “Capri”. The “Leone” was added only in 1862 after the formation of the Kingdom of Italy to distinguish it from other Italian Capris. It was apparently founded only in the medieval times and it is known in 1320 to have been in the fiefdom of Count Vitale de Aloysio. It subsequently passed through the hands of several Baronial families, including those of the Lancellotto di Larcan, the Filangeri di Mirto, the Balsamo, the Branciforte, and the Cordona. In 1620, it again passed into the hands of the Filangeri di Mirto family. It apparently remained in their possession until the reforms of the early 19th century.
Campanians
Descending from the Apennines the proto-Osci settled in the areas of present-day Campania at the beginning of the 1st millennium BC, or even before. They established themselves there over a previous Italic population of possible Latino-Faliscan origin.
Early Middle Ages
The ascension of the Macedonian dynasty in 867 marked the end of the period of political and religious turmoil and introduced a new golden age of the empire. While the talented generals such as Nicephorus Phocas expanded the frontiers, the Macedonian emperors (such as Leo the Wise and Constantine VII) presided over the cultural flowering in Constantinople, known as the Macedonian Renaissance. The enlightened Macedonian rulers scorned the rulers of Western Europe as illiterate barbarians and maintained a nominal claim to rule over the West. Although this fiction had been exploded with the coronation of Charlemagne in Rome (800), the Byzantine rulers did not treat their Western counterparts as equals. Generally, they had little interest in political and economic developments in the barbarian (from their point of view) West.
Two Medicine Formation
The Two Medicine Formation spans from 80 to 74 Ma, nearly the entire length of the Campanian stage. The formation has been dated using Ar/Ar dating at volcanic ash layers located below the top and above the base. The deposition of the formation may be diachronous. The Lower Two Medicine dates to late Santonian to early Campanian times. The Upper Two Medicine dates to middle-late Campanian times.
Padanian Etruria
The Greek and Latin ancient writers tell us that an Etruscan expansion into Southern Italy, present day Campania region, and northwards into the Po Valley occurred yet in the 9th century BC.
Neanderthal extinction
A number of researchers have argued that the Campanian Ignimbrite Eruption, a volcanic eruption near Naples, Italy, about 39,280 ± 110 years ago (older estimate ~37,000 years), erupting about of magma ( bulk volume) contributed to the extinction of Neanderthal man. The argument has been developed by Golovanova et al. The theory says that although Neanderthals had encountered several Interglacials during 250,000 years in Europe, inability to adapt their hunting methods caused their extinction facing "H. sapiens" competition when Europe changed into a sparsely vegetated steppe and semi-desert during the last Ice Age. Studies of sediment layers at Mezmaiskaya Cave suggest a severe reduction of plant pollen. The damage to plant life would have led to a corresponding decline in plant-eating mammals hunted by the Neanderthals.
Pompeian era
The Pompeian Era was a calendar era used by Hellenistic cities in Roman Palestine, in particular the cities of the Decapolis. The calendar counted the years from the region's conquest by the Roman general Pompey in 63 BCE. Many of these cities had been self-governing "poleis" before the Jewish Hasmoneans had conquered them in the 2nd century BCE. The Romans restored their self-governing status, so the conquest amounted to a "new foundation" of the cities, and they made that date the epochal year of their calendars. Some other nearby cities, such as Philadelphia, adopted the era even though they had never been under Hasmonean rule.
Colonia Claudia Ara Agrippinensium
In AD 260 Postumus made Cologne the capital of the Gallic Empire, which included the German and Gallic provinces, Britannia and the provinces of Hispania. The Gallic Empire lasted only fourteen years. By the 3rd century, only 20,000 people lived in and around the town as the city was badly affected by the crisis of the 3rd century. In AD 310, Emperor Constantine I had a bridge over the Rhine constructed; this was guarded by the "castellum" Divitia (nowadays "Deutz"). In AD 321 Jews are documented in Cologne; when exactly the first Jews arrived in the Rhineland area cannot be established any more, but the Cologne community claims to be the oldest north of the Alps.
Red-figure pottery
After 350 BC, the CA Painter and his successors worked in Cumae. The CA painter is considered as the outstanding artist of his group, or even of Campanian vase painting as a whole. From 330 onwards, a strong Apulian influence is visible. The most common motifs are "naiskos" and grave scenes, dionysiac scenes and symposia. Depictions of bejewelled female heads are also common. The CA painter was polychrome but tended to use much white for architecture and female figures. His successors were not fully able to maintain his quality, leading to a rapid demise, terminating with the end of Campanian vase painting around 300 BC.
Iron Age Europe
In Italy, the Iron Age was probably introduced by the Villanovan culture, which succeeded the Bronze Age Proto-Villanovan culture in the territory of Tuscany and northern Latium and spread in parts of Romagna, Campania and Fermo in the Marche. The burial characteristics relate the Villanovan culture to the Central European Urnfield culture (c. 1300–750 BC), and 'Celtic' Hallstatt culture (which succeeded the Urnfield culture). Cremated remains were housed in double-cone shaped urns and buried. The Etruscans Old Italic alphabet spread throughout Italy from the 8th century. The Etruscan Iron Age was then ended with the rise and conquest of the Roman Republic, which conquered the last Etruscan city of Velzna in 265 BC.
In Sardinia iron working seems to have began around the 13th-10th century bc with the Nuragic civilization, perhaps via Cyprus
Campania
By the end of the Middle Ages, the medical school of Salerno, which combined ancient Roman and Greek medicine with Arab medicine, was known throughout Europe and its methods were adopted across the continent. Some have suggested that this may have been one of the first universities in Europe. Boccaccio, the Tuscan poet, visited Naples on various occasions, and in the Decameron described it as a dissolute city. He also wrote a love story involving a noble woman close to the King of Naples.
Capua
Etruscan supremacy in Campania came to an end with the Samnite invasion in the latter half of the 5th century BC.
Pontecagnano Faiano
The area of Pontecagnano was settled as early as the Copper Age (3500-2300 BC), as testified by the archaeological excavations of two sanctuaries and two necropolises. In the 9th-8th centuries BC remains belonging to the Villanovan Culture, predecessor to the Etruscans, have been found.
History of Italy
In the late Bronze Age, from the late 2nd millennium to the early 1st millennium BCE, a fourth wave, the Proto-Villanovan culture, related to the Central European Urnfield culture, brought iron-working to the Italian peninsula. Proto-villanovans practiced cremation and buried the ashes of their dead in pottery urns of distinctive double-cone shape. Generally speaking, Proto-Villanovan settlements were centered in the northern-central part of the peninsula. Further south, in Campania, a region where inhumation was the general practice, Proto-villanovan cremation burials have been identified at Capua, at the "princely tombs" of Pontecagnano near Salerno (finds conserved in the Museum of Agro Picentino) and at Sala Consilina.
Campanian vase painting
Before the immigration of Sicilian potters in the second quarter of the 4th century BC, when several workshops were established in Campania, only the Owl-Pillar Workshop of the second half of the 5th century is known. It imitated Attic red-figure products. Campanian vase painting is subdivided into three main groups:
Sardinia
In the 6th century BC, after the conquest of western Sicily, the Carthaginians planned to annex Sardinia. A first invasion attempt led by Malco was foiled by the victorious Nuraghic resistance. However, from 510 BC, the southern and west-central part of the island was invaded a second time and came under Carthaginian rule.
In 238 BC, taking advantage of Carthage having to face a rebellion of her mercenaries (the Mercenary War) after the First Punic War (264–241 BC), the Romans annexed Corsica and Sardinia from the Carthaginians. The two islands became the province of Corsica and Sardinia. They were not given a provincial governor until 227 BC. The Romans faced many rebellions, and it took them many years to pacify both islands. The existing coastal cities were enlarged and embellished, and Roman colonies such as Turris Lybissonis and Feronia were founded. These were populated by Roman immigrants. The Roman military occupation brought the Nuragic civilization to an end, except for the mountainous interior of the island, which the Romans called "Barbaria", meaning "Barbarian land". Roman rule in Sardinia lasted 694 years, during which time the province was an important source of grain for the capital. Latin came to be the dominant spoken language during this period, though Roman culture was slower to take hold, and Roman rule was often contested by the Sardinian tribes from the mountainous regions.
Caucasian Albania
According to one hypothesis, Caucasian Albania was incorporated in the Median empire, as early as the 7th or 6th century BC. However, an increasing Persian influence on the region is usually believed to be connected with the defence of Persia's northern frontiers, from invading nomads. As early as the Achaemenid empire, measures may have been taken to fortify the Caucasian passes. By the mid-6th century BC, Albania has been incorporated in the Achaemenid empire; it was later controlled by the Achaemenid satrapy of Media. The building of fortifications and gates in and around Darband is traditionally ascribed to the Sassanid empire.
Punics
They eventually also fought Rome in the Sicilian Wars of 265–146 BCE, but lost due to being outnumbered, lack of full governmental involvement, and over-reliance on their navy. This enabled a Roman settlement of Africa and eventual domination of the Mediterranean Sea. Cato the Elder famously ended all his speeches, regardless of subject, with the imperative that Carthage be utterly crushed, a view summarised in Latin by the phrase "Praeterea censeo Carthaginem esse delendam" meaning, ""Moreover, I declare, Carthage must be destroyed!"". Although the Carthaginians were eventually conquered in 146 BCE and their city destroyed, Cato never got to see his victory, having died 3 years earlier.
Pterasteridae
Fossil pterasterids have been found as early as the upper Campanian of the Cretaceous period.
Campanian
The top of the Campanian is defined as the place in the stratigraphic column where the ammonite "Pachydiscus neubergicus" first appears.
Capena
Ancient Capena seems to have been ruthlessly sacked by the Romans sometime around 390 BC, following a long campaign of resistance by the Capenates to the ever-growing influence of Rome in the area. The settlement continued to exist until the collapse of the Western Roman Empire, after which all traces of it were lost. It was not until the pioneering work of Pierluigi Galletti in the mid-18th century that Capena’s former location was decisively identified. Even then, it took more than a hundred years for other historians to reach a consensus that Galletti had been correct.
Campania
Campania () is a region in Southern Italy. As of 2018, the region has a population of around 5,820,000 people, making it the third-most-populous region of Italy; its total area of makes it the most densely populated region in the country. Located on the Italian Peninsula, with the Mediterranean Sea to the west, it includes the small Phlegraean Islands and Capri for administration as part of the region.
Pagani, Campania
Pagani () is a town and "comune" in Campania, Italy, administratively part of the Province of Salerno. It had 35,834 inhabitants, as of 2016.
Daunians
Towards the late Bronze Age (11th-10th centuries BC), Illyrian populations from the eastern Adriatic arrived in Apulia. The Illyrians in Italy, united with the pre-existing people and groups from the Aegean, probably from Crete, created the Iapygian civilization which consisted of three tribes: Peucetia, Messapi and the Dauni. The region was previously inhabited by Italic peoples of Southern Italy; among them are the Ausones/Oscans, Sabines, Lucani, Paeligni, Bruttii, Campanians, Aequi, Samnites and Frentani.
Campanian Ignimbrite eruption
The event's recent dating at 39,280±110 years ago draws considerable scholarly attention as it marks a time interval characterized by biocultural modifications in western Eurasia and widespread discontinuities in archaeological sequences, such as the Middle to Upper Palaeolithic transition. At several archaeological sites of South-eastern Europe, the ash separates the cultural layers containing Middle Palaeolithic and/or Earliest Upper Palaeolithic assemblages from the layers in which Upper Palaeolithic industries occur. At some sites the CI tephra deposit coincides with a long interruption of paleo-human occupation.
Alife, Campania
A bishopric was present in Alife in the 5th century, but in the following century it disappeared. The city was a Lombard possession, as part of the Duchy of Benevento and, later, of the Principality of Capua. The bishop was reinstated in 969, four years after the city became an independent county.
In 1132, the Norman Count Ranulf (one of the most outstanding military leaders of medieval Italy) began the construction of Alife Cathedral. At this time, Alife, together with other centers of northern Campania, was almost independent from Capua, and began governing itself. This, of course, caused increasing strife with the central power of the Norman Kingdom of Sicily (created by Roger II in 1130). In 1135, the city was occupied by Sicilian troops; but, two years later, Count Ranulf had his vengeance, obtaining the title of Duke.
Italy in the Middle Ages
Throughout this period, some coastal regions, and all of southern Italy, remained under Byzantine or Lombard control. The Imperial authority never extended much south of the Italian Peninsula. Southern Italy was divided amongst the two Lombards duchies of Spoleto and Benevento, who accepted Charlemagne's suzerainty only formally (812), and the Byzantine Empire. Coastal cities like Gaeta, Amalfi, Naples on the Tyrrhenian Sea, and Venice on the Adriatic Sea, were Latin-Greek enclaves who were becoming increasingly independent from Byzantium. A conquest of Benevento, otherwise, would have meant the total encompassment of the Papal territories, and probably Charlemagne thought it was good for his relationships with the Pope to avoid such a move. The age of Charlemagne was one of stability for Italy, though it was generally dominated by non-Italian interests. The separation with the Eastern world continued to increase. Leo III was the first Pope to date his Bulls from the year of Charlemagne's reign (795) instead of those of Byzantine emperors. This process of isolation from the Eastern Empire and connection with the Western world of France and Germany, which had started three centuries before, was completed at the beginning of the 9th centuries. Sicily, Calabria, Puglia and the marine cities were the main exceptions to this rule.
Aurunculeia gens
The nomen Aurunculeius is probably derived from the name of the Aurunci, a race of people from rural Campania, conquered by the Romans in 314 BC, during the Second Samnite War. The Aurunculei may have been of Auruncan origin, or perhaps less probably, descendants of the colonists sent to the towns of the Aurunci beginning in 313.
Campanian
David J. Varrichio observes that during the late Campanian Alberta and Montana had very similar theropods despite significant differences in the types of herbivorous dinosaur faunas.
Province of Campobasso
The Samnites, a group of Sabellic tribes, dominated this region of Italy including Campania from around 600 B.C. to 290 B.C. Following the war against Rome in 343 B.C., in 290 B.C. the territory of the ancient Sannio region (the central zone of which lies in the current province of Campobasso) was included in the Roman Regio IV Samnium. In 570, following an invasion by the Lombards, the territory was annexed to the Lombard duchy of Benevento, resulting in a reduction of the estates and assets of the ecclesiastical bishoprics of Bojano, Saepinum, Venafro, Trivento, Isernia, Larino and Termoli. As a result of frequent changes in its ownership, the Lombards called the city "Campus Vassorum" (Vassals' Territory) which later became Campobasso. The feudal lords increasingly gained power at the expense of the church. The principality of Capua, established in 860, included the counties of Venafro, Larino, Trivento, Bojano, Isernia, Campomarino and Termoli. Hugues I de Molise, Earl of Bojano and Norman feudal lord of Mulhouse (from which derives the name of Molise), implemented a policy to restore the old boundaries to the territories of Sannio in 1053, and finally, thanks to his successor, Hugues II de Molise, Molise was created independently around 1128.
Campania
The "Circolo Savoia" and "Canottieri Napoli" sailing clubs are among the oldest in Italy and are famous for their regattas. These are also home of the main water polo teams in the city. Many sailors from Naples and Campania participate as crew in the America's Cup sailing competition.
Campania, Tasmania
The age distribution of Campania residents is comparable to that of the greater Australian population. 67.2% of residents were over 25 years in 2006, compared to the Australian average of 66.5%; and 32.8% were younger than 25 years, compared to the Australian average of 33.5%.
HMS Campania (1914)
Originally built as a passenger liner for Cunard Line's service between Liverpool and New York in 1893, was the holder of the Blue Riband award for speed early in her career. In October 1914, she was sold to the shipbreakers Thos W Ward as she was wearing out.
Campanian
The base of the Campanian stage is laid at the extinction of crinoid species "Marsupites testudinarius". A GSSP had not yet been ratified in 2009. One possible candidate is in a section near a dam at Waxahachie, Texas.
Mezmaiskaya cave
Evidence recovered from the cave suggests that the Campanian Ignimbrite eruption around 40,000 years ago may have been a setback for the Neanderthal, with an as yet only postulated eruption contributing to their demise about 29,000 years ago.
History of the Jews in Campania and Basilicata
The History of the Jews in Campania and Basilicata is at least 2000 years old. This area, which is a mix of mountains and rich fertile plains, is south of Rome but north of Calabria and Apulia. Most of the Jewish communities were settled in the Roman Era by Jewish merchants or by Jewish captives after the fall of Jerusalem in the year 70. However, the region was mostly abandoned by the Jews by middle of the 16th century. Today, only the city on Naples has a Jewish population. And, unlike the southern provences, there seems to be no interest by neofiti descendants to revive the Jewish faith.
Roman Catholic Archdiocese of Salerno-Campagna-Acerno
The Archdiocese of Salerno-Campagna-Acerno () is a Roman Catholic ecclesiastical territory in Campania, southern Italy, created in 1986. The historic Archdiocese of Salerno was in existence from the tenth century, having been elevated from a sixth-century diocese. The Diocese of Acerno was combined with the archdiocese in 1818.
Calendar era
The Spanish era counted the years from 38 BC, probably the date of a new tax imposed by the Roman Republic on the subdued population of Iberia. The date marked the establishment of Roman rule in Spain and was used in official documents in Portugal, Aragon, Valencia, and in Castile, into the 14th century. This system of calibrating years fell to disuse in 1381 and was replaced by today's "Anno Domini".
Messapians
After the conquest of the Salento by the Roman Republic in 266 BC the distinction between the Iapygian tribes blurred as they were assimilated into ancient Roman society. Strabo makes it clear that in his time, the end of the first century BC, most people used the names "Messapia", "Iapygia", "Calabria" and "Salentina" interchangeably for the Salento. The name "Calabria" for the entire peninsula was made official when the Roman emperor Augustus divided Italy in regions and gave the whole region of Apulia the name "Regio II Apulia et Calabria". Archaeology still follows the original Greek tripartite division of tribes based on the archaeological evidence.
Campanian
During the Campanian age, a radiation among dinosaur species occurred. In North America, for example, the number of known dinosaur genera rises from 4 at the base of the Campanian to 48 in the upper part. This development is sometimes referred to as the "Campanian Explosion". However, it is not yet clear if the event is artificial, i.e. the low number of genera in the lower Campanian can be caused by a lower preservation chance for fossils in deposits of that age. The generally warm climates and large continental area covered in shallow sea during the Campanian probably favoured the dinosaurs. In the following Maastrichtian stage, the number of North American dinosaur genera found is 30% less than in the upper Campanian.
Minori, Campania
The urban structure of Minori underwent various transformations in the Modern Age, at the time of the Spanish viceroyalty. Sea defenses were strengthened in the 16th century in order to resist incursions of Barbary pirates, whereas places of worship were considerably diminished. This period turned to be somewhat negative for Minori and its inhabitants, as the town was plagued by a profound economic crisis, due to political and administrative uncertainty as well as multiple natural disasters (mainly because of storm surges).
In 1799, in the context of the French and Neapolitan revolutionary movements, Minori was "municipalized and democratized" by the bourgeoisie and the local clergy. However, after the Congress of Vienna, the town returned under Spanish domination, within the newly formed Kingdom of the Two Sicilies. Begun in 1811 and completed in 1852, a new and more practical road was built to break the centuries-old isolation in which the people of the Amalfi Coast were forced to live.
In 1860, like the rest of southern Italy, Minori was conquered by Giuseppe Garibaldi and his troops in the process of Italian unification advanced by the House of Savoy.
Campania
Philosopher Giordano Bruno was born in Nola. He was the first to theorize infinite suns and infinite worlds in the universe. He was burnt in Rome by the Spanish Inquisition in 1600. Later, in c. 1606, the Baroque painter Caravaggio established his studio in Naples. Italian Baroque architect Cosimo Fanzago from Bergamo also decided to move to Naples.
Harrisonian
The Harrisonian North American Stage on the geologic timescale is the North American faunal stage according to the North American Land Mammal Ages chronology (NALMA), typically set from 24,800,000 to 20,600,000 years BP, a period of . It is usually considered to overlap the Chattian and Aquitainian stages within the late Paleogene. The Harrisonian is preceded by the Monroecreekian and followed by the Hemingfordian NALMA stage.
Fairey Campania
The Campania was declared obsolete in August 1919.
Marsupites
The International Commission on Stratigraphy (ICS) has assigned the extinction of "Marsupites testudinarius" as the defining biological marker for the start of the Campanian Stage of the Cretaceous, 83.6 ± 0.2 million years ago.
Music of Campania
Music of Campania The capital city of the Campania region of Italy is Naples; there is a separate article dealing with the Music of Naples. This article is about musical activities elsewhere in the Campania region.
Campanian
The Campanian was an age when a worldwide sea level rise drowned many coastal areas. The morphology of some of these areas has been preserved as an unconformity beneath a cover of marine sedimentary rocks.
National Archeologic Museum of Pontecagnano
With the systematic excavation of the necropolis started by Bruno D'Agostino in 1962, a new chapter of the ancient history of Campania has opened up. The vast necropolis, which, from the end of the 10th to the beginning of the 9th century BCE, were distributed around a large living space, are the most eloquent testimony of the expansion of Etruscan peoples in southern Italy in advance and then in conjunction with the process of Greek colonization of the coastal strip. The great center of Pontecagnano constitutes the most advanced point of that expansion and, at least since the end of the 6th century. a.C., had real urban characteristics. The considerable quantity of imported objects found in the funerary objects, both from the Greek and Eastern world and from the Greek and Italian ones, testify to its emporic function and cultural richness.
Achelousaurus
"Achelousaurus" is known from the Two Medicine Formation, which preserves coastal sediments dating from the Campanian stage of the Late Cretaceous Period, between 83 and 74 million years ago. "Achelousaurus" specimens are found in the highest levels of the formation, probably closer to the end of that timeframe, 74 million years ago.
Giugliano in Campania
In 5th-4th century BCE the territory of Giugliano was settled by the Osci. According to a tradition, the city was founded by a group of colonists from Cuma in 421 BCE, who called it "Lilianum" ("Land of the lilies").
Papal States
The Papal States (), officially the State of the Church (, ; ; also ""), were a series of territories in the Italian Peninsula under the direct sovereign rule of the Pope, from the 8th century until 1870. They were among the major states of Italy from roughly the 8th century until the Kingdom of Piedmont-Sardinia unified the Italian Peninsula by conquest in a campaign virtually concluded in 1861 and definitively in 1870. At their zenith, the Papal States covered most of the modern Italian regions of Lazio (which includes Rome), Marche, Umbria and Romagna, and portions of Emilia. These holdings were considered to be a manifestation of the temporal power of the pope, as opposed to his ecclesiastical primacy.
Classical Latin
In Cruttwell's introduction, the Golden Age is dated 80 BC – 14 AD ("from Cicero to Ovid"), which is about the same as Teuffel's. Of this "Second Period" Cruttwell says that it "represents the highest excellence in prose and poetry," paraphrasing Teuffel. The Ciceronian Age is now "the Republican Period" and is dated 80–42 BC through the Battle of Philippi. Later in the book Cruttwell omits Teuffel's first half of the Ciceronian and starts the Golden Age at Cicero's consulship of 63 BC, an error perpetuated into Cruttwell's second edition as well. He must mean 80 BC as he includes Varro in Golden Latin. Teuffel's Augustan Age is Cruttwell's Augustan Epoch, 42 BC – 14 AD.
Maevarano Formation
The age of the Maevarano Formation has been debated; the Berivotra Formation, which is partially contemporaneous with the upper portions of the formation, shows that at least the upper part of the Maevarano is Maastrichtian in age. There is no evidence that it is Campanian, despite previous reports to that effect. The Berivotra Formation appears to include near its top a magnetic reversal, interpreted as the shift from Chron 30N to Chron 29R, which occurred approximately 65.8 million years ago (about 300,000 years before the Cretaceous–Paleogene boundary and associated Cretaceous–Paleogene extinction event. This suggests that Maevarano organisms also lived shortly before (geologically speaking) the extinction event.
Santonian
The Santonian is an age in the geologic timescale or a chronostratigraphic stage. It is a subdivision of the Late Cretaceous epoch or Upper Cretaceous series. It spans the time between 86.3 ± 0.7 mya (million years ago) and 83.6 ± 0.7 mya. The Santonian is preceded by the Coniacian and is followed by the Campanian.
Gallura
The historic period that goes from 1700 BC to the Roman Age is also known in Sardinia as the Nuragic Age. The particular name of this historic period takes after the Nuraghes, the biggest megalithic edifices ever found in Europe, which still today represent a symbol for Sardinia.
The Phoenicians founded the (hence Punic) city of Olbia (renamed in Greek, though), which was conquered by the Romans with all of Gallura in 238 BC.
Classical antiquity
Classical antiquity (also the classical era, classical period or classical age) is the period of cultural history between the 8th century BC and the 5th or 6th century AD centered on the Mediterranean Sea, comprising the interlocking civilizations of ancient Greece and ancient Rome known as the Greco-Roman world. It is the period in which Greek and Roman society flourished and wielded great influence throughout Europe, North Africa and Western Asia.
Wōdejebato
Volcanism at Wōdejebato appears to have occurred during two phases over a timespan of about 20 million years. The first phase took place during the Cenomanian (100.5 – 93.9 million years ago); it was characterized by explosive eruptions and may be the source of 93.9–96.3 million year old volcanic debris found in the surroundings of Wōdejebato. The second phase occurred during the Campanian between 78.4 and 85 million years ago during chron 33R; it appears to be part of a volcanic event that affected a number of other islands and seamounts in the Marshall Islands and at Wōdejebato lasted for at least four million years. The second stage appears to have been a secondary volcanic episode. Volcanic rocks sampled at Wōdejebato all belong to the second stage, probably due to sampling bias as the samples all come from the summit region. Tectonic evidence indicates that Pikinni formed at the same time as Wōdejebato, while the northern parasitic cone may be less than 80 million years old. An earlier proposal by Schlanger "et al." 1987 envisaged Eocene (56 – 33.9 million years ago) eruptions at Wōdejebato but today the older ages are considered to be correct.
Classical Latin
The Ciceronian Age was dated 671–711 AUC (83 BC – 43 BC), ending just after the death of M. Tullius Cicero, and the Augustan 711–67 AUC (43 BC – 14 AD), ending with the death of Augustus. The Ciceronian Age is further divided by the consulship of Cicero in 691 AUC or 63 BC into a first and second half. Authors are assigned to these periods by years of principal achievements.
Calabrian (stage)
Calabrian is a subdivision of the Pleistocene Epoch of the geologic time scale, defined as ~1.8 Ma.—781,000 years ago ± 5,000 years, a period of ~.
Italy in the Middle Ages
Late Antiquity in Italy lingered on into the 7th century under the Ostrogothic Kingdom and the Byzantine Empire under the Justinian dynasty, the Byzantine Papacy until the mid 8th century.
The "Middle Ages" proper begin as the Byzantine Empire was weakening under the pressure of the Muslim conquests, and the Exarchate of Ravenna finally fell under Lombard rule in 751. Lombard rule ended with the invasion of Charlemagne in 773, who established the Kingdom of Italy and the Papal States. This set the precedent for the main political conflict in Italy over the following centuries, between the Pope and the Holy Roman Emperor, culminating with conflict between Pope Gregory VII and Henry IV and the latter's "Walk to Canossa" in 1077.
Campanian
The Campanian was introduced in scientific literature by Henri Coquand in 1857. It is named after the French village of Champagne in the département Charente-Maritime. The original type locality was an outcrop near the village of Aubeterre-sur-Dronne in the same region. Due to changes of the stratigraphic definitions, this section is now part of the Maastrichtian stage.
Bellona, Campania
When the Saracens destroyed the ancient Capua in 841, some of their inhabitants moved to the Palmobara hill (the modern Bellon's "frazione" of Triflisco) founding the town of Sicopoli. This was also destroyed by the Saracens in 856. Bellona continued to be a "frazione" of Capua until the Nepoleonic Age (1806).
Oldman Formation
The Oldman Formation was deposited during the middle Campanian, between about 77.5 and 76.5 million years ago. It lies fully within magnetic polarity Chron 33n.
Cerasinops
Cerasinops (meaning 'cherry face') was a small ceratopsian dinosaur. It lived during the Campanian of the late Cretaceous Period. Its fossils have been found in Two Medicine Formation, in Montana. The type species of the genus "Cerasinops" is "C. hodgskissi".
Campania
Campania has an area of and a coastline of on the Tyrrhenian Sea. Campania is famous for its gulfs (Naples, Salerno and Policastro) as well as for three islands (Capri, Ischia and Procida).
Timeline of the Samnite Wars
The Samnites were a group of hill-tribes occupying the central Apennines. In the mid-4th century they began to expand into the territories of their neighbours, especially in Campania and the Liris valley. In the 4th century, the cities of northern Campania had rallied around the leadership of the largest city, Capua. These "Campani" fought against the Samnites to the east. During the 4th-century, the Samnites grew to become the strongest group in the central highlands. At first, they had enemies in common with Rome in the Celts and Volsci, and this commonality of purpose led to the formation of a peace treaty with Rome in 354. Once these threats were removed, Samnium expansion brought them into conflict with Rome's growing influence in central Italy. Samnites were the only ones who possessed nearly equivalent power in Italy as to that of Romans; so that the Roman-Samnite wars determined which would be the leading power in Italy.
Campanian
Animals that lived in the Campanian include:
San Valentino Torio
The first traces of human presence in the southern Campanian plain date from the 9th–6th centuries BC, including a necropolis with 1400 sepultures, attributed to the Sarrastri tribe. The territory was invaded by the Samnites in 421 BC.
Capitanian
In the geologic timescale, the Capitanian is an age or stage of the Permian. It is also the uppermost or latest of three subdivisions of the Guadalupian epoch or series. The Capitanian lasted between and million years ago. It was preceded by the Wordian and followed by the Wuchiapingian.
History of the papacy
During the Early Church, the bishops of Rome enjoyed no temporal power until the time of Constantine. After the fall of Rome (the "Middle Ages", about 476), the papacy was influenced by the temporal rulers of the surrounding Italian Peninsula; these periods are known as the Ostrogothic Papacy, Byzantine Papacy, and Frankish Papacy. Over time, the papacy consolidated its territorial claims to a portion of the peninsula known as the Papal States. Thereafter, the role of neighboring sovereigns was replaced by powerful Roman families during the "saeculum obscurum", the Crescentii era, and the Tusculan Papacy.
Wangshi Series
The Wangshi Series is a late Cretaceous sedimentary rock formation found in Shandong and Jiangsu provinces in eastern China. It has been estimated as Campanian in age.
History of Tuscany
The pre-Etruscan history of the area in the late Bronze and Iron Ages parallels that of the early Greeks. The Tuscan area was inhabited by peoples of the so-called Apennine culture in the late second millennium BC (roughly 1350–1150 BC) who had trading relationships with the Minoan and Mycenaean civilisations in the Aegean Sea. Following this, the Villanovan culture (1100–700 BC) saw Tuscany, and the rest of Etruria, taken over by chiefdoms. City-states developed in the late Villanovan (paralleling Greece and the Aegean) before "Orientalization" occurred and the Etruscan civilisation rose.
Prehistoric Italy
Palma Campania culture takes shape at the end of the third millennium BC and is representative of the Early Bronze Age of Campania. It owes its name to the locality of Palma Campania where the first findings were made.
Campanian
The Campanian is sometimes subdivided into Lower, Middle and Upper subages. In the Tethys domain, the Campanian encompasses six ammonite biozones. They are, from young to old:
Campania Island
Campania Island was named in 1792 by the Spanish explorer Jacinto Caamaño, who explored the region in the corvette "Aranzazu". Caamaño named the island Compañia and that spelling was used for the maps made by George Vancouver. Over time the spelling was changed to Campania.
Pagani, Campania
Hannibal reduced it in 216 BC by starvation, and destroyed the town. The inhabitants returned when peace was restored. Even during the Social War it remained true to Rome. In 73 BC it was plundered by Spartacus.
Campanian Archipelago
The Campanian Archipelago (), also called Neapolitan Archipelago (""), is an archipelago in the Tyrrhenian Sea, in southwestern Italy. It principally comprises 5 islands: Capri, Ischia, Nisida, Procida, and Vivara. Most of the archipelago belongs to the Metropolitan City of Naples (and previously part of the Province of Naples).
Campania (disambiguation)
Campania is a region of central Italy.
Campania
In 1281, with the advent of the Sicilian Vespers, the kingdom split in half. The Angevin Kingdom of Naples included the southern part of the Italian peninsula, while the island of Sicily became the Aragonese Kingdom of Sicily. The wars continued until the peace of Caltabellotta in 1302, which saw Frederick III recognised as king of the Isle of Sicily, while Charles II was recognised as the king of Naples by Pope Boniface VIII. Despite the split, Naples grew in importance, attracting Pisan and Genoese merchants, Tuscan bankers, and with them some of the most championed Renaissance artists of the time, such as Boccaccio, Petrarch and Giotto. Alfonso I conquered Naples after his victory against the last Angevin king, René, and Naples was unified for a brief period with Sicily again.
Pagani, Campania
In the Middle Ages (around the 9th century) a small colony of Saracens was actually introduced in the town by permission of the Dukes of Naples, but it lasted only a few decades.
Red-figure pottery
Campania also produced red-figure vases in the 5th and 4th centuries BC. The light brown clay of Campania was covered with a slip that developed a pink or red tint after firing. The Campanian painters preferred smaller vessel types, but also "hydriai" and bell "kraters". The most popular shape is the bow-handled amphora. Many typical Apulian vessel shapes, like volute "kraters", column "kraters", "loutrophoroi", "rhyta" and "nestoris" amphorae are absent, "pelikes" are rare. The repertoire of motifs is limited. Subjects include youths, women, thiasos scenes, birds and animals, and often native warriors. The backs often show cloaked youths. Mythological scenes and depictions related to burial rites play a subsidiary role. "Naiskos scenes", ornamental elements and polychromy are adopted after 340 BC under Lucanian influence.
Cabal of Naples
The Cabal of Naples was a notorious triumvirate of painters in the city of Naples that operated during the early Baroque period from the late 1610s to the early 1640s. It was led by the Spaniard Jusepe de Ribera, who had established himself in Naples after fleeing creditors in Rome in 1616, and also consisted of the Neapolitan Battistello Caracciolo and Greek Belisario Corenzio. Its primary goal was to prevent competition from artists from other parts of Italy, particularly the masters. Its activities often targeted the followers of Annibale Carracci, but also any artist not native to Naples. It involved the triumvirate in leading the painters of the city to harass, expel, or poison any non-native painter, and only ended with the death of Caracciolo in 1641.
Clarendonian
The Clarendonian North American Stage on the geologic timescale is the North American faunal stage according to the North American Land Mammal Ages chronology (NALMA), typically set from 13,600,000 to 10,300,000 years BP, a period of .
Sardinius
Sardinius is an extinct genus of prehistoric ray-finned fish that lived during the Campanian.
Judithian
The Judithian was a North American faunal stage lasting from 83.5 to 70.6 million years ago. It overlaps with the Campanian global stage.
Italian cruiser Campania
Campania was a small protected cruiser built for the Italian "Regia Marina" (Royal Navy) in the 1910s. She was the lead ship of the , which included one other ship, . Designed for colonial service, the ship was armed with a comparatively heavy armament on a small hull, with a long cruising radius emphasized over high speed. Commissioned into service in early 1917, "Campania" spent the first few years of her career in Italy's colonies, before being classified as a gunboat in 1921 and a training ship in 1932. This service lasted until 1937 when she was sold for scrapping.
Paleozoic
The Cambrian spans from 541 million years to 485 million years and is the first period of the Paleozoic era of the Phanerozoic. The Cambrian marked a boom in evolution in an event known as the Cambrian explosion in which the largest number of creatures evolved in any single period of the history of the Earth. Creatures like algae evolved, but the most ubiquitous of that period were the armored arthropods, like trilobites. Almost all marine phyla evolved in this period. During this time, the supercontinent Pannotia begins to break up, most of which later became the supercontinent Gondwana.
Province of Catanzaro
After the last ice age, stone age hunter-gatherers lived in this area. By about 3,500 BC they had turned to farming and started settling in villages. In the ninth and eighth centuries BC, Greeks began colonising the coastal regions of Calabria, calling the area Magna Graecia. They brought with them their Hellenic civilization and the olives, figs and vines that are cultivated in the province today.
Campania
Musician Gioachino Rossini lived for several years in Naples, where he wrote numerous compositions. Italian poet and writer Giacomo Leopardi established his home in Naples and Torre del Greco, remaining there at the end of his brief young life. He died at Naples in 1837. The first volcano observatory, the Vesuvius Observatory, was founded in Naples in 1841. Geologist Giuseppe Mercalli, born in Milan in 1850, was a director of the Vesuvius Observatory.
La Colonia Formation
Originally thought to be Campanian in age or earlier, studies of underlying formations have made a Maastrichtian (70–66 million years ago) age more likely.
It is divided up into three distinct facies, the first is up to 16 metres thick and consists of conglomerate, the second is by far the thickest at over 100 metres, consists of siltstone/claystone, with interbeds of claystone/shale and sandstone, the third is less than 10 metres thick and consists of clay, and probably represents a nearshore marine environment.