What is the hip-to-waist ratio?
Waist–hip ratio
WHR is used as a measurement of obesity, which in turn is a possible indicator of other more serious health conditions. The WHO states that abdominal obesity is defined as a waist-hip ratio above 0.90 for males and above 0.85 for females, or a body mass index (BMI) above 30.0. The National Institute of Diabetes, Digestive and Kidney Diseases (NIDDK) states that women with waist-hip ratios of more than 0.8, and men with more than 1.0, are at increased health risk because of their fat distribution.
Waist–hip ratio
The WHR has been used as an indicator or measure of health, and the risk of developing serious health conditions.
WHR correlates with fertility (with different optimal values in males and females).
Michael Hebranko
After a stay at the St. Luke’s Hospital in New York City, he dropped his weight from 
to and waist size from to in 19 months with the help of the dieting and exercise coach Richard Simmons and was recorded in the Guinness Book of World Records for the highest recorded weight loss in 1990. He lost some of this weight from surgical removal of fat. He then toured the United States lecturing about his experiences and advocating dieting and exercise and appeared in infomercials promoting Richard Simmons. He also appeared on TV talk shows such as "The Howard Stern Show" , " The Oprah Winfrey Show" and the British chat show "Wogan" in 1990.
Body mass index
For example, a height/weight chart may say the ideal weight (BMI 21.5) for a man is . But if that man has a slender build (small frame), he may be overweight at and should reduce by 10%, to roughly (BMI 19.4). In the reverse, the man with a larger frame and more solid build should increase by 10%, to roughly (BMI 23.7). If one teeters on the edge of small/medium or medium/large, common sense should be used in calculating one's ideal weight. However, falling into one's ideal weight range for height and build is still not as accurate in determining health risk factors as waist/height ratio and actual body fat percentage.
Waist–hip ratio
Practically, however, the waist is more conveniently measured simply at the smallest circumference of the natural waist, usually just above the belly button, and the hip circumference may likewise be measured at its widest part of the buttocks or hip. Also, in case the waist is convex rather than concave, such as is the case in pregnancy, different body types, and obesity, the waist may be measured at a horizontal level 1 inch above the navel.
Mass ratio
where
Female body shape
Each society develops a general perception of what an ideal female body shape would be like. These ideals are generally reflected in the art and literature produced by or for a society, as well as in popular media such as films and magazines. The ideal or preferred female body size and shape has varied over time and continues to vary among cultures; but a preference for a small waist has remained fairly constant throughout history. A low waist-hip ratio has often been seen as a sign of good health and reproductive potential.
Classification of obesity
Obesity is a medical condition in which excess body fat has accumulated to the extent that it has an adverse effect on health. Relative weight and body mass index (BMI) are nearly identical and are reasonable estimates of body fatness as measured by percentage body fat. However, BMI does not account for the wide variation in body fat distribution, and may not correspond to the same degree of fatness or associated health risk in different individuals and populations. Other measurements of fat distribution include the waist–hip ratio and body fat percentage. Normal weight obesity is a condition of having normal body weight, but high body fat percentages with the same health risks of obesity. BMI can be used to predict the risk of metabolic abnormalities like diabetes.
Waist
Waist–hip ratios of 0.7 for women and 0.9 for men have been shown to correlate strongly with general health and fertility. Colloquially this shape is compared to the hourglass shape.
Parasite-stress theory
Higher waist-hip ratio has been linked with both mobility disability and also cardiovascular disease. Also, within parasite-stress theory itself, women with higher waist-hip ratio's also had a higher incidence of toxoplasmosis, another incidence in which parasitism contributes to developmental instability.
Lift-to-drag ratio
where "b" is wingspan. The term formula_10 is known as the wetted aspect ratio. The equation demonstrates the importance of wetted aspect ratio in achieving an aerodynamically efficient design.
Body fat percentage
There also exist formulas for estimating body fat percentage from an individual's weight and girth measurements. For example, the U.S. Navy circumference method compares abdomen or waist and hips measurements to neck measurement and height and other sites claim to estimate one's body fat percentage by a conversion from the body mass index. In the U.S. Navy the method is known as the "rope and choke." There is limited information, however, on the validity of the "rope and choke" method because of its universal acceptance as inaccurate and easily falsified.
Waist–hip ratio
Some researchers have found that the waist–hip ratio is a significant measure of female attractiveness. Women with a 0.7 WHR are usually rated as more attractive by men from Indo-European cultures. Preferences may vary, according to some studies, ranging from 0.6 in China, South America, and some of Africa to 0.8 in Cameroon and among the Hadza tribe of Tanzania, with divergent preferences according to the ethnicity of the observed being noted.
Weighted clothing
Thigh weights are the most reasonable form of resistance. The location of the mass more readily duplicates the natural fat-storage mechanism of the human body and being closer to the core. In leg raise exercises, it allows more activation of the hip flexors (and abdominals) without putting more strain on the quadriceps muscles for extension, making it good for sports-specific training on movements like knees and jumping. The greater area and safe location allow it to handle much more weight. For those with wide thighs, such as bodybuilders with large quadriceps, or people with large amounts of fat stores on the inner thigh, it may cause chafing. If worn on both legs, however, the chafing would be between the weights and only damage them, possibly only chafing with a lack of tightness.
Body shape
Classifications of female body sizes are mainly based on the circumference of the bust-waist-hip (BWH), as in 36–24–36 (inches) respectively. In this case, the waist-hip ratio is 24/36 = 0.67. Many terms or classifications are used to describe body shape types:
Android fat distribution
As WHR is associated with a woman's pregnancy rate, it has been found that a high waist-to-hip ratio can impair pregnancy, thus a health consequence of high android fat levels is its interference with the success of pregnancy and in-vitro fertilisation. Body fat distribution is also related to the sex ratio of offspring. Women with large waists (a high WHR) tend to have an android fat distribution caused by a specific hormone profile, that is, having higher levels of androgens. This leads to such women having more sons.
Female body shape
Height will also affect the appearance of the figure. A woman who is 36–24–36 at height will look different from a woman who is 36–24–36 at height. Since the taller woman's figure has greater distance between measuring points, she will likely appear thinner or less curvaceous than her shorter counterpart, again, even though they both have the same BWH ratio. This is because the taller woman is actually thinner as expressed by her height to size ratio.
Hip
The acetabulum is oriented inferiorly, laterally and anteriorly, while the femoral neck is directed superiorly, medially, and slightly anteriorly.The angle between the longitudinal axes of the femoral neck and shaft, called the caput-collum-diaphyseal angle or CCD angle, normally measures approximately 150° in newborn and 126° in adults ("coxa norma").
Android fat distribution
Central obesity is measured as increase by waist circumference or waist-hip ratio. Increase in waist circumference > 102 cm (40 in.) in males and > 88 cm (35 in.) in females. However increase in abdominal circumference may be due to increasing in subcutaneous or visceral fat, and it is the visceral fat which increases the risk of coronary diseases. The visceral fat can be estimated with the help of MRI and CT scan.
Southern hip hop
The height of Southern hip-hop was reached from 2002 through 2004. In 2002, Southern hip-hop artists accounted for 50 to 60 percent of the singles on hip-hop music charts. On the week of December 13, 2003, Southern urban artists, labels and producers accounted for six of the top 10 slots on the "Billboard" Hot 100: OutKast had two singles, Ludacris, Kelis (produced by The Neptunes), Beyoncé and Chingy (on Ludacris' Disturbing Tha Peace label). In addition to this, from October 2003 through December 2004, the number one position on the "Billboard" Hot 100 pop chart was held by a Southern urban artist for 58 out of 62 weeks. This was capped by the week of December 11, 2004 when seven out of the top ten songs on the chart were held by or featured Southern urban artists. In 2004, Vibe magazine reported that Southern artists accounted for 43.6% of the airplay on urban radio stations (compared to 29.7% for the Midwest, 24.1% for the East Coast and 2.5% for the West coast). Rich Boy from Mobile, Alabama was successful in 2007 with his debut album. Since the early 2010s, many contemporary hip hop artists have become mainstream. The prevailing genre in contemporary hip hop is trap, which originated from the South. Rappers from across the country have implemented trap into their music. Kendrick Lamar's 2017 album DAMN incorporated elements of trap.
Physical attractiveness
Some research has shown that body weight may have a stronger effect than WHR when it comes to perceiving attractiveness of the opposite sex. It was found that waist to hip ratio played a smaller role in body preference than body weight in regards to both sexes.
Waist
The waist-hip ratio equals the waist circumference divided by the hip circumference. Practically, however, the waist is usually measured at the smallest circumference of the natural waist, usually just above the belly button. In case the waist is convex rather than concave, such as is the case in pregnancy and obesity, the waist may be measured at a vertical level 1 inch above the navel. It is important to note that variables such as posture significantly influence the measurement of the waist, and therefore any measurements for a group need to maintain a constant posture between the subjects.
Hip-hop feminism
Fast-forward to the 2010s, and hip-hop feminists have moved passed the male rhetoric and doused the genre in feminine prose. For example, many modern hip-hop feminists utilize their voluptuous figures in a commanding manner rather than adopting male rapper outfitting and lyric style. Aisha Durham writes that hip-hop aided in creating a style icon out of the female black body. In another one of her writings, Durham also stated a solution to the problem of patriarchy, homophobia, misogyny, et cetera that is present in hip-hop: hip-hop feminism. She stated, "[Hip hop feminists] are moving and mobilizing and rescuing ourselves from virtual action blocks ... Hip-hop feminism is the answer (to) rap." Additionally, Nicki Minaj utilizes the female black body as a power symbol. In fact, in the 2011 issue of "Ebony" magazine, Minaj asserted her place in the hip-hop world that she can stand on her own in the male-dominated genre and use her body in an empowering manner rather than an oppressive one. Rihanna is another mainstream hip-hop feminist. In her most recent album "Anti," her lyrics assert black female independence. Given Rihanna's past, the hip-hop feminist scene looked to her as a role model to stand up for domestic violence against the black female body. Many women artists has play a big role in how hip hop has evolved.
Body shape
The general body shapes of female and male bodies both have significant social and cultural symbolism. Physical attractiveness is closely associated with traits that are considered typical of either sex. The body mass index (BMI), waist-to-hip ratio, and especially waist-to-chest ratio in men have been shown in studies to rank as overall more desirable to women. Wide shoulders, a muscular upper body and well-developed upper-arm muscles are all traits closely associated with masculinity, similarly to other specifics of the male sex, like beards. These traits are seen more sexually attractive to women and also associated with higher intelligence, good leadership qualities and better health.
Waist–hip ratio
To enhance their perceived attractiveness, some women may artificially alter their apparent WHR. The methods include the use of a corset to reduce the waist size and hip and buttock padding to increase the apparent size of the hips and buttocks. In an earlier attempt to quantify attractiveness, corset and girdle manufacturers of the 20th century used a calculation called "hip spring" (or "hip-spring" or "hipspring"), calculated by subtracting the waist measurement from the hip measurement. However this calculation fell into disuse because it is a poor indicator of attractiveness; for example, a hip spring of would likely be considered quite attractive for an average-sized adult woman, but a child or petite woman with the same number would more likely be seen as malnourished.
Waist–hip ratio
Other studies discovered WHR as a signal of attractiveness as well, beyond just examining body fat and fertility. Barnaby Dixson, Gina Grimshaw, Wayne Linklater, and Alan Dixson conducted a study using eye-tracking techniques to evaluate men's fixation on digitally altered photographs of the same woman, as well as asking the men to evaluate the images based on attractiveness. What they found was while men fixated on the woman's breasts in each photo, they selected the images where the woman had a 0.7 WHR as most attractive, regardless of breast size.
Waist–hip ratio
When ratings of the figures' attractiveness were made, generally it appeared that bust size, WHR, and their weight were all important contributory elements. The female participants rated the figures with a low WHR as more attractive, healthy, feminine looking, and in the case of the heavy figure, more kind/understanding than did male participants. This is a particularly interesting finding, as most previous studies report that young women idealize female bodies solely on the basis of thinness. As far as the breast sizes of the slender figures is concerned, whether they had large or small breasts did not appear to have any effect on the ratings of attractiveness or kindness/understanding, and having larger breasts only increased the mean ratings of health and femininity very slightly. However, a heavy figure with a high WHR and a large bust was rated as the least attractive and healthy by all participants.
Lift-to-drag ratio
Most importantly, the maximum lift-to-drag ratio is independent of the weight of the aircraft, the area of the wing, or the wing loading.
Obesity
Obesity is one of the leading preventable causes of death worldwide. A number of reviews have found that mortality risk is lowest at a BMI of 20–25 kg/m in non-smokers and at 24–27 kg/m in current smokers, with risk increasing along with changes in either direction. This appears to apply in at least four continents. In contrast, a 2013 review found that grade 1 obesity (BMI 30–35) was not associated with higher mortality than normal weight, and that overweight (BMI 25–30) was associated with "lower" mortality than was normal weight (BMI 18.5–25). Other evidence suggests that the association of BMI and waist circumference with mortality is U- or J-shaped, while the association between waist-to-hip ratio and waist-to-height ratio with mortality is more positive. In Asians the risk of negative health effects begins to increase between 22–25 kg/m. A BMI above 32 kg/m has been associated with a doubled mortality rate among women over a 16-year period. In the United States, obesity is estimated to cause 111,909 to 365,000 deaths per year, while 1 million (7.7%) of deaths in Europe are attributed to excess weight. On average, obesity reduces life expectancy by six to seven years, a BMI of 30–35 kg/m reduces life expectancy by two to four years, while severe obesity (BMI > 40 kg/m) reduces life expectancy by ten years.
Mating preferences
The first factor that has been shown to impact mating preference in males is that of Waist Hip Ratio (WHR), that is the relationship between waist circumference and hip circumference, as it has been suggested as a marker of age, reproductive status and health. It was also found that women with a WHR of 0.7 were rated the most attractive, youthful, fertile and healthy, when compared to other WHR's. Furthermore, the current research also found that those women with a WHR of 0.7 and of normal weight were rated the most attractive, and whereas those with a WHR of 0.7 but whom were underweight were rated as more youthful but not as attractive. An extension of WHR research showed that there is an impact of breast and hip size upon attractiveness; Women with large breasts, and small hips were rated more attractive than women with small breasts and small hips, as well as finding that women with large hips were rated less attractive irrespective of breast size.
Mate value
The Waist–hip ratio (WHR) of women is a feature that can be used to measure mate value. When males look for a long-term partner, they are looking for a healthy female with good reproductive value, and WHR is a good measure of both. There is also a strong preference for bigger breasts, as well as a low WHR when considering both short and long-term partners. When females look for potential male mates, they look at different features to men. It seems that averageness and texture of the face play an important part in attractiveness of men. When looking at short-term mates, male attractiveness is rated higher than when looking for long-term mates, where other factors such as resources and financial prospects are more highly valued.
Abdominal obesity
Waist measurement (e.g. for BFP standard) is more prone to errors than measuring height and weight (e.g. for BMI standard). It is recommended to use both standards. BMI will illustrate the best estimate of your total body fatness, while waist measurement gives an estimate of visceral fat and risk of obesity-related disease.
Waist–hip ratio
By western standards, women in foraging populations have high numbers of pregnancies, high parasite loads, and high caloric dependence on fibrous foods. These variables change across cultures, suggesting that
Thus, a WHR that indicates pubertal onset, sex, fertility, hormonal irregularities, and/or differentiates male from female in one population may not do so in another.
Waist
The size of a person's waist or waist circumference, indicates abdominal obesity. Excess abdominal fat is a risk factor for developing heart disease and other obesity related diseases. The National Heart, Lung, and Blood Institute (NHLBI) classifies the risk of obesity-related diseases as high if men have a waist circumference greater than and women have a waist circumference greater than .
Digit ratio
The digit ratio is the ratio of the lengths of different digits or fingers typically measured from the midpoint of bottom crease (where the finger joins the hand) to the tip of the finger. It has been suggested by some scientists that the ratio of two digits in particular, the 2nd (index finger) and 4th (ring finger), is affected by exposure to androgens, e.g., testosterone while in the uterus and that this 2D:4D ratio can be considered a crude measure for prenatal androgen exposure, with lower 2D:4D ratios pointing to higher prenatal androgen exposure.
Hip
The hip joint, scientifically referred to as the acetabulofemoral joint ("art. coxae"), is the joint between the femur and acetabulum of the pelvis and its primary function is to support the weight of the body in both static (e.g. standing) and dynamic (e.g. walking or running) postures. The hip joints have very important roles in retaining balance, and for maintaining the pelvic inclination angle.
Body proportions
Another common measurement of related to leg-to-body ratio is sitting-height ratio (SHR). Sitting height ratio is the ratio of the head plus spine length to total height which is highly correlated to leg-to-body ratio. SHR has been found to be very different between individuals of different ancestry. It has been reported that individuals with African ancestry have on average longer leg length, i.e. lower SHR than individuals of European ancestry. A study in 2015 revealed that this difference is mainly due to genetic differences and the SHR difference between African and European individuals is as large as 1 standard deviation.
Waist–hip ratio
Using data from the U.S. National Center for Health Statistics, William Lassek at the University of Pittsburgh in Pennsylvania and Steven Gaulin of the University of California, Santa Barbara, found a child's performance in cognitive tests correlated to their mother's waist–hip ratio, a proxy for how much fat she stores on her hips.
Gynoid fat distribution
Android fat distribution is also related to WHR, but is the opposite to gynoid fat. Instead, android fat is deposited in the waist, breasts, buttocks and thighs, but can give an unattractive appearance, as it gives women a ‘T-shaped” body and is more lumpy. The ratio of a woman’s gynoid to android fat is used to measure her WHR, whereby the lower the WHR, the higher gynoid to android fat ratio, which is perceived as more attractive for women. As women with higher levels of gynoid fat distribution are seen as more attractive, this enables them to access highly desirable male mates. WHR is related to various markers of health and fertility, for example a high WHR is correlated with: a low estrogen/testosterone ratio (this means that a woman has more of a 'T-shaped' body which is seen as less healthy and attractive); a high ratio is also correlated to circulatory system problems such as heart attacks and strokes; more disease (e.g. cancer); and is a general sign of increased age and hence lower fertility, therefore supporting the adaptive significance of an attractive WHR. This advantage of being more fertile has been supported by various studies, for example artificial insemination studies involving sperm donors, where the best predictor of success is a low WHR. Similarly, a high WHR has been associated with impairment in the pregnancy rate of IVF (in vitro fertilisation) embryo transfer women due to the higher levels of android fat distribution. Further studies have also found that oestrogen replacement in women lowers the WHR in pre- and post-menopausal women, and that this is because oestrogen replacement maintains gynoid fat distribution in the body.
Equine conformation
The croup is from the lumbosacral joint to the tail. The "hip" refers to the line running from the ilium (point of the hip) to the ischium (point of the buttock)of the pelvis. After the point that is made by the sacrum and lumbar vertebrae, the line following is referred to as the croup. While the two are linked in terms of length and musculature, the angle of the hip and croup do not necessarily correlate. But it is desirable for a horse to have a square to slightly pear shaped rump. A horse can have a relatively flat croup and a well-angled hip. Racehorses do well with hip angles of 20-30 degrees, trotting horses with 35 degrees. Once a horse is developed, the croup should be approximately the same height as the withers. In some breeds a high croup is hereditary trait.
Steep Croup or Goose rump
Flat or Horizontal Croup
Abdominal obesity
While central obesity can be obvious just by looking at the naked body (see the picture), the severity of central obesity is determined by taking waist and hip measurements. The absolute waist circumference in men and in women) and the waist-hip ratio (>0.9 for men and >0.85 for women) are both used as measures of central obesity. A differential diagnosis includes distinguishing central obesity from ascites and intestinal bloating. In the cohort of 15,000 people participating in the National Health and Nutrition Examination Survey (NHANES III), waist circumference explained obesity-related health risk better than the body mass index (or BMI) when metabolic syndrome was taken as an outcome measure and this difference was statistically significant. In other words, excessive waist circumference appears to be more of a risk factor for metabolic syndrome than BMI. Another measure of central obesity which has shown superiority to BMI in predicting cardiovascular disease risk is the Index of Central Obesity (waist-to-height ratio - WHtR), where a ratio of >=0.5 (i.e. a waist circumference at least half of the individual's height) is predictive of increased risk.
Another diagnosis of obesity is the analysis of intra-abdominal fat having the most risk to one's personal health. The increased amount of fat in this region relates to the higher levels of plasma lipid and lipoproteins as per studies mentioned by Eric Poehlman (1998) review.
An increasing acceptance of the importance of central obesity within the medical profession as an indicator of health risk has led to new developments in obesity diagnosis such as the Body Volume Index, which measures central obesity by measuring a person's body shape and their weight distribution. The effect of abdominal adiposity occurs not just in those who are obese, but also affects people who are non-obese and it also contributes to insulin sensitivity.
Briefs
Traditional size briefs for both sexes cover the upper part of the thigh and extend upward up to (or cover, depending on the design) the navel at the waistband. This style is often referred to as "full rise" or "full cut". There are also "low rise" and "mid rise" styles whose measurements vary between manufacturers.
Waist–hip ratio
According to the World Health Organization's data gathering protocol, the waist circumference should be measured at the midpoint between the lower margin of the last palpable ribs and the top of the iliac crest, using a stretch‐resistant tape that provides a constant 100 g tension. Hip circumference should be measured around the widest portion of the buttocks, with the tape parallel to the floor. Other organizations use slightly different standards. The United States National Institutes of Health and the National Health and Nutrition Examination Survey used results obtained by measuring at the top of the iliac crest. Waist measurements are usually obtained by laypersons by measurings around the waist at the navel, but research has shown that these measurements may underestimate the true waist circumference.
Tissue-to-air ratio
formula_1
Health in Singapore
From 1980 to 2016, the World Health Organization (WHO) measured females malnutrition based on body mass index (BMI). BMI is utilized to identify if an individual is normal weight, overweight or underweight. From 1980 to 2016, the percentage of females who were underweight stayed at 8%, indicative of the static relationship and trend.From 1980 to 2010, the percentage of females who were overweight increased from 25% to 33.6%. WHO indicates that being overweight is a “major determinant of many non-insulin-dependent diabetes mellitus, coronary heart diseases and stroke," along with many other health consequences. The percentage of females who are overweight has, however, decreased from 33.6% to 27.4% from 2010 to 2016. Conversely, the percentage of females who are obese has increased steadily from 2.5% to 6.1% from 1990 to 2016. Obesity, as indicated by the WHO, can be mitigated through lifestyle changes.
Hip
The hip region is located lateral and anterior to the gluteal region (i.e., the buttock), inferior to the iliac crest, and overlying the greater trochanter of the femur, or "thigh bone". In adults, three of the bones of the pelvis have fused into the hip bone or acetabulum which forms part of the hip region.
H-point
Technically, the h-point measurement uses the hip joint of a 50th percentile male occupant, viewed laterally, and is highly relevant to national and international vehicle design standards such as global technical regulations (GTR). For example, a vehicle design standard known as the Society of Automotive Engineers (SAE) J1100 Interior Measurement Index sets parameters for such measurements as H30 (H-point to vehicle floor); H5 (H-point to pavement surface), H61 (H-point to interior ceiling) and H25 (H-point to window sill).
Classification of obesity
In those with a BMI under 35, intra-abdominal body fat is related to negative health outcomes independent of total body fat. Intra-abdominal or visceral fat has a particularly strong correlation with cardiovascular disease. In a study of 15,000 people, waist circumference also correlated better with metabolic syndrome than BMI. Women with abdominal obesity have a cardiovascular risk similar to that of men. In people with a BMI over 35, measurement of waist circumference however adds little to the predictive power of BMI as most individuals with this BMI have abnormal waist circumferences.
Gynoid fat distribution
There has not been sufficient evidence to suggest there are significant differences in the perception of attractiveness across cultures. Females considered the most attractive are all within the normal weight range with a low waist-to-hip ratio (WHR), regardless of fluctuations in BMI, and this finding can be seen as consistent across Indonesian, Chinese, White and African-American young men and women. Psychologists have argued that evolutionary selection processes have facilitated this relationship between WHR and female attractiveness, which has resulted in a consensus that seems to transcend cultural boundaries.
Gynoid fat distribution
Gynoid fat is primarily a store of energy to be utilised in the nurturing of offspring, both to provide adequate energy resources during pregnancy and for the infant during the stage in which they are breastfeeding. When there are insufficient energy resources in the environment or health issues which require energy to combat a woman's storage of gynoid fat is likely to be reduced. Therefore, ancestrally, a female with high levels of gynoid fat would be signalling to males that they are in an optimal state for reproduction and nurturing of offspring. This can be seen in the fact that a female's Waist–hip ratio is at its optimal minimum during times of peak fertility - late adolescence and early adulthood, before increasing later in life.
U.S. standard clothing size
As this was largely successful in men, the same approach was attempted in the early 20th century for women using the bust as the sole measurement . However, this proved unsuccessful because women's bodies have far more variety in shape. The hourglass figure is frequently used as an industry standard, but only 8% of women have this body shape . A woman with an hourglass figure and a woman with an apple-shaped figure who have the same bust size will not have the same waist or hip sizes.
Waistband
Among some members of the Yoruba, the placement of beads upon their waistbands is an established tradition that is believed to enhance and accentuate a women's femininity. The dimensions of the waistband serve as a contrivance for streamlining waist measurements. Waistbands are often designed with belt loops in order to allow for variation in case of manufacturer subtleties or weight variation in the wearer. A recent Debenhams survey revealed that the placement of one's waistband by males varies with age, with mid-teen boys placing them the lowest, while it steadily rises until the age of 57. The exposure of the underwear waistband has become a trend among followers of grunge music and hip-hop. In stretchy waistbands, the material can be made of various materials including rubber and latex. In contemporary times, waistbands are more picturesque and scintillating compared to previous designs.
Waist-to-height ratio
A person's waist-to-height ratio (WHtR), also called waist-to-stature ratio (WSR), is defined as their waist circumference divided by their height, both measured in the same units. The WHtR is a measure of the distribution of body fat. Higher values of WHtR indicate higher risk of obesity-related cardiovascular diseases; it is correlated with abdominal obesity.
Classification of obesity
Other proposed but less common obesity measures include waist circumference and waist–hip ratio. These measure a common form of obesity known as abdominal or central obesity, characterized by excess deposits of fat in the abdominal region and inside peritoneal cavity. They have been shown to be comparable to BMI in their power to predict the risk of metabolic abnormalities such as type II diabetes, and possibly superior to BMI as predictors of cardiovascular disease.
Female body shape
New research suggests that apple-shaped women have the highest risk of developing heart disease, while hourglass-shaped women have the lowest. Diabetes professionals advise that a waist measurement for a woman of over increases the risk of heart disease, but that ethnic background also plays a factor. This is because body fat buildup around the waist (the apple shape) poses a higher health risk than a fat buildup at the hips (the pear shape).
Tissue-to-air ratio
Tissue-air ratio is defined as the ratio of the dose to water at a given depth to the dose in air measured with a buildup cap:
Waist–hip ratio
WHR has been shown to be a better predictor of cardiovascular disease than waist circumference and body-mass index. However, other studies have found waist circumference, not WHR, to be a good indicator of cardiovascular risk factors, body fat distribution, and hypertension in type 2 diabetes.
Physical attractiveness
Other researchers found waist-to-chest ratio the largest determinant of male attractiveness, with body mass index and waist-to-hip ratio not as significant.
H-point
The H-point (or hip-point) is the theoretical, relative location of an occupant's hip: specifically the pivot point between the torso and upper leg portions of the body — as used in vehicle design, automotive design and vehicle regulation as well as other disciplines including chair and furniture design.
Physical attractiveness
Both men and women judge women with smaller waist-to-hip ratios more attractive. Ethnic groups vary with regard to their ideal waist-to-hip ratio for women, ranging from 0.6 in China, to 0.8 or 0.9 in parts of South America and Africa, and divergent preferences based on ethnicity, rather than nationality, have also been noted. A study found the Machiguenga people, an isolated indigenous South American ethnic group, prefer women with high WHR (0.9). The preference for heavier women, has been interpreted to belong to societies where there is no risk of obesity.
Abdominal obesity
Central obesity is associated with a statistically higher risk of heart disease, hypertension, insulin resistance, and type 2 diabetes (see below). With an increase in the waist to hip ratio and overall waist circumference the risk of death increases as well. Metabolic syndrome is associated with abdominal obesity, blood lipid disorders, inflammation, insulin resistance, full-blown diabetes, and increased risk of developing cardiovascular disease. It is now generally believed that intra-abdominal fat is the depot that conveys the biggest health risk.
Effects of advertising on teen body image
Additionally, a study of "Seventeen magazine" concluded that the models featured in this popular teen magazine were far less curvy than those portrayed in women's magazines. It was also noted that the hip-to-waist ratio had decreased in these models from 1970 to 1990.
Female body shape
A low waist–hip ratio has also often been regarded as an indicator of attractiveness of a woman, but recent research suggests that attractiveness is more correlated to body mass index than waist–hip ratio, contrary to previous belief. Historically, according to Devendra Singh, there was a trend for slightly overweight women in the 17th and 18th centuries, as typified by the paintings of Rubens, but that in general there has been a preference for a slimmer waist in Western culture. He notes that "The finding that the writers describe a small waist as beautiful suggests instead that this body part – a known marker of health and fertility – is a core feature of feminine beauty that transcends ethnic differences and cultures."
Physical attractiveness
A WHR of 0.7 for women has been shown to correlate strongly with general health and fertility. Women within the 0.7 range have optimal levels of estrogen and are less susceptible to major diseases such as diabetes, heart disease, and ovarian cancers. Women with high WHR (0.80 or higher) have significantly lower pregnancy rates than women with lower WHRs (0.70–0.79), independent of their BMIs. Female waist-to-hip ratio (WHR) has been proposed by evolutionary psychologists to be an important component of human male mate choice, because this trait is thought to provide a reliable cue to a woman's reproductive value.
Waist-to-height ratio
A 2010 study that followed 11,000 subjects for up to eight years concluded that WHtR is a much better measure of the risk of heart attack, stroke or death than the more widely used body mass index. However, a 2011 study that followed 60,000 participants for up to 13 years found that waist–hip ratio (when adjusted for BMI) was a better predictor of ischemic heart disease mortality than WHtR.
Low-rise (fashion)
Low-rise is a style of clothing designed to sit low on, or below, the hips. The style can also be called lowcut, hipster, or hip-hugger. and can apply to garments worn by males or females. The term can be applied to all garments that cover the wearer's crotch area, including trousers, jeans, shorts, skirts, panties, briefs, bikinis, pantyhose, and tights.
Body fat percentage
The U.S. Army and U.S. Marine Corps also rely on the height and circumference method. For males, they measure the neck and waist just above the navel. Females are measured around the hips, waist, and neck. These measurements are then looked up in published tables, with the individual's height as an additional parameter. This method is used because it is a cheap and convenient way to implement a body fat test throughout an entire service.
Waist–hip ratio
It appears that men in westernized societies are more influenced by female waist size than hip size:
Waist-to-height ratio
A WHtR of over 0.5 is critical and signifies an increased risk; a 2010 systematic review of published studies concluded that "WHtR may be advantageous because it avoids the need for age-, sex- and ethnic-specific boundary values". For people under 40 the critical value is 0.5, for people aged 40–50 the critical value is between 0.5 and 0.6, and for people over 50 the critical values start at 0.6. 
As a comparative, the following table categorises the boundaries of persons in terms of health:
Eric B. &amp; Rakim
In 1989, the pair teamed up with Jody Watley on her single "Friends" from the album "Larger Than Life". The song would reach the Top Ten on the "Billboard" Hot 100 chart and was one of the first notable collaborations between hip hop and dance pop. Eric B. & Rakim rarely collaborated with other rappers. This was evident in early 1990, when KRS-One's Stop the Violence Movement put together the charity single "Self-Destruction". The song featured numerous notable rappers, but Rakim was noticeably absent from the proceedings. He told HalftimeOnline.net years later, "I don't think they hollered at me or they hollered at Eric B. and he didn't say anything to me. I was a little bitter with that shit because I felt I had something to do with bringing consciousness in hip hop to the table. I came out and did what I did in '86 and then you know people started running with it. Then when it comes time to do something they didn't holler at me so I was a little bitter. At the same time a lot of reasons I didn't do records with people is because I never wanted their light to reflect on me. I don't have a problem with it but everybody who knows at that time knows they were trying to say I was responsible for gangsta rap, too. They thought I was that dude in the hood so maybe they didn't holler at me for a reason. I love Kris, though — he definitely contributed a lot to hip hop. I've been on tour with him and I know him as a person. He's a good dude. I like Kris, but they definitely didn't holler at me for that man because I would have definitely did it."
Waist
A study published in the "European Heart Journal" April 2007 showed that waist circumference and waist-hip ratio were predictors of cardiovascular events.
Low-rise pants
Low-rise pants, also known as "hipster jeans", "low-cut jeans", and "lowriders", are a type of pants that sit low on, or below, the hips, usually at least 8 centimetres (3 inches) lower than the navel. Low-rise pants have been available since the 1900s, in styles for both men and women, with popularity increasing in the 2000s.
Waist–hip ratio
Studies in twins have suggested that between 22% and 61% of variability in waist-to-hip ratio may be accounted for by genetic factors.
Female body shape
Compared to males, females generally have relatively narrow waists and large buttocks, and this along with wide hips make for a wider hip section and a lower waist–hip ratio.
Research shows that a waist–hip ratio (WHR) for a female very strongly correlates to the perception of attractiveness. Women with a 0.7 WHR (waist circumference that is 70% of the hip circumference) are rated more attractive by men in various cultures. Such diverse beauty icons as Marilyn Monroe, Sophia Loren and the Venus de Milo all have ratios around 0.7. In other cultures, preferences vary, ranging from 0.6 in China, to 0.8 or 0.9 in parts of South America and Africa, and divergent preferences based on ethnicity, rather than nationality, have also been noted.
Debt-to-GDP ratio
formula_1
Physical attractiveness
Women focus primarily on the ratio waist to chest or more specifically waist to shoulder. This is analogous to the waist to hip ratio (WHR) that men prefer. Key body image for a man in the eyes of a woman would include big shoulders, chest, and upper back, and a slim waist area. Research has additionally shown that college males had a better satisfaction with their body than college females. The research also found that when a college female's waist to hip ratio went up, their body image satisfaction decreased.
Body shape
Estrogen causes fat to be stored in the buttocks, thighs, and hips in women. When women reach menopause and the estrogen produced by ovaries declines, fat migrates from their buttocks, hips and thighs to their waists. Later fat is stored in the belly. Thus females generally have relatively narrow waists and large buttocks, and this along with wide hips make for a wider hip section and a lower waist-hip ratio compared to men. Hormonal and genetic factors may produce male-like distribution of fat in women i.e. around the belly instead of buttocks and thighs.
Golden ratio
and
U.S. standard clothing size
There are multiple size types, designed to fit somewhat different body shapes. Variations include the height of the person's torso (known as "back length"), whether the bust, waist, and hips are straighter (characteristic of teenagers) or curvier (like many adult women), and whether the bust is higher or lower (characteristic of younger and older women, respectively). These categories include:Please compare to your favorite fit charts. These measurements conflict with many other size charts. These charts are significantly smaller than many current US clothing companies.
Female body shape
Many studies indicate that WHR correlates with female fertility, leading some to speculate that its use as a sexual selection cue by men has an evolutionary basis. However it is also suggested that the evident relationships between WHR-influencing hormones and survival-relevant traits such as competitiveness and stress tolerance may give a preference for higher waist-hip-ratios its own evolutionary benefit. That, in turn, may account for the cross-cultural variation observed in actual average waist-hip-ratios and culturally preferred waist-to-hip ratios for women.
Bust/waist/hip measurements
The specific proportions of 36–24–36 inches (90-60-90 centimeters) have frequently been given as the "ideal", or "hourglass" proportions for women since at least the 1960s.
Body mass index
BMI Prime, a modification of the BMI system, is the ratio of actual BMI to upper limit optimal BMI (currently defined at 25 kg/m), i.e., the actual BMI expressed as a proportion of upper limit optimal. The ratio of actual body weight to body weight for upper limit optimal BMI (25 kg/m) is equal to BMI Prime. BMI Prime is a dimensionless number independent of units. Individuals with BMI Prime less than 0.74 are underweight; those with between 0.74 and 1.00 have optimal weight; and those at 1.00 or greater are overweight. BMI Prime is useful clinically because it shows by what ratio (e.g. 1.36) or percentage (e.g. 136%, or 36% above) a person deviates from the maximum optimal BMI.
Waist–hip ratio
Waist–hip ratio is also a reliable cue to one’s sex and it is hypothesised that the "individuals who represent a mismatch based on the cue provided by WHR (e.g., women with high WHRs or men with low WHRs) would likely be viewed as unattractive by the opposite sex."
Bust/waist/hip measurements
Breast volume will have an effect on the perception of a woman's figure even when bust/waist/hip measurements are nominally the same. Brassiere band size is measured below the breasts, not at the bust. A woman with measurements of 37A–27–38 will have a different presentation than a woman with measurements of 35C–27–38. These women have ribcage circumferences differing by 2 inches, but when breast tissue is included the measurements are the same. The result is that the latter woman will appear "bustier" than the former due to the apparent difference in bust to hip ratios (narrower shoulders, more prominent breasts) even though they are both technically 38–27–38.
Waist–hip ratio
Furthermore, referencing a 2005 study conducted by Johnson and Tassinary looking at animated human walking stimuli, Farid Pazhoohi and James R. Liddle proposed that men do not solely use WHR to evaluate attractiveness, but also a means of sex-differentiation, with higher WHR perceived as more masculine and lower WHR as an indicator of femininity. Pazhoohi and Liddle used this idea as a possible additional explanation as to why men perceive a lower WHR as more attractive – because it relates to an expression of femininity, as opposed to masculinity and a higher WHR. On this basis, it was shown that men with lower, more feminine, WHRs feel less comfortable and self-report lower body esteem and self-efficacy than men with higher, more masculine, WHRs.
Hip hop fashion
One cannot speak of fashion trends without mentioning the importance of hairstyles, particularly for women. In the past few years there has been a resurgence of the asymmetrical hair cut with a contemporary spin. Stars such as Rihanna, Cassie and Kelis have all set the new trend of the half-shaven head.
Power-to-weight ratio
Power-to-weight ratio (or specific power or power-to-mass ratio) is a calculation commonly applied to engines and mobile power sources to enable the comparison of one unit or design to another. Power-to-weight ratio is a measurement of actual performance of any engine or power source. It is also used as a measurement of performance of a vehicle as a whole, with the engine's power output being divided by the weight (or mass) of the vehicle, to give a metric that is independent of the vehicle's size. Power-to-weight is often quoted by manufacturers at the peak value, but the actual value may vary in use and variations will affect performance.
Physical attractiveness
The physique of a slim waist, broad shoulders and muscular chest are often found to be attractive to females. Further research has shown that, when choosing a mate, the traits females look for indicate higher social status, such as dominance, resources, and protection. An indicator of health in males (a contributing factor to physical attractiveness) is the android fat distribution pattern which is categorized as more fat distributed on the upper body and abdomen, commonly referred to as the "V shape." When asked to rate other men, both heterosexual and homosexual men found low waist-to-chest ratios (WCR) to be more attractive on other men, with the gay men showing a preference for lower WCR (more V-shaped) than the straight men.
Physical attractiveness
Studies based in the United States, New Zealand, and China have shown that women rate men with no trunk (chest and abdominal) hair as most attractive, and that attractiveness ratings decline as hairiness increases. Another study, however, found that moderate amounts of trunk hair on men was most attractive, to the sample of British and Sri Lankan women. Further, a degree of hirsuteness (hairiness) and a waist-to-shoulder ratio of 0.6 is often preferred when combined with a muscular physique.
Android fat distribution
In females, measures of Waist to Hip ratio have been observed as an evolutionary sign of attractiveness and reproductive success. A females waist being smaller than her hips by a ratio of 0.7 is considered most attractive as it indicated readiness to give birth to offspring, and overall health to ensure survival of offspring. Waist to hip ratio is determined by an individual's proportions of android fat and gynoid fat. A small waist to hip ratio indicates less android fat, high waist to hip ratio's indicate high levels of android fat.
T-shirt
A T-shirt typically extends to the waist. Variants of the T-shirt, such as the V-neck, have been developed. Hip hop fashion calls for "tall-T" shirts which may extend down to the knees. A similar item is the T-shirt dress or T-dress, a dress-length T-shirt that can be worn without pants. Long T-shirts are also sometimes worn by women as nightgowns. A 1990s trend in women's clothing involved tight-fitting "cropped" T-shirt or crop tops short enough to reveal the midriff. Another less popular trend is wearing a short-sleeved T-shirt of a contrasting color over a long-sleeved T-shirt, which is known as "layering". T-shirts that are tight to the body are called "fitted", "tailored" or "baby doll" T-shirts.
Devendra Singh
A pioneer in the field of evolutionary psychology, Singh's most notable research concerned the evolutionary significance of waist-to-hip ratio (WHR). In 1993, he was the first to elucidate the concept and significance of this ratio as an indicator of attractiveness. In brief, Singh discovered that men rated women with low WHR (0.7) as optimally attractive, noting that lower levels of WHR correlated to lower risk of disease and greater fertility. Subsequent research demonstrated the cross-cultural and cross-temporal appeal of a low WHR. One of his final research papers on the topic of WHR found that the "hourglass figure" (optimal WHR) activates brain centers that drive appetitive sociality/attention toward females that represent the highest-quality reproductive partners.
Mating preferences
Like men, who have a preference for a lower waist-to-hip ratio (WHR), a measure linked to female bodily attractiveness, women tend to be more attracted to men who have broader shoulders and relatively narrow waists (the waist-to-chest ratio; WCR). The ratio, changed by the distribution of android fat in the torso, makes the characteristic V-shape and is related to levels of testosterone in males, also correlated with higher perceived dominance of males.
Head count ratio
The Head count ratio (HCR) is the proportion of a population that exists, or lives, below the poverty line. The Poverty headcount ratio at national poverty line (percentage of population) in India was last reported at 21.9% in 2011-12.
Definition:-When the number of poor is estimated as the proportion of people below the poverty line, it is known as 'head count ratio'.
Waist–hip ratio
A WHR of 0.9 for men and 0.7 for women has been shown to correlate strongly with general health and fertility. Women within the 0.7 range have optimal levels of estrogen and are less susceptible to major diseases such as diabetes, cardiovascular disorders and ovarian cancers. Women with high WHR (0.80 or higher) have significantly lower pregnancy rates than women with lower WHRs (0.70–0.79), independent of their BMIs. Men with WHRs around 0.9, similarly, have been shown to be more healthy and fertile with less prostate cancer and testicular cancer.
Body mass index
A 2010 study that followed 11,000 subjects for up to eight years concluded that BMI is not a good measure for the risk of heart attack, stroke or death. A better measure was found to be the waist-to-height ratio. A 2011 study that followed 60,000 participants for up to 13 years found that waist–hip ratio was a better predictor of ischaemic heart disease mortality.
Russ Meyer
The Russ Meyer female physical archetype is fairly complex to decipher. Firstly, it's not to be confused with today's surgically enhanced Hollywood porn starlets or even slim, naturally endowed actresses. Russ Meyer was almost as much about a shapely 1950s hip-to-waist ratio or "wasp waist" as he was about very large breasts. The six-pack abdominal muscles and built-up squarish appearance of modern Hollywood figures do not mesh with his pin-up aesthetic. Secondly, he required that even his most busty actresses looked good braless; "gravity-defying" and "cantilevered" became two of his favorite expressions.
Mass-to-light ratio
In astrophysics and physical cosmology the mass to light ratio, normally designated with the Greek upsilon symbol formula_1, is the quotient between the total mass of a spatial volume (typically on the scales of a galaxy or a cluster) and its luminosity. These ratios are often reported using the value calculated for the Sun as a baseline ratio which is a constant formula_2 = 5133 kg/W equal to a solar mass () divided by a solar luminosity (), (/). The mass to light ratios of galaxies and clusters are all much greater than formula_2 due in part to the fact that most of the matter in these objects does not reside within stars and observations suggest that a large fraction is present in the form of dark matter.
Waist–hip ratio
WHR has been found to be a more efficient predictor of mortality in older people (>75 years of age) than waist circumference or BMI. If obesity is redefined using WHR instead of BMI, the proportion of people categorized as at risk of heart attack worldwide increases threefold. The body fat percentage is considered to be an even more accurate measure of relative weight. Of these three measurements, only the waist-hip ratio takes account of the differences in body structure. Hence, it is possible for two women to have vastly different body mass indices but the same waist–hip ratio, or to have the same body mass index but vastly different waist-hip ratios.
Waist–hip ratio
All the participants were given a booklet with eight pictures in total. Each figure was identified as heavy or slender, feminine WHR or masculine WHR, and large-breasted or small-breasted. The participants rated the figures for four personal attributes (attractiveness, healthiness, femininity, and kindness/understanding).
Waist
Waist–hip ratio is the ratio of the circumference of the waist to that of the hips. It measures the proportion by which fat is distributed around the torso.