What is Long-term memory?
Memory erasure
There are three main types of memories: sensory memory, short-term memory, and long-term memory. Sensory memory in short is the ability to hold sensory information for a short period of time, for example looking at an object and being able to remember what it looked like moments after. Short-term memory is memory that allows a person to recall a short period of time; this can be a few seconds to a minute. Short-term memory allows people to remember what happened during that short time span without actually practicing the memory. Long-term memory has a much larger capacity than the prior two and actually stores information from both these types of memories to create a long lasting and large memory. Long-term memory is the largest target for research involving selective memory erasure.
Late positive component
In psychological literature on memory, long-term memory (LTM) is commonly divided into two types: semantic and episodic. Semantic memories are memories that are stored in LTM without specific encoding information linked to them, and thus represent general knowledge about the world that a person has acquired across the lifespan. Episodic memories are memories that are stored in long term memory as specific "episodes" and that, therefore, have some sort of specific context information associated with them, such as where or when they were encoded. At retrieval, episodic memories are often divided into two different categories based on how much information is available about the "episode." These two categories are recollection and familiarity. Recollection is when certain information about the context of the memory at encoding, for instance when or where a memory was encoded, is recalled. Familiarity is a general sense that a person has seen something before without any other details about the event. Even though they are divided into two categories, it is currently debated whether they are separate entities controlled by different brain functions or just a graded continuum of the same function.
Glucocorticoid
Glucocorticoids have also been shown to have a significant impact on vigilance (attention deficit disorder) and cognition (memory). This appears to follow the Yerkes-Dodson curve, as studies have shown circulating levels of glucocorticoids vs. memory performance follow an upside-down U pattern, much like the Yerkes-Dodson curve. For example, long-term potentiation (LTP; the process of forming long-term memories) is optimal when glucocorticoid levels are mildly elevated, whereas significant decreases of LTP are observed after adrenalectomy (low-glucocorticoid state) or after exogenous glucocorticoid administration (high-glucocorticoid state). Elevated levels of glucocorticoids enhance memory for emotionally arousing events, but lead more often than not to poor memory for material unrelated to the source of stress/emotional arousal. In contrast to the dose-dependent enhancing effects of glucocorticoids on memory consolidation, these stress hormones have been shown to inhibit the retrieval of already stored information. Long-term exposure to glucocorticoid medications, such as asthma and anti-inflammatory medication, has been shown to create deficits in memory and attention both during and, to a lesser extent, after treatment, a condition known as "steroid dementia."
Early long-term potentiation
Early long-term potentiation (E-LTP) is the first phase of long-term potentiation (LTP), a well-studied form of synaptic plasticity, and consists of an increase in synaptic strength. LTP could be produced by repetitive stimulation of the presynaptic terminals, and it is believed to play a role in memory function in the hippocampus, amygdala and other cortical brain structures in mammals.
Long-term memory
According to the dual store memory model proposed by Richard C. Atkinson and Richard Shiffrin in 1968, memories can reside in the short-term "buffer" for a limited time while they are simultaneously strengthening their associations in long-term memory. When items are first presented, they enter short-term memory, but due to its limited space, as new items enter, older ones are pushed out. However, each time an item in short-term memory is rehearsed, it is strengthened in long-term memory. Similarly, the longer an item stays in short-term memory, the stronger its association becomes in long-term memory.
Long-term memory
Autobiographical memory refers to knowledge about events and personal experiences from an individual's own life. Though similar to episodic memory, it differs in that it contains only those experiences which directly pertain to the individual, from across their lifespan. Conway and Pleydell-Pearce (2000) argue that this is one component of the self-memory system.
Intermediate-term memory
Because intermediate-term memory does not involve transcription, it likely involves the translation of mRNA transcripts already present in neurons.
Long-term memory
Minor everyday slips and lapses of memory are fairly commonplace, and may increase naturally with age, when ill, or when under stress. Some women may experience more memory lapses following the onset of the menopause.
In general, more serious problems with memory occur due to traumatic brain injury or neurodegenerative disease.
Sensory memory
SM is "not" involved in higher cognitive functions such as consolidation of memory traces or comparison of information. Likewise, the capacity and duration of SM cannot be influenced by top-down control; a person cannot consciously think or choose what information is stored in SM, or how long it will be stored for. The role of SM is to provide a detailed representation of our entire sensory experience for which relevant pieces of information can be extracted by short-term memory (STM) and processed by working memory (WM). STM is capable of storing information for 10–15 seconds without rehearsal while working memory actively processes, manipulates, and controls the information. Information from STM can then be consolidated into long-term memory where memories can last a lifetime. The transfer of SM to STM is the first step in the Atkinson–Shiffrin memory model which proposes a structure of memory.
Measurement of memory
The information received by the system remains in it for very short period (i.e. 20 sec or slightly more. The most common use of this is reminders or remembering numbers. After that this information either vanishes or is moved to next system of memory. Short-term memory has limited capacity and is often referred to as "working-memory", however these are not the same. Working memory involves a different part of the brain and allows you to manipulate it after initial storage. The information that travels from sensory memory to short-term memory must pass through the "Attention" gateway. The filter of attention keeps a check between sensory memory and short-term memory. You cannot skip systems of memory, such as jumping directly from sensory input to long-term memory. Sensory input must be actively relayed and filtered by the thalamus to the cortex for short term memory storage. Olfactory sensory input is the most prevalent in our memory, contrary to the popular belief, as it mostly bypasses the thalamus, and all such information gets encoded directly. If there were no such filter, as with olfaction, all 11 million bits per second of sensory input would flood the brain and make it impossible to think about anything. This "attention gateway" created by the thalamus limits what is recorded to the small portion that you more or less tell it to. This is how focusing works. 
This system is more permanent and has a virtually unlimited capacity of storage. In this system basic meaning and essence can be stored for hours, days, weeks, and even for years. Much of the information retained here covers the whole life. When required, with appropriate cues, the material is typically retrieved.
For studying, in order to maximize information retention, psychologists developed another version (one of many) of the learning cycle:In 1885 Hermann Ebbinghaus carried out a study wherein provided a quantitative measure of retention. For this purpose the designed "Nonsense syllable"... A meaningless three letter unit consisting of vowel between two consonants such as LEP, NOL etc. For obtaining a pure, uncontaminated by the previous learning and association, he used these non-sense syllables.
In these experiments he used himself as a subject and as a result of these experiments, he designed many methods for the training of memory. In the present experiment by the uses of nonsense syllables and meaningful words, subject's ability of retention will be evaluated.
Memory and trauma
Long-term memory is associated with many different areas of the brain including the hippocampus, amygdala, thalamus and hypothalamus, peripheral cortex and temporal cortex. The hippocampus and amygdala have been connected with transference of memory from short-term memory to long-term memory. Thalamus and hypothalamus, located in the forebrain, are part of the limbic system; they are responsible for regulating different hormones and emotional and physical reactions to situations, including emotional stress or trauma. The thalamus is also related to reception of information and transferring the information, in the case of memories, to the cerebral cortex.
Personal-event memory
Studies have shown that activity in the medial temporal lobe (MTL) structures: perirhinal cortex, parahippocampal cortex and the hippocampus are vital to the recollection of personal-event memories along with other memories. the medial temporal lobe structures, parietal and frontal lobes of the brain, all contribute to forming and retrieving memories. The MTL structures are the primary components for creating long-term memories via words, spatial information, and recognition.
Long-term memory
In 1974 Baddeley and Hitch proposed an alternative theory of short-term memory: Baddeley's model of working memory. According to this theory, short-term memory is divided into different slave systems for different types of input items, and there is an executive control supervising what items enter and exit those systems. The slave systems include the phonological loop, the visuo-spatial sketchpad, and the episodic buffer (later added by Baddeley).
Fergus I. M. Craik
The controversy this paradigm caused at the time, when compared to the Atkinson-Shiffrin memory model, was that it proposed that memory is not a uniform process that consists of storing information between short-term memory and long-term memory. To break away from the linearity the models possessed at the time, the levels-of-processing adopted a non-structured approach that also infused the different types of memory and associated complexities (i.e. episodic, procedural, and semantic memory). Moreover, Craik and Lockhart's final criticism proposed that there is no separate, capacity-limited, short-term memory store. They think that short-term memory is a temporary activation of the regions of the brain that are involved in long-term memory.
Eyewitness memory (child testimony)
The hippocampus is one of the brain structures located within the medial temporal lobe and is considered one of the main structures of the brain associated with eyewitness testimony because it is the area that is important for the formation of long term memories. Declarative memories are long term memories that can be consciously remembered, which include: specific events and factual knowledge. Eyewitnesses use declarative memories, specifically episodic memory when they are asked to recall specific events that took place in the past. For example, "Do you remember what the doctor said to you last time you visited him?" Research on children as eyewitnesses found that children do not have accurate long term memories for past events.
Storage (memory)
Several memory models have been proposed to account for different types of recall processes, including cued recall, free recall, and serial recall. However, to explain the recall process, the memory model must identify how an encoded memory can reside in the memory storage for a prolonged period until the memory is accessed again, during the recall process; but not all models use the terminology of short-term and long-term memory to explain memory storage; the dual-store theory and a modified version of Atkinson–Shiffrin model of memory (Atkinson 1968) uses both short-and long-term memory storage, but others do not.
Short-term memory
The idea of the division of memory into short-term and long-term dates back to the 19th century. A classical model of memory developed in the 1960s assumed that all memories pass from a short-term to a long-term store after a small period of time. This model is referred to as the "modal model" and has been most famously detailed by Shiffrin. The exact mechanisms by which this transfer takes place, whether all or only some memories are retained permanently, and indeed the existence of a genuine distinction between the two stores, remain controversial topics among experts.
Hippocampus
Since at least the time of Ramon y Cajal (1852-1934), psychologists have speculated that the brain stores memory by altering the strength of connections between neurons that are simultaneously active. This idea was formalized by Donald Hebb in 1949, but for many years remained unexplained. In 1973, Tim Bliss and Terje Lømo described a phenomenon in the rabbit hippocampus that appeared to meet Hebb's specifications: a change in synaptic responsiveness induced by brief strong activation and lasting for hours or days or longer. This phenomenon was soon referred to as long-term potentiation (LTP). As a candidate mechanism for long-term memory, LTP has since been studied intensively, and a great deal has been learned about it. However, the complexity and variety of the intracellular signalling cascades that can trigger LTP is acknowledged as preventing a more complete understanding.
Atkinson–Shiffrin memory model
In the case of long-term memory, it is unlikely that different types of information, such as the motor skills to ride a bike, memory for vocabulary, and memory for personal life events are stored in the same fashion. Endel Tulving notes the importance of encoding specificity in long-term memory. To clarify, there are definite differences in the way information is stored depending on whether it is episodic (memories of events), procedural (knowledge of how to do things), or semantic (general knowledge). A short (non-inclusive) example comes from the study of Henry Molaison (H.M.): learning a simple motor task (tracing a star pattern in a mirror), which involves implicit and procedural long-term storage, is unaffected by bilateral lesioning of the hippocampal regions while other forms of long-term memory, like vocabulary learning (semantic) and memories for events, are severely impaired.
Long-term depression
In neurophysiology, long-term depression (LTD) is an activity-dependent reduction in the efficacy of neuronal synapses lasting hours or longer following a long patterned stimulus. LTD occurs in many areas of the CNS with varying mechanisms depending upon brain region and developmental progress. LTD in the hippocampus and cerebellum have been the best characterized, but there are other brain areas in which mechanisms of LTD are understood. LTD has also been found to occur in different types of neurons that release various neurotransmitters, however, the most common neurotransmitter involved in LTD is L-glutamate. L-glutamate acts on the N-methyl-D- aspartate receptors (NMDARs), α-amino-3-hydroxy-5-methylisoxazole-4-propionic acid receptors (AMPARs), kainate receptors (KARs) and metabotropic glutamate receptors (mGluRs) during LTD. It can result from strong synaptic stimulation (as occurs in the cerebellar Purkinje cells) or from persistent weak synaptic stimulation (as in the hippocampus). Long-term potentiation (LTP) is the opposing process to LTD; it is the long-lasting increase of synaptic strength. In conjunction, LTD and LTP are factors affecting neuronal synaptic plasticity. LTD is thought to result mainly from a decrease in postsynaptic receptor density, although a decrease in presynaptic neurotransmitter release may also play a role. Cerebellar LTD has been hypothesized to be important for motor learning. However, it is likely that other plasticity mechanisms play a role as well. Hippocampal LTD may be important for the clearing of old memory traces. 
Hippocampal/cortical LTD can be dependent on NMDA receptors, metabotropic glutamate receptors (mGluR), or endocannabinoids. The result of the underlying-LTD molecular mechanism is the phosphorylation of AMPA glutamate receptors and their elimination from the surface of the parallel fiber-Purkinje cell (PF-PC) synapse.
Short-term memory
Whatever the cause or causes of forgetting over the short-term may be, there is consensus that it severely limits the amount of new information that we can retain over brief periods of time. This limit is referred to as the finite capacity of short-term memory. The capacity of short-term memory is often called memory span, in reference to a common procedure of measuring it. In a memory span test, the experimenter presents lists of items (e.g. digits or words) of increasing length. An individual's span is determined as the longest list length that he or she can recall correctly in the given order on at least half of all trials.
Short-term memory
It is very difficult to demonstrate the exact capacity of short-term memory (STM) because it will vary depending on the nature of the material to be recalled. There is currently no way of defining the basic unit of information to be stored in the STM store. It is also possible that STM is not the store described by Atkinson and Shiffrin. In that case, the task of defining the task of STM becomes even more difficult.
Long-term depression
Long-term depression has long been hypothesized to be an important mechanism behind motor learning and memory. Cerebellar LTD is thought to lead to motor learning, and hippocampal LTD is thought to contribute to the decay of memory. However, recent studies have found that hippocampal LTD may not act as the reverse of LTP, but may instead contribute to spatial memory formation. Although LTD is now well characterized, these hypotheses about its contribution to motor learning and memory remain controversial.
Cadherin–catenin complex in learning and memory
Long-term potentiation (LTP), thought to be the cellular basis for learning and memory, involves a specific signal transmission process that underlies synaptic plasticity.
Among the many mechanisms responsible for the maintenance of synaptic plasticity is the cadherin–catenin complex.
By forming complexes with intracellular catenin proteins, neural cadherins (N-cadherins) serve as a link between synaptic activity and synaptic plasticity, and play important roles in the processes of learning and memory.
Long-term memory
Implicit memory (procedural memory) refers to the use of objects or movements of the body, such as how exactly to use a pencil, drive a car, or ride a bicycle. This type of memory is encoded and it is presumed stored by the striatum and other parts of the basal ganglia. The basal ganglia is believed to mediate procedural memory and other brain structures and is largely independent of the hippocampus. Research by Manelis, Hanson, and Hanson (2011) found that the reactivation of the parietal and occipital regions was associated with implicit memory. Procedural memory is considered non-declarative memory or unconscious memory which includes priming and non-associative learning.
The first part of nondeclarative memory (implicit memory) involves priming. Priming occurs when you do something faster after you have already done that activity, such as writing or using a fork.
Other categories of memory may also be relevant to the discussion of long-term memory. For example:
Intermediate-term memory
Intermediate-term memory (ITM) is a stage of memory distinct from sensory memory, working memory/short-term memory, and long-term memory. While sensory memory persists for several milliseconds, working memory persists for up to thirty seconds, and long-term memory persists from thirty minutes to the end of an individual's life, intermediate-term memory persists for about two to three hours. This overlap in the durations of these memory processes indicates that they occur simultaneously, rather than sequentially. Indeed, intermediate-term facilitation can be produced in the absence of long-term facilitation. However, the boundaries between these forms of memory are not clear-cut, and they can vary depending on the task. Intermediate-term memory is thought to be supported by the parahippocampal cortex.
Short-term memory
There have been few studies done on the relationship between short-term memory and intelligence in PTSD. However, examined whether people with PTSD had equivalent levels of short-term, non-verbal memory on the Benton Visual Retention Test (BVRT), and whether they had equivalent levels of intelligence on the Raven Standard Progressive Matrices (RSPM). They found that people with PTSD had worse short-term, non-verbal memory on the BVRT, despite having comparable levels of intelligence on the RSPM, concluding impairments in memory influence intelligence assessments in the subjects.
Human reliability
Limited Working Memory - The mind's short-term memory is the “workbench” for problem solving and decision-making.
Working memory
The term "working memory" was coined by Miller, Galanter, and Pribram, and was used in the 1960s in the context of theories that likened the mind to a computer. In 1968, Atkinson and Shiffrin used the term to describe their "short-term store". What we now call working memory was formerly referred to variously as a "short-term store" or short-term memory, primary memory, immediate memory, operant memory, and provisional memory. Short-term memory is the ability to remember information over a brief period (in the order of seconds). Most theorists today use the concept of working memory to replace or include the older concept of short-term memory, marking a stronger emphasis on the notion of manipulating information rather than mere maintenance.
Eyewitness memory (child testimony)
Short term memory is defined as the ability to store information for a short period of time. If it is rehearsed enough, it will be transferred into long term memory. This is important to know in regards to eyewitness testimonies because children have problems transferring short term memories to long term, as discussed previously.
Long short-term memory
Applications of LSTM include:
Long short-term memory
In 1999, Felix Gers introduced the forget gate (also called “keep gate”) into LSTM architecture, enabling the LSTM to reset its own state.
Long-term memory
Also, BDNF is important for the persistence of long-term memories.
Corticosterone
With respect to recognition and long term memories, corticosterone has variable effects. Studies show that the modification of certain chemical and brain processes that affect corticosterone levels can also impact stress effects on memory. In studies on rats, the fluctuations of corticosterone concentration are shown to prevent stress’ impairment of recognition memory in lower amounts. These lower levels seem to be linked to the rescue of stress-induced attenuation of CA1 long-term potentiation. When researchers looked at stress effects on LTM, they found many outcomes. In multiple studies, the formation of LTM (tested 24 h later) was found to be enhanced by corticosterone in some studies, while the persistence of LTM (tested at least 1 wk later) was only assisted by corticosterone in the late phase of memory consolidation and reconsolidation. Stress facilitates the consolidation but disrupts the reconsolidation of emotional memory. As mentioned previously, the persistence of LTM is selectively enhanced when stress and corticosterone are administered during the late phase after acquisition, but it is disrupted when stress and corticosterone are administered during the late phase after retrieval of memory. With regards to the persistence of LTM, there is a restricted time window between acquisition or retrieval where persistence is affected. These studies found that while persistence of LTM is selectively affected based on stage of memory, the formation of LTM is left intact after a certain length of time. Up to this point, studies have not agreed as to whether or not these processes are dependent on corticosterone or what even happens based on corticosterone in these processes and how memory is ultimately affected.
Echoic memory
A short-term memory model proposed by Nelson Cowan attempts to address this problem by describing a verbal sensory memory input and storage in more detail. It suggests a pre-attentive sensory storage system that can hold a large amount of accurate information over a short period of time and consists of an initial phase input of 200-400ms and a secondary phase that transfers the information into a more long term memory store to be integrated into working memory that starts to decay after 10-20s.
Short-term memory
The limited duration of short-term memory (~18 seconds without a form of memory rehearsal) quickly suggests that its contents spontaneously decay over time. The decay assumption is part of many theories of short-term memory, the most notable one being Baddeley's model of working memory. The decay assumption is usually paired with the idea of rapid covert rehearsal: In order to overcome the limitation of short-term memory, and retain information for longer, information must be periodically repeated or rehearsed—either by articulating it out loud or by mentally simulating such articulation. In this way, the information is likely to re-enter the short-term store and be retained for a further period.
Long-range dependence
Long-range dependence (LRD), also called long memory or long-range persistence, is a phenomenon that may arise in the analysis of spatial or time series data. It relates to the rate of decay of statistical dependence of two points with increasing time interval or spatial distance between the points. A phenomenon is usually considered to have long-range dependence if the dependence decays more slowly than an exponential decay, typically a power-like decay. LRD is often related to self-similar processes or fields. LRD has been used in various fields such as internet traffic modelling, econometrics, hydrology, linguistics and the earth sciences. Different mathematical definitions of LRD are used for different contexts and purposes.
Long-term potentiation
LTP was first observed by Terje Lømo in 1966 in the Oslo, Norway, laboratory of Per Andersen. There, Lømo conducted a series of neurophysiological experiments on anesthetized rabbits to explore the role of the hippocampus in short-term memory.
Elizabeth Zelinski
Zelinski also has joint appointments in the Psychology Department, Neurosciences and the Study of Women and Men in Society (SWMS) Programs. She is the principal investigator of the Long Beach Longitudinal Study. This study evaluates cognition, memory and language comprehension in older adults as well as the relationship between peoples' perceptions of their memory ability and their actual performance, and how these change as people grow old.
Iconic memory
Iconic memory is the visual sensory memory (SM) register pertaining to the visual domain and a fast-decaying store of visual information. It is a component of the visual memory system which also includes visual short-term memory (VSTM) and long-term memory (LTM). Iconic memory is described as a very brief (<1000 ms), pre-categorical, high capacity memory store. It contributes to VSTM by providing a coherent representation of our entire visual perception for a very brief period of time. Iconic memory assists in accounting for phenomena such as change blindness and continuity of experience during saccades. Iconic memory is no longer thought of as a single entity but instead, is composed of at least two distinctive components. Classic experiments including Sperling's partial report paradigm as well as modern techniques continue to provide insight into the nature of this SM store.
Short-term memory
Other evidence comes from experimental studies showing that some manipulations (e.g., a distractor task, such as repeatedly subtracting a single-digit number from a larger number following learning; cf Brown-Peterson procedure) impair memory for the 3 to 5 most recently learned words of a list (it is presumed, still held in short-term memory), while leaving recall for words from earlier in the list (it is presumed, stored in long-term memory) unaffected; other manipulations (e.g., semantic similarity of the words) affect only memory for earlier list words, but do not affect memory for the last few words in a list. These results show that different factors affect short-term recall (disruption of rehearsal) and long-term recall (semantic similarity). Together, these findings show that long-term memory and short-term memory can vary independently of each other.
Long-term memory
Long-term memory, unlike short-term memory, is dependent upon the synthesis of new proteins. This occurs within the cellular body, and concerns the particular transmitters, receptors, and new synapse pathways that reinforce the communicative strength between neurons. The production of new proteins devoted to synapse reinforcement is triggered after the release of certain signaling substances (such as calcium within hippocampal neurons) in the cell. In the case of hippocampal cells, this release is dependent upon the expulsion of magnesium (a binding molecule) that is expelled after significant and repetitive synaptic signaling. The temporary expulsion of magnesium frees NMDA receptors to release calcium in the cell, a signal that leads to gene transcription and the construction of reinforcing proteins. For more information, see long-term potentiation (LTP).
Continuous memory
The term continuous memory was coined by Hewlett-Packard (HP) to describe a unique feature of certain HP calculators whereby the calculator could internally sustain most, or in later models - all, of the contents of user memory (via battery-backed CMOS memory). Since its introduction on the HP-25C, this feature slowly evolved by model to eventually mean maintaining the contents of nearly all calculator memory, including system and scratch RAM, options, settings, flags, and other calculator state information.
Tabu search
Short-term, intermediate-term and long-term memories can overlap in practice. Within these categories, memory can further be differentiated by measures such as frequency and impact of changes made. One example of an intermediate-term memory structure is one that prohibits or encourages solutions that contain certain attributes (e.g., solutions which include undesirable or desirable values for certain variables) or a memory structure that prevents or induces certain moves (e.g. based on frequency memory applied to solutions sharing features in common with unattractive or attractive solutions found in the past). In short-term memory, selected attributes in solutions recently visited are labeled "tabu-active." Solutions that contain tabu-active elements are banned. Aspiration criteria are employed that override a solution's tabu state, thereby including the otherwise-excluded solution in the allowed set (provided the solution is “good enough” according to a measure of quality or diversity). A simple and commonly used aspiration criterion is to allow solutions which are better than the currently-known best solution.
Long-term potentiation
Though these theories of memory formation are now well established, they were farsighted for their time: late 19th and early 20th century neuroscientists and psychologists were not equipped with the neurophysiological techniques necessary for elucidating the biological underpinnings of learning in animals. These skills would not come until the later half of the 20th century, at about the same time as the discovery of long-term potentiation.
Long-term potentiation
It is one of several phenomena underlying synaptic plasticity, the ability of chemical synapses to change their strength. As memories are thought to be encoded by modification of synaptic strength, LTP is widely considered one of the major cellular mechanisms that underlies learning and memory.
Hippocampus
Since different neuronal cell types are neatly organized into layers in the hippocampus, it has frequently been used as a model system for studying neurophysiology. The form of neural plasticity known as long-term potentiation (LTP) was initially discovered to occur in the hippocampus and has often been studied in this structure. LTP is widely believed to be one of the main neural mechanisms by which memories are stored in the brain.
Short-term memory
Memory loss is a natural process in aging. One study investigated whether or not there were deficits in short-term memory in older adults. This was a previous study which compiled normative French data for three short-term memory tasks (Verbal, visual and spatial). They found impairments present in participants between the ages of 55 and 85 years of age.
Long-term memory
Some theories consider sleep to be an important factor in establishing well-organized long-term memories. "(See also sleep and learning.)" Sleep plays a key function in the consolidation of new memories.
Intermediate-term memory
In 1993, Rosenzweig and colleagues demonstrated that, in rats conditioned with an aversive stimulus, percent avoidance of the stimulus (and, by implication, memory of the aversive nature of the stimulus) reached relative minima at one minute, fifteen minutes, and sixty minutes. These dips were theorized to correspond to the time points in which the rats switched from working memory to intermediate-term memory, from intermediate-term memory to the early phase of long-term memory, and from the early phase of long-term memory to the late phase of long-term memory, respectively—thus demonstrating the presence of a form of memory that exists between working memory and long-term memory, which they referred to as "intermediate-term memory".
Hippocampal prosthesis
A prosthetic Neuronal Memory Silicon Chip is a device that imitates the brain's process of creating long-term memories. This device was designed by Theodore Berger, a Biomedical Engineer and Neurologist at University of Southern California. Berger started to work on this chip in the early 1990s. He and his colleagues have been able to implant electrodes into rats and monkeys that restore their memories after previously being impaired. While researchers are well into developing an actual memory prosthesis in animals, they still need to show that their chips can form long-term memories in many different behavioral situations. Berger hopes to eventually use these chips as electronic implants for humans whose brains that suffer from diseases such as Alzheimer's that disrupt neuronal networks.
Long-term memory
Working memory is not part of long-term memory, but is important for long-term memory to function. Working memory holds and manipulates information for a short period of time, before it is either forgotten or encoded into long-term memory. Then, in order to remember something from long-term memory, it must be brought back into working memory. If working memory is overloaded it can affect the encoding of long-term memory. If one has a good working memory they may have a better long-term memory encoding.
Intermediate-term memory
Unlike short-term memory and working memory, intermediate-term memory requires changes in translation to occur in order to function.
Atkinson–Shiffrin memory model
In this model, as with most models of memory, long-term memory is assumed to be nearly limitless in its duration and capacity. It is most often the case that brain structures begin to deteriorate and fail before any limit of learning is reached. This is not to assume that any item which is stored in long-term memory is accessible at any point in the lifetime. Rather, it is noted that the connections, cues, or associations to the memory deteriorate; the memory remains intact but unreachable.
Long-term memory
Schizophrenia patients have trouble with attention and executive functions which in turn affects long-term memory consolidation and retrieval. They cannot encode or retrieve temporal information properly, which causes them to select inappropriate social behaviors. They cannot effectively use the information they possess. The prefrontal cortex, where schizophrenia patients have structural abnormalities, is involved with the temporal lobe and also affects the hippocampus, which causes their difficulty in encoding and retrieving temporal information (including long-term memory).
Protein kinase C zeta type
PKMζ is thought to be responsible for maintaining the late phase of long-term potentiation (LTP). LTP is one of the major cellular mechanisms that are widely considered to underlie learning and memory. This theory arose from the observation that PKMζ perfused post synaptically into neurons causes synaptic potentiation, and selective inhibitors of PKMζ like zeta inhibitory peptide (ZIP), when bath applied one hour after tetanization, inhibit the late phase or maintenance of LTP. Thus PKMζ is both necessary and sufficient for maintaining LTP. Subsequent work showed that inhibiting PKMζ reversed LTP maintenance when applied up to 5 hours after LTP was induced in hippocampal slices, and after 22 hours in vivo. Inhibiting PKMζ in behaving animals erased spatial long-term memories in the hippocampus that were up to one month old, without affecting spatial short-term memories, and erased long-term memories for fear conditioning and inhibitory avoidance in the basolateral amygdala. When ZIP was injected into rats' sensorimotor cortices, it erased muscle memories for a task, even after several weeks of training. In the neocortex, thought to be the site of storage for most long-term memories, PKMζ inhibition erased associative memories for conditioned taste aversion in the insular cortex, up to 3 months after training. The protein also seems to be involved, through the nucleus accumbens, in the consolidation and reconsolidation of the memory related to drug addiction. PKMζ is thus the first molecule shown to be a component of the storage mechanism of long-term memory. Although results from PKCζ/PKMζ-null mice demonstrate LTP and memory appear largely the same as wild-type mice, the normal function of PKMζ in LTP and long-term memory storage was shown to be compensated by the other atypical PKC isoform, PKCι/λ in the knock-out.
Memory
Hebb distinguished between short-term and long-term memory. He postulated that any memory that stayed in short-term storage for a long enough time would be consolidated into a long-term memory. Later research showed this to be false. Research has shown that direct injections of cortisol or epinephrine help the storage of recent experiences. This is also true for stimulation of the amygdala. This proves that excitement enhances memory by the stimulation of hormones that affect the amygdala. Excessive or prolonged stress (with prolonged cortisol) may hurt memory storage. Patients with amygdalar damage are no more likely to remember emotionally charged words than nonemotionally charged ones. The hippocampus is important for explicit memory. The hippocampus is also important for memory consolidation. The hippocampus receives input from different parts of the cortex and sends its output out to different parts of the brain also. The input comes from secondary and tertiary sensory areas that have processed the information a lot already. Hippocampal damage may also cause memory loss and problems with memory storage. This memory loss includes retrograde amnesia which is the loss of memory for events that occurred shortly before the time of brain damage.
Extended memory
In DOS memory management, extended memory refers to memory above the first megabyte (2 bytes) of address space in an IBM PC or compatible with an 80286 or later processor. The term is mainly used under the DOS and Windows operating systems. DOS programs, running in real mode or virtual x86 mode, cannot directly access this memory, but are able to do so through an application programming interface called the "eXtended Memory Specification" (XMS). This API is implemented by a driver (such as HIMEM.SYS) or the operating system, which takes care of memory management and copying memory between conventional and extended memory, by temporarily switching the processor into protected mode. In this context the term "extended memory" may refer to either the whole of the extended memory or only the portion available through this API.
De novo protein synthesis theory of memory formation
Systems consolidation is the process by which memories are shifted from a vulnerable state to a fairly permanent one (Sutherland & Lehman, 2011). It also describes roles that certain brain structures, most notably the hippocampus, play in memory consolidation and the extent certain types of memories can be consolidated. LTP describes cellular level consolidation, which is the consolidation of a memory that occurs between individual neurons. Initially, cellular consolidation, or LTP, begins in the hippocampus; there, protein synthesis inhibitors, tetrodotoxin, lidocaine, lesions and other factors can interfere with hippocampal activity and cause memory deficits (Sutherland & Lehman, 2011). The systems consolidation theory of memory is usually investigated by studying the loss of memory for past events (retrograde amnesia) that occurs as a result of damage to the hippocampus, which is involved in systems consolidation. Retrograde amnesia can be either temporally graded (older memories are affected less) or flat (all memories, regardless of age, are affected equally), depending on the type of memory encoded and the extent of hippocampal damage (Sutherland & Lehman, 2011).
Long short-term memory
There are several architectures of LSTM units. A common architecture is composed of a cell (the memory part of the LSTM unit) and three "regulators", usually called gates, of the flow of information inside the LSTM unit: an input gate, an output gate and a forget gate. Some variations of the LSTM unit do not have one or more of these gates or maybe have other gates. For example, gated recurrent units (GRUs) do not have an output gate.
Sparse distributed memory
Sparse distributed memory (SDM) is a mathematical model of human long-term memory introduced by Pentti Kanerva in 1988 while he was at NASA Ames Research Center. It is a generalized random-access memory (RAM) for long (e.g., 1,000 bit) binary words. These words serve as both addresses to and data for the memory. The main attribute of the memory is sensitivity to similarity, meaning that a word can be read back not only by giving the original write address but also by giving one close to it, as measured by the number of mismatched bits (i.e., the Hamming distance between memory addresses).
Non-volatile memory
Non-volatile memory is typically used for the task of secondary storage, or long-term persistent storage. The most widely used form of primary storage today is a volatile form of random access memory (RAM), meaning that when the computer is shut down, anything contained in RAM is lost. However, most forms of non-volatile memory have limitations that make them unsuitable for use as primary storage. Typically, non-volatile memory costs more, provides lower performance, or has a limited lifetime compared to volatile random access memory.
Long short-term memory
Long short-term memory (LSTM) units are units of a recurrent neural network (RNN). An RNN composed of LSTM units is often called an "LSTM network" (or just "LSTM"). A common LSTM unit is composed of a cell, an input gate, an output gate and a forget gate. The cell remembers values over arbitrary time intervals and the three "gates" regulate the flow of information into and out of the cell.
Long-term potentiation
In 2006, Jonathan Whitlock and colleagues reported on a series of experiments that provided perhaps the strongest evidence of LTP's role in behavioral memory, arguing that to conclude that LTP underlies behavioral learning, the two processes must both mimic and occlude one another. Employing an inhibitory avoidance learning paradigm, researchers trained rats in a two-chambered apparatus with light and dark chambers, the latter being fitted with a device that delivered a foot shock to the rat upon entry. An analysis of CA1 hippocampal synapses revealed that inhibitory avoidance training induced "in vivo" AMPA receptor phosphorylation of the same type as that seen in LTP "in vitro"; that is, inhibitory avoidance training mimicked LTP. In addition, synapses potentiated during training could not be further potentiated by experimental manipulations that would have otherwise induced LTP; that is, inhibitory avoidance training occluded LTP. In a response to the article, Timothy Bliss and colleagues remarked that these and related experiments "substantially advance the case for LTP as a neural mechanism for memory."
Endocannabinoid system
Mice treated with tetrahydrocannabinol (THC) show suppression of long-term potentiation in the hippocampus, a process that is essential for the formation and storage of long-term memory. These results concur with anecdotal evidence suggesting that smoking cannabis impairs short-term memory. Consistent with this finding, mice without the CB receptor show enhanced memory and long-term potentiation indicating that the endocannabinoid system may play a pivotal role in the extinction of old memories. One study found that the high-dose treatment of rats with the synthetic cannabinoid HU-210 over several weeks resulted in stimulation of neural growth in the rats' hippocampus region, a part of the limbic system playing a part in the formation of declarative and spatial memories, but did not investigate the effects on short-term or long-term memory. Taken together, these findings suggest that the effects of endocannabinoids on the various brain networks involved in learning and memory may vary.
Recall (memory)
Serial recall in long-term memory (LTM) differs from serial recall in short-term memory (STM). To store a sequence in LTM, the sequence is repeated over time until it is represented in memory as a whole, rather than as a series of items. In this way, there is no need to remember the relationships between the items and their original positions. In STM, immediate serial recall (ISR) has been thought to result from one of two mechanisms. The first refers to ISR as a result of associations between the items and their positions in a sequence, while the second refers to associations between items. These associations between items are referred to as chaining, and is an unlikely mechanism, according to research. Position-item relationships do not account for recency and primacy effects, or the phonological similarity effect. The Primacy Model moves away from these two assumptions, suggesting that ISR results from a gradient of activation levels where each item has a particular level of activation that corresponds to its position. Research has supported the fact that immediate serial recall performance is much better when the list is homogenous (of the same semantic category) than when they are heterogeneous (of different semantic category). This suggests that semantic representations are beneficial to immediate serial recall performance. Short-term serial recall is also affected by similar-sounding items, as recall is lower (remembered more poorly) than items that do not sound alike. This is true when lists are tested independently (when comparing two separate lists of similar-sounding and not similar-sounding items) as well as when tested using a mixed list. Alan Baddeley first reported such an experiment in which items within a list were either mutually dissimilar or highly similar.
Long short-term memory
As of 2016, major technology companies including Google, Apple, and Microsoft were using LSTM as fundamental components in new products. For example, Google used LSTM for speech recognition on the smartphone, for the smart assistant Allo and for Google Translate. Apple uses LSTM for the "Quicktype" function on the iPhone and for Siri. Amazon uses LSTM for Amazon Alexa.
Memory consolidation
Synaptic consolidation, or late-phase LTP, is one form of memory consolidation seen across all species and long-term memory tasks. Long-term memory, when discussed in the context of synaptic consolidation, is memory that lasts for at least 24 hours. An exception to this 24-hour rule is long-term potentiation, or LTP, a model of synaptic plasticity related to learning, in which an hour is thought to be sufficient. Synaptic consolidation is achieved faster than systems consolidation, within only minutes to hours of learning in goldfish. LTP, one of the best understood forms of synaptic plasticity, is thought to be a possible underlying process in synaptic consolidation.
Short-term memory
Rehearsal is the process where information is kept in short-term memory by mentally repeating it. When the information is repeated each time, that information is reentered into the short-term memory, thus keeping that information for another 10 to 20 seconds (the average storage time for short-term memory).
GLD-2
In addition, the formation of long-term memory is believed to lack translational control of localized mRNAs. In mammals, dendrite mRNAs are kept in a repressed state and are activated upon repetitive stimulation. Several regulatory proteins required for translational control in early development are thought to be needed for memory formation, suggesting similar molecular mechanisms. In an experiment using "Drosophila", it has been detected the enzyme responsible for poly(A) elongation in the brain and it has been demonstrated too that its activity is required specifically for long-term memory. These findings provide strong evidence that cytoplasmic polyadenylation is critical for memory formation, and that GLD2 is the responsible enzyme.
Visual short-term memory
In the study of vision, visual short-term memory (VSTM) is one of three broad memory systems including iconic memory and long-term memory. VSTM is a type of short-term memory, but one limited to information within the visual domain.
Long short-term memory
Intuitively, the "cell" is responsible for keeping track of the dependencies between the elements in the input sequence. The "input gate" controls the extent to which a new value flows into the cell, the "forget gate" controls the extent to which a value remains in the cell and the "output gate" controls the extent to which the value in the cell is used to compute the output activation of the LSTM unit. The activation function of the LSTM "gates" is often the logistic function.
Long short-term memory
In 2017 researchers from Michigan State University, IBM Research, and Cornell University published a study in the Knowledge Discovery and Data Mining (KDD) conference. Their study describes a novel neural network that performs better than the widely used long short-term memory neural network.
Traumatic memories
Traumatic memories are formed after an experience that causes high levels of emotional arousal and the activation of stress hormones. These memories become consolidated, stable, and enduring long-term memories (LTMs) through the synthesis of proteins only a few hours after the initial experience.
The release of the neurotransmitter Norepinephrine (Noradrenaline) plays a large role in consolidation of traumatic memory. Stimulation of beta-adrenergic receptors during arousal and stress strengthens memory consolidation. Increased release of Norepinephrine inhibits the prefrontal cortex, which plays a role in emotion control as well as extinction or suppression of memory. Additionally, the release also serves to stimulate the amygdala which plays a key role in generating fear behaviors.
Interference theory
Interference theory is a theory regarding human memory. Interference occurs in learning; it is the notion that memories encoded in long-term memory (LTM) are forgotten, and cannot be retrieved into short-term memory (STM) effectively due to either memories interfering, or hampering, one another. As there are an immense number of comparably encoded memories within the storage of LTM, the challenge for memory retrieval is recalling the specific memory to be retrieved and worked upon in the temporary workspace provided in STM. The retention of information with respect to the relevant time of encoding memories into LTM has an effect on the degree of interference strength. 
There are two types of interference effects:
Long-term memory
Explicit memory (declarative memory) refers to all memories that are consciously available. These are encoded by the hippocampus, entorhinal cortex, and perirhinal cortex, but consolidated and stored elsewhere. The precise location of storage is unknown, but the temporal cortex has been proposed as a likely candidate. Research by Meulemans and Van der Linden (2003) found that amnesiac patients with damage to the medial temporal lobe performed more poorly on explicit learning tests than did healthy controls. However, these same amnesiac patients performed at the same rate as healthy controls on implicit learning tests. This implies that the medial temporal lobe is heavily involved in explicit learning, but not in implicit learning.
Long-term memory
Episodic memory refers to memory for specific events in time, as well as supporting their formation and retrieval. Some examples of episodic memory would be remembering someone's name and what happened at your last interaction with each other. Experiments conducted by Spaniol and colleagues indicated that older adults have worse episodic memories than younger adults because episodic memory requires context dependent memory.
Long-term memory
As long-term memory is subject to fading in the natural forgetting process, maintenance rehearsal (several recalls/retrievals of memory) may be needed to preserve long term memories. Individual retrievals can take place in increasing intervals in accordance with the principle of spaced repetition. This can happen quite naturally through reflection or deliberate recall (also known as recapitulation), often dependent on the perceived importance of the material. Using testing methods as a form of recall can lead to the testing effect, which aids long term memory through information retrieval and feedback.
Sight-reading
Human memory can be divided into three broad categories: long-term memory, sensory memory, and short-term (working) memory. According to the formal definition, working memory is "a system for temporarily storing and managing the information required to carry out complex cognitive tasks such as learning, reasoning, and comprehension." The paramount feature that distinguishes the working memory from both the long-term and sensory memory is this system's ability to simultaneously process and store information. The knowledge has what is called a
"limited capacity", so there is only a certain amount of information that can be stored and it is easily accessible for only a small window of time after it has been processed, with a recall time block of roughly fifteen seconds to one minute.
Cognitive science
Memory allows us to store information for later retrieval. Memory is often thought of as consisting of both a long-term and short-term store. Long-term memory allows us to store information over prolonged periods (days, weeks, years). We do not yet know the practical limit of long-term memory capacity. Short-term memory allows us to store information over short time scales (seconds or minutes).
Time aware long short-term memory
Time Aware LSTM (T-LSTM) is a long short-term memory (LSTM) unit capable of handling irregular time intervals in longitudinal patient records. T-LSTM was developed by researchers from Michigan State University, IBM Research, and Cornell University and was first presented in the Knowledge Discovery and Data Mining (KDD) conference.
Experiments using real and synthetic data proved that T-LSTM auto-encoder outperformed widely used frameworks including LSTM and MF1-LSTM auto-encoders.
Longterm Mentality
Preceded by the mixtapes such as "Longterm: The Mixtape" (2009) and "Longterm 2: Lifestyles of the Broke and Almost Famous" (2010), Ab-Soul stated "Longterm Mentality" is not the third installment in his "Longterm" series. In July 2010, in an interview with "Complex", Stevens claimed the series would have four installments, "When I did the first "Longterm" I knew that there would be four of them. When I did the first one. So there will be four of them: "Longterm 1, 2, 3, and 4". So right now we're at two. You'll have to wait for the next one. That's for the next Ab-Soul interview." In August 2011, in an interview with BlowHipHopTV, Ab-Soul explained in spite of the fact that "Longterm Mentality" is not a part of the series, all three projects paint a picture of his personal life and growth. While speaking with BlowHipHopTV, the Black Hippy member said that the project is intended to introduce listeners to the man behind the mic:
Long-term memory
The brain does not store memories in one unified structure, as might be seen in a computer's hard disk drive. Instead, different types of memory are stored in different regions of the brain. Long-term memory is typically divided up into two major headings: explicit memory and implicit memory.
Memory
Anderson (1976) divides long-term memory into "declarative (explicit)" and "procedural (implicit)" memories.
Deep learning
Many aspects of speech recognition were taken over by a deep learning method called long short-term memory (LSTM), a recurrent neural network published by Hochreiter and Schmidhuber in 1997. LSTM RNNs avoid the vanishing gradient problem and can learn "Very Deep Learning" tasks that require memories of events that happened thousands of discrete time steps before, which is important for speech. In 2003, LSTM started to become competitive with traditional speech recognizers on certain tasks. Later it was combined with connectionist temporal classification (CTC) in stacks of LSTM RNNs. In 2015, Google's speech recognition reportedly experienced a dramatic performance jump of 49% through CTC-trained LSTM, which they made available through Google Voice Search.
Short-term memory
Not all researchers agree that short-term and long-term memory are separate systems. Some theorists propose that memory is unitary over all time scales, from milliseconds to years. Support for the unitary memory hypothesis comes from the fact that it has been difficult to demarcate a clear boundary between short-term and long-term memory. For instance, Tarnow shows that the recall probability vs. latency curve is a straight line from 6 to 600 seconds (ten minutes), with the probability of failure to recall only saturating after 600 seconds. If there were really two different memory stores operating in this time frame, one could expect a discontinuity in this curve. Other research has shown that the detailed pattern of recall errors looks remarkably similar for recall of a list immediately after learning (it is presumed, from short-term memory) and recall after 24 hours (necessarily from long-term memory).
Storage (memory)
Thus, the two types of memory storage, short- and long-term stores, are used in the SAM model. In the recall process, items residing in short-term memory store will be recalled first, followed by items residing in long-term store, where the probability of being recalled is proportional to the strength of the association present within the long-term store. Another memory storage, the semantic matrix, is used to explain the semantic effect associated with memory recall.
Short-term memory
In an early and highly influential article, The Magical Number Seven, Plus or Minus Two, psychologist George Miller suggested that human short-term memory has a forward memory span of approximately seven items plus or minus two and that that was well known at the time (it seems to go back to the 19th-century researcher Wundt). More recent research has shown that this "magical number seven" is roughly accurate for college students recalling lists of digits, but memory span varies widely with populations tested and with material used. For example, the ability to recall words in order depends on a number of characteristics of these words: fewer words can be recalled when the words have longer spoken duration; this is known as the "word-length effect", or when their speech sounds are similar to each other; this is called the "phonological similarity effect". More words can be recalled when the words are highly familiar or occur frequently in the language. Recall performance is also better when all of the words in a list are taken from a single semantic category (such as games) than when the words are taken from different categories. A more up-to-date estimate of short-term memory capacity is about four pieces or "chunks" of information. However other prominent theories of short-term memory capacity argue against measuring capacity in terms of a fixed number of elements.
Convergence-divergence zone
Memory
Cognitive psychology
The two main types of memory are short-term memory and long-term memory; however, short-term memory has become better understood to be working memory. Cognitive psychologists often study memory in terms of working memory.
Visual memory
Visual short term memory is the capacity for holding a small amount of visual information in mind in an active, readily available state for a short period of time (usually no more than 30 seconds). Although visual short term memory is essential for the execution of a wide array of perceptual and cognitive functions, and is supported by an extensive network of brain regions, its storage capacity is severely limited.
Long-term depression
The mechanism of long-term depression has been well characterized in limited parts of the brain. However, the way in which LTD affects motor learning and memory is still not well understood. Determining this relationship is presently one of the major focuses of LTD research.
Nervous system
One very important subset of synapses are capable of forming memory traces by means of long-lasting activity-dependent changes in synaptic strength. The best-known form of neural memory is a process called long-term potentiation (abbreviated LTP), which operates at synapses that use the neurotransmitter glutamate acting on a special type of receptor known as the NMDA receptor. The NMDA receptor has an "associative" property: if the two cells involved in the synapse are both activated at approximately the same time, a channel opens that permits calcium to flow into the target cell. The calcium entry initiates a second messenger cascade that ultimately leads to an increase in the number of glutamate receptors in the target cell, thereby increasing the effective strength of the synapse. This change in strength can last for weeks or longer. Since the discovery of LTP in 1973, many other types of synaptic memory traces have been found, involving increases or decreases in synaptic strength that are induced by varying conditions, and last for variable periods of time. The reward system, that reinforces desired behaviour for example, depends on a variant form of LTP that is conditioned on an extra input coming from a reward-signalling pathway that uses dopamine as neurotransmitter. All these forms of synaptic modifiability, taken collectively, give rise to neural plasticity, that is, to a capability for the nervous system to adapt itself to variations in the environment.
Atkinson–Shiffrin memory model
The "long-term store" (also "long-term memory") is a more or less permanent store. Information that is stored here can be "copied" and transferred to the short-term store where it can be attended to and manipulated.
Long-term memory
Those with Alzheimer's disease generally display symptoms such as getting momentarily lost on familiar routes, placing possessions in inappropriate locations and distortions of existing memories or completely forgetting memories. Researchers have often used the Deese–Roediger–McDermott paradigm (DRM) to study the effects of Alzheimer's disease on memory. The DRM paradigm presents a list of words such as doze, pillow, bed, dream, nap, etc., with a theme word that is not presented. In this case the theme word would have been sleep. Alzheimer's disease patients are more likely to recall the theme word as being part of the original list than healthy adults. There is a possible link between longer encoding time and increased false memory in LTM. The patients end up relying on the gist of information instead of the specific words themselves. Alzheimer's leads to an uncontrolled inflammatory response brought on by extensive amyloid deposition in the brain, which leads to cell death in the brain. This gets worse over time and eventually leads to cognitive decline, after the loss of memory. Pioglitazone may improve cognitive impairments, including memory loss and may help protect long-term and visiospatial memory from neurodegenerative disease.
Memory rehearsal
Working memory is commonly cited as more of a process than an actual storage and is critical to the ability to maintain and manipulate information in one's mind. Because of its importance to cognition, working memory is responsible for that novel information that has immediate importance, but is not needed so much that it is committed to permanent storage in long term memory. In this way, it exists somewhere in an area somewhere between short-term and long-term memory.
Long-term experiment
A long-term experiment is an experimental procedure that runs through a long period of time, in order to test a hypothesis or observe a phenomenon that takes place at an extremely slow rate.
Delay line memory
Delay line memory is a form of computer memory, now obsolete, that was used on some of the earliest digital computers. Like many modern forms of electronic computer memory, delay line memory was a refreshable memory, but as opposed to modern random-access memory, delay line memory was sequential-access.
Sepp Hochreiter
Sepp Hochreiter developed the long short-term memory (LSTM) for which the first results were reported in his diploma thesis in 1991. The main LSTM paper appeared in 1997 and is considered as a discovery that is a milestone in the timeline of machine learning. LSTM overcomes the problem of recurrent neural networks (RNNs) and deep networks to forget information over time or, equivalently, through layers (vanishing or exploding gradient).
LSTM learns from training sequences to process new sequences in order to produce an output (sequence classification) or generate an output sequence (sequence to sequence mapping). Neural networks with LSTM cells solved numerous tasks in biological sequence analysis, drug design, automatic music composition, machine translation, speech recognition, reinforcement learning, and robotics.
LSTM with an optimized architecture was successfully applied to very fast
protein homology detection without requiring a sequence alignment.
LSTM has been used to learn a learning algorithm, that is, LSTM serves as a Turing machine, i.e. as a computer, on which a learning algorithm is executed. Since the LSTM Turing machine is a neural network, it can develop novel learning algorithms by learning on learning problems. It turns out that the learned new learning techniques are superior to those designed by humans. LSTM networks are used in Google Voice transcription, Google voice search, and Google's Allo as core technology for voice searches and commands in the Google App (on Android and iOS), and for dictation on Android devices. Also Apple has used LSTM in their "Quicktype" function since iOS 10.
Visual short-term memory
The term VSTM refers in a theory-neutral manner to the non-permanent storage of visual information over an extended period of time. The visuospatial sketchpad is a VSTM subcomponent within the theoretical model of working memory proposed by Alan Baddeley. Whereas iconic memories are fragile, decay rapidly, and are unable to be actively maintained, visual short-term memories are robust to subsequent stimuli and last over many seconds. VSTM is distinguished from long-term memory, on the other hand, primarily by its very limited capacity.
Long-term care
Long-term care (LTC) is a variety of services which help meet both the medical and non-medical needs of people with a chronic illness or disability who cannot care for themselves for long periods. Long term care is focused on individualized and coordinated services that promote independence, maximize patients' quality of life, and meet patients' needs over a period of time.