What is algae?
Brown algae
The brown algae (singular: alga), comprising the class Phaeophyceae, are a large group of multicellular algae, including many seaweeds located in colder waters within the Northern Hemisphere. Most brown algae live in marine environments, where they play an important role both as food and as habitat. For instance, "Macrocystis", a kelp of the order Laminariales, may reach 60 m (200 ft) in length and forms prominent underwater kelp forests. Kelp forests like these contain a high level of biodiversity. Another example is "Sargassum", which creates unique floating mats of seaweed in the tropical waters of the Sargasso Sea that serve as the habitats for many species. Many brown algae, such as members of the order Fucales, commonly grow along rocky seashores. Some members of the class, such as kelps, are used by humans as food.
Algae bioreactor
Some of the first experiments with the aim of cultivating algae were conducted in 1957 by the "Carnegie Institution" in Washington. In these experiments, monocellular Chlorella were cultivated by adding CO and some minerals. In the early days, bioreactors were used which were made of glass and later changed to a kind of plastic bag. The goal of all this research has been the cultivation of algae to produce a cheap animal feed.
Autospore
An autospore is a non-motile (non-flagellated) spore that is produced within a parent cell, and has the same shape as the parent cell, before release. Autospores, in addition to zoospore and aplanospore, are one of the three types of spores that algae use to reproduce and spread asexually. Autospores occur in several groups of algae, including Eustigmatophyceae, Dinoflagellates and green algae. For example, the colonial alga "Dichotomococcus" produces two autospores per reproducing cell; the autospores escape through a slit in the cell wall and remain attached to the mother cell.
Ecosystem of the North Pacific Subtropical Gyre
Before 1978, scientists hypothesized that diatoms dominated plankton populations in the NPSG. The primary consumers were expected to be relatively large mesozooplankton. It is now well known that most of the algae in the NPSG are actually bacteria (unicellular organisms), dominated by cyanobacteria, or blue-green algae. These simple organisms make up the majority of the standing stock of photosynthesizing marine life in this ecosystem. Scientists have also recently discovered Archaea (also a single-celled microorganism, but more similar to a eukaryote than bacteria) genes in the NPSG, suggesting that additional diversity exists in this habitat. Many microorganisms may exist in this gyre because small body size has a competitive advantage in the ocean for resource (light and nutrients) acquisition. In the contemporary view of the NPSG, the microbial food web is always present, whereas the larger eukaryote-grazer food chain is seasonal and ephemeral.
Charophyta
The Charales or stoneworts are freshwater algae with slender green or grey stems; the grey colour of many species results from the deposition of lime on the walls, masking the green colour of the chlorophyll. The main stems are slender and branch occasionally. Lateral branchlets occur in whorls at regular intervals up the stem, they are attached by rhizoids to the substrate. The reproductive organs consist of antheridia and oogonia, though the structures of these organs differ considerably from the corresponding organs in other algae. As a result of fertilization a protonema is formed, from which the sexually reproducing algae develops.
Biodiesel
From 1978 to 1996, the U.S. NREL experimented with using algae as a biodiesel source in the "Aquatic Species Program".
A self-published article by Michael Briggs, at the UNH Biodiesel Group, offers estimates for the realistic replacement of all vehicular fuel with biodiesel by utilizing algae that have a natural oil content greater than 50%, which Briggs suggests can be grown on algae ponds at wastewater treatment plants. This oil-rich algae can then be extracted from the system and processed into biodiesel, with the dried remainder further reprocessed to create ethanol.
Algae
Many algae, particularly members of the Characeae, have served as model experimental organisms to understand the mechanisms of the water permeability of membranes, osmoregulation, turgor regulation, salt tolerance, cytoplasmic streaming, and the generation of action potentials.
Algae
Today, algae are used by humans in many ways; for example, as fertilizers, soil conditioners, and livestock feed. Aquatic and microscopic species are cultured in clear tanks or ponds and are either harvested or used to treat effluents pumped through the ponds. Algaculture on a large scale is an important type of aquaculture in some places. Maerl is commonly used as a soil conditioner.
Sargassaceae
Sargassaceae are algae.
Algae fuel
Algae fuel, algal biofuel, or algal oil is an alternative to liquid fossil fuels that uses algae as its source of energy-rich oils. Also, algae fuels are an alternative to commonly known biofuel sources, such as corn and sugarcane. Several companies and government agencies are funding efforts to reduce capital and operating costs and make algae fuel production commercially viable. Like fossil fuel, algae fuel releases when burnt, but unlike fossil fuel, algae fuel and other biofuels only release recently removed from the atmosphere via photosynthesis as the algae or plant grew. The energy crisis and the world food crisis have ignited interest in algaculture (farming algae) for making biodiesel and other biofuels using land unsuitable for agriculture. Among algal fuels' attractive characteristics are that they can be grown with minimal impact on fresh water resources, can be produced using saline and wastewater, have a high flash point, and are biodegradable and relatively harmless to the environment if spilled. Algae cost more per unit mass than other second-generation biofuel crops due to high capital and operating costs, but are claimed to yield between 10 and 100 times more fuel per unit area. The United States Department of Energy estimates that if algae fuel replaced all the petroleum fuel in the United States, it would require , which is only 0.42% of the U.S. map, or about half of the land area of Maine. This is less than the area of corn harvested in the United States in 2000.
Harmful algal bloom
A harmful algal bloom (HAB) are organisms that can severely lower oxygen levels in natural waters, killing marine life. Some HABs are associated with algae-produced toxins. Blooms can last from a few days to many months. After the bloom dies, the microbes which decompose the dead algae use up even more of the oxygen, which can create fish die-offs. When these zones of depleted oxygen cover a large area for an extended period of time, they are referred to as dead zones, where neither fish nor plants are able to survive.
HABs are induced by an overabundance of nutrients in the water. The two most common nutrients are fixed nitrogen (nitrates, ammonia, urea) and phosphate. These nutrients are emitted by agriculture, other industries, excessive fertilizer use in urban/suburban areas and associated urban runoff. Higher water temperature and low circulation are contributing factors. HABs can cause significant harm to animals, the environment and economies. They have been increasing in size and frequency worldwide, a fact that many experts attribute to global climate change. The U.S. National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration (NOAA) predicts more harmful blooms in the Pacific Ocean.
Algae
With the abandonment of plant-animal dichotomous classification, most groups of algae (sometimes all) were included in Protista, later also abandoned in favour of Eukaryota. However, as a legacy of the older plant life scheme, some groups that were also treated as protozoans in the past still have duplicated classifications (see ambiregnal protists).
AlgaeBase
AlgaeBase evolved from Michael Guiry's seaweed website, and has grown into a database of algae from throughout the world, and in freshwater, terrestrial, and brackish as well as marine habitats. By 2005, the database contained about 65,000 names, and by September 2006, 122,240 species and infraspecific names were in the database, with 5,826 images, 38,290 bibliographic items, 138,706 distributional records. Currently, the data for the marine algae, particularly seaweeds, are the most complete. About 30,000 species of algae are included, of which the Rhodophyta (6000 species), marine Chlorophyta (1500 species), and Phaeophyceae (1755 species) are the most complete. The diatoms and the smaller freshwater green algae are currently (August 2010) the most incomplete groups.
Algaculture
The odor associated with bogs, swamps, indeed any stagnant waters, can be due to oxygen depletion caused by the decay of deceased algal blooms. Under anoxic conditions, the bacteria inhabiting algae cultures break down the organic material and produce hydrogen sulfide and ammonia which causes the odor. This hypoxia often results in the death of aquatic animals. In a system where algae is intentionally cultivated, maintained, and harvested, neither eutrophication nor hypoxia are likely to occur.
Brown algae
Based on the work of Silberfeld, Rousseau & de Reviers 2014.
This is a list of the orders in the class Phaeophyceae:Most brown algae, with the exception of the Fucales, perform sexual reproduction through sporic meiosis. Between generations, the algae go through separate sporophyte (diploid) and gametophyte (haploid) phases. The sporophyte stage is often the more visible of the two, though some species of brown algae have similar diploid and haploid phases. Free floating forms of brown algae often do not undergo sexual reproduction until they attach themselves to substrate. The haploid generation consists of male and female gametophytes. The fertilization of egg cells varies between species of brown algae, and may be isogamous, oogamous, or anisogamous. Fertilization may take place in the water with eggs and motile sperm, or within the oogonium itself.
Christopher Hills
As a successful commodities trader and art patron in Jamaica, he retired from business at an early age to follow a spiritual quest that took him around the world as a speaker, author, entrepreneur and pioneer of algae as one of the most efficient sources of food and fuel for humanity.
Lichenology
These new discoveries were becoming increasingly contradictory for scientists. The apothecium reproductive organ being unique to fungi but absent in other photosynthetic organisms. With improvements in microscopy, algae were identified in the lichen structure, which heightened the contradictions. At first the presence of algae was taken as being due to contamination due to collection of samples in damp conditions and they were not considered as being in a symbiotic relation with the fungal part of the thallus. That the algae continued to multiply showed that they were not mere contaminants.
Brown algae
The closest relatives of the brown algae include unicellular and filamentous species, but no unicellular species of brown algae are known. However, most scientists assume that the Phaeophyceae evolved from unicellular ancestors. DNA sequence comparison also suggests that the brown algae evolved from the filamentous Phaeothamniophyceae, Xanthophyceae, or the Chrysophyceae between 150 and 200 million years ago. In many ways, the evolution of the brown algae parallels that of the green algae and red algae, as all three groups possess complex multicellular species with an alternation of generations. Analysis of 5S rRNA sequences reveals much smaller evolutionary distances among genera of the brown algae than among genera of red or green algae, which suggests that the brown algae have diversified much more recently than the other two groups.
Brown algae
Brown algae belong to the group Heterokontophyta, a large group of eukaryotic organisms distinguished most prominently by having chloroplasts surrounded by four membranes, suggesting an origin from a symbiotic relationship between a basal eukaryote and another eukaryotic organism. Most brown algae contain the pigment fucoxanthin, which is responsible for the distinctive greenish-brown color that gives them their name. Brown algae are unique among heterokonts in developing into multicellular forms with differentiated tissues, but they reproduce by means of flagellated spores and gametes that closely resemble cells of other heterokonts. Genetic studies show their closest relatives to be the yellow-green algae.
Algae
To some degree, the distribution of algae is subject to floristic discontinuities caused by geographical features, such as Antarctica, long distances of ocean or general land masses. It is, therefore, possible to identify species occurring by locality, such as "Pacific algae" or "North Sea algae". When they occur out of their localities, hypothesizing a transport mechanism is usually possible, such as the hulls of ships. For example, "Ulva reticulata" and "U. fasciata" travelled from the mainland to Hawaii in this manner.
National Algae Association
The National Algae Association is a United States non-profit algae production trade organization for commercially minded algae researchers, algae producers and equipment companies.
Coral reef fish
Algae can drape reefs in kaleidoscopes of colours and shapes. Algae are primary producers, which means they are plants synthesising food directly from solar energy and carbon dioxide and other simple nutrient molecules. Without algae, everything on the reef would die. One important algal group, the bottom dwelling (benthic) algae, grows over dead coral and other inert surfaces, and provides grazing fields for herbivores such as parrotfish.
Chaetosphaeridium globosum
Chaetosphaeridium globosum is a one-celled alga which is thought to represent an ancient lineage of the green plants. This organism exists in a filamentous form with one flagella per cell. It is a freshwater species. The flagellum is covered in scales in a 3-prong irregular shape called ‘maple leafs’. The cells are usually in diameter and with one pyrenoid. Each cell bears long bristle.
Acetabularia caliculus
Acetabularia caliculus, the umbrella alga, is a species of green alga found in shallow temperate and tropical seas.
Algas Calcareas
Algas Calcareas is a dietary supplement derived from a marine-algae native to South America and is abundant on the sea shores. This algae absorbs minerals from the sea before it breaks it down naturally before settling on the bottom of the ocean. This calcified structure is a source of many trace minerals and bone-supporting factors and is also pre-digested and bioavailable. 
Algas Calcareas was first found by Dr. Marcos Norman to reduce fusion temperatures in steel manufacturing. However, Dr. Norman became so fascinated with the properties of this mineral source, he left Morris Kwugsem to begin a study on this South American marine algae that has lasted for 29 years.
Algophagy
The chimpanzee is a primate in the same family as humans and are native to sub-Saharan Africa. While many chimpanzees are naturally hydrophobic, Sakamaki (1998) found that those in Mahale have been observed to submerge themselves into freshwater and eat algae. This observation is the first documentation of a primate using algae in the wild as a food source and is an important marker of possible adaptation in the species. While the chimpanzee in question, Sally, was one of the only algae-eaters in her group, it was assumed that she had adopted this behaviour from her natal group prior to immigrating to this new environment. Nonetheless, this anecdotal field study highlights the act of eating algae in chimpanzees. Another example here is found in certain species of sheep. The North Ronaldsay sheep is native to the island of Orkney off of Scotland and had been bred for wool until recently being listed as a vulnerable population. This species relies heavily on tidal algae as outlined by Paterson and Coleman (1982). The researchers here observed the sheep feeding largely on brown algae, commonly known as seaweed. The sheep relied on the tides to expose the nutrient rich algae and when the tides made the food inaccessible, the sheep supported their diet with other forms of grazing. This feeding behaviour exemplifies the use of algophagy in this species of sheep. While algophagy has been viewed in both chimpanzees and sheep, it has also been observed in the common chicken as well. When the Poultry Department of the University of Maryland did an assay of dried "Chlorella pyrenoidosa", they found it to be a rich nutrient source that could be substituted into the diet of chickens. The researcher behind this outlined the benefits of using this food replacement for chickens in that it improved growth and wellbeing of the chicken. While this example is not a natural one, it does outline the use of algae as a food source for domestic chickens, an important consideration in the future of both algophagy and agriculture.
Algae bioreactor
The utilisation of algae as food is very common in East Asian regions. Most of the species contain only a fraction of usable proteins and carbohydrates, and a lot of minerals and trace elements. Generally, the consumption of algae should be minimal because of the high iodine content, particularly problematic for those with hyperthyroidism. Likewise, many species of diatomaceous algae produce compounds unsafe for humans. The algae, especially some species which contain over 50 percent oil and a lot of carbohydrates, can be used for producing biodiesel and bioethanol by extracting and refining the fractions. This point is very interesting, because the algae biomass is generated 30 times faster than some agricultural biomass, which is commonly used for producing biodiesel.
Phycology
As early as 1803 Jean Pierre Étienne Vaucher had published on the isogamy (sexual conjugation) in the algae, but it was in the early 20th century that reproduction and development began to be extensively studied. The 1935 and 1945 comprehensive volumes of Felix Eugen Fritsch consolidated what was then known about the morphology and reproduction of the algae. This was followed in the 1950s by the development of area checklists, led by Mary W. Parke with her 1931 "Manx Algae" and followed in 1953 by her "A preliminary check-list of British marine algae" Although Lily Newton's 1931 "Handbook" provided the first identification key for the algae of the British Isles, it wasn't until the 1960s that the development of such keys became routine. The 1980s with the new emphasis on ecology saw increased study of algal communities, and the place of algae in larger plant communities, and provided an additional tool for explaining geographical variation.
Algaecide
Algaecide or algicide is a biocide used for killing and preventing the growth of algae.
Algae scrubber
An algae scrubber filters water by moving water rapidly over a rough, highly illuminated surface, which causes algae to start growing in large amounts. As the algae grow, they consume nutrients such as nitrate, phosphate, nitrite, ammonia, ammonium and even metals such as copper from the water. These nutrients are normally a problem in aquariums and ponds because they cause nuisance algae to grow, and also because they cause sickness and/or other problems in aquarium fish, invertebrates and corals. An algae scrubber allows algae to grow, but the algae grow inside the filter instead of in the aquarium or pond. This removes excess nutrients (scrubs the water), diminishing nuisance algae in the aquarium or pond . Nuisance algae in the aquarium or pond are not to be confused with the desired algae in the algae scrubber filter itself. The algae that grow in the algae scrubber can then be removed, or fed back to the livestock.
Sargassum
Sargassum is a genus of brown (class Phaeophyceae) macroalgae (seaweed) in the order Fucales. Numerous species are distributed throughout the temperate and tropical oceans of the world, where they generally inhabit shallow water and coral reefs, and the genus is widely known for its planktonic (free-floating) species. Most species within the class Phaeophyceae are predominantly cold-water organisms that benefit from nutrients upwelling, but the genus "Sargassum" appears to be an exception. Any number of the normally benthic species may take on a planktonic, often pelagic existence after being removed from reefs during rough weather; however, two species ("S. natans" and "S. fluitans") have become holopelagic—reproducing vegetatively and never attaching to the seafloor during their lifecycles. The Atlantic Ocean's Sargasso Sea was named after the algae, as it hosts a large amount of "Sargassum".
Algae fuel in the United States
The National Algae Association (NAA) is a non-profit organization of algae researchers, algae production companies and the investment community who share the goal of commercializing algae oil as an alternative feedstock for the biofuels markets. The NAA gives its members a forum to efficiently evaluate various algae technologies for potential early stage company opportunities.
Algae
The oils from some algae have high levels of unsaturated fatty acids. For example, "Parietochloris incisa" is very high in arachidonic acid, where it reaches up to 47% of the triglyceride pool. Some varieties of algae favored by vegetarianism and veganism contain the long-chain, essential omega-3 fatty acids, docosahexaenoic acid (DHA) and eicosapentaenoic acid (EPA). Fish oil contains the omega-3 fatty acids, but the original source is algae (microalgae in particular), which are eaten by marine life such as copepods and are passed up the food chain. Algae have emerged in recent years as a popular source of omega-3 fatty acids for vegetarians who cannot get long-chain EPA and DHA from other vegetarian sources such as flaxseed oil, which only contains the short-chain alpha-linolenic acid (ALA).Agricultural Research Service scientists found that 60–90% of nitrogen runoff and 70–100% of phosphorus runoff can be captured from manure effluents using a horizontal algae scrubber, also called an algal turf scrubber (ATS). Scientists developed the ATS, which consists of shallow, 100-foot raceways of nylon netting where algae colonies can form, and studied its efficacy for three years. They found that algae can readily be used to reduce the nutrient runoff from agricultural fields and increase the quality of water flowing into rivers, streams, and oceans. Researchers collected and dried the nutrient-rich algae from the ATS and studied its potential as an organic fertilizer. They found that cucumber and corn seedlings grew just as well using ATS organic fertilizer as they did with commercial fertilizers. Algae scrubbers, using bubbling upflow or vertical waterfall versions, are now also being used to filter aquaria and ponds.
Chaetomorpha
These algae are popular with aquarium hobbyists. Dumping of aquarium specimens into waterways has led to the establishment of nonnative "Chaetomorpha" populations, which degrades ecosystems when the algae become invasive species. Biologists recommend boiling, microwaving, freezing, or dessicating aquarium "Chaetomorpha" before disposing of it to avoid inadvertent releases.
Soil microbiology
Algae can be split up into three main groups: the Cyanophyceae, the Chlorophyceae and the Bacillariaceae. The Cyanophyceae contain chlorophyll, which is the molecule that absorbs sunlight and uses that energy to make carbohydrates from carbon dioxide and water and also pigments that make it blue-green to violet in color. The Chlorophyceae usually only have chlorophyll in them which makes them green, and the Bacillariaceae contain chlorophyll as well as pigments that make the algae brown in color.
Ice algae
Ice algae play a critical role in primary production and serve as part of the base of the polar food web by converting carbon dioxide and inorganic nutrients to oxygen and organic matter through photosynthesis in the upper ocean of both the Arctic and Antarctic. Within the Arctic, estimates of the contribution of sea ice algae to total primary production ranges from 3-25%, up to 50-57% in high Arctic regions. Sea ice algae accumulate biomass rapidly, often at the base of sea ice, and grow to form algal mats that are consumed by amphipods such as krill and copepods. Ultimately, these organisms are eaten by fish, whales, penguins, and dolphins. When sea ice algal communities detach from the sea ice they are consumed by pelagic grazers, such as zooplankton, as they sink through the water column and by benthic invertebrates as they settle on the seafloor. Sea ice algae as food are rich in polyunsaturated and other essential fatty acids, and are the exclusive producer of certain essential omega-3 fatty acids that are important for copepod egg production, egg hatching, and zooplankton growth and function.
Diatom
Diatoms ("diá-tom-os" 'cut in half', from "diá", 'through' or 'apart'; and the root of "tém-n-ō", 'I cut'.) are a major group of algae, specifically microalgae, found in the oceans, waterways and soils of the world. Living diatoms number in the trillions: they generate about 20 percent of the oxygen produced on the planet each year, take in over 6.7 billion metric tons of silicon each year from the waters in which they live, and contribute nearly half of the organic material found in the oceans. The shells of dead diatoms can reach as much as a half mile deep on the ocean floor, and the entire Amazon basin is fertilized annually by 27 million tons of diatom shell dust transported by east-to-west (easterly) transatlantic winds from the bed of a dried up lake once covering much of the African Sahara.
Lichen
A lichen is a composite organism that emerges from algae or cyanobacteria living among the filaments (hyphae) of the fungi in a mutually beneficial symbiotic relationship. The fungi benefit from the carbohydrates produced by the algae or cyanobacteria via photosynthesis. The algae or cyanobacteria benefit by being protected from the environment by the filaments of the fungi, which also gather moisture and nutrients from the environment, and (usually) provide an anchor to it. Although some photosynthetic partners in a lichen can survive outside the lichen, the lichen symbiotic association extends the ecological range of both partners, whereby most descriptions of lichen associations describe them as symbiotic. However, while symbiotic, the relationship is probably not mutualistic, since the algae give up a disproportionate amount of their sugars (see below). Both partners gain water and mineral nutrients mainly from the atmosphere, through rain and dust. The fungal partner protects the alga by retaining water, serving as a larger capture area for mineral nutrients and, in some cases, provides minerals obtained from the substrate. If a cyanobacterium is present, as a primary partner or another symbiont in addition to a green alga as in certain tripartite lichens, they can fix atmospheric nitrogen, complementing the activities of the green alga.
Algae fuel
Light is what algae primarily need for growth as it is the most limiting factor. Many companies are investing for developing systems and technologies for providing artificial light. One of them is OriginOil that has developed a Helix BioReactorTM that features a rotating vertical shaft with low-energy lights arranged in a helix pattern. Water temperature also influences the metabolic and reproductive rates of algae. Although most algae grow at low rate when the water temperature gets lower, the biomass of algal communities can get large due to the absence of grazing organisms. The modest increases in water current velocity may also affect rates of algae growth since the rate of nutrient uptake and boundary layer diffusion increases with current velocity.
AlgaePARC
Microalgae
Microalgae are currently seen by some persons as a promising source of biodiesel and chemical building blocks, which can be used in paint and plastics. Biomass from algae offers a sustainable alternative to products and fuels from the petrochemical industry. When fully developed this contributes to a biobased economy as algae help to reduce the emissions of carbon dioxide (CO) and make the economy less dependent on fossil fuels.
Brown algae
Brown algae include a number of edible seaweeds. All brown algae contain alginic acid (alginate) in their cell walls, which is extracted commercially and used as an industrial thickening agent in food and for other uses. One of these products is used in Lithium Ion batteries. Alginic acid is used as a stable component of a battery anode. This polysaccharide is a major component of brown algae, and is not found in land plants.
Phycology
Phycology (from Greek , "phykos", "seaweed"; and , "-logia") is the scientific study of algae. Also known as algology, phycology is a branch of life science and often is regarded as a subdiscipline of botany.
Antarctic microorganism
Algae is present in almost all ice-free areas and occurs in soils, as epiphytes on mosses, in cyanobacterial mats and in plankton of lakes and ponds. It is also possible to find algae associated with rocks or living in the thin film of melted water in the snow patches. Presently there are over 300 algal taxa identified on Antarctica, with Bacillariophyceae (Diatoms) and Chlorophyta (Green algae) being the most widespread on Antarctica. Diatoms are abundant in aquatic environments decreasing in number in terrestrial habitats. Chlorophyta are also important in mats in lakes and ponds but tend to increase their relative importance in terrestrial environments and especially in soils, where they are the densest algal group. Xanthophyceae (Yellow-green algae) are an important component of the flora in soils of Antarctica. Other algal groups (Dinophyta, Cryptophyta, and Euglenophyta) are mainly limited to freshwater communities of the Dry Valleys.
Algae
The various sorts of algae play significant roles in aquatic ecology. Microscopic forms that live suspended in the water column (phytoplankton) provide the food base for most marine food chains. In very high densities (algal blooms), these algae may discolor the water and outcompete, poison, or asphyxiate other life forms.
Mesodinium chamaeleon
Mesodinium chamaeleon is a ciliate of the genus "Mesodinium". It is known for being able to consume and maintain algae endosymbiotically for days before digesting the algae. It has the ability to eat red and green algae, and afterwards using the chlorophyll granules from the algae to generate energy, turning itself from being a heterotroph into an autotroph. The species was discovered in January 2012 outside the coast of Nivå, Denmark by professor Øjvind Moestrup.
Phospholipid-derived fatty acids
Phytoplankton (eukaryotic algae) are microscopic photosynthesizing plants that inhabit the sunlit layers of oceans and bodies of freshwater. As the primary source of elaborated carbon compounds, they are vital to the aquatic food web. Phytoplankton produce considerable amounts of polyunsaturated fatty acids (PUFA), including Eicosapentaenoic acid (EPA, 20:5 w3c), with microalgae being the origin of omega-3 fatty acids in fish oil. The diverse taxonomic groups in algae vary in abundance dependent on environmental conditions such as temperature, salinity, sunlight, and nutrient availability. The PLFA biomarker compositions were found to enable determination of the prevalence of the major groups in several marine environments. In a study of reservoir sedimentary deposits, an assumption was made that the community PUFA content constituted "ca". 50% of the total microeukaryotic PLFAs. It was also assumed that “The ratio of omega-3 to omega-6 fatty acids describes the relative contribution of phototrophic to heterotrophic members of the microeukaryotic community…”.
Culture of microalgae in hatcheries
Microalgae or microscopic algae grow in either marine or freshwater systems. They are primary producers in the oceans that convert water and carbon dioxide to biomass and oxygen in the presence of sunlight.
Green algae
The land plants, or embryophytes, are thought to have emerged from the charophytes. Therefore, cladistically, embryophytes belong to green algae as well. However, because the embryophytes are traditionally classified as neither algae nor green algae, green algae are a paraphyletic group. Since the realization that the embryophytes emerged from within the green algae, some authors are starting to include them. The clade that includes both green algae and embryophytes is monophyletic and is referred to as the clade Viridiplantae and as the kingdom Plantae. The green algae include unicellular and colonial flagellates, most with two flagella per cell, as well as various colonial, coccoid and filamentous forms, and macroscopic, multicellular seaweeds. There are about 8,000 species of green algae. Many species live most of their lives as single cells, while other species form coenobia (colonies), long filaments, or highly differentiated macroscopic seaweeds.
Algae fuel
Reliance industries in collaboration with Algenol, USA commissioned a pilot project to produce algal bio-oil in the year 2014. Spirulina which is an alga rich in proteins content has been commercially cultivated in India. Algae is used in India for treating the sewage in open/natural oxidation ponds This reduces the Biological Oxygen Demand (BOD) of the sewage and also provides algal biomass which can be converted to fuel.
Algae fuel
The Algae Biomass Organization (ABO) is a non-profit organization whose mission is "to promote the development of viable commercial markets for renewable and sustainable commodities derived from algae".
Lake Winnipeg algae threat
In the last 30 years Lake Winnipeg has experienced a steady surge of blue-green algae growth and although algae grows naturally in the lake, excessive blue-green algae blooms are caused by high ratio levels of nitrogen and phosphorus draining into the lake via rivers and surface runoff. Up to five and a half million people rely on the health of Lake Winnipeg. The lake is an economical powerhouse that supports a $100 million a year tourism industry and a $25 million a year fishing industry. Healthy algae populations play an important role in keeping lake Winnipeg's ecological systems balanced. Green algae provides food for zooplankton, which are then eaten by larger fish in the lake. However the toxins that blue-green algae release can destroy fresh water ecosystems and can be dangerous for humans and other species. Very high levels of the algae toxin microcystin closed Victoria Beach off from the public in the summer of 2003. Grand Beach and other surrounding settlements along the lake are often closed for a short time during summer months due to E. coli and algae-toxin related threats. Immense algae blooms have appeared in the northern part of Lake Winnipeg in the last decade with hundreds of square kilometers of the lake covered with a thick toxic layer of blue-green algae. Local residents in surrounding communities say the blue-green algae is well known for creating deadly water conditions in prairie dugouts and have been known to even kill livestock. Commercial and aboriginal fishermen on the lake often find their nets temporarily disabled during the summer months because of the thick algae conditions. The Lake Winnipeg algae blooms are considered the worst algae problem of any large freshwater lake in the world.
Algaculture
The majority of algae that are intentionally cultivated fall into the category of microalgae (also referred to as phytoplankton, microphytes, or planktonic algae). Macroalgae, commonly known as seaweed, also have many commercial and industrial uses, but due to their size and the specific requirements of the environment in which they need to grow, they do not lend themselves as readily to cultivation (this may change, however, with the advent of newer seaweed cultivators, which are basically algae scrubbers using upflowing air bubbles in small containers).
Plant
Algae comprise several different groups of organisms which produce food by photosynthesis and thus have traditionally been included in the plant kingdom. The seaweeds range from large multicellular algae to single-celled organisms and are classified into three groups, the brown, red and green algae. There is good evidence that the brown algae evolved independently from the others, from non-photosynthetic ancestors that formed endosymbiotic relationships with red algae rather than from cyanobacteria, and they are no longer classified as plants as defined here.
Algophagy
Algophagy is a feeding behaviour whereby an animal eats algae as a food source. Algae is a group of photosynthetic organisms that mostly rely on aquatic environments. They grow low to the ground as they lack vascular tissue, an adaptation postdating their origin. While the group of algal species is large, it is generally accepted that algae is high in nutritional value and often contain a variety of concentrated vitamins and minerals.
Plant
Plants are mainly multicellular, predominantly photosynthetic eukaryotes of the kingdom Plantae. Historically, plants were treated as one of two kingdoms including all living things that were not animals, and all algae and fungi were treated as plants. However, all current definitions of Plantae exclude the fungi and some algae, as well as the prokaryotes (the archaea and bacteria). On one definition, plants form the clade Viridiplantae (Latin name for "green plants"), a group that includes the flowering plants, conifers and other gymnosperms, ferns and their allies, hornworts, liverworts, mosses and the green algae, but excludes the red and brown algae.
Algae
In three lines, even higher levels of organization have been reached, with full tissue differentiation. These are the brown algae,—some of which may reach 50 m in length (kelps)—the red algae, and the green algae. The most complex forms are found among the charophyte algae (see Charales and Charophyta), in a lineage that eventually led to the higher land plants. The innovation that defines these nonalgal plants is the presence of female reproductive organs with protective cell layers that protect the zygote and developing embryo. Hence, the land plants are referred to as the Embryophytes.
Ecological resilience
The Woods Hole Oceanographic Institution calls nutrient pollution the most widespread, chronic environmental problem in the coastal ocean. The discharges of nitrogen, phosphorus, and other nutrients come from agriculture, waste disposal, coastal development, and fossil fuel use. Once nutrient pollution reaches the coastal zone, it stimulates harmful overgrowths of algae, which can have direct toxic effects and ultimately result in low-oxygen conditions. Certain types of algae are toxic. Overgrowths of these algae result in harmful algal blooms, which are more colloquially referred to as "red tides" or "brown tides". Zooplankton eat the toxic algae and begin passing the toxins up the food chain, affecting edibles like clams, and ultimately working their way up to seabirds, marine mammals, and humans. The result can be illness and sometimes death.
Alaria (alga)
"Alaria" is a genus of highly variable brown algae, and a member of the order Laminariales, more commonly known as kelp. It has mature sporophytes as small as and as large at in length. It does not show definite air-floats. All species’ sporophytes consist of a ramified holdfast, an unbranched cylindrical stipe, and a blade with a percurrent, cartilaginous midrib,"Alaria" is frequently found with lacerations running from the margin to the midrib caused by the ravages of the sea.
Weed Lake Wetland
Algae, the first plant on earth, can be useful for both nature and us. It is extremely edible for many ducks, geese and fish. It also absorbs carbon dioxide and makes oxygen and sugar inside itself. Algae can also be made into medicine, biofuel, fertilizer, pollution control and food. Algae can come in three different colors, brown, red and green. Plus, algae has two sizes, macro algae and micro algae. Micro algae are a quarter of a millimeter large and macro algae can appear to be enormous! You can find algae in all sorts of places such as Northern Canada, Eastern Canada, in Central Africa, and Western Europe. It can be found in rivers, ponds, lakes and wetlands. These places have high levels of chlorophyll, which algae need to grow. But if there is too much algae it can be harmful for the environment. When algae grow it multiplies over, and over again. It is similar to duckweed in a way that it doesn't reproduce; it just grows and then multiplies. This fascinating plant falls under the aquatic family and protist family. This plant can grow in both freezing conditions and warm areas but it prefers warmer water. There are also estimated 27,000 species of algae!
Algae fuel
Biodiesel is a diesel fuel derived from animal or plant lipids (oils and fats). Studies have shown that some species of algae can produce 60% or more of their dry weight in the form of oil. Because the cells grow in aqueous suspension, where they have more efficient access to water, and dissolved nutrients, microalgae are capable of producing large amounts of biomass and usable oil in either high rate algal ponds or photobioreactors. This oil can then be turned into biodiesel which could be sold for use in automobiles. Regional production of microalgae and processing into biofuels will provide economic benefits to rural communities.
Algae
Although used as a taxonomic category in some pre-Darwinian classifications, e.g., Linnaeus (1753), de Jussieu (1789), Horaninow (1843), Agassiz (1859), Wilson & Cassin (1864), in further classifications, the "algae" are seen as an artificial, polyphyletic group.
Algae
Naturally growing seaweeds are an important source of food, especially in Asia. They provide many vitamins including: A, B, B, B, niacin, and C, and are rich in iodine, potassium, iron, magnesium, and calcium. In addition, commercially cultivated microalgae, including both algae and cyanobacteria, are marketed as nutritional supplements, such as spirulina, "Chlorella" and the vitamin-C supplement from "Dunaliella", high in beta-carotene.
Bangia
"Bangia" is a red alga that arises from a discoid holdfast and short stipe consisting of the extensions of rhizoidal cells. Bangia has unbranched, erect thalli forming initially uniseriate filaments becoming multiseriate at maturity. The plant is composed of filiform, unbranched cylinders of cells embedded in a firm gelatinous matrix. The cell contains a stellate chloroplast with prominent pyrenoid, as well as single thylakoids (characteristic of division Rhodophyta). The growth of "Bangia" is diffuse and intercalary, and each cell is quadrate to rectangular in shape. Primary pitt connections are absent in all but the conchocelis stage.
Cutleria (alga)
Cutleria is a genus of brown algae (class Phaeophyceae), one of 2–6 genera in the order Cutleriales. AlgaeBase recognises 11 species in the genus. The genus was described by Robert Kaye Greville.
Flora of Australia
The algae are a large and diverse group of photosynthetic organisms. Many studies of algae include the cyanobacteria, in addition to micro and macro eukaryotic types that inhabit both fresh and saltwater. Currently, about 10,000 to 12,000 species of algae are known for Australia. The algal flora of Australia is unevenly documented: northern Australia remains largely uncollected for seaweeds and marine phytoplankton, descriptions of freshwater algae are patchy, and the collection of terrestrial algae has been almost completely neglected.
Forage fish
In oceans, most primary production is performed by algae. This is a contrast to land, where most primary production is performed by vascular plants. Algae ranges from single floating cells to attached seaweeds, while vascular plants are represented in the ocean by groups such as the seagrasses. Larger producers, such as seagrasses and seaweeds, are mostly confined to the littoral zone and shallow waters, where they attach to the underlying substrate and are still within the photic zone. Most primary production in the ocean is performed by microscopic organisms, the phytoplankton.
RedToL
The Phylogenetic and Genomic Approaches to Reconstructing the Red Algal Tree of Life focus on the Rhodophyta (red algae), one of the most ancient eukaryotic phyla with fossil evidence for Bangiales stretching back 1.2 billion years. Red algae are not only key members of marine and freshwater aquatic environments but they are sources for important human foods such as dulse and sushi wrap, and have a multitude of pharmaceutical and industrial uses (e.g., agarose and carrageenans). Perhaps most important is the role red algae played in symbiogenesis. A red alga was the ancient (>1 billion years ago) donor of the plastid in chlorophyll c-containing algae (heterokonta or stramenophiles) that rose to prominence in marine ecosystems after the end of Permian with groups such as diatoms currently providing ca. 20% of global fixed carbon.
Algae
Throughout the 20th century, most classifications treated the following groups as divisions or classes of algae: cyanophytes, rhodophytes, chrysophytes, xanthophytes, bacillariophytes, phaeophytes, pyrrhophytes (cryptophytes and dinophytes), euglenophytes, and chlorophytes. Later, many new groups were discovered (e.g., Bolidophyceae), and others were splintered from older groups: charophytes and glaucophytes (from chlorophytes), many heterokontophytes (e.g., synurophytes from chrysophytes, or eustigmatophytes from xanthophytes), haptophytes (from chrysophytes), and chlorarachniophytes (from xanthophytes).
Oophila
Oophila amblystomatis, commonly known as chlamydomonad algae or salamander algae, is a species of single-celled green algae. The Latin specific name means "loves salamander eggs". It does not occur anywhere in nature other than in the eggs of the spotted salamander, "Ambystoma maculatum". The alga can invade and grow in the amphibian's egg capsule. Once inside, it metabolizes the carbon dioxide produced by the embryo and provides it with oxygen as a result of photosynthesis. This is an example of symbiosis, and the only known example an intracellular endosymbiont microbe in vertebrates.
Acetabularia
Acetabularia is a genus of green algae in the family Polyphysaceae, Typically found in subtropical waters, "Acetabularia" is a single-celled organism, but gigantic in size and complex in form, making it an excellent model organism for studying cell biology. In form, the mature "Acetabularia" resembles the round leaves of a nasturtium, is 0.5 to 10 cm tall and has three anatomical parts: a bottom rhizoid that resembles a set of short roots; a long stalk in the middle; and a top umbrella of branches that may fuse into a cap. The single nucleus of "Acetabularia" is located in the rhizoid, and allows the cell to regenerate completely if its cap is removed. The caps of two "Acetabularia" may also be exchanged, even from two different species. In addition, if a piece of the stem is removed, with no access to the nucleus in the rhizoid, this isolated stem piece will also grow a new cap.
In the 1930s–1950s Joachim Hämmerling conducted experiments in which he demonstrated "Acetabularia"'s genetic information is contained in the nucleus. This was the first demonstration that genes are encoded by DNA in eukaryotes; earlier studies by Oswald Avery and others had shown that this was true for prokaryotes.
Algae Lake
Algae Lake () is a narrow, winding lake, long and between wide, extending in an east–west direction in the ice-free Bunger Hills of Antarctica. It was first mapped from air photos taken by U.S. Navy Operation Highjump, 1946–47, and named "Algae Inlet" by the Advisory Committee on Antarctic Names because of the algae reported by Operation Highjump personnel, which cause varying tints to the meltwater ponds overlying the Bunger Hills and to the saline inlets and channels in the Highjump Archipelago area close to the north. Subsequent Soviet Antarctic Expeditions (1956–57) found this "inlet" to be a lake.
Aquascaping
Algae (including cyanobacteria, as well as true algae) is considered distracting and unwanted in aquascaping, and is controlled in several ways. One is the use of animals that consume algae, such as some fish (notably cyprinids of the genera "Crossocheilus" and "Gyrinocheilus", and catfish of the genera "Ancistrus", "Hypostomus", and "Otocinclus"), shrimp, or snails, to clean the algae that collects on the leaves. A second is using adequate light and CO to promote rapid growth of desired plants, while controlling nutrient levels, to ensure that the plants utilize all fertilizer without leaving nutrients to support algae.
Algae
The algae contain chloroplasts that are similar in structure to cyanobacteria. Chloroplasts contain circular DNA like that in cyanobacteria and are interpreted as representing reduced endosymbiotic cyanobacteria. However, the exact origin of the chloroplasts is different among separate lineages of algae, reflecting their acquisition during different endosymbiotic events. The table below describes the composition of the three major groups of algae. Their lineage relationships are shown in the figure in the upper right. Many of these groups contain some members that are no longer photosynthetic. Some retain plastids, but not chloroplasts, while others have lost plastids entirely.
Ice algae
Microbial life in sea ice is extremely diverse, and includes abundant algae, bacteria and protozoa. Algae in particular dominate the sympagic environment, with estimates of more than 1000 unicellular eukaryotes found to associate with sea ice in the Arctic. Species composition and diversity vary based on location, ice type, and irradiance. In general, pennate diatoms such as "Nitschia frigida" (in the Arctic) and "Fragilariopsis" cylindrus (in the Antarctic) are abundant. "Melosira arctica", which forms up to meter-long filaments attached to the bottom of the ice, are also widespread in the Arctic and are an important food source for marine species.
Alternative energy
Algae fuel is a biofuel which is derived from algae. During photosynthesis, algae and other photosynthetic organisms capture carbon dioxide and sunlight and convert it into oxygen and biomass. This is usually done by placing the algae between two panes of glass. The algae creates three forms of energy fuel: heat (from its growth cycle), biofuel (the natural "oil" derived from the algae), and biomass (from the algae itself, as it is harvested upon maturity).
Algae
No definition of algae is generally accepted. One definition is that algae "have chlorophyll as their primary photosynthetic pigment and lack a sterile covering of cells around their reproductive cells". Although cyanobacteria are often referred to as "blue-green algae", most authorities exclude all prokaryotes from the definition of algae.
Green algae
The algae of this paraphyletic group "Charophyta" were previously included in Chlorophyta, so green algae and Chlorophyta in this definition were synonyms. As the green algae clades get further resolved, the embryophytes, which are a deep charophyte branch, are included in "algae", "green algae" and "Charophytes", or these terms are replaced by cladistic terminology such as Archaeplastida, Plantae, Viridiplantae or streptophytes, respectively.
Picobiliphyte
Researchers investigated gene sequences of the 18S ribosomal RNA gene, common to all cells. The identity of new organisms can be deduced from a comparison of familiar and unfamiliar gene sequences. “The gene sequences found in these algae could not be associated with any previously known group of organisms”, explain Dr Klaus Valentin and Dr. Linda Medlin, co-authors of the study and molecular biologists at the Alfred Wegener Institute for Polar and Marine Research in Bremerhaven. The algae in this study were found in plankton samples originating from various regions of the North Atlantic and the Mediterranean. The scientists have discovered a group of organisms which, despite being completely new to science, have a wide distribution. “This is a good indication for how much there is still to discover in the oceans, especially using molecular tools”, says Valentin.
Microorganism
The green algae are a large group of photosynthetic eukaryotes that include many microscopic organisms. Although some green algae are classified as protists, others such as charophyta are classified with embryophyte plants, which are the most familiar group of land plants. Algae can grow as single cells, or in long chains of cells. The green algae include unicellular and colonial flagellates, usually but not always with two flagella per cell, as well as various colonial, coccoid, and filamentous forms. In the Charales, which are the algae most closely related to higher plants, cells differentiate into several distinct tissues within the organism. There are about 6000 species of green algae.
Pollution on Cape Cod
The increased nitrogen levels in the Cape Cod waters has resulted in a greater amount of algae blooming in the spring and summer months, since nitrogen is a nutrient for algae. When the algae die, they leave a thick coat of slime on the bottom of the bays and ponds, which severely reduces the amount of shellfish and crabs able to survive on the seafloor. The algae also limit the amount of oxygen available in the water, which kills the fish living beneath them. The algae are the source of red tides, which have been occurring more frequently with the heightened levels of nitrogen.
Dead zone (ecology)
The major groups of algae are Cyanobacteria, green algae, Dinoflagellates, Coccolithophores and Diatom algae. Increase in input of nitrogen and phosphorus generally causes Cyanobacteria to bloom. Other algae are consumed and thus do not accumulate to the same extent as Cyanobacteria. Cyanobacteria are not good food for zooplankton and fish and hence accumulate in water, die, and then decompose. The bacterial degradation of their biomass consumes the oxygen in the water, thereby creating the state of hypoxia. Dead zones can be caused by natural and by anthropogenic factors. Natural causes include coastal upwelling and changes in wind and water circulation patterns. Use of chemical fertilizers is considered the major human-related cause of dead zones around the world. Runoff from sewage, urban land use, and fertilizers can also contribute to eutrophication.
Aquaculture
Microalgae, also referred to as phytoplankton, microphytes, or planktonic algae, constitute the majority of cultivated algae. Macroalgae commonly known as seaweed also have many commercial and industrial uses, but due to their size and specific requirements, they are not easily cultivated on a large scale and are most often taken in the wild.
Laminaria
Due to their ability to grow underwater and in salt water, algae are being looked into as a source of biofuel. "Laminaria" is one of the five macroalgae farmed for products such as food, chemicals and power. Those five genera contribute to 76% of the total tonnage for farmed macroalgae. "Laminaria" is less desired as a renewable energy source due to its high ash content when burned. "Laminaria" has an ash content of 33%, while wood has about a 2% ash content when burned. Algae have a high water content requiring much energy to dry the algae before being able to properly use it.
Zooxanthellae
Dinoflagellates are microscopic single-celled planktonic organisms that used to be classified as algae but are now considered to be in a large and diverse group known as Alveolata. They can be free-living or can be present in large number in the tissues of a host. The motile, mastigote stage in the water column has two flagella and a characteristic method of swimming, while inside a host it metamorphoses into a spherical, non-motile, coccoid stage without any flagella.
Seaweed
Seaweed or macroalgae refers to several species of macroscopic, multicellular, marine algae. The term includes some types of red, brown, and green macroalgae. Marine algae species such as kelps provide essential nursery habitat for fisheries and other marine species and thus protect food sources; ocean algae species from seaweeds to planktons play a vital role in carbon capture, producing up to 90 percent of the planet's oxygen. Understanding these roles provides guiding principles for conservation and sustainable use of seaweeds to take precedence over industrial exploitation. Mechanical dredging of kelp, for instance, destroys the resource and dependent fisheries. Certain species of seaweed are valuable for nutrition, biomedicine, bioremediation, and other uses.
Red algae
The coralline algae, which secrete calcium carbonate and play a major role in building coral reefs, belong here. Red algae such as dulse "(Palmaria palmata)" and laver (nori/gim) are a traditional part of European and Asian cuisines and are used to make other products such as agar, carrageenans and other food additives.
Valonia ventricosa
Valonia ventricosa, also known as "bubble algae" and "sailor's eyeballs," is a species of algae found in oceans throughout the world in tropical and subtropical regions. It is one of the largest single-celled organisms.
Algae fuel
The European Algae Biomass Association (EABA) is the European association representing both research and industry in the field of algae technologies, currently with 79 members. The association is headquartered in Florence, Italy.
The general objective of the EABA is to promote mutual interchange and cooperation in the field of biomass production and use, including biofuels uses and all other utilisations. It aims at creating, developing and maintaining solidarity and links between its Members and at defending their interests at European and international level. Its main target is to act as a catalyst for fostering synergies among scientists, industrialists and decision makers to promote the development of research, technology and industrial capacities in the field of Algae.
Sea anemone
Although not plants and therefore incapable of photosynthesis themselves, many sea anemones form an important facultative mutualistic relationship with certain single-celled algae species that reside in the animals' gastrodermal cells, especially in the tentacles and oral disc. These algae may be either zooxanthellae, zoochlorellae or both. The sea anemone benefits from the products of the algae's photosynthesis, namely oxygen and food in the form of glycerol, glucose and alanine; the algae in turn are assured a reliable exposure to sunlight and protection from micro-feeders, which the sea anemones actively maintain. The algae also benefit by being protected by the sea anemone's stinging cells, reducing the likelihood of being eaten by herbivores. In the aggregating anemone ("Anthopleura elegantissima"), the colour of the anemone is largely dependent on the proportions and identities of the zooxanthellae and zoochlorellae present. The hidden anemone ("Lebrunia coralligens") has a whorl of seaweed-like pseudotentacles, rich in zooxanthellae, and an inner whorl of tentacles. A daily rhythm sees the pseudotentacles spread widely in the daytime for photosynthesis, but they are retracted at night, at which time the tentacles expand to search for prey.
Several species of fish and invertebrates live in symbiotic or commensal relationships with sea anemones, most famously the clownfish. The symbiont receives the protection from predators provided by the anemone's stinging cells, and the anemone utilises the nutrients present in its faeces. Other animals that associate with sea anemones include cardinalfish (such as Banggai cardinalfish), juvenile threespot dascyllus, incognito (or anemone) goby, juvenile painted greenling, various crabs (such as "Inachus phalangium", "Mithraculus cinctimanus" and "Neopetrolisthes"), shrimp (such as certain "Alpheus", "Lebbeus", "Periclimenes" and "Thor"), opossum shrimp (such as "Heteromysis" and "Leptomysis"), and various marine snails.
Algae scrubber
Interest in using algae for nutrient control once again increased, this time in the form of keeping the algae in a "sump" or other small aquarium which was connected to the main aquarium via plumbing. With added lighting and flow, algae would grow in this area, and the algae would consume nutrients from the water just as Dr. Adey's algae scrubber units did. Sumps or other small aquariums used for this purpose became known as "refugiums". The name "refugium" was used because the growing algae provided a safe place for small and microscopic animals to breed and grow, and thus was a "refuge" from the large fish and invertebrates in the main aquarium that would otherwise consume them. However while the refugiums did indeed consume nutrients from the water, they did not consume them fast enough in all situations; this caused many hobbyists to continue to have nuisance algae problems in their main aquariums.
Algaculture
Algaculture is a form of aquaculture involving the farming of species of algae.
Trichocyte (algae)
Trichocyte in algae are cells which grow on the outside of the thallus, from which hairs grow.
In algae, trichocytes grow principally over the summer; their growth is mediated by water temperature and day length.
Algae fuel
Algae can be converted into various types of fuels, depending on the technique and the part of the cells used. The lipid, or oily part of the algae biomass can be extracted and converted into biodiesel through a process similar to that used for any other vegetable oil, or converted in a refinery into "drop-in" replacements for petroleum-based fuels. Alternatively or following lipid extraction, the carbohydrate content of algae can be fermented into bioethanol or butanol fuel.
Algae fuel
After harvesting the algae, the biomass is typically processed in a series of steps, which can differ based on the species and desired product; this is an active area of research and also is the bottleneck of this technology: the cost of extraction is higher than those obtained. One of the solutions is to use filter feeders to "eat" them. Improved animals can provide both foods and fuels. An alternative method to extract the algae is to grow the algae with specific types of fungi. This causes bio-flocculation of the algae which allows for easier extraction.
Plant
In contrast, most other algae (e.g. brown algae/diatoms, haptophytes, dinoflagellates, and euglenids) not only have different pigments but also have chloroplasts with three or four surrounding membranes. They are not close relatives of the Archaeplastida, presumably having acquired chloroplasts separately from ingested or symbiotic green and red algae. They are thus not included in even the broadest modern definition of the plant kingdom, although they were in the past.
Algae fuel
The National Algae Association (NAA) is a non-profit organization of algae researchers, algae production companies and the investment community who share the goal of commercializing algae oil as an alternative feedstock for the biofuels markets. The NAA gives its members a forum to efficiently evaluate various algae technologies for potential early stage company opportunities.
Algae bioreactor
An algae bioreactor is used for cultivating micro or macro algae. Algae may be cultivated for the purposes of biomass production (as in a seaweed cultivator), wastewater treatment, CO fixation, or aquarium/pond filtration in the form of an algae scrubber. Algae bioreactors vary widely in design, falling broadly into two categories: open reactors and enclosed reactors. Open reactors are exposed to the atmosphere while enclosed reactors, also commonly called photobioreactors, are isolated to varying extent from the atmosphere. Specifically, algae bioreactors can be used to produce fuels such as biodiesel and bioethanol, to generate animal feed, or to reduce pollutants such as NO and CO in flue gases of power plants. Fundamentally, this kind of bioreactor is based on the photosynthetic reaction which is performed by the chlorophyll-containing algae itself using dissolved carbon dioxide and sunlight energy. The carbon dioxide is dispersed into the reactor fluid to make it accessible for the algae. The bioreactor has to be made out of transparent material.
Algaculture
Water, carbon dioxide, minerals and light are all important factors in cultivation, and different algae have different requirements. The basic reaction for algae growth in water is carbon dioxide + light energy + water = glucose + oxygen + water. This is called "autotrophic" growth. It is also possible to grow certain types of algae without light, these types of algae consume sugars (such as glucose). This is known as "heterotrophic" growth.
Biliphyta
Biliphyta is a grouping of algae.
Brown algae
A "stipe" is a stalk or stemlike structure present in an alga. It may grow as a short structure near the base of the alga (as in "Laminaria"), or it may develop into a large, complex structure running throughout the algal body (as in "Sargassum" or "Macrocystis"). In the most structurally differentiated brown algae (such as "Fucus"), the tissues within the stipe are divided into three distinct layers or regions. These regions include a central pith, a surrounding cortex, and an outer epidermis, each of which has an analog in the stem of a vascular plant. In some brown algae, the pith region includes a core of elongated cells that resemble the phloem of vascular plants both in structure and function. In others (such as "Nereocystis"), the center of the stipe is hollow and filled with gas that serves to keep that part of the alga buoyant. The stipe may be relatively flexible and elastic in species like "Macrocystis pyrifera" that grow in strong currents, or may be more rigid in species like "Postelsia palmaeformis" that are exposed to the atmosphere at low tide.
Algae
Accordingly, the modern study of marine and freshwater algae is called either phycology or algology, depending on whether the Greek or Latin root is used. The name "Fucus" appears in a number of taxa.