Who first published the Origin of Species?
Charles Darwin
In "The Descent of Man" of 1871, Darwin discussed the first passage:
"During many years I collected notes on the origin or descent of man, without any intention of publishing on the subject, but rather with the determination not to publish, as I thought that I should thus only add to the prejudices against my views. It seemed to me sufficient to indicate, in the first edition of my 'Origin of Species,' that by this work 'light would be thrown on the origin of man and his history;' and this implies that man must be included with other organic beings in any general conclusion respecting his manner of appearance on this earth." In a preface to the 1874 second edition, he added a reference to the second point: "it has been said by several critics, that when I found that many details of structure in man could not be explained through natural selection, I invented sexual selection; I gave, however, a tolerably clear sketch of this principle in the first edition of the 'Origin of Species,' and I there stated that it was applicable to man."
On the Tendency of Species to form Varieties; and on the Perpetuation of Varieties and Species by Natural Means of Selection
Despite illness, Darwin pressed on with writing the "abstract" of his "big book" on "Natural Selection"; this condensed version was published in November 1859 as "On the Origin of Species".
Charles Darwin
Darwin published his theory of evolution with compelling evidence in his 1859 book "On the Origin of Species", overcoming scientific rejection of earlier concepts of transmutation of species. By the 1870s, the scientific community and a majority of the educated public had accepted evolution as a fact. However, many favoured competing explanations and it was not until the emergence of the modern evolutionary synthesis from the 1930s to the 1950s that a broad consensus developed in which natural selection was the basic mechanism of evolution. Darwin's scientific discovery is the unifying theory of the life sciences, explaining the diversity of life.
Publication of Darwin's theory
Darwin was now working hard on an "abstract" trimmed from his "Natural Selection", writing much of it from memory. The chapters were sent to Hooker for correcting as they were completed, which led to a minor disaster when a large bundle was put by accident into the drawer Hooker's wife used to keep paper for the children to draw on. Lyell made arrangements with the publisher John Murray, who had brought out the second edition of "The Voyage of the Beagle". Darwin fretted, asking "Does he know all the subject of the book?", and saying that to avoid being more ""un"-orthodox than the subject makes inevitable" he did not discuss the origin of man, or bring in any discussion about Genesis. Unusually, Murray agreed to publish the manuscript sight unseen, and to pay Darwin two-thirds of the net proceeds. He anticipated printing 500 copies.
Darwin had decided to call his book "An Abstract of an Essay on the Origin of Species and Varieties through Natural Selection", but with Murray's persuasion it was eventually reduced to the snappier "On the Origin of Species through Natural Selection". The full title reads "On the Origin of Species by Means of Natural Selection, or the Preservation of Favoured Races in the Struggle for Life", with races referring to varieties of domestic and wild organisms and not to human groups.
On the Origin of Species
In a survey conducted by a group of academic booksellers, publishers and librarians in advance of Academic Book Week in the United Kingdom, "On the Origin of Species" was voted the most influential academic book ever written. It was hailed as "the supreme demonstration of why academic books matter" and "a book which has changed the way we think about everything".
Alfred Russel Wallace
After the publication of Darwin's "On the Origin of Species", Wallace became one of its staunchest defenders on his return to England in 1862. In one incident in 1863 that particularly pleased Darwin, Wallace published the short paper "Remarks on the Rev. S. Haughton's Paper on the Bee's Cell, And on the Origin of Species" in order to rebut a paper by a professor of geology at the University of Dublin that had sharply criticised Darwin's comments in the "Origin" on how hexagonal honey bee cells could have evolved through natural selection.
History of speciation
The primary contributors to the incorporation of speciation into modern evolutionary synthesis were Ernst Mayr and Theodosius Dobzhansky. Dobzhansky, a geneticist, published "Genetics and the Origin of Species" in 1937, in which he formulated the genetic framework for how speciation could occur. He recognized that speciation was an unsolved problem in biology at the time, rejecting Darwin’s position that new species arose by occupation of new niches — contending that reproductive isolation was instead based on barriers to gene flow. Subsequently, Mayr conducted extensive work on the geography of species, emphasizing the importance of geographic separation and isolation, in which he filled Dobzhansky‘s gaps concerning the origin of biodiversity (in his 1942 book). Both of their works gave rise, not without controversy, to the modern understanding of speciation; stimulating a wealth of research on the topic. Furthermore, this extended to plants as well as animals with G. Ledyard Stebbins’s book, "Variation and Evolution in Plants" and the much later, 1981 book, "Plant Speciation" by Verne Grant.
Emergent evolution
St. George Jackson Mivart's "On the Genesis of Species" (1872) and Edward Cope's "Origin of the Fittest" (1887) raised the need to address the origin of variation between members of a species. William Bateson in 1884 distinguished between the origin of novel variations and the action of natural selection ("Materials for the Study of Variation Treated with Especial Regard to Discontinuity in the Origin of Species").
Tiberius Cornelis Winkler
Tiberius Cornelis Winkler (May 28, 1822 – April 4, 1897) was a Dutch anatomist, zoologist and natural historian, and the second curator of geology, paleontology and mineralogy at Teylers Museum in Haarlem. Besides translating the first edition of Charles Darwin's "Origin of Species" (1860), he wrote a great number of works popularising science, particularly the life sciences.
History of zoology since 1859
The 1859 publication of Darwin's theory in "On the Origin of Species by Means of Natural Selection, or the Preservation of Favoured Races in the Struggle for Life" is often considered the central event in the history of modern zoology. Darwin's established credibility as a naturalist, the sober tone of the work, and most of all the sheer strength and volume of evidence presented, allowed "Origin" to succeed where previous evolutionary works such as the anonymous "Vestiges of Creation" had failed. Most scientists were convinced of evolution and common descent by the end of the 19th century. However, natural selection would not be accepted as the primary mechanism of evolution until well into the 20th century, as most contemporary theories of heredity seemed incompatible with the inheritance of random variation.
Species
The evolutionary process by which biological populations evolve to become distinct or reproductively isolated as species is called speciation. Charles Darwin was the first to describe the role of natural selection in speciation in his 1859 book "The Origin of Species". Speciation depends on a measure of reproductive isolation, a reduced gene flow. This occurs most easily in allopatric speciation, where populations are separated geographically and can diverge gradually as mutations accumulate. Reproductive isolation is threatened by hybridisation, but this can be selected against once a pair of populations have incompatible alleles of the same gene, as described in the Bateson–Dobzhansky–Muller model. A different mechanism, phyletic speciation, involves one lineage gradually changing over time into a new and distinct form, without increasing the number of resultant species.
Harriet Martineau
When Darwin's book "The Origin of Species" was published in 1859, his brother Erasmus sent a copy to his old flame Harriet Martineau. At age 58, she was still reviewing from her home in the Lake District. From her "snow landscape", Martineau sent her thanks, adding that she had previously praised
the quality & conduct of your brother's mind, but it is an unspeakable satisfaction to see here the full manifestation of its earnestness & simplicity, its sagacity, its industry, & the patient power by which it has collected such a mass of facts, to transmute them by such sagacious treatment into such portentous knowledge. I should much like to know how large a proportion of our scientific men believe he has found a sound road.Martineau supported Darwin's theory because it was not based in theology. Martineau strove for secularism stating, "In the present state of the religious world, Secularism ought to flourish. What an amount of sin and woe might and would then be extinguished." She wrote to her fellow Malthusian (and atheist) George Holyoake enthusing, "What a book it is! – overthrowing (if true) revealed Religion on the one hand, & Natural (as far as Final Causes & Design are concerned) on the other. The range & mass of knowledge take away one's breath." To Fanny Wedgwood (the wife of Hensleigh Wedgwood) she wrote,
I rather regret that C.D. went out of his way two or three times to speak of "The Creator" in the popular sense of the First Cause... His subject is the "Origin of Species" & not the origin of Organisation; & it seems a needless mischief to have opened the latter speculation at all – There now! I have delivered my mind.
Georges Cuvier
The harshness of his criticism and the strength of his reputation, however, continued to discourage naturalists from speculating about the gradual transmutation of species, until Charles Darwin published "On the Origin of Species" more than two decades after Cuvier's death.
The Origin of Birds
While most of the original material was published in the journal of the Danish Ornithological Society between the years of 1913 and 1916, the first English version of the book was published in London in 1926 by H. F. & G. Witherby. It was published in the United States the following year by D. Appleton & Company. The book was reprinted in 1972 by Dover Publications, Inc., with the only change being the grayscale reproduction of several illustrations originally published in color.
Darwin from Descent of Man to Emotions
Between 1868 and 1872, the life and work of Charles Darwin from "Descent of Man" to "Emotions" continued with aspects of his intended "Big Book" on evolution through natural selection. He had by then hurriedly published an "abstract" of this work as "On the Origin of Species" in 1859, and following the immediate reaction to Darwin's theory his earlier work included demonstrating the utility of the flowers of Orchids in directing insect pollination to achieve cross fertilisation, and a summing up of thirteen years of experiments in "The Variation of Animals and Plants under Domestication" which went on sale on 30 January 1868. He now published his ideas on human evolution and on how beautiful but apparently impractical features could have evolved in "The Descent of Man, and Selection in Relation to Sex". After revising "The Origin of Species" as the definitive 6th edition, his major works on species culminated in "The Expression of the Emotions in Man and Animals". This period was followed by extensive work on insectivorous plants and research into worms.
Book censorship in the United States
The publication of Charles Darwin's "On the Origin of Species" in 1859 "unleashed a controversy that resonates even today. In presenting a revolutionary theory of evolution, the British naturalist challenged the biblical creation story and provoked the ire of detractors who accused him of 'dethroning God'. Despite the surrounding controversy, "On the Origin of Species" remained uncensored in the United States all the way into the 1920s, when high school curricula started to incorporate the theory of Darwinian evolution."
Charles Darwin's "On the Origin of Species" was soon after banned in parts of America, notably Tennessee. The Tennessee ban remained on the books until 1967, "when the Supreme Court declared it in conflict with the First and Fourteenth Amendments".
Asa Gray
When Darwin received Alfred Russel Wallace's paper that described natural selection, Hooker and Charles Lyell arranged for a joint reading of papers by Darwin and Wallace to the Linnean Society on July 1, 1858. Since Darwin had nothing prepared, the reading included excerpts from his 1844 "Essay" and from a letter he had sent to Asa Gray in July 1857 outlining his theory on the origin of species. By that time, Darwin had begun writing his book "On the Origin of Species". The correspondence with Gray was thus a key piece of evidence in establishing Darwin's intellectual priority with respect to the theory of evolution by natural selection. Neither Darwin nor Wallace attended the meeting. The papers were published by the society as "On the Tendency of Species to form Varieties; and on the Perpetuation of Varieties and Species by Natural Means of Selection". By summer 1859 it was obvious to Gray and others working with Darwin that "On the Origin of Species" would be a ground-breaking book.
Frits Heide
Frits Ferdinand Rudolf Heide (December 7, 1883 – 1957) was a Danish botanist and science writer. He studied botany at the University of Copenhagen from 1906 under professor Eugenius Warming, but never actually graduated.
In 1909, Frits Heide revised J.P. Jacobsen’s translation of Charles Darwin's On the Origin of Species and The Descent of Man. He also translated Darwin's autobiography into Danish. Much later, in 1935, he finally published his own translation of the Origin of Species.
Heide was a prolific writer in Danish popular science, but also contributed with more purely scientific texts on plant biology, forest history, ethnobotany etc. He also served as a private teacher. From around 1920, he was as a consultant for the Dutch government in Java, still publishing botanic works in Danish, Dutch and English on the side. He also founded and edited the journal Journal de Botanique Historique 1918-21.
On the Origin of Species
Murray's response was favourable, and a very pleased Darwin told Lyell on 30 March that he would "send shortly a large bundle of M.S. but unfortunately I cannot for a week, as the three first chapters are in three copyists’ hands". He bowed to Murray's objection to "abstract" in the title, though he felt it excused the lack of references, but wanted to keep "natural selection" which was "constantly used in all works on Breeding", and hoped "to retain it with Explanation, somewhat as thus",— "Through Natural Selection or the preservation of favoured races".
On 31 March Darwin wrote to Murray in confirmation, and listed headings of the 12 chapters in progress: he had drafted all except "XII. Recapitulation & Conclusion". Murray responded immediately with an agreement to publish the book on the same terms as he published Lyell, without even seeing the manuscript: he offered Darwin of the profits. Darwin promptly accepted with pleasure, insisting that Murray would be free to withdraw the offer if, having read the chapter manuscripts, he felt the book would not sell well. (eventually Murray paid £180 to Darwin for the 1st edition and by Darwin's death in 1882 the book was in its 6th edition, earning Darwin nearly £3000.)
On the Origin of Species
Soon after the meeting, Darwin decided to write "an abstract of my whole work" in the form of one or more papers to be published by the Linnean Society, but was concerned about "how it can be made scientific for a Journal, without giving facts, which would be impossible." He asked Hooker how many pages would be available, but "If the Referees were to reject it as not strictly scientific I would, perhaps publish it as pamphet." He began his "abstract of Species book" on 20 July 1858, while on holiday at Sandown, and wrote parts of it from memory, while sending the manuscripts to his friends for checking.
John Murray III
From 1830 to 1843 Murray helped his father run the firm. His own publishing projects included:Darwin's "On the Origin of Species" was published by Murray in 1859. An enterprise of a different kind was "The Speaker's Commentary" (1871–81), prompted by John Evelyn Denison. "Murray's Magazine", started in 1887, ran to 1891. The firm published numerous illustrated books of travels.
Species problem
Ernst Mayr's 1942 book was a turning point for the species problem. In it, he wrote about how different investigators approach species identification, and he characterized their approaches as species concepts. He argued for what came to be called the "Biological Species Concept" (BSC), that a species consists of populations of organisms that can reproduce with one another and that are reproductively isolated from other populations, though he was not the first to define "species" on the basis of reproductive compatibility. For example, Mayr discusses how Buffon proposed this kind of definition of "species" in 1753.
Theodosius Dobzhansky was a contemporary of Mayr and the author of a classic book about the evolutionary origins of reproductive barriers between species, published a few years before Mayr's. Many biologists credit Dobzhansky and Mayr jointly for emphasizing reproductive isolation.
Evolutionary taxonomy
Evolutionary taxonomy arose as a result of the influence of the theory of evolution on Linnaean taxonomy. The idea of translating Linnaean taxonomy into a sort of dendrogram of the Animal and Plant Kingdoms was formulated toward the end of the 18th century, well before Charles Darwin's book "On the Origin of Species" was published. The first to suggest that organisms had common descent was Pierre-Louis Moreau de Maupertuis in his 1751 "Essai de Cosmologie", Transmutation of species entered wider scientific circles with Erasmus Darwin's 1796 Zoönomia and Jean-Baptiste Lamarck's 1809 "Philosophie Zoologique". The idea was popularised in the English-speaking world by the speculative but widely read "Vestiges of the Natural History of Creation", published anonymously by Robert Chambers in 1844.
Margaret Gatty
Margaret Gatty ("née" Scott, 3 June 1809 – 4 October 1873) was an English children's author and writer on marine biology. Some of her writings argue against Charles Darwin's "Origin of Species".
Catholic Church and evolution
"On the Origin of Species" was published in 1859, during the papacy of Pope Pius IX, who defined dogmatically papal infallibility during the First Vatican Council in 1869–70. The council has a section on "Faith and Reason" that includes the following on science and faith:
Jean Baptiste Julien d'Omalius d'Halloy
In the third edition of "On the Origin of Species" published in 1861, Charles Darwin added a "Historical Sketch" giving due credit to naturalists who had preceded him in publishing the opinion that species undergo modification, and that the existing forms of life have descended by true generation from pre-existing forms. This included d'Halloy –
William James Beal
Beals work was inspired by many influential scientists of the late 19th century. He arrived at Harvard to complete an undergraduate degree a mere 3 years after Charles Darwin published The Origin of Species. Emerson, Lowell, and Holmes were still writing and lecturing, and Thoreau was still alive. Beal heard all of them as a young student from Michigan. The groundbreaking research by Darwin and the writing of Emerson, Lowell, Holmes, and Thoreau were surely inspiration to a young Beal as he transitioned from studying at Harvard to conducting his research at the Michigan Agricultural College. Darwin’s research on inheritance especially seems to have influenced Beal’s development of hybrid corn.
Isaac Hays
Hays was among those Philadelphians who stubbornly advocated for an incremental theory of evolution, describing fossil vertebrates in the 1830s and '40s as supporting the theory of natural selection that eventually was elaborated by Charles Darwin in "Origin of Species" (1859).
Patrick Matthew
In subsequent editions of "The Origin of Species", Darwin acknowledged Matthew's earlier work, stating that Matthew "clearly saw...the full force of the principle of natural selection". It is an urban myth that, from 1860 onward, Matthew would claim credit for natural selection and even had calling cards printed with "Discoverer of the Principle of Natural Selection." This probably started with Loren Eiseley (1958. Darwin's Century), who apparently misunderstood a comment made by Darwin in a letter to Hooker (22 and 28 October 1865). Concerning the finding that William Charles Wells had published the idea of evolutionary change through natural selection before Matthew, Darwin wrote to Hooker: "So poor old Patrick Matthew, is not the first, & he cannot or ought not any longer put on his Title pages "Discoverer of the principle of Natural Selection"!" However, this was already inaccurate on Darwin's part. What the title page of Matthew's pamphlet "Schleswig-Holstein" really said was:
Endless Forms Most Beautiful (book)
The title quotes from the last sentence of Charles Darwin's 1859 "The Origin of Species", in which he described the evolution of all living organisms from a common ancestor: "endless forms most beautiful and most wonderful have been, and are being, evolved." Darwin, however, was unable to explain how those body forms actually came into being. The early 20th century modern synthesis of evolution and genetics, too, largely ignored embryonic development to explain the form of organisms, since population genetics appeared to be an adequate explanation of how forms evolved. That task was finally undertaken at the end of the 20th century with the arrival of recombinant DNA technology, when biologists were able to start to explore how development was actually controlled.
The book is illustrated with photographs, such as of developing fruit fly embryos dyed to show the effects of toolkit genes, and with line drawings by Jamie W. Carroll, Josh P. Klaiss and Leanne M. Olds.The evolutionary biologist Lewis Wolpert, writing in "American Scientist", called "Endless Forms Most Beautiful" "a beautiful and very important book." He summarized the message of the book with the words "As Darwin's theory made clear, these multitudinous forms developed as a result of small changes in offspring and natural selection of those that were better adapted to their environment. Such variation is brought about by alterations in genes that control how cells in the developing embryo behave. Thus one cannot understand evolution without understanding its fundamental relation to development of the embryo." Wolpert noted that Carroll intended to explain evo-devo, and "has brilliantly achieved what he set out to do."
Georges-Louis Leclerc, Comte de Buffon
Charles Darwin wrote in his preliminary historical sketch added to the third edition of "On the Origin of Species": "Passing over ... Buffon, with whose writings I am not familiar". Then, from the fourth edition onwards, he amended this to say that "the first author who in modern times has treated it [evolution] in a scientific spirit was Buffon. But as his opinions fluctuated greatly at different periods, and as he does not enter on the causes or means of the transformation of species, I need not here enter on details". Buffon's work on degeneration, however, was immensely influential on later scholars but was overshadowed by strong moral overtones.
Group selection
Charles Darwin developed the theory of evolution in his book, "Origin of Species". Darwin also made the first suggestion of group selection in "The Descent of Man" that the evolution of groups could affect the survival of individuals. He wrote, "If one man in a tribe... invented a new snare or weapon, the tribe would increase in number, spread, and supplant other tribes. In a tribe thus rendered more numerous there would always be a rather better chance of the birth of other superior and inventive members."
Species problem
Charles Darwin's famous book "On the Origin of Species" (1859) offered an explanation as to how species evolve, given enough time. Although Darwin did not provide details on how species can split into two, he viewed speciation as a gradual process. If Darwin was correct, then, when new "incipient species" are forming, there must be a period of time when they are not yet distinct enough to be recognized as species. Darwin's theory suggested that there was often not going to be an objective fact of the matter, on whether there were one or two species.
R. B. Freeman
Through regular contacts with booksellers (antiquarian and otherwise), by attending auctions (including at Sotheby's), visiting libraries, correspondence with scholars, his own studies, and through buying trips to the west country in England and elsewhere, Freeman built up an immense first-hand knowledge of his subjects. In the process, he also accumulated an imposing library of Darwin and natural history works. In 1967, Freeman was persuaded by David Esplin, an associate librarian at the University of Toronto, to sell to that institution his Darwin collection – which included some 140 copies of "The Origin of Species". That purchase “became the core of what is now the most extensive collection of the published works of Darwin in the world.”
The Point of View of My Work as an Author
Benjamin Nelson wrote the Preface to Lowrie's 1962 translation of Kierkegaard's "Point of View". He noted the dates the book was written and published. 
Consider the principal dates associated with The Point of View — 1859, the year when the work was first published, and 1848, the year when it was written. Both dates recall publications which revolutionized the worlds of thought and experience: the former, the Origin of Species, by a retiring British botanist, Charles Darwin; the latter, The Communist Manifesto, by Karl Marx and Friedrich Engels, Kierkegaard’s fellow auditor — along with Bakunin, Herzen, Feuerbach and other notable figures — of Schelling’s Berlin lectures in 1841. 
Is it not odd that we look to this melancholy and splenetic Dane, who seemed to so many of his forward-looking contemporaries a ‘misanthropic traitor against mankind’, to be a foremost champion in the defense against the perversions of thought and existence which have been sired by the humanitarian spokesmen for ‘scientific eugenics’ and ‘scientific socialism’? Benjamin Nelson’s Preface to The Point of View by Soren Kierkegaard 1859 Lowrie translation 1962 p. xviii
History of biology
The scientific study of heredity grew rapidly in the wake of Darwin's "Origin of Species" with the work of Francis Galton and the biometricians. The origin of genetics is usually traced to the 1866 work of the monk Gregor Mendel, who would later be credited with the laws of inheritance. However, his work was not recognized as significant until 35 years afterward. In the meantime, a variety of theories of inheritance (based on pangenesis, orthogenesis, or other mechanisms) were debated and investigated vigorously. Embryology and ecology also became central biological fields, especially as linked to evolution and popularized in the work of Ernst Haeckel. Most of the 19th century work on heredity, however, was not in the realm of natural history, but that of experimental physiology.
History of plant systematics
A major influence on plant systematics was the theory of evolution (Charles Darwin published "Origin of Species" in 1859), resulting in the aim to group plants by their phylogenetic relationships. To this was added the interest in plant anatomy, aided by the use of the light microscope and the rise of chemistry, allowing the analysis of secondary metabolites.
Ernst Haeckel
Darwin's "On the Origin of Species", which made a powerful impression on Haeckel when he read it in 1864, was very cautious about the possibility of ever reconstructing the history of life, but did include a section reinterpreting von Baer's embryology and revolutionising the field of study, concluding that "Embryology rises greatly in interest, when we thus look at the embryo as a picture, more or less obscured, of the common parent-form of each great class of animals." It mentioned von Baer's 1828 anecdote (misattributing it to Louis Agassiz) that at an early stage embryos were so similar that it could be impossible to tell whether an unlabelled specimen was of a mammal, a bird, or of a reptile, and Darwin's own research using embryonic stages of barnacles to show that they are crustaceans, while cautioning against the idea that one organism or embryonic stage is "higher" or "lower", or more or less evolved. Haeckel disregarded such caution, and in a year wrote his massive and ambitious "Generelle Morphologie", published in 1866, presenting a revolutionary new synthesis of Darwin's ideas with the German tradition of "Naturphilosophie" going back to Goethe and with the progressive evolutionism of Lamarck in what he called "Darwinismus". He used morphology to reconstruct the evolutionary history of life, in the absence of fossil evidence using embryology as evidence of ancestral relationships. He invented new terms, including ontogeny and phylogeny, to present his evolutionised recapitulation theory that "ontogeny recapitulated phylogeny". The two massive volumes sold poorly, and were heavy going: with his limited understanding of German, Darwin found them impossible to read. Haeckel's publisher turned down a proposal for a ""strictly scholarly" and "objective"" second edition.
Le Règne Animal
The book was in the library of "HMS Beagle" for Charles Darwin's voyage. In "The Origin of Species" (1859), in a chapter on the difficulties facing the theory, Darwin comments that "The expression of conditions of existence, so often insisted on by the illustrious Cuvier, is fully embraced by the principle of natural selection." Darwin continues, reflecting both on Cuvier's emphasis on the conditions of existence, and Jean-Baptiste Lamarck's theory of acquiring heritable characteristics from those Cuvieran conditions: "For natural selection acts by either now adapting the varying parts of each being to its organic and inorganic conditions of life; or by having adapted them during long-past periods of time: the adaptations being aided in some cases by use and disuse, being slightly affected by the direct action of the external conditions of life, and being in all cases subjected to the several laws of growth. Hence, in fact, the law of the Conditions of Existence is the higher law; as it includes, through the inheritance of former adaptations, that of Unity of Type."
Romanticism in evolution theory
The two men finally in person in 1842. Humboldt died in 1859, sixth months before the first edition of "On the Origin of Species" was published. In letters to his close friend Joseph Dalton Hooker, Darwin reflected that his "whole course of life" was due to having read Humboldt's "Personal Narrative" and conclusively praised Humboldt as the "Greatest scientific traveller who ever lived."
On the Origin of Species
I might have adduced for this same purpose the differences between the races of man, which are so strongly marked; I may add that some little light can apparently be thrown on the origin of these differences, chiefly through sexual selection of a particular kind, but without here entering on copious details my reasoning would appear frivolous."
When Darwin published "The Descent of Man, and Selection in Relation to Sex" twelve years later, he said that he had not gone into detail on human evolution in the "Origin" as he thought that would "only add to the prejudices against my views". He had not completely avoided the topic:
Essays and Reviews
The book was important because of its date and its authors. Appearing four months after Charles Darwin's "On the Origin of Species", it summed up a three-quarter-century-long challenge to biblical history by the higher critics and to biblical prehistory by scientists working in the new fields of geology and biology. Baden Powell restated his argument that God is a lawgiver, miracles break the lawful edicts issued at the creation, therefore belief in miracles is atheistic, and wrote of "Mr Darwin's masterly volume" that the "Origin of Species" "must soon bring about an entire revolution in opinion in favour of the grand principle of the self-evolving powers of nature."
Vestiges of the Natural History of Creation
According to the historian James A. Secord, "Vestiges" outsold "The Origin of Species" up until the early 20th century.
The Origin of Birds
The Origin of Birds is an early synopsis of bird evolution written in 1926 by Gerhard Heilmann, a Danish artist and amateur zoologist. The book was born from a series of articles published between 1913 and 1916 in Danish, and although republished as a book it received mainly criticism from established scientists and got little attention within Denmark. The English edition of 1926, however, became highly influential at the time due to the breadth of evidence synthesized as well as the artwork used to support its arguments. It was considered the last word on the subject of bird evolution for several decades after its publication.
Theistic evolution
Darwin himself, in his second edition of the "Origin" (January 1860), had written in the conclusion:
Within a decade most scientists had started espousing evolution, but from the outset some expressed opposition to the concept of natural selection and searched for a more purposeful mechanism. In 1860 Richard Owen attacked Darwin's "Origin of Species" in an anonymous review while praising "Professor Owen" for "the establishment of the axiom of "the continuous operation of the ordained becoming of living things"". Sir John Herschel (1792-1871) apparently dismissed Darwin's book as "the law of higgledy-pigglety", and in 1861 he wrote of evolution that "[a]n intelligence, guided by a purpose, must be continually in action to bias the direction of the steps of change–to regulate their amount–to limit their divergence–and to continue them in a definite course". He added "On the other hand, we do not mean to deny that such intelligence may act according to law (that is to say, on a preconceived and definite plan)". The scientist Sir David Brewster (1781-1868), a member of the Free Church of Scotland, wrote an article called "" (1862) in which he rejected many Darwinian ideas, such as those concerning vestigial organs or questioning God's perfection in his work. Brewster concluded that Darwin's book contained both "much valuable knowledge and much wild speculation", although accepting that "every part of the human frame had been fashioned by the Divine hand and exhibited the most marvellous and beneficent adaptions for the use of men".
Whitwell Elwin
The "Quarterly Review" was published by John Murray, who on 1 April 1859 agreed to publish Charles Darwin's book "An abstract of an Essay on the Origin of Species and Varieties Through natural selection", without even seeing the manuscript. When the first three chapters were sent to Murray, he cautiously asked Elwin to review them. Elwin was initially opposed to publication of this book on evolution, but after consulting Darwin's colleague Charles Lyell, Elwin felt that for Darwin "to put forth the theory without the evidence would do grievous injustice to his views, & to his twenty years of observation & experiment. At every page I was tantalised by the absence of the proofs. All kinds of objections, & possibilities rose up in the mind, & it was fretting to think that the author had a whole array of facts, & inferences from the facts, absolutely essential to the decision of the question which were not before the reader." He recommended Lyell's suggestion that, to gain public agreement, rather than "put forth the theory without the evidence", the book should focus on observations upon pigeons, briefly stating how these illustrated Darwin's general principles and preparing the way for Darwin's larger work "Natural Selection" which was expected to follow soon: "Every body is interested in pigeons." Darwin responded that this was impractical, and his book retitled as "On the Origin of Species" was published on Thursday 24 November 1859.
On the Tendency of Species to form Varieties; and on the Perpetuation of Varieties and Species by Natural Means of Selection
On the Tendency of Species to form Varieties; and on the Perpetuation of Varieties and Species by Natural Means of Selection is the title of a joint presentation of two scientific papers to the Linnean Society of London on 1 July 1858: "On The Tendency of Varieties to Depart Indefinitely from the Original Type" by Alfred Russel Wallace and an "Extract from an unpublished Work on Species" from Charles Darwin's "Essay" of 1844, together with an "Abstract of a Letter" from Darwin to Asa Gray. This was the first announcement of the Darwin – Wallace theory of evolution by natural selection; the papers appeared in print on 20 August 1858. The presentation of the papers spurred Darwin to write a condensed "abstract" of his "big book" on "Natural Selection". This was published in November 1859 as "On the Origin of Species".
Charles Darwin
"On the Origin of Species" proved unexpectedly popular, with the entire stock of 1,250 copies oversubscribed when it went on sale to booksellers on 22 November 1859. In the book, Darwin set out "one long argument" of detailed observations, inferences and consideration of anticipated objections. In making the case for common descent, he included evidence of homologies between humans and other mammals. Having outlined sexual selection, he hinted that it could explain differences between human races. He avoided explicit discussion of human origins, but implied the significance of his work with the sentence; "Light will be thrown on the origin of man and his history." His theory is simply stated in the introduction:
At the end of the book he concluded that:
The last word was the only variant of "evolved" in the first five editions of the book. "Evolutionism" at that time was associated with other concepts, most commonly with embryological development, and Darwin first used the word evolution in "The Descent of Man" in 1871, before adding it in 1872 to the 6th edition of "The Origin of Species".
Species
It is difficult to define a species in a way that applies to all organisms. The debate about species delimitation is called the species problem. The problem was recognized even in 1859, when Darwin wrote in "On the Origin of Species":
History of phycology
It was in the 19th Century that the true nature of lichens, as organisms consisting of an alga and a fungus in specific association, was demonstrated by Schwendener in 1867. This removed a source of confusion in morphology and classification (Morton, 1981 p. 432). It was in this period (1859) that Charles Darwin (1809–1882) published his book on evolution:"On the Origin of Species by Means of Natural Selection...".
Patrick Matthew
Patrick Matthew (20 October 1790 – 8 June 1874) was a Scottish grain merchant, fruit farmer, forester, and landowner, who contributed to the understanding of horticulture, silviculture, and agriculture in general, with a focus on maintaining the British navy and feeding new colonies. He published the basic concept of natural selection as a mechanism in evolutionary adaptation and speciation in 1831 (i.e. resulting from "positive" natural selection, in contrast to its already, widely known, "negative" role in removal of individuals in the Struggle for Survival), but failed to develop or publicise his ideas. Consequently, when Charles Darwin later published "On the Origin of Species" in 1859, he and Alfred Russel Wallace were regarded by their scientific peers as having originated (independently of each other) the theory of evolution by natural selection; it has been suggested that Darwin and/or Wallace had encountered Matthew's earlier work, but there is no hard evidence of this. After the publication of "On the Origin of Species", Matthew contacted Darwin, who in subsequent editions of the book acknowledged that the principle of natural selection had been anticipated by Matthew's brief statement, mostly contained in the appendices and "addendum" of his 1831 book, "On Naval Timber and Arboriculture".
1860 Oxford evolution debate
Charles Darwin's "On the Origin of Species" was published on 24 November 1859 to wide debate and controversy. The influential biologist Richard Owen wrote negative anonymous review of the book in the "Edinburgh Review", and also coached Wilberforce, who wrote an anonymous 17,000-word review in the "Quarterly Review".
Genetics and the Origin of Species
"Genetics and the Origin of Species" has two main points to make. The first is that speciation is a genuine problem that must be explained by the theory of evolution. In nature, there is not a single population of organisms separated from each other by small variations. Instead, the natural world is divided into species, each with its own limited range of variability. The second point is that all the variations can be explained by the principles of genetics.
Reactions to On the Origin of Species
Richard Owen had been the first to respond to the complimentary copies, courteously claiming that he had long believed that "existing influences" were responsible for the "ordained" birth of species. Darwin now had long talks with him, and told Lyell that "Under garb of great civility, he was inclined to be most bitter & sneering against me. Yet I infer from several expressions, that "at bottom" he goes immense way with us." Owen was furious at being included among those defending immutability of species, and in effect said that the book offered the best explanation "ever published of the manner of formation of species", though he did not agree with it in all respects. He still had the gravest doubts that transmutation would bestialise man. It appears that Darwin had assured Owen that he was looking at everything as resulting from designed laws, which Owen interpreted as showing a shared belief in "Creative Power".
On the Origin of Species
Interest in Darwin's writings continues, and scholars have generated an extensive literature, the Darwin Industry, about his life and work. The text of "Origin" itself has been subject to much analysis including a variorum, detailing the changes made in every edition, first published in 1959, and a concordance, an exhaustive external index published in 1981. Worldwide commemorations of the 150th anniversary of the publication of "On the Origin of Species" and the bicentenary of Darwin's birth were scheduled for 2009. They celebrated the ideas which "over the last 150 years have revolutionised our understanding of nature and our place within it".
Robert FitzRoy
When "The Origin of Species" was published FitzRoy was dismayed and apparently felt guilty for his part in the theory's development. He was in Oxford on 30 June 1860 to present a paper on storms and attended the meeting of the British Association for the Advancement of Science at which Samuel Wilberforce attacked Darwin's theory. During the debate FitzRoy, seen as "a grey haired Roman nosed elderly gentleman", stood in the centre of the audience and "lifting an immense Bible first with both and afterwards with one hand over his head, solemnly implored the audience to believe God rather than man". As he admitted that "The Origin of Species" had given him "acutest pain", the crowd shouted him down.
History of speciation
Many of the early terms used to describe speciation were outlined by Ernst Mayr. He was the first to encapsulate the then contemporary literature in his 1942 publication "Systematics and the Origin of Species, from the Viewpoint of a Zoologist" and in his subsequent 1963 publication "Animal Species and Evolution". Like Jordan's works, they relied on direct observations of nature, documenting the occurrence of geographic speciation. He described the three modes: geographic, semi-geographic, and non-geographic; which today, are referred to as allopatric, parapatric, and sympatric respectively. Mayr's 1942 publication, influenced heavily by the ideas of Karl Jordan and Poulton, was regarded as the authoritative review of speciation for over 20 years—and is still valuable today.
Coloration evidence for natural selection
Charles Darwin published "On the Origin of Species" in 1859, arguing that evolution in nature must be driven by natural selection, just as breeds of domestic animals and cultivars of crop plants were driven by artificial selection.
Darwin's theory radically altered popular and scientific opinion about the development of life. However, he lacked evidence and explanations for some critical components of the evolutionary process. He could not explain the source of variation in traits within a species, and did not have a mechanism of heredity that could pass traits faithfully from one generation to the next. This made his theory vulnerable; alternative theories were being explored during the eclipse of Darwinism; and so Darwinian field naturalists like Wallace, Bates and Müller looked for clear evidence that natural selection actually occurred. Animal coloration, readily observable, soon provided strong and independent lines of evidence, from camouflage, mimicry and aposematism, that natural selection was indeed at work. The historian of science Peter J. Bowler wrote that Darwin's theory
Tiberius Cornelis Winkler
Just as importantly, Winkler translated numerous scientific works into Dutch. Most famous among these was Charles Darwin's seminal "Origin of Species", which appeared in Dutch one year after its English release in 1859. Winkler also proved himself to be a vocal defender of the theory of evolution, to the extent that he did not wish to question - unlike, at the time, Darwin himself - man's place in evolution.
On the Origin of Species
On the Origin of Species (or more completely, On the Origin of Species by Means of Natural Selection, or the Preservation of Favoured Races in the Struggle for Life), published on 24 November 1859, is a work of scientific literature by Charles Darwin which is considered to be the foundation of evolutionary biology. Darwin's book introduced the scientific theory that populations evolve over the course of generations through a process of natural selection. It presented a body of evidence that the diversity of life arose by common descent through a branching pattern of evolution. Darwin included evidence that he had gathered on the "Beagle" expedition in the 1830s and his subsequent findings from research, correspondence, and experimentation.
History of zoology
The history of zoology had a key moment in 1859 with the publication of Darwin's "On the Origin of Species".
Theodosius Dobzhansky
Theodosius Dobzhansky had three editions of his book "Genetics and the Origin of Species".  Although his book was directed towards people with a background in biology, it was to be simply understood. In regards to the subjects of Genetics and Evolution, Dobzhansky’s book is widely recognized as one of the most important books ever written. With each revision of "Genetics and the Origin of Species", Dobzhansky added new material with respect to crucial, up to date topics, and removed material he deemed to be no longer crucial.  His book sparked trends in genetic research and theory.
Systematics and the Origin of Species
Systematics and the Origin of Species from the Viewpoint of a Zoologist is a book written by zoologist and evolutionary biologist Ernst Mayr, first published in 1942 by Columbia University Press. The book became one of the canonical publications on the modern synthesis.
On the Tendency of Species to form Varieties; and on the Perpetuation of Varieties and Species by Natural Means of Selection
Alfred Russel Wallace, a naturalist working in Borneo, had a paper on the "introduction" of species published in "Annals and Magazine of Natural History". This made guarded comments about evolution, and in the spring of 1856 it was noticed by Lyell who drew it to the attention of Darwin who was then working out a strategy for presenting his theory. Darwin apparently mistook Wallace's meaning, writing "nothing very new... Uses my simile of tree, [but] it seems all creation with him". However, he spelt out the details of Natural Selection to Lyell, who found the idea hard to accept but urged Darwin to publish to establish priority. On 14 May 1856 Darwin began what became his draft for a book titled "Natural Selection".
Natural selection
Darwin's ideas were inspired by the observations that he had made on the second voyage of HMS "Beagle" (1831–1836), and by the work of a political economist, Thomas Robert Malthus, who, in "An Essay on the Principle of Population" (1798), noted that population (if unchecked) increases exponentially, whereas the food supply grows only arithmetically; thus, inevitable limitations of resources would have demographic implications, leading to a "struggle for existence". When Darwin read Malthus in 1838 he was already primed by his work as a naturalist to appreciate the "struggle for existence" in nature. It struck him that as population outgrew resources, "favourable variations would tend to be preserved, and unfavourable ones to be destroyed. The result of this would be the formation of new species." Darwin wrote:
Once he had his theory, Darwin was meticulous about gathering and refining evidence before making his idea public. He was in the process of writing his "big book" to present his research when the naturalist Alfred Russel Wallace independently conceived of the principle and described it in an essay he sent to Darwin to forward to Charles Lyell. Lyell and Joseph Dalton Hooker decided to present his essay together with unpublished writings that Darwin had sent to fellow naturalists, and "On the Tendency of Species to form Varieties; and on the Perpetuation of Varieties and Species by Natural Means of Selection" was read to the Linnean Society of London announcing co-discovery of the principle in July 1858. Darwin published a detailed account of his evidence and conclusions in "On the Origin of Species" in 1859. In the 3rd edition of 1861 Darwin acknowledged that others—like William Charles Wells in 1813, and Patrick Matthew in 1831—had proposed similar ideas, but had neither developed them nor presented them in notable scientific publications.
Reactions to On the Origin of Species
By September 1854 Darwin's other books reached a stage where he was able to turn his attention fully to "Species", and from this point he was working to publish his theory. On 18 June 1858 he received a parcel from Alfred Russel Wallace enclosing about twenty pages describing an evolutionary mechanism that was similar to Darwin's own theory. Darwin put matters in the hands of his friends Lyell and Hooker, who agreed on a joint presentation to the Linnean Society on 1 July 1858. Their papers were entitled, collectively, "On the Tendency of Species to form Varieties; and on the Perpetuation of Varieties and Species by Natural Means of Selection".
The Autobiography of Charles Darwin
The omitted passages were later restored by Darwin's granddaughter Nora Barlow in a 1958 edition to commemorate the 100th anniversary of the publication of "The Origin of Species". This edition was published in London by Collins under the title of "The Autobiography of Charles Darwin 1809-1882. With the original omissions restored. Edited and with appendix and notes by his granddaughter Nora Barlow".
A Guide to the Scientific Knowledge of Things Familiar
Brewer was ordained as a deacon and later as a priest and wished to provide a religious framework for science. He and many other Christian populist science writers of the time presented religious themes and were able to keep them relevant to modern science in the mind of the public even after the publication of "On the Origin of Species" in 1859. Part of Brewer's approach in promoting his ideas was to avoid discussing religious perspectives until about a third of the way into the book so that the introduction of these ideas would appear more natural.
On the Origin of Species
As many more individuals of each species are born than can possibly survive; and as, consequently, there is a frequently recurring struggle for existence, it follows that any being, if it vary however slightly in any manner profitable to itself, under the complex and sometimes varying conditions of life, will have a better chance of surviving, and thus be naturally selected. From the strong principle of inheritance, any selected variety will tend to propagate its new and modified form.
Starting with the third edition, Darwin prefaced the introduction with a sketch of the historical development of evolutionary ideas. In that sketch he acknowledged that Patrick Matthew had, unknown to Wallace or himself, anticipated the concept of natural selection in an appendix to a book published in 1831; in the fourth edition he mentioned that William Charles Wells had done so as early as 1813.
On the Origin of Species
The book was written for non-specialist readers and attracted widespread interest upon its publication. As Darwin was an eminent scientist, his findings were taken seriously and the evidence he presented generated scientific, philosophical, and religious discussion. The debate over the book contributed to the campaign by T. H. Huxley and his fellow members of the X Club to secularise science by promoting scientific naturalism. Within two decades there was widespread scientific agreement that evolution, with a branching pattern of common descent, had occurred, but scientists were slow to give natural selection the significance that Darwin thought appropriate. During "the eclipse of Darwinism" from the 1880s to the 1930s, various other mechanisms of evolution were given more credit. With the development of the modern evolutionary synthesis in the 1930s and 1940s, Darwin's concept of evolutionary adaptation through natural selection became central to modern evolutionary theory, and it has now become the unifying concept of the life sciences.
Auguste Laugel
He published articles in various journals such as the "Revue des Deux Mondes", where he penned an important account of Darwin's "On the Origin of Species" in 1860. He was the author of numerous historical and philosophical works.
Biocentrism (ethics)
In 1859, Charles Darwin published his book "On the Origin of Species". This publication sparked the beginning of biocentrist views by introducing evolution and "its removal of humans from their supernatural origins and
placement into the framework of natural laws".
National Review (1855)
It published one of the first reviews of Charles Darwin's "Origin of Species", by William Benjamin Carpenter.
Genetics and the Origin of Species
It was also included in the 1990 edition of "Great Books of the Western World", placing it with Charles Darwin's two great works "The Origin of Species" and "The Descent of Man". A third edition was published in 1951.
Dallam School
Charles Darwin chose a quote by Whewell as the very first words to appear in the first (1859) edition of "The Origin Of Species".
Céline Renooz
Her first book, "L'Origine des animaux" (1883), was written in response to Charles Darwin's "The Origin of Species", which had been published in France in an 1862 translation by Clémence Royer. Renooz described Darwin's theory as unscientific, arguing instead for an evolutionary theory based on embryology. Renooz concluded that humanity's ancestors could be traced to the plant kingdom and specifically to the bean family, a concept possibly influenced by Ernst Haeckel's recapitulation theory. In Renooz's theory, the human head corresponded to the root ball of a plant, and the body to the stem and branches. Renooz rejected the idea of natural selection in human evolution, saying that humans were inherently cooperative (as she believed plants to be), rather than competitive like other animals. In an article, Renooz reported that her plant-based theory was not derived from research, but had come to her in a flash of intuition as she was leaving the Bibliothèque nationale de France after reading Claude Adrien Helvétius's "De l'homme". She later attributed her other theories to the same intuitive power manifesting itself on other occasions.
The male-dominated scientific establishment criticized and poked fun at Renooz's evolutionary theory. The publishers, at the well-known firm of Baillière, publicly dismissed it by claiming that they had not read the work before publishing it. In a face-to-face 1887 encounter, the scientist Mathias-Marie Duval informed Renooz that she was demented. Renooz remained deeply troubled by Duval and the confrontation for years afterward, writing in her memoirs: "By his colossal struggle against Woman, he embodied the terrifying and satanic figure of the antichrist … Duval was the "vandal of science"." Other criticisms provoked similarly bitter responses from Renooz; as time went on, she began to see enemies everywhere in an obsession amounting almost to paranoia. Another influence on Renooz's worldview were her memories of her troubled marriage, which she called a "sad apprenticeship" that led her to discover the "roots of evil."
John van Wyhe
One of van Wyhe's areas of research covers the reception of evolutionary ideas, and in an article titled "Darwin vs God?" he put forward the case that Darwin was neither an atheist nor was there a significant uproar of science and religion when "The Origin of Species" was published, though heterogeneity of opinion existed.
Darwinism
While the term "Darwinism" had been used previously to refer to the work of Erasmus Darwin in the late 18th century, the term as understood today was introduced when Charles Darwin's 1859 book "On the Origin of Species" was reviewed by Thomas Henry Huxley in the April 1860 issue of the "Westminster Review". Having hailed the book as "a veritable Whitworth gun in the armoury of liberalism" promoting scientific naturalism over theology, and praising the usefulness of Darwin's ideas while expressing professional reservations about Darwin's gradualism and doubting if it could be proved that natural selection could form new species, Huxley compared Darwin's achievement to that of Nicolaus Copernicus in explaining planetary motion:
These are the basic tenets of evolution by natural selection as defined by Darwin:Another important evolutionary theorist of the same period was the Russian geographer and prominent anarchist Peter Kropotkin who, in his book "" (1902), advocated a conception of Darwinism counter to that of Huxley. His conception was centred around what he saw as the widespread use of co-operation as a survival mechanism in human societies and animals. He used biological and sociological arguments in an attempt to show that the main factor in facilitating evolution is cooperation between individuals in free-associated societies and groups. This was in order to counteract the conception of fierce competition as the core of evolution, which provided a rationalization for the dominant political, economic and social theories of the time; and the prevalent interpretations of Darwinism, such as those by Huxley, who is targeted as an opponent by Kropotkin. Kropotkin's conception of Darwinism could be summed up by the following quote:
John Joseph Bennett
On the evening of 30 June 1858, Charles Lyell and Joseph Dalton Hooker passed on to him papers by Alfred Russel Wallace and Charles Darwin, titled "On the Tendency of Species to form Varieties; and on the Perpetuation of Varieties and Species by Natural Means of Selection" respectively. 
As secretary of the Linnean Society at a meeting on the following evening, 1 July, he read out the papers together with a covering note by Lyell and Hooker. 
This was the joint publication by Darwin and Wallace of their papers setting out the theory of natural selection, which was received quietly at the time but attracted wide interest when Darwin published "On the Origin of Species" eighteen months later.
Creation–evolution controversy
The publication of Darwin's "On the Origin of Species" in 1859 brought scientific credibility to evolution, and made it a respectable field of study.
Oscar Hertwig
Oscar Hertwig (21 April 1849 in Friedberg – 25 October 1922 in Berlin) was a German zoologist and professor, who also wrote about the theory of evolution circa 1916, over 55 years after Charles Darwin's book "The Origin of Species". He was the elder brother of zoologist-professor Richard Hertwig (1850–1937).The Hertwig brothers were the most eminent scholars of Ernst Haeckel (and Carl Gegenbaur) from the University of Jena. They were independent of Haeckel's philosophical speculations but took his ideas in a positive way to widen their concepts in zoology. Initially, between 1879–1883, they performed embryological studies, especially on the theory of the coelom (1881), the fluid-filled body cavity. These problems were based on the phylogenetic theorems of Haeckel, i.e. the biogenic theory (German = biogenetisches Grundgesetz), and the "gastraea theory".
Reactions to On the Origin of Species
The immediate reactions to "On the Origin of Species", the book in which Charles Darwin described evolution by natural selection, included international debate, though the heat of controversy was less than that over earlier works such as "Vestiges of Creation". Darwin monitored the debate closely, cheering on Thomas Henry Huxley's battles with Richard Owen to remove clerical domination of the scientific establishment. While Darwin's illness kept him away from the public debates, he read eagerly about them and mustered support through correspondence.
Henri Lecoq
Henri Lecoq (18 April 1802 – 4 August 1871) was a French botanist. Charles Darwin mentioned this name in 1859 in the preface of his famous book On The Origin of Species as a believer in the modification of species. Darwin wrote:
Genetics and the Origin of Species
In 1974 all the living founders of the modern synthesis (with the exception of Simpson and Bernhard Rensch) met with historians of biology in a conference to evaluate their work. All acknowledged "Genetics and the Origin of Species" as the direct instigator of all the work that followed. Ernst Mayr, in "The Growth of Biological Thought", said that it was "clearly the most decisive event in the history of evolutionary biology since the publication of the "Origin of Species" in 1859."
On the Origin of Species
It seemed to me sufficient to indicate, in the first edition of my 'Origin of Species,' that by this work 'light would be thrown on the origin of man and his history;' and this implies that man must be included with other organic beings in any general conclusion respecting his manner of appearance on this earth.
Darwin from Descent of Man to Emotions
Mivart wrote wishing "with all my heart that we did not differ so widely", but challenging Darwin to debate the basic metaphysics underlying science, from his Roman Catholic position writing that "while combatting (as duty compels me to do) positions you adopt, I am not so much combatting you as others to whose view your scientific labours give additional currency." Darwin took this personally, feeling that Mivart's "Genesis of Species" was "producing a great effect against Natural Selection, and more especially against me." After completing a rough draft of "Expressions" in April 1871 he set it aside and turned to revising the "Origin" to meet Mivart's arguments and counter the claim that some divine inner force was driving evolution. Darwin told Murray of working men in Lancashire clubbing together to buy the 5th edition at fifteen shillings, and he wanted a new cheap edition to make it more widely available.
Fertilisation of Orchids
After "On the Origin of Species" was published, Darwin became involved in producing revised editions as well as working on "Variation of Animals and Plants Under Domestication" as the first part of his planned "Big Book". By the spring of 1860 he had tired of the grind of writing, and needed something fresh and interesting to study. During a family visit to relatives at Hartfield, he was searching for orchids when he noticed a sundew. He collected it and tried to feed it insects, thus beginning a long-term study of insectivorous plants. He investigated other botanical questions raised by his ideas of natural selection, including the advantages of sexual dimorphism in primulas, and the adaptive mechanisms that ensure cross-pollination in orchids. As an enthusiastic practical scientist, such investigations gave him a strong sense of personal enjoyment. He relished pitting his wits against nature, and following lucky hunches. His theory was a way of looking at the world, enabling him to find creative solutions to problems that traditional approaches could not solve. He later wrote, "I am like a gambler, & love a wild experiment."
Genetics and the Origin of Species
While reading the manuscript, Dunn persuaded the university to revive the Jesup lectures, a series that had involved some notable lecturers in the past. It was back-dated so that Dobzhansky's lectures became the first in the series. The Columbia University Biological Series was also revived, and when "Genetics and the Origin of Species" was published in October 1937 it became the 11th volume in that series.
Influences on Karl Marx
In late November 1859, Engels acquired one of the first 1,250 copies of Charles Darwin's "The Origin of Species" and then he sent a letter to Marx telling: "Darwin, by the way, whom I'm just reading now, is absolutely splendid". The following year, Marx wrote back to his colleague telling that this book contained the natural-history foundation of the historical materialism viewpoint:
The Expression of the Emotions in Man and Animals
Development of the Text 1866 - 1872: Very little of Darwin's turmoil surfaced in "On the Origin of Species" in 1859, although Chapter 7 contains a mildly expressed argument on instinctive behaviour. In the public management of his evolutionary theory, Darwin understood that its relevance to human emotional life could draw a hostile response. Nevertheless, while preparing the text of "The Variation of Animals and Plants under Domestication" in 1866, Darwin took the decision to publish a book on "human" ancestry, sexual selection and emotional life. After his initial correspondence with the psychiatrist James Crichton-Browne Darwin set aside his material concerning emotional expression in order to complete "The Descent of Man", which covered human ancestry and sexual selection. Darwin concluded work on "The Descent of Man" on 15 January 1871. Two days later, he started on "The Expression of the Emotions" and, on 22 August 1872, he finished work on the proofs. In this book, Darwin brings his evolutionary theory into close approximation with behavioural science, although many Darwin scholars have remarked on a kind of spectral Lamarckism haunting the text of the "Emotions".
On the Origin of Species
With Murray's persuasion, the title was eventually agreed as "On the Origin of Species", with the title page adding "by Means of Natural Selection, or the Preservation of Favoured Races in the Struggle for Life". In this extended title (and elsewhere in the book) Darwin used the biological term ""races"" interchangeably with ""varieties"", meaning varieties within a species. He used the term broadly, and as well as discussions of "the several races, for instance, of the cabbage" and "the hereditary varieties or races of our domestic animals and plants", there are three instances in the book where the phrase "races of man" is used, referring to races of humans.
Species problem
"The traditional view, which was developed by Cain, Mayr and Hull in the mid-twentieth century, claims that until the ‘Origin of species’ by Charles Darwin both philosophy and biology considered species as invariable natural kinds with essential features. This ‘essentialism story’ was adopted by many authors, but questioned from the beginning by a minority … when Aristotle and the early naturalists wrote about the essences of species, they meant essential ‘functions’, not essential ‘properties’. Richards pointed out [Richard A. Richards, The Species Problem: A Philosophical Analysis, Cambridge University Press, 2010] that Linnaeus saw species as eternally fixed in his very first publication from 1735, but only a few years later he discovered hybridization as a modus for speciation.
Objections to evolution
Evolutionary ideas came to prominence in the early 19th century with the theory of the transmutation of species put forward by Jean-Baptiste Lamarck. Evolution was at first opposed among the scientific community, notably by Georges Cuvier, and religious grounds. The idea that laws control nature and society gained vast popular audiences with George Combe's "The Constitution of Man" of 1828 and the anonymous "Vestiges of the Natural History of Creation" of 1844. When Charles Darwin published his 1859 book "On the Origin of Species", he convinced most of the scientific community that new species arise through descent through modification in a branching pattern of divergence from common ancestors, but while most scientists accepted that natural selection is a valid and empirically testable hypothesis, Darwin's view that it is the primary mechanism of evolution was rejected by some.
Ma Junwu
Ma Junwu translated Charles Darwin's "On the Origin of Species" into Chinese. He began this in 1901 and it was not finished until 1919. It was published in 1920.
Samuel George Morton
Morton's followers, particularly Josiah C. Nott and George Gliddon in their monumental tribute to Morton's work, "Types of Mankind" (1854), carried Morton's ideas further and backed up his findings which supported the notion of polygenism – the premise that the different races were separately created by God. The publication of Charles Darwin's "On The Origin of Species" in 1859 changed the nature of the scholarly debate.
Allopatric speciation
Controversy exists as to whether Charles Darwin recognized a true geographical-based model of speciation in his publication of the "Origin of Species". In chapter 11, "Geographical Distribution", Darwin discusses geographic barriers to migration, stating for example that "barriers of any kind, or obstacles to free migration, are related in a close and important manner to the differences between the productions of various regions [of the world]". F. J. Sulloway contends that Darwin's position on speciation was "misleading" at the least and may have later misinformed Wagner and David Starr Jordan into believing that Darwin viewed sympatric speciation as the most important mode of speciation. Nevertheless, Darwin never fully accepted Wagner's concept of geographical speciation.
David Starr Jordan played a significant role in promoting allopatric speciation in the early 20th century, providing a wealth of evidence from nature to support the theory. Much later, the biologist Ernst Mayr was the first to encapsulate the then contemporary literature in his 1942 publication "Systematics and the Origin of Species, from the Viewpoint of a Zoologist" and in his subsequent 1963 publication "Animal Species and Evolution". Like Jordan's works, they relied on direct observations of nature, documenting the occurrence of allopatric speciation, of which is widely accepted today. Prior to this research, Theodosius Dobzhansky published "Genetics and the Origin of Species" in 1937 where he formulated the genetic framework for how speciation could occur.
Science
Both John Herschel and William Whewell systematized methodology: the latter coined the term scientist. When Charles Darwin published "On the Origin of Species" he established evolution as the prevailing explanation of biological complexity. His theory of natural selection provided a natural explanation of how species originated, but this only gained wide acceptance a century later.
Reactions to On the Origin of Species
Darwin now worked on an "abstract" trimmed from his "Natural Selection" manuscript. The publisher John Murray agreed the title as "On the Origin of Species through Natural Selection" and the book went on sale to the trade on 22 November 1859. The stock of 1,250 copies was oversubscribed, and Darwin, still at Ilkley spa town, began corrections for a second edition. The novelist Charles Kingsley, a Christian socialist country rector, sent him a letter of praise: "It awes me...if you be right I must give up much that I have believed", it was "just as noble a conception of Deity, to believe that He created primal forms capable of self development... as to believe that He required a fresh act of intervention to supply the lacunas which he himself had made." Darwin added these lines to the last chapter, with attribution to "a celebrated author and divine".
History of biology
The 1859 publication of Darwin's theory in "On the Origin of Species by Means of Natural Selection, or the Preservation of Favoured Races in the Struggle for Life" is often considered the central event in the history of modern biology. Darwin's established credibility as a naturalist, the sober tone of the work, and most of all the sheer strength and volume of evidence presented, allowed "Origin" to succeed where previous evolutionary works such as the anonymous "Vestiges of Creation" had failed. Most scientists were convinced of evolution and common descent by the end of the 19th century. However, natural selection would not be accepted as the primary mechanism of evolution until well into the 20th century, as most contemporary theories of heredity seemed incompatible with the inheritance of random variation.
Wallace, following on earlier work by de Candolle, Humboldt and Darwin, made major contributions to zoogeography. Because of his interest in the transmutation hypothesis, he paid particular attention to the geographical distribution of closely allied species during his field work first in South America and then in the Malay archipelago. While in the archipelago he identified the Wallace line, which runs through the Spice Islands dividing the fauna of the archipelago between an Asian zone and a New Guinea/Australian zone. His key question, as to why the fauna of islands with such similar climates should be so different, could only be answered by considering their origin. In 1876 he wrote "The Geographical Distribution of Animals", which was the standard reference work for over half a century, and a sequel, "Island Life", in 1880 that focused on island biogeography. He extended the six-zone system developed by Philip Sclater for describing the geographical distribution of birds to animals of all kinds. His method of tabulating data on animal groups in geographic zones highlighted the discontinuities; and his appreciation of evolution allowed him to propose rational explanations, which had not been done before.
Ecology
From Aristotle until Darwin, the natural world was predominantly considered static and unchanging. Prior to "The Origin of Species", there was little appreciation or understanding of the dynamic and reciprocal relations between organisms, their adaptations, and the environment. An exception is the 1789 publication "Natural History of Selborne" by Gilbert White (1720–1793), considered by some to be one of the earliest texts on ecology. While Charles Darwin is mainly noted for his treatise on evolution, he was one of the founders of soil ecology, and he made note of the first ecological experiment in "The Origin of Species". Evolutionary theory changed the way that researchers approached the ecological sciences.
Variorum
Charles Darwin's "The Origin of Species" went through six editions with extensive changes. The text became a third larger, with numerous parts rewritten five times. A variorum was published in 1959.