Are there amino acids in oranges?
Amino acid
Amino acids are organic compounds containing amine (-NH) and carboxyl (-COOH) functional groups, along with a side chain (R group) specific to each amino acid. The key elements of an amino acid are carbon (C), hydrogen (H), oxygen (O), and nitrogen (N), although other elements are found in the side chains of certain amino acids. About 500 naturally occurring amino acids are known (though only 20 appear in the genetic code) and can be classified in many ways. They can be classified according to the core structural functional groups' locations as alpha- (α-), beta- (β-), gamma- (γ-) or delta- (δ-) amino acids; other categories relate to polarity, pH level, and side chain group type (aliphatic, acyclic, aromatic, containing hydroxyl or sulfur, etc.). In the form of proteins, amino acid residues form the second-largest component (water is the largest) of human muscles and other tissues. Beyond their role as residues in proteins, amino acids participate in a number of processes such as neurotransmitter transport and biosynthesis.
Malic acid
Malic acid was first isolated from apple juice by Carl Wilhelm Scheele in 1785. Antoine Lavoisier in 1787 proposed the name "acide malique", which is derived from the Latin word for apple, "mālum"—as is its genus name "Malus".
In German it is named "" (or "Apfelsäure") after plural or singular of the fruit apple, but the salt(s) "Malat(e)".
Malic acid is the main acid in many fruits, including apricots, blackberries, blueberries, cherries, grapes, mirabelles, peaches, pears, plums, and quince and is present in lower concentrations in other fruits, such as citrus. It contributes to the sourness of green (unripe) apples. It is present in grapes and in most wines with concentrations sometimes as high as 5 g/l. It confers a tart taste to wine, although the amount decreases with increasing fruit ripeness. The taste of malic acid is very clear and pure in rhubarb, a plant for which it is the primary flavor. It is also a component of some artificial vinegar flavors, such as "salt and vinegar" flavored potato chips.
Orange (fruit)
The orange is a hybrid between pomelo ("Citrus maxima") and mandarin ("Citrus reticulata"). The chloroplast genome, and therefore the maternal line, is that of pomelo. The sweet orange has had its full genome sequenced.
Orange (fruit)
In other Indo-European languages, the words for "orange" allude to the eastern origin of the fruit and can be translated literally as "apple from China". Some examples are German "Apfelsine" (alternative name for "Orange" and common in northern Germany), Dutch "appelsien" and "sinaasappel", Swedish "apelsin", Russian "апельсин" ("apelsin") and Norwegian "appelsin". A similar case is Puerto Rican Spanish "china".
Açaí palm
The medical watchdog website Quackwatch said that "açaí juice has only middling levels of antioxidants — less than that of Concord grape, blueberry, and black cherry juices, but more than cranberry, orange, and apple juices."
P-Coumaric acid
"p"-Coumaric acid can be found in a wide variety of edible plants such as peanuts, navy beans, tomatoes, carrots, basil and garlic. It is found in wine and vinegar. It is also found in barley grain.
Antioxidant effect of polyphenols and natural phenols
The main source of polyphenols is dietary, since they are found in a wide array of phytochemical-bearing foods. For example, honey; most legumes; fruits such as apples, blackberries, blueberries, cantaloupe, pomegranate, cherries, cranberries, grapes, pears, plums, raspberries, aronia berries, and strawberries; and vegetables such as broccoli, cabbage, celery, onion and parsley are rich in polyphenols. Red wine, chocolate, black tea, white tea, green tea, olive oil and many grains are sources. Ingestion of polyphenols occurs by consuming a wide array of plant foods.
Amino acid
Because all amino acids contain amine and carboxylic acid functional groups, they share amphiprotic properties. Below pH 2.2, the predominant form will have a neutral carboxylic acid group and a positive α-ammonium ion (net charge +1), and above pH 9.4, a negative carboxylate and neutral α-amino group (net charge −1). But at pH between 2.2 and 9.4, an amino acid usually contains both a negative carboxylate and a positive α-ammonium group, as shown in structure (2) on the right, so has net zero charge. This molecular state is known as a zwitterion, from the German "" meaning "hermaphrodite" or "hybrid". The fully neutral form (structure (1) on the left) is a very minor species in aqueous solution throughout the pH range (less than 1 part in 10). Amino acids exist as zwitterions also in the solid phase, and crystallize with salt-like properties unlike typical organic acids or amines.
Pterobranchia mitochondrial code
Amino acids: Alanine (Ala, A), Arginine (Arg, R), Asparagine (Asn, N), Aspartic acid (Asp, D), Cysteine (Cys, C), Glutamic acid (Glu, E), Glutamine (Gln, Q), Glycine (Gly, G), Histidine (His, H), Isoleucine (Ile, I), Leucine (Leu, L), Lysine (Lys, K), Methionine (Met, M), Phenylalanine (Phe, F), Proline (Pro, P), Serine (Ser, S), Threonine (Thr, T), Tryptophan (Trp, W), Tyrosine (Tyr, Y), Valine (Val, V)
Biosynthesis
The general structure of the standard amino acids includes a primary amino group, a carboxyl group and the functional group attached to the α-carbon. The different amino acids are identified by the functional group. As a result of the three different groups attached to the α-carbon, amino acids are asymmetrical molecules. For all standard amino acids, except glycine, the α-carbon is a chiral center. In the case of glycine, the α-carbon has two hydrogen atoms, thus adding symmetry to this molecule. With the exception of proline, all of the amino acids found in life have the conformation. Proline has a functional group on the α-carbon that forms a ring with the amino group.
Amino acid
Aside from the 22 proteinogenic amino acids, many "non-proteinogenic" amino acids are known. Those either are not found in proteins (for example carnitine, GABA, levothyroxine) or are not produced directly and in isolation by standard cellular machinery (for example, hydroxyproline and selenomethionine).
Passiflora
The genus is rich in organic acids including formic, butyric, linoleic, linolenic, malic, myristic, oleic and palmitic acids as well as phenolic compounds, and the amino acid α-alanine. Esters like ethyl butyrate, ethyl caproate, "n"-hexyl butyrate and "n"-hexyl caproate give the fruits their flavor and appetizing smell. Sugars, contained mainly in the fruit, are most significantly d-fructose, d-glucose and raffinose. Among enzymes, "Passiflora" was found to be rich in catalase, pectin methylesterase and phenolase.
EGR1
Amino acid key: Alanine (Ala, A), Arginine (Arg, R), Asparagine (Asn, N), Aspartic acid (Asp, D), Cysteine (Cys, C), Glutamic acid (Glu, E), Glutamine (Gln, Q), Glycine (Gly, G), Histidine (His, H), Isoleucine (Ile, I), Leucine (Leu, L), Lysine (Lys, K), Methionine (Met, M), Phenylalanine (Phe, F), Proline (Pro, P), Serine (Ser, S), Threonine (Thr, T), Tryptophan (Trp, W), Tyrosine (Tyr, Y), Valine (Val, V)
Beta-peptide
In α amino acids (molecule at left), both the carboxylic acid group (red) and the amino group (blue) are bonded to the same carbon center, termed the α carbon (formula_1) because it is one atom away from the carboxylate group. In β amino acids, the amino group is bonded to the β carbon (formula_2), which is found in most of the 20 standard amino acids. Only glycine lacks a β carbon, which means that β-glycine is not possible.
Naringenin
Naringenin and its glycoside has been found in a variety of herbs and fruits, including grapefruit, bergamot, sour orange, tart cherries, tomatoes, cocoa, Greek oregano, water mint, drynaria as well as in beans. Ratios of naringenin to naringin vary among sources, as do enantiomeric ratios.
Homochirality
Amino acids are the building blocks of peptides and enzymes while sugar-peptide chains are the backbone of RNA and DNA. In biological organisms, amino acids appear almost exclusively in the left-handed form (-amino acids) and sugars in the right-handed form (R-sugars). Since the enzymes catalyze reactions, they enforce homochirality on a great variety of other chemicals, including hormones, toxins, fragrances and food flavors. Glycine is achiral, as are some other non-proteinogenic amino acids are either achiral (such as dimethylglycine) or of the enantiomeric form.
Amino acid
In the structure shown at the top of the page, R represents a side chain specific to each amino acid. The carbon atom next to the carboxyl group (which is therefore numbered 2 in the carbon chain starting from that functional group) is called the α–carbon. Amino acids containing an amino group bonded directly to the alpha carbon are referred to as "alpha amino acids". These include amino acids such as proline which contain secondary amines, which used to be often referred to as "imino acids".
Blood orange
The distinctive dark flesh color is due to the presence of anthocyanins, a family of antioxidant pigments common to many flowers and fruit, but uncommon in citrus fruits. Chrysanthemin (cyanidin 3-"O"-glucoside) is the main compound found in red oranges. The flesh develops its characteristic maroon color when the fruit develops with low temperatures during the night. Sometimes, dark coloring is seen on the exterior of the rind, as well, depending on the variety of blood orange. The skin can be tougher and harder to peel than that of other oranges. Blood oranges have a unique flavor compared to other oranges, being distinctly raspberry-like in addition to the usual citrus notes.
The blood orange is a natural mutation of the orange, which is itself a hybrid, probably between the pomelo and the tangerine,
Within Europe, the "arancia rossa di Sicilia" (red orange of Sicily) has Protected Geographical Status. In the Land of Valencia, it was introduced in the second half of the 19th century.
Amino acid dating
All biological tissues contain amino acids. All amino acids except glycine (the simplest one) are optically active, having a stereocenter at their α-C atom. This means that the amino acid can have two different configurations, "D" or "L" which are mirror images of each other. With a few important exceptions, living organisms keep all their amino acids in the "L" configuration. When an organism dies, control over the configuration of the amino acids ceases, and the ratio of D to L moves from a value near 0 towards an equilibrium value near 1, a process called racemization. Thus, measuring the ratio of D to L in a sample enables one to estimate how long ago the specimen died.
Methylene cyclopropyl acetic acid
Any organic compound with an amine and a carboxylic acid functional group is considered an amino acid. There are 22 proteinogenic amino acids, twenty found in the standard genetic code and two (selenocysteine and pyrrolysine) that can be added by a special translation mechanism. They are incorporated into proteins through translation. Non-proteinogenic amino acids are those that are not incorporated into proteins. They can be intermediates in biosynthesis, post-translationally formed in proteins, natural or synthesized pharmacological compounds, present in meteorites, or even have a physiological role (components of bacterial cell walls).
Tyrosine
Tyrosine (symbol Tyr or Y) or 4-hydroxyphenylalanine is one of the 20 standard amino acids that are used by cells to synthesize proteins. It is a non-essential amino acid with a polar side group. The word "tyrosine" is from the Greek "tyros", meaning "cheese", as it was first discovered in 1846 by German chemist Justus von Liebig in the protein casein from cheese. It is called tyrosyl when referred to as a functional group or side chain. While tyrosine is generally classified as a hydrophobic amino acid, it is more hydrophilic than phenylalanine. It is encoded by the codons UAC and UAU in messenger RNA.
Orange juice
For Canadian markets, orange juice must be the fruit juice obtained from clean, sound, and mature oranges. The juice must also contain a minimum of 1.20 milliequivalents of free amino acids per 100 millilitres, contain a minimum of 115 milligrams of potassium per 10 milliliters, and possess a minimum absorbance value for total polyphenolics of 0.380. Sweeteners such as sugar, invert sugar, dextrose or glucose solids may be added. The orange juice must have a Brix reading of at least 9.7, excluding the sweetening ingredients, and contain between 0.5 and 1.8 percent of acid by weight calculated as anhydrous citric acid. Added orange essences, orange oils and orange pulp adjusted in accordance with good manufacturing practice is permitted. Orange juice is also permitted to contain sugar, invert sugar, dextrose in dry form, glucose solids, a Class II preservative, amylase, cellulase and pectinase.
Amino acid synthesis
Amino acid synthesis is the set of biochemical processes (metabolic pathways) by which the various amino acids are produced from other compounds. The substrates for these processes are various compounds in the organism's diet or growth media. Not all organisms are able to synthesize all amino acids. Humans are an excellent example of this, since humans can only synthesize 11 of the 20 standard amino acids (a.k.a. non-essential amino acid), and in time of accelerated growth, histidine, can be considered an essential amino acid.
Synephrine
An analysis of 32 different orange "jams", originating mostly in the US and UK, but including samples from France, Italy, Spain, or Lebanon, showed synephrine levels ranging from 0.05 mg/g–0.0009 mg/g in those jams made from bitter oranges, and levels of 0.05 mg/g–0.006 mg/g of synephrine in jams made from sweet oranges.
Neuraminic acid
Neuraminic acid (5-amino-3,5-dideoxy--"glycero"--"galacto"-non-2-ulosonic acid) is a 9-carbon monosaccharide (a nonose), a derivative of a ketononose. Neuraminic acid may be visualized as the product of an aldol-condensation product of pyruvic acid and -mannosamine (2-amino-2-deoxy-mannose). Neuraminic acid does not occur naturally, but many of its derivatives are found widely distributed in animal tissues and in bacteria, especially in glycoproteins and gangliosides. The "N"- or "O"-substituted derivatives of neuraminic acid are collectively known as sialic acids, the predominant form in mammalian cells being "N"-acetylneuraminic acid. The amino group bears either an acetyl or a glycolyl group. The hydroxyl substituents may vary considerably: acetyl, lactyl, methyl, sulfate and phosphate groups have been found.
Amine
In organic chemistry, amines (, ) are compounds and functional groups that contain a basic nitrogen atom with a lone pair. Amines are formally derivatives of ammonia, wherein one or more hydrogen atoms have been replaced by a substituent such as an alkyl or aryl group (these may respectively be called alkylamines and arylamines; amines in which both types of substituent are attached to one nitrogen atom may be called alkylarylamines). Important amines include amino acids, biogenic amines, trimethylamine, and aniline; see for a list of amines. Inorganic derivatives of ammonia are also called amines, such as chloramine (NClH); see .
Proanthocyanidin
Proanthocyanidins are present in fresh grapes, juice, red wine, and other darkly pigmented fruits such as cranberry, blackcurrant, elderberry, and aronia. Although red wine may contain more proanthocyanidins by mass per unit of volume than does red grape juice, red grape juice contains more proanthocyanidins per average serving size. An serving of grape juice averages 124 milligrams proanthocyanidins, whereas a serving of red wine averages 91 milligrams ("i.e.", 145.6 milligrams per 8 fl. oz. or 240 mL). Many other foods and beverages may also contain proanthocyanidins, but few attain the levels found in red grape seeds and skins, with a notable exception being aronia, which has the highest recorded level of proanthocyanidins among fruits assessed to date (664 milligrams per 100 g).
Amino acid
The α-carboxylic acid group of amino acids is a weak acid, meaning that it releases a hydron (such as a proton) at moderate pH values. In other words, carboxylic acid groups (−COH) can be deprotonated to become negative carboxylates (−CO ). The negatively charged carboxylate ion predominates at pH values greater than the pKa of the carboxylic acid group (mean for the 20 common amino acids is about 2.2, see the table of amino acid structures above). In a complementary fashion, the α-amine of amino acids is a weak base, meaning that it accepts a proton at moderate pH values. In other words, α-amino groups (NH−) can be protonated to become positive α-ammonium groups (NH−). The positively charged α-ammonium group predominates at pH values less than the pKa of the α-ammonium group (mean for the 20 common α-amino acids is about 9.4).
Coffee bean
Proteins account for 8% to 12% of dried green coffee beans. A majority of the proteins are of the 11-S storage kind (alpha – component of 32 kDa, beta – component of 22 kDa), most of which are degraded to free amino acids during maturation of green coffee beans. Further, 11-S storage proteins are degraded to their individual amino acids under roasting temperature, thus are an additional source of bitter components due to generation of Maillard reaction products. High temperature and oxygen concentration and low pH degrade 11-S storage proteins of green coffee beans to low-molecular-weight peptides and amino acids. The degradation is accelerated in the presence of organic acids such as chlorogenic acids and their derivatives. Other proteins include enzymes, such as catalase and polyphenol oxidase, which are important for the maturation of green coffee beans. Mature coffee contains free amino acids (4.0 mg amino acid/g robusta coffee and up to 4.5 mg amino acid/g arabica coffee). In "Coffea arabica", alanine is the amino acid with the highest concentration, i.e. 1.2 mg/g, followed by asparagine of 0.66 mg/g, whereas in "C. robusta", alanine is present at a concentration of 0.8 mg/g and asparagine at 0.36 mg/g. The free hydrophobic amino acids in fresh green coffee beans contribute to the unpleasant taste, making it impossible to prepare a desirable beverage with such compounds. In fresh green coffee from Peru, these concentrations have been determined as: isoleucine 81 mg/kg, leucine 100 mg/kg, valine 93 mg/kg, tyrosine 81 mg/kg, phenylalanine 133 mg/kg. The concentration of gamma-aminobutyric acid (a neurotransmitter) has been determined between 143 mg/kg and 703 mg/kg in green coffee beans from Tanzania. Roasted coffee beans do not contain any free amino acids; the amino acids in green coffee beans are degraded under roasting temperature to Maillard products (reaction products between the aldehyde group of sugar and the alpha-amino group of the amino acids). Further, diketopiperazines, e.g. cyclo(proline-proline), cyclo(proline-leucine), and cyclo(proline-isoleucine), are generated from the corresponding amino acids, and are the major source of the bitter taste of roasted coffee. The bitter flavor of diketopiperazines is perceptible at around 20 mg/liter of water. The content of diketopiperazines in espresso is about 20 to 30 mg, which is responsible for its bitterness.
Cider apple
Polyphenols are an important component of ciders, contributing astringency, bitterness, colloidal stability and colour. The content in apples varies depending on cultivar, production practices, and part of the fruit, with the peel of an apple having more polyphenols than the flesh. The primary polyphenol in apples is procyanidins, followed by hydroxycinnamic acids in the flesh and flavonols in peel. Much of the polyphenols in the fruit are not pressed into the juice, because they bind to polysaccharides in the fruit cell wall, becoming bound to the pomace, when the cell wall is ruptured during the pressing process. Procyanidins are especially prone to binding to the pomace with about 30% extracted into the juice. Cider apples can have five times the total phenolic content compared to dessert apples, but there is a limited supply of bittersweet and bittersharp apples in the U.S. to meet the needs of the fast-growing cider industry. Some cider makers add exogenous tannins to improve phenolic characteristics, and researchers are working on improving polyphenol extraction technology. In countries with more well-established cider industries, such as the U.K. and France, there is an adequate supply of high tannin cider apples. About one half of the apples processed for cider in Europe are bittersweet fruit.
List of plants known as orange
Orange identifies various species of trees, some with edible fruit and some not. "Citrus sinensis" includes many of the cultivated oranges used for their fruit, the common supermarket orange. Other species called oranges include:Several species of "Capparis" called wild orange, native to Australia, including:
Orange (fruit)
Different names have been given to the many varieties of the genus. "Orange" applies primarily to the sweet orange – "Citrus sinensis" (L.) Osbeck. The orange tree is an evergreen, flowering tree, with an average height of , although some very old specimens can reach . Its oval leaves, alternately arranged, are long and have crenulate margins. Sweet oranges grow in a range of different sizes, and shapes varying from spherical to oblong. Inside and attached to the rind is a porous white tissue, the white, bitter mesocarp or albedo ("pith"). The orange contains a number of distinct "carpels" (segments) inside, typically about ten, each delimited by a membrane, and containing many juice-filled vesicles and usually a few seeds ("pips"). When unripe, the fruit is green. The grainy irregular rind of the ripe fruit can range from bright orange to yellow-orange, but frequently retains green patches or, under warm climate conditions, remains entirely green. Like all other citrus fruits, the sweet orange is non-climacteric. The "Citrus sinensis" group is subdivided into four classes with distinct characteristics: common oranges, blood or pigmented oranges, navel oranges, and acidless oranges.
Biochemistry
Ingested proteins are usually broken up into single amino acids or dipeptides in the small intestine, and then absorbed. They can then be joined to make new proteins. Intermediate products of glycolysis, the citric acid cycle, and the pentose phosphate pathway can be used to make all twenty amino acids, and most bacteria and plants possess all the necessary enzymes to synthesize them. Humans and other mammals, however, can synthesize only half of them. They cannot synthesize isoleucine, leucine, lysine, methionine, phenylalanine, threonine, tryptophan, and valine. These are the essential amino acids, since it is essential to ingest them. Mammals do possess the enzymes to synthesize alanine, asparagine, aspartate, cysteine, glutamate, glutamine, glycine, proline, serine, and tyrosine, the nonessential amino acids. While they can synthesize arginine and histidine, they cannot produce it in sufficient amounts for young, growing animals, and so these are often considered essential amino acids.
Anthocyanin
Some tomatoes also have been modified genetically with transcription factors from snapdragons to produce high levels of anthocyanins in the fruits. Anthocyanins also may be found in naturally ripened olives, and are partly responsible for the red and purple colors of some olives.
Beta-Carotene
Another older unit of vitamin A activity is the international unit (IU). Like retinol equivalent, the international unit does not take into account carotenoids' variable absorption and conversion to vitamin A by humans, as well as the more modern retinol activity equivalent. Unfortunately, food and supplement labels still generally use IU, but IU can be converted to the more useful retinol activity equivalent as follows:Beta-carotene is found in many foods and is sold as a dietary supplement. β-Carotene contributes to the orange color of many different fruits and vegetables. Vietnamese gac ("Momordica cochinchinensis" Spreng.) and crude palm oil are particularly rich sources, as are yellow and orange fruits, such as cantaloupe, mangoes, pumpkin, and papayas, and orange root vegetables such as carrots and sweet potatoes. The color of β-carotene is masked by chlorophyll in green leaf vegetables such as spinach, kale, sweet potato leaves, and sweet gourd leaves. Vietnamese gac and crude palm oil have the highest content of β-carotene of any known plant sources, 10 times higher than carrots, for example. However, gac is quite rare and unknown outside its native region of Southeast Asia, and crude palm oil is typically processed to remove the carotenoids before sale to improve the color and clarity.
2-Methylbutanoic acid
2-Methylbutanoic acid (2-methylbutyric acid) is a chemical compound from the group of carboxylic acids. It occurs in two enantiomeric forms, ("R")- and ("S")-2-methylbutanoic acid. ("R")-2-Methylbutanoic acid occurs naturally in cocoa beans and ("S")-2-methylbutanoic occurs in many fruits such as apples and apricots. The ethyl ester is found in pineapples and oranges.
Biomolecule
Amino acids contain both amino and carboxylic acid functional groups. (In biochemistry, the term amino acid is used when referring to those amino acids in which the amino and carboxylate functionalities are attached to the same carbon, plus proline which is not actually an amino acid).
Leucine
Leucine (symbol Leu or L) is an essential amino acid that is used in the biosynthesis of proteins. Leucine is an α-amino acid, meaning it contains an α-amino group (which is in the protonated −NH form under biological conditions), an α-carboxylic acid group (which is in the deprotonated −COO form under biological conditions), and a side chain isobutyl group, making it a non-polar aliphatic amino acid. It is essential in humans, meaning the body cannot synthesize it: it must be obtained from the diet. Human dietary sources are foods that contain protein, such as meats, dairy products, soy products, and beans and other legumes. It is encoded by the codons UUA, UUG, CUU, CUC, CUA, and CUG.
Oleanolic acid
Oleanolic acid can be found in olive oil, "Phytolacca americana" (American pokeweed), and "Syzygium" spp, garlic, etc. It was first studied and isolated from several plants, including "Olea europaea" (leaves, fruit), "Rosa woodsii" (leaves), "Prosopis glandulosa" (leaves and twigs), "Phoradendron juniperinum" (whole plant), "Syzygium claviflorum" (leaves), "Hyptis capitata" (whole plant), "Mirabilis jalapa" and "Ternstroemia gymnanthera" (aerial part). Other "Syzygium" species including java apple ("Syzygium samarangense") and rose apples contain it.
D-amino acid oxidase
While D-amino acid oxidase differs to some extent between various organisms, the structure is basically the same across most eukaryotes, excluding plants. This enzyme is a flavoprotein belonging to the FAD dependent oxidoreductase family, and acts on the CH-NH group of D-amino acid donors with oxygen as acceptor. It is also considered a peroxisomal enzyme containing FAD as a cofactor. Each DAO monomer has an FAD-binding domain (FBD) containing a Rossman fold, and a substrate-binding domain (SBD) that also forms an interface with the other monomer in the protein. DAO exists as a dimer, with each monomer containing both an FBD and SBD. Each monomer is composed of 347 amino acids in human DAO, though among other eukaryotes the protein can range from 345 to 368 amino acids long. In human DAO, the two monomers are connected in a head-to-head fashion. DAO of other organisms, such as yeast, can be present as head-to-tail dimers. The hDAAO gene is found on chromosome 12 and contains 11 exons.
Non-proteinogenic amino acids
Technically, any organic compound with an amine (-NH) and a carboxylic acid (-COOH) functional group is an amino acid. The proteinogenic amino acids are small subset of this group that possess central carbon atom (α- or 2-) bearing an amino group, a carboxyl group, a side chain and an α-hydrogen levo conformation, with the exception of glycine, which is achiral, and proline, whose amine group is a secondary amine and is consequently frequently referred to as an imino acid for traditional reasons, albeit not an imino.
Ribera Alta (comarca)
The orange is the fruit of the citrus sinensis or aurantium, a tree that first appeared in China and other southern areas of the Asian continent. The fruit made its way from the Far East to the European continent, reaching Spain, through Valencia, and spreading throughout the rest of the world. In Greek mythology the "Garden of the Hesperides" is a mythological grove where apples grew tended to by nymphs and a dragon. Hercules, the hero of classical literature, killed the guardian, entered the garden and plucked those golden apples –In later years it was thought that the "golden apples" might have actually been oranges, a fruit unknown to Europe before the Middle Ages. Several scholars defend that the etymology of the word comes from the Sanskrit term narang and the Persian word narensh. When Arabs brought orange farming to the Iberian Peninsula, they called the fruits naranjah. The Region of Valencia maintained the orange-farming tradition after the Arabic period, with references to orange trees in the city of Valencia dating back to the 14th century. In fact, there is an Orange Courtyard inside Valencia’s 15th century Silk Exchange market "(La Llotja de la Seda)", a UNESCO World Heritage Site. The first references to commercial orange plantations date back to the 18th century. At present, there are approximately 150,000 hectares of orange groves in the Region of Valencia producing orange and mandarin varieties including satsumas, clementines, navel oranges, common oranges, blood oranges, and hybrids, as the most important specimens
Amino acid synthesis
Of the basic set of twenty amino acids (not counting selenocysteine), there are eight that human beings cannot synthesize. In addition, the amino acids arginine, cysteine, glycine, glutamine, histidine, proline, serine, and tyrosine are considered conditionally essential, meaning they are not normally required in the diet, but must be supplied exogenously to specific populations that do not synthesize it in adequate amounts. For example, enough arginine is synthesized by the urea cycle to meet the needs of an adult but perhaps not those of a growing child. Amino acids that must be obtained from the diet are called essential amino acids. Nonessential amino acids are produced in the body. The pathways for the synthesis of nonessential amino acids are quite simple. Glutamate dehydrogenase catalyzes the reductive amination of α-ketoglutarate to glutamate. A transamination reaction takes place in the synthesis of most amino acids. At this step, the chirality of the amino acid is established. Alanine and aspartate are synthesized by the transamination of pyruvate and oxaloacetate, respectively. Glutamine is synthesized from NH4+ and glutamate, and asparagine is synthesized similarly. Proline and arginine are derived from glutamate. Serine, formed from 3-phosphoglycerate, is the precursor of glycine and cysteine. Tyrosine is synthesized by the hydroxylation of phenylalanine, an essential amino acid. The pathways for the biosynthesis of essential amino acids are much more complex than those for the nonessential ones.
Activated 
Tetrahydrofolate, a carrier of one-carbon units, plays an important role in the metabolism of amino acids and nucleotides. This coenzyme carries one-carbon units at three oxidation states, which are interconvertible: most reduced—methyl; intermediate—methylene; and most oxidized—formyl, formimino, and methenyl. The major donor of activated methyl groups is S-adenosylmethionine, which is synthesized by the transfer of an adenosyl group from ATP to the sulfur atom of methionine. S-Adenosylhomocysteine is formed when the activated methyl group is transferred to an acceptor. It is hydrolyzed to adenosine and homocysteine, the latter of which is then methylated to methionine to complete the activated methyl cycle.
Angelic acid
Angelic acid occurs in the roots of many plants, especially of the family Apiaceae. These plants include "Angelica archangelica", "Peucedanum ostruthium" (masterwort), "Levisticum officinale" (lovage), "Euryangium sumbul" and "Laserpitium latifolium". In the latter plant, it is present in the resin called laserpicium, and the oil of carrot also contains angelic acid. Sumbul plants might contain not angelic acid itself, but a larger complex which breaks into angelic acid upon processing. The acid can also be extracted from the oil of chamomile flowers, and 85% of Roman chamomile ("Anthemis nobilis") oil consists of esters of angelic and tiglic acids; it also contains isobutyl angelate and amyl angelate. The acid content is highest in "Angelica archangelica" where it is about 0.3%.
Asparagine
Asparagine (symbol Asn or N), is an α-amino acid that is used in the biosynthesis of proteins. It contains an α-amino group (which is in the protonated −NH form under biological conditions), an α-carboxylic acid group (which is in the deprotonated −COO form under biological conditions), and a side chain carboxamide, classifying it as a polar (at physiological pH), aliphatic amino acid. It is non-essential in humans, meaning the body can synthesize it. It is encoded by the codons AAU and AAC.
Alpha-Linolenic acid
α-Linolenic acid (ALA) is an "n"−3 fatty acid. It is one of two essential fatty acids (the other being linoleic acid), so called because they are necessary for health and cannot be produced within the human body. They must be acquired through diet. ALA is an omega-3 fatty acid found in seeds (chia, flaxseed, hemp, see also table below), nuts (notably walnuts), and many common vegetable oils. In terms of its structure, it is named "all"-"cis"-9,12,15-octadecatrienoic acid. In physiological literature, it is listed by its lipid number, 18:3, and ("n"−3); its isomer GLA is 18:3 ("n"−6).
Lemon
Lemon juice is also used as a short-term preservative on certain foods that tend to oxidize and turn brown after being sliced (enzymatic browning), such as apples, bananas, and avocados, where its acid denatures the enzymes.
Nanfang Caomu Zhuang
Li (1979: 119) notes that the "Yiwu Zhi" (quoted in the "Qimin yaoshu") may possibly be the original source for this "Nanfang caomu zhuang" entry: "the orange tree has white flowers and reddish fruits, which have fragrant peels and also sweet taste. It is produced in Kiangnan and not elsewhere". The "Taiping Yulan" quotes this same passage followed by an additional sentence: "There is an orange grove in Chiao-chih, where an administrative officer is installed, with a salary of 300 "shih" (picul) [of rice], who is responsible for presenting an annual tribute of oranges to the royal court."
The Kan is a kind of orange with an exceptionally sweet and delicious taste. There are yellow and red kinds. The red ones are called Hu-kan 壺柑 (jar orange). In the market, the natives of Chiao-chih sell ants stored in bags of rush mats. The nests are like thin silk. The bags are all attached to twigs and leaves, which, with the ants inside the nests, are for sale. The ants are reddish-yellow in color, bigger than ordinary ants. In the south, if the Kan trees do not have this kind of ant, the fruits will all be damaged by many harmful insects and not a single fruit will be perfect. There are now two trees of Kan in the Hua-lin Garden. When in fruit, the Emperor has the court entourage wine and dine by their side and the fruits are picked and given to all. (63, tr. Li 1979: 118-119) 
"Húgān" (壺柑) is now called "pènggān" (椪柑 "Citrus poonensis", ponkan, Chinese honey orange"). Ma (1978: 243-244) says the first few sentences appear Zhou Chu's (236-297) "Fengtuji" (風土記 "Record of Local Conditions"), which is the likely source for this "Nanfang caomu zhuang" entry. Both Duan Chengshi's (9th century) "Yuyang zalu" (酉陽雜俎) and the (early 10th century) Lingbiao luyi (嶺表錄異) retell the citrus ant story.
Orange (fruit)
Navel oranges are characterized by the growth of a second fruit at the apex, which protrudes slightly and resembles a human navel. They are primarily grown for human consumption for various reasons: their thicker skin makes them easy to peel, they are less juicy and their bitterness – a result of the high concentrations of limonin and other limonoids – renders them less suitable for juice. Their widespread distribution and long growing season have made navel oranges very popular. In the United States, they are available from November to April, with peak supplies in January, February, and March.
Benzoic acid
Benzoic acid occurs naturally as do its esters in many plant and animal species. Appreciable amounts have been found in most berries (around 0.05%). Ripe fruits of several "Vaccinium" species (e.g., cranberry, "V. vitis macrocarpon"; bilberry, "V. myrtillus") contain as much as 0.03–0.13% free benzoic acid. Benzoic acid is also formed in apples after infection with the fungus "Nectria galligena". Among animals, benzoic acid has been identified primarily in omnivorous or phytophageous species, e.g., in viscera and muscles of the rock ptarmigan ("Lagopus muta") as well as in gland secretions of male muskoxen ("Ovibos moschatus") or Asian bull elephants ("Elephas maximus").
Lycopene
Lycopene (from the neo-Latin "Lycopersicum", the tomato species) is a bright red carotene and carotenoid pigment and phytochemical found in tomatoes and other red fruits and vegetables, such as red carrots, watermelons, gac, and papayas, but it is not in strawberries or cherries. Although lycopene is chemically a carotene, it has no vitamin A activity. Foods that are not red may also contain lycopene, such as asparagus and parsley.
Conalbumin
In addition, ovotransferrin is glycosylated by the N-linkage to the amino acid known as asparagine, meaning that the glycan, the carbohydrate chain, is attached to the nitrogen on the amino acid. Asparagine, found abundantly in asparagus (hence, its name), is one of twenty of the most common amino acids and was the first amino acid to be isolated. While ovotransferrin identifies with its family, there are two types of ovotransferrin proteins: apo and holo. Apo-Ovotransferrin is deprived of iron and holo-Ovotransferrin is saturated with iron. Because the apo-ovotransferrin is iron-deprived, it is easily destroyed by physical and chemical treatments.
Carotenosis
Carotenemia, or carotenaemia (xanthaemia), is the presence of the orange pigment carotene in the blood from excessive intake of carrots or other vegetables containing the pigment resulting in increased serum carotenoids. Carotenoids are lipid-soluble compounds that include alpha- and beta-carotene, beta-cryptoxanthin, lycopene, lutein, and zeaxanthin. The primary serum carotenoids are beta-carotene, lycopene, and lutein. Serum levels of carotenoids vary between region, ethnicity, and sex in the healthy population. All are absorbed by passive diffusion from the gastrointestinal tract and are then partially metabolized in the intestinal mucosa and liver to vitamin A. From there they are transported in the plasma into the peripheral tissues. Carotenoids are eliminated via sweat, sebum, urine, and gastrointestinal secretions. Carotenoids contribute to normal-appearing human skin color, and are a significant component of physiologic ultraviolet photoprotection.
Inositol
Inositol or its phosphates and associated lipids are found in many foods, in particular fruit, especially cantaloupe and oranges. In plants, the hexaphosphate of inositol, phytic acid or its salts, the phytates, serve as phosphate stores in seed, for example in nuts and beans. Phytic acid also occurs in cereals with high bran content. Phytate is, however, not directly bioavailable to humans in the diet, since it is not digestible. Some food preparation techniques partly break down phytates to change this. However, inositol in the form of glycerophospholipids, as found in certain plant-derived substances such as lecithins is well-absorbed and relatively bioavailable.
The mold, protozoan, and coelenterate mitochondrial code and the mycoplasma/spiroplasma code
Amino acids: Alanine (Ala, A), Arginine (Arg, R), Asparagine (Asn, N), Aspartic acid (Asp, D), Cysteine (Cys, C), Glutamic acid (Glu, E), Glutamine (Gln, Q), Glycine (Gly, G), Histidine (His, H), Isoleucine (Ile, I), Leucine (Leu, L), Lysine (Lys, K), Methionine (Met, M), Phenylalanine (Phe, F), Proline (Pro, P), Serine (Ser, S), Threonine (Thr, T), Tryptophan (Trp, W), Tyrosine (Tyr, Y), Valine (Val, V).
Amino acid
Many important proteinogenic and non-proteinogenic amino acids have biological functions. For example, in the human brain, glutamate (standard glutamic acid) and gamma-amino-butyric acid ("GABA", non-standard gamma-amino acid) are, respectively, the main excitatory and inhibitory neurotransmitters. Hydroxyproline, a major component of the connective tissue collagen, is synthesised from proline. Glycine is a biosynthetic precursor to porphyrins used in red blood cells. Carnitine is used in lipid transport.
Ursolic acid
Ursolic acid (sometimes referred to as urson, prunol, malol, or 3-beta-3-hydroxy-urs-12-ene-28-oic-acid), is a pentacyclic triterpenoid identified in the epicuticular waxes of apples as early as 1920 and widely found in the peels of fruits, as well as in herbs and spices like rosemary and thyme.
Apples and oranges
A second study, written by Stamford Hospital's surgeon-in-chief James Barone and published in the "British Medical Journal," noted that the phrase "apples and oranges" was appearing with increasing frequency in the medical literature, with some notable articles comparing "Desflurane and propofol" and "Salmeterol and ipratropium" with "apples and oranges". The study also found that both apples and oranges were sweet, similar in size, weight, and shape, that both are grown in orchards, and both may be eaten, juiced, and so on. The only significant differences found were in terms of seeds (the study used seedless oranges), the involvement of Johnny Appleseed, and color.
Arginine
Arginine, also known as L-arginine (symbol Arg or R), is an α-amino acid that is used in the biosynthesis of proteins. It contains an α-amino group, an α-carboxylic acid group, and a side chain consisting of a 3-carbon aliphatic straight chain ending in a guanidino group. At physiological pH, the carboxylic acid is deprotonated (−COO), the amino group is protonated (−NH), and the guanidino group is also protonated to give the guanidinium form (-C-(NH)), making arginine a charged, aliphatic amino acid. It is the precursor for the biosynthesis of nitric oxide. It is encoded by the codons CGU, CGC, CGA, CGG, AGA, and AGG.
Preserved lemon
Although lemons contain citric acid, most citric acid is produced by fermentation uses microbes that can convert sugars into citric acid, which is the most important organic acid produced in tonnage and is extensively used in food and pharmaceutical industries. It is produced mainly by submerged fermentation using "Aspergillus niger" or "Candida" spp. from different sources of carbohydrates, such as molasses and starch-based media. The food and beverage industries use this acid extensively as a food additive globally.
Nut (fruit)
Nuts are the source of energy and nutrients for the new plant. They contain a relatively large quantity of calories, essential unsaturated and monounsaturated fats including linoleic acid and linolenic acid, vitamins, and essential amino acids. Many nuts are good sources of vitamin E, vitamin B, folate, fiber, and the essential minerals magnesium, phosphorus, potassium, copper, and selenium. Nuts are most healthy in their raw unroasted form, because roasting can significantly damage and destroy fats during the process. Unroasted walnuts have twice as many antioxidants as other nuts or seeds. It is controversial whether increasing dietary antioxidants confers benefit or harm.
Blood orange
Blood oranges' red pigment anthocyanin is an antioxidant. The pigments begin accumulating in the vesicles at the edges of the segments and at the blossom end of the fruit, and continue accumulating in cold storage after harvest. Due to its pigments, the blood orange contain greater amounts of antioxidants than other oranges.
Cyanide
Cyanides are produced by certain bacteria, fungi, and algae and are found in a number of plants. Cyanides are found in substantial amounts in certain seeds and fruit stones, e.g., those of bitter almonds, apricots, apples, and peaches. In plants, cyanides are usually bound to sugar molecules in the form of cyanogenic glycosides and defend the plant against herbivores. Cassava roots (also called manioc), an important potato-like food grown in tropical countries (and the base from which tapioca is made), also contain cyanogenic glycosides.
Watermelon
The amino acid citrulline is produced in watermelon rind.
Orange juice
Citrus juices contain flavonoids (especially in the pulp) that may have health benefits. Orange juice is also a source of the antioxidant hesperidin. Because of its citric acid content, orange juice is acidic, with a typical pH of around 3.5.
Prunus
Similar to the plum, peaches and nectarines also have higher TAC in the skin than in the flesh. They also contain moderate levels of carotenoids and ascorbic acid. Peaches and nectarines are orange and yellow in color which can be attributed to the carotenoids present. Ascorbic acid is important in hydroxylation reactions, such as collagen synthesis and de novo synthesis of bone and cartilage, and wound healing. Ascorbic acid is also a precursor of Vitamin C, which is essential for repairing tissues and absorbing iron.
Non-proteinogenic amino acids
Some non-α amino acids exist in organisms. In these structures, the amine group displaced further from the carboxylic acid end of the amino acid molecule. Thus a β amino acid has the amine group bonded to the second carbon away, and a γ amino acid has it on the third. Examples include β-alanine, GABA, and δ-aminolevulinic acid.
Lime (fruit)
Raw limes are 88% water, 10% carbohydrates and less than 1% each of fat and protein (table). Only vitamin C content at 35% of the Daily Value (DV) per 100 g serving is significant for nutrition, with other nutrients present in low DV amounts (table). Lime juice contains slightly less citric acid than lemon juice (about 47 g/l), nearly twice the citric acid of grapefruit juice, and about five times the amount of citric acid found in orange juice.
Carotenoid
Beta-carotene, found in carrots and apricots, is responsible for their orange-yellow colors. Dried carrots have the highest amount of carotene of any food per 100 gram serving, measured in retinol activity equivalents (provitamin A equivalents). Vietnamese gac fruit contains the highest known concentration of the carotenoid lycopene. The diet of flamingos is rich in carotenoids, imparting the orange-colored feathers of these birds.
List of antioxidants in food
Deeply pigmented fruits like cranberries, blueberries, plums, blackberries, raspberries, strawberries, blackcurrants, figs, cherries, guava, oranges, mango, grape juice and pomegranate juice also have significant polyphenol content.
Louis Nicolas Vauquelin
From 1809 he was professor at the University of Paris. In 1816, he was elected a foreign member of the Royal Swedish Academy of Sciences. He was elected to the Chamber of Deputies in 1828. In 1806, working with asparagus, he and Pierre Jean Robiquet (future discoverer of the famous red dye alizarin, then a young chemist and his assistant) isolated the amino acid asparagine, the first one to be discovered. He also discovered pectin and malic acid in apples, and isolated camphoric acid and quinic acid.
Almond
Almonds are a rich source of oil, with 50% of kernel dry mass as fat (whole almond nutrition table). In relation to total dry mass of the kernel, almond oil contains 32% monounsaturated oleic acid (an omega-9 fatty acid), 13% linoleic acid (a polyunsaturated omega-6 essential fatty acid), and 10% saturated fatty acid (mainly as palmitic acid, USDA link in table). Linolenic acid, a polyunsaturated omega-3 fat, is not present (table). Almond oil is a rich source of vitamin E, providing 261% of the Daily Value per 100 ml (table).
Aromatic amino acid
Amino acids do not absorb light in the visible region of the electromagnetic spectrum, however, all absorb light from the infrared region due to their conjugated double bonds and the aromatic amino acids also absorb ultraviolet radiation. The aromatic amino acids phenylalanine, tyrosine, and tryptophan have the ability to significantly absorb ultraviolet radiation above 250 nm.This characteristic of aromatic amino acids is used to quantify the concentration of proteins in an unknown sample. These amino acids are able to absorb light which excites its electron to the excited state. When the electron falls back to its ground state, it will either emit light or release energy. If the molecule is able to emit light it is known as a fluorescent molecule. Tryptophan is widely used as a fluorescent molecule.
Ellagic acid
The highest levels of ellagic acid are found in walnuts, pecans, cranberries, raspberries, strawberries, and grapes, as well as distilled beverages. It is also found in peaches and pomegranates.
Metabolism
Amino acids are either used to synthesize proteins and other biomolecules, or oxidized to urea and carbon dioxide as a source of energy. The oxidation pathway starts with the removal of the amino group by a transaminase. The amino group is fed into the urea cycle, leaving a deaminated carbon skeleton in the form of a keto acid. Several of these keto acids are intermediates in the citric acid cycle, for example the deamination of glutamate forms α-ketoglutarate. The glucogenic amino acids can also be converted into glucose, through gluconeogenesis (discussed below).
Benzaldehyde
Almonds, apricots, apples, and cherry kernels contain significant amounts of amygdalin. This glycoside breaks up under enzyme catalysis into benzaldehyde, hydrogen cyanide and two equivalents of glucose.
Amino acid
When taken up into the human body from the diet, the 20 standard amino acids either are used to synthesize proteins and other biomolecules or are oxidized to urea and carbon dioxide as a source of energy. The oxidation pathway starts with the removal of the amino group by a transaminase; the amino group is then fed into the urea cycle. The other product of transamidation is a keto acid that enters the citric acid cycle. Glucogenic amino acids can also be converted into glucose, through gluconeogenesis. Of the 20 standard amino acids, nine (His, Ile, Leu, Lys, Met, Phe, Thr, Trp and Val) are called essential amino acids because the human body cannot synthesize them from other compounds at the level needed for normal growth, so they must be obtained from food. In addition, cysteine, taurine, tyrosine, and arginine are considered semiessential amino-acids in children (though taurine is not technically an amino acid), because the metabolic pathways that synthesize these amino acids are not fully developed. The amounts required also depend on the age and health of the individual, so it is hard to make general statements about the dietary requirement for some amino acids. Dietary exposure to the non-standard amino acid BMAA has been linked to human neurodegenerative diseases, including ALS.
Amino acid
Some non-proteinogenic amino acids are not found in proteins. Examples include 2-aminoisobutyric acid and the neurotransmitter gamma-aminobutyric acid. Non-proteinogenic amino acids often occur as intermediates in the metabolic pathways for standard amino acids – for example, ornithine and citrulline occur in the urea cycle, part of amino acid catabolism (see below). A rare exception to the dominance of α-amino acids in biology is the β-amino acid beta alanine (3-aminopropanoic acid), which is used in plants and microorganisms in the synthesis of pantothenic acid (vitamin B), a component of coenzyme A.
Aromatic amino acid
An aromatic amino acid (AAA) is an amino acid that includes an aromatic ring.
Oxaloacetic acid
Six essential amino acids and three nonessential are synthesized from oxaloacetate and pyruvate. Aspartate and alanine are formed from oxaloacetate and pyruvate, respectively, by transamination from glutamate. Asparagine, methionine, lysine and threonine are synthesized by aspartate, therefore given importance to oxaloacetate as without it, no aspartate would be formed and the following other amino acids would neither be produced.
Oxaloacetate produces oxalate by hydrolysis.
This process is catalyzed by the enzyme oxaloacetase.
Prunus serotina
Like apricots and apples, the seeds of black cherries contain cyanogenic glycosides, compounds that can be converted into cyanide, such as amygdalin. These compounds release hydrogen cyanide when the seed is ground or minced, which releases enzymes that break down the compounds. These enzymes include amygdalin beta-glucosidase, prunasin beta-glucosidase and mandelonitrile lyase. In contrast, although the flesh of cherries also contains these compounds, it does not contain the enzymes needed to produce cyanide, so the flesh is safe to eat.
Ursolic acid
Ursolic acid is present in many plants, such as "Mirabilis jalapa", as well as in many fruits and herbs used in daily life (e.g. apples, basil, bilberries, cranberries, elder flower, peppermint, rosemary, lavender, oregano, thyme, hawthorn, and prunes). Apple peels contain large quantities of ursolic acid and related compounds.
Amino acid
In biochemistry, amino acids having both the amine and the carboxylic acid groups attached to the first (alpha-) carbon atom have particular importance. They are known as 2-, alpha-, or α-amino acids (generic formula HNCHRCOOH in most cases, where R is an organic substituent known as a "side chain"); often the term "amino acid" is used to refer specifically to these. They include the 22 proteinogenic ("protein-building") amino acids, which combine into peptide chains ("polypeptides") to form the building-blocks of a vast array of proteins. These are all -stereoisomers ("left-handed" isomers), although a few -amino acids ("right-handed") occur in bacterial envelopes, as a neuromodulator (-serine), and in some antibiotics.
Alanine
Alanine is a nonessential amino acid, meaning it can be manufactured by the human body, and does not need to be obtained through the diet. Alanine is found in a wide variety of foods, but is particularly concentrated in meats.
AOC3
Amine oxidases are a family of enzymes that catalyze the oxidation of various endogenous amines, including histamine or dopamine. VAP-1 constitutes the copper dependent class of amine oxidases, such as lysyl oxidase or lysine demethylase, and is one of the four known in humans. The other class is flavin dependent such as monoamine oxidase (MAO) A and B. VAP-1, in particular, catalyzes the oxidative conversion of primary amines (methylamine and aminoacetone) to aldehydes (formaldehyde and methylglyoxal) ammonium and hydrogen peroxide in the presence of copper and quinone cofactor.
VAP-1 is primarily localized on the cell surface on the adipocyte plasma membrane. However, circulating VAP-1 has been shown to be the main source of SSAO in human serum. Serum VAP-1 originates from many tissues. VAP-1 has adhesive properties, functional monoamine oxidase activity, and possibly plays a role in glucose handling, leukocyte trafficking, and migration during inflammation. This rise in metabolic products contributes to generating advanced glycation end-products and oxidative stress along with the monoamine detoxification in the organism.
Like monoamine oxidase (MAO), VAP-1 can deaminate short-chain primary amines, but SSAO enzymes, including VAP-1, can tolerate several selective flavin-dependent MAO-A and MAO-B inhibitors like clorgiline, pargyline, and deprenyl, but are still sensitive to semicarbazide and other hydrazines, hydroxylamine and propargylamine.
VAP-1 is found in the smooth muscle of blood vessels and various other tissues, and can mostly be found in two forms: tissue-bound and soluble isoforms. The tissue-bound SSAO is primarily located in the leukocytes, adipocytes, and the endothelium of highly vascularized tissues, including the kidney, liver, and gonads. Thus, this form participates in cellular differentiation, deposition of the ECM (extracellular matrix) in smooth muscle cells, lipid trafficking in adipocytes and control of muscular tone, by mechanisms that are not completely understood. The soluble form, which is commonly known as VAP-1, is a proinflammatory protein derived from shedding of the transmembrane protein. It is highly expressed on the endothelium of the lung and trachea, and absent from leukocytes and epithelial cells. It moderates leukocyte recruitment, is both an adhesion molecule and a primary amine oxidase, and plays a role in clinical disease.
Almond
The bitter almond is slightly broader and shorter than the sweet almond and contains about 50% of the fixed oil that occurs in sweet almonds. It also contains the enzyme emulsin which, in the presence of water, acts on the two soluble glucosides amygdalin and prunasin yielding glucose, cyanide and the essential oil of bitter almonds, which is nearly pure benzaldehyde, the chemical causing the bitter flavor. Bitter almonds may yield 4–9 mg of hydrogen cyanide per almond and contain 42 times higher amounts of cyanide than the trace levels found in sweet almonds. The origin of cyanide content in bitter almonds is via the enzymatic hydrolysis of amygdalin.
Alanine
Alanine (symbol Ala or A) is an α-amino acid that is used in the biosynthesis of proteins. It contains an α-amino group (which is in the protonated form, −NH, under biological conditions), an α-carboxylic acid group (which is in the deprotonated form, −COO, under biological conditions), and a side chain methyl group, making it a nonpolar, aliphatic amino acid. It is non-essential in humans: because the body can synthesize it, it does not need to be present in the diet. It is encoded by all codons starting with GC (GCU, GCC, GCA, and GCG).
Synephrine
In a survey of over 50 citrus fruit juices, either commercially-prepared or hand-squeezed from fresh fruit, obtained on the US market, Avula and co-workers found synephrine levels ranging from ~4–60 mg/L; no synephrine was detected in juices from grapefruit, lime, or lemon.
An analysis of the synephrine levels in a range of different citrus fruits, carried out on juices that had been extracted from fresh, peeled fruit, was reported by Uckoo and co-workers, with the following results:
Marrs sweet orange ("C. sinensis" Tan.): ~85 mg/L; Nova tangerine ("C. reticulata" Tan.): ~78 mg/L; clementine ("C. clementina" Tan.): ~115 mg/L; Meyer lemon ("C. limon" Tan.) ~3 mg/kg; Ugli tangelo ("C. reticulata" × "C. paradisi") ~47 mg/kg. No synephrine was detected in: Rio Red grapefruit ("C. paradisi" Macf.); Red-fleshed pummelo ("C. grandis" Tan.); or Wekiwa tangelo ("C. reticulata" × "C. paradisi").
PH
pH-dependent plant pigments that can be used as pH indicators occur in many plants, including hibiscus, red cabbage (anthocyanin) and red wine. The juice of citrus fruits is acidic mainly because it contains citric acid. Other carboxylic acids occur in many living systems. For example, lactic acid is produced by muscle activity. The state of protonation of phosphate derivatives, such as ATP, is pH-dependent. The functioning of the oxygen-transport enzyme hemoglobin is affected by pH in a process known as the Root effect.
Amino acid
The phrase "branched-chain amino acids" or BCAA refers to the amino acids having aliphatic side chains that are non-linear; these are leucine, isoleucine, and valine. Proline is the only proteinogenic amino acid whose side-group links to the α-amino group and, thus, is also the only proteinogenic amino acid containing a secondary amine at this position. In chemical terms, proline is, therefore, an imino acid, since it lacks a primary amino group, although it is still classed as an amino acid in the current biochemical nomenclature, and may also be called an "N-alkylated alpha-amino acid".
Methyl anthranilate
Methyl anthranilate naturally occurs in the Concord grapes and other "Vitis labrusca" grapes and hybrids thereof, and in bergamot, black locust, champak, gardenia, jasmine, lemon, mandarin orange, neroli, oranges, rue oil, strawberry, tuberose, wisteria, galangal, and ylang ylang. It is also a primary component of the essential apple flavor, along with ethyl acetate and ethyl butyrate.
Synephrine
Synephrine, or, more specifically, "p"-synephrine, is an alkaloid, occurring naturally in some plants and animals, and also in approved drugs products as its "m"-substituted analog known as neo-synephrine. "p"-Synephrine (or formerly Sympatol and oxedrine [BAN]) and "m"-synephrine are known for their longer acting adrenergic effects compared to norepinephrine. This substance is present at very low concentrations in common foodstuffs such as orange juice and other orange ("Citrus" species) products, both of the "sweet" and "bitter" variety. The preparations used in traditional Chinese medicine (TCM), also known as Zhi Shi, are the immature and dried whole oranges from "Citrus aurantium" (Fructus Aurantii Immaturus). Extracts of the same material or purified synephrine are also marketed in the US, sometimes in combination with caffeine, as a weight-loss-promoting dietary supplement for oral consumption. While the traditional preparations have been in use for millennia as a component of TCM-formulas, synephrine itself is not an approved OTC drug. As a pharmaceutical, "m"-synephrine (phenylephrine) is still used as a sympathomimetic (i.e. for its hypertensive and vasoconstrictor properties), mostly by injection for the treatment of emergencies such as shock, and rarely orally for the treatment of bronchial problems associated with asthma and hay-fever.
Proteinogenic amino acid
† The stop codon is not an amino acid, but is included for completeness.
†† UAG and UGA do not always act as stop codons (see above).
‡ An essential amino acid cannot be synthesized in humans and must, therefore, be supplied in the diet. Conditionally essential amino acids are not normally required in the diet, but must be supplied exogenously to specific populations that do not synthesize it in adequate amounts.
& Occurrence of amino acids is based on 135 Archaea, 3775 Bacteria, 614 Eukaryota proteomes and human proteome (21 006 proteins) respectively.
Essential amino acid
Scientists had known since the early 20th century that rats could not survive on a diet whose only protein source was zein, which comes from maize (corn), but recovered if they were fed casein from cow's milk. This led William Cumming Rose to the discovery of the essential amino acid threonine. Through manipulation of rodent diets, Rose was able to show that ten amino acids are essential for rats: lysine, tryptophan, histidine, phenylalanine, leucine, isoleucine, methionine, valine, and arginine, in addition to threonine. Rose's later work showed that eight amino acids are essential for adult human beings, with histidine also being essential for infants. Longer term studies established histidine as also essential for adult humans.
Peach (fruit)
Red-fleshed peaches are rich in anthocyanins, particularly cyanidin glucosides in six peach and six nectarine cultivars and malvin glycosides in clingstone peaches.
As with many other members of the rose family, peach seeds contain cyanogenic glycosides, including amygdalin (note the subgenus designation: "Amygdalus"). These substances are capable of decomposing into a sugar molecule and hydrogen cyanide gas. While peach seeds are not the most toxic within the rose family (see bitter almond), large consumption of these chemicals from any source is potentially hazardous to animal and human health.
Acids in wine
Malic acid, along with tartaric acid, is one of the principal organic acids found in wine grapes. It is found in nearly every fruit and berry plant, but is most often associated with green (unripe) apples, the flavor it most readily projects in wine. Its name comes from the Latin "malum" meaning “apple”. In the grape vine, malic acid is involved in several processes which are essential for the health and sustainability of the vine. Its chemical structure allows it to participate in enzymatic reactions that transport energy throughout the vine. Its concentration varies depending on the grape variety, with some varieties, such as Barbera, Carignan and Sylvaner, being naturally disposed to high levels. The levels of malic acid in grape berries are at their peak just before veraison, when they can be found in concentrations as high as 20 g/l. As the vine progresses through the ripening stage, malic acid is metabolized in the process of respiration, and by harvest, its concentration could be as low as 1 to 9 g/l. The respiratory loss of malic acid is more pronounced in warmer climates. When all the malic acid is used up in the grape, it is considered “over-ripe” or senescent. Winemakers must compensate for this loss by adding extraneous acid at the winery in a process known as acidification.
Cyanidin
Cyanidin is a natural organic compound. It is a particular type of anthocyanidin (glycoside version called anthocyanins). It is a pigment found in many red berries including grapes, bilberry, blackberry, blueberry, cherry, cranberry, elderberry, hawthorn, loganberry, açai berry and raspberry. It can also be found in other fruits such as apples and plums, and in red cabbage and red onion. It has a characteristic reddish-purple color, though this can change with pH; solutions of the compound are red at pH < 3, violet at pH 7-8, and blue at pH > 11. In certain fruits, the highest concentrations of cyanidin are found in the seeds and skin. In a recent study, cyanidin was found to be a potent sirtuin 6 (SIRT6) activator.Cyanidin can be synthesized in berry plants through the shikimate pathway and polyketide synthase (PKS) III. The shikimate pathway is a biosynthetic pathways that uses the starting materials Phosphoenolpyruvic acid (PEP) and Erythrose 4-phosphate to form shikimic acid, which then further reacts to form specific aromatic amino acids. L-phenylalanine, which is necessary in the production of cyanidin, is synthesized through the shikimate pathway.
Apricot
Apricots contain various phytochemicals, such as provitamin A beta-carotene and polyphenols, including catechins and chlorogenic acid. Taste and aroma compounds include sucrose, glucose, organic acids, terpenes, aldehydes and lactones.
Anthocyanin
Plants rich in anthocyanins are "Vaccinium" species, such as blueberry, cranberry, and bilberry; "Rubus" berries, including black raspberry, red raspberry, and blackberry; blackcurrant, cherry, eggplant (aubergine) peel, black rice, ube, Okinawan sweet potato, Concord grape, muscadine grape, red cabbage, and violet petals. Red-fleshed peaches and apples contain anthocyanins. Anthocyanins are less abundant in banana, asparagus, pea, fennel, pear, and potato, and may be totally absent in certain cultivars of green gooseberries.
Orange (fruit)
The blood orange, with its distinct color and flavor, is generally considered favorably as a juice, and has found a niche as an ingredient variation in traditional Seville marmalade.Acidless oranges are an early-season fruit with very low levels of acid. They also are called "sweet" oranges in the United States, with similar names in other countries: "douce" in France, "sucrena" in Spain, "dolce" or "maltese" in Italy, "meski" in North Africa and the Near East (where they are especially popular), "şeker portakal" ("sugar orange") in Turkey, "succari" in Egypt, and "lima" in Brazil.
Amine
Amines can be classified according to the nature and number of substituents on nitrogen. Aliphatic amines contain only H and alkyl substituents. Aromatic amines have the nitrogen atom connected to an aromatic ring.
Amines, alkyl and aryl alike, are organized into three subcategories  based on the number of carbon atoms adjacent to the nitrogen:A fourth subcategory is determined by the connectivity of the substituents attached to the nitrogen: