How common are basal cancerous cells?
Basal-cell carcinoma
Basal-cell cancer is a very common skin cancer. It is much more common in fair-skinned individuals with a family history of basal-cell cancer and increases in incidence closer to the equator or at higher altitude. There are approximately 800,000 new cases yearly in the United States alone. Up to 30% of Caucasians develop basal-cell carcinomas in their lifetime. In Canada, the most common skin cancer is basal-cell carcinoma (as much as one third of all cancer diagnoses), affecting 1 in 7 individuals over a lifetime.
Transitional cell carcinoma
Transitional cell carcinoma, also urothelial carcinoma, is a type of cancer that typically occurs in the urinary system. It is the most common type of bladder cancer and cancer of the ureter, urethra, and urachus. It is the second most common type of kidney cancer, but accounts for only five to 10 percent of all primary renal malignant tumors.
RAD54B
The "RAD54B" gene is somatically mutated or deleted in numerous types of cancer including colorectal cancer (~3.3%), breast cancer (~3.4%), and lung cancer (~2.6%). In North America, these three cancers alone account for about 20,500 individuals diagnosed annually with "RAD54B" defective cancer. In a pre-clinical study, colon cancer cells defective in "RAD54B" were determined to be selectively killed by inhibitors of the DNA repair protein PARP1. Inhibitors of PARP1 likely impede alternative DNA repair responses that might otherwise compensate for loss of the "RAD54B" pathway in cancer cells. Thus "RAD54B"-deficient cancer cells treated with a PARP1 inhibitor are apparently more vulnerable to killing by naturally occurring DNA damages than non-cancerous cells without a RAD54 defect (see article Synthetic lethality).
Squamous cell skin cancer
SCC of the skin begins as a small nodule and as it enlarges the center becomes necrotic and sloughs and the nodule turns into an ulcer.Squamous cell carcinoma is the second-most common cancer of the skin (after basal-cell carcinoma but more common than melanoma). It usually occurs in areas exposed to the sun. Sunlight exposure and immunosuppression are risk factors for SCC of the skin, with chronic sun exposure being the strongest environmental risk factor. There is a risk of metastasis starting more than 10 years after diagnosable appearance of squamous cell carcinoma, but the risk is low, though much higher than with basal-cell carcinoma. Squamous cell cancers of the lip and ears have high rates of local recurrence and distant metastasis. In a recent study, it has also been shown that the deletion or severe down-regulation of a gene titled Tpl2 (tumor progression locus 2) may be involved in the progression of normal keratinocytes into becoming squamous cell carcinoma.
Granulocyte
Basophils are one of the least abundant cells in bone marrow and blood (occurring at less than two percent of all cells). Like neutrophils and eosinophils, they have lobed nuclei; however, they have only two lobes, and the chromatin filaments that connect them are not very visible. Basophils have receptors that can bind to IgE, IgG, complement, and histamine. The cytoplasm of basophils contains a varied amount of granules; these granules are usually numerous enough to partially conceal the nucleus. Granule contents of basophils are abundant with histamine, heparin, chondroitin sulfate, peroxidase, platelet-activating factor, and other substances.
34βE12
It is used to stain basal cells in prostatic glands; loss of basal cells is seen in prostate adenocarcinoma (the most common form of prostate cancer).
Basaloid squamous cell lung carcinoma
Among other pulmonary malignancies, the main differential diagnoses in suspected cases of Bas-SqCC include the high-grade neuroendocrine carcinomas, such as small cell carcinoma and large cell neuroendocrine carcinoma. The issue of differential diagnosis is particularly acute when the pathologist must use a small biopsy specimen or cytology. In addition, the basaloid variant of SqCC can be difficult to distinguish from other poorly differentiated squamous cell carcinomas.
Carcinoma
Other criteria that play a role in a cancer diagnosis include:There are a large number of rare subtypes of anaplastic, undifferentiated carcinoma. Some of the more well known include the lesions containing pseudo-sarcomatous components: spindle cell carcinoma (containing elongated cells resembling connective tissue cancers), giant cell carcinoma (containing huge, bizarre, multinucleated cells), and sarcomatoid carcinoma (mixtures of spindle and giant cell carcinoma). Pleomorphic carcinoma contains spindle cell and/or giant cell components, plus at least a 10% component of cells characteristic of more highly differentiated types (i.e. adenocarcinoma and/or squamous cell carcinoma). Very rarely, tumors may contain individuals components resembling both carcinoma and true sarcoma, including carcinosarcoma and pulmonary blastoma. A history of cigarette smoking is the most common cause of large cell carcinoma.
Papillary serous cystadenocarcinoma
Papillary serous cystadenocarcinomas are the most common form of malignant ovarian cancer making up 26 percent of ovarian tumours in women aged over 20 in the United States.
As with most ovarian tumours, due to the lack of early signs of disease these tumours can be large when discovered and have often metastasized, often by spreading along the peritoneum.
Sebaceous carcinoma
Patients with ocular sebaceous carcinomas present with nonhealing eyelid tumors that are often misdiagnosed for more common benign conditions such as chalazion or bleproconjunctivitis. Extraocular SGc appears similarly to skin cancers such as basal cell carcinoma, squamous cell carcinoma and benign lesions such a molluscum contagiosum and pyogenic granuloma. Many tumors also share a histological presentation similar to SGC, such as sebaceous adenomas, basal cell carcinomas (BCC), squamous cell carcinomas (SCC) and clear cell tumors. A high level of suspicion is extremely important to prevent treatment delay and increased mortality.
Base excision repair
MBD4 (methyl-CpG-binding domain protein 4) is a glycosylase employed in an initial step of base excision repair. MBD4 protein binds preferentially to fully methylated CpG sites and to the altered DNA bases at those sites. These altered bases arise from the frequent hydrolysis of cytosine to uracil (see image) and hydrolysis of 5-methylcytosine to thymine, producing G:U and G:T base pairs. If the improper uracils or thymines in these base pairs are not removed before DNA replication, they will cause transition mutations. MBD4 specifically catalyzes the removal of T and U paired with guanine (G) within CpG sites. This is an important repair function since about 1/3 of all intragenic single base pair mutations in human cancers occur in CpG dinucleotides and are the result of G:C to A:T transitions. These transitions comprise the most frequent mutations in human cancer. For example, nearly 50% of somatic mutations of the tumor suppressor gene p53 in colorectal cancer are G:C to A:T transitions within CpG sites. Thus, a decrease in expression of MBD4 could cause an increase in carcinogenic mutations.
Breast cancer classification
DNA microarrays have compared normal cells to breast cancer cells and found differences in the expression of hundreds of genes. Although the significance of many of those genetic differences is unknown, independent analyses by different research groups has found that certain groups of genes have a tendency to co-express. These co-expressing clusters have included hormone receptor-related genes, HER2-related genes, a group of basal-like genes, and proliferation genes. As might therefore be anticipated, there is considerable similarity between the receptor and microarray classifications, but assignment of individual tumors is by no means identical. By way of illustration, some analyses have suggested that approximately 75% of receptor classified triple-negative breast cancers (TNBC) basal-like tumors have the expected DNA expression profile, and a similar 75% of tumors with a typical basal-like DNA expression profile are receptor TNBC as well. To say this in a different way to emphasize things, this means that 25% of triple-negative breast cancer (TNBC) basal-like tumors as defined by one or other classification are excluded from the alternative classification's results. Which classification scheme (receptor IHC or DNA expression profile) more reliably assorts particular cancers to effective therapies is under investigation.
Ovarian cancer
Overall, the most common gene mutations in ovarian cancer occur in "NF1, BRCA1, BRCA2, "and "CDK12". Type I ovarian cancers, which tend to be less aggressive, tend to have microsatellite instability in several genes, including both oncogenes (most notably "BRAF" and "KRAS") and tumor suppressors (most notably "PTEN"). The most common mutations in Type I cancers are "KRAS, BRAF, ERBB2, PTEN, PIK3CA," and "ARID1A." Type II cancers, the more aggressive type, have different genes mutated, including "p53, BRCA1", and "BRCA2". Low-grade cancers tend to have mutations in KRAS, whereas cancers of any grade that develop from low malignant potential tumors tend to have mutations in p53. Type I cancers tend to develop from precursor lesions, whereas Type II cancers can develop from a serous tubal intraepithelial carcinoma. Serous cancers that have BRCA mutations also inevitably have p53 mutations, indicating that the removal of both functional genes is important for cancer to develop.
Clear-cell sarcoma
Clear-cell sarcoma (formerly known as malignant melanoma of the soft parts) is a rare form of cancer called sarcoma. It is known to occur mainly in the soft tissues and dermis. Rare forms were thought to occur in the gastrointestinal tract before they were discovered to be different and redesignated as GNET.
Bazex–Dupré–Christol syndrome
Bazex–Dupré–Christol syndrome (also known as "Bazex syndrome", and "follicular atrophoderma and basal cell carcinomas") is a very rare condition inherited in an X-linked dominant fashion. Physical findings typically include follicular atrophoderma, multiple basal cell carcinomas, hypotrichosis, and hypohidrosis.
Trichoepithelioma
Trichoepitheliomas consisted of nests of basaloid cells. They lack the myxoid stroma and artefactual clefting seen in basal cell carcinoma. Mitoses are uncommon when compared to basal cell carcinoma.
Signet ring cell carcinoma
Primary SRCC tumors are most often found in the glandular cells of the stomach (SRCC originates in the stomach in 90 percent of patients), and less frequently in the breast, gallbladder, urinary bladder, and pancreas. SRCCs do not normally form in the lungs, though a few incidences have been reported.
Burkitt's lymphoma
The tumor consists of sheets of a monotonous (i.e., similar in size and morphology) population of medium-sized lymphoid cells with high proliferative and apoptotic activity. The "starry sky" appearance seen under low power is due to scattered tingible body-laden macrophages (macrophages containing dead apoptotic tumor cells). The old descriptive term of "small non-cleaved cell" is misleading. The tumor cells are mostly medium in size (i.e., tumor nuclei size similar to that of histiocytes or endothelial cells). "Small non-cleaved cells" are compared to "large non-cleaved cells" of normal germinal center lymphocytes. Tumor cells possess small amounts of basophilic cytoplasm with three to four small nucleoli. The cellular outline usually appears squared off.
Skin cancer
More than 3.5 million cases of skin cancer are diagnosed annually in the United States, which makes it the most common form of cancer in that country. One in five Americans will develop skin cancer at some point of their lives. The most common form of skin cancer is basal-cell carcinoma, followed by squamous cell carcinoma. Unlike for other cancers, there exists no basal and squamous cell skin cancers registry in the United States.
Regulation of transcription in cancer
DNA repair genes are frequently repressed in cancers due to hypermethylation of CpG islands within their promoters. In head and neck squamous cell carcinomas at least 15 DNA repair genes have frequently hypermethylated promoters; these genes are "XRCC1, MLH3, PMS1, RAD51B, XRCC3, RAD54B, BRCA1, SHFM1, GEN1, FANCE, FAAP20, SPRTN, SETMAR, HUS1," and "PER1". About seventeen types of cancer are frequently deficient in one or more DNA repair genes due to hypermethylation of their promoters. As summarized in one review article, promoter hypermethylation of the DNA repair gene "MGMT" occurs in 93% of bladder cancers, 88% of stomach cancers, 74% of thyroid cancers, 40%-90% of colorectal cancers and 50% of brain cancers. Promoter hypermethylation of "LIG4" occurs in 82% of colorectal cancers. This review article also indicates promoter hypermethylation of "NEIL1" occurs in 62% of head and neck cancers and in 42% of non-small-cell lung cancers; promoter hypermetylation of "ATM" occurs in 47% of non-small-cell lung cancers; promoter hypermethylation of "MLH1" occurs in 48% of squamous cell carcinomas; and promoter hypermethylation of "FANCB" occurs in 46% of head and neck cancers.
Basal-cell carcinoma
Most sporadic BCC arises in small numbers on sun-exposed skin of people over age 50, although younger people may also be affected. The development of multiple basal-cell cancer at an early age could be indicative of nevoid basal-cell carcinoma syndrome, also known as Gorlin's Syndrome.
Acinic cell carcinoma
Acinic cell carcinoma is a malignant tumor representing 2% of all salivary tumors. 90% of the time found in the parotid gland, 10% intraorally on buccal mucosa or palate. The disease presents as a slow growing mass, associated with pain or tenderness in 50% of the cases. Often appears pseudoencapsulated.
Indoor tanning
Non-melanoma skin cancer includes squamous cell carcinoma (SCC) and basal cell carcinoma (BCC), and is more common than melanoma. With early detection and treatment, it is typically not life-threatening. Prevalence increases with age, cumulative exposure to UV, and proximity to the equator. It is most prevalent in Australia, where the rate is 1,000 in 100,000 and where, as of 2000, it represented 75 percent of all cancers.
Carcinogenesis
The cells in which all these DNA alterations accumulate are difficult to trace, but two recent lines of evidence suggest that normal stem cells may be the cells of origin in cancers. First, there exists a highly positive correlation (Spearman’s rho = 0.81; P < 3.5 × 10−8) between the risk of developing cancer in a tissue and the number of normal stem cell divisions taking place in that same tissue. The correlation applied to 31 cancer types and extended across five orders of magnitude. This correlation means that if the normal stem cells from a tissue divide once, the cancer risk in that tissue is approximately 1X. If they divide 1,000 times, the cancer risk is 1,000X. And if the normal stem cells from a tissue divide 100,000 times, the cancer risk in that tissue is approximately 100,000X. This strongly suggests that the main reason we have cancer is that our normal stem cells divide, which implies that cancer originates in normal stem cells. Second, statistics show that most human cancers are diagnosed in aged people. A possible explanation is that cancers occur because cells accumulate damage through time. DNA is the only cellular component that can accumulate damage over the entire course of a life, and stem cells are the only cells that can transmit DNA from the zygote to cells late in life. Other cells cannot keep DNA from the beginning of life until a possible cancer occurs. This implies that most cancers arise from normal stem cells.
Triple-negative breast cancer
Triple-negative breast cancers (TNBC) are sometimes classified into "basal-type" and other cancers; however, there is no standard classification scheme. Basal type cancers are frequently defined by cytokeratin 5/6 and EGFR staining. However, no clear criteria or cutoff values have been standardized yet. About 75% of basal-type breast cancers are triple negative.
Vulvar cancer
Basal cell carcinoma makes up about 1–2% of vulvar cancer. These tend to be slow-growing lesions on the labia majora but can occur anywhere on the vulva. Their behavior is similar to basal cell cancers in other locations. They often grow locally and have low risk for deep invasion or metastasis.
Skin cancer
Basal-cell skin cancer (BCC) usually presents as a raised, smooth, pearly bump on the sun-exposed skin of the head, neck or shoulders. Sometimes small blood vessels (called telangiectasia) can be seen within the tumor. Crusting and bleeding in the center of the tumor frequently develops. It is often mistaken for a sore that does not heal. This form of skin cancer is the least deadly and with proper treatment can be completely eliminated, often without scarring.
BRCA1
BRCA1 expression is reduced or undetectable in the majority of high grade, ductal breast cancers. It has long been noted that loss of BRCA1 activity, either by germ-line mutations or by down-regulation of gene expression, leads to tumor formation in specific target tissues. In particular, decreased BRCA1 expression contributes to both sporadic and inherited breast tumor progression. Reduced expression of BRCA1 is tumorigenic because it plays an important role in the repair of DNA damages, especially double-strand breaks, by the potentially error-free pathway of homologous recombination. Since cells that lack the BRCA1 protein tend to repair DNA damages by alternative more error-prone mechanisms, the reduction or silencing of this protein generates mutations and gross chromosomal rearrangements that can lead to progression to breast cancer.
Similarly, BRCA1 expression is low in the majority (55%) of sporadic epithelial ovarian cancers (EOCs) where EOCs are the most common type of ovarian cancer, representing approximately 90% of ovarian cancers. In serous ovarian carcinomas, a sub-category constituting about 2/3 of EOCs, low BRCA1 expression occurs in more than 50% of cases. Bowtell reviewed the literature indicating that deficient homologous recombination repair caused by BRCA1 deficiency is tumorigenic. In particular this deficiency initiates a cascade of molecular events that sculpt the evolution of high-grade serous ovarian cancer and dictate its response to therapy. Especially noted was that BRCA1 deficiency could be the cause of tumorigenesis whether due to BRCA1 mutation or any other event that causes a deficiency of BRCA1 expression.
Ovarian cancer
Germ cell tumors of the ovary develop from the ovarian germ cells. Germ cell tumor accounts for about 30% of ovarian tumors, but only 5% of ovarian cancers, because most germ-cell tumors are teratomas and most teratomas are benign. Malignant teratomas tend to occur in older women, when one of the germ layers in the tumor develops into a squamous cell carcinoma. Germ-cell tumors tend to occur in young women (20s–30s) and girls, making up 70% of the ovarian cancer seen in that age group. Germ-cell tumors can include dysgerminomas, teratomas, yolk sac tumors/endodermal sinus tumors, and choriocarcinomas, when they arise in the ovary. Some germ-cell tumors have an isochromosome 12, where one arm of chromosome 12 is deleted and replaced with a duplicate of the other. Most germ-cell cancers have a better prognosis than other subtypes and are more sensitive to chemotherapy. They are more likely to be stage I at diagnosis. Overall, they metastasize more frequently than epithelial ovarian cancers. In addition, the cancer markers used vary with tumor type: choriocarcinomas are monitored with beta-HCG and endodermal sinus tumors with alpha-fetoprotein.
GAS1
Gas1 gene has been mapped by the method of in situ hybridization to human chromosome bands 9q21.3-q22, a fragile site where frequently deleted in human tumors, especially acute myeloid leukemia and bladder tumors. The deletion region of early superficial bladder cancer indicated that the frequent (50%) deletion of tumor suppressor genes was located between 9q22 and 9p12-13, an area that spanned the GAS1 gene position and could be a starting event for bladder cancer disease. However, a study that has been done by Simoneau et al indicates that there is no mutations in the gas1 gene in 14 primary bladder carcinomas and 10 bladder carcinoma cell lines, which means the mutation of gas1 is not the main reason in causing the pathogenesis.
Basal-cell carcinoma
The cure rate for this method, whether performed by a General Surgeon, Otolaryngologist, Head & Neck Surgeon, Plastic Surgeon, Maxillofacial Surgeon or dermatologist is totally dependent on the surgical margin. The narrower the free surgical margin (skin removed that is free of visible tumor) the higher the recurrence rate. If a 4 mm free surgical margin is obtained around a small tumor (less than 6mm), or a wider 6 mm free surgical margin is obtained around a larger tumor (greater than 6mm), the cure rate is very high—95% or better. However, for cosmetic reasons, many doctors take only very small surgical margins 1–2 mm, especially when operating on the face. In such a case, a pathology report indicating the margins are free of residual tumour is often inaccurate, and recurrence rates are much higher (up to 38%).
Acinar cell carcinoma of the pancreas
Acinar cell carcinoma of the pancreas, also acinar cell carcinoma, is a rare malignant exocrine tumour of the pancreas. It represents 5% of all exocrine tumours of the pancreas, making it the second most common type of pancreatic cancer. It is abbreviated ACC. It typically has a guarded prognosis.
Skin cancer
Approximately 2,000 people die from basal or squamous cell skin cancers (non-melanoma skin cancers) in the United States each year. The rate has dropped in recent years. Most of the deaths happen to people who are elderly and might not have seen a doctor until the cancer had spread; and people with immune system disorders.
Basal-cell carcinoma
Some superficial cancers respond to local therapy with 5-fluorouracil, a chemotherapy agent. Topical treatment with 5% Imiquimod cream, with five applications per week for six weeks has a reported 70–90% success rate at reducing, even removing, the BCC [basal-cell carcinoma]. Both Imiquimod and 5-fluorouracil have received FDA approval, and topical IMQ is approved by the European Medicines Agency for treatment of small superficial basal-cell carcinoma. Off label use of imiquimod on invasive basal-cell carcinoma has been reported. Imiquimod may be used prior to surgery in order to reduce the size of the carcinoma. One can expect a great deal of inflammation with this treatment. Chemotherapy often follows Mohs surgery to eliminate the residual superficial basal-cell carcinoma after the invasive portion is removed. Some advocate the use of imiquimod prior to Mohs surgery to remove the superficial component of the cancer. Removing the residual superficial tumor with surgery alone can result in large and difficult to repair surgical defects. One often waits a month or more after surgery before starting the Imiquimod or 5-fluorouracil to make sure the surgical wound has adequately healed. Some people advocate the use of curettage (see EDC below) first, followed by chemotherapy. These experimental procedures are not standard care. The 2008 study reported that topical IMQ appears effective in the treatment of primary small superficial BCCs but only "may possibly" have a role in the treatment of primary nodular BCC.
Malignant transformation
Silencing of a DNA repair gene by hypermethylation or other epigenetic alteration appears to be a frequent step in progression to cancer. As summarized in a review, promoter hypermethylation of DNA repair gene "MGMT" occurs in 93% of bladder cancers, 88% of stomach cancers, 74% of thyroid cancers, 40%-90% of colorectal cancers and 50% of brain cancers. In addition, promoter hypermethylation of DNA repair genes "LIG4", "NEIL1", "ATM", "MLH1" or "FANCB" occurs at frequencies between 33% to 82% in one or more of head and neck cancers, non-small-cell lung cancers or non-small-cell lung cancer squamous cell carcinomas. Further, the article Werner syndrome ATP-dependent helicase indicates the DNA repair gene "WRN" has a promoter that is often hypermethylated in a variety of cancers, with "WRN" hypermethylation occurring in 11% to 38% of colorectal, head and neck, stomach, prostate, breast, thyroid, non-Hodgkin lymphoma, chondrosarcoma and osteosarcoma cancers.
Squamous-cell carcinoma of the lung
Currently, four variants (papillary, small-cell, clear-cell, and basaloid) of squamous-cell carcinoma of the lung are recognized. Of these variants, there is some evidence that the basaloid and poorly differentiated small-cell variants may have worse prognoses than "conventional" squamous-cell carcinomas. The papillary variant occurs more frequently as a primarily superficial, endobronchial lesion, with a modestly better prognosis Very little data is currently available on the clear-cell variant of squamous-cell carcinoma, and no consensus has been reached on the prognostic implications of clear-cell changes in lung cancer.
Tonsil carcinoma
The records of 471 male patients with tonsillar carcinoma seen at the Veterans Administration Medical Center, Hines, Illinois, have been reviewed to establish the incidence and site of distant metastasis. All the patients were histological diagnosed and proven cases of tonsillar carcinoma. 72(15%) out of 471 patients and 33 (29%) of 155 autopsied patients were reported to have distant metastasis.
Squamous cell carcinoma was the most common reported cell type (88%); cases with Lymphoepithelioma had the highest incidence of distant metastasis. The most common anatomical sites of incidence of distant metastasis include lung, liver and bones.
Thorough investigation of these organs is highly recommended before treatment as well as during follow ups.
Skin cancer
Treatment is dependent on the specific type of cancer, location of the cancer, age of the person, and whether the cancer is primary or a recurrence. For a small basal-cell cancer in a young person, the treatment with the best cure rate (Mohs surgery or CCPDMA) might be indicated. In the case of an elderly frail man with multiple complicating medical problems, a difficult to excise basal-cell cancer of the nose might warrant radiation therapy (slightly lower cure rate) or no treatment at all. Topical chemotherapy might be indicated for large superficial basal-cell carcinoma for good cosmetic outcome, whereas it might be inadequate for invasive nodular basal-cell carcinoma or invasive squamous-cell carcinoma. In general, melanoma is poorly responsive to radiation or chemotherapy.
Ewing's sarcoma
Ewing's sarcoma or Ewing sarcoma ( ) is a malignant small, round, blue cell tumor. It is a rare disease in which cancer cells are found in the bone or in soft tissue. The most common areas in which it occurs are the pelvis, the femur, the humerus, the ribs, the mandible and clavicle (collar bone).
Conjunctival squamous cell carcinoma
Conjunctival qquamous cell carcinoma (conjunctival SCC) and corneal intraepithelial neoplasia comprise what are called ocular surface squamous cell neoplasias. SCC is the most common malignancy of the conjunctiva in the US, with a yearly incidence of 1-2.8 per 100,000. Risk factors for the disease are exposure to sun (specifically occupational), exposure to UVB, and light-colored skin. Other risk factors include radiation, smoking, HPV, arsenic, and exposure to polycyclic hydrocarbons.
Basal-like carcinoma
The basal-like carcinoma is a recently proposed subtype of breast cancer defined by its gene expression and protein expression profile.
Cancer syndrome
Nevoid basal cell carcinoma syndrome (NBCCS), also known as Gorlin syndrome, is an autosomal dominant cancer syndrome in which the risk of basal cell carcinoma is very high. The disease is characterized by basal cell nevi, jaw keratocysts and skeletal abnormalities. Estimates of NBCCS prevalence varies, but is approximately 1 in 60000. The presence of basal cell carcinoma is much higher in white than black individuals; 80% and 38%, respectively. Odontogenic keratocysts are found in approximately 75% of individuals with the disease and often occur early in life. The most common skeletal abnormalities occur in the head and face, but other areas are often affected such as the rib cage. The causative genetic mutation of this disease occurs in the PTCH gene, and the product of PTCH is a tumor suppressor involved in cell signaling. Although the exact role of this protein in NBCCS is not known, it is involved in the hedgehog signaling pathway, known to control cell growth and development.
Scrotal ultrasound
Approximately 95% of malignant testicular tumors are germ cell tumors, of which
seminoma is the most common. It accounts for 35%–50% of all germ cell tumors. Seminomas occur in a slightly older age group when compared with other nonseminomatous tumor, with a peak incidence in the forth and fifth decades. They are less
aggressive than other testicular tumors and usually confined within the tunica albuginea at
presentation. Seminomas are associated with the best prognosis of the germ cell tumors
because of their high sensitivity to radiation and chemotherapy.
Granulosa cell tumour
Granulosa cell tumours (or granulosa-theca cell tumours or folliculoma) are tumours that arise from granulosa cells. These tumours are part of the sex cord-gonadal stromal tumour or non-epithelial group of tumours. Although granulosa cells normally occur only in the ovary, granulosa cell tumours occur in both ovaries and testicles (see Ovarian cancer and Testicular cancer). These tumours should be considered malignant and treated in the same way as other malignant tumours of ovary. The ovarian disease has two forms, juvenile and adult, both characterized by indolent growth, and therefore has high recovery rates. The staging system for these tumours is the same as for epithelial tumours and most present as stage I. The peak age at which they occur is 50–55 years, but they may occur at any age.
Basal cell carcinoma, susceptibility to, 6
Basal cell carcinoma, susceptibility to, 6 is a protein that in humans is encoded by the BCC6 gene.
State switching
In contrast to normal cells, a striking characteristic of cancer cells is the remarkable degree of phenotypic plasticity they exhibit. For example, cancer cells undergo epithelial to mesenchymal transition (EMT) that plays important roles in their survival, proliferation, and development of resistance to therapeutic treatments, or switch to a phenotype that mimics stem cell-like features – the so-called Cancer Stem Cells (CSCs) or Tumour-initiating Cells. Unlike in the case of normal cells, state switching in cancer cells is widely believed to arise due to somatic mutations. However, there is growing concern that such a deterministic view of a phenomenon that is reversible is not entirely consistent with multiple lines of evidence which indicate that stochasticity may also play an important role in driving phenotypic plasticity.
Glioblastoma
Cancer cells with properties similar to stem cells have been found in glioblastomas (this may be a cause of their resistance to conventional treatments, and high recurrence rate). These so-called glioblastoma stem-like cells reside in a niche around arterioles, protecting these cells against therapy by maintaining a relatively hypoxic environment. A biomarker for cells in glioblastomas that exhibit cancer stem cell properties, the transcription factor Hes3, has been shown to regulate their number when placed in culture.
MBD4
About 1/3 of all intragenic single base pair mutations in human cancers occur in CpG dinucleotides and are the result of C to T or G to A transitions. These transitions comprise the most frequent mutations in human cancer. For example, nearly 50% of somatic mutations of the tumor suppressor gene p53 in colorectal cancer are G:C to A:T transitions within CpG sites.
Germ cell tumor
Extragonadal GCTs were thought initially to be isolated metastases from an undetected primary tumor in a gonad, but many germ cell tumors are now known to be congenital and originate outside the gonads. The most notable of these is sacrococcygeal teratoma, the single most common tumor diagnosed in babies at birth.
ABCC1
ABCC1 plays a role in the multidrug resistance of cancerous tumor cells due to its ability to transport many chemotherapeutic drugs out of the cells. The ABCC1 transporter protein is especially prevalent in neuroblastoma and cancer cells found in the lung, breast and prostate. In non-small cell lung carcinoma and small cell lung carcinoma, higher expression of ABCC1 was indicative of a reduced response to chemotherapeutic drugs and a lower rate of survival. Similar results were found in early-stage breast cancer where the increased expression of the transporter gene correlated with shorter times until a relapse occurred and lower rates of survival. In prostate cancer, expression of ABCC1 was found to increase with the stage of the disease while allowing resistance to chemotherapeutic drugs.
Breast cancer stem cell
Breast cancer is the most prevalent type of cancer among women worldwide, with almost 500 million deaths associated with this cancer type alone. The most commonly used treatment methods for breast cancer include surgery, radiotherapy and chemotherapy. However, many of these treated patients experience disease relapse and metastasis. This aggressive progression and recurrence of this disease has been attributed the presence of a subset of tumor cells known as breast cancer stem cells (BCSCs). These cells possess the abilities of self-renewal and tumor initiation, allowing them to be drivers of metastases and tumor growth. The microenvironment in which these cells reside is filled with residential inflammatory cells that provide the needed signaling cues for BCSC-mediated self-renewal and survival. Furthermore, the production of cytokines allows these cells to escape from the primary tumor and travel through the circulation to distant organs, commencing the process of metastasis. Due to their significant role in driving disease progression, BCSCs represent a new target by which to treat the tumor at the source of metastasis.
NEIL1
NEIL1 is one of the DNA repair genes most frequently hypermethylated in head and neck squamous cell carcinoma (HNSCC). When 160 human DNA repair genes were evaluated for aberrant methylation in HNSCC tumors, 62% of tumors were hypermethylated in the NEIL1 promoter region, causing NEIL1 messenger RNA and NEIL1 protein to be repressed. When 8 DNA repair genes were evaluated in non-small cell lung cancer (NSCLC) tumors, 42% were hypermethylated in the NEIL1 promoter region. This was the most frequent DNA repair deficiency found among the 8 DNA repair genes tested. NEIL1 was also one of six DNA repair genes found to be hypermethylated in their promoter regions in colorectal cancer.
Granular cell tumor
Granular cell tumor is a tumor that can develop on any skin or mucosal surface, but occurs on the tongue 40% of the time.
Merkel-cell carcinoma
This skin cancer occurs most often in Caucasians between 60 and 80 years of age, and its rate of incidence is about twice as high in males as in females. MCC is not a very common skin cancer. In 2013, the annual incidence rate was around 0.7 per 100,000 persons in the U.S. As of 2005, roughly 2,500 new cases of MCC have been diagnosed each year in the United States, as compared to around 60,000 new cases of malignant melanoma and over 1 million new cases of nonmelanoma skin cancer. Similar to melanoma, the incidence of MCC in the US is increasing rapidly.
Mast cell sarcoma
Mast cell sarcoma is an extremely aggressive form of sarcoma made up of neoplastic mast cells. A sarcoma is a tumor made of cells from connective tissue. Mast cell sarcoma is an extremely rare tumor. Only 3 cases are reported so far. Prognosis is extremely poor. People with a mast cell sarcoma have no skin lesions, and pathology examination of the tumor shows it to be very malignant with an aggressive growth pattern. Mast cell sarcoma should not be confused with
extracutaneous mastocytoma, a rare benign mast cell tumor without destructive growth. In the cases observed, mast cell sarcoma terminated quickly as mast cell leukemia; one of the most aggressive human cancers.
Ovarian cancer
In 50% of high-grade serous cancers, homologous recombination DNA repair is dysfunctional, as are the notch and FOXM1 signaling pathways. They also almost always have p53 mutations. Other than this, mutations in high-grade serous carcinoma are hard to characterize beyond their high degree of genomic instability. "BRCA1" and "BRCA2" are essential for homologous recombination DNA repair, and germline mutations in these genes are found in about 15% of people with ovarian cancer. The most common mutations in BRCA1 and BRCA2 are the frameshift mutations that originated in a small founding population of Ashkenazi Jews.
P19 cell
Cancer cells in humans may result in the patient's death if the aggressive cancer cell grows and metastasizes. However, researchers utilize these cells to study the development of cancer cells in order to find more specific treatments. For developmental biologists, embryonal carcinoma, which is derived from teratocarcinoma, is a good object for developmental study. In 1982, McBurney and Rogers transplanted a 7.5 day mouse embryo into the testis to induce tumor growth. Cell cultures containing undifferentiatied stem cells were isolated from the primary tumor which have a euploid karyotype. These stem cells were named embryonal carcinoma P19 cells. These derived P19 cells grew rapidly without feeder cells and were easy to maintain. Moreover, the multipotency of P19 cells was then confirmed by injecting the cells into blastocysts of another mouse strain. The researchers found that there were tissues from all three germ layers growing in the recipient mouse. Based on their continuous studies, they further derived subtype cell lines from original P19 cells: P19S18, P19D3, P19RAC65 and P19C16. The difference between these subtype cell lines is the ability to differentiate into neuronal cells or muscle cells in response to treatment with retinoic acid or DMSO, respectively.
More recently, various studies generate cell lines that were initially derived from differentiated P19 cells. Due to the pluripotency of P19 cells, those new derived cell lines can be ectoderm, mesoderm and endoderm-like cells.
List of people with brain tumors
A brain tumor is an abnormal growth of cells within the brain or inside the skull, and can be cancerous (malignant) or non-cancerous (benign). Just over half of all primary brain tumors are malignant; the rest are benign, though they may still be life-threatening. In the United States in 2000, survivors of benign primary brain tumors outnumbered those who had cancerous primary brain tumors by approximately 4:1. Metastatic brain cancer is over six times more common than primary brain cancer, as it occurs in about 10–30% of all people with cancer.
Basal-cell carcinoma
In the United States approximately 3 out of 10 caucasians develop a basal-cell carcinoma during their lifetime. This tumor accounts for approximately 70% of non-melanoma skin cancers. In 80 percent of all cases, basal-cell carcinoma affects the skin of head and neck. Furthermore, there appears to be an increase in the incidence of basal-cell cancer of the trunk in recent years.
Basal cell adenoma
The most common involved site is the parotid gland, however other possible sites include the submandibular gland, minor salivary glands of upper lip, buccal mucosa, palate and nasal septum.
Hepatocellular carcinoma
Hepatocellular carcinoma (HCC) is the most common type of primary liver cancer in adults, and is the most common cause of death in people with cirrhosis.
It occurs in the setting of chronic liver inflammation, and is most closely linked to chronic viral hepatitis infection (hepatitis B or C) or exposure to toxins such as alcohol or aflatoxin. Certain diseases, such as hemochromatosis and alpha 1-antitrypsin deficiency, markedly increase the risk of developing HCC. Metabolic syndrome and NASH are also increasingly recognized as risk factors for HCC.
As with any cancer, the treatment and prognosis of HCC vary depending on the specifics of tumor histology, size, how far the cancer has spread, and overall health.
The vast majority of HCC occurs in Asia and sub-Saharan Africa, in countries where hepatitis B infection is endemic and many are infected from birth. The incidence of HCC in the United States and other developing countries is increasing due to an increase in hepatitis C virus infections. It is more common in males than females for unknown reasons.
Mediastinal germ cell tumor
Malignant germ cell tumors of the mediastinum are uncommon, representing only 3 to 10% of tumors originating in the mediastinum. They are much less common than germ cell tumors arising in the testes, and account for only 1 to 5% of all germ cell neoplasms.
Keratin 5
Basal-like breast cancers tend to have poorer outcomes than other types of breast cancer due to a lack of targeted therapies. These breast cancers do not express human epidermal growth factor receptor-2 or receptors for estrogen or progesterone, making them immune to Trastuzumab/Herceptin and hormonal therapies , which are very effective against other breast cancer types. Due to the fact that K5 expression is only seen in basal cells, it serves as an important biomarker for screening patients with basal-like breast cancers to ensure that they are not receiving ineffective treatment.
Vulvar cancer
Most vulvar cancer (approximately 90%) is squamous cell carcinoma, which originates from epidermal squamous cells, the most common type of skin cell. Carcinoma-in-situ is a precursor lesion of squamous cell cancer that does not invade through the basement membrane. While this type of lesion is more common with older age, young women with risk factors may also be affected. In the elderly, complications may occur due to the presence of other medical conditions.
Skin cancer
Less common skin cancers include: dermatofibrosarcoma protuberans, Merkel cell carcinoma, Kaposi's sarcoma, keratoacanthoma, spindle cell tumors, sebaceous carcinomas, microcystic adnexal carcinoma, Paget's disease of the breast, atypical fibroxanthoma, leiomyosarcoma, and angiosarcoma.
Cutaneous horn
The lesion at the base of the keratin mound is benign in the majority of cases. Malignancy is present in up to 20% of cases, with squamous cell carcinoma being the most common type. The incidence of squamous cell carcinoma increases to 37% when the cutaneous horn is present on the penis. Tenderness at the base of the lesion is often a clue to the presence of a possible underlying squamous cell carcinoma.
DNA repair
DNA damage, due to environmental factors and normal metabolic processes inside the cell, occurs at a rate of 10,000 to 1,000,000 molecular lesions per cell per day. While this constitutes only 0.000165% of the human genome's approximately 6 billion bases (3 billion base pairs), unrepaired lesions in critical genes (such as tumor suppressor genes) can impede a cell's ability to carry out its function and appreciably increase the likelihood of tumor formation and contribute to tumour heterogeneity.
Ozone depletion
The most common forms of skin cancer in humans, basal and squamous cell carcinomas, have been strongly linked to UVB exposure. The mechanism by which UVB induces these cancers is well understood—absorption of UVB radiation causes the pyrimidine bases in the DNA molecule to form dimers, resulting in transcription errors when the DNA replicates. These cancers are relatively mild and rarely fatal, although the treatment of squamous cell carcinoma sometimes requires extensive reconstructive surgery. By combining epidemiological data with results of animal studies, scientists have estimated that every one percent decrease in long-term stratospheric ozone would increase the incidence of these cancers by two percent.
Esophageal cancer
Esophageal cancer is cancer arising from the esophagus—the food pipe that runs between the throat and the stomach. Symptoms often include difficulty in swallowing and weight loss. Other symptoms may include pain when swallowing, a hoarse voice, enlarged lymph nodes ("glands") around the collarbone, a dry cough, and possibly coughing up or vomiting blood.
The two main sub-types of the disease are esophageal squamous-cell carcinoma (often abbreviated to ESCC), which is more common in the developing world, and esophageal adenocarcinoma (EAC), which is more common in the developed world. A number of less common types also occur. Squamous-cell carcinoma arises from the epithelial cells that line the esophagus. Adenocarcinoma arises from glandular cells present in the lower third of the esophagus, often where they have already transformed to intestinal cell type (a condition known as Barrett's esophagus). Causes of the squamous-cell type include tobacco, alcohol, very hot drinks, poor diet, and chewing betel nut. The most common causes of the adenocarcinoma type are smoking tobacco, obesity, and acid reflux.
The disease is diagnosed by biopsy done by an endoscope (a fiberoptic camera). Prevention includes stopping smoking and eating a healthy diet. Treatment is based on the cancer's stage and location, together with the person's general condition and individual preferences. Small localized squamous-cell cancers may be treated with surgery alone with the hope of a cure. In most other cases, chemotherapy with or without radiation therapy is used along with surgery. Larger tumors may have their growth slowed with chemotherapy and radiation therapy. In the presence of extensive disease or if the affected person is not fit enough to undergo surgery, palliative care is often recommended.
As of 2012, esophageal cancer was the eighth-most common cancer globally with 456,000 new cases during the year. It caused about 400,000 deaths that year, up from 345,000 in 1990. Rates vary widely among countries, with about half of all cases occurring in China. It is around three times more common in men than in women. Outcomes are related to the extent of the disease and other medical conditions, but generally tend to be fairly poor, as diagnosis is often late. Five-year survival rates are around 13% to 18%.
Acinic cell carcinoma
It can also appear in the breast. The pancreatic form of acinic cell carcinoma is a rare subtype of exocrine pancreatic cancer. Exocrine pancreatic cancers are the most common form of pancreatic cancer when compared to endocrine pancreatic cancer.
Base excision repair
When 8 DNA repair genes were evaluated in non-small cell lung cancer (NSCLC) tumors, 42% were hypermethylated in the NEIL1 promoter region. This was the most frequent DNA repair abnormality found among the 8 DNA repair genes tested. NEIL1 was also one of six DNA repair genes found to be hypermethylated in their promoter regions in colorectal cancer.
Epithelioid sarcoma
Cancer stem cells (or cancer-initiating cells) are thought to be a small population of cells within the tumor that are directly responsible for tumor formation. They are thought to be resistant to treatment and to have the ability to form all the cells needed for tumor development. They are suspected to be a major contributing factor in cancer progression and relapse after treatment. Certain “stem-like” cells have been found in epithelioid sarcoma that are marked by CD109 (cluster of differentiation 109), providing a potentially drug-able target on the cancer stem cell for the disease. Certain challenges to targeting CD109 do exist, however, as CD109 is expressed in other areas of the body and not only in tumor cells.
Sebaceous carcinoma
Sebaceous carcinoma, also known as sebaceous gland carcinoma (SGc), sebaceous cell carcinoma, and mebomian gland carcinoma is an uncommon and aggressive malignant cutaneous tumor. Most are typically about 10 mm in size at presentation. This neoplasm is thought to arise from sebaceous glands in the skin and, therefore, may originate anywhere in the body where these glands are found. Sebaceous carcinoma can be divided into 2 types: ocular and extraocular. Because the periocular region is rich in this type of gland, this region is a common site of origin. The cause of these lesions are, in the vast majority of cases, unknown. Occasional cases may be associated with Muir-Torre syndrome. Due to the rarity of this tumor and variability in clinical and histological presentation, SGc is often misdiagnosed as an inflammatory condition or a more common type of tumor.
Carcinogen
Stomach cancer is the fourth most common cancer [990,000 cases (7.8%), 738,000 deaths (9.7%)]. "Helicobacter pylori" infection is the main causative factor in stomach cancer. Chronic gastritis (inflammation) caused by "H. pylori" is often long-standing if not treated. Infection of gastric epithelial cells with "H. pylori" results in increased production of reactive oxygen species (ROS). ROS cause oxidative DNA damage including the major base alteration 8-hydroxydeoxyguanosine (8-OHdG). 8-OHdG resulting from ROS is increased in chronic gastritis. The altered DNA base can cause errors during DNA replication that have mutagenic and carcinogenic potential. Thus "H. pylori"-induced ROS appear to be the major carcinogens in stomach cancer because they cause oxidative DNA damage leading to carcinogenic mutations. Diet is thought to be a contributing factor in stomach cancer - in Japan where very salty pickled foods are popular, the incidence of stomach cancer is high. Preserved meat such as bacon, sausages, and ham increases the risk while a diet high in fresh fruit and vegetables may reduce the risk. The risk also increases with age.
Skin cancer
Skin cancers are cancers that arise from the skin. They are due to the development of abnormal cells that have the ability to invade or spread to other parts of the body. There are three main types of skin cancers: basal-cell skin cancer (BCC), squamous-cell skin cancer (SCC) and melanoma. The first two, along with a number of less common skin cancers, are known as nonmelanoma skin cancer (NMSC). Basal-cell cancer grows slowly and can damage the tissue around it but is unlikely to spread to distant areas or result in death. It often appears as a painless raised area of skin, that may be shiny with small blood vessels running over it or may present as a raised area with an ulcer. Squamous-cell skin cancer is more likely to spread. It usually presents as a hard lump with a scaly top but may also form an ulcer. Melanomas are the most aggressive. Signs include a mole that has changed in size, shape, color, has irregular edges, has more than one color, is itchy or bleeds.
Greater than 90% of cases are caused by exposure to ultraviolet radiation from the Sun. This exposure increases the risk of all three main types of skin cancer. Exposure has increased partly due to a thinner ozone layer. Tanning beds are becoming another common source of ultraviolet radiation. For melanomas and basal-cell cancers exposure during childhood is particularly harmful. For squamous-cell skin cancers total exposure, irrespective of when it occurs, is more important. Between 20% and 30% of melanomas develop from moles. People with light skin are at higher risk as are those with poor immune function such as from medications or HIV/AIDS. Diagnosis is by biopsy.
Decreasing exposure to ultraviolet radiation and the use of sunscreen appear to be effective methods of preventing melanoma and squamous-cell skin cancer. It is not clear if sunscreen affects the risk of basal-cell cancer. Nonmelanoma skin cancer is usually curable. Treatment is generally by surgical removal but may less commonly involve radiation therapy or topical medications such as fluorouracil. Treatment of melanoma may involve some combination of surgery, chemotherapy, radiation therapy, and targeted therapy. In those people whose disease has spread to other areas of their bodies, palliative care may be used to improve quality of life. Melanoma has one of the higher survival rates among cancers, with over 86% of people in the UK and more than 90% in the United States surviving more than 5 years.
Skin cancer is the most common form of cancer, globally accounting for at least 40% of cases. The most common type is nonmelanoma skin cancer, which occurs in at least 2-3 million people per year. This is a rough estimate, however, as good statistics are not kept. Of nonmelanoma skin cancers, about 80% are basal-cell cancers and 20% squamous-cell skin cancers. Basal-cell and squamous-cell skin cancers rarely result in death. In the United States they were the cause of less than 0.1% of all cancer deaths. Globally in 2012 melanoma occurred in 232,000 people, and resulted in 55,000 deaths. White people in Australia, New Zealand and South Africa have the highest rates of melanoma in the world. The three main types of skin cancer have become more common in the last 20 to 40 years, especially in those areas which are mostly Caucasian.
Penile cancer
Around 95% of penile cancers are squamous cell carcinomas. They are classified into the following types:
Other types of carcinomas are rare and may include small cell, Merkel cell, clear cell, sebaceous cell or basal cell tumors. Non-epithelial malignancies such as melanomas and sarcomas are even more rare.
Seminal vesicle
Primary adenocarcinoma of the seminal vesicles, although rare, constitutes the most common neoplasm of the seminal vesicles; even rarer neoplasms include sarcoma, squamous cell carcinoma, yolk sac tumor, neuroendocrine carcinoma, paraganglioma, epithelial stromal tumors and lymphoma.
Epidemiology of cancer
Teratoma (a germ cell tumor) often is cited as the most common tumor in this age group, but most teratomas are surgically removed while still benign, hence not necessarily cancer. Prior to the widespread routine use of prenatal ultrasound examinations, the incidence of sacrococcygeal teratomas diagnosed at birth was 25 to 29 per million births.
Tumor antigens recognized by T lymphocytes
Cancer-germline genes are an important source of tumor-specific antigens. These genes are expressed in a significant fraction of tumors of many different histological types. They are not expressed in normal adult cells with the exception of male and female germline cells. But the expression of cancer-germline genes in germ cells is inconsequential because in the healthy state these cells are devoid of HLA class I molecules and therefore cannot present antigens to T cells. Therefore, the antigens of cancer-germline genes are presented to T lymphocytes only on tumor cells. The mechanism leading to the activation of these genes in tumor cells involves the demethylation of their promoter which is methylated in all normal cells except germline cells. Important families of such genes are the "MAGE" family (25 genes), "BAGE", "GAGE" and "LAGE/ESO-1"
Ovarian cancer
Granulosa cell tumors are the most common sex-cord stromal tumors, making up 70% of cases, and are divided into two histologic subtypes: adult granulosa cell tumors, which develop in women over 50, and juvenile granulosa tumors, which develop before puberty or before the age of 30. Both develop in the ovarian follicle from a population of cells that surrounds germinal cells.
Somatic evolution in cancer
The cancer stem-cell hypothesis relies on the fact that a lot of tumors are heterogeneous – the cells in the tumor vary by phenotype and functions. Current research shows that in many cancers there is apparent hierarchy among cells. in general, there is a small population of cells in the tumor – about 0.2%–1% – that exhibits stem cell-like properties. These cells have the ability to give rise to a variety of cells in tumor tissue, self-renew indefinitely, and upon transfer can form new tumors. According to the hypothesis, cancer stem cells are the only cells capable of tumorigenesis – initiation of a new tumor. Cancer stem cell hypothesis might explain such phenomena as metastasis and remission.
CpG site
DNA repair genes are frequently repressed in cancers due to hypermethylation of CpG islands within their promoters. In head and neck squamous cell carcinomas at least 15 DNA repair genes have frequently hypermethylated promoters; these genes are "XRCC1, MLH3, PMS1, RAD51B, XRCC3, RAD54B, BRCA1, SHFM1, GEN1, FANCE, FAAP20, SPRTN, SETMAR, HUS1," and "PER1". About seventeen types of cancer are frequently deficient in one or more DNA repair genes due to hypermethylation of their promoters. As an example, promoter hypermethylation of the DNA repair gene "MGMT" occurs in 93% of bladder cancers, 88% of stomach cancers, 74% of thyroid cancers, 40%-90% of colorectal cancers and 50% of brain cancers. Promoter hypermethylation of "LIG4" occurs in 82% of colorectal cancers. Promoter hypermethylation of "NEIL1" occurs in 62% of head and neck cancers and in 42% of non-small-cell lung cancers. Promoter hypermetylation of "ATM" occurs in 47% of non-small-cell lung cancers. Promoter hypermethylation of "MLH1" occurs in 48% of non-small-cell lung cancer squamous cell carcinomas. Promoter hypermethylation of "FANCB" occurs in 46% of head and neck cancers.
Basal-cell carcinoma
Prognosis is excellent if the appropriate method of treatment is used in early primary basal-cell cancers. Recurrent cancers are much harder to cure, with a higher recurrent rate with any methods of treatment. Although basal-cell carcinoma rarely metastasizes, it grows locally with invasion and destruction of local tissues. The cancer can impinge on vital structures like nerves and result in loss of sensation or loss of function or rarely death. The vast majority of cases can be successfully treated before serious complications occur. The recurrence rate for the above treatment options ranges from 50 percent to 1 percent or less.
Basal-cell carcinoma
A weakness with standard surgical excision is the high recurrence rate of basal-cell cancers of the face, especially around the eyelids, nose, and facial structures. There is no clear approach for treating basal-cell carcinoma around the eye. A diagram on page 38 of the National Comprehensive Cancer Network publication demonstrate the area of high risk of recurrence as being most of the face with the exception of the central cheek and upper forehead. On the face, or on recurrent basal-cell cancer after previous surgery, special surgical margin controlled processing (CCPDMA—complete circumferential peripheral and deep margin assessment) using frozen section histology (Mohs surgery is one of the methods) is required.
Malpighian layer
Basal cell carcinoma originates from the nasal layer of the rete malpighii of the skin
Transitional cell carcinoma
Transitional cell carcinomas are often multifocal, with 30–40% of patients having more than one tumor at diagnosis. The pattern of growth of transitional cell carcinomas can be papillary, sessile, or carcinoma in situ. The most common site of transitional cell carcinoma metastasis outside the pelvis is bone (35%); of these, 40 percent are in the spine.
Head and neck cancer
Squamous-cell carcinoma is a cancer of the squamous cell – a kind of epithelial cell found in both the skin and mucous membranes. It accounts for over 90% of all head and neck cancers, including more than 90% of throat cancer. Squamous cell carcinoma is most likely to appear in males over 40 years of age with a history of heavy alcohol use coupled with smoking.
Leptomeningeal cancer
It occurs with cancers that are most like to spread to the central nervous system. The most common cancers to include the leptomeninges are breast cancer, lung cancer, and melanomas because they can metastasize to the subarachnoid space in the brain which offers a hospitable environment for the growth of metastatic tumor cells. Individuals whose cancer has spread to an area of the brain known as the posterior fossa have a greater risk of developing a leptomeningeal cancer.
Fallopian tube cancer
Tubal cancer is thought to be a relatively rare primary cancer among women, accounting for 1 to 2 percent of all gynecologic cancers, In the US, tubal cancer had an incidence of 0.41 per 100,000 women from 1998 to 2003. Demographic distribution is similar to that of ovarian cancer, and the highest incidence is found in white, non-Hispanic women aged 60–79. However, recent evidence suggests tubal cancer to be much more frequent .
Esophageal cancer
In the United States, esophageal cancer is the seventh-leading cause of cancer death among males (making up 4% of the total). The National Cancer Institute estimated there were about 18,000 new cases and more than 15,000 deaths from esophageal cancer in 2013 (the American Cancer Society estimated that during 2014, about 18,170 new esophageal cancer cases would be diagnosed, resulting in 15,450 deaths). The squamous-cell carcinoma type is more common among African American males with a history of heavy smoking or alcohol use. Until the 1970s, squamous-cell carcinoma accounted for the vast majority of esophageal cancers in the United States. In recent decades, incidence of adenocarcinoma of the esophagus (which is associated with Barrett's esophagus) steadily rose in the United States to the point that it has now surpassed squamous-cell carcinoma. In contrast to squamous-cell carcinoma, esophageal adenocarcinoma is more common in Caucasian men (over the age of 60) than it is in African Americans. Multiple reports indicate esophageal adenocarcinoma incidence has increased during the past 20 years, especially in non-Hispanic white men. Esophageal adenocarcinoma age-adjusted incidence increased in New Mexico from 1973 to 1997. This increase was found in non-Hispanic whites and Hispanics and became predominant in non-Hispanic whites. Esophageal cancer incidence and mortality rates for African Americans continue to be higher than the rate for Causasians. However, incidence and mortality of esophageal cancer has significantly decreased among African Americans since the early 1980s, whereas with Caucasians it has continued to increase. Between 1975 and 2004, incidence of the adenocarcinoma type increased among white American males by over 460% and among white American females by 335%.
The incidence of esophageal adenocarcinoma has risen considerably in the UK in recent decades. Overall, esophageal cancer is the thirteenth most common cancer in the UK (around 8,300 people were diagnosed with the disease in 2011), and it is the sixth most common cause of cancer death (around 7,700 people died in 2012).
Tonsil carcinoma
Metastasis is common in tonsillar carcinoma. It largely depends on the stage of the cancer and the route through with the cancer cells metastasize.
The cancer cells may spread to adjacent structures, to lymphatics or to distant locations in the body producing secondary tumors.
Basal-cell carcinoma
Photodynamic therapy (PDT) is a new modality for treatment of basal-cell carcinoma, which is administrated by application of photosensitizers to the target area. When these molecules are activated by light, they become toxic, therefore destroy the target cells. Methyl aminolevulinate is approved by EU as a photosensitizer since 2001. This therapy is also used in other skin cancer types. The 2008 study reported that PDT was a good treatment option for primary superficial BCCs and reasonable for primary low-risk nodular BCCs but a "relatively poor" option for high-risk lesions.
Neoplastic meningitis
Neoplastic or malignant meningitis, also called carcinomatous meningitis, leptomeningeal carcinoma, leptomeningeal carcinomatosis, leptomeningeal metastasis, meningeal carcinomatosis, meningeal metastasis, and meningitis carcinomatosa, is the development of meningitis due to infiltration of the subarachnoid space by cancerous cells. Malignant cells come from primary cancer such as breast cancer or from a primary brain tumor like medulloblastoma. Neoplastic Meningitis (NM) was first reported in the 1870s with the most common cause being breast cancer, lung cancer, and malignant melanoma.
Basal-cell carcinoma
Basal-cell carcinomas can often come in association with other lesions of the skin, such as actinic keratosis, seborrheic keratosis, squamous cell carcinoma. In a small proportion of cases, basal-cell carcinoma also develops as a result of basal-cell nevus syndrome, or Gorlin Syndrome, which is also characterized by keratocystic odontogenic tumors of the jaw, palmar or plantar (sole of the foot) pits, calcification of the falx cerebri (in the center line of the brain) and rib abnormalities. The cause of this syndrome is a mutation in the PTCH1 tumor suppressor gene located in chromosome 9q22.3, which inhibits the hedgehog signaling pathway. A mutation in the SMO gene, which is also on the hedgehog pathway, also causes basal-cell carcinoma.
To diagnose basal-cell carcinomas, a skin biopsy is performed for histopathologic analyses. The most common method is a shave biopsy under local anesthesia. Most nodular basal-cell cancers can be diagnosed clinically; however, other variants can be very difficult to distinguish from benign lesions such as intradermal naevus, sebaceomas, fibrous papules, early acne scars, and hypertrophic scarring.
Basaloid squamous cell lung carcinoma
Basaloid squamous cell carcinoma (Bas-SqCC) is an uncommon histological variant of lung cancer composed of cells exhibiting cytological and tissue architectural features of both squamous cell lung carcinoma and basal cell carcinoma.
Spinous cell
Spinocellular carcinoma (prickle cell carcinoma) is relatively common in people over age 60, with fair skin, and a history of longer term sun exposure. It is not as commonly known as other skin cancers because it is less likely to metastasize, but can be just as deadly if left untreated.
Embryonal carcinoma
In the testis pure embryonal carcinoma is also uncommon, and accounts for approximately ten percent of testicular germ cell tumours. However, it is present as a component of almost ninety percent of mixed nonseminomatous germ cell tumours. The average age at diagnosis is 31 years, and typically presents as a testicular lump which may be painful. One fifth to two thirds of patients with tumours composed predominantly of embryonal carcinoma have metastases at diagnosis.
Hedgehog signaling pathway
Activation of the hedgehog pathway has been implicated in the development of cancers in various organs, including brain, lung, mammary gland, prostate and skin. Basal cell carcinoma, the most common form of cancerous malignancy, has the closest association with hedgehog signaling. Loss-of-function mutations in Patched and activating mutations in Smoothened have been identified in patients with this disease. Abnormal activation of the pathway probably leads to development of disease through transformation of adult stem cells into cancer stem cells that give rise to the tumor. Cancer researchers hope that specific inhibitors of hedgehog signaling will provide an efficient therapy for a wide range of malignancies.
Adoptive cell transfer
Cancer-testis antigens are a family of intracellular proteins that are expressed during fetal development, but with little expression in normal adult tissues. More than 100 such molecules are epigenetically up-regulated in from 10 to 80% of cancer types. However, they lack high levels of protein expression. Approximately 10% of common cancers appear to express enough protein to be of interest for antitumor T cells. Low levels of some cancer-testes antigens are expressed in normal tissues, with associated toxicities. The NYESO-1 cancer-testes antigen has been targeted via a human TCR transduced into autologous cells. ORs were seen in 5 of 11 patients with metastatic melanoma and 4 of 6 patients with highly refractory synovial cell sarcoma.
Cancer
Cancers are usually named using "-carcinoma", "-sarcoma" or "-blastoma" as a suffix, with the Latin or Greek word for the organ or tissue of origin as the root. For example, cancers of the liver parenchyma arising from malignant epithelial cells is called "hepatocarcinoma", while a malignancy arising from primitive liver precursor cells is called a hepatoblastoma and a cancer arising from fat cells is called a "liposarcoma". For some common cancers, the English organ name is used. For example, the most common type of breast cancer is called "ductal carcinoma of the breast". Here, the adjective "ductal" refers to the appearance of cancer under the microscope, which suggests that it has originated in the milk ducts.
Metastasis
Some cancer cells known as circulating tumor cells acquire the ability to penetrate the walls of lymphatic or blood vessels, after which they are able to circulate through the bloodstream to other sites and tissues in the body. This process is known (respectively) as "lymphatic" or "hematogenous" spread. After the tumor cells come to rest at another site, they re-penetrate the vessel or walls and continue to multiply, eventually forming another clinically detectable tumor. This new tumor is known as a metastatic (or "secondary") tumor. Metastasis is one of the hallmarks of cancer, distinguishing it from benign tumors. Most cancers can metastasize, although in varying degrees. Basal cell carcinoma for example rarely metastasizes.