What is the first step in the dialectical method?
Diagnostic Enterprise Method
The strategic analysis method is based on the elements or subsystems. This technique is based on prior methods of Frederick Taylor. These subsystems are related to the entire enterprise plan, so if one is changed in modification all the enterprise. This method is divided in four steps. First step is the mission determination in which the managers decide what they want as an enterprise, to be accomplished, what is the main purpose of the company. In this step is also include the principles that will guide the enterprise. The second step is environmental assessment. It is divided in external, determining threats and opportunities, and internal, determining strengths and weaknesses. The third step is objective setting where you create specific goals to the enterprise that can be measurable, achievable, time specific and documented. Finally the fourth step is strategy setting is when the managers create a strategy plan based on the steps before that creates the balance in the company.
Dialectic
The concept of dialectics was given new life by Georg Wilhelm Friedrich Hegel (following Johann Gottlieb Fichte), whose dialectically synthetic model of nature and of history made it, as it were, a fundamental aspect of the nature of reality (instead of regarding the contradictions into which dialectics leads as a sign of the sterility of the dialectical method, as Immanuel Kant tended to do in his "Critique of Pure Reason"). In the mid-19th century, the concept of "dialectic" was appropriated by Karl Marx (see, for example, "Das Kapital", published in 1867) and Friedrich Engels and retooled in a dynamic, nonidealistic manner. It would also become a crucial part of later representations of Marxism as a philosophy of dialectical materialism. These representations often contrasted dramatically and led to vigorous debate among different Marxist groupings, leading some prominent Marxists to give up on the idea of dialectics completely.
Directional boring
The process starts with the receiving hole and entrance pits. These pits will allow the drilling fluid to be collected and reclaimed to reduce costs and prevent waste. The first stage drills a pilot hole on the designed path, and the second stage (reaming) enlarges the hole by passing a larger cutting tool known as the back reamer. The reamer's diameter depends on the size of the pipe to be pulled back through the bore hole. The driller increases the diameter according to the outer diameter or the conduit and to achieve optimal production. The third stage places the product or casing pipe in the enlarged hole by way of the drill stem; it is pulled behind the reamer to allow centering of the pipe in the newly reamed path.
Essay
In the dialectic form of the essay, which is commonly used in philosophy, the writer makes a thesis and argument, then objects to their own argument (with a counterargument), but then counters the counterargument with a final and novel argument. This form benefits from presenting a broader perspective while countering a possible flaw that some may present. This type is sometimes called an ethics paper.
Dialogic learning
Gordon Wells (1999) defines "inquiry" not as a method but as a predisposition for questioning, trying to understand situations collaborating with others with the objective of finding answers. "Dialogic inquiry" is an educational approach that acknowledges the dialectic relationship between the individual and the society, and an attitude for acquiring knowledge through communicative interactions. Wells points out that the predisposition for dialogic inquiry depends on the characteristics of the learning environments, and that is why it is important to reorganize them into contexts for collaborative action and interaction. According to Wells, dialogic inquiry not only enriches individuals' knowledge but also transforms it, ensuring the survival of different cultures and their capacity to transform themselves according to the requirements of every social moment.
Dialectical research
Dialectical research or dialectical inquiry or dialectical investigation is a form of qualitative research which utilizes the method of dialectic, aiming to discover truth through examining and interrogating competing ideas, perspectives or arguments. Dialectical research can be seen as a form of exploratory research, in that there is not so much a research hypothesis to be tested, but rather new understandings to be developed.
Relationship aspect
Within the argumentation, the relationship to the use of the relationship aspect is based on emotional arguments which are supported by preconceptions, personal references, experience and the credibility of the speaker. The logically valid deductive reasoning on the other hand completely excludes the relationship aspect between speaker and audience. Since Plato, dialectics has established itself as a school of argumentation. Dialectics aims to promote an inner understanding and willingness to compromise, comprising three stages of development: a thesis, an antithesis and a synthesis.
Quantitative comparative linguistics
Applying phylogenetic methods to languages is a multi-stage process: (a) the encoding stage - getting from real languages to some expression of the relationships between them in the form of numerical or state data, so that those data can then be used as input to phylogenetic methods (b) the representation stage - applying phylogenetic methods to extract from those numerical and/or state data a signal that is converted into some useful form of representation, usually two dimensional graphical ones such as trees or networks, which synthesise and "collapse" what are often highly complex multi dimensional relationships in the signal (c) the interpretation stage - assessing those tree and network representations to extract from them what they actually mean for real languages and their relationships through time.
Catalan number
This proof depends on a trick known as André's reflection method, which was originally used in connection with Bertrand's ballot theorem. (The reflection principle has been widely attributed to Désiré André, but his method did not actually use reflections; and the reflection method is a variation due to Aebly and Mirimanoff.) We count the paths which start and end on the diagonal of the "n" × "n" grid. All such paths have "n" rightward and "n" upward steps. Since we can choose which of the 2"n" steps are upward (or, equivalently, rightward) ones, there are formula_22 total monotonic paths of this type. A "bad" path will cross the main diagonal and touch the next higher ("fatal") diagonal (depicted red in the illustration). We flip the portion of the path occurring after that touch about that fatal diagonal, as illustrated; this geometric operation amounts to interchanging all the rightward and upward steps after that touch. In the section of the path that is not reflected, there is one more upward step than rightward steps, so the remaining section of the bad path has one more rightward than upward step (because it ends on the main diagonal). When this portion of the path is reflected, it will also have one more upward step than rightward steps. Since there are still 2"n" steps, there must now be "n" + 1 upward steps and "n" − 1 rightward steps. So, instead of reaching the target ("n","n"), all bad paths (after the portion of the path is reflected) will end in location ("n" − 1, "n" + 1). As any monotonic path in the ("n" − 1) × ("n" + 1) grid must meet the fatal diagonal, this reflection process sets up a bijection between the bad paths of the original grid and the monotonic paths of this new grid because the reflection process is reversible. The number of bad paths is therefore,
Lexical approach
The lexical approach is a method of teaching foreign languages described by Michael Lewis in the early 1990s. The basic concept on which this approach rests is the idea that an important part of learning a language consists of being able to understand and produce lexical phrases as chunks. Students are thought to be able to perceive patterns of language (grammar) as well as have meaningful set uses of words at their disposal when they are taught in this way.
Naive dialecticism
Naïve dialecticism is a collection of East Asian public beliefs characterized by the acceptance of contradiction and the expectation of change in everyday life. Within cultural psychology, naïve dialecticism explains some of the cultural differences observed between those who hold dialectical beliefs and those who hold more Westernized beliefs. Individuals who hold dialectical beliefs are primarily members of Confucian influenced cultures, such as in Japan, China, and Korea. Certain researchers have shown that specific aspects of naïve dialecticism have broad implications on cognition, emotion, and behavior. As well, it is sometimes regarded as being more contextual, flexible, holistic, and dialectical as compared with Western thinking and reasoning. Dialecticism is a perceptual framework that applies to all situations and guides all actions, which is called a domain-general thinking style. Naïve dialecticism is an expansion on this research; it is a whole collection of domain-specific beliefs, meaning that there is a tendency to understand a situation in terms of these beliefs but there is variation depending on the context and individual differences
Development communication
The Policy Delphi, according to Flor (1991), is a variation of the Delphi technique. It is a tool for the analysis of policy issues seeking the involvement and participation of anonymous respondents (usually representatives of the different stakeholders of the policy). Herein, the desirability and feasibility of certain policies are assessed from the points of view of the different stakeholders. Meanwhile, according to Turoff (1975), the policy Delphi aims to create the best possible contrasting insights to resolve a major policy problem. Herein, the decision maker is interested on having a group that will give him options and supporting evidences where he can choose from for him to make a solution, rather than having a group that will produce the decision for him. ""The Policy Delphi is, then, a tool for the analysis of policy issues and not a mechanism for making a decision"" (Turoff, 1975). Turoff (1975) notes the challenging nature of policy Delphi as a means for policy analysis, "both for the design team and for the respondents" (Turoff, 1975). As a process, the policy Delphi undergoes the following six phases: (1) Formulating the issue; (2) Citing options; (3) Deciding preliminary stance about the issue; (4) Searching and getting reasons for disputes; (5) Assessing the underlying reasons; (6) Reassessing the options.
Dialectic
The Socratic dialogues are a particular form of dialectic known as the method of elenchus (literally, "refutation, scrutiny") whereby a series of questions clarifies a more precise statement of a vague belief, logical consequences of that statement are explored, and a contradiction is discovered. The method is largely destructive, in that false belief is exposed and only constructive in that this exposure may lead to further search for truth. The detection of error does not amount to a proof of the antithesis; for example, a contradiction in the consequences of a definition of "piety" does not provide a correct definition. The principal aim of Socratic activity may be to improve the soul of the interlocutors, by freeing them from unrecognized errors; or indeed, by teaching them the spirit of inquiry.
Classical education movement
Rhetorical debate and composition are taught to somewhat older (often high school aged) students, who by this point in their education have the concepts and logic to criticize their own work and persuade others. According to Aristotle "Rhetoric is the counterpart of dialectic", concerned with finding "all the available means of persuasion." The student now learns to articulate answers to important questions in his/her own words, to try to persuade others with these facts, and to defend ideas against rebuttal. The student learns to reason correctly in the Logic stage so that they can now apply those skills to Rhetoric. Traditionally, students would read and emulate classical poets in learning how to present their arguments well.
Pragma-dialectics
Recently, the pragma-dialectical theory of argumentation has incorporated insights from rhetoric into the analysis of argumentative discussion (Van Eemeren & Houtlosser, 2002; 2006). Parties involved in a difference of opinion “maneuver strategically” to simultaneously realize their dialectical and their rhetorical aims. In other words, the parties in an argumentative discussion attempt to be persuasive (have their standpoint accepted) while observing the critical standards for argumentative discourse. In each of the critical discussion stages there is a rhetorical goal that corresponds with the dialectical goal and interlocutors can make use of three analytical aspects to balance effectiveness and reasonableness: making an opportune selection from the topical potential available at the stage concerned, approaching the audience effectively, and carefully exploiting presentational means. These three aspects correspond with some focal points of rhetorical study – topics, audience adaptation and presentational devices – so that insights acquired in rhetoric are brought to bear in explaining how rhetorical and dialectical considerations play a part in the various ways of strategic maneuvering.
Dialogic education
Links are often also made with the Socratic method, established by Socrates (470-399 BC), which is a form of cooperative argumentative dialogue to stimulate critical thinking and to draw out ideas and underlying presumptions. There is some debate over whether the Socratic method should be understood as dialectic rather than as dialogic. However it is interpreted, Socrate's approach as described by Plato has been influential in informing modern day conceptions of dialogue, particularly in Western culture. This is not withstanding the fact that dialogic educational practices may have existed in Ancient Greece prior to the life of Socrates.
Discrete Universal Denoiser
Thus, the first step of the DUDE scheme with context length formula_5 is to scan the input noisy sequence formula_3 once, and store the length-formula_81 empirical distribution vector formula_82 (or its non-normalized version, the count vector) for each two-sided context found along formula_3. Since there are at most formula_84 possible two-sided contexts along formula_3, this step requires formula_27 operations and storage formula_87.
Dialectic
Another important principle for Hegel is the negation of the negation, which he also terms "Aufhebung" (sublation): Something is only what it is in its relation to another, but by the negation of the negation this something incorporates the other into itself. The dialectical movement involves two moments that negate each other, something and its other. As a result of the negation of the negation, "something becomes its other; this other is itself something; therefore it likewise becomes an other, and so on ad infinitum". Something in its passage into other only joins with itself, it is self-related. In becoming there are two moments: coming-to-be and ceasing-to-be: by sublation, i.e., negation of the negation, being passes over into nothing, it ceases to be, but something new shows up, is coming to be. What is sublated ("aufgehoben") on the one hand ceases to be and is put to an end, but on the other hand it is preserved and maintained. In dialectics, a totality transforms itself; it is self-related, then self-forgetful, relieving the original tension.
Discourse on the Method
"Discourse on the Method" is one of the most influential works in the history of modern philosophy, and important to the development of natural sciences. In this work, Descartes tackles the problem of skepticism, which had previously been studied by Sextus Empiricus, Al-Ghazali and Michel de Montaigne. Descartes modified it to account for a truth he found to be incontrovertible. Descartes started his line of reasoning by doubting everything, so as to assess the world from a fresh perspective, clear of any preconceived notions.
McKenzie method
The first step is understanding a patient's symptoms and how they behave. Such as where patient feels pain and when, how often in a day, to what degree, and in what specific movements or positions does pain intensify or express itself. The patient will be tested and asked by a clinician to perform specific single direction movement, both sustained and repeated. A large differentiator from other physical therapy methods of assessment is the use of repeated movements. A range of single direction movements are used in this phase of the McKenzie method, depending on how pain symptoms behave and change will allow the clinician to categorise the problem to effectively prescribe the proper movements to achieve centralisation and elimination of spinal and sciatic pain.
Frankfurt School
For their part, Frankfurt School theorists quickly came to realize that a dialectical method could only be adopted —that is to say, if they adopted a self-correcting method—a dialectical method that would enable them to correct previous false dialectical interpretations. Accordingly, critical theory rejected the historicism and materialism of orthodox Marxism. Indeed, the material tensions and class struggles of which Marx spoke were no longer seen by Frankfurt School theorists as having the same revolutionary potential within contemporary Western societies—an observation that indicated that Marx's dialectical interpretations and predictions were either incomplete or incorrect.
Dialectic
Dialectic or dialectics (, "dialektikḗ"; related to dialogue), also known as the dialectical method, is at base a discourse between two or more people holding different points of view about a subject but wishing to establish the truth through reasoned arguments. Dialectic resembles debate, but the concept excludes subjective elements such as emotional appeal and the modern pejorative sense of rhetoric. Dialectic may be contrasted with the didactic method, wherein one side of the conversation teaches the other. Dialectic is alternatively known as minor logic, as opposed to major logic or critique.
A Linguistic Atlas of Early Middle English
In the decade after this pioneering work, Middle English dialect studies went on generational hiatus. LALME, whose initial stages date to 1952, ushered in the next phase. Motivated by strong arguments for scribal normalization, historical dialectologists were no longer constrained by the unevenness of scribal fidelity. Medieval dialect studies would now rely on the relative consistency of scribal translation into a scribe's own language, while developing techniques for discriminating source from scribe. Angus McIntosh, one of LALME's compilers, "observed that most copied Middle English texts were...in language that was dialectally homogeneous,", suggesting scribal conversion of exemplar language into local varieties. Problematically, though, such varieties might not reflect the geographic areas of composition, since scribes often traveled to copying centers from far afield. This and other problems arising from the diversity of scribal practices (e.g. literam, or literal, and mischsprache, or mixed-language copying) placed a premium on texts of explicit local provenance to anchor dialectal domains. Such anchor texts, often correspondence or legal documents, form the basis of LALME's fit-technique. Larry Benskin, another LALME compiler, describes the fit-technique as a "mechanical means of discovering whereabouts in the continuum of accents [an] unfamiliar accent belongs." This is done by comparing word forms in texts of uncertain origin against like forms attested in the anchor matrix, a comparison which "depends on the progressive elimination of the areas to which the individual elements of the accent do "not" belong." Only frequently attested items of particular dialectal salience are so compared. In the case of LALME, these items were solicited through text questionnaires later converted into Linguistic Profiles (LPs). Questionnaires were not deemed practicable in LAEME's case, since the amount of linguistic information desired from comparatively fewer, comparatively fragmentary texts would have made them unwieldy. Instead, LAEME opted for corpus digitization.
Domain-specific multimodeling
The goal of the coordination method is to solve the coordination problem and thereby provide better support for development with multiple languages. To properly appreciate the method, it is important to understand that it does not prescribe the design of individual languages. Plenty of methods and tools have already been proposed for this. This method assumes the existence of a setup with multiple domain-specific languages. Given such a setup, one can apply the method. The method consists of three steps as shown in the diagram below. Each step consist of a couple of parts which are shown as little boxes in the diagram. Boxes with dotted lines represent automatic processes and boxes with solid lines represent manual ones. In the following, we will explain these steps in a bit more detail.
Self-compassion
Dialectical behavior therapy (DBT), is a derivative of cognitive behavior therapy that incorporates Eastern meditative practice. DBT is based on a dialectical world view that incorporates the balance and integration of opposing beliefs, particularly in acceptance and change. We accept ourselves as good enough, and we recognize the need for all of us to change and grow. Unlike MBCT and MBSR therapies, dialectical behavior therapy does not use meditation but less formal exercises, such as individual therapy sessions and group skill sessions. In general last for approximately a year where participants will engage in weekly individual skill therapy sessions and group skill sessions. The skills therapy sessions include four segments; core mindfulness, interpersonal effectiveness, emotion regulation, and distress tolerance skills. Dialectical behaviour therapist recommend developing self-compassion. The basic premise of using self-compassion therapies in DBT is to cultivate a compassionate mind state, defined by feelings of warmth, safety, presence and interconnectedness that can in turn relieve emotional dysregulation.
Diagnostic Enterprise Method
The Harvard Case Method consist in four steps in which is apply the information the case present. The first step is fact analysis where the employees and managers that are analyzing the case writes the facts presented on the case without opinions. The second step is problem diagostic in which is described the problems that are presented on the case starting with the most important to solve. The third step is analysis of possible solutions where the possibility of each solution is seen as the way that can if it really can help to solve the problem. Finally, the fourth step consists in choosing one of the options presented on the step three that best solves the case. This method promote the search of answers inside the person not on the external facts. The main reason is that there is no solution or correct answers so there is an opportunity to learn from others.With the exposure of possible solutions in group you can learn with and from all the group, that is why it is effective, because the social learning effect.
This method is mostly applied by managers and supervisors based on Frederick Taylor method. The short facts method begins with a case no longer than four paragraphs in which a simple problem is described. Later on, the case is analyzed by the group of employees and managers of the enterprise. Then after finding the main facts, the group starts a discussion to find the possible solutions. At the end with a brainstorm they choose the best solution that can be apply to their own company. The main reason to use this method is because with the case based on the company all the employees and managers can have more ideas to find a solution to the problem that is reflected on the case and the employees can learn more about how to change their own company.
Dialogical self
Inspired by the original ideas of William James and Mikhail Bakhtin, Hubert Hermans, Harry Kempen and Rens van Loon wrote the first psychological publication on the "dialogical self" in which they conceptualized the self in terms of a dynamic multiplicity of relatively autonomous "I"-positions in the (extended) landscape of the mind. In this conception, the "I" has the possibility to move from one spatial position to another in accordance with changes in situation and time. The "I" fluctuates among different and even opposed positions, and has the capacity to imaginatively endow each position with a voice so that dialogical relations between positions can be established. The voices function like interacting characters in a story, involved in processes of question and answer, agreement and disagreement. Each of them have a story to tell about their own experiences from their own stance. As different voices, these characters exchange information about their respective Me's and mines, resulting in a complex, narratively structured self.
Nausiphanes
The man who employs continuous discourse will be best able to employ the dialectic method and vice versa, because both depend on an accurate judgement of how to lead pupils from the known to the unknown; that is, they depend upon a knowledge of the 'right time' and 'right measure' in speaking.
Dialogic
Sociologist Richard Sennett has stated that the distinction between dialogic and dialectic is fundamental to understanding human communication. Sennett says that dialectic deals "with the explicit meaning of statements, and tends to lead to closure and resolution". Whereas dialogic processes, especially those involved with regular spoken conversation, "involve a type of listening that attends to the implicit intentions behind the speaker's actual words." Unlike a dialectic process, dialogics often do not lead to closure and remain unresolved. Compared to dialectics, a dialogic exchange can be less competitive, and more suitable for facilitating cooperation.
Didactic method
A didactic method ( "didáskein", "to teach") is a teaching method that follows a consistent scientific approach or educational style to present information to students. The didactic method of instruction is often contrasted with dialectics and the Socratic method; the term can also be used to refer to a specific didactic method, as for instance constructivist didactics.
Roy Bhaskar
The 'second phase' of Critical Realism, the dialectic turn initiated in "Dialectic: the Pulse of Freedom" (1993) won some new adherents but drew criticism from some Critical Realists. It argued for the 'dialecticising' of CR, through an elaborate reading of Hegel and Marx. Arguing against Hegel and with Marx that dialectical connections, relations and contradictions are themselves ontological – objectively real – Bhaskar developed a concept of real absence which it was claimed could provide a more robust foundation for the reality and objectivity of values and criticism. He attempted to incorporate critical, rational human agency into the dialectic figure with his 'Fourth Dimension' of dialectic, thereby grounding a systematic model for rational emancipatory transformative practice.
Nothing
Georg Wilhelm Friedrich Hegel (1770–1831) is the philosopher who brought the dialectical method to a new pinnacle of development. According to Hegel in "Science of Logic", the dialectical methods consists of three steps. First, a thesis is given, which can be any proposition in logic. Second, the antithesis of the thesis is formed and, finally, a synthesis incorporating both thesis and antithesis. Hegel believed that no proposition taken by itself can be completely true. Only the whole can be true, and the dialectical synthesis was the means by which the whole could be examined in relation to a specific proposition. Truth consists of the whole process. Separating out thesis, antithesis, or synthesis as a stand-alone statement results in something that is in some way or other untrue. The concept of "nothing" arises in Hegel right at the beginning of his "Logic". The whole is called by Hegel the "Absolute" and is to be viewed as something spiritual. Hegel then has:
Speech production
In 1994, Dell proposed a model of the lexical network that became fundamental in the understanding of the way speech is produced. This model of the lexical network attempts to symbolically represent the lexicon, and in turn, explain how people choose the words they wish to produce, and how those words are to be organized into speech. Dell's model was composed of three stages, semantics, words, and phonemes. The words in the highest stage of the model represent the semantic category. (In the image, the words representing semantic category are winter, footwear, feet, and snow represent the semantic categories of boot and skate.) The second level represents the words that describe the semantic category (In the image, boot and skate). And, the third level represents the phonemes ( syllabic information including onset, vowels, and codas).
Method of analytic tableaux
The main principle of propositional tableaux is to attempt to "break" complex formulae into smaller ones until complementary pairs of literals are produced or no further expansion is possible.
The method works on a tree whose nodes are labeled with formulae. At each step, this tree is modified; in the propositional case, the only allowed changes are additions of a node as descendant of a leaf. The procedure starts by generating the tree made of a chain of all formulae in the set to prove unsatisfiability. A variant to this starting step is to begin with a single-node tree whose root is labeled by formula_4; in this second case, the procedure can always copy a formula in the set below a leaf. As a running example, the tableau for the set formula_5 is shown.
Propaganda: The Formation of Men's Attitudes
Vertical vs. Horizontal Propaganda:
Vertical propaganda is similar to direct propaganda that aims at the individual in the mass and is renewed constantly. However, in horizontal propaganda there is no top down structure but rather it springs up from within the group. It involves meticulous encirclement that traps an individual involuntarily in dialectic. The individual is led unfailingly to its adherence by talking about the dialectic until the individual discovers the answer that was set up unconsciously for him to find. Schools are a primary mechanism for integrating the individual into the way of life.
On Practice
"On Practice" explains Mao Zedong’s philosophy concerning the acquisition of knowledge. In this text, Mao follows in the footsteps of Marx and Lenin, endorsing the dialectical-materialist philosophy that knowledge is wrought through practice. Mao stresses the understanding of political and cultural life, in addition to the material focus of Marx. With the help of historical and other examples, Mao explains the dialectial-materialist process, breaking it down into comprehensible parts. The process begins with the acquisition of logical knowledge, which happens in three stages, perception, cognition, and conception. Once these steps finish, people must apply their logical knowledge to reality through practice in order to verify the truth-value of their conceptions. True knowledge is logical knowledge that, when practiced, successfully directs people to their desired end. According to Mao, other philosophies fail to recognize the importance of practice, and only through this dialectical-materialism can the Chinese people experience progress.
Psychology of reasoning
In opposition, deductive reasoning is a basic form of valid reasoning. In this reasoning process a person starts with a known claim or a general belief and from there asks what follows from these foundations or how will these premises influence other beliefs. In other words, deduction starts with a hypothesis and examines the possibilities to reach a conclusion. Deduction helps people understand why their predictions are wrong and indicates that their prior knowledge or beliefs are off track. An example of deduction can be seen in the scientific method when testing hypotheses and theories. Although the conclusion usually corresponds and therefore proves the hypothesis, there are some cases where the conclusion is logical, but the generalization is not. For example, the argument, “All young girls wear skirts. Julie is a young girl. Therefore, Julie wears skirts,” is valid logically, but is not sound because the first premise isn't true.
Jan Dietz
Inspired on the Language Action Perspective in the 1980s Dietz has been developing a methodology for transaction modelling, and analysing and representing business processes called Design & Engineering Methodology for Organizations (DEMO). The Language Action Perspective itself is largely based on the speech act theory developed by John Searle. It was introduced in the field of information systems by the computer scientists Fernando Flores and J.J. Ludlow early 1980s has "proven to be a new basic paradigm for Information Systems Design. In contrast to traditional views of "data flow", the language/action perspective emphasizes what people do while communicating, how they create a common reality by means of language, and how communication brings about a coordination of their activities".
In DEMO the basic pattern of a business transaction is composed of the following three phases:
Basic transactions can be composed to account for complex transactions. The DEMO methodology gives the analyst an understanding of the business processes of the organization, as well as the agents involved, but is less clear about pragmatics aspects of the transaction, such as the conversation structure and the intentions generated in each agents mind.
Preliminary Discourse to the Encyclopedia of Diderot
The method of the "Discourse" and the "Encyclopedia" marked a shift from Descartes’ rationalism toward the empiricism of John Locke and Isaac Newton. In the "Discourse", d’Alembert rejects a priori, indemonstrable speculations that lead to error and “intellectual despotism” and assumes a method based on hard facts and evidence (xxxv). A main objective of the “Encyclopedia” was not only to organize a collection of known information, but also to establish a cohesive method of gathering facts and principles yet to be discovered. D’Alembert acknowledges that “it is no less difficult to encompass the infinitely varied branches of human knowledge in a truly unified system,” (5), yet despite this seemingly formidable task, D’Alembert succeeds in fulfilling the purpose of the Encyclopedia, which was to gather all the facets of knowledge into one unified text, and to compile knowledge in a way that it could be standardized and compartmentalized into different categories. With this method, d’Alembert believed the "philosophes" could create a system of knowledge that would be unified and systematized, but not so rigid and strict as to impose limits on the search for new facts. A classic example of this systematized approach is the aforementioned "figurative system of human knowledge", which quantifies knowledge by dividing it into three categories: memory, reason, and imagination. The purpose of this was to place knowledge within general framework that could be added to or expounded upon if necessary. As Richard Schwab, who translated the text, states in the introduction, d’Alembert believed the “Discourse of method” would give mankind the power to independently shape and direct its own destiny. This method provided an answer to the growing demand of the intellectual community of Europe to create a synthesis of information based upon secular and naturalistic principles rather than upon a theological teleology (xxxi), and to disseminate knowledge throughout the entire population, no longer being restricted to the wealthy, academic elite.
Dialectic
In classical philosophy, dialectic () is a form of reasoning based upon dialogue of arguments and counter-arguments, advocating "propositions" (theses) and "counter-propositions" (antitheses). The outcome of such a dialectic might be the refutation of a relevant proposition, or of a synthesis, or a combination of the opposing assertions, or a qualitative improvement of the dialogue.
Negative Dialectics
Adorno sought to update the philosophical process known as the dialectic, freeing it from traits previously attributed to it that he believed to be fictive. For Georg Wilhelm Friedrich Hegel, the dialectic was a process of realization that things contain their own negation and through this realization the parts are "sublated" into something greater. Adorno's dialectics rejected this positive element wherein the result was something greater than the parts that preceded and argued for a dialectics which produced something essentially negative. Adorno wrote that, ""Negative Dialectics" is a phrase that flouts tradition. As early as Plato, dialectics meant to achieve something positive by means of negation; the thought figure of the 'negation of the negation' later became the succinct term. This book seeks to free dialectics from such affirmative traits without reducing its determinacy."
The Hiram Key
The authors make their case through the use of dialectics. The technique requires the reader to accept a basic premise, and then proceeds in a logical order; requiring the reader to weigh the merit of each step on the way to a conclusion. If the initial premise, and each of the steps in logic towards the conclusion have merit, the conclusion can represent a legitimate, possible explanation.
Language planning
The process of Standardization often involves one variety of a language taking precedence over other social and regional dialects of a language. Another approach, where dialects are mutually intelligible, is to introduce a poly-phonemic written form that is intended to represent all dialects of a language adequately but with no standard spoken form. If one variety of a language is chosen, that variety comes to be understood as supra-dialectal and the 'best' form of the language.
Language pedagogy
The direct method, sometimes also called "natural method", is a method that refrains from using the learners' native language and just uses the target language. It was established in Germany and France around 1900 and is best represented by the methods devised by Berlitz and de Sauzé, although neither claims originality and it has been re-invented under other names.
The direct method operates on the idea that second language learning must be an imitation of first language learning, as this is the natural way humans learn any language: a child never relies on another language to learn its first language, and thus the mother tongue is not necessary to learn a foreign language. This method places great stress on correct pronunciation and the target language from outset. It advocates teaching of oral skills at the expense of every traditional aim of language teaching. Such methods rely on directly representing an experience into a linguistic construct rather than relying on abstractions like mimicry, translation and memorizing grammar rules and vocabulary.
Dialogical self
Under the supervision of the Polish psychologist Piotr Oleś, a group of researchers constructed a questionnaire method, called the "Initial Questionnaire", for the measurement of three types of "internal activity" (a) change of perspective, (b) internal monologue and (c) internal dialogue. The purpose of this questionnaire is to induce the subject's self-reflection and determine which "I"-positions are reflected by the participant's interlocutors and which of them give new and different points of view to the person.
Systemic development
Ontology is the most basic fundamental tool. In a systemic development approach, the first step is to define the boundaries, thresholds, and stakeholders. Understanding what is, is crucial to understand the layers of complexity of the development needs.
Thesis, antithesis, synthesis
The relation between the three abstract terms of the triad, also known as the dialectical method, is summarized in the following way in the "Encyclopedia of Sciences and Religions":
(1) a beginning proposition called a thesis, (2) a negation of that thesis called the antithesis, and (3) a synthesis whereby the two conflicting ideas are reconciled to form a new proposition.
Propositional calculus
On the other hand, DT is so useful for simplifying the syntactical proof process that it can be considered and used as another inference rule, accompanying modus ponens. In this sense, DT corresponds to the natural conditional proof inference rule which is part of the first version of propositional calculus introduced in this article.
Developmental verbal dyspraxia
Another treatment strategy that has been shown to have positive effects is an integrated phonological approach. This approach "incorporates targeted speech production practice into phonological awareness activities and uses letters and phonological cues to prompt speech production". McNeill, Gillon, & Dodd studied 12 children ages 4–7 with DVD/CAS who were treated with this approach two times a week for two six-week blocks of time (separated by a six-week withdrawal block). They found positive effects for most of the children in the areas of speech production, phonological awareness, word decoding, letter knowledge, and spelling. These results show that it is clinically productive to target speech production, phonological awareness, letter knowledge, spelling, and reading all at once. This is particularly important since children with DVD/CAS often have continuous problems with reading and spelling, even if their production of speech improves.
Dialectical materialism
Some evolutionary biologists, such as Richard Lewontin and the late Stephen Jay Gould, have tried to employ dialectical materialism in their approach. They view dialectics as playing a precautionary heuristic role in their work. From Lewontin's perspective, we get this idea:
Dialectical materialism is not, and never has been, a programmatic method for solving particular physical problems. Rather, a dialectical analysis provides an overview and a set of warning signs against particular forms of dogmatism and narrowness of thought. It tells us, "Remember that history may leave an important trace. Remember that being and becoming are dual aspects of nature. Remember that conditions change and that the conditions necessary to the initiation of some process may be destroyed by the process itself. Remember to pay attention to real objects in time and space and not lose them in utterly idealized abstractions. Remember that the qualitative effects of context and interaction may be lost when phenomena are isolated". And above all else, "Remember that all the other caveats are only reminders and warning signs whose application to different circumstances of the real world is contingent."
Gould shared similar views regarding a heuristic role for dialectical materialism. He wrote that:
Psychographic segmentation
The first step is the development of a robust questionnaire consisting of a series of attitudinal statements, often using a Likert scale (e.g., Strongly Agree = 1, Agree = 2, Neither Agree Nor Disagree = 3, Disagree = 4, Strongly Disagree = 5), to assess consumer beliefs about a given subject. Consideration should be given to dimensions that will differentiate consumers in the market, such as attitudes and beliefs about a certain topic or behaviors in a specific situation.
Word and Object
Quine sums up the first steps of the radical translation:" '(1) Observation sentences can be translated. There is uncertainty, but the situation is the normal inductive one. (2) Truth functions can be translated. (3) Stimulus-analytic sentences can be recognized. So can the sentences of the opposite type, the “stimulus-contradictory” sentences, which command irreversible dissent. (4) Questions of intrasubjective stimulus synonymy of native occasion sentences even of non-observational kind can be settled if raised, but the sentences cannot be translated.' " To go beyond these boundaries of translation by stimulus meaning, the linguist uses analytical hypotheses, in which he uses the steps (1) - (4) to equate parts of the native sentences to English words or phrases. Using the analytical hypotheses the linguist can form new sentences and create a translation manual.
In Chapter 2 of "Word and Object", Quine shows that the total apparatus of grammatical and semantic devices in a language is not objectively translatable into foreign languages. Therefore, in Chapter 3, he proposes to investigate a language's devices relative to each other. For this, he first describes a child's process of acquiring reference, by showing the order in which children learn grammatical devices. In Chapter 4 he then turns away from language acquisition, to investigate the vagaries of reference in a particular language (English). In Chapter 5, Quine proposes a system for regimentation, which should help us understand how reference in language works and should clarify our conceptual scheme. He calls this system the "canonical notation"; it is a system with which we can investigate the grammatical and semantic devices of English by paraphrase.
Detection limit
Oftentimes there is more to the analytical method than just performing a reaction or submitting it to direct analysis. For example, it might be necessary to heat a sample that is to be analyzed for a particular metal with the addition of acid first (this is called digestion). The sample may also be diluted or concentrated prior to analysis on an instrument. Additional steps in an analysis add additional opportunities for error. Since detection limits are defined in terms of error, this will naturally increase the measured detection limit. This detection limit (with all steps of the analysis included) is called the MDL. The practical method for determining the MDL is to analyze 7 samples of concentration near the expected limit of detection. The standard deviation is then determined. The one-sided t-distribution is determined and multiplied versus the determined standard deviation. For seven samples (with six degrees of freedom) the t value for a 99% confidence level is 3.14. Rather than performing the complete analysis of seven identical samples, if the Instrument Detection Limit is known, the MDL may be estimated by multiplying the Instrument Detection Limit or Lower Level of Detection by the dilution prior to analyzing the sample solution on the instrument. This estimation, however, ignores any uncertainty that arises from performing the sample preparation and will therefore probably underestimate the true MDL.
Dialectical behavior therapy
Often, after a patient becomes familiar with the idea of acceptance, they will accompany it with change. DBT has five specific states of change which the therapist will review with the patient: precontemplation, contemplation, preparation, action, and maintenance. Precontemplation is the first stage, in which the patient is completely unaware of their problem. In the second stage, contemplation, the patient realizes the reality of their illness: this is not an action, but a realization. It is not until the third stage, preparation, that the patient is likely to take action, and prepares to move forward. This could be as simple as researching or contacting therapists. Finally, in stage 4, the patient takes action and receives treatment. In the final stage, maintenance, the patient must strengthen their change in order to prevent relapse. After grasping acceptance and change, a patient can fully advance to mindfulness techniques.
English language
Cohesion between sentences is achieved through the use of deictic pronouns as anaphora (e.g. "that is exactly what I mean" where "that" refers to some fact known to both interlocutors, or "then" used to locate the time of a narrated event relative to the time of a previously narrated event). Discourse markers such as "oh", "so" or "well", also signal the progression of ideas between sentences and help to create cohesion. Discourse markers are often the first constituents in sentences. Discourse markers are also used for stance taking in which speakers position themselves in a specific attitude towards what is being said, for example, "no way is that true!" (the idiomatic marker "no way!" expressing disbelief), or "boy! I'm hungry" (the marker "boy" expressing emphasis). While discourse markers are particularly characteristic of informal and spoken registers of English, they are also used in written and formal registers.
Foucauldian discourse analysis
Kendall and Wickham outline five steps in using "Foucauldian discourse analysis". The first step is a simple recognition that discourse is a body of statements that are organized in a regular and systematic way. The subsequent four steps are based on the identification of rules on:
Numerical differentiation
Given below is the five point method for the first derivative (five-point stencil in one dimension).
where formula_12.
Numerical differentiation
The classical finite difference approximations for numerical differentiation are ill-conditioned. However, if formula_16 is a holomorphic function, real-valued on the real line, which can be evaluated at points in the complex plane near formula_17 then there are stable methods. For example, the first derivative can be calculated by the complex-step derivative formula:
Deductive reasoning
Modus ponens (also known as "affirming the antecedent" or "the law of detachment") is the primary deductive rule of inference. It applies to arguments that have as first premise a conditional statement (formula_1) and as second premise the antecedent (formula_2) of the conditional statement. It obtains the consequent (formula_3) of the conditional statement as its conclusion. The argument form is listed below:
Constructive developmental framework
Kegan (1982) described five stages of development, of which the latter four are progressively attained only in adulthood. Basseches (1984) showed that adults potentially transcend formal logical thinking by way of dialectical thinking, in four phases, measurable by a fluidity index. Both Kegan's and Basseches' findings were updated and refined by Laske in 2005 and 2008 respectively. In 2008 and 2015, Laske proposed that dialectical thought forms are an instantiation of Bhaskar's "four moments of dialectic" (MELD; Bhaskar 1993), and that these ontological moments form a sequence M→E→L→D that underlies individual cognitive development (Laske 2015), providing a basis for a dialectical cognitive science as well as a cognitively oriented management science. Based on the concept of 'dialogical dialectic', Laske stressed the need for a dialogical, in contrast to a monological, social science.The CDF methodology involves three separate instruments that respectively measure a person's social–emotional stage ('what should I do and for whom?'), cognitive level of development ('what can I know and what therefore are my options?'), and psychological profile ('how am I doing right now?'). The first two tools (ED, CD) provide an epistemological, the third (NP) a psychological, perspective on a person or team. See the list of references below.
Marx's method
The two principal components of marxist science are the dialectical method of logical deduction and genetic synthesis and its application to the evolution of real social history. While in each of these areas considered separately there are at least a number of scholarly works, there are few examples of substantial exegesis and fewer still successful applications of marxian method to the fundamental obstacles to class-consciousness today. This is reflected both at the general level of lack of understanding of the social nature of technological change embodied in Marx's theory of the value-form, reflected in widespread ignorance of the detail of the 'rational kernel' of Hegel's dialectic whose the principal 'forms of being' Marx used to structure the whole of the work on 'Capital'. His analytical evolution of the relation between subjective and objective development and their qualitative and quantitatively measured forms and functions which make up the logical skeleton in his presentation are almost universally ignored. Compare Hegel's Logic for instance with Marx the value-form.
Dialect
The most common, and most purely linguistic, criterion is that of mutual intelligibility: two varieties are said to be dialects of the same language if being a speaker of one variety confers sufficient knowledge to understand and be understood by a speaker of the other; otherwise, they are said to be different languages. However, this definition becomes problematic in the case of dialect continua, in which it may be the case that dialect B is mutually intelligible with both dialect A and dialect C but dialects A and C are not mutually intelligible with each other. In this case, the criterion of mutual intelligibility makes it impossible to decide whether A and C are dialects of the same language or not.
Dialectician
Historically, dialecticians and dialectical thought have been primarily associated with Marxism, as the philosophical grounding of Marxism is based on a materialist interpretation of Hegelian dialectic. However, individuals widely recognized as dialecticians exist outside of Marxism. Indeed, dialectic is at least as old as Plato, who argues that it is the process by which one ascends the divided line (cf. "Republic" book VI) to reach the "unhypothetical first principle of everything." Plotinus, too, argued that dialectic was necessary in order to become Intellect, the second hypostasis, in the soul's search for the One.
Perceptual dialectology
Contemporary perceptual dialectology was spearheaded by Dennis Preston, who is seen to be the major proponent of perceptual dialectology. His five-point approach to the study has been a benchmark for the advancement of the field.
Negative Dialectics
His purpose was to overcome the formal logical limits of previous definition of dialectics by putting into light that new knowledge arises less from 
a Hegelian unification of opposite categories as defined following Aristotelian logic than by the revelation of the limits of knowledge. Such revelation of the limits of knowledge reaches out to its experienced object ever escaping in its wholeness the simplifying categories of purely theoretical thinking.
Thereby he sets into light the possibly essentially epistemological nature of philosophy and its essential link to reality. His reflection moves a step higher by applying the concept of dialectics not only to exterior objects of knowledge, but to the process of thought itself.
Test construction strategies
Also known as rational, intuitive, or deductive method. The deductive method begins by developing a theory for the construct of interest. This may include the use of a previously established theory. After this, items are created that are believed to measure each facet of the construct of interest. After item creation, initial items are selected or eliminated based upon which will result in the strongest internal validity for each scale.
Deductive pragmatism
Deductive pragmatism consists of three basic steps; 
1) Hypotheization of causal relations, 
2) Verification of causal effects, and 
3) Tracing of causal processes.
Motivation in second-language learning
Dörnyei and Ottό developed a process model of L2 learning marked by three distinct, chronological stages: the preactional stage, the actional stage, and the postactional stage. The preactional stage involves the initial choice to begin learning a second language and creating goals for oneself. This stage is associated with setting goals, forming intentions, and launching action. During the preactional phase, the major motivational influences are the values associated with L2 learning, attitudes towards the L2-speaking community, learners’ expectations and beliefs, and environmental support. The actional stage includes sustaining one’s level of motivation throughout the language-learning process. This stage involves generating and carrying out subtasks, appraising one’s achievement, and self-regulation. During the actional stage the major motivational influences are the quality of the L2 learning experience, sense of autonomy as an L2 learner, teachers’ and parents’ influence, and usage of self-regulatory strategies. Lastly, the postactional stage involves retrospection and self-reflection on the language learning experience and outcomes. This stage entails forming causal attributions, elaborating standards and strategies, and dismissing the intention and further planning. During the postactional stage the major motivational influences are the learners’ attributional styles and biases, self-concept beliefs, and received feedback during the L2 learning process.
Dissociation (rhetoric)
Dissociation is a rhetorical device in which the speaker separates a notion considered by the audience to form a unitary concept into two new notions. Kathryn Olson, Director of the Rhetorical Leadership Program at the University of Wisconsin-Milwaukee, explains that by doing this, the speaker fundamentally changes the reality of the thought system in question by creating a disjunction between what was an integrated concept to begin with. According to M.A. Van Rees, dissociation is a two step process of distinction and definition: distinction divides a single concept into two new notions for the audience and definition replaces the original term or concept with two new terms, each with their own definitions.
Dialogical self
This method represents a combination of qualitative and quantitative procedures that provide insight in the content and organization of a multi-voiced self.
Discrete element method
Periodical
Dysprosody
The most effective course of treatment for dysprosody has been speech therapy. The first step in therapy is practice drills which consist of repeating phrases using different prosodic contours, such as pitch, timing, and intonation. Typically a clinician will say either syllables, words, phrases, or nonsensical sentences with certain prosodic contours, and the patient repeats them with the same prosodic contours. Treatment following the lines of the principles of motor learning (PML) was found to improve the production of lexical stress contrasts. Once a patient is able to effectively complete this drill, they can start with more advanced forms of speech therapy. Upon completion of therapy, most people can identify prosodic cues in natural situations, such as normal conversation. Speech therapy has proven most effective for linguistic dysprosody because therapy for emotional dysprosody requires much more effort and is not always successful. One way that people learn to cope with emotional dysprosody is to explicitly state their emotions, rather than relying on prosodic cues.
Te Deum (Pärt)
The first is a simple splitting on a syllable over two adjacent pitches. In these cases, a stressed syllable first takes the pitch assigned it by the syllabic system described above, but then it also anticipates the pitch of the word's subsequent syllable. For example, if the three-syllable word "Dominum" were written accordingly (in Mode 1 with a pitch center of C) it would look like this:
Dispositio
The first part of any rhetorical exercise was to discover the proper arguments to use, which was done under the formalized methods of "inventio". The next problem facing the orator or writer was to select various arguments and organize them into an effective discourse.
Dialectic
Within Hegelianism, the word "dialectic" has the specialised meaning of a contradiction between ideas that serves as the determining factor in their relationship. Dialectic comprises three stages of development: first, a thesis or statement of an idea, which gives rise to a second step, a reaction or antithesis that contradicts or negates the thesis, and third, the synthesis, a statement through which the differences between the two points are resolved. Dialectical materialism, a theory or set of theories produced mainly by Karl Marx and Friedrich Engels, adapted the Hegelian dialectic into arguments regarding traditional materialism.
Mindfulness
Mindfulness is a "core" exercise used in dialectical behavior therapy (DBT), a psychosocial treatment Marsha M. Linehan developed for treating people with borderline personality disorder. DBT is dialectic, explains Linehan, in the sense of "the reconciliation of opposites in a continual process of synthesis." As a practitioner of Buddhist meditation techniques, Linehan says:
Mode deactivation therapy (MDT) is a treatment methodology that is derived from the principles of cognitive behavioral therapy and incorporates elements of Acceptance and commitment therapy, Dialectical behavior therapy, and mindfulness techniques. Mindfulness techniques such as simple breathing exercises are applied to assist the client in awareness and non-judgmental acceptance of unpleasant and distressing thoughts and feelings as they occur in the present moment. Mode Deactivation Therapy was developed and is established as an effective treatment for adolescents with problem behaviors and complex trauma-related psychological problems, according to recent publications by Jack A. Apsche and Joan Swart.
Dialectic
Marxist dialectic is a form of Hegelian dialectic which applies to the study of historical materialism. It purports to be a reflection of the real world created by man. Dialectic would thus be a robust method under which one could examine personal, social, and economic behaviors. Marxist dialectic is the core foundation of the philosophy of dialectical materialism, which forms the basis of the ideas behind historical materialism.
History of scientific method
William Stanley Jevons' "The Principles of Science: a treatise on logic and scientific method" (1873, 1877) Chapter XII "The Inductive or Inverse Method", Summary of the Theory of Inductive Inference, states "Thus there are but three steps in the process of induction :-
Jevons then frames those steps in terms of probability, which he then applied to economic laws. Ernest Nagel notes that Jevons and Whewell were not the first writers to argue for the centrality of the hypothetico-deductive method in the logic of science.
Crank–Nicolson method
Note that this is an "implicit method": to get the "next" value of "u" in time, a system of algebraic equations must be solved. If the partial differential equation is nonlinear, the discretization will also be nonlinear so that advancing in time will involve the solution of a system of nonlinear algebraic equations, though linearizations are possible. In many problems, especially linear diffusion, the algebraic problem is tridiagonal and may be efficiently solved with the tridiagonal matrix algorithm, which gives a fast formula_7 direct solution as opposed to the usual formula_8 for a full matrix.
Topics (Aristotle)
Book I of the "Topics" is introductory, laying down a number of preliminary principles upon which dialectical argumentation proceeds. After defining "dialectical" reasoning (syllogism) and distinguishing it from "demonstrative", "contentious", and (one might say) ""pseudo-scientific"" syllogism, Aristotle notes the utility of the art of dialectic, then sets out four bases (accident, property, genus, definition) from which invention of such reasoning proceeds. He next elucidates various senses of "sameness", as bearing directly upon the usual character of such arguments. "Dialectical propositions" and "dialectical problems" are characterized. Then, the ("órgana") or "means" by which arguments may be obtained are described, in a four-fold summary, as:
Methods and rationale for attaining each of these ends are briefly illustrated and explained.
Wave model
Johannes Schmidt used a second metaphor to explain the formation of a language from a continuum. The continuum is at first like a smooth, sloping line. Speakers in close proximity tend to unify their speech, creating a stepped line out of the sloped line. These steps are the dialects. Over the course of time, some steps become weak and fall into disuse, while others preempt the entire continuum. As example Schmidt used Standard German, which was defined to conform to some dialects and then spread throughout Germany, replacing the local dialects in many cases.
Numerical partial differential equations
The method of lines most often refers to the construction or analysis of numerical methods for partial differential equations that proceeds by first discretizing the spatial derivatives only and leaving the time variable continuous. This leads to a system of ordinary differential equations to which a numerical method for initial value ordinary equations can be applied. The method of lines in this context dates back to at least the early 1960s.
Orthogonal trajectory
Suitable methods for the determination of orthogonal trajectories are provided by solving differential equations. The standard method establishes a first order ordinary differential equation and solves it by separation of variables. Both steps may be difficult or even impossible. In such cases one has to apply numerical methods.
Development communication
In the context of communication policy development, the policy sciences are necessary to make more purposeful, responsive, and effective communication policies. Profoundly influenced by Freud and Marx, Lasswell emphasized the importance of the contextual orientation of policy analysts, both individually and collectively (Lasswell, 1965). When he first articulated this principle of contextuality, Lasswell indeed referred explicitly to the "exposition of the dialectical method" (1965) in Lukacs's "History and Class Consciousness", adding that the insights of psychoanalysis provided a complement to the Marxian dialectic which would aid in understanding "the symbolic aspects of historical development" (Laswell, 1965, p. 19). Here Lasswell proposed a mode of contextual-configurative analysis whereby, through "an act of creative orientation" (Laasswell, 1965, p. 13), the inquirer could locate himself in an 'all-encompassing totality" (Lasswell, 1965, p. 12). In this regard, Lasswell considered such contextual orientation indispensable to the conduct of rational inquiry, and urged the use of contextual-configurative analysis in the development of a policy science profession. Hale (2011, p. 221) contends that Lasswell saw that robust policy solutions could only be obtained by insisting upon a commitment to contextuality, problem orientation, and methodological diversity. All for good reasons: first, no decision can adequately be understood apart from the larger social process in which it is itself apart. Thus contextuality is a key element in the policy sciences. As a reliance on ideology, principle, and grand historical projects cannot, given the complexity and contextuality of policy problems, serve with reliable solution, a discipline geared to resolve problems should expressly orient itself on those problems and should be purposeful. Thus problem orientation is the second key element in the policy sciences. Finally, due to the multidimensionality and complexity of many of these problems it stands to reason that the policy scientist should draw from a diversity of methodologies. Thus methodological diversity is the third key element in the policy sciences. It is Lasswell's sincere belief that understanding the policy formation and decision-making process will eventually also be beneficial in the creation of public policy (Hale, 2011).
Comparative method
There is no fixed set of steps to be followed in the application of the comparative method, but some steps are suggested by Lyle Campbell and Terry Crowley, both authors of introductory texts in historical linguistics. The abbreviated summary below is based on their concepts of how to proceed.
Frankfurt School
The Institute also attempted to reformulate dialectics as a concrete method. The use of such a dialectical method can be traced back to the philosophy of Hegel, who conceived dialectic as the tendency of a notion to pass over into its own negation as the result of conflict between its inherent contradictory aspects. In opposition to previous modes of thought, which viewed things in abstraction, each by itself and as though endowed with fixed properties, Hegelian dialectic has the ability to consider ideas according to their movement and change in time, as well as according to their interrelations and interactions.
Dialectical materialism
The concept of dialectical materialism emerges from statements by Marx in the second edition postface to his magnum opus, "Capital". There Marx says he intends to use Hegelian dialectics but in revised form. He defends Hegel against those who view him as a "dead dog" and then says, "I openly avowed myself as the pupil of that mighty thinker Hegel." Marx credits Hegel with "being the first to present [dialectic's] form of working in a comprehensive and conscious manner". But he then criticizes Hegel for turning dialectics upside down: "With him it is standing on its head. It must be turned right side up again, if you would discover the rational kernel within the mystical shell."
Domain-specific multimodeling
The coordination method can best be seen as a conceptual framework that prescribes a certain workflow when working with multiple languages. The three successive steps that constitute this workflow are not supported by an integrated workbench or development environment. The focus is rather on extending the developer's existing environments to add support for (1) identification, (2) specification, and (3) application. The main advantage of this approach has been that developers have actually tested our work and given us feedback. This kind of evaluation of the method is valuable because it reduces the risk of solving a purely hypothetical problem. Several papers introduce the different steps of the coordination method, report on this evaluation, and elaborates on the technical aspects of each individual experiment. Overall, the results have been promising: a significant number of errors have been found in production systems and given rise to a constructive dialog with developers on future tool requirements. A development process based on these guidelines and supported by tools constitutes a serious attempt to solve the coordination problem and make domain-specific multimodeling a practical proposition.
Lectio Divina
Guigo II's book "The Ladder of Monks" is subtitled "a letter on the contemplative life" and is considered the first description of methodical prayer in the western mystical tradition. In Guigo's four stages one first reads, which leads to think about (i.e. meditate on) the significance of the text; that process in turn leads the person to respond in prayer as the third stage. The fourth stage is when the prayer, in turn, points to the gift of quiet stillness in the presence of God, called contemplation.
Comparative method
This stage of the comparative method, therefore, involves examining the correspondence sets discovered in step 2 and seeing which of them apply only in certain contexts. If two (or more) sets apply in complementary distribution, they can be assumed to reflect a single original phoneme: "some sound changes, particularly conditioned sound changes, can result in a proto-sound being associated with more than one correspondence set".
Dialogical self
The method includes a list of potential positions. The participants are invited to choose some of them and can add their own to the list. The selected positions, both internal and external ones, are then assessed as belonging to the dialogue, monologue of perspective categories. Such a questionnaire is well-suited for the investigation of correlations with other questionnaires.
Law of noncontradiction
In Plato's early dialogues, Socrates uses the elenctic method to investigate the nature or definition of ethical concepts such as justice or virtue. Elenctic refutation depends on a dichotomous thesis, one that may be divided into exactly two mutually exclusive parts, only one of which may be true. Then Socrates goes on to demonstrate the contrary of the commonly accepted part using the law of non-contradiction. According to Gregory Vlastos, the method has the following steps:
Socratic method
Plato famously formalized the Socratic elenctic style in prose—presenting Socrates as the curious questioner of some prominent Athenian interlocutor—in some of his early dialogues, such as "Euthyphro" and "Ion", and the method is most commonly found within the so-called "Socratic dialogues", which generally portray Socrates engaging in the method and questioning his fellow citizens about moral and epistemological issues. But in his later dialogues, such as Theaetetus or Sophist, Plato had a different method to philosophical discussions, namely dialectic.
Rhetoric (Aristotle)
One of the most important contributions of Aristotle's approach was that he identified rhetoric as one of the three key elements—along with logic and dialectic—of philosophy. Indeed, the first line of the "Rhetoric" is "Rhetoric is a counterpart ("antistrophe") of dialectic". According to Aristotle, logic is concerned with reasoning to reach scientific certainty while dialectic and rhetoric are concerned with probability and, thus, are the branches of philosophy that are best suited to human affairs. Dialectic is a tool for philosophical debate; it is a means for skilled audiences to test probable knowledge in order to learn. Conversely, rhetoric is a tool for practical debate; it is a means for persuading a general audience using probable knowledge to resolve practical issues. Dialectic and rhetoric create a partnership for a system of persuasion based on knowledge instead of upon manipulation and omission.
Dialogical self
Usually, we think of one listener as the immediately observable addressee. However, the addressee is rather a multiplicity of others, a complex web of invisible others, whose presence can be traced in the content, flow and expressive elements of the utterance (e.g., I'm directly addressing you but while speaking I'm protesting to a third person who is invisibly present in the conversation). When there are more than one addressees present in the conversation, the utterance positions the author/speaker into more (metaphorical) locations. Usually, these locations form sequences, that can be examined and made explicit when one listens carefully not only to the content but also the expressive elements in the conversation. Leiman's method, which analyzes a conversation in terms of "chains of dialogical patterns", is theory-guided, qualitative and sensitive to the verbal and the non-verbal aspects of utterances.
Multidimensional empirical mode decomposition
In which the subscription, n, indicated the number of dimensions. The procedure is identical as stated above: the decomposition starts with the first dimension,and proceeds to the second and third till all the dimensions are exhausted. The decomposition is still implemented by slices.This new approach is based on separating the original data into one-dimensional slices, then applying ensemble EMD to each one-dimensional slice. The key part of the method is in the construction of the IMF according to the principle of combination of the comparable minimal scale components.
Dialectic
As in the Socratic dialectic, Hegel claimed to proceed by making implicit contradictions explicit: each stage of the process is the product of contradictions inherent or implicit in the preceding stage. For Hegel, the whole of history is one tremendous dialectic, major stages of which chart a progression from self-alienation as slavery to self-unification and realization as the rational constitutional state of free and equal citizens. The Hegelian dialectic cannot be mechanically applied for any chosen thesis. Critics argue that the selection of any antithesis, other than the logical negation of the thesis, is subjective. Then, if the logical negation is used as the antithesis, there is no rigorous way to derive a synthesis. In practice, when an antithesis is selected to suit the user's subjective purpose, the resulting "contradictions" are rhetorical, not logical, and the resulting synthesis is not rigorously defensible against a multitude of other possible syntheses. The problem with the Fichtean "thesis–antithesis–synthesis" model is that it implies that contradictions or negations come from outside of things. Hegel's point is that they are inherent in and internal to things. This conception of dialectics derives ultimately from Heraclitus.
Socrates
An alternative interpretation of the dialectic is that it is a method for direct perception of the Form of the Good. Philosopher Karl Popper describes the dialectic as "the art of intellectual intuition, of visualising the divine originals, the Forms or Ideas, of unveiling the Great Mystery behind the common man's everyday world of appearances." In a similar vein, French philosopher Pierre Hadot suggests that the dialogues are a type of spiritual exercise. Hadot writes that "in Plato's view, every dialectical exercise, precisely because it is an exercise of pure thought, subject to the demands of the Logos, turns the soul away from the sensible world, and allows it to convert itself towards the Good."
Dialectical naturalism
The roots of dialectical naturalism are found in Hegel's own writings on dialectical methodology, which lent itself to an organic, even ecological interpretation. Bookchin interpreted the dialectical method's strength as its unity of "developmental causality" with ontology. "Dialectic," he notes, "is simultaneously a way of reasoning and an account of the objective world, with a developmental ontology."
Strategic assumption surfacing and testing
Four stages in the method include:The method originated through the collaboration between Richard O. Mason and Ian Mitroff, as an extension of the philosophy on the design of inquiring systems originating from C. West Churchman. SAST follows the prescriptions of "dialectic inquiry", sweeping in multiple perspective onto the full breadth of underlying assumptions to collaborative problem solving and strategic design.
Pedagogical grammar
This method of teaching is divided into the descriptive: grammatical analysis, and the prescriptive: the articulation of a set of rules. Following an analysis of the context in which it is to be used, one grammatical form or arrangement of words will be determined to be the most appropriate. It helps in learning the grammar of foreign languages. Pedagogical grammars typically require rules that are definite, coherent, non-technical, cumulative and heuristic. As the rules themselves accumulate, an axiomatic system is formed between the two languages that should then enable a native speaker of the first to learn the second.