What can we learn with Spontaneous recovery?
Spontaneous recovery
Spontaneous recovery is associated with the learning process called classical conditioning, in which an organism learns to associate a neutral stimulus with a stimulus which produces an unconditioned response, such that the previously neutral stimulus comes to produce its own response, which is usually similar to that produced by the unconditioned stimulus. Although aspects of classical conditioning had been noted by previous scholars, the first experimental analysis of the process was done by Ivan Pavlov, a nineteenth-century physiologist came across the associative effects of conditioning while conducting research on canine digestion.
Secular Organizations for Sobriety
Secular Organizations for Sobriety (SOS), also known as Save Our Selves, is a non-profit network of autonomous addiction recovery groups. The program stresses the need to place the highest priority on sobriety and uses mutual support to assist members in achieving this goal. The Suggested Guidelines for Sobriety emphasize rational decision-making and are not religious or spiritual in nature. SOS represents an alternative to the spiritually based addiction recovery programs such as Alcoholics Anonymous (AA). SOS members may also attend AA meetings, but SOS does not view spirituality or surrendering to a Higher Power as being necessary to maintain abstinence.
Spontaneous recovery
One case documented by researcher Geraerts portrays both spontaneous recovery and false memories in the case of Elizabeth Janssen (name has been changed for the patient's courtesy). She was a very depressed woman and she had no idea why. Her life was great and up to her standards but she felt an underlying depressed feeling. She went to suggestive therapy where the therapist decided to engage her in visual imagery techniques to attempt to bring up childhood abuse that the therapist suggested she had. She denied ever being abused and had no recollection at all of such events. The therapist gave her books to read and information to study on childhood abuse. As the weeks went on with therapy she began recalling images of her father sexually abusing her. Within this case one can speculate that the therapist could have implanted these memories with weeks of suggestion, self-study, and authoritative persuasion that took place.
Spontaneous recovery
Among the phenomena that Pavlov observed was the partial recovery of a classically conditioned response after it had been extinguished by withholding the unconditioned stimulus. This recovery happened in the absence of any further unconditioned stimulation. Pavlov referred to this phenomenon as spontaneous recovery. Although spontaneous recovery increases with time following the extinction procedure, such conditioned responses do not generally return to full strength. Moreover, with repeated recovery/extinction cycles, the conditioned response tends to be less intense with each period of recovery. On the other hand, reconditioning by pairing the same conditioned and unconditioned stimuli usually occurs much faster than the original conditioning.
Spontaneous recovery
Consider an example regarding reinstatement: say you learned an aversion to mangos because you got sick after eating one on a trip. Extinction of the aversion would result if you have frequent instances of eating bits of mangos without getting sick on many occasions. Reinstatement suggests that if you became sick again for some reason, the aversion to mangos would return even if your illness had nothing to do with eating mangos. In this example, after extinction, presentation of the US (the experience of being sick) brings about the conditioned behaviour to be aversive to mangos.
Spontaneous recovery
Reinstatement refers to the recovery of conditioned behaviour produced by exposures to the US. Reinstatement occurs when re-exposed to the US alone, after having undergone extinction.The effect is due to conditioning of the context, such that when the US is presented after extinction, an individual associates it with the original context.
Homeschooling
Autonomous education helps students develop their self-consciousness, vision, practicality and freedom of discussion. These attributes serve to aid the student in his/her independent learning. However, a student must not start their autonomous learning completely on their own. It is said, that by first having interaction with someone who has more knowledge in a subject, will speed up the student's learning, and hence allow them to learn more independently.
Eating recovery
"Self-awareness" refers to an individual's ability to become aware of their own subconscious thinking. Absence of self-awareness is frequently seen in eating disorder patients, causing them to react to situations, feelings and other stimuli emotionally rather than rationally.
Catastrophic interference
So far, the different solutions to catastrophic interference that have been presented concern tasks of sequential learning involving only non-temporally ordered lists of items. But, to be credible, the self-refreshing mechanism for 'static' learning has to encompass our human ability to learn serially many temporal sequences of patterns without catastrophic interference (e.g. learning one song followed by learning a second song without forgetting the first one). This was done by Ans, Rousset, French and Musca (2004) who have presented, in addition to simulation work, an experiment that evidences a close similarity between the behaviour of humans and the behaviour of the proposed neuromimetic architecture.
Foreign internal defense
A lesson learned by accident came from the Marine Combined Action Platoons in Vietnam, where young Marines who came from 4-H Club farm competition turned out to be experts on animal husbandry. In some FID situations, there can be an enormous benefit, both for health through proper diet and for economic development, to bring in experts on sustainable agriculture, and resources that the local inhabitants can use independently, such as improved breeding stock.
In a developing country, some approaches to improving agricultural productivity may have short-term benefits but long-term problems. Inappropriate use of antibiotics, as animal growth stimulants, both makes the local economy dependent on outside drug manufacturers, and also can increase bacterial resistance to treatment. Genetically modified seed that will not propagate itself also makes an agricultural economic sector dependent on indefinite outside assistance.
Spontaneous recovery
Data from studies conducted on conditioned suppression provide evidence that this effect might occur due to spontaneous recovery and reinstatement of contextual stimuli that did not get extinguished, and thus remains related to the US.
Scar free healing
Spontaneous regeneration occurs in the human body naturally. The most recognised example of this is the regeneration of the liver, which can regenerate up to two thirds of its mass when injured by surgical removal, ischaemia or after exposure to harmful toxins. (Figure 2)
Stereopsis recovery
Scientists at the University of California, Berkeley have stated that perceptual learning appears to play an important role. One investigation, published 2011, reported on a study on human stereopsis recovery using perceptual learning which was inspired by Barry's work. In this study, a small number of stereoblind subjects who had initially been stereoblind or stereoanomalous recovered stereopsis using perceptual learning exercises. Alongside the scientific assessment of the extent of recovery, also the subjective outcomes are described: "After achieving stereopsis, our observers reported that the depth “popped out,” which they found very helpful and joyful in their everyday life. The anisometropic observer GD noticed “a surge in depth” one day when shopping in a supermarket. While playing table tennis, she feels that she is able to track a ping-pong ball more accurately and therefore can play better. Strabismic observer AB is more confident now when walking down stairs because she can judge the depth of the steps better. Strabismics AB, DP, and LR, are able to enjoy 3D movies for the first time, and strabismic GJ finds it easier to catch a fly ball while playing baseball." In a follow-up study, the authors of this study pointed out that the stereopsis that was recovered following perceptual learning was more limited in resolution and precision compared to normal subjects' stereopsis. Dennis M. Levi was awarded the 2011 Charles F. Prentice Medal of the American Academy of Optometry for this work.
There have been several attempts to make use of modern technology for enhanced binocular eye training, in particular for treating amblyopia and interocular suppression. In some cases these modern techniques have improved patients' stereoacuity. Very early technology-enhanced vision therapy efforts have included the cheiroscope, which is a haploscope in which left- and or right-eye images can be blended into view over a drawing pad, and the subject may be given a task such as to reproduce a line image presented to one eye. However, historically these approaches were not developed much further and they were not put to widespread use. Recent systems are based on dichoptic presentation of the elements of a video game or virtual reality such that each eye receives different signals of the virtual world that the player's brain must combine in order to play successfully.
Spontaneous recovery
Cognitive behavioural therapy is a therapy that works with irrational thinking towards a specific situation. The key here is that the person may have not had that specific behavioural problem their whole life, and allowing them to view the event with a new perspective can change their behaviour. This is done differently from psychoanalytic therapy by exposing the patient to the stimulus they are afraid of. Through this exposure, they can unlearn any patterns of thought they had towards it by realizing that they are safe, referred to as extinction. Although, studies have shown that certain stimuli can cue a spontaneous recovery if there was not a full extinction of the associated perception to a memory.
Involuntary memory
The second study found that the medial temporal lobe, the posterior cingulate gyrus, and the precuneus, are activated during retrieval success with or without executive control seen within right dorsolateral prefrontal cortex. This implies that involuntary memories are successfully retrieved using the same system as voluntary memory when retrieving perceptual information. Voluntary and involuntary recall were both associated with increased activations in the posterior cingulated gyrus, left precuneus, and right parahippocampal gyrus. In addition, right dorsolateral prefrontal cortex, and left precuneus were more active during voluntary recall, while left dorsolateral prefrontal cortex was more active during involuntary recall. It is suggested that the activation seen in left dorsolateral prefrontal cortex during involuntary memory recall reflects the attempt to prevent the recollected material from interfering with the semantic judgment task.
Recovery approach
The development of personal coping strategies (including self-management or self-help) is said to be an important element. This can involve making use of medication or psychotherapy if the patient is fully informed and listened to, including about adverse effects and about which methods fit with the consumer's life and their journey of recovery. Developing coping and problem solving skills to manage individual traits and problem issues (which may or may not be seen as symptoms of mental disorder) may require a person becoming their own expert, in order to identify key stress points and possible crisis points, and to understand and develop personal ways of responding and coping. Developing a sense of meaning and overall purpose is said to be important for sustaining the recovery process. This may involve recovering or developing a social or work role. It may also involve renewing, finding or developing a guiding philosophy, religion, politics or culture. From a postmodern perspective, this can be seen as developing a narrative.
Relapse
There are vast ethical limitations in drug addiction research because humans cannot be allowed to self-administer drugs for the purpose of being studied. However, much can be learned about drugs and the neurobiology of drug taking by the examination of laboratory animals. Most studies are performed on rodents or non-human primates with the latter being most comparable to humans in pharmacokinetics, anatomy of the prefrontal cortex, social behavior, and life span. Other advantages to studying relapse in non-human primates include the ability of the animal to reinstate self-administration, and to learn complex behaviors in order to obtain the drug. Animal studies have shown that a reduction in negative withdrawal symptoms is not necessary to maintain drug taking in laboratory animals; the key to these studies is operant conditioning and reinforcement.
Implicit cognition
Implicit cognition refers to perceptual, memory, comprehension, and performance processes that occur through unconscious awareness. For example, when a patient is discharged after a surgery, the effects of the anesthesia can cause abnormal behaviors without any conscious awareness. According to Wiers et al. (2006) some scholars argue implicit cognition is misinterpreted and could be used to improve behaviors while others highlight the dangers of it. Research studies have shown implicit cognition is a strong predictor for several issues like substance abuse, misconduct, and mental disorders. These inherent thoughts are influenced from early adolescent experiences primarily a negative impact from culture. Adolescents who experience a rough childhood early on develop low levels of self-esteem. Therefore, the cognition to act dangerously is an oblivious development. Research for implicit cognition has started to grow especially within mental disorders.
Spontaneous recovery
This state of trance is widely used as a means to recall suppressed or repressed memories. During the sessions of hypnosis, a great deal of spontaneous recovery can occur because the conscious thoughts are slowed down to allow much higher retrieval. Some memories can seem foreign to the patient because they have never been recalled before; this is usual proof that the therapy is working.
Spontaneous recovery
The phenomenon in which a change of context after extinction can cause a robust return of conditioned responding. There are three models whereby renewal effect is observed.Since spontaneous recovery is when an extinguished response occurs after time has passed following the extinction, it can be viewed as the renewal effect that results when the CS is tested outside of its temporal context.
Time-based prospective memory
A failure to perform future intentions can have serious consequences. For example, failing to remember to turn off the burner after a 10-minute cooking time. However, there has been a number of studies, which indicate that individuals with Alzheimer's disease can learn a prospective memory task using spaced-retrieval practice; it is an effective means of helping cognitively impaired older adults maintain functional independence.
Pattern recognition (psychology)
Pattern recognition of music can build and strengthen other skills, such as musical synchrony and attentional performance and musical notation and brain engagement. Even a few years of musical training enhances memory and attention levels. Scientists at University of Newcastle conducted a study on patients with severe acquired brain injuries (ABIs) and healthy participants, using popular music to examine music-evoked autobiographical memories (MEAMs). The participants were asked to record their familiarity with the songs, whether they liked them and what memories they evoked. The results showed that the ABI patients had the highest MEAMs, and all the participants had MEAMs of a person, people or life period that were generally positive. The participants completed the task by utilizing pattern recognition skills. Memory evocation caused the songs to sound more familiar and well-liked. This research can be beneficial to rehabilitating patients of autobiographical amnesia who do not have fundamental deficiency in autobiographical recall memory and intact pitch perception.
Self-care
Prior experience: Prior experience contributes to the development of skills in self-care management. Experience helps the patient develop cues and patterns that they can remember and follow, leading to reasonable goals and actions in repeat situations. A patient who has skills in self-management knows what to do during repeated symptomatic events. This could lead to them recognizing their symptoms earlier, and seeking a provider sooner.
Implicit memory
Both implicit and explicit memory experiences can be present in transference, influencing each other just as they do in the normal development of the infantile mind (Siegel, 1999). If the work on implicit memory can facilitate the emergence of phantasies and memories stored in the explicit memory, so the work of reconstruction, which relies on the autobiographic memory, can facilitate the emergence in the transference and in the dreams of the most archaic experiences, with their relevant phantasies and defences, stored in the implicit memory of the patient. This corresponds to Davis's (2001) description of declarative and non-declarative processes in the psychoanalytic perspective.
Psychiatric rehabilitation
These workers seek to effect changes in a person's environment and in a person's ability to deal with his/her environment, so as to facilitate improvement in symptoms or personal distress and life outcomes. These services often "combine pharmacologic treatment (often required for program admission), independent living and social skills training, psychological support to clients and their families, housing, vocational rehabilitation and employment, social support and network enhancement and access to leisure activities.The key role of professionals to generate insight about the illness with the help of demonstration of symptoms and prognosis to the patients. There is often a focus on challenging stigma and prejudice to enable social inclusion, on working collaboratively in order to empower clients, and sometimes on a goal of full recovery. The latter is now widely known as a recovery approach or model. Recovery is a process rather than an outcome. It is a personal journey that is about the rediscovery of self in the process of learning to live with the debilitations of the illness rather than being defined by illness with hope, planning and community engagement.
Informal learning
The term is often conflated, however, with non-formal learning, and self-directed learning. It is widely used in the context of corporate training and education in relation to return on investment (ROI), or return on learning (ROL). It is also widely used when referring to science education, in relation to citizen science, or informal science education. The conflated meaning of informal and non-formal learning explicates mechanisms of learning that organically occur outside the realm of traditional instructor-led programs, e.g., reading self-selected books, participating in self-study programs, navigating performance support materials and systems, incidental skills practice, receptivity of coaching or mentoring, seeking advice from peers, or participation in communities of practice, to name a few. Informal learning is common in communities where individuals have opportunities to observe and participate in social activities.
Recall (memory)
Until recently, research on this phenomenon has been relatively rare, with only two types of involuntary memory retrieval identified: involuntary autobiographical memory retrieval, and involuntary semantic memory retrieval. Both of these phenomena can be considered emergent aspects of otherwise normal and quite efficient cognitive processes.
"Involuntary autobiographical memory" (IAM) retrieval occurs spontaneously as the result of sensory cues as well as internal cues, such as thought or intention. These cues influence us in our day-to-day lives by constantly and automatically activating unconscious memories through priming. It has been demonstrated in many studies that our specific goals and intentions will most frequently result in the retrieval of related IAM, while the second most frequent IAM retrievals result from physical cues in the surrounding context. Autobiographical memories that are unrelated to any specific cues, whether internal or external, are the least frequent to occur. It has been suggested that in this case, an error in self-regulation of memory has occurred that results in an unrelated autobiographical memory reaching the conscious mind. These findings are consistent with metacognition as the third type of experience is often identified as the most salient one.
Spontaneous recovery
No other instances of such rapid spontaneous "recovery" from autism have been yet documented, and currently, this "recovery" is quite unexpected and unexplained.
Psychology Gone Wrong: The Dark Sides of Science and Therapy
In the chapter 10 the authors show how delving into childhood memories causes serious problems, and has led to terrible abuses such as the recovered memory movement. The idea of repressed and recovered memories is presented as a creative invention of therapists. Patients are easily duped because it provides a convenient scapegoat to explain their problems and relieves them of responsibility for their inability to cope with their lives. Academic psychologists bear much of the blame for failing to subject pop trends to empirical verification and failing to speak out and denounce false theories.
Chapter 11 presents an unusual perspective on the psychotherapy. Psychotherapeutic interventions in general have been remarkably unsuccessful. Only one of the many varieties of psychotherapy is supported by acceptable evidence: cognitive behavioral therapy. There is no correlation between a therapist’s training or experience and patient outcomes. Amateurs get equal results. The benefits of psychotherapy may be no better than the benefits of talking to a friend; in a sense, psychotherapists are paid to act as friends, which could be considered a sort of prostitution.
Chapter 12 deals with the harms of therapy. Therapy can do real harm and can lead to suicide. It encourages dependence, false optimism, and externalized responsibility. Not one study of AA has ever shown it superior to any other approach for treating alcohol abuse, and in fact untreated patients have similar or better outcomes.
In chapter 13 the authors ask: What are the alternatives for psychotherapy? Can we replace psychotherapy with something else? Can a new “salutogenic” paradigm replace the pathogenic paradigm by focusing on human resilience and coping abilities? Mental health is characterized by commitment (a sense of purpose), by the belief that you have some control over your life, and by the understanding that change, not stability, is a natural element of reality. Hardiness is largely genetic but can be developed by exposure to stress.
Spondylolysis
It is also critical to educate the athletes on the rehabilitation process so they know what to expect. For instance, explaining what activities to avoid and will cause pain as well as the duration of the treatment process. In addition, it is important to select the correct treatment option for each individual. For conservative methods adherence to the exercise requires motivated patients as it can be tedious and time consuming. For instance, one study looking at deep abdominal co-contraction reported that it can take as long a 4–5 weeks to achieve this pattern of co-contraction.
Drug rehabilitation
SMART Recovery was founded by Joe Gerstein in 1994 by basing REBT as a foundation. It gives importance to the human agency in overcoming addiction and focuses on self-empowerment and self-reliance. It does not subscribe to disease theory and powerlessness. The group meetings involve open discussions, questioning decisions and forming corrective measures through assertive exercises. It does not involve a lifetime membership concept, but people can opt to attend meetings, and choose not to after gaining recovery. Objectives of the SMART Recovery programs are:
This is considered to be similar to other self-help groups who work within mutual aid concepts.
Spontaneous recovery
A 1991 study by Otani and Hodge suggests that hypermnesia does not occur with recognition but is found in cued recall experiments, showing that the improvement in memory performance is due to an increased rate of item recovery facilitated by relational processing. Relational processing can be made easier with well-categorized stimuli and helps to increase the availability or retrieval cues that in turn help to generate the to-be-remembered items. The phenomenon of hypermnesia is one that continues to be examined, particularly in terms of its generalization.
Spontaneous recovery
The pathway of recall associated with the retrieval of sound memories is the auditory system. Within the auditory system is the auditory cortex, which can be broken down into the primary auditory cortex and the belt areas. The primary auditory cortex is the main region of the brain that processes sound and is located on the superior temporal gyrus in the temporal lobe where it receives point-to-point input from the medial geniculate nucleus. From this, the primary auditory complex had a topographic map of the cochlea. The belt areas of the auditory complex receive more diffuse input from peripheral areas of the medial geniculate nucleus and therefore are less precise in tonotopic organization compared to the primary visual cortex. A 2001 study by Trama examined how different kinds of brain damage interfere with normal perception of music. One of his studied patients lost most of his auditory cortex to strokes, allowing him to still hear but making it difficult to understand music since he could not recognize harmonic patterns. Detecting a similarity between speech perception and sound perception, spontaneous recovery of lost auditory information is possible in those patients who have experienced a stroke or other major head trauma. Amusia is a disorder manifesting itself as a defect in processing pitch but also affects one's memory and recognition for music.
Autosuggestion
Advocates of autosuggestion appeal to brief case histories published by Émile Coué describing his use of autohypnosis to cure, for example, enteritis and paralysis from spinal cord injury.
Celebrate Recovery
Celebrate Recovery uses both the 12 steps developed by Alcoholics Anonymous and a very similar set of eight sequential principles that are understood as a lesson of Jesus' Beatitudes. In addition to issue non-specific large group gatherings and individual mentoring, Celebrate Recovery encourages participants to form a small group of "Accountability Partners" who all have the same problem and support one another closely. Celebrate Recovery groups are held under the management of local church organizations. A study of Celebrate Recovery participants found that levels of spirituality were associated with greater confidence to resist substance use. Celebrate Recovery has not been significantly studied, so there is no empirical evidence regarding the impacts or efficacy of the Celebrate Recovery program.
Childhood amnesia
Free recall refers to the specific paradigm in the psychological study of memory where participants study a list of items on a specific trial, and are then prompted to recall the items in any order. Free recall, in regard to childhood amnesia, is the process by which experimenters ask individuals for their earliest memories, and allow the participant to respond freely. There is no significant difference when people are instructed to recall their earliest memories with cued recall compared to free recall; however, it is thought that a major benefit of free recall is that every question gets answered which may in turn elicit memories from an earlier age.
Schizoaffective disorder
High quality psychosocial or psychiatric rehabilitation is very important for recovery from schizoaffective disorder. Psychiatric or psychosocial rehabilitation focuses on solving community integration problems such as obtaining and keeping housing and increasing involvement in positive social groups. It also focuses on improving and increasing activities of daily living; increasing daily healthy habits (such as normalizing sleep-wake cycles; increasing early morning natural light exposure; increasing moderate exercise [such as 2030 minutes of moderate to brisk early morning to pre-afternoon walking daily, in order to help normalize circadian rhythms]; helping individuals understand the specific benefits of healthy food choices; increasing stress-reduction activities such as yoga, tai chi, or meditation); and decreasing unhealthy behaviors (such as substance abuse and smoking); thereby significantly improving quality of life. High quality psychiatric rehabilitation may also focus on vocational rehabilitation including preparing the client for volunteer, part-time paid work, returning to school for further education, job skills training for full-time flexible or supported employment, and other client self-improvement efforts. Core principles of effective psychiatric rehabilitation must include providing "hope" when the client lacks it, "respect for the client" wherever they are in the recovery process, "empowering" the client, teaching the client "wellness planning", and emphasizing the importance for the client to develop "social support networks". A long-term goal of psychiatric and vocational rehabilitation is that the client learn and actively engage in active stress management while in education or employment, while receiving treatment.
Persistent vegetative state
There are two dimensions of recovery from a persistent vegetative state: recovery of consciousness and recovery of function. Recovery of consciousness can be verified by reliable evidence of awareness of self and the environment, consistent voluntary behavioral responses to visual and auditory stimuli, and interaction with others. Recovery of function is characterized by communication, the ability to learn and to perform adaptive tasks, mobility, self-care, and participation in recreational or vocational activities. Recovery of consciousness may occur without functional recovery, but functional recovery cannot occur without recovery of consciousness (Ashwal, 1994).
Retrograde amnesia
Brain plasticity has helped explain the recovery process of brain damage induced retrograde amnesia, where neuro-structures use different neural pathways to avoid the damaged areas while still performing their tasks. Thus, the brain can learn to be independent of the impaired hippocampus, but only to a certain extent.
For example, older memories are consolidated over time and in various structures of the brain, including Wernicke's area and the neocortex, making retrieval through alternate pathways possible.
Spontaneous recovery
It is suggested that there are important differences between people who gradually recover memories of abuse during suggestive therapy sessions and those who recover memories of abuse more spontaneously. Research on the propensity to forget what they had just remembered was conducted on women who had spontaneously recovered, versus recovered through suggestive therapy, memories of childhood sexual abuse. Women who were of the group that spontaneously recovered their abuse were more likely (than women who recovered their memories of childhood abuse during suggestive therapy) to forget that they had successfully remembered words earlier on a memory test. As such, a reason that people might have a spontaneously recovered traumatic memory experience is because they simply forget having remembered the event before. They might forget prior cases of remembering if the mental context present when they are having their recovery experience differs from the mental context on prior occasions when they thought about the event. It is thus such that people have not forgotten the event, but they simply cannot remember it, perhaps due to context-dependent memory.
Spontaneous recovery
Retroactive interference is the psychological theory of memory whereby learning something new impedes retrieval of a memory that was previously learned. Briggs studied retroactive interference using a test of free recall. In his study, participants learned paired associate words (i.e. A-B, A-B...A-B) over multiple trials, until the learning of the A-B associates were perfected. Following this, participants were given a new list of paired associates, where the second word of the pair was changed while the first word of the associate pair was kept the same (A-C, A-C... A-C). After mastery of this second list of paired associates, Briggs had participants perform a recall procedure. He presented a list A item and the participant was asked to recall whichever pair (the -B or –C) that came to mind. Based on retroactive interference, learning of A-B paired associates declined due to the learning of the subsequent A-C associates, and as a result, there was a higher rate of responses from list C by the participants on the recall test.
Spontaneous recovery
A key conclusion is that extinction leaves a permanent trace; it does not simply reverse conditioning. This conclusion has been very important to both theories of classical conditioning and to its applications in behavioral therapy.
Active recall
Active recall is a principle of efficient learning, which claims the need to actively stimulate memory during the learning process. It contrasts with passive review, in which the learning material is processed passively (e.g. by reading, watching, etc.). For example, reading a text about George Washington, with no further action, is a passive review. Answering the question "Who was the first US President?", is active recall.
Rehabilitation in spinal cord injury
Further interventions focus on support and education for the individual and caregivers. This includes an evaluation of limb function to determine what the patient is capable of doing independently, and teaching the patient self-care skills. Independence in daily activities like eating, bowel and bladder management, and mobility is the goal, as obtaining competency in self-care tasks contributes significantly to an individual's sense of self-confidence and reduces the burden on caregivers. Quality of life issues such as sexual health and function after spinal cord injury are also addressed.
Assist (Scientology)
There are many different types of Assists that anyone can easily and swiftly learn to do at home for aiding recovery of all manner of illnesses, accidents and injuries and even domestic upsets, of any and all age groups including babies and even pets. There are also assists to, Scientologists believe, help make someone sober or recover from the loss of a loved one.
Spontaneous recovery
Spontaneous recovery of language ability has been documented in patients who became aphasic following a stroke. For the purposes of assessing spontaneous recovery, the patients received no speech therapy and were assessed weekly following the stroke. Improvement in language ability occurred, despite the lack of professional treatment. Improvement occurred most markedly between the 4 and 10 weeks after the stroke, with little change following this time period. Most studies of spontaneous language recovery following stroke have exhibited that the improvement occurs within the first 3 to 4 months. This finding is of particular interest to speech therapists, to be able to separate natural recovery from aphasia in stroke patients, from improvement that is intervention-based.
Spontaneous recovery
To study digestion, Pavlov presented various types of food to dogs and measured their salivary response. Pavlov noticed that with repeated testing, the dogs began to salivate before the food was presented, for example when they heard the footsteps of an approaching experimenter. Pavlov named this anticipatory behavior the "conditioned" response or, more exactly, the "conditional" response. He and his associates discovered and published the basic facts about this process, which has come to be called classical or Pavlovian conditioning.
Evolutionary psychology
The concept of consciousness can refer to voluntary action, awareness, or wakefulness. However, even voluntary behavior involves unconscious mechanisms. Many cognitive processes take place in the cognitive unconscious, unavailable to conscious awareness. Some behaviors are conscious when learned but then become unconscious, seemingly automatic. Learning, especially implicitly learning a skill, can take place outside of consciousness. For example, plenty of people know how to turn right when they ride a bike, but very few can accurately explain how they actually do so. Evolutionary psychology approaches self-deception as an adaptation that can improve one's results in social exchanges.
Perceptual learning
The time course of perceptual learning varies from one participant to another. Perceptual learning occurs not only within the first training session but also between sessions. Fast learning (i.e., within-first-session learning) and slow learning (i.e., between-session learning) involves different changes in the human adult brain. While the fast learning effects can only be retained for a short term of several days, the slow learning effects can be preserved for a long term over several months.
Spontaneous conception (psychology)
In psychology, spontaneous conception refers to conceptions about the world that we form without any formal education. Often these are connected with physics. They may be wrong concepts, like "heavier objects fall faster" or "bigger objects are heavier". Piaget thinks they are made by introspection. Vygotsky believes they may help the learning of scientific concepts more than having no conception about one event.
Spontaneous remission
Spontaneous remission, also called spontaneous healing or spontaneous regression, is an unexpected improvement or cure from a disease that usually progresses. These terms are commonly used for unexpected transient or final improvements in cancer. Spontaneous remissions concern cancers of the haematopoietic system (blood cancer, e.g. leukemia), while spontaneous regressions concern palpable tumors; however, both terms are often used interchangeably.
Reconstructive memory
Reconstructive memory is a theory of elaborate memory recall proposed within the field of cognitive psychology, in which the act of remembering is influenced by various other cognitive processes including perception, imagination, semantic memory and beliefs, amongst others. People view their memories as being a coherent and truthful account of episodic memory and believe that their perspective is free from error during recall. However the reconstructive process of memory recall is subject to distortion by other intervening cognitive functions such as individual perceptions, social influences, and world knowledge, all of which can lead to errors during reconstruction.
Memory is never a literal recount of past experiences. Rather, it is dependent on the constructive processes present at the time of encoding that are subject to potential errors and distortions. Essentially, the constructive memory process functions by encoding the patterns of physical characteristics that are perceived by the individual, as well as the interpretive conceptual and semantic functions that act in response to the incoming information. By utilizing multiple interdependent cognitive processes there is never a single location in the brain where a given complete memory trace of an experience is stored. In this manner, the various features of the experience must be joined together to form a coherent representation of the episode and if this binding process fails it can result in source memory failure, where later attempted retrieval of the episode results in fragmented recollection and an inability to consolidate the information into a cohesive narrative of a past experience.
During the recall of Episodic memory, the information that a person remembers is usually limited in scope, ultimately giving an incomplete recollection of an event. By employing reconstructive processes, individuals supplement other aspects of available personal knowledge into the gaps found in episodic memory in order to provide a fuller and more coherent version, albeit one that is often distorted.
Axillary nerve palsy
In many cases recovery happens spontaneously and no treatment is needed. This spontaneous recovery can occur because distance between the injury location and the deltoid muscle is small. Spontaneous recovery may take as long as 12 months.
Spontaneous recovery
Reacquisition of a conditioned response (CR) post-extinction is often faster than the initial acquisition. This is an indication that the original learning was not destroyed but rather was "saved", through the process of extinction. Rapid reacquisition is normally produced when reinforced trials provide a contextual cue that can renew responding, by signaling the initial acquisition trials.
Spontaneous recovery
In an experiment conducted to further the findings of Briggs and Ekstrand, it was discovered that sleep counteracts retroactive interference compared to wakefulness. Using the same "A-B, A-C" paradigm, results indicated that memory performance for the first list of word-pair associates (A-B) was superior when learning was followed by nocturnal sleep rather than when learning was followed by wakefulness. Sleep differentially affected the memory consolidation of the two lists, enhancing more significantly, the memory for the first list. It has been suggested that it is mainly the degree of initial learning that predicts whether spontaneous recovery shall occur, stating that the better the learning of the A-B associations, the more likely they are to recover after interference. This effect is further catalyzed by sleep, which appears to having an enhancing effect on memory consolidation.
Context-dependent memory
State-dependent learning refers to the finding that people recall more information when their physiological state is the same at encoding and retrieval. For example, people that undergo alcohol intoxication while encoding information recall significantly more when they are also intoxicated during retrieval, compared to those whose alcoholic states differ from encoding to retrieval. This state-dependent learning effect has been shown in both human and animal research., The state-dependent effect has also been generalized to a variety of drugs, including morphine, cigarettes, scopolamine, and nitric oxide.
Autogenic training
A study by Spencer suggests that autogenic training restores the balance between the activity of the sympathetic (flight or fight) and the parasympathetic (rest and digest) branches of the autonomic nervous system. The author hypothesizes that this can have important health benefits, as the parasympathetic activity promotes digestion and bowel movements, lowers the blood pressure, slows the heart rate, and promotes the functions of the immune system.
Spaced retrieval
Spaced retrieval, also known as expanded retrieval, is a learning technique, which requires users to rehearse information to be learned at different and increasing spaced intervals of time Benigas, J., Brush, J. & Elliot, G. (2016). Errorless learning and spaced retrieval: How do these methods fare in healthy and clinical populations? Journal of Clinical and Experimental Neuropsychology, 33(4), 432-447. doi:10.1080/13803395.2010.533155 In testing this type of learning, people are instructed to rehearse a given set of information at a certain time, and each new rehearsal is expected to have a longer period of time between itself and the previous rehearsal or an equal amount of time between rehearsals. At the end of every trial period there is a test phase. Landauer and Bjork first studied this technique of learning in 1978. The study required participants to learn names from flash cards. Prior to learning participants were placed into five different rehearsal types: uniform short, uniform moderate, uniform long, expanding, and contracting. These all indicate the amount and spacing of trials between each test. Uniform trials involve a number of trials between each test stage, but the trial numbers are fixed (e.g. 2-test-2-test-2-test). Contracting rehearsals involve larger intervals of time between the first few trials and the test phase, but eventually the trials decrease in number. Expanding involves starting with trials and tests close together, and as they progress the person would have more time between each trial and test (e.g. 1-test-2-test-3-test). The effectiveness of the rehearsal types was measured by seeing how accurately participants responded during a test phase. Expanding was proven to be the most important because it produced the highest amount of recall during the test period.
Spontaneous recovery
Although hypnosis and other suggestive therapy is a great way to create spontaneous recovery of memories, false memories can be constructed in the process. False memories are memories that contain facts that are incorrect, yet they are strongly believed by the person obtaining the memory. Research states that a lot of suggestive therapy can cause a false memory in patients because of the intense suggestions given by the trusted therapist. Suggestions can stir up memories from movies, stories, magazines, and many other of the innumerable stimuli one sees throughout their life. Hypnosis is a more relaxed, aware state where subjects can bypass a lot of the conscious doubts and mind chatter and be aware of what comes up from the unconscious.
Selective amnesia
One’s familiarity with a task influences how selective amnesia affects the subject’s memories. To study this phenomenon, Lewis and colleagues (1969) taught rats a simple passive avoidance task, a fear-aggravated test used to evaluate learning and memory in rodent models. Some rats were allowed to familiarize themselves with the task while others were only allowed to experience the task once. After the rats had completed their task a pre-determined number of times, the experimenters administered an electroconvulsive shock to the rats meant to induce selective amnesia. These shocks varied in duration, lasting from zero to five seconds. The results of this study showed that only the rats unfamiliar with the task demonstrated selective amnesia 24 hours later. The rats that were familiar with the task seemed to display normal memory for the task. Thus, there might be a particular stage in the memory process that is vulnerable to selective amnesia. The current hypothesis is that this vulnerable stage is located during the transition from active memory to short term memory.
Spaced retrieval
Over the years, techniques and tests have been formed to better patients with memory difficulties. Spaced Retrieval is one of these solutions to help better the patients' minds. Spaced retrieval is used in many different areas of memory from remembering facts to remembering how to ride a bike to remembering past events from your childhood. Recovery Practice is used to see if an individual is able to recall something immediately after they have seen or studied it. Increasing recovery practice is frequently used as a technique in improving long-term memory, essentially for young children trying to learn and older individuals with memory diseases.
Self-care
In skills teaching, it is important for the patient and provider to discuss skills and address any lingering questions. It is important for the patient to know when and how a skill is to be implemented, and how the skill may need to be changed when the symptom is different from normal. See the summary of tactical and situational skills above. Learning self-care management skills for the first time in the care of a chronic illness is not easy, but with patience, practice, persistence and experience, personal mastery of self-care skills can be achieved.
Recovery approach
Psychological recovery or recovery model or the recovery approach to mental disorder or substance dependence emphasizes and supports a person's potential for recovery. Recovery is generally seen in this approach as a personal journey rather than a set outcome, and one that may involve developing hope, a secure base and sense of self, supportive relationships, empowerment, social inclusion, coping skills, and meaning. Recovery sees symptoms as a continuum of the norm rather than an aberration and rejects sane-insane dichotomy.
Self-knowledge (psychology)
The connection between our memory and our self-knowledge has been recognized for many years by leading minds in both philosophy and psychology, yet the precise specification of the relation remains a point of controversy.Self-theories have traditionally failed to distinguish between different source that inform self-knowledge, these are "episodic memory" and "semantic memory". Both episodic and semantic memory are facets of "declarative memory", which contains memory of facts. Declarative memory is the explicit counterpart to "procedural memory", which is implicit in that it applies to skills we have learnt; they are not "facts" that can be "stated".
SMART Recovery
A 2018 longitudinal study compared the self-reported success of SMART Recovery, LifeRing Secular Recovery, Women For Sobriety, and Alcoholics Anonymous. After normalizing for income and other demographic factors, the study saw that SMART Recovery fared worse across the outcomes of alcohol abstinence, alcohol drinking problems, and total abstinence, compared to Alcoholics Anonymous. However, after normalizing for treatment goal, SMART Recovery members who pursued abstinence did as well across all three factors as members of AA. In other words, among AA members and members of SMART Recovery who wanted to abstain, both programs had the same success rate.
Kent Cochrane
Studies on Cochrane also illuminated the relationship between semantic learning and episodic memory, showing that patients with severe amnesia are capable of retaining new semantic knowledge in the absence of episodic memory. Researchers found that Cochrane was able to learn new semantic knowledge and retain it over a long period of time. In one study, researchers taught Cochrane 64 three-word sentences over multiple testing trials, and after 12 months, presented the same sentences to him with the last of the three words missing. Cochrane showed significant retention of this semantic knowledge, completing 25 of the 64 sentences. This showed that amnesic patients can learn new semantic information, although slower than normal test subjects.
Selective amnesia
Researchers have used the relationship between hypnosis and selective amnesia to study specific memory processes including memory recall and retrieval cues. Bertrand and Spanos (1984) were able to study the process of memory recall by hypnotizing a group of undergraduate students, teaching the students three lists of words, and compelling the students to forget certain parts of these lists. They discovered that clustering related information together during initial learning may play a significant role in memory recall. In another experiment, Davidson and Bower (1991) found that participants with selective amnesia due to hypnosis were able to remember all non-amnesic information with near perfect recall. They also noticed that the participants recalled this information in very structured ways (usually in the same order the information was given). These results suggest that people experiencing hypnosis are still able to attend to important retrieval cues even though they are not able to recall the material specifically targeted by the amnesia.
Spontaneous recovery
Spontaneous recovery as it pertains to human memory can be traced back to the work of George Edward Briggs, who was concerned with the concept of retroactive interference. Inhibition, or interference, is a function of competition among responses, whereby a resultant memory has dominance over another. It is not that the inhibited responses are lost from memory per se, but that they are kept by other responses from appearing.
Spontaneous recovery
Hypermnesia is an improvement in memory that occurs with related attempts to retrieve previously encoded material. Hypermnesia is the net result of reminiscence and forgetting, such that the amount of reminiscence must exceed the amount of forgetting resulting in a net improvement overall. Ballard was the first to observe hypermnesia using a multiple recall task in 1913, the same task with which he discovered reminiscence. After asking young school children to memorize poetry, he initially retested their recall abilities 2 days later only to discover that the class improved by 10 percent over the initial recall level.
Endogenous regeneration
In the study of the endogenous regeneration of the brain done by Scharff and co-researchers, damaged neurons in a songbird brain are regenerated with the same neuronal types where regeneration occurs (in the case of the study, the hippocampus). However, in places where normal regeneration of the neuron does not occur, there was no replacement of damaged neurons. Thus, recovering brain function after a brain injury was supposed to have limitations. However, a current study revealed that neurons are repaired to some degree after damage, from the SVZ.
Fear
Species-specific defense reactions (SSDRs) or avoidance learning in nature is the specific tendency to avoid certain threats or stimuli, it is how animals survive in the wild. Humans and animals both share these species-specific defense reactions, such as the flight-or-fight, which also include pseudo-aggression, fake or intimidating aggression and freeze response to threats, which is controlled by the sympathetic nervous system. These SSDRs are learned very quickly through social interactions between others of the same species, other species, and interaction with the environment. These acquired sets of reactions or responses are not easily forgotten. The animal that survives is the animal that already knows what to fear and how to avoid this threat. An example in humans is the reaction to the sight of a snake, many jump backwards before cognitively realizing what they are jumping away from, and in some cases it is a stick rather than a snake.
Humanitarian intervention
Jeremy Weinstein, a political scientist at Stanford University, has argued for "autonomous recovery": although the number of civilian deaths rises when violence between rebel groups is left unchecked, the eventual victors can develop institutions and set the terms of their rule in a self-enforcing manner. Such self-enforcement reduces the risk of a country slipping back into violence.
Eating recovery
Mindfulness training focused on eating, body image and body awareness can lead the way to health, and recovery by enabling individuals to consciously experience and observe their internal mental and bodily events as well as those external events that are perceived directly through the senses. In eating recovery, mindfulness helps patients calm their minds and understand their self-defeating emotions or mood-dependent behaviors and instead cultivate healthy coping skills.
Protective autoimmunity
Protective autoimmunity is a condition in which cells of the adaptive immune system contribute to maintenance of the functional integrity of a tissue, or facilitate its repair following an insult. The term ‘protective autoimmunity’ was coined by Prof. Michal Schwartz of the Weizmann Institute of Science (Israel), whose pioneering studies were the first to demonstrate that autoimmune T lymphocytes can have a beneficial role in repair, following an injury to the central nervous system (CNS). Most of the studies on the phenomenon of protective autoimmunity were conducted in experimental settings of various CNS pathologies and thus reside within the scientific discipline of neuroimmunology.
Hemiparesis
Sudden recovery from hemiplegia is very rare. Many of the individuals will have limited recovery, but the majority will improve from intensive, specialised rehabilitation. Potential to progress may differ in cerebral palsy, compared to adult acquired brain injury. It is vital to integrate the hemiplegic child into society and encourage them in their daily living activities. With time, some individuals may make remarkable progress.
Amnesia
Some retrograde and anterograde amnesics are capable of non-declarative memory, including implicit learning and procedural learning. For example, some patients show improvement on the pseudorandom sequences experiment as healthy people do. Therefore, procedural learning can proceed independently of the brain system required for declarative memory. According to fMRI studies, the acquisition of procedural memories activates the basal ganglia, the premotor cortex and the supplementary motor area, regions which are not normally associated with the formation of declarative memories. This type of dissociation between declarative and procedural memory can also be found in patients with diencephalic amnesia such as Korsakoff's syndrome. Another example demonstrated by some patients, such as K.C. and H.M, who have medial temporal damage and anterograde amnesia, still have perceptual priming. Those patients did well in the word fragment completion test.
Endogenous regeneration
Brain damage itself can induce endogenous regeneration. Many studies have proven endogenous regeneration as a possible treatment of brain damage. However, the inhibitory reaction of the surrounding tissue of damaged region must be overcome before the treatment produces significant improvement.
Recovery International
Recovery distinguishes between the External Environment, the realities of a situation, and the Internal Environment, one's own subjective feelings, thoughts, impulses, and sensations. Two components of the Internal Environment, thoughts and impulses, can be directly controlled by Will. Control of thoughts and impulses allows indirect control over sensations and feelings. For instance, thoughts of insecurity and anxiousness can be replaced with thoughts of security. Similarly, a feeling of fear can be disposed by removing the associated belief of danger (symptomatic idiom). While the Internal Environment can be changed with cognitive reframing, changing one's External Environment may or may not be possible.
SMART Recovery
SMART Recovery is an international non-profit organization that provides assistance to individuals seeking abstinence from addictions. "SMART" is an acronym for Self-Management and Recovery Training. The SMART approach is secular and scientifically-based, using cognitive behavioral therapy (CBT) and non-confrontational motivational methods.
Spontaneous alternation
Spontaneous alternation is a behavioral test which tests spatial learning and memory. This maze task has been extensively used in many laboratories associated with cognition. Spontaneous alternation maze can have the shape of a Y, T, or + sign. The radial arm maze is similar but is much more complicated and a harder task because of the many arms. The rat is placed in the middle of the maze and is allowed to move freely through each arm. The purpose of the test is for the rat or mouse to remember which maze arm was last visited and try to enter as many different arms as possible. The task is testing hippocampal memory and can be weakened by lesions to the hippocampus. The sequence of arm entries and total amount of arm entries are scored and a percentage is calculated. The cognition of the animal can be assessed based on the score where a lower score is considered cognitively impaired. Chance is determined by the number of arms the maze has, in a three-arm maze it is 22%, in a four-arm or plus maze it is around 9%.
Social cognitive theory
Social cognitive theory (SCT), used in psychology, education, and communication, holds that portions of an individual's knowledge acquisition can be directly related to observing others within the context of social interactions, experiences, and outside media influences. This theory was advanced by Albert Bandura as an extension of his social learning theory. The theory states that when people observe a model performing a behavior and the consequences of that behavior, they remember the sequence of events and use this information to guide subsequent behaviors. Observing a model can also prompt the viewer to engage in behavior they already learned. In other words, people do not learn new behaviors solely by trying them and either succeeding or failing, but rather, the survival of humanity is dependent upon the replication of the actions of others. Depending on whether people are rewarded or punished for their behavior and the outcome of the behavior, the observer may choose to replicate behavior modeled. Media provides models for a vast array of people in many different environmental settings.
SMART Recovery
SMART Recovery can be used as a stand-alone primary recovery support program for those seeking help recovering from addictions but does not insist on being exclusive. The program does not use the twelve steps that make up the basis of the various "Anonymous" self-help groups (e.g., Alcoholics Anonymous (AA), Narcotics Anonymous (NA), etc.) and is generally listed as an "Alternative to AA" or an "Alternative to the Twelve Steps." SMART Recovery believes that each individual finds his and her own path to recovery. Though listed as an "alternative", it is also suggested as a possible "supplement" to twelve-step programs in SMART Recovery's main program publication, "The SMART Recovery Handbook".
Putamen
Reinforcement learning is interacting with the environment and catering actions to maximize the outcome. Implicit learning is a passive process where people are exposed to information and acquire knowledge through exposure. Although the exact mechanisms are not known, it is clear that dopamine and tonically active neurons play a key role here. Tonically active neurons are cholinergic interneurons that fire during the entire duration of the stimulus and fire at about 0.5–3 impulses per second. Phasic neurons are the opposite and only fire an action potential when movement occurs.
Selective amnesia
Hypnotic amnesia, or forgetting under hypnosis, appears to be similar to naturally occurring clinical amnesia. However, hypnotic amnesia is distinct from naturally occurring amnesia because forgotten memories can be restored through a hypnotist’s prearranged signal. Also, hypnotic amnesia is usually incomplete, meaning that the participants do not forget everything they were instructed to forget. Due to this trait, hypnosis can be used to research selective amnesia through studies that direct attention to the targets, or erased memories, of hypnotic amnesia.
Spontaneous recovery
Observed through case study, was a particular individual who spontaneously "recovered" from autistic disorder after a mere 13 days, without therapeutic intervention. This individual was diagnosed with autistic disorder and severe mental retardation as per the DSM-IV-TR criteria. Over the course of 13 days, this individual revealed age appropriate reciprocal social interaction and communication by means of gesture, when no signs of communication were visible prior to the onset of the recovery period. This individual could also now show affection, emotional warmth, and self-expression.
State-dependent memory
In later years, similar studies confirmed that learning could be state-dependent. In 1971, Terry Devietti and Raymond Larson conducted a similar study in rats, seeing how memory was affected by various levels of electric shock. Their results supported the idea that the rats' ability to remember a learned response was influenced by their state. The phenomenon continued to be studied more than thirty years later. In 2004, Mohammad-Reza Zarrindast and Ameneh Rezayof studied mice, to see
how memory and learning were affected by morphine. They found that when mice learned a response under the influence of morphine, they later performed it most efficiently under the influence of morphine. When mice learned the response free of morphine, they recalled it best when similarly sober. And for mice that were taught the response under the
influence of morphine, once the drug wore off, they suffered amnestic effects; they could no longer remember the learned response.
Spontaneous remission
There are several case reports of spontaneous regressions from cancer occurring after a fever brought on by infection, suggesting a possible causal connection. If this coincidence in time would be a causal connection, it should as well precipitate as prophylactic effect, i.e. feverish infections should lower the risk to develop cancer later. This could be confirmed by collecting epidemiological studies.
Learning
"Tangential learning" is the process by which people self-educate if a topic is exposed to them in a context that they already enjoy. For example, after playing a music-based video game, some people may be motivated to learn how to play a real instrument, or after watching a TV show that references Faust and Lovecraft, some people may be inspired to read the original work. Self-education can be improved with systematization. According to experts in natural learning,
self-oriented learning training has proven an effective tool for assisting independent learners with the natural phases of learning.
Spontaneous recovery
For the learning and recall associated with spontaneous recovery to happen, there are specific gyri and neurotransmitters that play a role. Firstly, the cerebellum is needed to acquire certain motor skills and develop an automatic state with the movement patterns that are learned. Both the dorsal and ventral prefrontal cortex has been shown to play a big role in the development of memory consolidation and motor control. Reciprocal loops are formed through neural circuits between the basal ganglia and prefrontal cortex which consolidate the memory. To elicit a stronger consolidation, rewards can be involved; the case for Pavlovian conditioning. The reward-related learning causes dopamine to release from the synapses of the basal ganglia and creates a stronger bond between the stimulus and response. Furthermore, if there is a traumatic incident that is associated to a memory, and that becomes suppressed, the amygdala is responsible for this fear conditioning. The amygdala leads to the caudate nucleus in the neocortex of the basal ganglia, so the fear response can also be triggered via spontaneous recovery. Basically, the stronger the emotional arousal after a learning event, positive or negative, can greatly enhance the memory's recall in the future.
Fast automatic restoration
In this restoration technique, no central controller is used, hence no up-to-date database of the state of the network is needed. In this scheme, all nodes in the network utilize local controllers that have only local information about how a particular node is connected to its neighboring nodes, available and spare capacity on the links used to connect to neighbors, and the state of their switching elements. When a failure occurs in any part of the network, the local controllers handle the computation and re-routing of the affected traffic. An example of an approach where this technique is utilized is the Self-Healing Networks(SHN).
Spontaneous
Spontaneous may refer to:
Spontaneous recovery
In regards to a more general application of procedural learning in our life is with our beliefs and values we can hold to a certain subject. For example, if many times you get extremely jealous of someone having something that you do not have because your family can't afford it when you were young, you could believe that "things in life are hard to come by". When you're an adult another situation could arise that is similar, and the recovery of that association and inner response can show up spontaneously as jealousy again. It is why a lot of people say to themselves, "where does this feeling come from" or, "Why did I do that?" A lot of human reactions are from spontaneous recovery of past associations, not always specifically learned physical behaviours.
Spontaneous recovery
Memories can be very different in nature and as a result, different memories are stored and subsequently recalled via appropriate neural circuitry in the brain. The pathways of recalling a memory will therefore depend on the nature of the remembered stimuli that is being retrieved. Memory representation of different types of information can take on various forms.
Spontaneous recovery
Hypermnesia was not considered a phenomenon until the mid-1970s when Erdelyi and his associates completed further testing. Two suggestions have been offered to explain the increases in net recall over testing. One suggestion is that pictures and high imagery words enhance hypermnesia, speculating that this nature of stimuli is more recognizable and hence less susceptible to forgetting. The second suggestion is Roediger's level of recall hypothesis claiming that any variable that produces greater levels of depth processing lead to greater hypermnesia.
Transcortical sensory aphasia
A relatively new method of language therapy involves coincidence learning. Coincidence learning focuses on the simultaneous learning of two or more events and stipulates that these events are wired together in the brain, strengthening the learning process. Therapists use coincidence learning to find and improve language correlations or coincidences that have been either damaged or deleted by severe cases of aphasia, such as transcortical sensory aphasia. This technique is important in brain function and recovery, as it strengthens associated brain areas that remain unaffected after brian damage. It can be achieved with intensive therapy hours in order to maximize time where correlation is emphasized.
State-dependent memory
Following this discovery, other researchers looked into the effect of different states of being on the ability to learn and remember responses or information. In 1964, Donald Overton conducted a study as a direct response to Girden and Culler's 1937 experiment. The study tested the effects of sodium pentobarbital on rats' abilities to learn and remember certain taught responses. These rats were randomly assigned to one of two groups – substance administered or no substance administered (the control condition) – and then placed in a simple maze and taught to escape an electrical shock. Overton found that the rats that had been administered 25 mg of sodium pentobarbital could no longer remember the proper escape response when they were later placed in the maze without the drug. However, if these rats were administered sodium pentobarbital once again and placed in the maze, they recalled the escape response they had been taught. Similarly, when Overton taught a rat the escape response under the control condition (no sodium pentobarbital administered), it could not recall that behavior when it was administered the drug and asked to perform later on. Results strongly indicated that rats performed the learned response more efficiently when in the either sodium pentobarbital or control state that they were in when they first learned it. In regard to this idea the study specifically stated "a response learned under the influence of a particular drug will subsequently reoccur (with maximum strength) only when that drug condition is reinstated".
Endogenous regeneration
Endogenous regeneration in the brain is the ability of cells to engage in the repair and regeneration process. While the brain has a limited capacity for regeneration, endogenous neural stem cells, as well as numerous pro-regenerative molecules, can participate in replacing and repairing damaged or diseased neurons and glial cells. Another benefit that can be achieved by using endogenous regeneration could be avoiding an immune response from the host.
SMART Recovery
SMART Recovery presents itself as an alternative to Alcoholics Anonymous (AA) and other twelve-step programs. SMART differs from AA by not encouraging individuals to admit powerlessness over addictions, not using the concept of a "Higher Power", and not endorsing the disease theory of alcoholism. Addiction is viewed by the organization as a dysfunctional habit, rather than a disease, while allowing that it is possible that certain people have a predisposition toward addictive behavior.
List of addiction and substance abuse organizations
SMART Recovery is a 501c3 Non-Profit organization, established in 1994, that provides free mutual-support meetings in the United States and in many other countries around the world. Its main publication, the SMART Recovery Handbook is available in English, Spanish, German, Portuguese, Farsi, Mandarin, and Danish. Their website includes how to locate local SMART Recovery meetings. smartrecovery.org
Problem-based learning
One of the aims of PBL is the development of self-directed learning (SDL) skills. In Loyens, Magda & Rikers' discussion, SDL is defined as "a process in which individuals take the initiative...in diagnosing their learning needs, formulating goals, identifying human and material resources, choosing and implementing appropriate learning strategies, and evaluating learning outcomes". By being invited into the learning process, students are also invited to take responsibility for their learning, which leads to an increase in self-directed learning skills.
In Severiens and Schmidt's study of 305 first year college students, they found that PBL and its focus on SDL led to motivation for students to maintain study pace, led to social and academic integration, encouraged development of cognitive skills, and fostered more study progress than students in a conventional learning setting. PBL encourages learners to take a place in the academic world through inquiring and discovery that is central to problem-based learning.
Johannes Heinrich Schultz
Schultz's most famous achievement was the development of autogenic training, that was based on the hypnosis research and self-experimentation. It was first publicly put forward in 1926 as "autogenic organ exercises", and received its current name in 1928. The program consists of a set of six mental exercises that target specific bodily reactions that are believed to underpin body-mind health. It is a myth that autogenic training is a technique based on creative visualisations. Rather, it is a technique that revolves around a set of sub-vocal instructions to different parts of the body with the trainee simply observing in a completely non-striving way the changes in the way the body feels. It is a passive process, unlike creative visualisations, which rely upon a more active cognitive state. Today, because of Schultz' contribution to body-mind health, autogenic training is practiced worldwide. NASA teaches AT to their astronauts to help them with the psychophysiological stressors of space travel. In Australia, UK, Italy and Spain AT is taught to assist with problems such as stress, anxiety, depression, anger management, insomnia, fatigue and for difficulties with concentration, memory, decision making amongst other things. In Japan and Germany, medical practices teach AT to assist with the treatment of a wide range of medical complaints. The Autogenic Training Institute of Australia teaches AT for occupational health and safety and has become well known for its work with the mining, oil and gas industry as well as police.