Who coined the term "ideology"?
Ideology
The term was coined by Antoine Destutt de Tracy in 1796, who conceived it as the "science of ideas". In contemporary philosophy it is narrower in scope than that original concept, or the ideas expressed in broad concepts such as "worldview", "imaginary" and "ontology".
List of political ideologies
In social studies, a political ideology is a certain set of ethical ideals, principles, doctrines, myths or symbols of a social movement, institution, class or large group that explains how society should work and offers some political and cultural blueprint for a certain social order. A political ideology largely concerns itself with how to allocate power and to what ends it should be used. Some political parties follow a certain ideology very closely while others may take broad inspiration from a group of related ideologies without specifically embracing any one of them. The popularity of an ideology is in part due to the influence of moral entrepreneurs, who sometimes act in their own interests. Political ideologies have two dimensions: (1) goals: how society should be organized; and (2) methods: the most appropriate way to achieve this goal.
Ideocracy
Sidney and Beatrice Webb used the term "ideocracy" in 1936, and it was given added currency by Nicholas Berdyaev in 1947.
Ideology
The word, and the system of ideas associated with it, was coined by Antoine Destutt de Tracy in 1796, while he was in prison pending trial during the Terror. The word was created by assembling the words "idea", from Greek (near to the Lockean sense) and "-logy", from .
He devised the term for a "science of ideas" he hoped would form a secure foundation for the moral and political sciences. He based the word on two things: 1) sensations people experience as they interact with the material world; and 2) the ideas that form in their minds due to those sensations. He conceived "Ideology" as a liberal philosophy that would defend individual liberty, property, free markets, and constitutional limits on state power. He argues that among these aspects ideology is the most generic term, because the science of ideas also contains the study of their expression and deduction.
John Locke
Locke's theory of mind is often cited as the origin of modern conceptions of identity and the self, figuring prominently in the work of later philosophers such as David Hume, Rousseau, and Immanuel Kant. Locke was the first to define the self through a continuity of consciousness. He postulated that, at birth, the mind was a blank slate or "tabula rasa". Contrary to Cartesian philosophy based on pre-existing concepts, he maintained that we are born without innate ideas, and that knowledge is instead determined only by experience derived from sense perception. This is now known as empiricism. An example of Locke's belief in empiricism can be seen in his quote, "whatever I write, as soon as I discover it not to be true, my hand shall be the forwardest to throw it into the fire." This shows the ideology of science in his observations in that something must be capable of being tested repeatedly and that nothing is exempt from being disproven. Challenging the work of others, Locke is said to have established the method of introspection, or observing the emotions and behaviours of one's self.
Ideology of Hezbollah
The ideology of Hezbollah has been summarized as Shiite radicalism. Hezbollah was largely formed with the aid of the Ayatollah Khomeini's followers in the early 1980s in order to spread Islamic revolution and follows a distinct version of Islamic Shi'a ideology or Guardianship of the Islamic Jurists) developed by Ayatollah Ruhollah Khomeini, leader of the "Islamic Revolution" in Iran.
Theses on Feuerbach
Marx began work upon a book detailing his new philosophy of history, entitled "The German Ideology." In connection with this project, Marx wrote a terse 11-point set of observations and epigrams regarding the ideas of Ludwig Feuerbach, a fellow Young Hegelian philosopher regarded by him as the most modern exponent of materialism, albeit one whom Marx believed had failed to draw fully satisfactory political conclusions from his philosophical insights. These "theses" were initially written as a raw outline for the first chapter of "The German Ideology", and most of these were developed at greater length in that work.
Marxism
Without defining ideology, Marx used the term to describe the production of images of social reality. According to Engels, "ideology is a process accomplished by the so-called thinker consciously, it is true, but with a false consciousness. The real motive forces impelling him remain unknown to him; otherwise it simply would not be an ideological process. Hence he imagines false or seeming motive forces". Because the ruling class controls the society's means of production, the superstructure of society (the ruling social ideas), are determined by the best interests of the ruling class. In "The German Ideology", he says "[t]he ideas of the ruling class are in every epoch the ruling ideas, i.e., the class which is the ruling material force of society, is, at the same time, its ruling intellectual force."
Ideology
When a political ideology becomes a dominantly pervasive component within a government, one can speak of an ideocracy. Different forms of government utilize ideology in various ways, not always restricted to politics and society. Certain ideas and schools of thought become favored, or rejected, over others, depending on their compatibility with or use for the reigning social order.
Ideological diversionism
Ideological diversionism: (""Diversionismo Ideológico""), term first used by Raúl Castro, then Commander in Chief of the Armed Forces and now President of the Council of State of Cuba, delivered as a speech to the Ministry of the Interior (MININT) on June 6 of 1972 to celebrate its eleventh anniversary, and published in its entirety in the Cuban magazine Bohemia under the title "El diversionismo Ideologico, arma sutil que esgrimen los enemigos contra la Revolución" [1]. "Ideological Diversionism", as used by Castro defined the discursive practice of subjects who appropriated Marxist and communist rhetoric without the "true revolutionary commitment". The "diversionist" thus was a camouflaged subject that spoke as it were from the inside the lines of the Revolutionary cadres, but in reality subscribing the vices and habits of bourgeoisie values. Ideological Diversionism redefined the political culture of Cuban social landscape during the decades of seventies and eighties, functioning even as a legal and moral category to proscribe, and demoralize dissent and revolutionary citizens that adopted norms that the State sought as deviant from standard social conducts.
Ideology
During considerable analysis of different ideological patterns, some have described the analysis as "meta-ideology" (the study of the structure, form, and manifestation of ideologies).
François Picavet
He is now best known for an 1891 essay, "Les idéologues", on the history of ideas and of scientific theories, philosophy and religious and political ideas in France since 1789.
Marxist schools of thought
Althusser is also widely known as a theorist of ideology and his best-known essay is "Ideology and Ideological State Apparatuses: Notes Toward an Investigation". The essay establishes the concept of ideology, also based on Gramsci's theory of hegemony. Whereas hegemony is ultimately determined entirely by political forces, ideology draws on Sigmund Freud's and Jacques Lacan's concepts of the unconscious and mirror-phase respectively and describes the structures and systems that allow us to meaningfully have a concept of the self.
Systematic ideology
The theory of the group developed over time and was re-christened ‘systematic ideology’ by Walford in 1976. Its basic premise was that people’s assumptions and identifications (the factors making up their ‘ideology’) are not explicable in terms of material conditions in general and their relationship to the means of production in particular—and are never likely to be. Instead, there are persistent and distinct ideological groups in society, cutting across social classes and forming a series, with the largest groups being most typically guided in their thoughts and
actions by a preference for family, authority, familiarity and tradition. Politically, these preferences find predominant expression in the ideas of the large number of so-called
‘non-politicals’ in society, and in Conservatism and then Liberalism (the strength of these preferences gradually weakening through the series).
Anti-imperialism
In the late 1870s, the term "imperialism" was introduced to the English language by opponents of the aggressively imperial policies of British Prime Minister Benjamin Disraeli (1874–1880). It was shortly appropriated by supporters of "imperialism" such as Joseph Chamberlain. For some, imperialism designated a policy of idealism and philanthropy; others alleged that it was characterized by political self-interest; and a growing number associated it with capitalist greed. John A. Hobson and Vladimir Lenin added a more theoretical macroeconomic connotation to the term. Many theoreticians on the left have followed either or both in emphasizing the structural or systemic character of "imperialism". Such writers have expanded the time period associated with the term so that it now designates neither a policy, nor a short space of decades in the late 19th century, but a global system extending over a period of centuries, often going back to Christopher Columbus and in some facts to the Crusades. As the application of the term has expanded, its meaning has shifted along five distinct but often parallel axes: the moral, the economic, the systemic, the cultural and the temporal. Those changes reflect—among other shifts in sensibility—a growing unease with the fact of power, specifically Western power.
Sociology of knowledge
Under the influence of this doctrine, and of Phenomenology, the Hungarian-born German sociologist Karl Mannheim (1893–1947) gave impetus to the growth of the sociology of knowledge with his "Ideologie und Utopie" (1929, translated and extended in 1936 as "Ideology and Utopia"), although the term had been introduced five years earlier by the co-founder of the movement, the German philosopher, phenomenologist and social theorist Max Scheler (1874–1928), in "Versuche zu einer Soziologie des Wissens" (1924, "Attempts at a Sociology of Knowledge").
Karl Marx
Commodity fetishism provides an example of what Engels called "false consciousness", which relates closely to the understanding of ideology. By "ideology", Marx and Engels meant ideas that reflect the interests of a particular class at a particular time in history, but which contemporaries see as universal and eternal. Marx and Engels's point was not only that such beliefs are at best half-truths, as they serve an important political function. Put another way, the control that one class exercises over the means of production includes not only the production of food or manufactured goods, but also the production of ideas (this provides one possible explanation for why members of a subordinate class may hold ideas contrary to their own interests). An example of this sort of analysis is Marx's understanding of religion, summed up in a passage from the preface to his 1843 "Contribution to the Critique of Hegel's Philosophy of Right":
Eurocentrism
The abstract noun "Eurocentrism" (French "eurocentrisme", earlier "europocentrisme") as the term for an ideology was coined in the 1970s by the Egyptian Marxian economist Samir Amin, then director of the African Institute for Economic Development and Planning of the United Nations Economic Commission for Africa. Amin used the term in the context of a global, core-periphery or dependency model of capitalist development. English usage of "Eurocentrism" is recorded by 1979.
Ideology
In contemporary political science it is used in a descriptive sense
to refer to political belief systems. There are many political ideologies.
Communist Party of the Soviet Union
Stalinism, while not an ideology "per se", refers to Stalin's thoughts and policies. Stalin's introduction of the concept "Socialism in One Country" in 1924 was an important moment in Soviet ideological discourse. According to Stalin, the Soviet Union did not need a socialist world revolution to construct a socialist society. Four years later, Stalin initiated his "Second Revolution" with the introduction of state socialism and central planning. In the early 1930s, he initiated the collectivization of Soviet agriculture by de-privatizing agriculture and creating peasant cooperatives rather than making it the responsibility of the state. With the initiation of his "Second Revolution", Stalin launched the "Cult of Lenin"a cult of personality centered upon himself. The name of the city of Petrograd was changed to Leningrad, the town of Lenin's birth was renamed Ulyanov (Lenin's birth-name), the Order of Lenin became the highest state award and portraits of Lenin were hung in public squares, workplaces and elsewhere. The increasing bureaucracy which followed the introduction of a state socialist economy was at complete odds with the Marxist notion of "the withering away of the state". Stalin explained the reasoning behind it at the 16th Congress held in 1930;
Ideogramme
It comparable in manner to onomatopoetics or onomatopoeia. With onomatopoeia the word said sounds like what it represents: Moo, Whack, Bang, "etc." "etc.". In an ideogramme a word or group of words visually embody their content.
One of the first and most recognizable ideogrammes is Guillaume Apollinaire's "Il Pleut" (It's Raining), written in 1916. It was published in his book "Calligrammes: Poems of Peace and War". Often this form is grouped within the Futurist movement. But, it extends beyond it. ee cummings was not a Futurist and his poem l(a is often cited for use of the ideogramme.
Paul V. Kroskrity
Among Kroskrity's contributions to linguistic anthropological research and theory, he is best known for helping to develop and establish the research field of language ideology. In the early 1990s a group of linguists and anthropologists, working on the relationship of cultural conceptions of language to linguistic structure, language use, and social context, convened on several occasions to bring scholarly attention to what soon became known in the discipline as "language ideology". Kroskrity organized and co-organized sessions at meetings of the American Anthropological Association (1991, 1994) and at the School of American Research in Santa Fe (1994), and served as the editor and co-editor of three of the resulting volumes.
Karl Mannheim
Karl Mannheim (b. Károly Manheim, 27 March 1893 – 9 January 1947) was a German sociologist, who was influential in the first half of the 20th century, was a founding father of classical sociology, and was a founder of the sociology of knowledge. Manheim is known for "Ideology and Utopia" (1929) wherein he argues that ideologies are representative of the true nature of a society, and that, in trying to achieve a utopia, the dogmas of ideology affect the intellectual integrity of theories of philosophy and theories of history.
Ideology and Ideological State Apparatuses
According to Althusser, the obviousness that people (you and I) are subjects is an effect of ideology. Althusser believes that there are two functions of interpellation. One function of ideology is “recognition” and the other function, its inverse, is “misrecognition”. Below are a few concrete illustrations that Althusser provides to further explain the two functions:
Althusser uses the term "interpellation" to describe the process by which ideology constitutes individual persons as subjects. The ideological social and political institutions — the family, the media, religious organisations, the education system and the discourses they propagate — 'hail' the individual in social interactions, giving the individual his or her identity. Althusser compares ideology to a policeman shouting "hey you" to a person walking in the street. The person responds to the call and in doing so is transformed into a subject — a self-conscious, responsible agent whose actions can be explained by his or her thoughts. Althusser thus goes against the classical definition of the subject as cause and substance, emphasising instead how the situation always precedes the (individual or collective) subject. Concrete individual persons are the carriers of ideology — they are "always-already interpellated" as subjects. Individual subjects are presented principally as produced by social forces, rather than acting as powerful independent agents with self-produced identities. Althusser's argument here strongly draws from Jacques Lacan's concept of the mirror stage — we acquire our identities by seeing ourselves somehow mirrored in ideologies.
Sociology of literature
Marx used the term ideology to denote the inner connectedness of culture, including literature, and class. The philosopher Louis Althusser elaborated on this notion in the early 1970s, arguing that ideology functions so as to constitute biological individuals as social 'subjects' by representing their imaginary relation to their real conditions of existence.
Ideosphere
Aaron Lynch claims to have co-invented this word with Douglas Hofstadter in the mid-1980s.
Race (human categorization)
From the 17th through 19th centuries, the merging of folk beliefs about group differences with scientific explanations of those differences produced what Smedley has called an "ideology of race". According to this ideology, races are primordial, natural, enduring and distinct. It was further argued that some groups may be the result of mixture between formerly distinct populations, but that careful study could distinguish the ancestral races that had combined to produce admixed groups. Subsequent influential classifications by Georges Buffon, Petrus Camper and Christoph Meiners all classified "Negros" as inferior to Europeans. In the United States the racial theories of Thomas Jefferson were influential. He saw Africans as inferior to Whites especially in regards to their intellect, and imbued with unnatural sexual appetites, but described Native Americans as equals to whites.
David Cole (journalist)
In his late teens, Cole embarked on a study of American political ideology. This led author Michael Shermer to coin the term "meta-ideologue" to describe Cole. In a 1994 article in Shermer's "Skeptic" magazine, Shermer wrote, "Where the other revisionists are political and/or racial ideologues, Cole's interests run at a deeper level. He is a meta-ideologue – an existentialist on a quest to understand how ideologues invent their realities."
Ideologia
Ideologia may refer to:
Ideology
According to the semiotician Bob Hodge, ideology "identifies a unitary object that incorporates complex sets of meanings with the social agents and processes that produced them. No other term captures this object as well as 'ideology'. Foucault's 'episteme' is too narrow and abstract, not social enough. His 'discourse', popular because it covers some of ideology's terrain with less baggage, is too confined to verbal systems. 'Worldview' is too metaphysical, 'propaganda' too loaded. Despite or because of its contradictions, 'ideology' still plays a key role in semiotics oriented to social, political life." Authors such as Michael Freeden have also recently incorporated a semantic analysis to the study of ideologies.
Michael Freeden
Freeden has been noted for his analysis of contemporary ideologies. He has rejected the traditional definition of ideologies, which sees the latter as static "belief systems", and instead bases his analysis on modern semantics. Ideologies – just like languages – consist of certain concepts whose meaning may change and evolve over time. The specific relations between ideological concepts may thus be analyzed by being set in their respective semantic fields.
Karl Marx
In collaboration with Engels, Marx also set about writing a book which is often seen as his best treatment of the concept of historical materialism, "The German Ideology". In this work, Marx broke with Ludwig Feuerbach, Bruno Bauer, Max Stirner and the rest of the Young Hegelians, while he also broke with Karl Grun and other "true socialists" whose philosophies were still based in part on "idealism". In "German Ideology", Marx and Engels finally completed their philosophy, which was based solely on materialism as the sole motor force in history. "German Ideology" is written in a humorously satirical form, but even this satirical form did not save the work from censorship. Like so many other early writings of his, "German Ideology" would not be published in Marx's lifetime and would be published only in 1932.
Arthur Oncken Lovejoy
As a professor of philosophy at Johns Hopkins University from 1910 to 1938, Lovejoy founded and long presided over that university's History of Ideas Club, where many prominent and budding intellectual and social historians, as well as literary critics, gathered. In 1940 he founded the "Journal of the History of Ideas". Lovejoy insisted that the history of ideas should focus on "unit ideas," single concepts (namely simple concepts sharing an abstract name with other concepts that were to be conceptually distinguished). Abstract nouns like 'pragmatism' 'idealism', 'rationalism' and the like were, in Lovejoy's view, constituted by distinct, analytically separate ideas, which the historian of the genealogy of ideas had to thresh out, and show how the basic unit ideas combine and recombine with each other over time. The idea has, according to Simo Knuuttila, exercised a greater attraction on literary critics than on philosophers.
Ideology
Slavoj Zizek has pointed out how the very notion of post-ideology can enable the deepest, blindest form of ideology. A sort of false consciousness or false cynicism, engaged in for the purpose of lending one's point of view the respect of being objective, pretending neutral cynicism, without truly being so. Rather than help avoiding ideology, this lapse only deepens the commitment to an existing one. Zizek calls this "a post-modernist trap". Peter Sloterdijk advanced the same idea already in 1988.
Language ideology
"Language ideologies are not confined merely to ideas or beliefs, but rather is extended to include the very language practices through which our ideas or notions are enacted" (Razfar, 2005). Teachers display their language ideologies in classroom instruction through various practices such as correction or repair, affective alignment, metadiscourse, and narrative (see Razfar & Rumenapp, 2013, p. 289). The study of ideology seeks to uncover the hidden world of students and teachers to shed light on the fundamental forces that shape and give meaning to their actions and interactions.
Theodor Geiger
Ideology to Geiger is "a concept in the theory of knowledge," or "the atheoretical taken theoretically." His actual definition of ideology was: A statement that has or is presented to have an apparent meaning, claiming to be theoretical and factual while maintaining elements that are not theoretical, objective, or empirically supported and/or valid. His theory of ideology, resting on a methodological basis, was: "That to claim objective truth from a creation of the imagination is an ideology and is invalid". Geiger was very concerned with Value Freedom, or the difference between value and fact, and the belief that Science cannot be valid when making Value-judgements. A Value-judgement is an ideological statement because it disguises a value as a statement of fact, claiming to be valid and objective. Geiger was led to these beliefs by the Uppsala school and Hägerstrom.
Ideography
Ideography may refer to:
Ideology
The Marxist formulation of "ideology as an instrument of social reproduction" is conceptually important to the sociology of knowledge, viz. Karl Mannheim, Daniel Bell, and Jürgen Habermas et al. Moreover, Mannheim has developed, and progressed, from the "total" but "special" Marxist conception of ideology to a "general" and "total" ideological conception acknowledging that all ideology (including Marxism) resulted from social life, an idea developed by the sociologist Pierre Bourdieu. Slavoj Žižek and the earlier Frankfurt School added to the "general theory" of ideology a psychoanalytic insight that ideologies do not include only conscious, but also unconscious ideas.
Ideology of the Iranian Revolution
The author who ultimately formulated the ideology of the revolution though, was the man who dominated the revolution itself—the Ayatollah Khomeini. He preached that revolt, and especially martyrdom, against injustice and tyranny was part of Shia Islam, that clerics should mobilize and lead their flocks into action, not just to advise them. He introduced Qur'anic terms—"mustazafin" ('weak') and "mustakbirin" ('proud and mighty')—for the Marxist terminology of the oppressors-oppressed distinction. He rejected the influence of both Soviet and American superpowers in Iran with the slogan "not Eastern, nor Western - Islamic Republican" ().
Information theory
Concepts from information theory such as redundancy and code control have been used by semioticians such as Umberto Eco and to explain ideology as a form of message transmission whereby a dominant social class emits its message by using signs that exhibit a high degree of redundancy such that only one message is decoded among a selection of competing ones.
Free Zone (Scientology)
Idenics is a personal counseling method not affiliated with any religion, that was developed by John Galusha beginning in 1987. Mr. Galusha researched for L. Ron Hubbard during the 1950s, and was one of the founders of the first Church of Scientology in 1953. Galusha claimed that all personal issues can be addressed by thoroughly looking over the problem at hand, without judgment. The counselor asks a series of questions until the solution is considered found, by the client. Mike Goldstein, the owner of Idenics methodology and author of the book, "Idenics, an alternative to therapy", claims that the method is as effective over the telephone as in person.
Ideology
The term "ideology" was born during the Reign of Terror of French Revolution, and acquired several other meanings thereafter.
Lionel Trilling
Of ideologies, Trilling wrote, "Ideology is not the product of thought; it is the habit or the ritual of showing respect for certain formulas to which, for various reasons having to do with emotional safety, we have very strong ties and of whose meaning and consequences in actuality we have no clear understanding."
Rudolph Goclenius
Rudolph Goclenius the Elder (; born "Rudolf Gockel" or "Göckel"; 1 March 1547 – 8 June 1628) was a German scholastic philosopher who lived from March 1, 1547 to June 8, 1628. Gockel is often credited with coining the term "psychology" in 1590, but the term was used by Marko Marulić at least 66 years earlier. Gockel also had extensive backing and significant contributions to the field of ontology. He extended on many ideas from Aristotle, such as both the introduction of ontology and metaphysics. Several of Gockel’s ideas were published and built upon by later philosophers.
Ideology and Ideological State Apparatuses
"Ideology and Ideological State Apparatuses (Notes Towards an Investigation)" (French: "Idéologie et appareils idéologiques d’État (Notes pour une recherche") is an essay by the French Marxist philosopher Louis Althusser. First published in 1970, it advances Althusser's theory of ideology. Where Karl Marx and Friedrich Engels posited a thinly-sketched theory of ideology as false consciousness, Althusser draws upon the works of later theorists such as Antonio Gramsci, Sigmund Freud and Jacques Lacan to proffer a more elaborate redefinition of the theory. Althusser's theory of ideology remains influential since it was written.
Idealism
"Idealism" is a term with several related meanings. It comes via "idea" from the Greek "idein" (ἰδεῖν), meaning "to see". The term entered the English language by 1743. In ordinary use, as when speaking of Woodrow Wilson's political idealism, it generally suggests the priority of ideals, principles, values, and goals over concrete realities. Idealists are understood to represent the world as it might or should be, unlike pragmatists, who focus on the world as it presently is. In the arts, similarly, idealism affirms imagination and attempts to realize a mental conception of beauty, a standard of perfection, juxtaposed to aesthetic naturalism and realism.
Islamofascism
Accounts differ as to who popularized the term. President George W. Bush introduced the term officially during his presidency. According to Safire, author Christopher Hitchens was responsible for its diffusion, while Valerie Scatamburlo d'Annibale argues that its popularization is due to the work of Eliot Cohen, former counselor to Condoleezza Rice, reputed occasionally to be "the most influential neocon in academe". It circulated in neoconservative circles for some years after 2001 and came into wider currency after President George W. Bush, still grappling to find a phrase that might identify the nature of the "evil" which would define the nature of his enemy in the War on Terror, stated in 2005 that Islamofascism was an ideology synonymous with Islamic radicalism and militant jihadism, which, he then clarified, was decidedly distinct from the religion of Islam. It moved into the mainstream in August 2006. After the arrest of Islamic terrorists suspected of preparing to blow up airlines, Bush once more alluded to "Islamic Fascists", apparently a "toned-down" variant of the word, The public use of the neologism and the analogous "Islamic fascism" during the run-up to the U.S. 2006 mid-term elections, perhaps with a specific focus group in mind, provoked an outcry, or storm of protest, and was quickly dropped from the president's rhetorical armory. Katha Pollitt, stating the principle that, "if the control the language, you control the debate", remarked that while the term looked "analytic", it was emotional and "intended to get us to think less and fear". David Gergen, former speechwriter for Richard Nixon, commented that the phrase "confuses more than it clarifies", for "Islamic fascism has no meaning" in the Arab world. Neoconservative writers, critics and scholars from Hitchens to Robert Wistrich however responded that the Muslim religion itself is fascistic, a view which, in identifying Islam with political fascism, was lambasted for being as offensive as the term "Judeo-Nazi" coined in the 1970s by Yeshayahu Leibowitz, editor of the Encyclopedia Hebraica, to characterize Messianic Jews settling in the occupied West Bank. Hitchens replied that the link is no more deleterious than that made by Leibowitz, or by left-wing analysts who wrote of clerical fascism.
Western philosophy
Philosophers influenced by Hegel include Ludwig Andreas Feuerbach, who coined the term projection as pertaining to humans' inability to recognize anything in the external world without projecting qualities of ourselves upon those things; Karl Marx; Friedrich Engels; and the British idealists, notably T.H. Green, J.M.E. McTaggart and F.H. Bradley. Few 20th-century philosophers have embraced idealism. However, quite a few have embraced Hegelian dialectic. Immanuel Kant's "Copernican Turn" also remains an important philosophical concept today.
Marx's Theory of Ideology
"Marx's Theory of Ideology" was reviewed by Nicholas Abercrombih in "Sociology". The political theorist Terrell Carver, writing in an appendix to the 1995 edition of "", called the book a classic exposition of the Marxist theory of ideology.
Ontotheology
The term "ontotheology" was coined by Immanuel Kant in direct conjunction with the term cosmotheology, "in order to distinguish between two competing types of 'transcendental theology'." The word's origin is often, mistakenly perhaps, associated with Heidegger who used the term quite frequently.
Kim Il-sung bibliography
According to the official North Korean version, Kim Il-sung laid out the "Juche" ideology in his 1955 speech "On Eliminating Dogmatism and Formalism and Establishing "Juche" in Ideological Work", although half of the speech is on unrelated matters and the speech praises the Soviets, which is ill-suited to the ideology's stress on self-reliance. For the next ten years Kim failed to elaborate on "Juche", even on important occasions such as his speech to mark the tenth anniversary of the North Korean state. The concept had all but completely disappeared from the vocabulary of his works with the exception of a 1960 speech, "On the Lessons Drawn From Guidance to the Work of the Kangso County Party Committee", where he passingly mentions it. The next work to deal with "Juche" in detail was Kim's "On Socialist Construction and the South Korean Revolution in the Democratic People's Republic of Korea", a lecture he had given when visiting Indonesia. The formulation of "Juche" as it is known today is from a 1972 interview with "Mainichi Shimbun" journalists, entitled "On Some Problems of Our Party's "Juche" Idea and the Government of the Republic's Internal and External Policies". North Korea scholar B.R. Myers thinks that these occasions are too low-profile for introducing major ideological developments, leading him to conclude that the "Juche" idea is merely a front.
Idée fixe (psychology)
The initial introduction of the term "idée fixe", according to intellectual historian Jan E. Goldstein, was as a medical term around 1812 in connection with monomania. As originally employed in the nineteenth and early twentieth centuries, "idée fixe" was "a single pathology of the intellect", distinct from "monomania", a broader term that included "idée fixe", but also a wider range of pathologies that did not stem from "a single compelling idea or from an emotional excess". A second difference is that the victim of "idée fixe" was understood to be unaware of the unreality of their frame of mind, while the victim of monomania might be aware. At that time, "idée fixe" was discussed as a form of neurosis or monomania.:
The idea of monomania was developed by Esquirol as a diagnostic category in his work "Des Malades Mentales" (1839) and related to the "idée fixe" by Griesinger (1845) who viewed "every single "idée fixe" [as] the expression of a deeply deranged psychic individuality and probably an indicator of an incipient form of mania".
Raymond Geuss
Raymond Geuss (; born 1946), Emeritus Professor in the Faculty of Philosophy, University of Cambridge, is a political philosopher and scholar of 19th and 20th century European philosophy. Geuss is primarily known for three reasons: his early account of ideology critique in "The Idea of a Critical Theory"; a recent collection of works instrumental to the emergence of Political Realism in Anglophone political philosophy over the last decade, including "Philosophy and Real Politics"; and a variety of free-standing essays on issues including aesthetics, Nietzsche, contextualism, phenomenology, intellectual history, culture and ancient philosophy.
Language ideology
Several scholars have noted difficulty in attempting to delimit the scope, meaning, and applications of language ideology. Linguistic anthropologist Paul Kroskrity describes language ideology as a “cluster concept, consisting of a number of converging dimensions” with several “partially overlapping but analytically distinguishable layers of significance,” and cites that in the existing scholarship on language ideology “there is no particular unity . . . no core literature, and a range of definitions.” One of the broadest definitions is offered by Alan Rumsey, who describes language ideologies as “shared bodies of commonsense notions about the nature of language in the world.” This definition is seen by Kroskrity as unsatisfactory, however, because “it fails to problematize language ideological variation and therefore promotes an overly homogeneous view of language ideologies within a cultural group.” Emphasizing the role of speakers’ awareness in influencing language structure, Michael Silverstein defines linguistic ideologies as “sets of beliefs about language articulated by users as a rationalization or justification of perceived language structure and use.” Definitions that place greater emphasis on sociocultural factors include Shirley Heath’s characterization of language ideologies as “self-evident ideas and objectives a group holds concerning roles of language in the social experiences of members as they contribute to the expression of the group” and Judith Irvine’s definition of the concept as “the cultural system of ideas about social and linguistic relationships, together with their loading of moral and political interests.”
Ideology
Recent analysis tends to posit that ideology is a "coherent system of ideas" that rely on a few basic assumptions about reality that may or may not have any factual basis. Through this system, ideas become coherent repeated patterns through the subjective ongoing choices that people make. These ideas serve as the seed around which further thought grows. Believers in ideology range from passive acceptance through fervent advocacy to true belief. According to most recent analysis, ideologies are neither necessarily right nor wrong.
Ideology
For Willard A. Mullins an ideology should be contrasted with the related (but different) issues of "utopia" and "historical myth". An ideology is composed of four basic characteristics:
The End of Ideology
There is a 1930s literature derived from debates about the continued relevance of the Marxist scheme of class-generated ideologies, even in the less reductionist version set forth in most of Karl Mannheim's "Ideology and Utopia," although his essay on "Utopia" does envision a loss of both utopian and ideological vision. Fascism rather than communism originally posed the question, insofar as the simplification of Fascism as "ideology" of the capitalist class lost credibility. One current of thought took up the theme of "mass society" and contended that the modes of control and resistance both had little to do with the ideology concept. (Emil Lederer, "The State of Mass Society" Although much of this was conjoined with conservative arguments about the "revolt of the masses," there was also a current that looked to pragmatic problem solving where Fascism (and increasingly Communism) could be resisted or contained. Mannheim's "planning" writings ambiguously fostered this trend. Daniel Bell belonged to the next generation, when ideas about the institutionalisation of intelligence in ordinary democratic political processes became more sophisticated, as in the work of "pluralist" political theorists like David Truman, Robert Dahl and Daniel Bell. Technocratic notions at home on the Right played little part.
Communism
Marxism–Leninism is a political ideology developed by Joseph Stalin, which according to its proponents is based in Marxism and Leninism. The term describes the specific political ideology which Stalin implemented in the Communist Party of the Soviet Union and in a global scale in the Comintern. There is no definite agreement between historians of about whether Stalin actually followed the principles of Marx and Lenin. It also contains aspects which according to some are deviations from Marxism, such as "socialism in one country". Marxism–Leninism was the ideology of the most clearly visible communist movement. As such, it is the most prominent ideology associated with communism.
Ideology and Ideological State Apparatuses
Generally, Althusser’s perspectives on ideology remain respected; in the "Louis Althusser" capsule biography, the "Norton Anthology of Theory and Criticism", 2nd. Ed., says that “Althusser’s major concepts — Ideological State Apparatuses, Interpellation, Imaginary relations, and Overdetermination — permeate the discourse of contemporary literary and cultural theory, and his theory of ideology has influenced virtually all subsequent serious work on the topic."
Ontotheology
Ontotheology means the ontology of God and/or the theology of being. While the term was first used by Immanuel Kant, it has only come into broader philosophical parlance with the significance it took for Martin Heidegger's later thought. While, for Heidegger, the term is used to critique the whole tradition of 'Western metaphysics', much recent scholarship has sought to question whether 'ontotheology' developed at a certain point in the metaphysical tradition, with many seeking to equate the development of 'ontotheological' thinking with the development of modernity, and Duns Scotus often being cited as the first 'ontotheologian'.
Ideology of the Communist Party of China
Mao Zedong Thought was conceived not only by Mao Zedong, but by leading party officials. According to Xinhua, Mao Zedong Thought is "an integration of the universal truth of Marxism–Leninism with the practice of the Chinese revolution." Currently, the CCP interprets the essence of Mao Zedong Thought as "Seeking truth from facts": "we must proceed from reality and put theory into practice in everything. In other words, we must integrate the universal theory of Marxism–Leninism with China's specific conditions."
Trotskyism
According to Trotsky, the term "Trotskyism" was coined by Pavel Milyukov (sometimes transliterated as Paul Miliukoff), the ideological leader of the Constitutional Democratic Party (Kadets) in Russia. Milyukov waged a bitter war against Trotskyism "as early as 1905".
Michael Calvin McGee
McGee had many major contributions in the realm of rhetoric and in cultural studies. He published three major works: Rhetoric in Postmodern America, The Ideograph: A Link between Rhetoric and Ideology, and Text, Context, and the Fragmentation of Contemporary Culture. The most important of these is considered to be his second major work, The Ideograph. McGee was the first rhetorical theorist to propose this concept on an ideograph, which he described as, "an ordinary-language term found in political discourse. It is a high order abstraction representing commitment to a particular but equivocal and ill-defined normative goal." Also he was a critic of what he saw going on in the world around him. The most well-known of these critiques was his critique of Spike Lee and his association with Nike ads. McGee said that these ads were too racially stereotypical and made a case for Lee to cease these ads but Lee continued with them nonetheless.
Sociology of knowledge
The German political philosophers Karl Marx (1818–1883) and Friedrich Engels (1820–1895) argued in "Die deutsche Ideologie" (1846, "The German Ideology") and elsewhere that people's ideologies, including their social and political beliefs and opinions, are rooted in their class interests, and more broadly in the social and economic circumstances in which they live:
Isidore Geoffroy Saint-Hilaire
Isidore Geoffroy Saint-Hilaire (16 December 1805 – 10 November 1861) was a French zoologist and an authority on deviation from normal structure. In 1854 he coined the term "éthologie" (ethology).
Jensenism
Jensenism is a term coined by "New York Times" writer Lee Edson. Named after educational psychologist Arthur Jensen, it was originally defined as "the theory that IQ is largely determined by the genes". The term was coined after Jensen published the article How Much Can We Boost IQ and Scholastic Achievement? in the "Harvard Educational Review" in 1969. It has since been included in several dictionaries. Many reactions to Jensen's article and the arguments it contained quickly ensued, some highly favorable and others relentlessly negative. Among the latter was a paper by behavior geneticist Jerry Hirsch, who claimed that Jensenism was an "intellectual disgrace", while also criticizing some of Jensen's earlier critics: "Time and again the opposition to Jensenism has resorted to inarticulate and self-defeating hooliganism, so easily perceived as fascist interference with academic freedom and unfettered scientific inquiry." In a 1970 article responding to Jensen, biologist Richard Lewontin argued that Jensenism was a more recent manifestation of the 17th-century Christian heresy Jansenism, referring to the former as a "doctrine" that is "as erroneous in the twentieth century as it was in the seventeenth." Evolutionary biologist Stephen Jay Gould also criticized Jensenism, arguing that it rested "on a rotten edifice." Jensen's ideas reportedly received a more favorable reception in the Nixon administration; Lewontin quoted then-United States ambassador to India Daniel Patrick Moynihan in 1974 as saying, "The winds of Jensenism are blowing through Washington with gale force."
International relations theory
The precursor to liberal international relations theory was "idealism". Idealism (or utopianism) was viewed critically by those who saw themselves as "realists", for instance E. H. Carr. In international relations, idealism (also called "Wilsonianism" because of its association with Woodrow Wilson who personified it) is a school of thought that holds that a state should make its internal political philosophy the goal of its foreign policy. For example, an idealist might believe that ending poverty at home should be coupled with tackling poverty abroad. Wilson's idealism was a precursor to liberal international relations theory, which would arise amongst the "institution-builders" after World War I.
Sociology of literature
For Althusser himself art was not ideology. But his theory was applied to literature by Macherey in France, Eagleton in Britain and Jameson in the United States. The central novelty of Eagleton's "Criticism and Ideology" was its argument that literature could be understood as 'producing' ideology, in the sense of performing it. Jameson's "The Political Unconscious" argued that literary analysis can be focussed on three distinct levels, 'text', 'ideologeme' and 'ideology of form', each of which has its socio-historical corollary, in the equivalent 'semantic horizon' of political history, society and mode of production. The version of ideology Jameson applies to all three levels is essentially Althusserian. The novelty of his position, however, was to argue for a 'double hermeneutic' simultaneously concerned with ideology and utopia.
Immanuel Kant
The notion of the "thing in itself" was much discussed by philosophers after Kant. It was argued that because the "thing in itself" was unknowable, its existence must not be assumed. Rather than arbitrarily switching to an account that was ungrounded in anything supposed to be the "real," as did the German Idealists, another group arose to ask how our (presumably reliable) accounts of a coherent and rule-abiding universe were actually grounded. This new kind of philosophy became known as Phenomenology, and its founder was Edmund Husserl.
Hindu revolution
The fundamental concept of this ideology is "Dharma" (righteousness or virtuousness). It is traditionally defined as the all-supporting law of the universe which God established at the beginning of time for the benefit of the world and as a guide to right action; and which is followed by the learned and assented to in their heart by the virtuous.
Theology
Greek "theologia" (θεολογία) was used with the meaning "discourse on god" in the fourth century BC by Plato in "The Republic", Book ii, Ch. 18. Aristotle divided theoretical philosophy into "mathematike", "physike" and "theologike", with the last corresponding roughly to metaphysics, which, for Aristotle, included discourse on the nature of the divine.
Ideologi Sikap Otak
Ideologi Sikap Otak is a studio album by Ahmad Band and was released in 1998 in Indonesia; the title translates into "The Ideology of Brain Attitude". The album is considered Dewa 19 frontman Ahmad Dhani's solo project. The entire album was written by Dhani with the exception of one track, "Aku Cinta Kau dan Dia", which was co-written with Bebi.
Systematic ideology
The group that formed around Harold Walsby and his ideas was a breakaway from the Socialist Party of Great Britain. During the Second World War this group developed a fascination with
perceived impediments to mass socialist consciousness among the working class. The theory they developed was expressed by Walsby himself in his 1947 book "The Domain of Ideologies" and those involved in the group set up an organisation to propagate their views called the Social Science Association, which existed from 1944 until 1956, attracting a number of new recruits during the ‘Turner Controversy’. It was later succeeded by the
Walsby Society and the journal which emerged from it called "Ideological Commentary".
Johannes Sløk
Johannes Sløk (27 April 1916 in Frederiksberg – 30 June 2001) was a Danish philosopher, professor at the University of Aarhus and founder of "Idéhistorie" ("History of ideas"), an interdisciplinary discipline mainly about writings pertaining to the ideas of Western culture since Antiquity. The concept is now the "Institute of Philosophy and History of Ideas" a department under the faculty of humanities of Aarhus university. During the student rising of 1968, Sløk was forced to leave his position as professor at Idéhistorie, and the institute became oriented around Marxist theory. Sløk instead was granted a special position at the Department of Theology, as professor of analytic theology. Sløk was one of the four Aarhus theologians and wrote a series of books on religion and its meaning to the modern man.
Ideology (album)
On his first solo work, David Harbour easily avoided virtually all musical limits, demonstrating the possibility of combining the most differentiate musical styles. On "Ideology", elements of rock music, jazz, progressive rock, impressionism, and new age are harmonyously interwoven. However, the term "fusion" is not a good definition in this case because the compositions of Harbour are made in more "atmospheric" key, with more influence of art rock, progressive and classic music than of jazz.There are concert versions of solo piano compositions from "Ideology" album performed by David Harbour available on YouTube:
Ideology and Ideological State Apparatuses
The second thesis posits that ideology does not exist in the form of "ideas" or conscious "representations" in the "minds" of individuals. Rather, ideology consists of the actions and behaviours of bodies governed by their disposition within material apparatuses. Central to the view of individuals as responsible subjects is the notion of an explanatory link between belief and action, that
Idea
Plato in Ancient Greece was one of the earliest philosophers to provide a detailed discussion of ideas and of the thinking process (it must be noted that in Plato's Greek the word "idea" carries a rather different sense from our modern English term). Plato argued in dialogues such as the "Phaedo", "Symposium", "Republic", and "Timaeus" that there is a realm of ideas or forms ("eidei"), which exist independently of anyone who may have thoughts on these ideas, and it is the ideas which distinguish mere opinion from knowledge, for unlike material things which are transient and liable to contrary properties, ideas are unchanging and nothing but just what they are. Consequently, Plato seems to assert forcefully that material things can only be the objects of opinion; real knowledge can only be had of unchanging ideas. Furthermore, ideas for Plato appear to serve as universals; consider the following passage from the "Republic":
Descartes often wrote of the meaning of "idea" as an image or representation, often but not necessarily "in the mind", which was well known in the vernacular. Despite that Descartes is usually credited with the invention of the non-Platonic use of the term, he at first followed this vernacular use. In his "Meditations on First Philosophy" he says, "Some of my thoughts are like images of things, and it is to these alone that the name 'idea' properly belongs." He sometimes maintained that ideas were innate and uses of the term "idea" diverge from the original primary scholastic use. He provides multiple non-equivalent definitions of the term, uses it to refer to as many as six distinct kinds of entities, and divides "ideas" inconsistently into various genetic categories. For him knowledge took the form of ideas and philosophical investigation is the deep consideration of these entities.
Desmond Tutu
During the early 1970s, Tutu's theology fundamentally changed as a result both of his experiences in Africa and his discovery of liberation theology, a term coined in 1971 by the Peruvian priest Gustavo Gutiérrez and introduced to Tutu by the TEF's associate director for Latin America, Aharon Sapsezian. On discovering black theology, he had been immediately attracted to it, in 1973 attending a conference on the subject at New York City's Union Theological Seminary. There, he presented a paper in which he stated that "black theology is an engaged not an academic, detached theology. It is a gut level theology, relating to the real concerns, the life and death issues of the black man." He stated that his paper was not an attempt to demonstrate the academic respectability of black theology but rather to make "a straightforward, perhaps shrill, statement about an existent. Black theology is. No permission is being requested for it to come into being... Frankly the time has passed when we will wait for the white man to give us permission to do our thing. Whether or not he accepts the intellectual respectability of our activity is largely irrelevant. We will proceed regardless." Tutu sought to fuse the African-American derived black theology with African theology, an approach which contrasted with that of other African theologians like John Mbiti who regarded black theology as a foreign import not relevant to the African situation.
Rhetoric of social intervention model
Brown defines ideology as "any symbolic construction of the world in whose superordinate 'name' human beings can comprehensively order their experience and subsume their specific activities." In essence, he views ideology as an ultimate symbolic categorization of all of experience that both creates and is shaped by a social system. Ideology is an overarching name that influences how social system participants make sense of their world, social hierarchy, and needs. At the same time, ideology emerges when participants symbolically constitute worldview, power, and need. For example, according to the RSI model, American dream ideology influences how U.S. Americans interpret their needs and roles in society, e.g., they need "freedom." The actions they take toward achieving "freedom" also create American dream ideology.
Ideology
Althusser also proffered the concept of the ideological state apparatus to explain his theory of ideology. His first thesis was ""ideology has no history"": while individual ideolog"ies" have histories, interleaved with the general class struggle of society, the general form of ideology is external to history.
Systematic ideology
"Ideological Commentary" survived until the death of Walford in 1994. , barely a handful of systematic ideology's exponents remain.
History of ideas
The historian Arthur O. Lovejoy (1873–1962) coined the phrase "history of ideas" and initiated its systematic study in the early decades of the 20th century. Johns Hopkins University was a "fertile cradle" to Lovejoy's history of ideas; he worked there as a professor of history, from 1910 to 1939, and for decades he presided over the regular meetings of the "History of Ideas Club". Another outgrowth of his work is the "Journal of the History of Ideas".
Ideology
"Madmen in authority, who hear voices in the air, are distilling their frenzy from some academic scribbler of a few years back", said John Maynard Keynes. How do ideologies become part of government policy?
In "The Anatomy of Revolution", Crane Brinton said that new ideology spreads when there is discontent with the old regime. Extremists such as Lenin and Robespierre will overcome more moderate revolutionaries. This stage is soon followed by Thermidor, a reining back of revolutionary enthusiasm under pragmatists like Stalin and Napoleon Bonaparte who bring "normalcy and equilibrium".
A very similar sequence ("men of ideas>fanatics>practical men of action") occurs in Eric Hoffer, The True Believer, and Brinton's sequence is reiterated by J. William Fulbright.
The revolution thus becomes established as an Ideocracy, but its rise is likely to be checked by a Political midlife crisis.
Ideograph (rhetoric)
At the end of his essay defining the ideograph, McGee says that
“A complete description of an ideology . . . will consist of (1) the isolation of a society’s ideographs, (2) the exposure and analysis of the diachronic structure of every ideography, and (3) characterization of synchronic relationships among all the ideographs in a particular context.”
Such an exhaustive study of any ideology has yet to materialize, but many scholars have made use of the ideograph as a tool of understanding both specific rhetorical situations as well as a broader scope of ideological history. As a teacher, McGee himself made use of the ideograph as a tool for structuring the study of the rise of liberalism in British public address, focusing on ideographs such as «a href="property">propertypatriarchyreligionlibertyfamily valuesequalityphotographs. and objects represented in mass media.
Freudo-Marxism
Louis Althusser is widely known as a theorist of ideology, and his best-known essay is "Ideology and Ideological State Apparatuses: Notes Toward an Investigation". The essay establishes the concept of ideology, also based on Gramsci's theory of hegemony. Whereas hegemony is ultimately determined entirely by political forces, ideology draws on Freud's and Lacan's concepts of the unconscious and mirror-phase respectively, and describes the structures and systems that allow us to meaningfully have a concept of the self. These structures, for Althusser, are both agents of repression and inevitable – it is impossible to escape ideology, to not be subjected to it. The distinction between ideology and science or philosophy is not assured once for all by the "epistemological break" (a term borrowed from Gaston Bachelard): this "break" is not a chronologically-determined event, but a process. Instead of an assured victory, there is a continuous struggle against ideology: "Ideology has no history".
Intellectual history
Intellectual history as a self-conscious discipline is a relatively recent phenomenon. It has precedents, however, in the history of philosophy, the history of ideas, and in cultural history as practiced since Burckhardt or indeed since Voltaire. The history of the human mind, as it was called in the eighteenth century, was of great concern to scholars and philosophers, and their efforts can in part be traced to Francis Bacon’s call for what he termed a literary history in his The Advancement of Learning. In economics, John Maynard Keynes (1883-1946) was both a historian of economic thought himself, and the subject of study by historians of economic thought because of the significance of the Keynesian revolution. However, the discipline of intellectual history as it is now understood emerged only in the immediate postwar period, in its earlier incarnation as "the history of ideas" under the leadership of Arthur Lovejoy, the founder of the Journal of the History of Ideas. Since that time, Lovejoy's formulation of "unit-ideas" has been discredited and replaced by more nuanced and more historically sensitive accounts of intellectual activity, and this shift is reflected in the replacement of the phrase history of ideas by "intellectual history".
Ideology of the Communist Party of the Soviet Union
The Marxist theory on imperialism was conceived by Lenin in his book, "" (published in 1917). It was written in response to the theoretical crisis within Marxist thought, which occurred due to capitalism's recovery in the 19th century. According to Lenin, imperialism was a specific stage of development of capitalism; a stage he referred to as state monopoly capitalism. The Marxist movement was split on how to solve capitalism's resurgence and revitalisation after the great depression of the late-19th century. Eduard Bernstein, from the Social Democratic Party of Germany (SDP), considered capitalism' revitalisation as proof that capitalism was evolving into a more humane system, further adding that the basic aims of socialists were not to overthrow the state, but rather to take power through elections. On the other hand, Karl Kautsky, from the SDP, held a highly dogmatic view, claiming that there was no crisis within Marxist theory. Both of them, however, denied or belittled the role of class contradictions in society after the crisis. In contrast, Lenin believed that capitalism' resurgence was the beginning of a new phase of capitalism; this stage being created because of a strengthening of class contradiction, not because of its reduction.
Youth International Party
Abbie Hoffman and Jerry Rubin became the most famous Yippies—and bestselling authors—in part due to publicity surrounding the five-month Chicago Seven Conspiracy trial of 1969. They both used the phrase "ideology is a brain disease" to separate the Yippies from mainstream political parties that played the game by the rules. Hoffman and Rubin were arguably the most colorful of the seven defendants accused of criminal conspiracy and inciting to riot at the August 1968 Democratic National Convention. Hoffman and Rubin used the trial as a platform for Yippie antics—at one point, they showed up in court attired in judicial robes.
Ideograph (rhetoric)
McGee uses the term in his seminal article “The ‘Ideograph’: A Link Between Rhetoric and Ideology” which appeared in the "Quarterly Journal of Speech" in 1980. He begins his essay by defining the practice of ideology as practice of political language in specific contexts—actual discursive acts by individual speakers and writers. The question this raises is how does this practice of ideology create social control.
Epistemology
The idea of epistemology predates the word. John Locke describes his Essay Concerning Human Understanding (1689) as an inquiry "into the original, certainty, and extent of HUMAN KNOWLEDGE, together with the grounds and degrees of BELIEF, OPINION, and ASSENT".. According to Brett Warrent, the character "Epistemon" in King James VI of Scotland's Daemonologie (1591) "was meant to be a personification of a philosophical concept currently known as ‘’epistemology’: the investigation into the differences of a justified belief versus its opinion."
Ideological diversionism
After Raul Castro's speech in 1972, many State intellectuals conceptualized and redefined the term of ideological diversionism as a concept to put into use in the "struggle" against imperialist heterodox social norms. In 1974, one of Cuba most important Marxist cultural critics, Jose Antonio Portuondo, delivered the lecture "Martí y el Diversionismo Ideologico", where he extended Castro's theoretical argument by offering a national genealogy of the concept, tracing it to the history of patriot and national independence martyr José Martí [3]. According to Portuondo, it was Jose Marti, a nationalist and exiled Cuban, well before Raul Castro, who first attacked "ideological diversionism" as a way to unmask those who fought against independence and in favor of the division within nationalist forces of the nation. In Portuondo's reading, Martí becomes the symbolic figure in which ideological diversionism is neutralized and contained, since there is never a possibility to diverge from what is in the interest of the Nation.
Ideocracy
Ideocracy (a portmanteau word combining "ideology" and "kratos", Greek for "power") is "governance of a state according to the principles of a particular (political) ideology; a state or country governed in this way". It is government based on a monistic ideology — as distinct from an authoritarian state which is characterized by strong central power and limited political freedoms. An ideocratic state can either be totalitarian—citizens being forced to follow an ideology—or populist (citizens voluntarily following an ideology).
The Liberation of Theology
Ideologies rely on their reasons and arguments to support it. Faith attempts to convince people that they hold absolute values. Segundo states that to be logically consistent to his deductions, he must say that faith does not provide him with absolute truth. Rather, through the process of historical encounters with the objective font of absolute truth, bound with a changing context humans came to recognize ideologies. “Through the process people learned how to learn with the help of ideologies.”. So Jesus has two natures, one human and one divine. “While faith certainly is not an ideology, it has sense and meaning only insofar as it serves as the foundation stone for ideology.”
Scientology (disambiguation)
The English-language term "Scientology" originated with philologist Allen Upward, who coined the term in 1907 in his book The New Word.
This reference is cited to be a use of the word to ridicule pseudoscientific theories in the book A Piece of Blue Sky by Jon Atack.
"...unhappily scientology is as often mistaken for science as theology is for worship." [7] https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Scientologie,_Wissenschaft_von_der_Beschaffenheit_und_der_Tauglichkeit_des_Wissens
Religious studies
Phenomenology is "arguably the most influential approach to the study of religion in the twentieth century." (Partridge) The term is first found in the title of the work of the influential philosopher of German Idealism, Georg Wilhelm Friedrich Hegel, entitled The Phenomenology of Spirit. Phenomenology had been practiced long before its being made explicit as a philosophical method by Edmund Husserl, who is considered to be its founder. In the context of Phenomenology of religion however, the term was first used by Pierre Daniel Chantepie de la Saussaye in his work "Lehrbuch der Religiongeschichte" (1887). Chantepie's phenomenology catalogued observable characteristics of religion much like a zoologist would categorize animals or an entomologist would categorize insects.
The End of Ideology
The End of Ideology: On the Exhaustion of Political Ideas in the Fifties is a collection of essays published in 1960 by Daniel Bell, who described himself as a "socialist in economics, a liberal in politics, and a conservative in culture". He suggests that the older, grand-humanistic ideologies derived from the nineteenth and early twentieth centuries had been exhausted, and that new, more parochial ideologies would soon arise. He argues that political ideology has become irrelevant among "sensible" people, and that the polity of the future would be driven by piecemeal technological adjustments of the extant system.
Partisan (politics)
The term was coined by Vladimir Lenin in 1895, responding to Peter Struve, to counter what he considered to be the futility of objectivity in political economic analysis.
Class interests and material conditions of existence determine ideology, and thus, in a Marxist-Leninist view, true objectivity (in terms of non-partisanship) is not possible in a society of antagonistic classes. Marxists, in Lenin's view, should openly acknowledge their partisanship on the side of proletarian revolution. Bourgeois emphasis on the normative goal of objectivity is thus considered to be delusional. In this sense, "partiinost"' is a universal and inevitable element of political and ideological life, but its presence is not always acknowledged, or is often flatly denied, by the ruling class.
Ideology
Louis Althusser proposed both spiritual and materialistic conception of ideology, which made use of a special type of discourse: the lacunar discourse. A number of propositions, which are never untrue, suggest a number of other propositions, which are. In this way, the essence of the lacunar discourse is what is "not" told (but is suggested).
Stephen Pearl Andrews
Andrews was one of the first to use the word "scientology". The word is defined as a neologism in his 1871 book "The Primary Synopsis of Universology and Alwato: The New Scientific Universal Language". In the 1870s Andrews promoted Joseph Rodes Buchanan's Psychometry besides his own Universology predicting that a priori derived knowledge would supersede empirical science as exact science. Andrews was also considered a leader in the religious movement of Spiritualism. The Anarchist Rudolf Rocker called Andrews a significant exponent of Libertarian Socialism in America.
Iridology
The first use of the word "Augendiagnostik" ("eye diagnosis", loosely translated as "iridology") began with Ignaz von Peczely, a 19th-century Hungarian physician who is recognised as its founding father. The most common story is that he got the idea for this diagnostic tool after seeing similar streaks in the eyes of a man he was treating for a broken leg and the eyes of an owl whose leg von Peczely had broken many years before. At the First International Iridological Congress, Ignaz von Peczely's nephew, August von Peczely, dismissed this myth as apocryphal, and maintained that such claims were irreproducible.
Ideological diversionism
From an analysis of the politics of memory, many Cubans still remember the usages of ideological diversionism in everyday life, such as in schools, the street, the police, and the televised speeches of Fidel Castro. When asked to a 58-year-old Cuban from Miami accused and imprisoned for ideological diversionism, he remembered: "Yo claro que recuerdo el uso del término "diversionismo ideológico", era una palabra que se utilizaba para tildar a la gente que le gustaban las cosas del extranjero; ya sean zapatos caros, la música rock, o que incluso recibía cartas de sus familiares exiliados. Diversionista también era todo aquel que no simpatizaba y ni creía en los valores de la Revolución, y por eso sentía fuera de aquella sociedad. An otros le hacían actos de repudio, como tirarle huevos" [12]. Not only are testimonies alive in the living memory of Cubans within and outside the island, but in recent cultural production the term has also repapered. For instance, the punk band "Porno Para Ricardo", has included the term in many of their lyrics, and the frontman of the band, Gorki Águila, sometimes comes out in the stage wearing a T-shirt that reads "Viva el diversionismo Ideologico!" ("Hurray for ideological diversionism!"), a public provocation that today has lost all its radical intentions in contemporary Cuba. In New York, the Cuban poet Alexis Romay has recently published a book, Diversionismo Ideologico, where he writes about the political and social realities of Cubans of both shores through décima poems [13]. While, the young Cuban visual artist Hamlet Lavastida has worked through many of his pieces, the "ideological diversionism speech" and many of the political texts that were instrumental to the making of a new revolutionary subject after the Cuban Revolution.