What is the origin of the word "epistemic"?
Epistemology
The word "epistemology" is derived from the ancient Greek "epistēmē" meaning "knowledge" and the suffix "-logy", meaning "logical discourse" (derived from the Greek word "logos" meaning "discourse"). It is analogue to the German "Wissenschaftslehre" (literally, theory of science) which was introduced by philosophers Johann Fichte and Bernard Bolzano in the late 18th century. The word first appeared in English in 1847 as a translation of the German in New York's "Eclectic Magazine" review of a philosophical novel by German author Jean Paul:
Philomath
In a philosophical dialogue, King James first penned the character Philomathes to debate on arguments of whether the ancient religious concepts of witchcraft should be punished in a politically fueled Christian society. The arguments King James poses through the character Epistemon are based on concepts of theological reasoning regarding society's belief as his opponent, Philomathes, takes a philosophical stance on society's legal aspects but sought to obtain the knowledge of Epistemon. This philosophical approach signified a philomath seeking to obtain greater knowledge through epistemology. The dialogue was used by King James to educate society on various concepts including the history and etymology of the subjects debated.
Alethic modality
Alethic modality is often associated with epistemic modality in research, and it has been questioned whether this modality should be considered distinct from epistemic modality which denotes the speaker's evaluation or judgment of the truth. The criticism states that there is no real difference between "the truth in the world" (alethic) and "the truth in an individual's mind" (epistemic). An investigation has not found a single language in which alethic and epistemic modalities would be formally distinguished, for example by the means of a grammatical mood. In such a language, "A circle can't be square", "can't be" would be expressed by an alethic mood, whereas for "He can't be that wealthy", "can't be" would be expressed by an epistemic mood. As we can see, this is not a distinction drawn in English grammar.
Ephectics
Ephectic comes from the Ancient Greek ἐφεκτικός ("ephektikos"), which itself dervives from the verb ἐπέχειν ("epechein"), meaning to hold back.
Index of epistemology articles
– Eastern epistemology
– Ecology of contexts
– Edgar Morin
– Editology
– Edmund Gettier
– Educology
– Egocentric predicament
– Elephant test
– Emergence
– Empirical evidence
– Empirical method
– Empirical relationship
– Empirical research
– Empiricism
– Endoxa
– Enneads
– Epilogism
– Episteme
– Epistemic closure
– Epistemic commitment
– Epistemic community
– Epistemic conservatism
– Epistemic feedback
– Epistemic minimalism
– Epistemic possibility
– Epistemic theories of truth
– Epistemic theory of miracles
– Epistemic virtue
– Epistemicism
– Epistemocracy
– Epistemological anarchism
– Epistemological idealism
– Epistemological particularism
– Epistemological pluralism
– Epistemological psychology
– Epistemological realism
– Epistemological rupture
– Epistemological solipsism
– Epistemology
– Epoché
– Eristic
– Ernst von Glasersfeld
– Eureka effect
– Everett W. Hall
– Evidence
– Evidentialism
– Evil demon
– Evolutionary argument against naturalism
– Evolutionary epistemology
– Exclusion principle (philosophy)
– Existential phenomenology
– Exoteric
– Expectation (epistemic)
– Experience
– Experiential knowledge
– Experientialism
– Externism
– Eyewitness testimony
Classics
The English word "philosophy" comes from the Greek word φιλοσοφία, meaning "love of wisdom", probably coined by Pythagoras. Along with the word itself, the discipline of philosophy as we know it today has its roots in ancient Greek thought, and according to Martin West "philosophy as we understand it is a Greek creation". Ancient philosophy was traditionally divided into three branches: logic, physics, and ethics. However, not all of the works of ancient philosophers fit neatly into one of these three branches. For instance, Aristotle's "Rhetoric" and "Poetics" have been traditionally classified in the West as "ethics", but in the Arabic world were grouped with logic; in reality, they do not fit neatly into either category.
Etymologiae
Book X is a word-list of nouns and adjectives, together with supposed etymologies for them. For example, the letter 'D' begins with the word for master ("Dominus"), as he is the head of a household ("Domus"); the adjective docile ("docilis") is derived by Isidore from the verb for "to teach" ("docere"), because docile people are able to learn; and the word for abominable ("Nefarius") is explained as being not worth the grain called spelt ("Far").
Eclectic medicine
The term was coined by Constantine Samuel Rafinesque (1784–1841), a botanist and Transylvania University professor who had studied Native American use of medicinal plants, wrote and lectured extensively on herbal medicine, and advised patients and sold remedies by mail. Rafinesque used the word "eclectic" to refer to those physicians who employed whatever was found to be beneficial to their patients (eclectic being derived from the Greek word "eklego", meaning "to choose from").
Epideictic
The term's root has to do with display or show ("deixis"). It is a literary or rhetorical term from the Greek (ἐπιδεικτικός). It is generally pronounced or . Another English form, now less common, is "epidictic" .
Bistek
Bistek (Spanish: "bistec") or Bistec is a Spanish loan word derived from the English words "beef steak" abbreviated.
Philosophy
Epistemology is the study of knowledge (Greek episteme). Epistemologists study the putative sources of knowledge, including intuition, a priori reason, memory, perceptual knowledge, self-knowledge and testimony. They also ask: What is truth? Is knowledge justified true belief? Are any beliefs justified? Putative knowledge includes propositional knowledge (knowledge that something is the case), know-how (knowledge of how to do something) and acquaintance (familiarity with someone or something). Epistemologists examine these and ask whether knowledge is really possible.
Encyclopedia
The word "encyclopedia" comes from the Koine Greek , transliterated "enkyklios paideia", meaning "general education" from "enkyklios" (ἐγκύκλιος), meaning "circular, recurrent, required regularly, general" and "paideia" (παιδεία), meaning "education, rearing of a child"; together, the phrase literally translates as "complete instruction" or "complete knowledge". However, the two separate words were reduced to a single word due to a scribal error by copyists of a Latin manuscript edition of Quintillian in 1470. The copyists took this phrase to be a single Greek word, "enkyklopaidia", with the same meaning, and this spurious Greek word became the New Latin word "encyclopaedia", which in turn came into English. Because of this compounded word, fifteenth century readers and since have often, and incorrectly, thought that the Roman authors Quintillian and Pliny described an ancient genre.
Epistemics
Epistemics is to be distinguished from epistemology in that epistemology is the philosophical theory of knowledge, whereas epistemics signifies the scientific study of knowledge. Epistemics is also compared to Cognitive Science.
Epistemic community
An epistemic community is a network of knowledge-based experts who help decision-makers to define the problems they face, identify various policy solutions and assess the policy outcomes. The definitive conceptual framework of an epistemic community is widely accepted as that of Peter M. Haas. He describes them as 
"...a network of professionals with recognised expertise and competence in a particular domain and an authoritative claim to policy relevant knowledge within that domain or issue-area."
Epoché
Epoché (ἐποχή "epokhē", "suspension") is an ancient Greek term typically translated as "suspension of judgment" but also as "withholding of assent". In its philosophical usage "epoché" describes the state where all judgments about non-evident matters are suspended in order to induce a state of ataraxia (freedom from worry and anxiety). This concept was developed by the Pyrrhonist school of philosophy and was also employed in Academic Skepticism.
Christianity in the 12th century
Scholasticism comes from the Latin word "scholasticus" meaning "that [which] belongs to the school"; it was a method of learning taught by the academics (or "schoolmen") of medieval universities c.1100–1500. Scholasticism originally began to reconcile the philosophy of the ancient classical philosophers with medieval Christian theology. It is not a philosophy or theology in itself but a tool and method for learning which puts emphasis on dialectical reasoning. The primary purpose of scholasticism was to find the answer to a question or resolve a contradiction. It is most well known in its application in medieval theology but was eventually applied to classical philosophy and many other fields of study.
Earwig
The scientific name for the order, "Dermaptera", is Greek in origin, stemming from the words "derma", meaning skin, and "pteron" (plural "ptera"), wing. It was coined by Charles De Geer in 1773. The common term, "earwig," is derived from the Old English "," which means "ear", and "," which means "insect", or literally, "beetle". Entomologists suggest that the origin of the name is a reference to the appearance of the hindwings, which are unique and distinctive among insects, and resemble a human ear when unfolded. The name is more popularly thought to be related to the old wives' tale that earwigs burrowed into the brains of humans through the ear and laid their eggs there. Earwigs are not known to purposefully climb into ear canals, but there have been anecdotal reports of earwigs being found in the ear.
Epistemic community
From this view, an epistemic community may be seen as a group of people who do not have any specific history together, but search for a common idea of home as if forming an intentional community. For example, an epistemic community can be found in a network of professionals from a wide variety of disciplines and backgrounds.
Epistemic virtue
The epistemic virtues, as identified by virtue epistemologists, reflect their contention that belief is an ethical process, and thus susceptible to the intellectual virtue or vice of one's own life and personal experiences. Some epistemic virtues have been identified by W. Jay Wood, based on research into the medieval tradition.
Epistemic injustice
Other scholars have expanded what the term epistemic injustice includes. These contributions have included naming kinds of epistemic injustice such as epistemic oppression , epistemic exploitation , silencing as testimonial quieting and as testimonial smothering , contributory injustice , distributive epistemic injustice , and epistemic trust injustice.  Developments in the literature on epistemic injustice has also included José Medina's push for an account that incorporates more voices and pays attention to context and the relationships at play , as well as Elizabeth S. Anderson's argument for looking more closely at structural causes and structural remedies of epistemic injustice . A closely related literature on epistemologies of ignorance has also been developing, which has included the identification of overlapping concepts such as white ignorance and willful hermeneutical ignorance.
Daemonologie
The philosophical arguments King James poses through the character Epistemon are based on concepts of theological reasoning regarding society's belief as his opponent, Philomathes, takes a philosophical stance on society's legal aspects but sought to obtain the knowledge of Epistemon. This philosophical approach signified as a philomath seeking to obtain greater knowledge through epistemology, a term that was later coined by James Frederick Ferrier in 1854.
Medieval etymology
Etymology is the study of the origins of words. Before the beginnings of large-scale modern lexicography in the 16th century and the development of the comparative method in the 18th, a scientific etymology as modern linguistics understand it was not possible. However, grammarians had always speculated about the origins of words. There are many examples of etymology in the Bible, for example, and in the works of classical writers. In cases where the history of the words was simple, such speculations have sometimes proved correct in the light of modern scholarship, but generally they were based on superficial similarities.
Epistemicism
Epistemicism is a position about vagueness in the philosophy of language or metaphysics, according to which there are facts about the boundaries of a vague predicate which we cannot possibly discover. Given a vague predicate, such as 'is thin' or 'is bald', epistemicists hold that there is some sharp cutoff, dividing cases where a person, for example, is thin from those in which they are not. Epistemicism gets its name because it holds that there is no semantic indeterminacy present in vague terms, only epistemic uncertainty.
Epistemic feedback
The term "epistemic feedback" is a form of feedback which refers to an interplay between what is being observed (or measured) and the result of the observation.
The concept can apply to a process to obtain information, where the process itself changes the information when being obtained. For example, instead of quietly asking customers for their opinions about food in a restaurant, making an announcement about food quality, as being tested in a survey, could cause cooks to focus on producing high-quality results. The concept can also apply to changing the method of observation, rather than affecting the data. For example, if after asking several customers about food, they noted the food as generally good or fair, then the questions might be changed to ask more specifically which food items were most/least liked. Hence, the interplay can alter either the observations, or the method of observation, or both.
Modal logic
Epistemic modalities (from the Greek "episteme", knowledge), deal with the "certainty" of sentences. The □ operator is translated as "x knows that…", and the ◇ operator is translated as "For all x knows, it may be true that…" In ordinary speech both metaphysical and epistemic modalities are often expressed in similar words; the following contrasts may help:
Episteme
The French philosopher Michel Foucault used the term "épistémè" in a specialized sense in his work "The Order of Things" to mean the historical, but non-temporal, "a priori" which grounds knowledge and its discourses and thus represents the condition of their possibility within a particular epoch.
Philosophy of education
Jean Piaget described himself as an epistemologist, interested in the process of the qualitative development of knowledge. As he says in the introduction of his book "Genetic Epistemology" (): ""What the genetic epistemology proposes is discovering the roots of the different varieties of knowledge, since its elementary forms, following to the next levels, including also the scientific knowledge.""
Epistemology
While these distinctions are not explicit in English, they are defined explicitly in other languages (N.B. some languages related to English have been said to retain these verbs, e.g. Scots: and ). In French, Portuguese, Spanish, German and Dutch 'to know (a person)' is translated using , , and (both German and Dutch) respectively, whereas 'to know (how to do something)' is translated using , (both Portuguese and Spanish), , and . Modern Greek has the verbs () and (). Italian has the verbs and and the nouns for 'knowledge' are and . German has the verbs and ; the former implies knowing a fact, the latter knowing in the sense of being acquainted with and having a working knowledge of; there is also a noun derived from , namely , which has been said to imply knowledge in the form of recognition or acknowledgment. The verb itself implies a process: you have to go from one state to another, from a state of "not-" to a state of true . This verb seems the most appropriate in terms of describing the "episteme" in one of the modern European languages, hence the German name "". The theoretical interpretation and significance of these linguistic issues remains controversial.
Mark Forsyth
While "The Etymologicon" falls into the category of edutainment, the examples Forsyth includes in the book are well researched and supported by evidence. His goal was to include as much scholarly information as "lightly" as possible. Forsyth researches words and phrases as far back to their original sources as he can find. "Often, the joy of the research," he said in a "Chicago Tribune" interview, "is finding examples of the original usages that have been lost for centuries. For example, humble pie used to be umble pie because the umbles were the innards of a deer (so it was the poor man's equivalent of venison pie). I actually found a recipe book from 1727 deep in the bowels of the British Library that gave instructions on how to make it. So I did. And it was delicious."
Epicenter
The word is derived from the New Latin noun "epicentrum", the latinisation of the ancient Greek adjective ἐπίκεντρος ("epikentros"), "occupying a cardinal point, situated on a centre", from ἐπί ("epi") "on, upon, at" and κέντρον ("kentron") "centre". The term was coined by the Irish seismologist Robert Mallet.
Gimmick
The origin of the term, "gimmick", is uncertain. Etymologists suggest that the term emerged in the United States in the early twentieth century. The "Oxford Dictionary" suggests that it may have originally been a slang term for something that a con artist or magician manipulated to make appearances different from reality and gradually changed its meaning to refer to any ‘piece of magicians' apparatus’. The word itself may be an approximate anagram of the word magic. Another possible origin is that it may have come into use among the gaming tables, where it came to refer to "a device used for making a fair game crooked". The term first appeared in American newspapers in the 1910s and 1920s.
Epistemics
Epistemics is a term coined in 1969 by the University of Edinburgh with the foundation of its School of Epistemics.
Dynamic epistemic logic
As a combination of dynamic logic and epistemic logic, dynamic epistemic logic is a young field of research. It really started in 1989 with Plaza’s logic of public announcement. Independently, Gerbrandy and Groeneveld proposed a system dealing moreover with private announcement and that was inspired by the work of Veltman. Another system was proposed by van Ditmarsch whose main inspiration was the Cluedo game. But the most influential and original system was the system proposed by Baltag, Moss and Solecki. This system can deal with all the types of situations studied in the works above and its underlying methodology is conceptually grounded. We will present in this entry some of its basic ideas.
Etymology
In linguistics, the term "etymon" refers to a word or morpheme (e.g., stem or root) from which a later word derives. For example, the Latin word "candidus", which means "white", is the etymon of English "candid".
Epistemic Injustice
Epistemic injustice refers to unfairness due to aspects of knowledge (the domain of epistemology), how it is communicated, and how it is understood. The term was coined by Miranda Fricker in 2007, but its meaning has since evolved , and the concept's origins can be traced to discussions about oppression, power and knowledge from long before the term was coined .
Dynamic epistemic logic
Dynamic epistemic logic (DEL) is a logical framework dealing with knowledge and information change. Typically, DEL focuses on situations involving multiple agents and studies how their knowledge changes when events occur. These events can change factual properties of the actual world (they are called "ontic events"): for example a red card is painted in blue. They can also bring about changes of knowledge without changing factual properties of the world (they are called "epistemic events"): for example a card is revealed publicly (or privately) to be red. Originally, DEL focused on epistemic events. We only present in this entry some of the basic ideas of the original DEL framework; more details about DEL in general can be found in the references.
Ergodic literature
Ergodic literature is a term coined by Espen J. Aarseth in his book "Cybertext—Perspectives on Ergodic Literature", and is derived from the Greek words "ergon", meaning "work", and "hodos", meaning "path". Aarseth's book contains the most commonly cited definition:
Etymology
The study of etymology in Germanic philology was introduced by Rasmus Christian Rask in the early 19th century and elevated to a high standard with the "German Dictionary" of the Brothers Grimm. The successes of the comparative approach culminated in the Neogrammarian school of the late 19th century. Still in the 19th century, German philosopher Friedrich Nietzsche used etymological strategies (principally and most famously in "On the Genealogy of Morals," but also elsewhere) to argue that moral values have definite historical (specifically, cultural) origins where modulations in meaning regarding certain concepts (such as "good" and "evil") show how these ideas had changed over time—according to which value-system appropriated them. This strategy gained popularity in the 20th century, and philosophers, such as Jacques Derrida, have used etymologies to indicate former meanings of words to de-center the "violent hierarchies" of Western philosophy.
History of Christian theology
Scholasticism comes from the Latin word "scholasticus", which means "that [which] belongs to the school", and was a method of learning taught by the academics (or "schoolmen") of medieval universities c. 1100–1500. Scholasticism originally began to reconcile the philosophy of the ancient classical philosophers with medieval Christian theology. It is not a philosophy or theology in itself, but a tool and method for learning which puts emphasis on dialectical reasoning. The primary purpose of scholasticism was to find the answer to a question or resolve a contradiction. It is best known in its application in medieval theology, but was eventually applied to classical philosophy and many other fields of study.
History of encyclopedias
The term encyclopaedia was coined by 15th century humanists who misread copies of their texts of Pliny and Quintilian, and combined the two Greek words ""enkyklios paideia"" into one word. The phrase "enkyklios paideia" (ἐγκύκλιος παιδεία) was used by Plutarch and the Latin word Enciclopedia came from him.The first work titled in this way was the "Encyclopedia orbisque doctrinarum, hoc est omnium artium, scientiarum, ipsius philosophiae index ac divisio" written by Johannes Aventinus in 1517.
Epistemic democracy
Epistemic democracy is the "doctrine of the wisdom of the multitude."
Empiricism
In philosophy, empiricism is a theory that states that knowledge comes only or primarily from sensory experience. It is one of several views of epistemology, the study of human knowledge, along with rationalism and skepticism. Empiricism emphasises the role of empirical evidence in the formation of ideas, rather than innate ideas or traditions. However, empiricists may argue that traditions (or customs) arise due to relations of previous sense experiences.
Index of epistemology articles
Epistemology (from Greek ἐπιστήμη – "episteme"-, "knowledge, science" and λόγος, "logos") or theory of knowledge is the branch of philosophy concerned with the nature and scope (limitations) of knowledge. It addresses the questions "What is knowledge?", "How is knowledge acquired?", "What do people know?", "How do we know what we know?", and "Why do we know what we know?". Much of the debate in this field has focused on analyzing the nature of knowledge and how it relates to similar notions such as truth, belief, and justification. It also deals with the means of production of knowledge, as well as skepticism about different knowledge claims.
Echomimetic
Echomimetic is an adjective that is best explained in English by the term "onomatopoeic". This is derived from onomatopoeia, which is used in philology and literature and in the explanation of the origin of words in dictionaries. In modern Greek lexicography, the term onomatopoeia is virtually non-existent and the words of which the etymology it describes are almost always designated as echomimetic. However, the "echo" of echomimetic is different from the "echo" of echolalia. The "echo" of echolalia comes from Greek "ἠχώ", which is the source for the modern English word echo, the two words being synonymous; while the "echo" of echomimetic comes from Greek "ἦχος" which means "sound". Mimetic comes from Greek "μιμητικός", meaning "imitating". In German philology the term "lautmalend" is used instead of echomimetic or onomatopoeic. It derives from German "Laut", "sound" and "malen" "to paint" (as in art). The word "Echomimie" in German designates a psychiatric phenomenon akin to echolalia where gestures and grimaces substitute for the voice. In French, the word "onomatopée" is used for onomatopoeia. Examples of echomimetic words in English are "bow wow", "miaow", "squeak", "hoo wee", and "squeal".
Epistemic community
As discussed in Peter M. Haas's definitive text, an epistemic community is made up of a diverse range of academic and professional experts, who are allied on the basis of four unifying characteristics:Thus, when viewed as an epistemic community, the overall enterprise of the expert members emerges as the product of a combination of shared beliefs and more subtle conformity pressures, rather than a direct drive for concurrence (Michael J. Mazarr). Epistemic communities also have a "normative component" meaning the end goal is always for the betterment of society, rather than self gain of the community itself (Peter M. Haas).
Epistemicism
Epistemicism was historically considered an untenable position, since it requires vague terms to possess extremely specific conditions of application. Since the publication of Timothy Williamson's "Vagueness", which defended the view, it has been taken seriously by many philosophers working in the area.
Marc Jean-Bernard
Epistemic Perspective
Eschatology
The word arises from the Greek "eschatos" meaning "last" and "-logy" meaning "the study of", and first appeared in English around 1844. The "Oxford English Dictionary" defines eschatology as "the part of theology concerned with death, judgment, and the final destiny of the soul and of humankind".
Epistemic community
Some theorists argue that an epistemic community may consist of those who accept one version of a story, or one version of validating a story. Michel Foucault referred more elaborately to mathesis as a rigorous episteme suitable for enabling cohesion of a discourse and thus uniting a community of its followers. In philosophy of science and systems science the process of forming a self-maintaining epistemic community is sometimes called a mindset. In politics, a tendency or faction is usually described in very similar terms.
Epideictic
The philologist Ernst Curtius provides an account of its history, and many examples, in "European Literature and the Latin Middle Ages". Praise and blame were "reduced" to praise by Aristotle, he wrote; and recently another author called it a "blameless genre". He and Lockwood seem to say that what was in the past called rhetoric was later called literature. Curtius believed that misinterpretations of medieval literature occur because so much of it is epideictic, and the epideictic is so alien to us today. During the Middle Ages it became a "school subject" as the sites for political activity diminished in the West, and as the centuries went on the word "praise" came to mean that which was written. During this period literature (more specifically histories, biographies, autobiographies, geographies) were called praise(s).
Peripatetic school
The term "Peripatetic" is a transliteration of the ancient Greek word "περιπατητικός" ("peripatêtikos"), which means "of walking" or "given to walking about". The Peripatetic school, founded by Aristotle, was actually known simply as the "Peripatos". Aristotle's school came to be so named because of the "peripatoi" ("colonnades" or "covered walkways") of the Lyceum where the members met. The legend that the name came from Aristotle's alleged habit of walking while lecturing may have started with Hermippus of Smyrna.
Epistemocracy
However the term had already been used long before this, and Taleb's usage has not caught on. Most uses of the word are unrelated or even opposite to this. For instance in reference to communism: "Maoism, like the Marxist- Leninist system upon which it modeled itself, was an `epistemocracy,' rule by those possessed of that infallible wisdom embodied in the `universal truth of Marxism'" Or theocracy: "The model for this concentration of knowledge in the hands of a single group is the epistemocracy of the Old Testament priests..."
Pisco
This claim is disputed by Chilean linguist Mario Ferreccio Podesta, who supports the former Real Academia Española etymology according to which "pisco" was originally a word for a mud container. However, the Real Academia Española later supported Lenz's theory, and underlines the Quechua origin.
Epistemic community
In international relations and political science, an epistemic community can also be referred to as a global network of knowledge-based professionals in scientific and technological areas that often affect policy decisions.
Humphry Osmond
Humphry Osmond first proposed the term "psychedelic" at a meeting of the New York Academy of Sciences in 1956. He said the word meant "mind manifesting" (from "mind", ψυχή (psyche), and "manifest", δήλος (delos)) and called it "clear, euphonious and uncontaminated by other associations." Huxley had sent Osmond a rhyme containing his own suggested invented word: ""To make this trivial world sublime, take half a gram of phanerothyme"" (θυμός (thymos) meaning 'spiritedness' in Ancient Greek.) Osmond countered with ""To fathom Hell or soar angelic, just take a pinch of psychedelic"" (Alternative version: "To fall in Hell or soar angelic / You'll need a pinch of psychedelic.").
Epistemic minimalism
The most famous (or infamous) proponent of epistemic minimalism is Crispin Sartwell (1991). The view has been criticized by many epistemologists, with an influential criticism being delivered by William Lycan (1994).
Epistemocracy
The term epistemocracy has many conflicting uses, generally designating someone of rank having some epistemic property or other. Nassim Nicholas Taleb used it in 2007 to designate a utopian type of society where the leadership possesses epistemic humility. He claims the French writer Michel de Montaigne was a modern epistemocrat. He points out, however, that it is difficult to assert authority on the basis of one's uncertainty; leaders who are assertive, even if they are incorrect, still gather people together.
Empiricism
This idea was later developed in ancient philosophy by the Stoic school. Stoic epistemology generally emphasized that the mind starts blank, but acquires knowledge as the outside world is impressed upon it. The doxographer Aetius summarizes this view as "When a man is born, the Stoics say, he has the commanding part of his soul like a sheet of paper ready for writing upon."
Epistemic modality
Being a sub-type of linguistic modality, epistemic modality can in its turn be classified into a number of sub-types according to various criteria. An original classification of epistemic modality based on the conception of alienated knowledge is given in the work of V. A. Yatsko.Some linguists consider evidentiality (the indication of the source of the information upon which a proposition is based) to be a type of epistemic modality, and oppose it to "judgement modality" as epistemic modality based on the speaker's own judgement. An English example follows:
Encyclopedia
In the sixteenth century there was a level of ambiguity as to how to use this new word. As several titles illustrate, there was not a settled notion about its spelling nor its status as a noun. For example: Jacobus Philomusus's ' (1508); Johannes Aventinus's '; Joachimus Fortius Ringelbergius's ' (1538, 1541); Paul Skalich's ' (1559); Gregor Reisch's ' (1503, retitled Encyclopaedia in 1583); and Samuel Eisenmenger's ' (1585). It is only with Pavao Skalić and his "" (Encyclopaedia, or Knowledge of the World of Disciplines, Basel, 1559) that the term became first recognized as a noun.
Gnosiology
The term is derived from the Ancient Greek words "gnosis" ("knowledge", γνῶσις) and "logos" ("word" or "discourse", λόγος). Linguistically, one might compare it to epistemology, which is derived from the Greek words "episteme" ("certain knowledge") and "logos".
Epistemology
French philosophers then gave the term "épistémologie" a narrower meaning as philosophy of science. E.g., Émile Meyerson opened his "Identity and Reality", written in 1908, with the remark that the word 'is becoming current' as equivalent to 'the philosophy of the sciences.'
Mark Forsyth
The popularity of "Inky Fool" led to Forsyth's first book publishing deal in 2011 with Icon Books. In "The Etymologicon: A Circular Stroll Through the Hidden Connection of The English Language," Forsyth explains the meanings and derivations of well-known words and phrases, and explores the strange connections between words in a stream-of-consciousness fashion. The book's title, originally called "Point Blank Check Mate: The Inky Fool's Book of Word Association", references the poet John Milton who purportedly invented the word "etymologicon" to describe a book containing etymologies. The book's structure, described as whimsical, leads the reader to "unexpected coinages and devious linkages, sexy, learned and satisfyingly obscure." It is, according to reviewer Karin Schimke, "a cursory run through history presented with a wry eye and a peculiar sense of humor." Reviewer Robert McCrum wrote, "Not since "Eats, Shoots & Leaves" has a book about language...attracted so much attention in bookshops, running through successive reprints." "The Etymologicon" was a "Sunday Times" No. 1 Bestseller in January 2012.
Epistemic community (international relations)
Epistemic communities usually aid in issues concerning a technical nature. Normally, they guide decision makers towards the appropriate norms and institutions by framing and institutionalizing the issue-area.
Epistemic communities are also a source of policy innovation. Communities have indirect and direct roles in policy coordination by diffusing ideas and influencing the positions adopted. Policy evolution occurs in four steps: policy innovation, diffusion, selection, and persistence. Through framing the range of political controversy surrounding an issue, defining state interests, and setting standards epistemic communities can define the best solution to a problem. The definition of interest is specially important because there are many different definitions of what is a priority for a government. Intellectual innovations (produced by epistemic communities) are carried by domestic or international organizations (epistemic communities are a part of these organizations) then are selected by political process. Peter M. Haas argued “that epistemic communities help to explain the emergence and character of cooperation at the international level,” (Thomas 1997, 223). The shared interests they represent last more than the disagreements about a specific issue. Epistemic communities create a reality that is hindered by political factors and related considerations. If an epistemic community only acquires power in one country or international body, then its power is a direct effect of that country or body’s power.
Folk etymology
The technical term "folk etymology" refers to a change in the form of a word caused by erroneous popular beliefs about its etymology. The English word is a translation of the German term "Volksetymologie", coined by Ernst Förstemann. Förstemann noted that in addition to scientific etymology based on careful study in philology, there exist scholarly but often unsystematic accounts, as well as popular accounts for the history of linguistic forms. Until academic linguists developed comparative philology and described the laws underlying sound changes, the derivation of words was a matter mostly of guess-work. Speculation about the original form of words in turn feeds back into the development of the word and thus becomes a part of a new etymology.
Christian theology
The "Baptism, Eucharist and Ministry" document of the World Council of Churches, attempting to present the common understanding of the Eucharist on the part of the generality of Christians, describes it as "essentially the sacrament of the gift which God makes to us in Christ through the power of the Holy Spirit", "Thanksgiving to the Father", "Anamnesis or Memorial of Christ", "the sacrament of the unique sacrifice of Christ, who ever lives to make intercession for us", "the sacrament of the body and blood of Christ, the sacrament of his real presence", "Invocation of the Spirit", "Communion of the Faithful", and "Meal of the Kingdom".Eschatology is the study of the end of things, whether the end of an individual life, the end of the age, or the end of the world. Broadly speaking, it is the study of the destiny of man as it is revealed in the Bible, which is the primary source for all Christian eschatology studies.
The word eschatology (pronounced "eskatology") is derived from two Greek words meaning "last" and "study" (ἔσχατος, last; and λογία, lit. discourse).
Alms
Alms (, ) or almsgiving involves giving to others as an act of virtue, either materially or in the sense of providing capabilities (e.g. education) free. It exists in a number of religions and regions. The word, in the modern English language, comes from the Old English "ælmesse", "ælmes", from Late Latin "eleemosyna", from Greek ἐλεημοσύνη "eleēmosynē" ("pity, alms"), from ἐλεήμων, "eleēmōn" ("merciful"), from ἔλεος, "eleos" ("pity").
Episteme
Whereas Kuhn's "paradigm" is an all-encompassing collection of beliefs and assumptions that result in the organization of scientific worldviews and practices, Foucault's "episteme" is not merely confined to science but to a wider range of discourse (all of science itself would fall under the "episteme" of the epoch).
Encyclopediae seu orbis disciplinarum tam sacrarum quam profanarum epistemon
Encyclopediae seu orbis disciplinarum tam sacrarum quam profanarum epistemon is an early encyclopedia written in Latin by Zagreb born philosopher Paul Skalic. It was first published in Basel in 1559 and reprinted in Cologne, Germany in 1571. It is often considered to be the first encyclopedia to use the term "encyclopedia" in its title. This is not to be confused with the first appearance of the word which was disputed by Robert Collison who later reported that the work was poorly written, and that Joachim Sterck van Ringelbergh had used the word "cyclopaedia" to describe his work in 1541.
Dynamic epistemic logic
Epistemic logic is a modal logic. So, what we call an epistemic model formula_73 is just a Kripke model as defined in modal logic. The set formula_74 is a non-empty set whose elements are called "possible worlds" and the "interpretation" formula_75 is a function specifying which propositional facts (such as ‘Ann has the red card’) are true in each of these worlds. The "accessibility relations" formula_76 are binary relations for each agent formula_77; they are intended to capture the uncertainty of each agent (about the actual world and about the other agents' uncertainty). Intuitively, we have formula_78 when the world formula_79 is compatible with agent formula_39’s information in world formula_81 or, in other words, when agent formula_39 considers that world formula_79 might correspond to the world formula_81 (from this standpoint). We abusively write formula_85 for formula_86 and formula_87 denotes the set of worlds formula_88.
Epidemic
The term epidemic derives from a word form attributed to Homer's "Odyssey", which later took its medical meaning from the "," a treatise by Hippocrates. Before Hippocrates, "epidemios", "epidemeo", "epidamos", and other variants had meanings similar to the current definitions of "indigenous" or "endemic." Thucydides' description of the Plague of Athens is considered one of the earliest accounts of a disease epidemic. By the early 17th century, the terms endemic and epidemic referred to contrasting conditions of population-level disease, with the endemic condition at low rates of occurrence and the epidemic condition widespread.
Almanac
The etymology of the word is unclear. It is suggested the word "almanac" derives from a Greek word meaning "calendar". However, that word appears only once in antiquity, by Eusebius who quotes Porphyry as to the Coptic Egyptian use of astrological charts ("almenichiaká"). The earliest almanacs were calendars that included agricultural, astronomical, or meteorological data. But it is highly unlikely Roger Bacon received the word from this etymology: "Notwithstanding the suggestive sound and use of this word (of which however the real form is very uncertain), the difficulties of connecting it historically either with the Spanish Arabic manākh, or with Medieval Latin almanach without Arabic intermediation, seem insurmountable."
Epistemic advantage
Epistemic Advantage is a term used within feminist theory when attempting to acquire knowledge from the individual lives and experiences of different women. The term is used to describe the ways in which women, and other minority groups, are able to have a much clearer understanding of how the power structure works within a given society because they are not members of the dominant group. Uma Narayan, a leading feminist theorist writes about epistemic advantage in her essay entitled, "The Project of Feminist Epistemology: Perspectives From A Nonwestern Feminist". Narayan defines epistemic advantage as "(the oppressed) having knowledge of the practices of both their own contexts and those of their oppressors," ("Feminist Theory Reader", p. 315). As the feminist movement has moved into the 3rd wave, women’s ‘intersecting identities’ have become increasingly important. There has been an acknowledgement that women of different social locations (with respect to race, class, nationality, sexuality, etc.) will have different experiences. Thus these varying perspectives provide different women with ‘advantages’ in understanding their own specific social locations within a given society’s hierarchal power structure. Uma Narayan points out that while it is in the interest of various subordinate groups to have knowledge of the dominant group, the dominant group does not have the same need.
Women of color often have a clearer understanding of how not only the gender hierarchy plays out in their daily lives, but the racial and class hierarchies as well. African-American feminist movements and Mexican-American feminist movements are only a few of the many marginalized groups that have made efforts in discussing their own ‘epistemic advantage’ within American society. The Combahee River Collective wrote in "A Black Feminist Statement" about the particular struggles of African-American women. They write: "We have spent a great deal of energy delving into the cultural and experiential nature of our oppression out of necessity because none of these matters have ever been looked at before. No one has ever mentioned the multilayered text of black women’s lives," ("Feminist Theory Reader",p. 167). Thus, it is African-American women’s experiences from their specific social location that allows them their own epistemic advantage.
Eskimology
Eskimology traces its beginning to the pioneering work of Hans Egede (1745) and David Crantz (1767) in Greenland. Eskimology has traditionally had a particular focus on Greenland studies owing to the long-standing relationship between Denmark and Greenland established in the early 18th century, and the academic discipline of Eskimology is today centered at the University of Copenhagen. The term "Eskimology" was not common until 1967, when a genuine department was established and officially named the "Department of Eskimology". From the late 1960s, Eskimology changed its focus toward increasingly contemporary and global political issues.
Probability interpretations
Subjectivists, also known as Bayesians or followers of epistemic probability, give the notion of probability a subjective status by regarding it as a measure of the 'degree of belief' of the individual assessing the uncertainty of a particular situation. Epistemic or subjective probability is sometimes called credence, as opposed to the term chance for a propensity probability.
Charles Spearman
As time progressed, Spearman increasingly argued that "g" was not, from a psychological point of view, a single ability but composed of two very different abilities which normally worked closely together. These he called "eductive" ability and "reproductive" ability. The former term comes from the Latin root "educere" – which means to "draw out" and thus refers to the ability to make meaning out of confusion. He claimed that to understand these different abilities "in their trenchent contrast, their ubiquitous cooperation, and their genetic interlinkage" would, for the study of "individual differences – and even cognition itself" – be "the very beginning of wisdom."
Institute of Noetic Sciences
The word "noetic" derives from the Greek "nous", meaning "mind or ways of knowing." Writing in "The Huffington Post", the Institute's director of research pointed to philosopher William James' 1902 definition of the word as:
Epistemic injustice
The term epistemic injustice has also been used by Rajeev Bhargava, an Indian political theorist, to describe how colonized groups were wronged when colonizing powers replaced or in some other way negatively impacted the concepts and categories that colonized groups used to understand themselves and the world .    Fricker, Miranda (2007). "Epistemic injustice : power and the ethics of knowing". Oxford: Oxford University Press. ISBN 9780198237907.
Etymology of chemistry
There are two main views on the derivation of the word, which agree in holding that it has an Arabic descent, the prefix "al" being the Arabic article. But according to one, the second part of the word comes from the Greek "χημεία", pouring, infusion, used in connexion with the study of the juices of plants, and thence extended to chemical manipulations in general; this derivation accounts for the old-fashioned spellings "chymist" and "chymistry". The other view traces it to "khem" or "khame", hieroglyph "khmi", which denotes black earth as opposed to barren sand, and occurs in Plutarch as "χημεία"; on this derivation alchemy is explained as meaning the "Egyptian art". The first occurrence of the word is said to be in a treatise of Julius Firmicus, an astrological writer of the 4th century, but the prefix al there must be the addition of a later copyist. In English, Piers Plowman (1362) contains the phrase "experimentis of alconomye", with variants "alkenemye" and " alknamye". The prefix "al" began to be dropped about the middle of the 16th century (further details of which are given below).
Ethology
The term "ethology" derives from the Greek language: ἦθος, "ethos" meaning "character" and , "-logia" meaning "the study of". The term was first popularized by American myrmecologist (a person who studies ants) William Morton Wheeler in 1902.
Evidentiality
Although some linguists have proposed that evidentiality should be considered separately from epistemic modality, other linguists conflate the two. Because of this conflation, some researchers use the term "evidentiality" to refer both to the marking of the knowledge source and the commitment to the truth of the knowledge.
Epistemic theories of truth
The ideal epistemic perspective is the set of "maximally coherent and consistent propositions". A proposition is true if and only if it is a member of this maximally coherent and consistent set of propositions (associated with several German and British 19th century idealists).
Emic and etic
Although emics and etics are sometimes regarded as inherently in conflict and one can be preferred to the exclusion of the other, the complementarity of emic and etic approaches to anthropological research has been widely recognized, especially in the areas of interest concerning the characteristics of human nature as well as the form and function of human social systems.
Emic and etic approaches of understanding behavior and personality fall under the study of cultural anthropology. Cultural anthropology states that people are shaped by their cultures and their subcultures, and we must account for this in the study of personality. One way is looking at things through an emic approach. This approach "is culture specific because it focuses on a single culture and it is understood on its own terms." As explained below, the term "emic" originated from the specific linguistic term "phonemic", from "phoneme", which is a language-specific way of abstracting speech sounds.
When these two approaches are combined, the “richest” view of a culture or society can be understood. On its own, an emic approach would struggle with applying overarching values to a single culture. The etic approach is helpful in enabling researchers to see more than one aspect of one culture, and in applying observations to cultures around the world.
Epistemic modal logic
Epistemic modal logic is a subfield of modal logic that is concerned with reasoning about knowledge. While epistemology has a long philosophical tradition dating back to Ancient Greece, epistemic logic is a much more recent development with applications in many fields, including philosophy, theoretical computer science, artificial intelligence, economics and linguistics. While philosophers since Aristotle have discussed modal logic, and Medieval philosophers such as Avicenna, Ockham, and Duns Scotus developed many of their observations, it was C. I. Lewis who created the first symbolic and systematic approach to the topic, in 1912. It continued to mature as a field, reaching its modern form in 1963 with the work of Kripke.
Dynamic epistemic logic
and so on...
Etiology
An etiological myth, or origin myth, is a myth intended to explain the origins of cult practices, natural phenomena, proper names and the like. For example, the name Delphi and its associated deity, "Apollon Delphinios", are explained in the Homeric Hymn which tells of how Apollo, in the shape of a dolphin ('), propelled Cretans over the seas to make them his priests. While Delphi is actually related to the word ' ("womb"), many etiological myths are similarly based on folk etymology (the term "Amazon", for example). In the "Aeneid" (published circa 17 BC), Virgil claims the descent of Augustus Caesar's Julian clan from the hero Aeneas through his son Ascanius, also called Iulus. The story of Prometheus' sacrifice trick at Mecone in Hesiod's "Theogony" relates how Prometheus tricked Zeus into choosing the bones and fat of the first sacrificial animal rather than the meat to justify why, after a sacrifice, the Greeks offered the bones wrapped in fat to the gods while keeping the meat for themselves. In Ovid's "Pyramus and Thisbe", the origin of the color of mulberries is explained, as the white berries become stained red from the blood gushing forth from their double suicide.
Deductive-nomological model
Natural laws, so called, are statements of humans' observations, thus are epistemological—concerning human knowledge—the "epistemic". Causal mechanisms and structures existing putatively independently of minds exist, or would exist, in the natural world's structure itself, and thus are ontological, the "ontic". Blurring epistemic with ontic—as by incautiously presuming a natural law to refer to a causal mechanism, or to trace structures realistically during unobserved transitions, or to be true regularities always unvarying—tends to generate a "category mistake".
Outline of epistemology
Epistemology or theory of knowledge – branch of philosophy concerned with the nature and scope of knowledge. The term was introduced into English by the Scottish philosopher James Frederick Ferrier (1808–1864). Epistemology asks the questions: "What is knowledge?", "How is knowledge acquired?", and "What do people know?"
Dynamic epistemic logic
Epistemic logic is a modal logic dealing with the notions of knowledge and belief. As a logic, it is concerned with understanding the process of "reasoning" about knowledge and belief: which principles relating the notions of knowledge and belief are intuitively plausible? Like epistemology, it stems from the Greek word formula_1 or ‘episteme’ meaning knowledge. Epistemology is nevertheless more concerned with analyzing the very "nature" and "scope" of knowledge, addressing questions such as “What is the definition of knowledge?” or “How is knowledge acquired?”. In fact, epistemic logic grew out of epistemology in the Middle Ages thanks to the efforts of Burley and Ockham. The formal work, based on modal logic, that inaugurated contemporary research into epistemic logic dates back only to 1962 and is due to Hintikka. It then sparked in the 1960s discussions about the principles of knowledge and belief and many axioms for these notions were proposed and discussed. For example, the interaction axioms formula_2 and formula_3 are often considered to be intuitive principles: if an agent Knows formula_4 then (s)he also Believes formula_4, or if an agent Believes formula_4, then (s)he Knows that (s)he Believes formula_4. More recently, these kinds of philosophical theories were taken up by researchers in economics, artificial intelligence and theoretical computer science where reasoning about knowledge is a central topic. Due to the new setting in which epistemic logic was used, new perspectives and new features such as computability issues were then added to the research agenda of epistemic logic.
Glossary of phytopathology
epinasty
Enzyme
Etymology and history
Epistemocracy
Another use seems to be in relation to modern science or western technocracy: "...the social promotion and political em-powerment of a new class of experimental scientists ... what sociologists of science like Blumenberg call an epistemocracy." Again this is more or less opposite to Taleb's use. However it would be unfair to say that any of these have exactly caught on either. It remains a word used in an ad hoc manner.
Ebonics (word)
Ebonics (a blend of the words "ebony" and "phonics") is a term that was originally intended to refer to the language of all people descended from enslaved Black Africans, particularly in West Africa, the Caribbean, and North America. Since the 1996 controversy over its use by the Oakland School Board, the term "Ebonics" has primarily been used to refer to the sociolect African American English, a dialect distinctively different from Standard American English.
Epistemic modal logic
Many papers were written in the 1950s that spoke of a logic of knowledge in passing, but it was Finnish philosopher von Wright's paper "An Essay in Modal Logic" from 1951 that is seen as a founding document. It was not until 1962 that another Finn, Hintikka, would write "Knowledge and Belief", the first book-length work to suggest using modalities to capture the semantics of knowledge rather than the alethic statements typically discussed in modal logic. This work laid much of the groundwork for the subject, but a great deal of research has taken place since that time. For example, epistemic logic has been combined recently with some ideas from dynamic logic to create dynamic epistemic logic, which can be used to specify and reason about information change and exchange of information in multi-agent systems. The seminal works in this field are by Plaza, Van Benthem, and Baltag, Moss, and Solecki.
Ishtiqaq
Ishtiqaq is the Arabic term for "derivation" or "etymology". It may refer to
Epistemic modal logic
Epistemic logic also deals with belief, not just knowledge. The basic modal operator is usually written "B" instead of "K". In this case though, the knowledge axiom no longer seems right—agents only sometimes believe the truth—so it is usually replaced with the Consistency Axiom, traditionally called D:
Epistemic Injustice
Although the term epistemic injustice was coined in 2007, analysis of the experience of epistemic injustice has been offered by those who experience it for a long time. Vivian May points as far back as the 1800s, to Anna Julia Cooper writing in 1892 about the suppression of Black women's ideas and Sojourner Truth speaking in 1867 about Black women being denied recognition as knowers because they given as much cognitive authority. Pohlhaus Jr. points to Gayatri Chakrovorty Spivak's 1988 "Can the Subaltern Speak?" as another example. In that piece, Spivak describes what she calls epistemic violence occurring when subaltern persons are prevented from speaking for themselves about their own interests because of others claiming to know what those interests are.
Erudition
The word erudition came into Middle English from Latin. A scholar is erudite (Latin "eruditus") when instruction and reading followed by digestion and contemplation have effaced all rudeness ("e- (ex-) + rudis"), that is to say smoothed away all raw, untrained incivility. Common usage has blurred the distinction from "learned" but the two terms are quite different.
Interpretations of quantum mechanics
In philosophy of science, the distinction of knowledge versus reality is termed "epistemic" versus "ontic". A general law is a "regularity" of outcomes (epistemic), whereas a causal mechanism may "regulate" the outcomes (ontic). A phenomenon can receive interpretation either ontic or epistemic. For instance, indeterminism may be attributed to limitations of human observation and perception (epistemic), or may be explained as a real existing "maybe" encoded in the universe (ontic). Confusing the epistemic with the ontic, like if one were to presume that a general law actually "governs" outcomes—and that the statement of a regularity has the role of a causal mechanism—is a category mistake.
Episteme
Kuhn's paradigm shifts are a consequence of a series of conscious decisions made by scientists to pursue a neglected set of questions. Foucault's "episteme" is something like the 'epistemological unconscious' of an era; the resultant configuration of knowledge of a particular "episteme" is, to Foucault, based on a set of primordial, fundamental assumptions that are so basic to the "episteme" that they're experientially "invisible" to the constituents (such as people, organizations, or systems) operating within the "episteme."
Traditional story
An etiological myth, or origin myth, is a myth intended to explain the origins of cult practices, natural phenomena, proper names and the like, or create a mythic history for a place or family. For example, the name Delphi and its associated deity, "Apollon Delphinios", are explained in the Homeric Hymn which tells of how Apollo carried Cretans over the sea in the shape of a dolphin (') to make them his priests. While Delphi is actually related to the word ' ("womb"), many etiological myths are similarly based on folk etymology (the term "Amazon", for example). In the "Aeneid" (published circa 17 BC), Vergil claims the descent of Augustus Caesar's Julian clan from the hero Aeneas through his son Ascanius, also called Iulus. 
The story of Prometheus' sacrifice-trick in Hesiod's "Theogony" relates how Prometheus tricked Zeus into choosing the bones and fat of the first sacrificial animal rather than the meat to justify why, after a sacrifice, the Greeks offered the bones wrapped in fat to the gods while keeping the meat for themselves.