When did Romania sign it's Constitution?
Carol I of Romania
On 29 June–two months after Carol's arrival–the Romanian parliament adopted the 1866 Constitution of Romania, one of the most modern constitutions of its time. Carol signed it into law two days later. Modeled closely on the Constitution of Belgium, it guaranteed private propriety, freedom of speech, total freedom of the press and established separation of powers. This constitution allowed the development and modernization of the Romanian state. In a daring move, the Constitution chose to ignore the nominal suzerainty of the Ottoman Empire, which paved the way towards "de jure" independence.
History of Romania since 1989
"Political" reforms have been based on a new democratic constitution adopted in 1991. The FSN split that year, beginning a period of coalition governments that lasted until 2000, when Iliescu's Social Democratic Party (now the Party of Social Democracy in Romania, PDSR), returned to power and Iliescu again became President, with Adrian Năstase as Prime Minister. This government fell in the 2004 elections amid allegations of corruption, and was succeeded by further unstable coalitions which have been subject to similar allegations.
Parliament of Romania
The historical process of formation of the Parliament of Romania in the modern age strongly boosted the affirmation of national sovereignty, subsequently leading to the Union of the two Principalities, in 1859. Under the dome of the Romanian Parliament, on 9 May 1877, the Declaration of Romania's Independence was read, and, in 1920, the documents of union with Transylvania and Bessarabia under the Treaty of Trianon were read, the formal beginning of Greater Romania.
1923 Constitution of Romania
The constitution had eight titles and 138 articles, of which 76 came in their entirety from its predecessor. It enshrined the principles of popular sovereignty (exercised through representatives), separation of powers in the state, rule of law and decentralisation. Rights and freedoms for all citizens were recognised, regardless of ethnicity, language, religion or social class; the right to own property was guaranteed and, for the first time, the nationalisation of mineral deposits was provided for. The Kingdom of Romania was defined as a “unitary and indivisible national state”, with an inalienable territory. The state guaranteed freedom of expression and assembly, of conscience and of religion, and declared that “as the Romanian Orthodox Church is the religion of the great majority of Romanians it is the dominant church in the Romanian State, while the Greek-Catholic Church has primacy before other faiths”.
Human rights in Romania
Domestic violence is serious problem in Romania. Although Romania has improved its legislative framework in the 21st century, and also ratified the Istanbul Convention in 2016, violence against women occurring in the private sphere remains an issue. Romania was convicted by the ECHR in 2017 for its failure to act.
Flag of the Socialist Republic of Romania
On 30 December 1947, Romania was proclaimed a people's republic and all the kingdom's symbols were outlawed, including the coats of arms and the tricolor flags that showed them. On 8 January 1948, Decree nr. 3 was issued, regarding specifications for the powers of the Presidium of the Romanian People's Republic. At article 7, this provided that the republic's new coat of arms should be “composed of: a tractor, a group of three chimneys against the field of a rising sun, surrounded by bound ears of wheat, tied by a ribbon with the inscription Republica Populară Română and the initials R. P. R. at the end of the ears”. Article 8 dealt with the national flag: “the colors of the Romanian People’s Republic are: blue, yellow and red, arranged vertically, and having in the center of the yellow field the Coat of Arms of the Republic”.
History of Romania
After the defeat to the Russians, the Ottoman Empire restored the Danube ports of Turnu, Giurgiu and Braila to Wallachia and agreed to give up on their commercial monopoly and also recognized freedom of navigation on the Danube, as specified in the Treaty of Adrianople signed in 1829. Alongside with that, the political autonomy of the Romanian principalities grew as their rulers were elected for life by a Community Assembly which was made of boyars, a method used to reduce political instability and Ottoman intervantions. Following the war, Romanian lands became under Russian occupation until 1834 under the governance of General Pavel Kiselyov. During his rule the local boyars enacted the first Romanian constitution.
Armorial of Romania
After the election of Alexandru Ioan Cuza as "Domnitor" of Wallachia and Moldavia, the heraldic symbols of the two countries were united to form the coat of arms of the new state. In 1862, this new state was named "Romania". However, the idea was not new. Most of the Phanariotes used united symbols in their personal coat of arms to show that they held power in both countries. Until 1866, there was no official design of the coat of arms of Romania, although the painter, Carol Popp de Szathmary, created some draft designs.
After 10 May 1866, (when Carol I came to Romania), and the Constitution of 1 June 1866 was founded, the coat of arms of Romania was established. It used concepts found in previous coats of arms. From 1872, the coat of arms represented the Kingdom of Romania. In 1878, when Romania gained independence, the coat of arms was changed again.
United Principalities of Moldavia and Wallachia
On 24 January (O.S.) 1862, the Principality of Moldavia and the Principality of Wallachia formally united to create the Romanian United Principalities, the core of the Romanian nation state. In 1866 a new constitution came into effect, giving the country the name of Romania. The new state remained nominally a vassal of the Ottoman Empire. However, it only acknowledged the suzerainty of the Sublime Porte in a formal way. It had its own flag, anthem, and (from 1867) currency, and conducted its own foreign policy.
Politics of Romania
Romania's 1991 constitution (amended in 2003) proclaims it a democratic and social republic, deriving its sovereignty from the people. According to the constitution, "Human dignity, civic rights and freedoms, the unhindered development of human personality, justice, and political pluralism are supreme and guaranteed values."
LGBT rights in Romania
On 5 June 2013 a Parliamentary Committee for reviewing the Constitution voted to include sexual orientation as a protected ground against discrimination in the new Constitution. The same committee voted, the following day, to change the current marriage law form, which describes marriage as "a consensual union between spouses," to the more restrictive form, describing it "as a union between a man and a woman alone," thus banning same-sex marriage. Faced with a series of backlashes from civil society and domestic and international organizations, such as ACCEPT and Amnesty International, the committee retracted both amendments. Dozens of NGOs protested the move (to retract the Constitutional protection against discrimination on the basis of their sexual orientation) and said "members of the Committee for Constitutional Revision deny the protection for the citizens who most need it" and that "as a Member State of the European Union, it is mandatory for Romania to implement the provisions of Community law in the national legislation."
1938 Constitution of Romania
The 1938 Constitution of Romania was the fundamental law of Romania from the time of its adoption until 1940. It formed the legal basis for the royal dictatorship of King Carol II.
Carol II of Romania
Deciding that Goga had outlived his usefulness, Carol sacked him in favour of Patriarch Elie Cristea, the head of the Romanian Orthodox Church, a man whom Carol knew would command wide respect in a country where the majority of the population was Orthodox. Ten days later, Carol had the constitution recast into a severely authoritarian/corporatist document. The new constitution effectively codified the emergency powers he had held since February and concentrated virtually all governing power in his hands. It turned his government into something approaching absolute monarchy. The new constitution was approved at a referendum in which voting was not secret. Instead, voters were required to appear at their election bureau and verbally state whether they approved the constitution; silence was deemed as a "yes" vote. Under these conditions, an implausible 99.87 percent were reported as having approved the new charter.
Greater Romania
The Treaty of Bucharest (1916) was signed between Romania and the Entente Powers on 4 (Old Style)/17 (New Style) August 1916 in Bucharest. The treaty stipulated the conditions under which Romania agreed to join the war on the side of the Entente, particularly territorial promises in Austria-Hungary. The signatories bound themselves to keep secret the contents of the treaty until a general peace was concluded.
History of the flags of Romania
According to article 101 of the 1948 Constitution, "The flag of the Romanian People’s Republic is composed of the colors: blue, yellow and red, arranged vertically. In the middle is placed the national coat of arms". The 1952 Constitution, at article 103, added a little detail: "The flag of the Romanian People’s Republic has the colors red, yellow and blue, arranged vertically with blue near the lance. In the middle is placed the coat of arms of the Romanian People’s Republic". Neither the colors’ shades nor the flag's proportions were specified. According to provisions of the 1952 Constitution, a five-pointed red star appeared at the upper edge of the coat of arms (itself altered in March 1948), something that was also reflected on flags and official Romanian standards.
1952 Constitution of Romania
The document contained an introductory chapter and ten further chapters containing 105 articles. Romania was proclaimed a "state of working people from the cities and villages" that "was born as a result of the historic victory of the Soviet Union against German fascism and the liberation of Romania by the glorious Red Army, a liberation that empowered the working people, above all the working class led by the Communist Party, to demolish the fascist dictatorship, to destroy the power of the exploiting classes and to build a state of popular democracy, which fully coincides with the interests and hopes of Romania's popular masses". The document provides for the state's independence and sovereignty to be "defended" by the "friendship and alliance with the great Soviet Union". The state's domestic politics were oriented toward "liquidating the exploitation of man by man and the construction of socialism" by strengthening and increasing the socialist sector of the economy and by realising "in consequence a policy of limiting and eliminating capitalist elements". Among the Romanian state's functions were to repress "the classes removed from power" and to defend against external aggression. Through explicit provisions, the state was to have a dominant role not only in the economy, but also in areas such as education and culture. Regarding political institutions, there was no change from the preceding constitution, the Great National Assembly continuing as the supreme organ of state power, while local governing bodies were now known as "popular assemblies" (""). The Romanian Workers' Party was proclaimed "the leading force both of those who work, as well as of the state organs and institutions", at the same time gathering around itself "all organisations of those who work". Once again, citizens' fundamental rights and freedoms were proclaimed, but in practice, these were not respected.
Kingdom of Romania
The Romanian Old Kingdom ( or just "Regat"; or ) is a colloquial term referring to the territory covered by the first independent Romanian nation state, which was composed of the Danubian Principalities — Wallachia and Moldavia. It was achieved when, under the auspices of the Treaty of Paris (1856), the ad hoc Divans of both countries - which were under Imperial Ottoman suzerainty at the time - voted for Alexander Ioan Cuza as their prince, thus achieving a "de facto" unification. The region itself is defined by the result of that political act, followed by the inclusion of Northern Dobruja in 1878, the proclamation of the Kingdom of Romania in 1881, and the annexation of Southern Dobruja in 1913.
Administrative divisions of Romania
In 1913, as a result of the Second Balkan War, Romania acquired Southern Dobruja from Bulgaria, integrating this historical region within Romania's borders until 1940. In 1923 Romania adopted a new Constitution, and in 1927 it uniformized the traditional administrative systems of Transylvania, Bukovina and Bessarabia with that of the Romanian Old Kingdom. County borders were kept largely intact, with only a couple minor adjustments, as a total of 71 județe existed between 1927 and 1938.
Patriarch Miron of Romania
Cristea strongly opposed the idea of a Concordat with the Vatican and the Romanian Orthodox Church issued a statement against it saying that "the treaty subordinates the interests of the country and the sovereignty of the state to a foreign power". The Romanian Senate ratified it anyway on 26 May 1929, and Cristea, as a member of the regency, was forced to sign it. This has led again to discussions about the incompatibility between his two posts and there were discussions on whether Cristea would have resigned rather than sign the Concordat.
History of Romania
Recognized by the Romanian Constitution of 1923 and supported by various laws (education, electoral, etc.), national minorities were represented in Parliament, and several of them created national parties (the Magyars in 1922, the Germans in 1929, the Jews in 1931), although a unique standing of minorities with autonomy on a wide basis, provided for at the assembly of Transylvanian Romanians on 1 December 1918 were not fulfilled.
1923 Constitution of Romania
The 1923 Constitution was abrogated when its February 1938 successor came into force. It was then partly revived after the King Michael Coup of August 23, 1944, and definitively abrogated when Romania became a republic on December 30, 1947. During this latter period, in July 1946, the Senate was abolished—the only significant modification to the document.
Moldavian Soviet Socialist Republic
After the fall of communism in Romania, on April 5, 1991, its president Ion Iliescu, and Soviet President Mikhail Gorbachev signed a political treaty which among other things recognized the Soviet-Romanian border. However, the Parliament of Romania refused to ratify it. Romania and Russia eventually signed and ratified a treaty in 2003, after the independence of Moldova and Ukraine.
Data Retention Directive
The EU directive has been transposed into Romanian law as well, initially as Law 298/2008. However, the Constitutional Court of Romania (CCR) subsequently struck down the law in 2009 as violating constitutional rights. The court held that the transposing act violated the constitutional rights of privacy, of confidentiality in communications, and of free speech. The European Commission has subsequently sued Romania in 2011 for non-implementation, threatening Romania with a fine of 30,000 euros per day. The Romanian parliament passed a new law in 2012, which was signed by president Traian Băsescu in June. The Law 82/2012 has been nicknamed "the Big Brother law" (using the untranslated English expression) by various Romanian non-governmental organisations opposing it, as well as the Romanian media. On 8 July 2014 this law too was declared unconstitutional by the CCR.
Antisemitic laws in Romania
When Romania was formed by the union of Wallachia and Moldavia, Jewish residents did not become citizens of the new state. Prince Alexandru Ioan Cuza announced in 1865 a project which would lead to the "gradual emancipation of the people of Mosaic faith", however, all the plans were canceled as Cuza was deposed the following year. After Cuza was deposed, Article 7 of the 1866 Constitution of Romania did not allow non-Christians to become citizens of the United Principalities of Romania, so Jews could not become citizens unless they converted to Christianity. The change in outlook can be explained by the weakening of the liberalism which led to the 1848 Revolution and its replacement with nationalism.
1938 Romanian constitutional referendum
A constitutional referendum was held in Romania on 24 February 1938 to approve a new constitution. Voting was done by answering yes or no before an election bureau, with silence marked as yes. Voting was compulsory, and the amendments were approved by 99.87% of voters. The voting process has been described as deeply flawed and characterized by widespread intimidation.
King of the Romanians
The kingdom of Romania was a constitutional monarchy for most of its existence with the exception of 1938–1944, during the dictatorships of Carol II (1938–1940) and Ion Antonescu (1940–1944). On 23 August 1944, Michael I restored the last democratic royal Constitution of 1923. However, during his second reign (1940–1947), Michael I reigned mostly as an extraconstitutional king, without a parliamentary vote. Parliament was initially suspended and reinstated only later, in 1946. Michael I was crowned and anointed by the Orthodox Patriarch, Nicodim Munteanu, in the Patriarchal Cathedral of Bucharest, on the day of his second accession, 6 September 1940. However, legally, Michael I could not exercise much authority besides some prerogatives such as being the Supreme Head of the Army and designating a plenipotentiary prime minister "Conducător" ("Leader").
2019 Romanian presidential election
Klaus Iohannis won the last presidential election in 2014 and was sworn in for his first term on 21 December, 2014. According to the Article 83 of the Constitution of Romania, the "term of office of the President of Romania is five years, being exercised from the date the oath was taken," but only for up to two terms. In June 2018, incumbent president Iohannis publicly announced his intention of running for a second term as state president. The electoral calendar for the forthcoming presidential election will be set by the Romanian Government.
Senate of Romania
On 9 May 1877, the Declaration of Romania's independence was read under the dome of the Romanian Parliament.
Coaliția pentru Familie
Under Romanian law, the constitution can be changed after a proposal by the president, the government, a quarter of the members of the Parliament of Romania or at least 500,000 citizens. Parliament must then approve the revision, which must then pass a nationwide referendum. The coalition's efforts to amend the constitution have been ongoing since 2013, when Amnesty International helped defeat a similar amendment. However, it participated in a successful campaign against the introduction of civil partnerships into law. Other proposals presented by the coalition include the taxation of celibacy, the banning of adoptions by single parents and the active discouragement of sexual intercourse between unmarried persons.
2015 Romanian constitutional referendum
A constitutional referendum was scheduled to take place in Romania at the end of 2015. The Constitution amended by USL lawmakers received some criticism, mostly from the opposition party PDL backed by outgoing President Traian Băsescu, who expressed his discontent with some articles that reduce the powers he enjoyed while in office and eliminate the President from the executive power system.
Socialist Republic of Romania
However, Romania joined the United Nations on 14 December 1955 (see United Nations Security Council Resolution 109) as well as the International Monetary Fund and the World Bank in 1972. In July 1980, Romania signed a comprehensive trade agreement with the European Economic Community; which in turn became the European Union in 1993 when Romania joined in 2007.
History of the Jews in Romania
When Brătianu resumed leadership, Romania faced the emerging conflict in the Balkans, and saw its chance to declare independence from Ottoman suzerainty by dispatching its troops on the Russian side in the Russo-Turkish War of 1877–1878. The war was concluded by the Treaty of Berlin (1878), which stipulated (Article 44) that the non-Christians in Romania (including both Jews and Muslims in the newly acquired region of Northern Dobruja) should receive full citizenship. After a prolonged debate at home and diplomatic negotiations abroad, the Romanian government ultimately agreed (1879) to abrogate Article 7 of its constitution. This was, however, reformulated to make procedures very difficult: "the naturalization of aliens not under foreign protection should in every individual case be decided by Parliament" (the action involved, among others, a ten-year term before the applicant was given an evaluation). The gesture was doubled by a show of compliance - 883 Jews, participants in the war, were naturalized in a body by a vote of both chambers.
Constitution of Romania
The new constitution of Communist Romania was adopted in 1948 following the Soviet model, with subsequent variants appearing in 1952 and 1965 (the former "building socialism", the latter announcing the "socialism has won" and notably making the change from a "People's Republic" to a "Socialist Republic"). The Communist regime fell in 1989. Much of the 1965 document was suspended, though portions remained in effect until the present document was adopted in 1991.
Parliament of Romania
The parliamentary history of Romania starts in May 1831 in Wallachia, where a constitutional document was adopted, Regulamentul Organic ("The Organic Statute" or "The Organic Regulation"); less than a year later, in January 1832, this same statute was implemented in Moldavia as well. The organic regulation laid the foundations for the parliamentary institution in the Romanian Principalities.
President of Romania
After the Constitutional Court acknowledges the legality of the election, the Houses of Parliament meet in a joint session. The elected President takes the following oath of office, specified by article 82 of the Constitution:
Elections in Romania
In order to be able to run for the Office of President a candidate must fulfill the following conditions: be a Romanian citizen, be at least 35 years of age (at least on the day of the election), and not have held the office for two terms since 1992, when the 1991 Constitution took effect.
Greater Romania
The concept of ""Greater Romania"" materialized as a geopolitical reality after the First World War. Romania gained control over Bessarabia, Bukovina and Transylvania. The borders established by the treaties concluding the war did not change until 1940. The resulting state, often referred to as "România Mare" or, alternatively, as (roughly translated in English as "Romania Made Whole," or "Entire Romania"), was seen as the 'true', "whole" Romanian state, or, as Tom Gallagher states, the "Holy Grail of Romanian nationalism". Its constitution, proclaimed in 1923, "largely ignored the new ethnic and cultural realities".
History of Romania
Two periods can be identified in Romania between the two World Wars. From 1918 to 1938, Romania was a liberal constitutional monarchy, but one facing the rise of the nationalist, anti-semitic parties, particularly Iron Guard, which won about 15% of the votes in the general elections of 1937. From 1938 to 1944, Romania was a dictatorship. The first dictator was King Carol II, who abolished the parliamentary regime and ruled with his "camarilla".
In 1939, Germany and the Soviet Union signed the Molotov–Ribbentrop Pact, which stipulated, among other things, the Soviet "interest" in Bessarabia. Following the severe territorial losses of 1940 ("see next section"), Carol was forced to abdicate, replaced as king by his son Mihai, but the power was taken by the military dictator Ion Antonescu (initially in conjunction with the Iron Guard). In August 1944, Antonescu was arrested by Mihai.
Greater Romania
The Romanian revolution in 1848 already carried the seeds of the national dream of a unified and united Romania, though the "idea of unification" had been known from earlier works of Naum Ramniceanu (1802) and Ion Budai-Deleanu (1804). The concept owes its life to Dumitru Brătianu, who introduced the term "Greater Romania" in 1852. The first step in re-unifying Romanians was to establish The United Principalities of Moldavia and Wallachia in 1859, which became known as Romania since the 1866 Constitution and turned into a Kingdom in 1881, after gaining independence from the Ottoman Empire. However, before the Austro-Hungarian Compromise, the elite of the Transylvanian Romanians did not support the concept of "Greater Romania", instead they wanted only equality with the other nations in Transylvania. The concept became a political reality when, in 1881, the Romanian National Party of Transylvania gathered Romanians on a common political platform to fight together for Transylvania's autonomy. According to Livezeanu the creation of Greater Romania with ""a unifying concept of nationhood"" started to evolve in the late 1910s. The Word War One played a crucial part in the development of Romanian national consciousness.
Radu Irimescu
As might be expected for an ambassador, Irimescu expressed public support for the royal dictatorship established by King Carol II ("see National Renaissance Front"). For instance, in a speech given at a social event on November 26, 1938, he proclaimed that "the last twenty years of experimentation with the so-called democratic regime has shown that political parties could and would act against public interest", claiming that the new system was based on an idea "of organization, of order against chaos, of a regime of social harmony wherein the source of rights is work and one's fulfillment of one's civic obligations, and not the exploitation of the community for personal interest and rapid enrichment." He lauded the new constitution adopted in 1938, which he said "sets up an equilibrium between liberty and authority...regulates the exercise of [civic] rights for the public good...insures...a disciplined liberty" and "disposes once and for all of partisan politics and libertine democracy." He repeated similar sentiments when the constitution's second anniversary was celebrated on March 3, 1940: "The entire development of Romania in the last two years is wholly the outcome of the new Constitution."
Politics of Romania
Romania has made progress in institutionalizing democratic principles, civil liberties, and respect for human rights since the Romanian Revolution in December 1989. Some present-day Romanian politicians are former members of the Romanian Communist Party. Since membership in the party was a requirement for advancement before 1989, many people joined to get ahead rather than because of ideological conviction; however, the Communist past of some Romanian politicians remains controversial.
Senate of Romania
The Paris Convention of 19 August 1858 promulgated "Statutul Dezvoltător" ("Expanding Statute"), to introduce a bicameral parliament, with an upper house named in Romanian "Corpul Ponderator" ("Moderating Body"). This was later renamed the "Senat". A formal Union of the two principalities came in 1859. On the initiative of Alexandru Ioan Cuza, a plebiscite in 1864 enlarged the principle of national representation.
President of Romania
The office of President was created in 1974, when Communist leader Nicolae Ceaușescu elevated the presidency of the State Council to a full-fledged executive presidency. It gradually took its current form in stages after the Romanian Revolution, culminating with the adoption of Romania's current constitution in 1991.
Flag of the Socialist Republic of Romania
According to article 101 of the 1948 Constitution, “The flag of the Romanian People’s Republic is composed of the colors: blue, yellow and red, arranged vertically. In the middle is placed the national coat of arms”. The 1952 Constitution, at article 103, added a little detail: “The flag of the Romanian People’s Republic has the colors red, yellow and blue, arranged vertically with blue near the lance. In the middle is placed the coat of arms of the Romanian People’s Republic”. Neither the colors’ shades nor the flag's proportions were specified. According to provisions of the 1952 Constitution, a five-pointed red star appeared at the upper edge of the coat of arms (itself altered in March 1948), something that was also reflected on flags and official Romanian standards.
Romanian Old Kingdom
The Romanian Old Kingdom ( or just "Regat"; or ) is a colloquial term referring to the territory covered by the first independent Romanian nation state, which was composed of the Romanian Principalities—Wallachia and Moldavia. It was achieved when, under the auspices of the Treaty of Paris (1856), the "ad hoc" Divans of both countries - which were under Imperial Ottoman suzerainty at the time - voted for Alexander Ioan Cuza as their prince, thus achieving a "de facto" unification under the name of the United Principalities of Moldavia and Wallachia. The region itself is defined by the result of that political act, followed by the Romanian War of Independence and inclusion of Northern Dobruja and the transfer of southern part of Bessarabia to Russia in 1878, the proclamation of the Kingdom of Romania in 1881, and the annexation of Southern Dobruja in 1913.
Armorial of Romania
The Parliament of Romania does not hold a coat of arms, as it does not function as a whole entity. When a law is published in the "Official Gazette of Romania", it is headed by the coat of arms of Romania. The two houses of the Parliament of Romania issue documents that are not laws. These documents bear the coat of arms of the issuing house. The coat of arms of the Senate of Romania is the Coat of arms of Romania surrounded by two olive branches which are tied together with a cloth in the colors of the Flag of Romania. On the yellow section it reads "Senat", and on top of the coat of arms it reads "Romania". The coat of arms of the Chamber of Deputies of Romania reproduces the eagle of the Coat of arms of Romania surrounded by two olive branches tied together with a golden cloth. Beneath the eagle it reads "Camera Deputatilor", and beneath the olive branches it reads "Romania".
Coat of arms of Romania
Since July 11, 2016 the coat of arms has been altered to include the heraldic representation of the Steel Crown of King Carol. A symbol of its royal past and a token for the period during 1881 and 1947 when Romania was de facto and de jure a monarchy, ruled by the Hohenzollern-Sigmaringen house through its Romanian branch, founded by Carol.
Romanian language
The period from 1905 to 1917 was one of increasing linguistic conflict, with the re-awakening of Romanian national consciousness. In 1905 and 1906, the Bessarabian "zemstva" asked for the re-introduction of Romanian in schools as a "compulsory language", and the "liberty to teach in the mother language (Romanian language)". At the same time, Romanian-language newspapers and journals began to appear, such as "Basarabia" (1906), "Viața Basarabiei" (1907), "Moldovanul" (1907), "Luminătorul" (1908), "Cuvînt moldovenesc" (1913), "Glasul Basarabiei" (1913). From 1913, the synod permitted that "the churches in Bessarabia use the Romanian language".
Romanian finally became the official language with the Constitution of 1923.
National Renaissance Front
The new corporatist and authoritarian Constitution of Romania, promulgated on February 20, 1938, proclaimed stately interest to be above individual ones. According to its text, "all Romanians, regardless of their ethnicity and their religious faith" were required to "sacrifice themselves in defending [the country's] integrity, independence and dignity", while it was stipulated that "no one can consider oneself free from civil and military, public or private duties on the grounds of one’s religious faith or any other kind of faith".
Soviet occupation of Romania
The Romanian delegation at the Paris Conference was headed by Minister of Foreign Affairs Gheorghe Tătărescu. The Peace Treaty with Romania was signed on February 10, 1947, in the Salon de l'Horloge of the Ministère des Affaires Étrangères. On the Romanian side, the four signatories were Gheorghe Tătărescu, Lucrețiu Pătrășcanu, Ștefan Voitec, and Dumitru Dămăceanu. The signatories for the Allied powers included United States Secretary of State James F. Byrnes, Soviet Foreign Minister Vyacheslav Molotov, and British Secretary of State for Foreign and Commonwealth Affairs Ernest Bevin.
Parliament of Romania
The Paris Convention of 19 August 1858 and, especially, "Statutul Dezvoltător" ("The Expanding Statute") of that convention (which introduced a bicameral parliament, by founding "Corpul Ponderator", later renamed "Senat"), adopted on the initiative of prince ("Domnitor") Alexandru Ioan Cuza, by means of a plebiscite in 1864, perfected and enlarged the principle of national representation. Under the political regime established by the Paris Convention, the legislative power faced an obvious process of modernization, and the legislative power as National Representation, which operated in accordance with the organization and operation mode of parliaments in Western Europe at that time.
History of Christianity in Romania
The Great Powers recognized Romania's independence in 1880, after Romania's constitution was modified to allow the naturalization of non-Christians. In order to solemnize Romania's independence, in 1882 the Orthodox hierarchy performed the ceremony of blessing the holy oil, a privilege that had thereto been reserved for the ecumenical patriarchs. The new conflict with the patriarch delayed the canonical recognition of the autocephaly of the Romanian Orthodox Church for three years, until 1885.
Civil Code of Romania
The Civil Code of Romania ("Codul civil al României", commonly referred to as "Noul Cod Civil" – the New Civil Code, officially Law no. 287/2009 on the Civil Code) is the basic source of civil law in Romania. It was adopted by Parliament on 17 July 2009 and came into force on 1 October 2011. It replaced the Civil Code of 1865 as well as the Commercial Code of 1887 and the Family Code of 1954.
Socialist Republic of Romania
By 1947, Romania remained the only monarchy in the Eastern Bloc. On 30 December that year, Michael was at his palace in Sinaia when Groza and Gheorghiu-Dej summoned him back to Bucharest. They presented him with a pretyped instrument of abdication and demanded that he sign it. With pro-Communist troops surrounding his palace and his telephone lines cut, Michael was forced to sign the document. Hours later, Parliament abolished the monarchy and proclaimed Romania a People's Republic. In February 1948, the Communists forced what remained of the Social Democrats to merge with them to form the Romanian Workers' Party. However, the few remaining independent-minded Socialists were soon pushed out, and the merged party was the PCR with a new name. Meanwhile, most non-Communist politicians had either been imprisoned or fled into exile.
Romania
Since December 1989, Romania has pursued a policy of strengthening relations with the West in general, more specifically with the United States and the European Union, albeit with limited relations involving the Russian Federation. It joined the North Atlantic Treaty Organization (NATO) on 29 March 2004, the European Union (EU) on 1 January 2007, while it had joined the International Monetary Fund and the World Bank in 1972, and is a founding member of the World Trade Organization.
Civil Code of Romania
The Civil Code was drafted together with new penal and procedural codes as part of a major effort to reform Romania's legal system after the country's accession to the European Union. An impact study contracted by the Ministry of Justice concluded that the Civil Code was the least difficult to implement of the four new codes, but nevertheless the process was criticized by parts of the Romanian judiciary and civil society for lacking adequate preparatory measures to ensure a smooth transition. The code was adopted in 2009 after extensive parliamentary debate, published in an amended version in the Official Gazette on 15 July 2011, and came into force on 1 October 2011 via the adoption of Law no. 71/2011 on the implementation of the Civil Code.
History of Christianity in Romania
The constitution adopted in 1923 declared that "differences of religious beliefs and denominations" do not constitute "an impediment either to the acquisition of political rights or to the free exercise thereof". It also recognized two national churches by declaring the Romanian Orthodox Church as the dominant denomination and by according the Romanian Church united with Rome "priority over other denominations". The "1928 Law of Cults" granted a fully recognized status to seven more denominations, among them the Roman Catholic, the Armenian, the Reformed, the Lutheran, and the Unitarian Churches.
Constitution of Romania
Băsescu's successor, Klaus Iohannis, expressed support for a second revision of the Constitution, as did Prime Minister Victor Ponta, who stated that such a revision should be a political priority in 2015, as there are no elections scheduled in Romania that year. On 18 January 2015, the vice-president of the Parliamentary Commission, Valeria Schelean, requested the immediate convocation of the commission to begin working on amendments.
Coat of arms of Romania
After 1948, the Communist authorities changed both the flag and the coat of arms. The coat of arms was rather an emblem, faithful to the Communist pattern: a landscape (depicting a rising sun, a tractor and an oil drill) surrounded by stocks of wheat tied together with a cloth in the colors of the national flag. Until 1989, there were four variants, the first being changed shortly after 1948 (the proclamation of the republic), again changed in 1956 (a red star was added), and finally in 1966, when Romania ceased to be a "People's Republic" and became a "Socialist Republic".
1948 Constitution of Romania
Regarding rights and freedoms, equality before the law was guaranteed for all citizens, who were also assured the right to vote and be elected, and to work and rest. Minorities were allowed to use their languages in education, and freedom of conscience and of religion were provided for within the framework of state-recognised religions, so long as these did not violate “public security and good morals”. Freedom of the press, of speech and of assembly and association were also included. In reality, all the rights proclaimed by the constitution were systematically and severely violated in the first years of the Communist regime, when repression unprecedented in Romanian history began. The MAN became the supreme organ of state power, “elected” for a four-year term. Executive power was exercised by a government, answerable for its activities before the MAN and the MAN Presidium. The local organs of state power were the Popular Councils, also elected for four years. As for judicial power, people’s associate judges ("asesori populari") were granted the right to sit in judgment. The subordination of the judicial system to the Communist authorities was provided for, "inter alia", by granting the prosecutor’s office the role of punishing “crimes against the democratic order and liberty, the economic interests, the national independence and the sovereignty of the Romanian State”. The 1948 Constitution, which contained 105 articles in 10 titles, was amended once, in March 1952, and abrogated on September 24, 1952, when a new constitution came into force.
United Principalities of Moldavia and Wallachia
In April 1877, in the wake of a new Russo-Turkish war, Romania signed a convention by which Russian troops were allowed to pass through Romanian territory in their advance towards the Ottoman Empire. On May 9, the Romanian parliament declared the independence of the principality, and joined the war on the Russian side. After several Romanian victories south of the Danube and the ultimate victory of the Russian-led side in the war, the European powers recognized Romania's independence under the 1878 Treaty of Berlin. Nevertheless, Romania was made to exchange Southern Bessarabia for Northern Dobruja, and allow non-Christians living in Romania access to Romanian citizenship.
History of Romania
The union of the regions of Transylvania, Maramureș, Crișana and Banat with the Old Kingdom of Romania was ratified in 1920 by the Treaty of Trianon, which recognised the sovereignty of Romania over these regions and settled the border between the independent Republic of Hungary and the Kingdom of Romania. The union of Bucovina and Bessarabia with Romania was ratified in 1920 by the Treaty of Versailles. Romania had also recently acquired the Southern Dobruja territory called "The Quadrilateral" from Bulgaria as a result of its participation in the Second Balkan War in 1913.
Romanian Social Democratic Party (1990–2001)
The Romanian Social Democratic Party (, PSDR) was a social-democratic political party in Romania. Founded in 1990, after the fall of the Communist party rule in Romania, it claimed to be the direct successor of the Romanian Social Democratic Party existing between 1927 and 1948, when it had merged with the Communist Party of Romania to create the Romanian Workers' Party. Joining the Socialist International, the party entered alliances with the Democratic Party (forming "Uniunea Social-Democrată" during the 1996 legislative election), and took part in the Romanian Democratic Convention governments of Victor Ciorbea, Radu Vasile, and Mugur Isărescu (briefly leading the coalition government with Alexandru Athanasiu in 1999). The PSDR adhered to the Social Democratic Pole of Romania, and fused into the Social Democratic Party on January 16, 2001.
Administrative divisions of Romania
In 1938, King Carol II modified the Constitution, and after that the law of administration of the Romanian territory. Ten "ținuturi" (approx. translation: "lands") were created, ruled by "Rezidenți Regali" (approx. translation "Royal Residents"), appointed directly by the Monarch. The ținuturi represented another layer of administration between counties and the country; county borders were not erased. But, due to World War II, the Second Vienna Award, the Ribbentrop-Molotov pact and the loss of territory that Romania suffered, this style of administration did not last, the administration at the "județ" level being reintroduced back until the establishment of communism in 1945-1947.
1938 Constitution of Romania
As with the 1923 Constitution, Parliament was bicameral. The lower house, the Assembly of Deputies, was to be elected every six years and composed of members of the following professional categories: agriculture and manual labour; industry and commerce; intellectual occupations. Deputies were elected in single-member districts, by secret and compulsory ballot; districts were drawn so as to assure adequate representation based on voters’ professions. The upper house, the Senate, was composed of members appointed by the King, members by right and members elected in single districts (in the same manner as Assembly members). The proportion of appointed and elected members was equal, while senators by right had to meet the same conditions as set out in the 1923 Constitution. Appointed and elected senators had nine-year terms, while one-third of senators’ terms were renewed every three years. In December, the National Renaissance Front was formed as the only legally permitted party.
King Carol suspended the constitution on September 5, 1940, and parliament was dissolved. Through a decree signed that day, titled “For the investment with full powers of the president of the Council of Ministers and the restriction of royal prerogatives”, the king transferred his authoritarian powers to General Ion Antonescu, who did not convene a parliament and ruled the country by decree until he was ousted on August 23, 1944. After this date, a constitutional and transitional regime was established until a Constituent Assembly could meet to draft a new constitution, until which time the provisions of the 1866 and 1923 constitutions were applied. On July 15, 1946, the Petru Groza government issued a decree that bore a constitutional character; this document abolished the Senate and established a unicameral system (the Assembly of Deputies) and granted universal suffrage to all citizens over 21, including women.
Socialist Republic of Romania
As World War II ended, Romania, a former Axis member, was occupied by the Soviet Union, the sole representative of the Allies. On 6 March 1945, after mass demonstrations by communist sympathizers and political pressure from the Soviet representative of the Allied Control Commission, a new pro-Soviet government that included members of the previously outlawed Romanian Workers' Party was installed. Gradually, more members of the Workers' Party and communist-aligned parties gained control of the administration and pre-war political leaders were steadily eliminated from political life. In December 1947, King Michael was coerced to abdicate and the People's Republic of Romania was declared.
Nicolae Văcăroiu
Internationally, as regards the prospect of accession to the European Union, on 1 February 1993 the European Association Agreement with the European Community, which entered into force on 1 February 1995, was signed, and in June 1995 it obtained the agreement of all the forces policy on the objective of the country's accession to the European Union. Also, the first request for NATO membership was made. As far as relations with neighbors are concerned, the settlement of bilateral treaties has been delayed. As Yugoslavia was under international embargo because of its actions in Croatia and Bosnia, relations with it were frozen. Moldova and Ukraine accused Romania of iredentism, among other things because the coalition that supported Văcăroiu's cabinet included nationalist and conservative-communist forces (the Romanian National Unity Party, the Greater Romania Party and the Socialist Party of Labour) and because it insisted that the bilateral treaties referring to the 1939 Molotov–Ribbentrop Pact, which had led to territorial losses for Romania to the Soviet Union, from which Ukraine and Moldova had inherited their borders (tensions diminished after Vacaroiu and Oliviu Gherman's visits to Chisinau and Kiev in the first half of 1995). Hungary, for its part, negotiates a basic treaty, but Romania refuses to accept the inclusion in this treaty of a commitment to comply with Council of Europe Recommendation 1201 on Minorities. The Treaty of Hungary was signed in September 1996, and in May 1996 the treaty with Yugoslavia could be signed after the Dayton Agreement and the lifting of the embargo on that country.
Capital punishment in Romania
The modern Romanian state was formed in 1859 after the unification of the Danubian Principalities, and a Penal Code was enacted in 1864 that did not provide for the death penalty except for several wartime offences. The 1866 Constitution, inspired by the liberal Belgian model of 1831, confirmed the abolition of capital punishment for peacetime crimes. By the end of the 19th century, just six other European countries had abolished the death penalty: Belgium, Finland, Italy, Luxembourg, the Netherlands and Portugal.
Romania
During the period of the Austro-Hungarian rule in Transylvania and of Ottoman suzerainty over Wallachia and Moldavia, most Romanians were given few rights in a territory where they formed the majority of the population. Nationalistic themes became principal during the Wallachian uprising of 1821, and the 1848 revolutions in Wallachia and Moldavia. The flag adopted for Wallachia by the revolutionaries was a blue-yellow-red horizontal tricolour (with blue above, in line with the meaning "Liberty, Justice, Fraternity"), while Romanian students in Paris hailed the new government with the same flag "as a symbol of union between Moldavians and Wallachians". The same flag, with the tricolour being mounted vertically, would later be officially adopted as the national flag of Romania.
Hungarian–Romanian War
In 1916 Romania entered World War I on the side of the Allies. In doing so, Romania's goal was to unite all the territories with a Romanian national majority into one state. In the Treaty of Bucharest (1916), terms for Romania's acquisition of territories within Austria-Hungary were stipulated.
In 1918, after the October Revolution, the Bolsheviks signed a separate peace with the Central Powers in the Treaty of Brest-Litovsk. Romania was alone on the Eastern Front, a situation that far surpassed its military capabilities. Therefore, on 7 May 1918, Romania sued for peace. The prime minister of Romania, Alexandru Marghiloman, signed the Treaty of Bucharest (1918) with the Central Powers. However, this treaty was never signed by King Ferdinand of Romania.
United Principalities of Moldavia and Wallachia
The new governing coalition appointed Carol of Hohenzollern-Sigmaringen as the new Ruling Prince of Romania in a move initially rejected by the European powers but later on accepted. In the first year of Carol's reign Romania adopted its first constitution. This instrument provided for a hereditary constitutional monarchy, with a Parliament being elected through censitary suffrage although the country remained under Ottoman suzerainty. Carol was not unanimously accepted, and a rise in republican sentiment culminated with an uprising in Ploiești in 1870 and a revolt in Bucharest in 1871, both of which were quelled by the army.
Ion Antonescu
The period following Antonescu's fall returned Romania to a democratic regime and the 1923 Constitution, as well as its participation in the war alongside the Allies. However, it also saw the early stages of a communist takeover—which culminated with King Michael's forced abdication on December 30, 1947 and the subsequent establishment of Communist Romania. The Antonescu trial thus fit into a long series of similar procedures and political purges on charges of collaborationism, instrumented by the Romanian People's Tribunals and various other institutions. During the rigged general election of 1946 and for years after Ion Antonescu's execution, the Romanian Communist Party and its allies began using the implications of his trial as an abusive means of compromising some of their political opponents. One such early example was Iuliu Maniu, by then one of the country's prominent anti-communists, who was accused of being a fascist and an Antonescu sympathizer, mainly for having shaken his hand during the trial. The enlistment of ethnic Germans into Nazi German units, as approved by Antonescu, was used as a pretext for a Soviet-led expulsion of Germans from Romania. On similar grounds, the Soviet occupation forces organized the capture of certain Romanian citizens, as well as the return of war refugees from Romania proper into Bessarabia and Northern Bukovina. Both the arrestees and the returnees were often deported deeper into the Soviet Union. As part of its deteriorating relationship with Romanian Roman Catholics, and urged on by the Soviets, the communist cabinet of Petru Groza also deemed Apostolic Nuncio Andrea Cassulo a collaborator of Antonescu and a "persona non grata", based on transcripts of the Cassulo-Antonescu conversations. It also used such allegations to pressure several Greek-Catholic clergymen into accepting union with the Romanian Orthodox Church.
Constitutional amendment
The Constitution of Romania mentions and outlines the terms by which it can be amended in "Article 150: Amendment Initiative," "Article 151: Amendment Procedure," and "Article 152: Limits to Constitutional Amendments." All three articles are written under "Title VII: Amendment of the Constitution" of the document.
Coat of arms of Romania
Until 1866, there were many variants of the coat of arms, regarding the background color and the number of times the two main elements where represented. In 1866, after Carol I was elected Prince of Romania, the shield was divided into quarters: in the first and fourth an eagle was depicted, and in the second and third the aurochs; above the shield the arms of the reigning Hohenzollern-Sigmaringen family was placed. After 1872, the coat of arms included the symbol of southern Bessarabia (after 1877, of Dobruja), two dolphins, in the fourth quarter; and the one of Oltenia, a golden lion, in the third quarter; on the shield the Steel Crown was placed, as a symbol of sovereignty and independence, after the Romanian War of Independence.
The coat of arms remained unchanged until 1922, after World War I, when Transylvania was united with the Kingdom of Romania. Then the coat of arms of Transylvania was placed in the fourth quarter, with the Turul replaced by a black aquila, the third quarter depicted the joined coats of arms of Banat and Oltenia (the bridge of Apollodorus of Damascus and a golden lion respectively), and the coat of arms of Dobruja was placed in an insertion. The shield was placed on the chest of a golden crossed and crowned aquila, as a symbol of the Latinity of the Romanians. The aquila was placed on a blue shield, capped with the Steel Crown. The coat of arms had three versions: lesser, middle (with supporters and motto), and greater (the middle arms on a red mantle lined with ermine).
Constitution of Romania
The constitution was amended once by a referendum on 18 October 2003. The new text took effect on 29 October 2003.
2018 Romanian constitutional referendum
A referendum took place in Romania on 6 and 7 October 2018 regarding the definition of the family in the Romanian Constitution. The referendum asked voters whether or not they approve a change to the family's definition as provided by Article 48 of the Constitution, to prohibit same-sex marriage.
Romania–Russia relations
Romania's foreign policy after 1990 was built exclusively on geo-strategic reasons and less on economic relations, which has led to minimal relations with Russia. Romania to officially declare, in 1993, its desire to join NATO and EU to consolidate its precarious national security. In an effort to reassure its former ally, Romania and Russia signed a treaty concerning bilateral military cooperation in 1994 and agreed to continue negotiations on the signing of the bilateral treaty on good-neighborly relations. Despite these efforts, bilateral relations quickly deteriorated. In April 1996, the Romanian-Russian relationship experienced one of its tensest moments, as the Russian Foreign Minister Yevgeny Primakov flew to Bucharest at the invitation of Romanian authorities to sign a renegotiated version of the bilateral good-neighborly relations treaty. Pressed by the opposition parties, president Iliescu changed his mind and Romania refused to sign the treaty, because it failed to address two of the most enduring bilateral disputes between the two countries: Romania decried the treaty’s lack of clauses that condemned the Molotov–Ribbentrop Pact (1939) and that would establish a clear roadmap for the return of Romania’s National Treasure stored in Moscow. Russia furiously denounced Romanian intentions as hostile and driven by irredentist inclinations towards territories within the Republic of Moldova and Ukraine, to which Moscow considered Romania might lay claim. Also, Russia complained that Romania refused to include a provision that would commit the two parties not to join alliances that are targeted against the other. Following this episode, all bilateral diplomatic visits were canceled. It was only in 1999 that Bucharest said it was ready to reconsider its relations with Moscow, both at political and economic level. By the mid-2000s, a third window of opportunity to normalize relations opened as a result of the 2000 Romanian general elections, which saw the Social-Democrat Party, considered to be closer to Moscow than other Romanian political parties, return to power. Eventually, in 2003, the bilateral treaty on good-neighborly relations was signed, but without addressing any of the contentious issues between the two parties: the condemnation of the Ribbentrop–Molotov Pact, the return of Romania’s national treasury, and the provision concerning the parties’ commitment not to participate in that are targeted against the other.
Constitution of Romania
The 1991 Constitution has been amended once, in 2003. Articles were introduced on “Integration into the European Union” and “NATO Accession”, bringing the total to 156 in 8 titles. These specified that both could take place by parliamentary vote alone, and that EU citizens living in Romania can vote and run in local elections. The new document grants minorities the right to use their native language when dealing with local administration and the courts, improves the functioning of the legislative chambers (better specifying their attributes) and restricts the privilege of parliamentary immunity to political declarations, extends the president’s term to five years, explicitly “guarantees” rather than “protects” the right to private property and removes the constitutional obligation for conscription (which ended in 2006). The revised document was adopted by referendum on 18–19 October 2003; turnout was slightly above the 50%+1 threshold needed for it to be valid, with 55.7% of 17,842,103 eligible voters showing up. The opposition and NGOs alleged serious irregularities. 89.70% voted yes and 8.81%, no. It came into force ten days later.
1948 Constitution of Romania
The 1948 Constitution of Romania was the first adopted after the establishment of the Communist regime, which it enshrined into law. It was modelled on the 1936 Soviet Constitution and adopted by the Great National Assembly (MAN) on April 13, 1948, being published in "Monitorul Oficial" the same day. The Romanian People’s Republic was defined as a “unitary and sovereign people’s state” that “came into being through a struggle led by the people, the working class at their head, against fascism, reaction and imperialism”.
2018 Romanian constitutional referendum
In late March 2018, the Government announced that the referendum would be held sometime in May 2018, though it later moved the date to 10 June 2018. However, this date also passed without a referendum being held. Some Socialist lawmakers subsequently suggested that the referendum could be held in late September or early October 2018. Liviu Dragnea, President of the Chamber of Deputies, announced that the referendum could be organized on 30 September or the first Sunday in October. In early September, Dragnea announced that the referendum would take place on 7 October 2018. The initiative was approved by the Senate on 11 September 2018. On 14 September, Amnesty International, the European Commission on Sexual Orientation Law and ILGA-Europe filed a challenge with the Constitutional Court against the amendment. On 17 September 2018, the Court decided to allow the referendum to take place.
1938 Constitution of Romania
On December 30, 1947, after King Michael’s forced abdication, Parliament adopted a constitutional law that proclaimed the Romanian People’s Republic and abrogated “the Constitution of 1866 as modified on 29 March 1923 and 1 September 1944”. Until the 1948 Constitution was adopted, legislative power was in the hands of the Assembly of Deputies that met following the 1946 elections, while the executive was composed of a five-member presidium elected by the Assembly: Constantin Ion Parhon, Mihail Sadoveanu, Ştefan Voitec, Ion Niculi and Gheorghe Stere.
Armorial of Romania
In April 2016, deputies of the Judiciary Committee endorsed a bill voted previously by the Senate that returns the crown on the head of the eagle and mandates the public authorities to replace the existing emblems and seals to those provided by law until 31 December 2018 (to mark the centenary of the Union of Transylvania with Romania on December 1, 1918). The bill was adopted by the Chamber of Deputies on 8 June 2016 and promulgated by President Klaus Iohannis on 11 July 2016.
Soviet occupation of Romania
Soviet authors and the 1952 Constitution of Romania referred to the events of 1944 as the "liberation of Romania by the glorious Soviet Army". On the other hand, most Romanian and Western sources use the term "Soviet occupation of Romania," some applying it to the whole period from 1944 to 1958.
Marie of Romania
After the conclusion of the Russian Revolution in early November 1917 and the victory of the Bolsheviks, Romania became, in the words of diplomat Frank Rattigan, "an island surrounded on all sides by the enemy, with no hope of assistance from the Allies". Soon afterwards, Ferdinand signed the Treaty of Focșani, on 9 December 1917. Marie considered the treaty perilous, while Brătianu and Știrbey believed it was a necessary measure for obtaining more time. Later turns of events would prove Marie to have assumed correctly. In 1918, Marie vehemently opposed the signing of the Treaty of Bucharest, giving rise to her description as "truly the only man in Romania". The Armistice with Germany (11 November 1918) put an end to fighting in Europe and, thus, to the war.
LGBT rights in Romania
On 7 June 2013, Romania had attempted to amend its Constitution to ban same-sex marriage through a commission tasked with amending it, with 15 MPs in the commission voting for, and only 3 abstentions. However, the amendment was withdrawn following both internal and international backlash.
Prime Minister of Romania
During the first years after its creation the office held considerable authority, being able to challenge the will of the Prince and together with a Legislative Assembly composed mainly of conservatives and reactionaries, Catargiu's conservative government was able to delay the adoption of several reforms. Frustrated by the government's opposition to reforms, and unable to work with an Assembly dominated by reactionary forces due to the censitary nature of the electoral system, Cuza launched a coup d'etat, followed by a constitutional referendum that replaced the Convention of Paris, an act that served as the constitution of the country, with his own version named the Statute expanding the Paris Convention (). The new constitution created the Senate for serving Cuza's legislative purposes and vested the office of the Prince with full executive authority, while the Prime Minister remained his subordinate. Even though Cuza now had plenary powers, the office the Prime Minister remained influent, and Mihail Kogălniceanu, the 3rd Prime Minister, a liberal and former ally of Cuza often clashed with him.
Flag of Romania
The "Law for modifying the country's arms" of 11/23 March 1872 did not change these provisions, only the design of the coat of arms. This design of the national flag lasted until 1948.
On 30 December 1947, Romania was proclaimed a people's republic and all the ex-kingdom's symbols were outlawed, including the coat of arms and the tricolor flags that showed it. During the communist era in Romania, the state flag had the emblem of the country in the middle of the yellow stripe, and for the first time the 2:3 proportion was regulated by law. By 1989, the coat of arms had been changed no less than four times.
Starting on 17 December 1989, during the revolution at Timișoara, the protesters began waving flags with the Communist coat of arms cut out of the middle. The coat of arms was perceived as a symbol of Nicolae Ceaușescu's dictatorial regime. These flags were called "the flag with the hole" ("drapelul cu gaură"). Even today, these flags are occasionally waved in the wake of certain street protests, especially regarding government misconduct.
Alexandru Lapedatu
Alexandru I. Lapedatu worked towards a legislation reinforcing the State sovereignty and secularism.
Since the two exceptions mentioned in the Constitution were no more in the position to challenge State prerogatives, it was now possible for Alexandru I. Lapedatu to submit to the Parliament, after animated consultations and debates, a project that obtained almost the unanimity of votes both in the Chamber of Deputy and in the Senate; it was adopted on 22 April 1928 and remained in power until 1948. It was an essential achievement toward the unification of the young Romanian State.
Coat of arms of Romania
In April 2016, deputies of the Judiciary Committee endorsed a bill voted previously by the Senate that returns the crown on the head of the eagle and mandates the public authorities to replace the existing emblems and seals to those provided by law until 31 December 2018 (to mark the centenary of the Union of Transylvania with Romania on 1 December 1918). The bill was adopted by the Chamber of Deputies on 8 June 2016 and promulgated by President Klaus Iohannis on 11 July 2016.
Economy of Romania
Romania signed an Association Agreement with the EU in 1992 and a free trade agreement with the European Free Trade Association (EFTA) in 1993, codifying Romania's access to European markets and creating the basic framework for further economic integration. At the Helsinki Summit in December 1999, the European Union invited Romania to formally begin accession negotiations. In 2002, the target date of 2007 was set for Romania, along with Bulgaria, for its accession efforts. This was confirmed in 2003 at the Thessaloniki Summit and then in early 2005 Romania and Bulgaria signed the adherence treaty to EU. They formally joined the EU on 1 January 2007.
Romania
Modern Romania was formed in 1859 through a personal union of the Danubian Principalities of Moldavia and Wallachia. The new state, officially named Romania since 1866, gained independence from the Ottoman Empire in 1877. Following World War I, when Romania fought on the side of the Allied powers, Bukovina, Bessarabia, Transylvania as well as parts of Banat, Crișana, and Maramureș became part of the sovereign Kingdom of Romania. In June–August 1940, as a consequence of the Molotov–Ribbentrop Pact and Second Vienna Award, Romania was compelled to cede Bessarabia and Northern Bukovina to the Soviet Union, and Northern Transylvania to Hungary. In November 1940, Romania signed the Tripartite Pact and, consequently, in June 1941 entered World War II on the Axis side, fighting against the Soviet Union until August 1944, when it joined the Allies and recovered Northern Transylvania. Following the war, under the occupation of the Red Army's forces, Romania became a socialist republic and member of the Warsaw Pact. After the 1989 Revolution, Romania began a transition back towards democracy and a market economy.
Romanian nationality law
Economic and socio-political crises of the 1980s brought with it a change in understanding Romanian homogeneity. Conflict arose between the Hungarian and Romanian nations and confusion between citizenship and national identity led to many questions regarding the boundaries of the nation and the rights of Hungarian minorities living in Romania. After the fall of communism in Eastern Europe in 1989, citizenship laws in Romania were redrafted in the newly formed constitution. Interactions between the citizenship policies of the various Eastern European countries led to new discussions regarding dual-citizenship, which had traditionally been forbidden for Romanian citizens.
1952 Romanian legislative election
Parliamentary elections were held in Romania on 30 November 1952. They were the second held under undisguised Communist rule, and the first under a constitution adopted that September. Voters were presented with a single slate of candidates from the People's Democratic Front, which was dominated by the Romanian Workers Party. The Front won all 428 seats in the Great National Assembly. This election set the tone for all elections held in Romania until 1989. For the remainder of the Communist era, voters only had the choice of approving or rejecting a Communist-dominated list.
Treaty of Accession 2005
Article 2 provides for the situation when the Treaty itself enters into force before the Treaty establishing a Constitution for Europe. Thus it will provide the legal basis of the membership Bulgaria and Romania from 1 January 2007 until the Constitution of Europe is finally implemented in its present form (if ever).
Suffrage
The first Constitution of modern Romania in 1866 provided in article 7 that only Christians could become Romanian citizens. Jews native to Romania were declared stateless persons. In 1879, under pressure from the Berlin Peace Conference, this article was amended, granting non-Christians the right to become Romanian citizens, but naturalization was granted on a case-by-case basis and was subject to Parliamentary approval. An application took over ten years to process. Only in 1923 was a new constitution adopted, whose article 133 extended Romanian citizenship to all Jewish residents and equality of rights to all Romanian citizens.
1866 Constitution of Romania
The 1866 Constitution of Romania was the fundamental law that capped a period of nation-building in the Danubian Principalities, which had united in 1859. Drafted in a short time and using as its model the 1831 Constitution of Belgium, then considered Europe's most liberal, it was substantially modified by Prince (later King) Carol and adopted by the Constituent Assembly. The newly installed Prince then promulgated it on July 1; this was done without input from the major powers, including the Ottoman Empire, which still had formal sovereignty over Romania.
List of Presidents of Romania
The President of Romania serves as the head of state of Romania. The office was created by the Communist leader Nicolae Ceaușescu in 1974 and has developed into its modern form after the Romanian Revolution and the adoption of the 1991 constitution.
Constitution of Romania
The Constitution of 1991, as revised in 2003, contains 156 articles, divided into 8 titles:
Flag of Romania
The Constitution of Romania provides that "The flag of Romania is tricolor; the colors are arranged vertically in the following order from the flagpole: blue, yellow, red". The proportions, shades of color as well as the flag protocol were established by law in 1994 and extended in 2001.
Gheorghe Vlădescu-Răcoasa
In November 1947, Vlădescu-Răcoasa was named ambassador to the Soviet Union, and was also accredited to Finland. He arrived in Moscow in December, and in February 1948, was present for the signing of a friendship treaty between the Soviet Union and what was now the Romanian People's Republic. In April, while on a visit to Bucharest, he was named to the Great National Assembly committee preparing the 1948 Constitution of Romania, delivering a noted speech in favor of the initiative to the full assembly. In May, he was awarded the Order of the Star of the Romanian People's Republic, second class. In February 1949, while Vlădescu-Răcoasa was in Moscow, his party voted to dissolve itself. In August, he left Moscow, and his appointment formally ended in October. The termination of his ambassadorial mission was linked to the gradual decline in Foreign MInister Ana Pauker's influence.
Romania
After the failed 1848 revolutions not all the Great Powers supported the Romanians' expressed desire to officially unite in a single state. But in the aftermath of the Crimean War, the electors in both Moldavia and Wallachia voted in 1859 for the same leader, Alexandru Ioan Cuza, as "Domnitor" ("ruling prince" in Romanian), and the two principalities became a personal union formally under the suzerainty of the Ottoman Empire. Following a "coup d'état" in 1866, Cuza was exiled and replaced with Prince Carol I of Romania of the House of Hohenzollern-Sigmaringen. During the 1877–1878 Russo-Turkish War Romania fought on the Russian side, and in the aftermath, it was recognized as an independent state both by the Ottoman Empire and the Great Powers by the Treaty of San Stefano and the Treaty of Berlin. The new Kingdom of Romania underwent a period of stability and progress until 1914, and also acquired Southern Dobruja from Bulgaria after the Second Balkan War.