Has France recognized Haiti as an independent nation?
France–Haiti relations
In 1825, French King Charles X demanded Haiti reimburse and compensate France for the loss of money and trade from Haiti's independence. France threatened to invade Haiti and sent 12 war ships to the island nation. On 17 April 1825 an agreement was made between the two nations. France renounced all attempts to re-conquer Haiti and recognized Haiti as an independent nation after Haiti agreed to pay France 150 million gold francs in indemnity to the former colonists within five years. In November 1825 the first French consul presented his credentials to President Jean-Pierre Boyer. On 12 February 1838, a 'Treaty of Peace and Friendship' was signed between both nations.
Bank of the Republic of Haiti
The Bank of the Republic of Haiti was founded after the independence of Haiti from France. The oldest reference to a bank in Haiti can be attributed to a short correspondence exchanged during September 1825 between a foreign tradesman, Nicholas Kane, the Secretary of State Balthazar Inginac about a proposal made by George Clark in the name of a German group, Hermann Hendrick and Co., to establish a bank in Haiti. However, the proposal was never accepted, and Hermann Hendrick and Co. was never established.
Haitian Declaration of Independence
The central issue for the Haitian revolution was independence, specifically freedom from their enslavement under France. In its social and political complexity, the Haitian Revolution resembled the simultaneous revolution in France, since the demand of the revolutionaries was secession from the ruling-class of France. Moreover, unlike mainland colonies, Haiti was an easily blockaded Caribbean island with a small population, which made independence a less viable option for them.
Humanitarian response by national governments to the 2010 Haiti earthquake
Finland: The Finnish government pledged €1.25 million in aid. 
France: French Foreign Minister Bernard Kouchner said France will dispatch aid to the country. Haiti is a member of La Francophonie (Association of French-speaking nations), but officially bilingual. The aid provided by France according to the French Government consists of:
Monarchies in the Americas
The entire island of Hispaniola was first claimed on 5 December 1492, by Christopher Columbus, for Queen Isabella, and the first Viceroy of the Americas was established along with a number of colonies throughout the Island. With the later discovery of Mexico and Peru many of the early settlers left for the main land, but some twelve cities and a hundred thousand souls remained, mainly in the Eastern part of the Island. Through the Treaty of Riswick in 1697, King Louis XIV received the western third of the Island from Spain as retribution and formalized the first French pirate settlement in existence since the mid-1600s, with the colony administered by a governor-general representing the French crown, an arrangement that stood until the French Revolution toppled the monarchy of France on 21 September 1792. Though the French government retained control over the region of Saint-Domingue, on 22 September 1804, Jean-Jacques Dessalines, who had served as Governor-General of Saint-Domingue since 30 November 1803, declared himself as head of an independent Empire of Haiti, with his coronation as Emperor Jacques I taking place on 6 October that year. After his assassination on 17 October 1806, the country was split in half, the northern portion eventually becoming the Kingdom of Haiti on 28 March 1811, with Henri Christophe installed as King Henri I. When King Henri committed suicide on 8 October 1820, and his son, Jacques-Victor Henry, Prince Royal of Haiti, was murdered by revolutionaries ten days later, the kingdom was merged into the southern Republic of Haiti, of which Faustin-Élie Soulouque was elected president on 2 March 1847. Two years later, on 26 August 1849, the Haitian national assembly declared the president as Emperor Faustin I, thereby re-establishing the Empire of Haiti. But this monarchical reincarnation was to be short lived as well, as a revolution broke out in the empire in 1858, resulting in Faustin abdicating the throne on 18 January 1859.
History of Haiti
On 29 August 1793, Sonthonax took the radical step of proclaiming the freedom of the slaves in the north province (with severe limits on their freedom). In September and October, emancipation was extended throughout the colony. The French National Convention, the first elected Assembly of the First Republic (1792–1804), on 4 February 1794, under the leadership of Maximilien de Robespierre, abolished slavery by law in France and all its colonies. The constitution of 1793, which was never applied, and the constitution of 1795, which was put into effect, did both contain an explicit ban on slavery.
Human rights in Haiti
In 1825, France's King Charles X threatened to invade Haiti unless it paid an "independence debt" of 150 million francs to reimburse France for the loss of its slaves and land. The debt was later reduced to 90 million francs but it was not until 1947 that Haiti had paid off what many have regarded as an immoral and illegal debt. To pay this, Haiti had to borrow money from and pay interest to French banks.
Haitian Vodou
On 1 January 1804 the former slave Jean-Jaqcues Dessalines (as Jacques I) declared the independence of St. Domingue as the First Black Empire; two years later, after his assassination, it became the Republic of Haiti. This was the second nation to gain independence from European rule (after the United States), and the only state to have arisen from the liberation of slaves. No nation recognized the new state, which was instead met with isolation and boycotts. This exclusion from the global market led to major economic difficulties for the new state.
Slavery in Cuba
In 1792 slaves of the French Saint-Domingue colony began a revolution on the nearby island of Hispaniola; they finally gained independence in 1804, declaring the new republic of Haiti, the second in the Western Hemisphere and the first founded by former slaves. Cuban slaveholders watched these events, but took comfort in thinking the rebellion was the result of the radical politics in France during the French Revolution, when the government had abolished slavery in the colonies. As the new freedmen set up small subsistence farms in Haiti, Cuba's planters gained much of the sugar market formerly held by Saint-Domingue's large plantations. The global demand for sugar Haiti had produced made way to other Caribbean territories, namely Cuba. The impact of a sugar-dominated economy in Cuba as a result of chasm with the Haitian Revolution effects on the Caribbean, allowed cultural links in to tie with that of slavery. As a result, “between 1791 to 1805, 91,211 slaves enter the island through Havana.”
Francophile
The Republic of Haiti was once the French colony of Saint-Domingue until a successful slave revolt drove the French out. Despite this history, the Haitian elite was traditionally very Francophile to the point that the Haitian writer Jean Price-Mars published a book in 1928 "Ainsi Parla l'Oncle" (So Spoke the Uncle) accusing the elite of "bovarysme", of intentionally neglecting and ignoring traditional Haitian folk culture as it had too many West African elements and was not French enough for the elite. About 10% of Haiti's population speak French as their first language while the other 90% speak "Kréyol" (a mixture of French and various West African languages) that has often been mocked by the Francophile Haitian elite as a bastardized French. In Haiti, the question of whatever one speaks French or "Kréyol" is racially charged as the elite tended to be mulattos while the masses are black.
Latin America
In 1804, Haiti became the first Latin American nation to gain independence, following a violent slave revolt led by Toussaint L'ouverture on the French colony of Saint-Domingue. The victors abolished slavery. Haitian independence inspired independence movements in Spanish America.
Haiti indemnity controversy
The United Nations Security Council, of which France is a permanent member, rejected a February 26, 2004, appeal from the Caribbean Community (CARICOM) for international peacekeeping forces to be sent into its member state Haiti, but voted unanimously to send in troops three days later, just hours after Aristide's controversial resignation.
Donatien-Marie-Joseph de Vimeur, vicomte de Rochambeau
In 1802, he was appointed to lead an expeditionary force against Saint Domingue (Haiti) after General Charles Leclerc's death. His remit was to restore French control of their rebellious colony, by any means. Historians of the Haitian Revolution credit his brutal tactics for uniting black and "gens de couleur" soldiers against the French. After Rochambeau surrendered to the rebel general Jean-Jacques Dessalines in November 1803, the former French colony declared its independence as Haïti, the second independent state in the Americas.
Haitian literature
Despite Haiti's independence, French has remained the country's official language. French, a language of great cultural prestige, was spoken by the elite, and creole did not enter the literary field until the second half of the 20th century. Although the vast majority of the population on the island spoke Haitian Creole; however, their signage and educational institutions only use French, a remnant from the occupation. Only in 1969 did Creole join French as the official language of Haiti. The indianists of the 1930s and the Négritude movement (incarnated in Haiti by Jean Price-Mars) emphasized the African origins of Antillean people, giving it an identity lost in deportation and later colonization. But, for them, Creole was still considered an impure language of slavery.
The Créolité movement, which succeeded indianists and the Négritude movement, rehabilitated the Creole, which no longer was only the language of slavery, but "that which we made together to survive". A shift was brought about in Haitian literature, from French to Creole, or du français vers le créole, or rather a dialogue between the two languages.
Guy Joseph Bonnet
Guy Joseph Bonnet (June 10, 1773 – January 9, 1843) was a Haitian historian and a major general of the Army of the Republic of Haiti. He was one of the signers of the Haitian Act of Independence, which formally declared Haiti independent from French colonial rule. He is known for his historical book "Souvenirs Historiques" ("Historical Memories"), published posthumously in 1864.
Republic of Spanish Haiti
Eventually the Haitian government became very unpopular, due to the severe economic crisis that hit the country after paying a huge indemnity to France, and gave rise to many anti-Haitian plots. It lasted until 1844, when the independent nation of the Dominican Republic was established.
Canada–Haiti relations
Haiti is in the west of the island of Hispaniola. In 1797 Toussaint Louverture led a successful revolt against the French and made Haiti the first independent Caribbean nation, although government was unsettled until 1915, when the United States occupied the island. The United States left the island in 1934, returning it to a form of democracy.
Racism in France
In 1789, the Declaration of the Rights of Man and of the Citizen abolished slavery. However, it was only truly abolished in the colonies in 1794 thanks to the Society of the Friends of the Blacks’ efforts. In 1802, Napoleon, encouraged by wife Josephine who originated from and owned many assets in Martinique, reestablished slavery, the slave trade and the Black Code. This sparked a rebellion. He sent military expeditions in Saint-Domingue and Guadeloupe to contain the rebellion. The rebels of Saint-Domingue ended up being victorious and proclaimed their independence after what is commonly known as the Haitian Revolution. In January 1803, this first black republic was founded and took the name of Haiti. In 1815, after the Napoleon's Hundred Days, Napoleon aligned himself with Congress and decreed the abolition of slavery. However, slavery continued all the way up to the 1840s on Gorée Island, Senegal. In 1848 King Louis-Phillippe abdicated and the provisional government of the Republic was founded, proclaiming that “No French territory can hold slaves”. Finally, on April 27, 1848, the provisional Government abolished slavery in all French colonies. The government abolished slavery on May 23 for Martinique, May 27 for Guadeloupe, August 10 for Guyana and December 20th for Reunion. An illegal slave commerce persisted for a short time after but was quickly transformed into a commerce of Chinese or Indian “engagés” workers.
Adolphe Barrot
In January 1843 Barrot and his wife, and his brother Odilon, accompanied Benjamin Disraeli to the Grand Opera in Paris.
Barrot was sent on a special mission to Haiti later in 1843.
The former French colony had agreed as part of the 1825 treaty of recognition with France to pay 150 million francs as indemnity to the colonial proprietors, later reduced to 60 million francs, which the republic had not paid.
Barrot's mandate was to negotiate payment at least to the surviving colonists and their impoverished heirs.
As French commissioner at Port-au-Prince in Haiti he informed Buenaventura Báez that France would provide support if he arranged for the eastern end of Hispaniola to separate from Haiti and raise the French flag.
The separation happened, but as the independent Dominican Republic.
Charles Sumner
As chairman of the Senate Foreign Relations Committee, Sumner renewed his efforts to win U.S. diplomatic recognition of Haiti. Haiti had sought recognition since winning independence in 1804, but faced opposition from Southern Senators. In their absence, the U.S. recognized Haiti in 1862.
Haiti
In July 1825, King Charles X of France, during a period of restoration of the monarchy, sent a fleet to reconquer the island. Under pressure, President Boyer agreed to a treaty by which France formally recognized the independence of the nation in exchange for a payment of 150 million francs. By an order of 17 April 1826, the King of France renounced his rights of sovereignty over Santo Domingo, and recognized the independence of Haiti.
Haiti
Jean-Bertrand Aristide was initially denied access to Haiti by Haitian immigration authorities, despite issuing appeals for entrance to his supporters and international observers. The world's most prominent governments did not overtly oppose such appeals, nor did they support them; an unnamed analyst "close to the Haitian government" quoted in several media sources including "The New York Times" is reported to have said: "Aristide could have 15 passports and he's still not going to come back to Haiti [...] France and the United States are standing in the way." However, Aristide finally returned to Haiti on 18 March 2011, days before the 2011 presidential election.
Dominican Republic–Spain relations
In 1795, Spain ceded the eastern part of Hispaniola to France under the Treaty of Basel. In 1801, the western part of Hispaniola revolted against France and obtained its independence in 1804 and renamed itself Haiti. As a result, many French settlers arrived to the eastern part of Hispaniola (Santo Domingo) and set up garrisons against Haiti. In 1805, Haiti invaded Santo Domingo, however, were repelled by French forces. In 1809, the white creole population rebelled against both France and Haiti and invited Spain to return as the colonial power, initiating a twelve-year period of Spanish rule, known in Dominican history as "the Foolish Spain" ("España Boba").
Haiti–Mexico relations
Haiti was the first Latin-American nation to gain independence in 1804 from France. This result inspired several nations in the region in their struggle for independence. Mexico gained independence from Spain in 1821.
Culture of Haiti
Haiti's most famous monuments are the Sans-Souci Palace and the Citadelle Laferrière, inscribed as a World Heritage site in 1982. Situated in the Northern Massif de la Hotte, in one of Haiti's National Parks, the structures date from the early 19th century. The buildings were among the first to be built after Haiti's independence from France.
Hispaniola
The name Haïti was adopted by Haitian revolutionary Jean-Jacques Dessalines in 1804, as the official name of independent Saint-Domingue, as a tribute to the Amerindian predecessors. It was also adopted as the official name of independent Santo Domingo, as the Republic of Spanish Haiti, a state that existed from November 1821 until its annexation by Haiti in February 1822.
CARICOM Single Market and Economy
Haiti’s Parliament ratified the Revised Treaty of Chaguaramas in October 2007 and Haitian Foreign Minister Jean Renald Clerisme presented the published Notice of Ratification to the Chairman of the Caribbean Community Council of Ministers, on 7 February clearing the way for the country’s full participation in the CSME on 8 February 2008. Haiti has not completed its implementation of the Revised Treaty of Chaguaramas and is therefore not a full participant in the Single Market and Economy. In keeping with the thrust to rebuild the country following the 2010 earthquake and earlier 2004 political crisis, work has also continued on preparing Haiti to participate effectively in the CSME. It is being assisted in its preparations by the Secretariat, led by the CARICOM Representation Office in Haiti (CROH) which was re-opened in 2007 with funding from the Canadian International Development Agency (CIDA). The CROH, in 2007 started the Haiti CSME Project, the objective of which was to assist the Government of Haiti in accelerating its participation in the CSME as a means of enabling Haiti to fully re-engage in the process of regional integration in the Caribbean Community. 
As a first step towards the CSME, Haiti was due to enter the trade in goods regime of the Single Market in January 2010 (earlier targets had been for some time in 2009) but could not do so because of the earthquake. Up until that point much work had been done by CROH and its Haitian government counterpart, the Bureau de Coordination et de Suivi or BCS (Office of Coordination and Monitoring), on the technical work necessary to bring the Haitian national tariff in line with the Caricom Common External Tariff (CET). The next step that had to be taken for Haiti to commence full free trade in goods within the CSME was therefore for the Haitian Parliament to pass legislation adopting the Caricom External tariff as Haiti’s national tariff. In mid 2009, the Government of Haiti announced that it would be ready to participate fully in free trade in goods within the CSME by 1 January 2010; and in fact through a revised Custom Act adopted by the Haitian Parliament in late 2009, 20-30% of the Caricom CET was incorporated into the Haitian national tariff. However soon after Haiti's progress towards full adoption of the CET began to stall with the dismissal of the Government of Prime Minister Michèle Pierre-Louis in November 2009 and was then put on hold as a result of the January 2010 earthquake. To assist in stimulating economic activity, the Council for Trade and Economic Development (COTED) in December, approved a request for some Haitian products to be exported within the Single Market on a non-reciprocal preferential basis for three years. Consultations are on-going towards approval of additional items from an original list which Haiti submitted. The concession became effective from 1 January 2011. CARICOM Secretariat officials are continuing their training exercises with Haitian customs officials to facilitate their understanding of the CSME’s trading regime.
Ange René Armand, baron de Mackau
In command of "Circé", he was next directed to Haiti in order for it to accept the "Ordinance of Emancipation" of 17 April 1825, which partially recognized the independence of the formerly French half of the island (while leaving Haiti's occupation of the formerly Spanish half unrecognized, and in the event withholding full diplomatic recognition for another decade) while ordering, in return, five annual payments of ₣30 million in cash from the impoverished nation, opening of the ports to trade from all nations, and a tariff rate for French goods half that of any other nation. The Haitians particularly objected to the exemption of the Spanish section from any obligation or recognition under the treaty, a stipulation which would lead to the Dominican War of Independence, but being met by the addition squadrons under Admirals Jurien de la Gravière and Grivel and threatening French reconquest of the nation, Mackau obtained confirmation of the order.
Haiti
It is a founding member of the United Nations, Organization of American States (OAS), Association of Caribbean States, and the International Francophonie Organisation. In addition to CARICOM, it is a member of the International Monetary Fund, World Trade Organization, and the Community of Latin American and Caribbean States. It has the lowest Human Development Index in the Americas. Most recently, in February 2004, a "coup d'état" originating in the north of the country forced the resignation and exile of President Jean-Bertrand Aristide. A provisional government took control with security provided by the United Nations Stabilization Mission in Haiti (MINUSTAH).
The name Haiti (or "Hayti") comes from the indigenous Taíno language which was the native name given to the entire island of Hispaniola to mean, "land of high mountains." The "h" is silent in French and the "ï" in "Haïti", is a diacritical mark used to show that the second vowel is pronounced separately, as in the word "naïve". In English, this rule for the pronunciation is often disregarded, thus the spelling "Haiti" is used. There are different anglicizations for its pronunciation such as HIGH-ti, high-EE-ti and haa-EE-ti, which are still in use, but "HAY-ti" is the most widespread and best-established.
Blockade of Saint-Domingue
On 1 January 1804, Dessailines proclaimed the foundation of the new nation of Haiti, the first independent Caribbean nation since the days before European settlement.
History of Haitian nationality and citizenship
The development of Haitian nationality is marked by its declaration of independence on January 1, 1804. The Caribbean island won its independence from France after a period of harsh colonial rule in the first successful slave rebellion, making Haiti the second independent country in North America after the United States. As ideas of the French Revolution spread, a movement against the oppressive Black Code developed.
French colonization of the Americas
A major French settlement lay on the island of Hispaniola, where France established the colony of Saint-Domingue on the western third of the island in 1664. Nicknamed the "Pearl of the Antilles", Saint-Domingue became the richest colony in the Caribbean due to slave plantation production of sugar cane. It had the highest slave mortality rate in the western hemisphere. A 1791 slave revolt, the only ever successful slave revolt, began the Haitian Revolution, led to freedom for the colony's slaves in 1794 and, a decade later, complete independence for the country, which renamed itself Haiti. France briefly also ruled the eastern portion of the island, which is now the Dominican Republic.
First Empire of Haiti
The First Empire of Haiti (; Haitian Creole: "Anpi an Ayiti") was an elective monarchy in North America. Haiti was controlled by France before declaring independence on January 1, 1804. The Governor-General of Haiti, Jean-Jacques Dessalines, created the empire on September 22, 1804. Proclaiming himself Emperor Jacques I, he held his coronation ceremony on October 6. The constitution of May 20, 1805 set out the way the empire was to be governed, with the country split into six military divisions. The general of each division corresponded directly with the emperor, or the general in chief appointed by the emperor. The constitution also set out the succession to the throne, with the crown being elective and the reigning emperor having the power to appoint his successor. The constitution also banned white people, with the exception of naturalised Germans and Poles, from owning property inside the empire.
1804 Haiti massacre
On 1 January 1804, Dessalines proclaimed Haiti an independent nation. Dessalines later gave the order to all cities on Haiti that all white men should be put to death. The weapons used should be silent weapons such as knives and bayonets rather than gunfire, so that the killing could be done more quietly, and avoid warning intended victims by the sound of gunfire and thereby giving them the opportunity to escape.
Haiti
Toussaint Louverture, a former slave and leader in the slave revolt, drove out the Spanish (from Santo Domingo) and the British invaders who threatened the colony. In the uncertain years of revolution, the United States played both sides off against each other, with its traders supplying both the French and the rebels. The struggle within Haiti between the free people of color led by André Rigaud and the Haitians of African ancestry led by Louverture devolved into the War of the Knives in 1799 and 1800. Many surviving free people of color left the island as refugees.
After Louverture created a separatist constitution, Napoléon Bonaparte in 1802 sent an expedition of 20,000 soldiers and as many sailors under the command of his brother-in-law, General Charles Leclerc, to retake the island. The French achieved some victories, but within a few months, most of the French had died from yellow fever. More than 50,000 French troops died in an attempt to retake the colony, including 18 generals. The French captured Louverture, transporting him to France for trial. He was imprisoned at Fort de Joux, where he died in 1803 of exposure and possibly tuberculosis.
History of Haitian nationality and citizenship
The Republic of Haiti is located on western portion of the island Hispaniola in the Caribbean. Haiti declared its independence from France in the aftermath of the first successful slave revolution in the Americas in 1804, and their identification as conquerors of a racially repressed society is a theme echoed throughout Haiti's history.
Haiti
On 27 February 1846, President Riché died after only a few days of power and was replaced by an obscure officer, General Faustin Soulouque. During the first two years of Soulouque's administration the conspiracies and opposition he faced in retaining power were so manifold that the Dominicans were given a further breathing space in which to continue the re-organization of their country. But, when in 1848 France finally recognized the Dominican Republic as a free and independent state and provisionally signed a treaty of peace, friendship, commerce and navigation, Haiti immediately protested, claiming the treaty was an attack upon their own security. Soulouque decided to invade the east before the French Government could ratify the treaty.
Nord (Haitian department)
In 1804, Haiti declared itself a free republic but civil war broke out in the north under the leadership of Henri Christophe. Christophe declared the northern dominion a kingdom in 1811 and crowned himself King Henry I of Haiti.
In 1820, King Henry committed suicide after suffering a stroke that resulted in loss of control of his army and power. The area was re-claimed by Jean-Pierre Boyer, then the appointed president of Haiti, on October 26, 1820 after Haitian forces captured Cap-Haïtien, re-uniting Haiti.
Atlantic World
Independence movements in the New World began with the American Revolution, 1775-1783, in which France, the Netherlands and Spain assisted the new United States of America as it secured independence from Britain. In August 1791 a coordinated slave uprising in the wealthy French sugar colony of St. Domingue began the Haitian Revolution. A long and destructive period of international warfare there came to a close with the creation of Haiti as an independent black republic in 1804. It has a complex and contested legacy as the largest successful slave revolt in history and was accompanied by widespread violence. With Spain tied down in European wars, the mainland Spanish colonies waged independence movements over a long period from 1806 to 1830, sometimes inspired by, but often fearful of, the Haitian example, which delayed effective independence movements in the slave societies of the Caribbean and Brazil until the late-nineteenth century and later.
Demographics of Haiti
Haiti is one of two independent nations in the Americas (along with Canada) to designate French as an official language; the other French-speaking areas are all overseas "départements", or "collectivités," of France. Haitian Creole, which has recently undergone a standardization, is spoken by virtually the entire population of Haiti. It is related to the other French creoles, but most closely to Antillean Creole and Louisiana Creole variants.
Haiti indemnity controversy
In 2003, President of Haiti Jean-Bertrand Aristide demanded that France pay Haiti over 21 billion U.S. dollars, what he said was the equivalent in today's money of the 90 million gold francs Haiti was forced to pay Paris after winning its freedom from France.
"Some analysts believe that France's refusal to support the deployment of an international peacekeeping force to Haiti until after the president's departure was linked to Aristide's demand for reparations, which were unpopular in Paris."
Jean-Jacques Dessalines
In declaring Haiti an independent country, Dessalines also abolished slavery in the new country. Thus, Haiti became the first country in the Americas to permanently abolish slavery. Dessalines tried hard to keep the sugar industry and plantations running and producing without slavery. Born into slavery and having worked under white masters for 30 years, as well as having seen many atrocities by all peoples, Dessalines did not trust the white French people. Between February and April 1804, he had the white Haitian minority killed by ordering the 1804 Haiti Massacre. Dessalines declared Haiti an all-black nation and forbade whites from owning property or land there.
Haiti
In French, Haiti's nickname is the "Pearl of the Antilles" ("La Perle des Antilles") because of both its natural beauty, and the amount of wealth it accumulated for the Kingdom of France; during the 18th century the colony was the world's leading producer of sugar and coffee.
History of colonialism
The Haitian Revolution, a slave revolt led by Toussaint L'Ouverture in the French colony of Saint-Domingue, established Haïti as a free, black republic, the first of its kind. Haiti became the second independent nation that was a former European colony in the Western Hemisphere after the United States. Africans and people of African ancestry freed themselves from slavery and colonization by taking advantage of the conflict among whites over how to implement the reforms of the French Revolution in this slave society. Although independence was declared in 1804, it was not until 1825 that it was formally recognized by King Charles X of France.
Haitian Declaration of Independence
A similar attempt to attain independence was carried out on the night of 21 August 1791, when the slaves of Saint Domingue rose in revolt and plunged the colony into civil war. Within the next ten days, slaves had taken control of the entire Northern Province in an unprecedented slave revolt. However, the Legislative Assembly in France granted rights to the free people of colour, in addition to dispatching 6,000 French soldiers to the island. As a result, a complete secession from France was not undertaken at the time, and only came into effect after slavery was brought back.
Thomas Jefferson and slavery
That year and once the Haitians declared independence in 1804, President Jefferson had to deal with strong hostility to the new nation by his southern-dominated Congress. He shared planters' fears that the success of Haiti would encourage similar slave rebellions and widespread violence in the South. Historian Tim Matthewson noted that Jefferson faced a Congress "hostile to Haiti", and that he "acquiesced in southern policy, the embargo of trade and nonrecognition, the defense of slavery internally and the denigration of Haiti abroad." Jefferson discouraged emigration by American free blacks to the new nation. European nations also refused to recognize Haiti when the new nation declared independence in 1804. In his short biography of Jefferson in 2005, Christopher Hitchens noted the president was "counterrevolutionary" in his treatment of Haiti and its revolution.
Canada–Haiti relations
Canada and Haiti only officially established diplomatic relations in 1954 when Edward Ritchie Bellemare was appointed Chargé d'Affaires of the Canadian Embassy in Haiti. From 1957 to 1986, the Duvalier family reigned as dictators. They created the private army and terrorist death squads known as Tonton Macoutes. Many Haitians fled to exile in the United States and Canada, especially French-speaking Quebec. In the 1991 Canadian census, nearly 44,000 people described themselves as being of Haitian origin. By 2006, Canada had over 100,000 residents of Haitian origin.
Haitian Revolution
The Revolution in Haiti did not wait on the Revolution in France. The call for modification of society was influenced by the revolution in France, but once the hope for change found a place in the hearts of the Haitian people, there was no stopping the radical reformation that was occurring. The Enlightenment ideals and the initiation of the French Revolution were enough to inspire the Haitian Revolution, which evolved into the most successful and comprehensive slave rebellion in history. Just as the French were successful in transforming their society, so were the Haitians. On April 4, 1792, The French National Assembly granted freedom to slaves in saint-Domingue. The revolution culminated in 1804; Haiti was an independent nation solely of freed peoples. The activities of the revolutions sparked change across the world. France's transformation was most influential in Europe, and Haiti's influence spanned every location that continued to practice slavery. John E. Baur honors Haiti as home of the most influential revolution in history.
LGBT rights in Haiti
The French Penal Code of 1791, adopted between 25 September and 6 October 1791, extended to Saint-Domingue. When Haiti became independent from France in 1804, no law that criminalising consensual same-sex sexual acts was introduced, and no such law has come into the penal code since.
Oswald Durand
In "Epopee des Aïeux" he reveals himself as a patriot of the Haitian nation. In his text, he extols the exploits of our ancestors who bravely fight to free slaves from slavery. He presents the history of his country as being the most wonderful of ancient stories with glorious facts. Lucmane Vieux in his article Poetry / Battle of Vertieres describes Oswald Durand 's Epopee des Aieux. Lucmane Vieux presented a passage from Oswald Durand text and stated that: “Dessalines, one leap, is in the West. His powerful heels do not spare anything. More whites, more colonists! The slaves of yesterday, the damned Africans, were then masters of Quisqueya the beautiful. Here Dessalines is clearly identified for his accomplishments in the West” (Vieux). Jean-Jacques Dessalines was the one who continued the revolution after the death of Toussaint Louverture. He fought the powerful French army and proclaimed the independence of the country on January 1, 1804. He ordered the slaughter of all white Haitians and declared that Haiti was an all-black nation. It prohibited whites from acquiring land and property Jean-Jacques Dessalines.
Haiti
Haitian politics have been contentious: since independence, Haiti has suffered 32 coups. Haiti is the only country in the Western Hemisphere to undergo a successful slave revolution, but a long history of oppression by dictators—including François Duvalier and his son Jean-Claude Duvalier—has markedly affected the nation. France, the United States and other Western countries have repeatedly intervened in Haitian politics since the country's founding, sometimes at the request of one party or another. Along with international financial institutions, they have imposed large quantities of debt. Haiti has so much foreign debt that payments have rivaled the available government budget for social sector spending. There have been criticisms of financial institutions for enforcing trade policies on Haiti, which are considered by some to be detrimental to local industry.
Haitian Declaration of Independence
For the white Creole revolutionaries, the declaration of independence connoted to political autonomy. Nevertheless, the ensuing 1804 Haiti massacre meant that their aims were not fulfilled, and Haiti became the first black sovereign state. The massacre—which took place in the entire territory of Haiti—was carried out from early February 1804 until 22 April 1804. During February and March, Dessalines travelled among the cities of Haiti to assure himself that his orders were carried out. This ensured that the social and political power then rested with the blacks and those of mixed-descent, thereby completely changing the status quo post-independence. As such, emancipation gave Dessalines an avenue to exercise revenge on the former slave-owners, who were systematically persecuted.
Territorial evolution of the Caribbean
In Haiti The native leader Jean-Jacques Dessalines, long an ally of Toussaint Louverture, defeated the French troops led by Donatien-Marie-Joseph de Vimeur, vicomte de Rochambeau at the Battle of Vertières. At the end of the double battle for emancipation and independence, former slaves proclaimed the independence of Saint-Domingue on 1 January 1804, declaring the new nation as Haiti, honoring one of the indigenous Taíno names for the island. Haiti was consequently the first country in the Western Hemisphere to abolish slavery. Dessalines was proclaimed Emperor for life by his troops.
Joseph Balthazar Inginac
Joseph Balthazar Inginac is most remembered for serving as secretary for President Jean Pierre Boyer. At the time of its independence in 1804, Haiti was not officially recognized by any other nations in the world. Inginac, as the secretary of state for Haiti, made the attempt to get official recognition for the nation by other nations. This was not easy at a time when blacks were believed inherently inferior from whites; and Haiti, as an affront to this belief, was scorned for being the product of the only successful slave revolt in history. Inginac first attempted to get recognition from the United States, as a precursor to the emigration of free American blacks from that nation. At that time, the American Colonization Society was trying to find a new home for American blacks that had been freed from slavery and were not welcomed in American society. After the plan to send them to Liberia on the western coast of Africa proved too costly, Haiti was presented as a viable alternative for black asylum; also, Haiti had the advantage of being a place for civilized blacks, where the former American slaves could greater assimilate to their new environment. This, Haitian envoy Jonathas Granville assured the American Colonization Society, would not be difficult because land was granted freely for black American settlement; English was understood in Haiti; the new arrivals would not be proselytized; and the nation, it was said, would provide easy money for everyone willing to work—especially artisans, who were needed in Haiti. The Haitian president, Jean-Pierre Boyer, paid for the transportation of the freed blacks to Haiti personally with “fifty thousand weight of coffee.” They were settled there in 1824. The venture ultimately failed, however, because the emigrants could not overcome the language difficulties; experienced persecution from the Haitian natives; and while the land was fertile, Haiti currency was virtually worthless. Most of the emigrants, who numbered about 6,000 before the Haitian emigration was suspended, returned to the United States, where their living conditions were much better.
France–Haiti relations
The first French to arrive to Haiti were pirates who began to use the island of Tortuga (northern Haiti) in 1625 as a base and settlement for raids against Spanish ships. In 1663, French settlers founded a colony in Léogâne, on the western portion of Hispaniola. After the Nine Years' War in 1697, Spain ceded the western portion of Hispaniola (present day Haiti) with the signing of the Treaty of Ryswick that same year and France named the colony Saint-Domingue. The colony was France's most productive and richest colony and was made to grow primarily tobacco, indigo, sugar, cotton, and cacao using the labor of slaves from Africa as a result of the near extinction of the Taíno people.
Joseph Balthazar Inginac
Inginac also worked to establish diplomatic relations between Haiti and Great Britain; he favored Great Britain among all of the great world powers because it was the British who supported Haitian independence. But this was achieved only after the stinging defeat in which the British recognized other Latin American republics in the 1820s before acknowledging Haiti. The British were reluctant to acknowledge Haiti because they were wary about whether Haiti would be able to maintain its independence from France. Nevertheless, a British envoy was eventually sent to Haiti, but while Inginac was present to greet the arriving consul, Charles Mackenzie, Haitian President Jean-Pierre Boyer refused to acknowledge the new ambassador because of the insults that Haiti withstood from the British. It would seem that Inginac did not have the cooperation of the Haitian leader in foreign affairs. Not only that, the alliance of the British and the Haitians was made even more unstable because of the peculiar Haitian economic laws; as well as the fact that Inginac was looking for a system in which Haiti would become an English protectorate—just what the English did not want to happen. After the English opened official diplomatic relations with Haiti, other European nations followed; but Haiti was still an outcast in the Latin American community, and was left out of the Congress of Panama in 1826.
Age of Revolution
The Haitian Revolution was a slave revolt in the French colony of Saint-Domingue, which culminated in the elimination of slavery there and the founding of the Republic of Haiti. The Haitian Revolution was the only slave revolt which led to the founding of a state. Furthermore, it is generally considered the most successful slave rebellion ever to have occurred and as a defining moment in the histories of both Europe and the Americas. The rebellion began with a revolt of black African slaves in August 1791. It ended in November 1803 with the French defeat at the battle of Vertières. Haiti became an independent country on January 1, 1804.
Latin American wars of independence
Toussaint L'Ouverture was born a slave in Saint-Domingue where he developed labor skills that would give him higher privileges than other slaves. He intellectually and physically advanced resulting in promotion,land of his own, and owning slaves. In 1791, slaves in Haiti formed a revolution to seek independence from their French owners. L'Ouverture joined the rebellion as a top military official with the intention to abolish slavery without complete independence. However, through a series of letters written by Toussaint, it became clear that he grew open to an equal human rights for all that live in Haiti. Similar to the to how the United States Constitution was ratified, the enlightenment ideas of equality and representation of the people created an impact of change against the status quo that sparked the revolution. 
The letter details the great concerns of he felt due to a conservative shift in France’s legislature after the revolution in 1797. The greatest fear was that these conservative values could give ideas to the French Government to bring back slavery. The enlightenment has proven to forever change the way a captive society thinks after L’Ouverture refuses to let the French send him and his people back into slavery. “...when finally the rule of law took the place of anarchy under which the unfortunate colony had too long suffered, what fatality can have led the greatest enemy of its prosperity and our happiness still to dare to threaten us with the return of slavery?” Ultimately, slavery was abolished from French colonies in 1794 and Haiti declared Independence from France in 1804.When Mexico achieved its independence in 1821 with the Treaty of Córdoba, the Captaincy General of Guatemala that had ruled Central America became politically independent as well, without the necessity of violent struggle. Guatemala declared its own independence September 15, 1821, likely to prevent the Mexican Army of the Three Guarantees from "liberating" Guatemala and over-riding nascent local autonomy. However, Guatemala chose to be annexed to the First Mexican Empire, led by royalist-turned-insurgent military leader Agustín de Iturbide, who was proclaimed emperor of Mexico in 1822. When Iturbide abdicated from the monarchy and Mexico took steps to be a republic, Central America claimed its independence.
The Cuban War of Independence was the last of three liberation wars that Cuba fought against Spain, the other two being the Ten Years' War (1868–1878) and the Little War (1879–1880). The final three months of the conflict escalated to become the Spanish–American War.A contingent of US Navy ships blockaded several Cuban ports. The Americans decided to invade Cuba and to start in Oriente, where the Cubans had control.
History of Haiti
Almost two years after Boyer had consolidated power in the west, in 1821, Santo Domingo declared independence from Spain and requested from Simón Bolívar inclusion in the Gran Colombia. Boyer, however, responding to a party on the east that preferred Haiti over Colombia, occupied the ex-Spanish colony in January 1822, encountering no military resistance. In this way he accomplished the unity of the island, which was only carried out for a short period of time by Toussaint Louverture in 1801. Boyer's occupation of the Spanish side also responded to internal struggles among Christophe's generals, to which Boyer gave extensive powers and lands in the east. This occupation, however, pitted the Spanish white elite against the iron fisted Haitian administration, and stimulated the emigration of many white wealthy families. The entire island remained under Haitian rule until 1844, when in the east a nationalist group called La Trinitaria led a revolt that partitioned the island into Haiti on the west and Dominican Republic on the east, based on what would appear to be a riverine territorial 'divide' from the pre-contact period.
Poverty in Haiti
Poverty in Haiti affects its people in many aspects of everyday life, including housing, nutrition, education, healthcare, infant mortality rates, as well as environment. Haiti has constantly been plagued with low levels of living conditions, with many Haitians moving into the capital city of Port-au-Prince in a bid to escape poverty in the more rural areas of the country. Levels of poverty in Haiti are generally regarded as among the most severe in the western hemisphere. An important cause of this poverty is the debt they 'owed' to France after fighting for their independence; France demanded a payment of 150 million francs ($20 billion dollars) as 'compensation' for the profit they lost when Haitians freed themselves from slavery on plantations producing coffee and sugar. Most of this was still being paid until 1947.
External debt of Haiti
In 2015, France forgave about US $77 million in a modern debt, unrelated to independence. In 2004, the Haitian government demanded that France repay Haiti for the millions of dollars paid between 1825 and 1947 as compensation for the slaves' freedom. In 2015, the French government rejected this plan and said that it would consider investing in the country.
Haitian Declaration of Independence
Although the declaration repeatedly alluded to "freedom from slavery", there was no mention of "republican rights" within the text. As a result, the new nation under Dessalines came to be known as the l’État d’Haïti (The State of Haiti), rather than the Haitian Republic. Following independence, Dessalines accorded all power to himself as the "head of state", which was made possible by the support of the 17 senior officials that signed the third section of the declaration.
Jean-Jacques Dessalines
On 1 January 1804, from the city of Gonaïves, Dessalines officially declared the former colony's independence and renamed it ""Ayiti"" after the indigenous Taíno name. His choice of Haiti as name of the new country reflected a sense of solidarity between the indigenous peoples of what we now call "the Americas" and the enslaved African population toiling throughout the Western Hemisphere against the violent European settler colonies and settler nations (i.e. the newly independent United States of America) responsible for the misery of both of the two groups listed earlier. He had served as Governor-General of Saint-Domingue since 30 November 1803. After the declaration of independence, Dessalines named himself Governor-General-for-life of Haiti and served in that role until 22 September 1804, when he was proclaimed later Emperor of Haiti by the Generals of the Haitian Revolution Army. He was crowned Emperor Jacques I in a coronation ceremony on 6 October in the city of Le Cap. On 20 May 1805, his government released the Imperial Constitution, naming Jean-Jacques Dessalines emperor for life with the right to name his successor.
Slavery in Haiti
In 1817, a Haitian ship seized a Spanish slave ship bound for Cuba which had entered Haiti's waters, and, acting on standing government orders, brought it ashore. All 171 captive Africans were liberated and joyfully accepted into Haitian society, and President Jean-Pierre Boyer himself served as their godfather. The ship's captain, and later Cuban officials, protested to Boyer that his trade was legal, but Boyer maintained that the 1816 constitution decreed there could be no slaves in Haitian territory, and no reimbursement could be given for their value. Slave ships had also been seized and their human cargo freed under previous leaders Christophe and Alexandre Pétion, and slaves who managed to take control of ships and arrive in Haiti were given asylum. Slavers quickly learned to avoid Haiti's waters.
In 1825 France sent an armada to Haiti and threatened to blockade the country, preventing trade unless Boyer agreed to pay France 150,000,000 francs to reimburse it for losses of "property" — mostly its slaves. In exchange, France would recognize Haiti as an independent nation, which it had thus far refused to do. Boyer agreed without making the decision public beforehand, a move which met with widespread outrage in Haiti. The amount was reduced to 90,000,000 francs in 1838, equivalent to USD $19 billion in 2015. Haiti was saddled with this debt until 1947, and forced to forgo spending on humanitarian programs such as sanitation. In 1838, an estimated 30% of the country's yearly budget went to debt, and in 1900, the amount had risen to 80%. Haiti took out loans from Germany, the U.S., and France itself to come up with this money, further increasing its debt burden and those countries' centrality in the Haitian economy.
Sans-Souci Palace
Close to the Palace is the renowned mountaintop fortress; the Citadelle Laferrière, built under decree by Henri Christophe to repel a feared French invasion that never occurred. It is reached by continuing on the trail behind the Palace. France, the former colonial power in Haiti, recognized Haiti's independence in 1825 when Haiti agreed to pay a ruinous indemnity of 150 million francs in return for diplomatic and economic relations.
Dominican Republic–Haiti relations
A group of Dominican military officers favored uniting the newly independent nation with Haiti, as they sought for political stability under Haitian president Jean-Pierre Boyer. The Dominicans were unaware that Boyer made a concession with the French, and agreed to pay France for the lost territory of Haiti. Boyer agreed to pay a sum of 150 million Francs (more than twice what France had charged the United States for the much larger Louisiana territory in 1803) thus the Haitians would essentially be forced into paying to maintain their freedom from the French.
Slavery in the British and French Caribbean
After Great Britain abolished slavery, it began to pressure other nations to do the same. France finally abolished slavery in 1848. By then Saint-Domingue had already won its independence and formed the independent Republic of Haiti. French-controlled islands were then limited to a few smaller islands in the Lesser Antilles.
Emperor
Haiti was declared an empire by its ruler, Jean-Jacques Dessalines, who made himself Jacques I, on 20 May 1805. He was assassinated the next year. Haiti again became an empire from 1849 to 1859 under Faustin Soulouque.
Haiti
Haiti has always been a literary nation that has produced poetry, novels, and plays of international recognition. The French colonial experience established the French language as the venue of culture and prestige, and since then it has dominated the literary circles and the literary production. However, since the 18th century there has been a sustained effort to write in Haitian Creole. The recognition of Creole as an official language has led to an expansion of novels, poems, and plays in Creole. In 1975, Franketienne was the first to break with the French tradition in fiction with the publication of "Dezafi," the first novel written entirely in Haitian Creole. The work offers a poetic picture of Haitian life.
Haitian diaspora
Haitian immigrants have constituted a very visible segment of American and Canadian society, dating back to before the independence of Haiti from France in 1804. Haiti's proximity to the United States, and its status as a free black republic in the years before the American Civil War, have contributed to this relationship. Many influential early American settlers and black freemen, including Jean Baptiste Point du Sable and W. E. B. Du Bois, were of Haitian origin.
France–Americas relations
On August 22, 1791, a widespread slave rebellion began the Haitian Revolution, which culminated with the establishment of the independent Empire of Haiti in 1804.
External debt of Haiti
Later, the corrupt Duvalier dynasty added to the country's debts, and is believed to have used the money to expand their power and for their personal benefits. In the early 21st century, and especially after the devastating earthquake in 2010, the World Bank and some other governments forgave the remaining parts of Haiti's debts. France forgave a more recent loan with a balance of US $77 million, but has refused to consider repaying the independence debt.
Tahiti
Tahiti is part of French Polynesia. French Polynesia is a semi-autonomous territory of France with its own assembly, president, budget and laws. France's influence is limited to subsidies, education and security.
Haiti
Monuments include the Sans-Souci Palace and the Citadelle Laferrière, inscribed as a World Heritage site in 1982. Situated in the Northern Massif du Nord, in one of Haiti's National Parks, the structures date from the early 19th century. The buildings were among the first built after Haiti's independence from France.
Haiti
In the midst of the French Revolution (1789–99), slaves and free people of color revolted in the Haitian Revolution (1791–1804), culminating in the abolition of slavery and the defeat of Napoleon Bonaparte's army at the Battle of Vertières. Afterward the sovereign state of Haiti was established on 1 January 1804—the first independent nation of Latin America and the Caribbean, the second republic in the Americas, and the only nation in the world established as a result of a successful slave revolt. The rebellion that began in 1791 was led by a former slave and the first black general of the French Army, Toussaint Louverture, whose military genius and political acumen transformed an entire society of slaves into an independent country. Upon his death in a prison in France, he was succeeded by his lieutenant, Jean-Jacques Dessalines, who declared Haiti's sovereignty and later became the first Emperor of Haiti, Jacques I. The Haitian Revolution lasted just over a dozen years; and apart from Alexandre Pétion, the first President of the Republic, all the first leaders of government were former slaves. The Citadelle Laferrière is the largest fortress in the Americas. Henri Christophe—former slave and first king of Haiti, Henri I—built it to withstand a possible foreign attack.
List of colonial governors of Saint-Domingue
Since 1659, Saint-Domingue (now the Republic of Haiti), was a French colony, recognized by Spain on September 20, 1697. From September 20, 1793 to October 1798 parts of the island were under British occupation.
For continuation after independence, "see:" List of heads of state of Haiti
Coronations in the Americas
Jean-Jacques Dessalines, one of the founding fathers of Haiti, proclaimed himself Emperor of Haiti soon after its independence. He was crowned on 6 October 1804 in Le Cap, but was assassinated two years later. A Kingdom of Haiti was established in 1811 by Henri Christophe, another leader in the Haitian independence struggle. He was crowned in June 1811 in a lavish ritual presided over by Archbishop Corneil Breuil of Milot, but committed suicide in 1820. Faustin-Élie Soulouque later proclaimed himself to be Emperor Faustin I of Haiti; he was crowned in an extremely elaborate ceremony held in Port-au-Prince on 18 April 1852, but was forced to abdicate in 1859, bringing his nascent Haitian "imperium" to an end.
Free people of color
Free people of color were leaders in the French colony of Saint-Domingue, which achieved independence in 1804 as the Republic of Haiti. In Saint-Domingue, Martinique, Guadeloupe, and other French Caribbean colonies before slavery was abolished, the free people of color were known as "gens de couleur libres", and "affranchis". Comparable groups became an important part of the populations of British Jamaica, the Spanish Captaincy General of Santo Domingo, Cuba, Puerto Rico, and Portuguese Brazil.
Ady Jean-Gardy
Ady Jean-Gardy has received several international decorations from Mali, Benin, Togo, Guinea, the Ivory Coast, the Federal Republic of Germany, France, the United States, and Latin America. He received an Award in Florida after inspiring American authorities to introduce Haitian History in Floridian schools. Following his recommendations, the Mayor of Miami Dade County, former Chief of Police, Carlos Alvarez published an official degree recognizing January as the month of Haiti's Independence.
Kingdom of Haiti
The Northern Kingdom of Haiti (French: Royaume d'Haïti, Haitian Creole: Ini an Ayiti) was the state established by Henri Christophe on 28 March 1811 when he was self-proclaimed as King Henri I after having previously ruled as president. This was Haiti's second attempt at monarchical rule, as Jean-Jacques Dessalines had previously ruled over the Empire of Haiti. Following the assassination of Emperor Jacques, the country was split. Henri ruled over the north of the country as President of the State of Haiti and Alexandre Pétion, a free person of color, ruled as President of the Republic of Haiti in the south.
Unification of Hispaniola
During the second half of the eighteenth century the French side of the island quickly developed into the most prosperous plantation colony of the New World. French Saint-Domingue was dubbed the "Pearl of the Antilles", as a result of the sugar plantations worked by African slaves; sugar had become an indispensable commodity in Europe. By the Peace of Basel of 22 July 1795, Spain ceded its two-third of the island to France in exchange for the return of the province of Guipuzcoa occupied by the French since 1793. Although Hispaniola was now unified under a single administration, it proved difficult for the French to consolidate their rule since their part of the island had been experiencing uprisings by elite mulattos and black freedman since 1791, and in 1804 the leader of the Haitian revolution, Jean-Jacques Dessalines, declared Haiti's independence. Independence did not come easily, given the fact that Haiti had been France's most profitable colony.
History of the Caribbean
Haiti, the former French colony of Saint-Domingue on Hispaniola, was the first Caribbean nation to gain independence from European powers in 1804. This followed 13 years of war that started as a slave uprising in 1791 and quickly turned into the Haitian Revolution under the leadership of Toussaint l'Ouverture, where the former slaves defeated the French army (twice), the Spanish army, and the British army, before becoming the world's first and oldest black republic, and also the second-oldest republic in the Western Hemisphere after the United States. This is additionally notable as being the only successful slave uprising in history. The remaining two-thirds of Hispaniola were conquered by Haitian forces in 1821. In 1844, the newly formed Dominican Republic declared its independence from Haiti.
History of Haitian nationality and citizenship
Prior to the Haitian Revolution, Haiti had been the United States' second largest trading partner, second only to Great Britain. However, in the early nineteenth century America was very much a slave society, and balked at the idea of supporting a slave revolt that took over a nation. The United States was divided; merchants wanted to continue trade while southern slave owners wanted to isolate or even repress the new Haitians. Until Jean-Pierre Boyer unified Haiti in 1820, commercial relations were limited. As the American Civil War progressed and the United States' stance on black liberation began to shift, so did their views of Haiti and Liberia (another free black country). As an imperialistic nation, the US had trouble with a nation that granted civil status to whom they deemed unworthy; while they had slavery, the US could not recognize Haiti.
Hispaniola
Under Napoleon, France reimposed slavery in most of its Caribbean islands in 1802 and sent an army to bring Saint-Domingue under tighter control. However, thousands of the French troops succumbed to yellow fever during the summer months, and more than half of the French army died because of disease. After the French removed the surviving 7,000 troops in late 1803, the leaders of the revolution declared western Hispaniola the new nation of independent Haiti in early 1804. France continued to rule Spanish Santo Domingo. In 1805, Haitian troops of General Henri Christophe tried to conquer all of Hispaniola. They invaded Santo Domingo and sacked the towns of Santiago de los Caballeros and Moca, killing most of their residents, but news of a French fleet sailing towards Haiti forced General Christophe to withdraw from the east, leaving it in French hands. In 1808, following Napoleon's invasion of Spain, the criollos of Santo Domingo revolted against French rule and, with the aid of the United Kingdom, returned Santo Domingo to Spanish control. Fearing the influence of a society that had successfully fought and won against their enslavers, the United States and European powers refused to recognize Haiti, the second republic in the Western Hemisphere. France demanded a high payment for compensation to slaveholders who lost their property, and Haiti was saddled with unmanageable debt for decades. It became one of the poorest countries in the Americas, while the Dominican Republic gradually has developed into the one of the largest economies of Central America and the Caribbean.
Blockade of Saint-Domingue
On 3 November, the frigate HMS "Blanche" captured a supply schooner near Cap Français, and by the end of the month the garrison was starving, agreeing terms with Dessalines that permitted them to safely evacuate provided they had left the port by 1 December. Commodore Loring however refused the French permission to sail. The French commander Rochambeau procrastinated until the last possible moment, but eventually was forced to surrender to the British commander. One of Rochambeau's ships was almost wrecked while leaving the harbour, but was saved by a British lieutenant acting alone, who not only rescued the 900 people on board, but also refloated the ship. At Môle-Saint-Nicolas, General Louis de Noailles refused to surrender and instead sailed to Havana, Cuba in a fleet of small vessels on 3 December, but was intercepted and mortally wounded by a Royal Navy frigate. The few remaining French-held towns in Saint-Domingue surrendered soon afterwards, and on 1 January 1804 the new independent nation of Haiti was declared.
Christianity in Haiti
Under French rule, Capuchins and Jesuits did most of the missionary work in the 18th century. From 1804, when independence was declared, until 1860, the country was in schism. Relations were regularized by a concordat concluded in 1860, when an archdiocese and four dioceses were established. Most of the population of Haiti adheres to the Catholic faith, though some combine this with elements of vodou.
Emile Saint-Lot
He served as the first ambassador of Haiti to the United Nations, and a member of the security council responsible for voting on the independence of countries. He was decisive for the independence of Somalia, Israel, and Libya. As for the latter, he was convinced by Ali Aneizi, member of the Liberation of Libya committee, to vote against , a plan to make the three regions of Libya (Tripolitania, Cyrenaica, Fezzan) under the trusteeship of three countries (Italy, United Kingdom, France respectively). The necessary votes to adopt the plan was never attained as a result of Saint-Lot voting against it.
Fort-Liberté
Fort-Liberté () is a commune and administrative capital of the Nord-Est department of Haiti. It is close to the border of the Dominican Republic and is one of the oldest cities in the country. Haiti's independence was proclaimed here on November 29, 1803.
Haitian Revolution
The Haitian Revolution ( ) was a successful anti-slavery and anti-colonial insurrection by self-liberated slaves against French colonial rule in Saint-Domingue, now the sovereign nation of Haiti. It began on 22 August 1791, and ended in 1804 with the former colony's independence. It involved blacks, mulattoes, French, Spanish, and British participants—with the ex-slave Toussaint L'Ouverture emerging as Haiti's most charismatic hero. It was the only slave uprising that led to the founding of a state which was both free from slavery, and ruled by non-whites and former captives. It is now widely seen as a defining moment in the history of racism in the Atlantic World.
Ebenezer Bassett
In nominating Bassett to become Minister Resident to Haiti (the title Ambassador would not be used by the U.S. until 1893), Grant appointed him as one of the highest-ranking blacks in the U.S. government. Bassett's accreditation to the "Black Republic" was no accident either. Though Haiti had gained its independence from France in 1804, it was not officially recognized by the United States until 1862. Southern resistance to a former colony governed by ex-slaves becoming a "nation" had prevented the United States from recognizing the country. With the Union victory in the Civil War, the US government wanted to improve bilateral relations, and believed the appointment of Bassett was a significant step, not only for his skills but for the symbolism of his appointment.
Decolonization
The Haitian Revolution was a slave uprising that began in 1791 in the French colony of Saint-Domingue, on the Caribbean island of Hispaniola. In 1804, Haiti secured independence from France as the Empire of Haiti, which later became a republic.
Outline of Haiti
The Haiti – sovereign country located on the Caribbean island of Hispaniola in the Greater Antilles archipelago. "Ayiti" ("Land of Mountains") was the indigenous Taíno name for Hispaniola. The Haitian Creole and French-speaking country of Haiti occupies the western extent of Hispaniola, while the Spanish-speaking Dominican Republic occupies the greater eastern extent of the island. Haiti was the first country of the Americas to win its freedom from European colonization in 1804. The country's highest point is Pic la Selle, at . The total area of Haiti is 27,750 square kilometres (10,714 sq mi) and its capital is Port-au-Prince.Geography of Haiti
Haiti
Haiti (; ; ), officially the Republic of Haiti (; ) and formerly called Hayti, is a country located on the island of Hispaniola, east of Cuba in the Greater Antilles archipelago of the Caribbean Sea. It occupies the western three-eighths of the island, which it shares with the Dominican Republic. Haiti is in size and has an estimated /1e6 round 1 million people, making it the most populous country in the Caribbean Community (CARICOM) and the second-most populous country in the Caribbean as a whole.
France–Haiti relations
In February 2010, French President Nicolas Sarkozy paid a visit to Haiti, the first by a French President. During his visit, President Sarkozy promised Haiti €230 million Euros in aid after the island nation suffered its worst earthquake in its history. President Sarkozy also announced the cancellation of €56 million Euros debt owed by Haiti to France. In May 2015, French President François Hollande paid an official visit to Haiti and promised $145 million USD in development projects within the island nation.
Haiti
The slaves, along with free "gens de couleur" and allies, continued their fight for independence. Jean-Jacques Dessalines defeated French troops at the Battle of Vertières on 18 November 1803, leading the first ever nation to successfully gain independence through a slave revolt. In late 1803, France withdrew its remaining 7,000 troops from the island and Napoleon gave up his idea of re-establishing a North American empire. With the war going badly, he sold Louisiana (New France) to the United States, in the Louisiana Purchase.
France–Haiti relations
France–Haiti relations are foreign relations between France and Haiti. Both nations are members of the Francophonie, United Nations, and the World Trade Organization.
Haiti–United States relations
After Haiti gained its independence from France in 1804, through slave rebellion, the pro-slavery south worried this event could influence slaves in the US, and America refused to recognize Haiti's independence until 1862. President Andrew Johnson suggested annexing the island to secure influence over Europe in the Caribbean. The US government never followed through, but did post active military on the island during this period. Through the nineteenth century, people who were mixed-race and blacks often entered into conflicts and called on foreign intervention. During this period according to historian Hans Schmidt, the U.S. Navy sent ships to Haiti 19 times between 1857 and 1913 to "protect American lives and property" until the United States finally occupied Haiti in 1915. One example of a US-Haiti conflict was the Môle Saint-Nicolas affair.
Hinche
On December 1, 1821 it was declared in Santo Domingo the independence of the Republic of Spanish Haiti by the European-born and Criollo white colonial aristocracy, but this action was not supported by the population with any degree of African descent (including many slaves and servants who were phenotypically white), who were wary of the rule of pure whites, and preferred to unite with the "French" Haiti, because there was no slavery. On late 1821 and early 1822, Haiti sent emissaries to the central and northern Spanish Haiti to promote the accession of the country to Haiti, and the people began to raise the Haitian flag on public buildings and plazas, among them Hincha, but also in another large cities like Puerto Plata (13 December 1821), Dajabón (15 December), Santiago (29 December) and La Vega (4 January 1822).The Haitian government proceed to annex the Eastern side of the island in February 1822 and the Haitian army entered in Santo Domingo city with no resistance on March 1, 1822, commanded by President Jean-Pierre Boyer. After political and economic crises and growing discontent, most people felt cheated. In 1844 the former Spanish Haiti declared its independence and became the Dominican Republic.
Haiti
Beginning in 1821, President Jean-Pierre Boyer, also an "homme de couleur" and successor to Pétion, reunified the island and extended control over the entire western portion of the island. In addition, after Santo Domingo declared its independence from Spain on 30 November 1821, Boyer sent forces in to take control. Boyer ruled the entire island and ended slavery in Santo Domingo. After Santo Domingo achieved independence from Haiti, it established a separate national identity.
Haiti–Taiwan relations
Haiti recognized Taiwan over China in 1956 and have since maintained formal diplomatic relations with Taiwan. Haiti is one of 18 nations that recognize Taiwan officially. In 2017, Dominican Republic choose to recognize the PRC over ROC, culminating in increased interest in Haiti among Taiwanese and Chinese governments. In 1993, China opened a commercial office in Haiti in a bid to start the process of formalizing diplomatic relations however it did not come to fruition. Taiwan, in a bid to maintain relations, has offered US$150 Million to Haiti for development of rural power grids, following the destruction of much of the infrastructure in the 2010 Haiti Earthquake.
Haitian Revolution
In 1807 Haiti was divided into two parts, the Republic of Haiti in the south, and the Kingdom of Haiti in the north. Land could not be privately owned; it reverted to the State through "Biens Nationaux" (national bonds), and no French whites could own land. The remaining French settlers were forced to leave the island. Those who refused were slaughtered. The Haitian State owned up to 90% of the land and the other 10% was leased in 5-year intervals.