Who is the founder of modern anatomy?
List of Dutch discoveries
Flemish anatomist and physician Andreas Vesalius is often referred to as the founder of modern human anatomy for the publication of the seven-volume "De humani corporis fabrica" ("On the Structure of the Human Body") in 1543.
Human body
In Ancient Greece, the "Hippocratic Corpus" described the anatomy of the skeleton and muscles. The 2nd century physician Galen of Pergamum compiled classical knowledge of anatomy into a text that was used throughout the Middle Ages.
In the Renaissance, Andreas Vesalius (1514–1564) pioneered the modern study of human anatomy by dissection, writing the influential book "De humani corporis fabrica". Anatomy advanced further with the invention of the microscope and the study of the cellular structure of tissues and organs. Modern anatomy uses techniques such as magnetic resonance imaging, computed tomography, fluoroscopy and ultrasound imaging to study the body in unprecedented detail.
Masaki Watanabe
Masaki Watanabe (渡辺 正毅, 1911 – 15 October 1995) was a Japanese orthopedic surgeon, sometimes called the "founder of modern arthroscopy". Watanabe developed the first practical arthroscope.
Daniel John Cunningham
Daniel John Cunningham M.D., D.C.L., LL. D. F.R.S., F.R.S.E. (15 April 1850 – 23 July 1909) was a Scottish physician, zoologist, and anatomist, famous for "Cunningham's Text-book of Anatomy" and "Cunningham's Manual of Practical Anatomy".
Adalbert Czerny
Adalbert Czerny (25 March 1863 – 3 October 1941) was an Austrian pediatrician and is considered co-founder of modern pediatrics. Several children's diseases were named after him.
Anatomy
Leonardo da Vinci (1452–1519) was trained in anatomy by Andrea del Verrocchio. He made use of his anatomical knowledge in his artwork, making many sketches of skeletal structures, muscles and organs of humans and other vertebrates that he dissected.
History of anatomy in the 19th century
Henry Gray, an English anatomist and surgeon at St. George's Hospital, published "Gray's Anatomy". With the artist abilities and help of Henry Vandyke Carter, Gray produced an inexpensive and accessible anatomy textbook for medical students. Dissecting unclaimed bodies from workhouse and hospital mortuaries through the Anatomy Act of 1832, the two worked for 18 months on what would form the basis of the book. Their work was first published in 1858.
Victor A. McKusick
Victor Almon McKusick (October 21, 1921 – July 22, 2008) was an American internist and medical geneticist, and Professor of Medicine at the Johns Hopkins Hospital, Baltimore. He was a proponent of the mapping of the human genome due to its use for studying congenital diseases. He is well known for his studies of the Amish and, what he called, "little people". He was the original author and, until his death, remained chief editor of Mendelian Inheritance in Man (MIM) and its online counterpart Online Mendelian Inheritance in Man (OMIM). He is widely known as the "father of medical genetics".
Léo Testut
He was born Jean Leo Testut on 22 March 1849, the son of Jean Testut and Marie Deynat. He studied medicine in Bordeaux. His studies were interrupted because of the Franco-Prussian war of 1870; he was readmitted to the Bordeaux School of Medicine in 1878. He completed his studies with a thesis for which he obtained medals from several universities in France. He was named Professor of Anatomy of the Bordeaux School of Medicine and continued his investigations in anthropology in other universities. He contributed over 90 publications on anatomy, anthropology, prehistory and history, but his most noteworthy achievement has been as author of "Traité d´anatomie humaine", a complete, well-written, and well-illustrated work of anatomy composed of four volumes that continues to be used in many countries to the present day. The illustrations present in this book continue to be a major source of reference to other anatomy books. The book is well-known in medical schools, where it is considered the standard anatomy textbook. He collected the material published from personal notes and drawings after having failed anatomy exams several times during medical school, until he finally passed.
Bernhard Siegfried Albinus
Albinus was born at Frankfurt an der Oder, where his father, Bernhard Albinus (1653–1721), was professor of the practice of medicine. In 1702 the latter was transferred to the chair of medicine at Leiden University, and it was there that Bernhard Siegfried began his studies in 1709, at the age of 12, having for his teachers such men as Boerhaave and Nikolaus Bidloo. Having finished his studies at Leiden, he went to Paris, where, under the instruction of Sebastien Vaillant (1669–1722), Jacob Winslow (1669–1760) and others, he devoted himself especially to anatomy and botany. After a year's absence he was, on the recommendation of Boerhaave, recalled in 1719 to Leiden to be a lecturer on anatomy and surgery. Two years later he succeeded his father in the professorship of these subjects, and speedily became one of the most famous teachers of anatomy in Europe, his classroom being resorted to not only by students but by many practising physicians. In 1745 Albinus was appointed professor of the practice of medicine, being succeeded in the anatomical chair by his brother Frederick Bernhard (1715–1778), who, as well as another brother, Christian Bernhard (1700–1752), attained considerable distinction. Bernhard Siegfried, who was twice rector of his university, died at Leiden.
Albinus is perhaps best known for his monumental "Tabulae sceleti et musculorum corporis humani", which was first published in Leiden in 1747, largely at his own expense. The artist and engraver with whom Albinus did nearly all of his work was Jan Wandelaar (1690–1759). In an attempt to increase the scientific accuracy of anatomical illustration, Albinus and Wandelaar devised a new technique of placing nets with square webbing at specified intervals between the artist and the anatomical specimen and copying the images using the grid patterns. "Tabulae" was highly criticized by such scholars as Petrus Camper, especially for the whimsical backgrounds added to many of the pieces by Wandelaar, but Albinus staunchly defended Wandelaar.
Modern archaeology
Johann Joachim Winckelmann was one of the founders of scientific archaeology and first applied the categories of style on a large, systematic basis to the history of art. He was "the prophet and founding hero of modern archaeology". The next major figure in the development of archaeology was Mortimer Wheeler, whose highly disciplined approach to excavation and systematic coverage in the 1920s and 1930s brought the science into the modern era. Wheeler developed the grid system of excavation, which was further improved on by his student Kathleen Kenyon. The two constant themes in their attempts to improve archaeological excavation were first, to maintain strict stratigraphic control while excavating (for this purpose, the baulks between trenches served to retain a record of the strata that had been dug through), and second, to publish a record of the excavation promptly and in a form that would tell the story of the site to the intelligent reader.
Stephen Kuffler
Stephen William Kuffler (August 24 Tap, Hungary, 1913 – October 11, 1980) was a pre-eminent Hungarian-American neurophysiologist. He is often referred to as the "Father of Modern Neuroscience". Kuffler, alongside noted Nobel Laureates Sir John Eccles and Sir Bernard Katz gave research lectures at the University of Sydney, strongly influencing its intellectual environment while working at Sydney Hospital. He founded the Harvard Neurobiology department in 1966, and made numerous seminal contributions to our understanding of vision, neural coding, and the neural implementation of behavior. He is known for his research on neuromuscular junctions in frogs, presynaptic inhibition, and the neurotransmitter GABA. In 1972, he was awarded the Louisa Gross Horwitz Prize from Columbia University.
Christian Carl André
Christian Carl André (1763-1831) was a leading 19th century European natural scientist, publisher, economist and educator. He was among the pioneers in the study of heredity whose vision paved the way for the research of Gregor Mendel, the founder of modern genetics.
Christoph Theodor Aeby
Christoph Theodor Aeby (25 February 1835 – 7 July 1885) was a Swiss anatomist and anthropologist, born in Phalsbourg, Lorraine, France. He died in Bilin, Bohemia at the age of 50.
He studied medicine at Basel and Göttingen. In 1863 he was named a professor of anatomy at the University of Bern (1866/67, academic rector), and in 1884 at the University of Prague as successor to Carl Toldt.
Arthur Arnold Osman
Arthur Arnold Osman (24 May 1893 – 20 April 1972) was a British nephrologist. Osman was one of the first physicians to specialize entirely in the management of renal disorders; the first to recognize that nephrology needed to become a specialty (1930s); published profusely; the first physician to style himself a ‘nephrologist’ (1945); founded the first nephrological society in the world, the Renal Association (1950); and organized the first international meeting devoted entirely to the kidney and its diseases (1953)
Nathan J. Saltz
Professor Nathan J. Saltz (Hebrew: ,
1912 – July 27, 2003) was an American-born Israeli doctor who is considered the father and founder of modern surgical medicine in Israel.
Sergey Botkin
Sergey Petrovich Botkin (; 5 September 1832 – 12 December 1889) was a famous Russian clinician, therapist, and activist, one of the founders of modern Russian medical science and education. He introduced triage, pathological anatomy, and post mortem diagnostics into Russian medical practice.
Francesco Rizzoli
Francesco Rizzoli (11 July 1809 - 24 May 1880) was an Italian politician, surgeon and physician, considered one of the fathers of modern orthopedics.
Doctor Joseph Ruggi speaks of him in his 1924 memoirs: "During the intervention he was in such a state that he was screaming like a madman, 
sustaining and railing against his assistants who were confused and upset [...] while the patient, who was awake, shouted from his lungs, unheeded, throwing insults at the surgeon and his assistants."
Frank H. Netter
Frank Henry Netter (25 April 1906 – 17 September 1991) was an American surgeon and medical illustrator. The first edition of his "Atlas of Human Anatomy" — his "personal Sistine Chapel" — was published in 1989; he was a Fellow of the New York Academy of Medicine where he was first published in 1957.
John C. Boileau Grant
John Charles Boileau Grant (1886–1973) was a British-Canadian anatomist, who was the Chair of Anatomy at the University of Toronto Faculty of Medicine from 1930 to 1956. Grant is best known for his textbook "Grant's Atlas of Anatomy" and "Grant's Dissector" which is now in its 13th edition and used by medical students all over the world.
Robert Wheeler Rand
Robert Wheeler Rand, Ph.D., J.D., M.D. (January 28, 1923 – December 14, 2013), was an American neurosurgeon, inventor, and Professor of Neurosurgery in the Department of Neurosurgery at the University of California Los Angeles (UCLA) from 1953 to 1989.
Dr. Robert W. Rand, the only son of Carl Wheeler Rand, M.D. and Katherine Humphrey Rand, was born in Los Angeles, California on January 28, 1923. His father, Dr. Carl W. Rand, a respected neurosurgeon, was trained under Harvey Cushing, known to be the "father of modern neurosurgery."
François Carlo Antommarchi
Paolo Mascagni (1752–1815) was the most celebrated anatomist of his day. Antommarchi became Prosector to Mascagni who left manuscripts and drawings for an intended publication of a comprehensive complete anatomy with life-size figures. Antommarchi prepared the publication but was meanwhile called to Saint Helena. Antommarchi left, taking with him three copies of Mascagni's plates. When Antommarchi returned, he published these plates, printed from lithographs, under his own name in a monumental work which appeared from 1823 to 1826 under the title of: "Planches anatomiques du corps humain exécutées d'après les dimensions naturelles accompagnées d'un texte explicatif". The plates for the publication were drawn and possibly engraved by Antoine Seratoni.
Lorenz Böhler
Böhler is most notable as one of the creators—or even the creator—of modern accident surgery. He was the head of the AUVA-Hospital in Vienna, Brigittenau, that was later named after him: Lorenz-Böhler-Unfallkrankenhaus. This hospital was an international model during his time as the leading surgeon there. 
In radiology, the measurement of "Böhler's angle" on a foot X-ray can help detect fractures of the calcaneus.
Adam Gruca
Adam Gruca (born 3 December 1893 in Majdan Sieniawski, died 3 June 1983 in Warsaw) was a famous Polish orthopaedist, inventor, and surgeon. He is considered to be the founder of modern orthopedic surgery in Poland. Gruca also invented various orthopaedic instruments and appliances.
Crisóstomo Martinez
Crisóstomo Martinez (1638–1694) was a Valencian painter and engraver known for his atlas of anatomy. His work has been ascribed to the Spanish intellectual movement called ""Novator"" which refers to the timid beginnings of a scientific revolution in the Kingdom of Spain in the late seventeenth century. The most innovative aspect of his work was an interest in embryology and microscopy, which he applied to the study of "fresh" osteology.
Keith L. Moore
Keith Leon Moore (born 5 October 1925 in Brantford, Ontario) is a professor emeritus in the division of anatomy, in the faculty of Surgery, at the University of Toronto, Ontario, Canada. Moore is associate dean for Basic Medical Sciences in the university's faculty of Medicine, and was Chair of Anatomy from 1976 to 1984. He is a founding member of the American Association of Clinical Anatomists (AACA), and was President of the AACA between 1989 and 1991.
Carl Akeley
Carl Ethan Akeley (May 19, 1864 – November 17, 1926) was a pioneering American taxidermist, sculptor, biologist, conservationist, inventor, and nature photographer, noted for his contributions to American museums, most notably to the Field Museum of Natural History and the American Museum of Natural History. He is considered the father of modern taxidermy. He was the founder of the AMNH Exhibitions Lab, the interdisciplinary department that fuses scientific research with immersive design.
History of Animals
Walter Pagel comments that Aristotle "perceptibly influenced" the founders of modern zoology, the Swiss Conrad Gessner with his 1551–1558 "Historiae animalium", the Italian Ulisse Aldrovandi (1522–1605), the French Guillaume Rondelet (1507–1566), and the Dutch Volcher Coiter (1534–1576), while his methods of looking at time series and making use of comparative anatomy assisted the Englishman William Harvey in his 1651 work on embryology.
John Gordon (anatomist)
Dr John Gordon FRSE FRCSE (19 April 1786 – 14 June 1818) was a short-lived but influential Scottish anatomist. In 1806 he served as President of the Royal Medical Society. In 1815 he caused an international stir by debunking the new science of phrenology and publicly criticising its principal European exponents, Johann Spurzheim and Franz Joseph Gall.
Johnson Symington
Professor Johnson Symington FRS FRSE FZS LLD (1851–1924) was a British anatomist and zoologist. He was President of the Ulster Medical Society for 1896/7. He served as President of the Anatomical Society of Great Britain and Ireland 1904 to 1906. He is noted for his comparative studies of the brain of modern man and prehistoric man, and of man and other primates. From 1923 onwards Queen's University Belfast award a Symington Prize every year to junior anatomists in his honour.
Albert R. Behnke
Behnke is also known as the "modern-day father" of human body composition for his work in developing the hydrodensitometry method of measuring body density, his standard man and woman models as well as a somatogram based on anthropometric measurements.
Catholic Church and health care
Saint Albert the Great (1206–1280) was a pioneer of biological field research; Desiderius Erasmus (1466-1536) helped revive knowledge of ancient Greek medicine, Renaissance popes were often patrons of the study of anatomy, and Catholic artists such as Michelangelo advanced knowledge of the field through sketching cadavers. The Jesuit Athanasius Kircher (1602 – 1680) first proposed that living beings enter and exist in the blood (a precursor of germ theory). The Augustinian Gregor Mendel (1822-1884) developed theories on genetics for the first time. As Catholicism became a global religion, the Catholic orders and religious and lay people established health care centres around the world. Women's religious institutes such as the Sisters of Charity, Sisters of Mercy and Sisters of St Francis opened and operated some of the first modern general hospitals.
Pierre Fauchard Academy
The Pierre Fauchard Academy is a volunteer-run, non-profit dental organization that was founded by Elmer S. Best, a dentist from Minnesota in 1936. The objective is the independence from commercial interests in dental research and its publications. Elmer Best endeavored to raise the professional standards. The Academy is named after Pierre Fauchard (1678-1761), a French dentist who is considered the "Father of modern dentistry". Fauchard wrote a book entitled "Le Chirurgien dentiste, ou Traité des dents", the first dental textbook of modern times.
Raymond Jack Last
Raymond Jack Last (26 May 1903, Adelaide – 1 January 1993, Malta), comparative anatomist, was Anatomical Curator Royal College of Surgeons 1946-50, Professor of Applied Anatomy 1950-70, Warden of Nuffield College of Surgical Sciences 1949-70, and Visiting Professor UCLA 1970-88. Last was an outstanding lecturer in postgraduate anatomy, and belonged to a small set of anatomists who were initially practising surgeons and then made a career teaching it.
Julius Caesar Aranzi
Julius Caesar Aranzi (Giulio Cesare Aranzio, Arantius) (1529/1530 – April 7, 1589) was a leading figure in the history of the science of human anatomy.
Gray's Anatomy
The English anatomist Henry Gray was born in 1827. He studied the development of the endocrine glands and spleen and in 1853 was appointed Lecturer on Anatomy at St George's Hospital Medical School in London. In 1855, he approached his colleague Henry Vandyke Carter with his idea to produce an inexpensive and accessible anatomy textbook for medical students. Dissecting unclaimed bodies from workhouse and hospital mortuaries through the Anatomy Act of 1832, the two worked for 18 months on what would form the basis of the book. Their work was first published in 1858 by John William Parker in London.
It was dedicated by Gray to Sir Benjamin Collins Brodie, 1st Baronet.
An imprint of this English first edition was published in the United States in 1859, with slight alterations.
Gray prepared a second, revised edition, which was published in the United Kingdom in 1860, also by J.W. Parker. However, Gray died the following year, at the age of 34, having contracted smallpox while treating his nephew (who survived). His death had come just three years after the initial publication of his "Anatomy Descriptive and Surgical".
Even so, the work on his much-praised book was continued by others.
Longman's publication reportedly began in 1863, after their acquisition of the J.W. Parker publishing business. This coincided with the publication date of the third British edition of "Gray's Anatomy." Successive British editions of "Gray's Anatomy" continued to be published under the Longman, and more recently Churchill Livingstone/Elsevier imprints, reflecting further changes in ownership of the publishing companies over the years.
History of anatomy
The history of anatomy extends from the earliest examinations of sacrificial victims to the sophisticated analyses of the body performed by modern scientists. The study of human anatomy can be traced back thousands of years, at least to the Egyptians, but the science of anatomy, as we know it today, did not develop until far later. The development of the study of anatomy gradually built upon concepts that were understood during the time of Galen and slowly became a part of the traditional medical curriculum. It has been characterized, over time, by a continually developing understanding of the functions of organs and structures in the body.
Robert Machemer
Robert Machemer (16 March 1933 in Münster – 23 December 2009 in Durham, North Carolina) was a German-American ophthalmologist, ophthalmic surgeon, and inventor. He is sometimes called the "father of modern retinal surgery."
John Benjamin Murphy
John Benjamin Murphy, born John Murphy (December 21, 1857 in Appleton, Wisconsin – August 11, 1916 Mackinac Island, Michigan), was an American physician and abdominal surgeon noted for advocating early surgical intervention in appendicitis appendectomy, and several eponyms: Murphy’s button, Murphy drip, Murphy’s punch, Murphy’s test, and Murphy-Lane bone skid. He is best remembered for the eponymous clinical sign that is used in evaluating patients with acute cholecystitis. His career spanned general surgery, orthopedics, neurosurgery, and cardiothoracic surgery, which helped him to gain international prominence in the surgical profession. Mayo Clinic co-founder William James Mayo called him "the surgical genius of our generation".
Albert Moll (German psychiatrist)
Albert Moll (; 4 May 1862, Lissa – 23 September 1939, Berlin) was a German psychiatrist and, together with Iwan Bloch and Magnus Hirschfeld, the founder of modern sexology. Moll believed sexual nature involved two entirely distinct parts: sexual stimulation and sexual attraction.
William Osler
Sir William Osler, 1st Baronet, (; July 12, 1849 – December 29, 1919) was a Canadian physician and one of the four founding professors of Johns Hopkins Hospital. Osler created the first residency program for specialty training of physicians, and he was the first to bring medical students out of the lecture hall for bedside clinical training. He has frequently been described as the "Father of Modern Medicine" and one of the "greatest diagnosticians ever to wield a stethoscope". Osler was a person of many interests, who in addition to being a physician, was a bibliophile, historian, author, and renowned practical joker. One of his achievements was the founding of the History of Medicine Society (previously section) of the Royal Society of Medicine, London.
Medical illustration
Since the time of the Leonardo Da Vinci, and his depictions of the human form, there has been great advancements in the art of representing the human body. The art has evolved over time from illustration to digital imaging using the technological advancements of the digital age. Berengario da Carpi was the first known anatomist to include medical illustration within his textbooks. Gray’s Anatomy, originally published in 1858, is one well known human anatomy textbook that showcases a variety of anatomy depiction techniques.
Botany
Modern botany traces its roots back to Ancient Greece specifically to Theophrastus (c. 371–287 BC), a student of Aristotle who invented and described many of its principles and is widely regarded in the scientific community as the "Father of Botany". His major works, "Enquiry into Plants" and "On the Causes of Plants", constitute the most important contributions to botanical science until the Middle Ages, almost seventeen centuries later.
Anatomy
In the 2nd century, Galen of Pergamum, an anatomist, clinician, writer and philosopher, wrote the final and highly influential anatomy treatise of ancient times. He compiled existing knowledge and studied anatomy through dissection of animals. He was one of the first experimental physiologists through his vivisection experiments on animals. Galen's drawings, based mostly on dog anatomy, became effectively the only anatomical textbook for the next thousand years. His work was known to Renaissance doctors only through Islamic Golden Age medicine until it was translated from the Greek some time in the 15th century.
Per-Olof Åstrand
Per-Olof Åstrand (21 October 1922 – 2 January 2015) was a Swedish professor of physiology at the Royal Gymnastic Central Institute (GCI/GIH) in Stockholm 1970–1977, and 1977–1988 at the Karolinska Institute in Stockholm, Sweden, and a member of the Nobel Assembly at Karolinska Institutet (1977–1988). Åstrand is considered a "pioneer", "legend" and one of the "founding fathers" of modern exercise physiology.
Robert A. Good
Robert Alan Good (May 21, 1922 – June 13, 2003) was an American physician who performed the first successful human bone marrow transplant between persons who were not identical twins. He is regarded as a founder of modern immunology.
Node of Ranvier
The myelin sheath of long nerves was discovered and named by German pathological anatomist Rudolf Virchow in 1854. French pathologist and anatomist Louis-Antoine Ranvier later discovered the nodes, or gaps, in the myelin sheath that now bear his name. Born in Lyon, Ranvier was one of the most prominent histologists of the late 19th century. Ranvier abandoned pathological studies in 1867 and became an assistant of physiologist Claude Bernard. He was the chairman of General Anatomy at the Collège de France in 1875.
Antonio Maria Valsalva
Valsalva was born at Imola. The contemporary of Isaac Newton and Johann Sebastian Bach, he was educated in the humanities, mathematics, and natural sciences. After studies of the liberal arts, he studied medicine and philosophy in Bologna. He was taught by Marcello Malpighi, who is known as the founder of microscopic anatomy. Valsalva graduated from the medical school in 1687. In 1705, he was appointed professor of anatomy at Bologna. He was later chosen as president of the Academy of the Sciences. Valsalva taught Giovanni Battista Morgagni who edited Valsalva’s complete writings and published a biography on Valsalva, both in 1740.
Auguste Rodin
François Auguste René Rodin (12 November 1840 – 17 November 1917), known as Auguste Rodin (; ), was a French sculptor. Although Rodin is generally considered the progenitor of modern sculpture, he did not set out to rebel against the past. He was schooled traditionally, took a craftsman-like approach to his work, and desired academic recognition, although he was never accepted into Paris's foremost school of art.
Thomas Peter Anderson Stuart
Sir Thomas Peter Anderson Stuart (20 June 1856 – 29 February 1920) was a Scottish-born professor of physiology, founder of the medical school at the University of Sydney.
Otto Antonius
Otto Antonius is considered to be the co-founder of modern zoological biology besides Heini Hediger and Karl Max Schneider.
History of anatomy
The first recorded school of anatomy was in Alexandria from about 300 to the 2nd century BC. Ptolemy I Soter was the first to allow for medical officials to cut open and examine dead bodies for the purposes of learning how human bodies operated. On some occasions King Ptolemy even took part in these dissections. Most of the early dissections were done on executed criminals. The first use of human cadavers for anatomical research occurred later in the 4th century BCE when Herophilos and Erasistratus gained permission to perform live dissections, or vivisection, on condemned criminals in Alexandria under the auspices of the Ptolemaic dynasty. Herophilos in particular developed a body of anatomical knowledge much more informed by the actual structure of the human body than previous works had been. Herophilos was the first physician to dissect human bodies and is considered to be the founder of Anatomy. He reversed the longstanding notion made by Aristotle that the heart was the "seat of intelligence". He argued instead that this seat was the brain. He established the brain as the center of intelligence, distinguished between veins and arteries, and made many other accurate observations about the structure of the human body, especially the nervous system. However, Herophilos was eventually accused by his contemporaries of dissecting live criminals. The number of victims is said to be around 600 prisoners.
Anatomy
Anatomy developed little from classical times until the sixteenth century; as the historian Marie Boas writes, "Progress in anatomy before the sixteenth century is as mysteriously slow as its development after 1500 is startlingly rapid". Between 1275 and 1326, the anatomists Mondino de Luzzi, Alessandro Achillini and Antonio Benivieni at Bologna carried out the first systematic human dissections since ancient times. Mondino's "Anatomy" of 1316 was the first textbook in the medieval rediscovery of human anatomy. It describes the body in the order followed in Mondino's dissections, starting with the abdomen, then the thorax, then the head and limbs. It was the standard anatomy textbook for the next century.
Alan Leo
Alan Leo, born William Frederick Allan, (Westminster, 7 August 1860 – Bude, 30 August 1917), was a prominent British astrologer, author, publisher, astrological data collector and theosophist. He is often referred to as "the father of modern astrology".
Robert Koch
Heinrich Hermann Robert Koch (; ; 11 December 1843 – 27 May 1910) was a German physician and microbiologist. As the founder of modern bacteriology, he identified the specific causative agents of tuberculosis, cholera, and anthrax and gave experimental support for the concept of infectious disease, which included experiments on humans and animals. Koch created and improved laboratory technologies and techniques in the field of microbiology, and made key discoveries in public health. His research led to the creation of Koch's postulates, a series of four generalized principles linking specific microorganisms to specific diseases that remain today the "gold standard" in medical microbiology. For his research on tuberculosis, Koch received the Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine in 1905. The Robert Koch Institute is named in his honor.
History of anatomy
As an artist-anatomist, Leonardo made many important discoveries, and had intended to publish a comprehensive treatise on human anatomy. For instance, he produced the first accurate depiction of the human spine, while his notes documenting his dissection of the Florentine centenarian contain the earliest known description of cirrhosis of the liver and arteriosclerosis. He was the first to develop drawing techniques in anatomy to convey information using cross-sections and multiple angles, although centuries would pass before anatomical drawings became accepted as crucial for learning anatomy. None of Leonardo's Notebooks were published during his lifetime, many being lost after his death, with the result that his anatomical discoveries remained unknown until they were later found and published centuries after his death.
Anna Morandi Manzolini
Anna Morandi Manzolini (21 January 1714 – 9 July 1774) was an internationally known anatomist and anatomical wax modeler, as lecturer of anatomical design at the University of Bologna.
Yahya Adl
Yahya Adl (, 1908 – February 3, 2003) was a prominent Iranian surgeon. He is honored as the Father of Modern Surgery in Iran
Otto Antonius
Otto Antonius (21 May 1885 in Vienna – 9 April 1945 in Vienna) was director of the Tiergarten Schönbrunn in Vienna, zoologist, palaeontologist and co-founder of the modern zoological biology.
Louis Gayant
Louis Gayant (died 1673) was a French surgeon and anatomist. He was one of the founding members of the French Academy of Sciences.
He was born at Clermont-en-Beauvaisis, and became a leading anatomist, but remained unpublished. He is given credit in the discovery by Jean Pecquet of the Cisterna chyli.
Heinrich Hoeftman
Heinrich Hoeftman (2 April 1851 in Memel – 17 September 1917 in Königsberg) was a German physician; regarded as a pioneer of modern German orthopedics.
Antoine Portal
Baron Antoine Portal (January 5, 1742 – July 23, 1832) was a French anatomist, doctor, medical historian and founding president of the Académie Nationale de Médecine.
Marius Nasta
The fall of communism in Romania in 1989 enabled the Romanian scientific and medical community to acknowledge Marius Nasta as "the founder of modern Romanian phthisiology". The centenary of his birth in 1990 was marked in Bucharest by the renaming of the "Institute of Phthisiology" as the "Marius Nasta Institute of Pneumophthisiology". The Institute remains to this day a leading hospital, teaching and research centre in the field of pulmonary diseases which includes the Pneumology Clinic of the "Carol Davila" University of Medicine and Pharmacy. Current and former staff of the Institute include Constantin Anastasatu, (a physician, member of the Romanian Academy and former head of the "Marius Nasta Institute"), C. Carpinisan (a thoracic surgeon considered the founder of Romanian thoracic surgery), Al. Bulla, I.P. Stoicescu, Miron Bogdan, (a physician and member of the Romanian Academcy of Medical Sciences), Florin Mihaltan, Stefan Rujinski and Claudia Toma to name but a few.
Azerbaijan Medicine Museum
In the first hall, a bust of Abu Ali ibn Sina, one of the greatest scholars of the 12th century in the East and the photo of the manuscript of the Law of the Science of Doctor work written in 1143, which is being taught in many European medical universities are illustrated. This hall also features a bust of Hippocrates, who is the founder of modern medicine, and a piece of his famous oath. Different elements of ancient Greek and Roman, medieval Azerbaijan, Eastern, Western European medicine have been embedded to copper boards along the walls.
Annals of Anatomy
Annals of Anatomy is a peer-reviewed scientific journal covering the field of anatomy, published by Elsevier under its "Urban and Fischer" imprint. It was established in 1886 by Karl von Bardeleben and until 1991 was published under the title Anatomischer Anzeiger () by Gustav Fischer Verlag.
James Arnott (physician)
James Arnott (1797-1883) was an English physician and pioneer of cryotherapy. Regarded as “the father of modern cryosurgery”, Arnott was the first to utilize extreme cold locally for the destruction of tissue. In 1819, Arnott began his practice of cryotherapy to freeze tumors in the treatment of breast and uterine cancers.
Ambroise-Auguste Liébeault
Ambroise-Auguste Liébeault (1823-1904) was a French physician and is considered the father of modern hypnotherapy. Ambroise-Auguste Liébeault was born in Favières, a small town in the Lorraine region of France, on September 16, 1823. He completed his medical degree at the University of Strasbourg in 1850, at the age of 26.
Kazimierz Kostanecki
Professor Kazimierz Kostanecki (25 December 1863, Myszaków – 11 January 1940, Sachsenhausen concentration camp) was a Polish physician, anatomist, and cytologist. Since 1892 he was a professor of comparative and descriptive anatomy at the Jagiellonian University in Kraków under the military partitions of Poland. He held his post until 1935 in the reborn Second Polish Republic. During this time he also served as Dean of the Faculty of Medicine, and between 1913 and 1916 was the Rector of the Jagiellonian University. He is considered the father of the Kraków school of anatomy due to his many scientific discoveries and accomplishments.
Nils Rosén von Rosenstein
Nils Rosén von Rosenstein (11 February 1706 – 16 July 1773) was a Swedish physician. He is considered the founder of modern pediatrics, while his work "The diseases of children, and their remedies" is considered to be "the first modern textbook on the subject".
Alessandro Benedetti
Alessandro Benedetti (1450?–1512) was born in Parma, traveled and worked extensively in Greece and Crete, and worked as surgeon general of the Venetian army. His “Anatomice, or The History of the Human Body” is a descriptive anatomy in the style of Mundinus. It concludes with a final chapter on the praise of dissection. He expresses the need for a clinical examination rather than uncritical trust in the authorities “since in it we see the truth and contemplate its revelations as the works of nature lie under our eyes… but those who trust only the monuments of literature… are often deceived and entrust opinion rather than truth to their minds.” He later describes a postmortem examination of a woman who had died of syphilis and the disease’s effects on her bones.
Benedetti critiqued those anatomists who trusted in the authorities more than their own experience: “Aristotle has had so much authority for so many centuries that even those things which [physicians] have not seen they will affirm to exist, even without experiment.” Benedetti valued personal observation over blind trust in the authorities and even, shockingly for the time, corrected Aristotle. “Aristotle believes that the nerves first arise from the heart… but almost all of them (as is more evidently established) are perceived to originate in large part from the brain….” Medieval scholars preferred to trust the authorities over their own observations, while this new generation of anatomists increasingly valued the experience over theory.
History of anatomy
Many Europeans interested in the study of anatomy traveled to Italy, then the centre of anatomy. Only in Italy could certain important research methods be used, such as dissections on women. Realdo Colombo (also known as Realdus Columbus) and Gabriele Falloppio were pupils of Vesalius. Columbus, as Vesalius's immediate successor in Padua, and afterwards professor at Rome, distinguished himself by describing the shape and cavities of the heart, the structure of the pulmonary artery and aorta and their valves, and tracing the course of the blood from the right to the left side of the heart.
Antoine Clot
The Army Medical School had a difficult beginning with religious officials set against dissection of corpses for anatomy lessons, but this was the foundation for modern medicine in Egypt. Clot was made chief surgeon to Muhammad Ali Pasha, viceroy of Egypt, at Abu Zabal, near Cairo. He shaped the Kasr Alaini hospital and schools for all branches of medical instruction, as well as facilities for the study of the French language; and, notwithstanding the most serious religious difficulties, instituted the study of anatomy (see his photo teaching) by means of dissection.
Leopold Auenbrugger
Josef Leopold Auenbrugger or Avenbrugger (19 November 1722 – 17 May 1809), also known as Leopold von Auenbrugger, was the Austrian physician who invented percussion as a diagnostic technique. On the strength of this discovery, he is considered one of the founders of modern medicine.
Giovanni Battista Morgagni
Giovanni Battista Morgagni (25 February 1682 – 6 December 1771) was an Italian anatomist, generally regarded as the father of modern anatomical pathology, who taught thousands of medical students from many countries during his 56 years as Professor of Anatomy at the University of Padua.
History of anatomy
The Galenic doctrine in Europe was first seriously challenged in the 16th century. Thanks to the printing press, all over Europe a collective effort proceeded to circulate the works of Galen and later publish criticisms on their works. Vesalius openly denied Galen's anatomical teachings that is based on observations of other mammals, not human bodies. Andreas Vesalius, born and educated in Belgium, contributed the most to human anatomy. Vesalius's success was due in large part to him exercising the skills of mindful dissections for the sake of understanding anatomy, much to the tune of Galen's "anatomy project" instead of focusing on the work of other scholars of the time in recovering the ancient texts of Hippocrates, Galen and others (which much of the medical community was focused around at the time).Vesalius was the first to publish a treatise, "De humani corporis fabrica", that challenged Galen "drawing for drawing". These drawings were a detailed series of explanations and vivid drawings of the anatomical parts of human bodies. Vesalius traveled all the way from Leuven to Padua for permission to dissect victims from the gallows without fear of persecution. His superbly executed drawings are triumphant descriptions of the differences between dogs and humans, but it took a century for Galen's influence to fade. His work led to anatomy marked a new era in the study of anatomy and its relation to medicine. Under Vesalius, anatomy became an actual discipline. "His skill in and attention to dissection featured prominently in his publications as well as his demonstrations, in his research as well as his teaching."
In 1540, Vesalius gave a public demonstration of the inaccuracies of Galen's anatomical theories, which are still the orthodoxy of the medical profession. Vesalius now has on display, for comparison purposes, the skeletons of a human being alongside that of an ape of which he was able to show, that in many cases, Galen's observations were indeed correct for the ape, but bear little relation to man. Clearly what was needed was a new account of human anatomy. While the lecturer explained human anatomy, as revealed by Galen more than 1000 years earlier, an assistant pointed to the equivalent details on a dissected corpse. At times, the assistant was unable to find the organ as described, but invariably the corpse rather than Galen was held to be in error. Vesalius then decided that he will dissect corpses himself and trust to the evidence of what he found. His approach was highly controversial, but his evident skill led to his appointment as professor of surgery and anatomy at the University of Padua.
Thomas Elder
In 1996 the Wood Jones Professor of Biological Anthropological and Comparative Anatomy, named for the second Elder Professor of Anatomy, was established from an endowment by Professor Ray Last (1903-1993), who studied under Wood Jones in the 1920s before embarking on a successful career as a surgeon and teacher in Australia and the United Kingdom. The foundation Wood Jones Chair (1996-) is Professor Maciej Henneberg Ph.D. D.Sc.He had a severe illness in 1887 and shortly afterwards retired. Elder Smith and Company was formed into a public company, and Elder afterwards lived chiefly in the country. He never married. Elder was knighted in 1878 () and created Knight Grand Cross of the Order of St Michael and St George (GCMG) in 1887. He died at Mount Lofty on 6 March 1897.
Antonio Benivieni
Antonio Benivieni (1443–1502) was a Florentine physician who pioneered the use of the autopsy, a postmortem dissection of a deceased patient's body used to understand the cause of death. Benivieni published a treatise entitled "De Abditis Morborum Causis" ("The Hidden Causes of Disease") which is now considered one of the first works in the science of pathology. Some of the protocols developed by Benivieni are similar to those used in autopsies to this day, and he has been referred to as the "father of pathologic anatomy."
Constantin Brâncuși
Constantin Brâncuși (; February 19, 1876 – March 16, 1957) was a Romanian sculptor, painter and photographer who made his career in France. Considered a pioneer of modernism, one of the most influential sculptors of the 20th-century, Brâncuși is called the patriarch of modern sculpture. As a child he displayed an aptitude for carving wooden farm tools. Formal studies took him first to Bucharest, then to Munich, then to the École des Beaux-Arts in Paris from 1905 to 1907. His art emphasizes clean geometrical lines that balance forms inherent in his materials with the symbolic allusions of representational art. Brâncuși sought inspiration in non-European cultures as a source of primitive exoticism, as did Paul Gauguin, Pablo Picasso, André Derain and others. However, other influences emerge from Romanian folk art traceable through Byzantine and Dionysian traditions.
Alessandra Giliani
Alessandra Giliani (1307-1326) was thought to be an Italian natural historian, best known as the first woman to be recorded in historical documents as practicing anatomy and pathology. However, the historical evidence for her existence is limited. Some scholars consider her to be a fiction invented by  Alessandro Machiavelli (1693-1766) . whilst others hold that the participation of a woman in anatomy at that time was so shocking that she has been edited out of history .
Giliani is believed to have been born in 1307, in San Giovanni in Persiceto, in the Italian province of Emilia-Romagna. The chronicle of her life holds that she died in 1326, possibly from a septic wound, at the age of 19. Celebrated as the first female anatomist of the Western World, she is reputed to have been a brilliant prosector (preparer of corpses for anatomical dissection). She is said to have worked as the surgical assistant to Mondino de' Liuzzi (d. 1326), a world-renowned professor at the medical school of the University of Bologna. (Credited with being the father of modern anatomy, de' Liuzzi published a seminal text on the subject in 1316.)
History of anatomy
The rise in anatomy lead to various discoveries and findings. In 1628, English physician William Harvey observed circulating blood through dissections of his father’s and sister’s bodies. He published "De moto cordis et sanguinis", a treatise in which he explained his theory. In addition, during the 17th century, Galileo Galilei introduced the experimental method to scientific research. This led to innovation and change in anatomy. In Tuscany and Florence, Marcello Malpighi founded microscopic anatomy, and Nils Steensen studied the anatomy of lymph nodes and salivary glands. By the end of the 17th century, Gaetano Zumbo developed anatomical wax modeling techniques. Antonio Valsalva, a student of Malpighi and a professor of anatomy at University of Bologna, was one of the greatest anatomists of the time. He is known by many as the founder of anatomy and physiology of the ear. In the 18th century, Giovanni Batista Morgagni related pre-mortem symptoms with post-mortem pathological findings using pathological anatomy in his book "De Sedibus". This led to the rise of morbid anatomy in France and Europe. The rise of morbid anatomy was one of the contributing factors to the shift in power between doctors and physicians, giving power to the physicians over patients.With the invention of the Stethoscope in 1816, R.T.H. Laennec was able to help bridge the gap between a symptomatic approach to medicine and disease, to one based on anatomy and physiology. His disease and treatments were based on "pathological anatomy" and because this approach to disease was rooted in anatomy instead of symptoms, the process of evaluation and treatment were also forced to evolve.From the late 18th century to the early 19th century, the work of professionals such as Giambattista Morgagni, Scott Matthew Baillie, and Xavier Bichat served to demonstrate exactly how the detailed anatomical inspection of organs could lead to a more empirical means of understanding disease and health that would combine medical theory with medical practice. This "pathological anatomy" paved the way for "clinical pathology that applied the knowledge of opening up corpses and quantifying illnesses to treatments."Along with the popularity of anatomy and dissection came an increasing interest in the preservation of dissected specimens. In the 17th century, many of the anatomical specimens were dried and stored in cabinets. In the Netherlands, there were attempts to replicate Egyptian mummies by preserving soft tissue. This became known as Balsaming. In the 1660s the Dutch were also attempting to preserve organs by injecting wax to keep the organ’s shape. Dyes and mercury were added to the wax to better differentiate and see various anatomical structures for academic and research anatomy. By the late 18th century, Thomas Pole published "The Anatomic Instructor", which detailed how to dry and preserve specimens and soft tissue.
Greene Vardiman Black
Greene Vardiman Black (1836–1915), commonly known as G.V. Black, is known as one of the founders of modern dentistry in the United States. He is also known as the father of operative dentistry. He was born near Winchester, Illinois on August 3, 1836 to William and Mary Black. He spent his early life on a farm and quickly developed an interest in the natural world. By the age of 17, Black began studying medicine with the help of his brother, Dr. Thomas G. Black. In 1857, he met Dr. J.C. Speer, who taught him the practice of dentistry. After the Civil War, in which he served as a union scout, he relocated to Jacksonville, Illinois (1864). It was here that he began an active career and research in the developing field of dentistry. He studied dentistry for 20 months (as was common at the time) followed by an apprenticeship He taught in the , beginning at 1890 before moving to Chicago.
Robert Knox
Robert Knox, (4 September 1791 – 20 December 1862), was a Scottish anatomist, zoologist, ethologist and physician. He was a lecturer on anatomy in Britain, where he introduced the theory of transcendental anatomy. However, he is now mainly remembered for his involvement in the Burke and Hare murders. Difficulty in obtaining cadavers for dissection after the passage of the Anatomy Act and disagreements with professional colleagues ruined his career. A move to London did not improve matters. His later pessimistic view of humanity contrasted sharply with his youthful attachment to the ideas of Étienne Geoffroy Saint-Hilaire.
Carl Linnaeus
Carl Linnaeus (; 23 May 1707 – 10 January 1778), also known after his ennoblement as Carl von Linné (), was a Swedish botanist, physician, and zoologist who formalised binomial nomenclature, the modern system of naming organisms. He is known as the "father of modern taxonomy". Many of his writings were in Latin, and his name is rendered in Latin as (after 1761 Carolus a Linné).
Martin Rathke
Martin Heinrich Rathke (August 25, 1793, Danzig – September 3, 1860, Königsberg) was a German embryologist and anatomist. Along with Karl Ernst von Baer and Christian Heinrich Pander, he is recognized as one of the founders of modern embryology. He was the father of chemist Bernhard Rathke (1840–1923).
D. Kent Morest
D. Kent Morest (born October 4, 1934 in Kansas City, MO) is an American educator and researcher. He is regarded as "the father of modern neuroanatomy of the auditory system.". His unconventional use of Golgi methods to study the neuroanatomy of the auditory nervous system in humans and mammals laid the foundation for investigations into central auditory signal processing. Other notable research interests include developmental neurobiology, and the processes related to hearing loss induced by exposure to loud noises.
Benno Reinhardt
Benno Reinhardt specialized in the field of pathological anatomy. In 1847 with Rudolf Virchow, he founded the "Archiv für pathologische Anatomie und Physiologie, und für klinische Medizin" (Archives for Pathological Anatomy & Physiology & Clinical Medicine), which was later shortened to "Virchows Archiv". After Reinhardt's death, his studies on pathological anatomy were compiled and edited by Rudolf Leubuscher (1822–1861).
Pediatrics
The Swedish physician Nils Rosén von Rosenstein (1706–1773) is considered to be the founder of modern pediatrics as a medical specialty, while his work "The diseases of children, and their remedies" (1764) is considered to be "the first modern textbook on the subject". Pediatrics as a specialized field of medicine continued to develop in the mid-19th century; German physician Abraham Jacobi (1830–1919) is known as the "father of American pediatrics" because of his many contributions to the field. He received his medical training in Germany and later practiced in New York City.
Bowman's capsule
Bowman's capsule is named after Sir William Bowman (1816–1892), a British surgeon and anatomist. However, thorough microscopical anatomy of kidney including the nephronic capsule was described by the Russian surgeon and anatomist in Moscow from the Russian Empire, Prof. (1748–1795), in his 1788 doctoral thesis "De structura renum: Tractatus physiologico-anatomicus" ("About Kidney Structure: an Physiological-Anatomical Treatise", in Latin); thus, much prior to Bowman.
Medical Renaissance
William Harvey was an English medical doctor-physicist, known for his contributions in heart and blood movement. William Harvey fully believed all medical knowledge should be universal, and he made this his works goal. Accomplished historians credit him for his boldness in his experimental work and his everlasting eagerness to implement modern practice. Although not the first to propose pulmonary circulation (Ibn al-Nafis, Michael Servetus and Realdo Colombo preceded him), he is credited as the first person in the Western world to give quantitative arguments for the circulation of blood around the body. William Harvey's extensive work on the body's circulation can be found in the written work titles, "The Motu Cordis".This work opens up with clear definitions of anatomy as well as types of anatomy which clearly outlined a universal meaning of these words for various Renaissance physicians. Anatomy, as defined by William Harvey is, "the faculty that by ocular inspection and dissection [grasps] the uses and actions of the parts." In other words, to be able to identify the actions or roles each part of the body plays in the overall function of the body by dissection, followed by visual identification. These were the foundation for the further research on the heart and blood vessels.
Pierre Fauchard
Pierre Fauchard (1678 – March 22, 1761) was a French physician, credited as being the "father of modern dentistry". He is widely known for writing the first complete scientific description of dentistry, "Le Chirurgien Dentiste" (""The Surgeon Dentist""), published in 1728. The book described basic oral anatomy and function, signs and symptoms of oral pathology, operative methods for removing decay and restoring teeth, periodontal disease (pyorrhea), orthodontics, replacement of missing teeth, and tooth transplantation.
Johannes W. Rohen
Johannes Wolfgang Rohen (born September 18, 1921) is a German anatomist. Born in Münster, he is mostly well known for his photographic atlas of human anatomy cadaver dissection, "Color Atlas of Anatomy - A Photographic Study of the Human Body", one of the most widely used atlas in the field. It has been translated into 18 languages. The 18th translated language is Korean.
Rudolf Virchow
Rudolf Ludwig Carl Virchow (; or ; 13 October 18215 September 1902) was a German physician, anthropologist, pathologist, prehistorian, biologist, writer, editor, and politician, known for his advancement of public health. He is known as "the father of modern pathology" because his work helped to discredit humourism, bringing more science to medicine. He is also known as the founder of social medicine and zoology, and to his colleagues, the "Pope of medicine".
Robert Wiedersheim
Robert Ernst Eduard Wiedersheim (21 April 1848 in Nürtingen – 12 July 1923 in Schachen (Lindau)) was a German anatomist who is famous for publishing a list of 86 "vestigial organs" in his book "The Structure of Man: An Index to His Past History".
Guillaume de Baillou
Guillaume de Baillou is considered to be the first epidemiologist since Hippocrates, and is credited as the founder of modern epidemiology. He did extensive studies of epidemics that plagued Paris, and is additionally credited with providing the first clinical description of pertussis (whooping cough) in 1578. He also provided the first modern descriptions of rheumatism and arthritis, of which he defined in the treatise "Liber de Rheumatismo et Pleuritide dorsali".
James Tayloe Gwathmey
James Tayloe Gwathmey, M.D. (September 10, 1862—February 11, 1944) was an American physician and the first president of the American Association of Anesthetics (now the International Anesthesia Research Society). A pioneer of early anesthetic devices for medical use, he co-authored the first comprehensive textbook on the subject of medical anesthetics, titled "Anesthesia", which was published in 1914. For this and other contributions to anesthesiology, which included innovations in administering anesthetics to war wounded and in obstetrics, Gwathmey was hailed at the time of his death as the "Father of Modern Anesthesia."
Antoni de Gimbernat
Don Antonio de Gimbernat y Arbós (Cambrils, Tarragona province, 1734 – Madrid, 1816) was a Spanish surgeon and anatomist. He is known for laying the groundwork for modern techniques of inguinal hernia repair. He also described in detail the anatomy of the inguinal and femoral regions of the human body.
List of medieval European scientists
Mondino de Liuzzi (c. 1270-1326) was an Italian physician, surgeon, and anatomist from Bologna who was one of the first in Medieval Europe to advocate for the public dissection of cadavers for advancing the field of anatomy. Greek and Roman taboos had meant that dissection was usually banned in ancient times, but Mondino de Liuzzi produced the ﬁrst known anatomy textbook based on human dissection.
Nicola Pisano
Nicola Pisano (also called "Niccolò Pisano", "Nicola de Apulia" or "Nicola Pisanus"; c. 1220/1225 – c. 1284) was an Italian sculptor whose work is noted for its classical Roman sculptural style. Pisano is sometimes considered to be the founder of modern sculpture.
Albrecht von Haller
Albrecht von Haller (also known as Albertus de Haller) (16 October 170812 December 1777) was a Swiss anatomist, physiologist, naturalist, encyclopedist, bibliographer and poet. A pupil of Herman Boerhaave, he is often referred to as "the father of modern physiology."
Claude Lévi-Strauss
Claude Lévi-Strauss (; ; 28 November 1908, Brussels – 30 October 2009, Paris) was a French anthropologist and ethnologist whose work was key in the development of the theory of structuralism and structural anthropology. He held the chair of Social Anthropology at the Collège de France between 1959 and 1982 and was elected a member of the Académie française in 1973. He received numerous honors from universities and institutions throughout the world and has been called, alongside James George Frazer and Franz Boas, the "father of modern anthropology".
Eduard Pernkopf
Eduard Pernkopf (November 24, 1888 – April 17, 1955) was an Austrian professor of anatomy who later served as rector of the University of Vienna, his "alma mater". He is best known for his seven-volume anatomical atlas, "Topographische Anatomie des Menschen" (translated as "Atlas of Topographical and Applied Human Anatomy"; often colloquially known as the Pernkopf atlas or just Pernkopf), prepared by Pernkopf and four artists over a 20-year period. While it is considered a scientific and artistic masterpiece, with many of its color plates reprinted in other publications and textbooks, it has been in recent years found that Pernkopf and the artists working for him, all of them ardent Nazis, used concentration camp inmates or condemned political prisoners as their subjects.