When was the code of ethics for psychology written?
APA Ethics Code
A second committee was formed and headed by Nicholas Hobbs. This 8-member committee was responsible for the creation of the first document. The committee used contributions from over 2,000 psychologists to create the first principles. The committee reviewed the situations submitted by psychologists to the first committee and attempted to organize the situations into themes. Themes that emerged reflected many of the political and social issues of the time including racial segregation, post-war politics, and the testing industry. The first version of the Ethical Standards of Psychologists was adopted in 1952 and published in 1953 by the American Psychological Association (APA). The document was over 170 pages in length. The first version contained many ethical dilemmas that psychologists had written about and submitted to the first committee as case examples.
Code of ethics in media
The code of ethics in media was created by a suggestion from the 1947 Hutchins Commission. They suggested that newspapers, broadcasters and journalists had started to become more responsible for journalism and thought they should be held accountable.
Nuremberg Code
The Nuremberg Code () is a set of research ethics principles for human experimentation created as a result of the Nuremberg trials at the end of the Second World War.
APA Ethics Code
The research and publication standard of the APA ethical standards is developed to highlight research and publication ethics that psychologists are expected to adhere to. This standard emphasizes the necessity of approval by the institute prior to carrying out the research, providing accurate information about the research study, and carrying out the research in accordance with the approval. When obtaining informed consent, details of the study should be presented to the participants, including but not limited to, the objective of the study, the procedures, benefits and potential risks associated with the study, and the participants' right to decline to participate and withdraw from the study without any penalty. However, studies which are not expected to cause any harm, such as observing in a naturalistic environment, using anonymous questionnaires, or if permitted by the law, informed consent may not be necessary to be obtained. Compensation for participation should not be used to persuade an unwilling participant. At the conclusion of the study, each participant should be presented with a summary of the study and the participant should be provided with an opportunity to ask any questions he/she has. Further, if there has been some harm caused to the participant due to participation in the study, necessary steps should be followed to minimize the harm. This standard also provides guidelines and instructions on animal research. Psychologists are responsible for reporting accurate findings and taking necessary steps to correct any errors in research and publication. Psychologists are also required to only present original data as their work and share publication credits based on the contributions rather than authority. Psychologists are also expected to be willing to share research data when required for verification, and maintain confidentiality of the participants during the review process.
Experimental psychology
Experimental psychology was introduced into the United States by George Trumbull Ladd, who founded Yale University's psychological laboratory in 1879. In 1887, Ladd published "Elements of Physiological Psychology", the first American textbook that extensively discussed experimental psychology. Between Ladd's founding of the Yale Laboratory and his textbook, the center of experimental psychology in the US shifted to Johns Hopkins University, where George Hall and Charles Sanders Peirce were extending and qualifying Wundt's work.
Psyche (book)
Psyche () is an 1846 book by Carl Gustav Carus, a physician and painter noted for his work on animal psychology and physiognomy. In his "The Discovery of the Unconscious" (1970), Henri Ellenberger calls "Psyche" "the life-work of a physician and keen observer of the human mind" and "the first attempt to give a complete and objective theory on unconscious psychological life", adding that "It shows the shape reached by the theory of the unconscious at the end of the Romantic period, before the positivistic trend became dominant." He notes that Carus influenced Eduard von Hartmann and later Carl Jung. According to him, Carus defines psychology as "the science of the soul's development from the unconscious to the conscious" and believes that "human life is divided into three periods: (1) A pre-embryonic period in which the individual merely exists as a tiny cell within the mother's ovary. (2) the embryonic period; through fecundation, in which the individual is suddenly wakened from his long sleep, and the formative unconscious develops. (3) After birth, in which the formative unconscious continues to direct the individual's growth and the function of his organs. Consciousness arises gradually, but it always remains under the influence of the unconscious and the individual periodically returns to it in his sleep."
Thomas Percival
Percival's "Medical Ethics" served as a key source for the American Medical Association (AMA) code, adopted in 1847. Though hyperbolic in its recognition of Percival, the AMA itself states:
The most significant contribution to Western medical ethical history subsequent to Hippocrates was made by Thomas Percival, an English physician, philosopher, and writer. In 1803, he published his "Code of Medical Ethics". His personality, his interest in sociological matters, and his close association with the Manchester Infirmary led to the preparation of a scheme of professional conduct relative to hospitals and other charities from which he drafted the code that bears his name.
As one expert writes, "The Percivalian code asserted the moral authority and independence of physicians in service to others, affirmed the profession's responsibility to care for the sick, and emphasized individual honor." Percival was a devout Christian.
Computer ethics
In 1973, the Association for Computing Machinery (ACM) adopted its first code of ethics. SRI International's Donn Parker, an author on computer crimes, led the committee that developed the code.
Regulation of science
The Nuremberg Code was written as part of the trials of Nazi doctors after World War II. It introduced ten ethical principles regarding human experimentation, the first of which requires informed consent from human subjects. It also states that experimentation on humans must be necessary to society, be preceded by studies on animals, and protect subjects from injury, disability and death. The Nuremberg Code was very influential in shaping regulations of scientific research across the world. For example, the Helsinki Declaration of 1964 was developed by the World Medical Association and establishes ethical principles for the medical community.
Clinical psychology
In the UK the British Psychological Society has published a Code of Conduct and Ethics for clinical psychologists. This has four key areas: Respect, Competence, Responsibility and Integrity. Other European professional organisations have similar codes of conduct and ethics.
Computer ethics
During the same year Terrell Ward Bynum, the professor of Philosophy at Southern Connecticut State University as well as Director of the Research Center on Computing and Society there, developed the first ever curriculum for a university course on computer ethics. Bynum was also editor of the journal "Metaphilosophy." In 1983 the journal held an essay contest on the topic of computer ethics and published the winning essays in its best-selling 1985 special issue, “Computers and Ethics.”
APA Ethics Code
The therapy section of the APA ethical standards is broadly written to guide psychologists through various aspects of providing psychological services. Psychologists are required to obtain informed consent from clients prior to treatment by presenting sufficient details about the therapy technique, including how established the treatment is and whether a psychologist in training will be assisting the client. When psychologists are required to provide services in a group setting, psychologists are required to identify the role of the psychologist and notify the clients of the limitations of confidentiality. If a psychologist is required to provide services for a client already receiving mental health services from another professional, the psychologist is required to discuss with the client or other identified persons to minimize conflict and harm. Psychologists should not engage in sexual relationships with current clients or with those closely related to clients. Psychologists should not be sexually engaged with past clients within two years of termination and even after two years of termination, psychologists will have to provide enough details to ensure that this ethical standard is not violated by being involved with a past client. In the event of a termination of employment, necessary steps should be taken in order to ensure client care. Termination of therapy should occur when the client shows significant improvements, does not benefit further from treatment, is being harmed by the treatment, or the clinician is threatened by the client or a person related to the client. Psychologists are expected to prepare clients for termination and provide sources for alternative services.
Ethik in der Schauweise der Wissenschaften vom Menschen und von der Gesellschaft
Ethik in der Schauweise der Wissenschaften vom Menschen und von der Gesellschaft is a book by German sociologist and economist Leopold von Wiese which has first been published in 1947 at A. Francke AG. It contains a typology of ethics, opposing individual to social ethics. The book rounded up a bunch of Leopold von Wiese's writings "which are intrinsically linked", including "Gedanken über Menschlichkeit" (1915), "Homo sum: Gedanken zu einer zusammenfassenden Anthropologie" (1940), and, finally, "die Ethik in der Schauweise der Wissenschaften vom Menschen und von der Gesellschaft".
American Psychology–Law Society
The Specialty Guidelines for Forensic Psychologists were first published in 1991. They are guidelines for forensic psychologists to encourage professional, quality, and systematic work in the law system and to those who the forensic psychologists serve. These are the only sets of APA-approved guidelines for a specific area of practice. The guidelines cover 11 points – responsibilities, competence, diligence, relationship, fees, informed consent notification and assent, conflicts in practice, privacy confidentiality and privilege, methods and procedures, assessment, and professional and other public communications.
Medical Ethics (book)
Medical Ethics; or, a Code of Institutes and Precepts, Adapted to the Professional Conduct of Physicians and Surgeons is a medical book focused on public health and medical ethics. It was written by English physician Thomas Percival and published in 1803. The book is widely regarded as the first on public health and ethics in medicine. Prior to 1803 medical ethics was more focused on medical etiquette. "Medical Ethics" was the first book to coin the term "medical ethics". The book "adopts a holistic approach to patient care" and set the standard for many future textbooks.
Die Seele: Ihr Verhältnis zum Bewusstsein und zum Leibe
Dr Joseph Geyser received his doctorate in philosophy from the University of Bonn in 1898. Later he was teaching in Münster (1904), Freiburg (1917) and Munich (1924). As a supporter of the philosophia perennis he aims at answering questions in an objective, critical and realistic manner while being independent of the temporary situation:
At the time, the pressing question as formulated in Psychological Bulletin at the beginning of 1914 was: "Is psychology purely a study of behaviour, or is it solely a study of mental states and processes, or does its problem lead to research in both fields?" In "Die Seele" (1914) Geyser himself claims to fit the "Zeitgeist" of philosophy and psychology at the beginning of the 20th century to focus not on basic but higher conscious processes. His work is written and published at a time where psychology was in its early shoes. On the one hand, the first experimental psychology lab in Leipzig, Germany has been opened in 1879 by Wilhelm Wundt. During the period of 1970–1914 in Germany and America, psychology has been transformed into an experimental psychology. In this period many mental phenomena started to be investigated in an empirical fashion. Especially visual and spatial perception has been a centre of attention with phenomena such as binocular stereopsis (3D and depth perception) and colour blindness. These developments slowly replaced more traditional associationist psychology which regarded psychology as a science of purely mental phenomena. On the other hand, in parallel to the experimental movement, Sigmund Freud and his publications in psychoanalysis entered the field of psychology. Wundt is seen as a representative of a dual psychology, i.e. dealing with an "experimental psychology of elementary psychic phenomena", as seen in Wundt's physiological psychology and a "non-experimental psychology of higher psychic phenomena" as seen in Wundt's nonexperimental "ethnopsychology" ("Völkerpsychologie"). In Germany as well as in the United States, the "new psychology" in contrast to the old, metaphysical psychology, emerged, usually dated as by 1914.
History of psychology
In the Judeo-Christian tradition, the Manual of Discipline (from the Dead Sea Scrolls, ca. 21 BC–61 AD) notes the division of human nature into two temperaments or opposing spirits of either veracity or perversity
American Psychology–Law Society
In 1991, the Committee on Ethical Guidelines for Forensic Psychologists began working to establish rules for forensic psychologists to follow in the court room. In 1992, the committee released "Specialty Guidelines" for forensic psychologists, on top of the Code of Conduct that they already were required to follow. Additionally in the 1990s, the society also established the Committee on Careers and Education, to help students find training programs to become psychologists in the legal system. In 1995, they held a conference to discuss education at undergraduate and post doctorate levels, how to offer legal psychology courses in the curriculum, and how to offer students experiences. The AP-LS also provides grants and funding for students who are interested in attending school for law-related psychology.
International Code of Medical Ethics
The International Code of Medical Ethics was adopted by the General Assembly of the World Medical Association at London in 1949, amended in 1968, 1983 and 2006. It is a code based on the Declaration of Geneva and the main goal is to establish the ethical principles of the physicians worldwide, based on his duties in general, to his patients and to his colleagues.
APA Ethics Code
The ethical principles of psychologists and code of conduct put forth by the APA consists of ten ethical standards. The ethical standards are enforceable rules applicable for psychologists in academia and practice. These are written broadly to guide psychologists in varied areas and roles, addressing situations most psychologists may encounter in their professional roles. The types of situations include those related to resolving ethical issues, competence, human relations, privacy and confidentiality, advertising and public statements, record keeping and fees, education and training, research and publication, assessment, and therapy. The ethical standards are enforced for the benefit of the psychologists, clients, students, and other individuals that work with psychologists. Any psychologist that is a member of the APA is expected to adhere to the ethical standards. Any violation of an ethical standard may result in sanctions ranging from termination of APA membership to loss of licensure.
Australian Psychological Society
The Australian Psychological Society (APS) is a professional association of psychologists in Australia. The APS has more than 24,000 members, making it the largest professional body representing psychologists in Australia. The Society's Code of Ethics was adopted in 2007 and became the Code of Ethics for the profession in Australia in 2010 when it was taken up by the newly-formed Psychology Board of Australia. The APS also provides members with recommendations of appropriate fees to charge for their professional services.
History of psychology
A third factor was the rise of Watson to a position of significant power within the psychological community. In 1908, Watson was offered a junior position at Johns Hopkins by James Mark Baldwin. In addition to heading the Johns Hopkins department, Baldwin was the editor of the influential journals, "Psychological Review" and "Psychological Bulletin". Only months after Watson's arrival, Baldwin was forced to resign his professorship due to scandal. Watson was suddenly made head of the department and editor of Baldwin's journals. He resolved to use these powerful tools to revolutionize psychology in the image of his own research. In 1913 he published in "Psychological Review" the article that is often called the "manifesto" of the behaviorist movement, "Psychology as the Behaviorist Views It." There he argued that psychology "is a purely objective experimental branch of natural science", "introspection forms no essential part of its methods..." and "The behaviorist... recognizes no dividing line between man and brute". The following year, 1914, his first textbook, "Behavior" went to press. Although behaviorism took some time to be accepted as a comprehensive approach (see Samelson, 1981), (in no small part because of the intervention of World War I), by the 1920s Watson's revolution was well underway. The central tenet of early behaviorism was that psychology should be a science of behavior, not of the mind, and rejected internal mental states such as beliefs, desires, or goals. Watson himself, however, was forced out of Johns Hopkins by scandal in 1920. Although he continued to publish during the 1920s, he eventually moved on to a career in advertising (see Coon, 1994).
History of psychology
In 1879 Charles Sanders Peirce was hired as a philosophy instructor at Johns Hopkins University. Although better known for his astronomical and philosophical work, Peirce also conducted what are perhaps the first American psychology experiments, on the subject of color vision, published in 1877 in the "American Journal of Science" (see Cadwallader, 1974). Peirce and his student Joseph Jastrow published "On Small Differences in Sensation" in the "Memoirs of the National Academy of Sciences", in 1884. In 1882, Peirce was joined at Johns Hopkins by G. Stanley Hall, who opened the first American research laboratory devoted to experimental psychology in 1883. Peirce was forced out of his position by scandal and Hall was awarded the only professorship in philosophy at Johns Hopkins. In 1887 Hall founded the "American Journal of Psychology", which published work primarily emanating from his own laboratory. In 1888 Hall left his Johns Hopkins professorship for the presidency of the newly founded Clark University, where he remained for the rest of his career.
Samuel Johnson (American educator)
Dr. Johnson revised his moral philosophy textbook again, titling it "Ethices Elementa: or the First Principles of Moral Philosophy". According to educator Henry Barnard, “This work had a high reputation at the time of its publication, and met with an extensive sales.” He revised it again with editions released in 1752 in Philadelphia and 1754 in London. Professor Mark Garett Longaker noted that it contained "a system of morals built upon his philosophical idealism, and the conclusion of this entire system (moral, philosophical, and rhetorical) is that all human endeavor aims towards happiness, a condition realized when one fully understands and obeys God’s will."
History of psychology
The question, "Who Is to Develop Psychology and How?", was of such importance that Ivan Sechenov, a physiologist and doctor by training and a teacher in institutions of higher education, chose it as the title for an essay in 1873. His question was rhetorical, for he was already convinced that physiology was the scientific basis on which to build psychology. The response to Sechenov’s popular essay included one, in 1872–1873, from a liberal professor of law, Konstantin Kavelin. He supported a psychology drawing on ethnographic materials about national character, a program that had existed since 1847, when the ethnographic division of the recently founded Russian Geographical Society circulated a request for information on the people’s way of life, including “intellectual and moral abilities.” This was part of a larger debate about national character, national resources, and national development, in the context of which a prominent linguist, Alexander Potebnja, began, in 1862, to publish studies of the relation between mentality and language.
Thomas Percival
Thomas Percival (29 September 1740 – 30 August 1804) was an English physician, health reformer, ethicist and author, best known for crafting perhaps the first modern code of medical ethics. He drew up a pamphlet with the code in 1794 and wrote an expanded version in 1803, "Medical Ethics; or, a Code of Institutes and Precepts, Adapted to the Professional Conduct of Physicians and Surgeons" in which he coined the expression "medical ethics". He was also a pioneering campaigner for public health measures and factory regulation in Manchester.
Medical ethics
The term medical ethics first dates back to 1803, when English author and physician Thomas Percival published a document describing the requirements and expectations of medical professionals within medical facilities. The Code of Ethics was then adapted in 1847, relying heavily on Percival's words. Over the years in 1903, 1912, and 1947, revisions have been made to the original document. The practice of Medical Ethics is widely accepted and practiced throughout the world.
David Hume
Hume's writings on ethics began in the "Treatise" and were refined in his "An Enquiry Concerning the Principles of Morals" (1751). His views on ethics are that "[m]oral decisions are grounded in moral sentiment." It is not knowing that governs ethical actions, but feelings. Arguing that reason cannot be behind morality, he wrote:
Morals excite passions, and produce or prevent actions. Reason itself is utterly impotent in this particular. The rules of morality, therefore, are not conclusions of our reason.
Hume's moral sentimentalism about morality was shared by his close friend Adam Smith, and Hume and Smith were mutually influenced by the moral reflections of their older contemporary Francis Hutcheson. Peter Singer claims that Hume's argument that morals cannot have a rational basis alone "would have been enough to earn him a place in the history of ethics".
Committee on Publication Ethics
COPE's first guidelines were developed after discussion at the COPE meeting in April 1999 and were published as Guidelines on Good Publication Practice in the Annual Report in 1999. On their basis, the first edition of Code of Conduct for Editors was published on the first COPE website in November 2004, with an Editorial in the BMJ.[5] The Code was replaced in 2017 with a simplified description of expectations as COPE's Core Practices, with links to COPE's detailed guidance, to aid editors and publishers in the fight against research and publication misconduct. (scientific misconduct).
History of psychology
The first use of the term "psychology" is often attributed to the German scholastic philosopher Rudolf Göckel (1547–1628), often known under the Latin form Rodolphus Goclenius), who published the "Psychologia hoc est: de hominis perfectione, animo et imprimis ortu hujus…" in Marburg in 1590. However, the term seems to have been used more than six decades earlier by the Croatian humanist Marko Marulić (1450–1524) in the title of his Latin treatise, "Psichiologia de ratione animae humanae." Although the treatise itself has not been preserved, its title appears in a list of Marulic's works compiled by his younger contemporary, Franjo Bozicevic-Natalis in his "Vita Marci Maruli Spalatensis" (Krstić, 1964).
Ethical will
The earliest extant ethical will was written by Eleazar, the son of Isaac of Worms (about 1050). “Think not of evil,” says Eleazar, “for evil thinking leads to evil doing... Purify thy body, the dwelling-place of thy soul... Give of all thy food a portion to God. Let God’s portion be the best, and give it to the poor.” The will of Judah ben Saul ibn Tibbon, the translator, (about 1190) contains at least one passage worthy of Ruskin: “Avoid bad society, make thy books thy companions, let thy book-cases and shelves be thy gardens and pleasure-grounds. Pluck the fruit that grows therein, gather the roses, the spices, and the myrrh. If thy soul be satiate and weary, change from garden to garden, from furrow to furrow, from sight to sight. Then will thy desire renew itself, and thy soul be satisfied with delight.” The will of Nahmanides is an unaffected eulogy of humility. Asher, the son of Yechiel (fourteenth century), called his will “Ways of Life,” and it includes 132 maxims, which are often printed in the prayer-book. An example is: “Do not obey the Law for reward, nor avoid sin from fear of punishment, but serve God from love.”
Programming ethics
The American scholar Norbert Wiener, professor of Mathematics and Engineering at Massachusetts Institute of Technology, was the first person to set the basis for a new type of 
Ethics in the mid 1940s. He noticed that the innovations and advances in science and technology, along with the fast-growing computer industry, were leading to the appearance of this type of Ethics that he named “cybernetics” (from the Greek word for the pilot of a ship). The emerging use of computers and other technologies were bringing up new ethical issues that needed to be analyzed carefully using new ethical guidelines.
Rodney L. Lowman
Lowman's training in both Industrial-Organizational (I-O) and clinical psychology resulted in an interest in ethics. The field of Industrial and organizational psychology (Society of Industrial-Organizational Psychology [SIOP]) though being closely tied to both science and practice had not focused much on ethics in the practice of I-O psychology. As chair of SIOP's Professional Affairs Committee, Lowman led the effort to create SIOP's first ethics casebook, which has since been expanded and published in two editions in a joint publication by APA and SIOP, "The Ethical Practice of Psychology in Organizations". Lowman (both independently and with colleagues such as Drs. Richard Kilburg and Stewart Cooper) have conducted a large number of professional training programs for psychologists on the application of ethics in consulting and I-O psychology.
Neurophysiology
In 1749, David Hartley published Observations on Man, which focused on frame (neurology), duty (moral psychology) and expectations (spirituality) and how these integrated within one another. This text was also the first to use the English term psychology. In 1752, the Society of Friends created an asylum in Philadelphia, Pennsylvania. The asylum intended to give not only medical treatment to those mentally ill, but also provide with caretakers and comfortable living conditions. In 1755, Jean-Baptiste Le Roy began using electroconvulsive therapy for the mentally ill, a treatment still used today in specific cases. In 1760, Arne-Charles studied how different lesions in the cerebellum could affect motor movements. In 1776, studied the cerebellum intensely, and published a book solely based on its function and appearance.
Criminal justice ethics
The United States has various laws and policies in place, such as the Miranda Rights, that are meant to ensure ethical practices by law enforcement officials. Further measures have been adopted to secure ethical standards in police departments. Such measures include various codes of ethics provided by professional law enforcement associations like the Law Enforcement Code of Ethics, adopted in 1957, and the American Federation of Police, adopted in 1966. The Law Enforcement Code of Ethics was revised in 1989 by the International Association of Chiefs of Police. The U.S. does not have a national code of ethics, rather individual police departments construct their own code of ethics based upon the basic standards laid out in the law enforcement associations that are then incorporated into an oath of office each member of the department pledges.
Social Psychology (journal)
"Social Psychology" was established in 1970 as the "Zeitschrift für Sozialpsychologie" by Hubert Feger, Carl Friedrich Graumann, Klaus Holzkamp, and Martin Irle. Its publishing language was German, and the journal was published by Verlag Hans Huber (Bern, Switzerland). In the second half of the 1980s, the founding editors were successively replaced and terms have since been limited to about four years. In the year 2000, the journal adopted English as a second publishing language, which became the sole publishing language in 2008 when the journal moved to Hogrefe Publishing and its title was changed to "Social Psychology". Previous editors-in-chief include Gerd Bohner (Bielefeld University), Hans-Peter Erb (Helmut Schmidt University), and Christian Unkelbach (University of Cologne). Since spring 2016, Kai Epstude (University of Groningen) is the editor-in chief.
Università Cattolica del Sacro Cuore
On November 1, 2011, the code of ethics was introduced. This document contains the values that characterize the Cattolica and the rules of conduct. Each student must sign the code before enrolling. The code is based on principles such as integrity, honesty, legality, solidarity, subsidiarity, hospitality, dialogue, excellence, dignity, the promotion of merit, and individual skills, as well as the prevention and rejection of any unjust discrimination, violence, abuse and improper treatment. The code is formulated to implement the Treaty of Lisbon.
Philosophy in Canada
Psychology slowly began to make its mark as a separate discipline in the latter part of the nineteenth century. The oldest Psychology Department in North America was founded at the University of Toronto by Professor Mark Baldwin in 1892 along with a related laboratory in psychology. It was here in 1909, that August Kirschmann, who had studied under Professor Wundt at his famous laboratory in Leipzig, undertook the first fundamental psychological research in Canada and presented seminars on the, "new psychology". Dr. E.A. Brett a noted philosopher at U of T, wrote the three volume "History of Psychology" between 1912 and 1921. McGill established a psychological laboratory under the directorship of Professor William Dunlop Tait in 1910, followed by the creation of a psychology department separate from philosophy in 1922. McMaster employed a professor in psychology by 1890. The First World War had an important positive effect on the discipline which was recognized for its use in the fields of personnel selection, training and the post-war rehabilitation of wounded soldiers.
Psychiatry
Like other purveyors of professional ethics, the World Psychiatric Association issues an ethical code to govern the conduct of psychiatrists. The psychiatric code of ethics, first set forth through the Declaration of Hawaii in 1977, has been expanded through a 1983 Vienna update and, in 1996, the broader Madrid Declaration. The code was further revised during the organization's general assemblies in 1999, 2002, 2005, and 2011. The World Psychiatric Association code covers such matters as patient assessment, up-to-date knowledge, the human dignity of incapacitated patients, confidentiality, research ethics, sex selection, euthanasia, organ transplantation, torture, the death penalty, media relations, genetics, and ethnic or cultural discrimination.
Psychology
The ethics code of the American Psychological Association originated in 1951 as "Ethical Standards of Psychologists". This code has guided the formation of licensing laws in most American states. It has changed multiple times over the decades since its adoption. In 1989, the APA revised its policies on advertising and referral fees to negotiate the end of an investigation by the Federal Trade Commission. The 1992 incarnation was the first to distinguish between "aspirational" ethical standards and "enforceable" ones. Members of the public have a five-year window to file ethics complaints about APA members with the APA ethics committee; members of the APA have a three-year window.
Ten Commandments of Computer Ethics
The Ten Commandments of Computer Ethics were created in 1992 by the Computer Ethics Institute. The commandments were introduced in the paper "In Pursuit of a 'Ten Commandments' for Computer Ethics" by Ramon C. Barquin as a means to create "a set of standards to guide and instruct people in the ethical use of computers." They follow the Internet Advisory Board's memo on ethics from 1987. The Ten Commandments of Computer Ethics copies the archaic style of the Ten Commandments from the King James Bible.
ALA Code of Ethics
The Library Code of Ethics was created by the American Library Association (ALA). The document is a guideline for librarians and other library associates on how to uphold the values that libraries symbolize. The Code was created in 1939 and since has been updated three times. The Code of Ethics was changed in 1981 and then again in 1995. The most current version was accepted by the ALA in 2008.
Clinical mental health counseling
For a full copy of the 2014 ACA Code of Ethics, see the link Code of Ethics at: 2014 ACA Code of Ethics
Diploma in the Philosophy of Medicine
The curriculum was created by Michael Lockwood in 1978, with assistance from Raanan Gillon. Its structure reflects philosophical developments as applied to medicine. It is the oldest philosophy and ethics of medicine and healthcare course in the UK. Previously, the diploma was earned after a two-year study period on alternating Saturdays, and was predominantly attended by graduates and medical students. After an extensive revision in 1993, the course was shortened to one year and opened up to a wider range of students.
George Sidney Brett
Brett's main contribution to psychology was his 3-volume "History of Psychology" (1912–1921), which was the first history of psychology written in the English language, pre-dating Edwin Boring's canonical "History of Experimental Psychology" (1929). Brett's text assesses the philosophy of mind theories of the time and presents psychology as the study of the immediate data of the inner life, distinguishes it from other sciences, and resists the new experimentalist approach.
Gary Winkel
In 1968, Professor Winkel joined the Environmental Psychology Program at the Graduate Center of the City University of New York. There, in collaboration with William Ittelson, Harold Proshansky, and Leanne Rivlin, he was the co-author of the first textbook in environmental psychology titled Introduction to Environmental Psychology. His research interests moved in the direction of hospital design and he worked for seven years as a research and design consultant to Bellevue Hospital in New York City. Subsequently, he began working with Professor Susan Saegert of the Environmental Psychology Program on housing and community related research which has continued until the present. In addition to his interests in housing research, Professor Winkel has focused on methodological and statistical issues related to field research in environmental psychology.
APA Ethics Code
The American Psychological Association (APA) Ethical Principles of Psychologists and Code of Conduct (for short, the Ethics Code, as referred to by the APA) includes an introduction, preamble, a list of five aspirational principles and a list of ten enforceable standards that psychologists use to guide ethical decisions in practice, research, and education. The principles and standards are written, revised, and enforced by the APA. The code of conduct is applicable to psychologists in a variety of areas across a variety of contexts. In the event of a violation of the code of conduct, the APA may take action ranging from termination of the APA membership to the loss of licensure, depending on the violation. Other professional organizations and licensing boards may adopt and enforce the code.
Architectural psychology in Germany
A pioneering book on environmental psychology was published in 1976 by Gerhard Kaminski. Roger G. Barker published an important collection on the behavior-setting approach in 1986, which was edited by Kaminski. The handbook ' ["Ecological Psychology"] published by Lenelis Kruse-Graumann, Carl-Friedrich Graumann and Ernst-Dieter Lantermann in 1990 and 1996 covers, among other things, several topics related to architectural psychology that helped establish the discipline. It deals, for example, with the concepts of ‘appropriation’ (Graumann), ‘behavior-setting analysis’ (Kaminski), ‘person-environment congruence’ (Fuhrer) and ‘control and loss of control’ (Fischer and Stephan). Additional subjects include ‘children and environment’ (Flade), ‘school learning environments’ (Linneweber), ‘museums’ (Klein), ‘working environments’ (Schmale), ‘office environments’ (Schaible-Rapp), ‘therapeutic environments’ (Welter), ‘the sick and disabled’ (Day) and ‘nursing homes’ (Saup). In 1993, Winfried Saup published a comprehensive work on aging and environment. Dieckmann, Flade, Schuemer, Ströhlein and Walden popularized many architecture-psychological studies in Germany by citing them in the book ' ["Psychology and built environments"] (1998). They also describe basic theoretical principles and methods that have provided German researchers with a knowledge base and framework for further research. Jürgen Hellbrück and Manfred Fischer brought together many architecture-psychological topics in their comprehensive book "" ["Environmental psychology"] (1999). It describes psychic-material and spatial-social environments, living, surroundings and cities.
Ethnography
While there is no international standard on Ethnographic Ethics, many western anthropologists look to the American Anthropological Association for guidance when conducting ethnographic work. In 2009 the Association adopted a code of ethics, stating: Anthropologists have "moral obligations as members of other groups, such as the family, religion, and community, as well as the profession". The code of ethics notes that anthropologists are part of a wider scholarly and political network, as well as human and natural environment, which needs to be reported on respectfully. The code of ethics recognizes that sometimes very close and personal relationship can sometimes develop from doing ethnographic work. The Association acknowledges that the code is limited in scope; ethnographic work can sometimes be multidisciplinary, and anthropologists need to be familiar with ethics and perspectives of other disciplines as well. The eight-page code of ethics outlines ethical considerations for those conducting Research, Teaching, Application and Dissemination of Results, which are briefly outlined below.
Medical ethics
There is much documentation of the history and necessity of the Declaration of Helsinki. The first code of conduct for research including medical ethics was the Nuremberg Code. This document had large ties to Nazi war crimes, as it was introduced in 1947, so it didn't make much of a difference in terms of regulating practice. This issue called for the creation of the Declaration. There are some stark differences between the Nuremberg Code and the Declaration of Helsinki, including the way it is written. Nuremberg was written in a very concise manner, with a simple explanation. The Declaration of Helsinki is written with a thorough explanation in mind and including many specific commentaries.
Clark L. Hull
In addition to his other teachings, he was able to teach a psychological test and measurement course. Because he loved the mathematical portion of the course, he changed the class to aptitude testing, which focused on scientific basis of vocational guidance. On the side, Hull also conducted research to build a machine that could perform all the correlational work for him automatically. After teaching the aptitude testing class, Clark went on to teaching an introductory class for premedical students. While teaching this class he particularly took notice of suggestion and hypnosis. This was the starting point of his experimental testing in this field in which Clark focused on the quantitative methodology in experimental psychology. After ten years of in-depth research, he wrote the book Hypnosis and Suggestibility in 1933. After writing the book, he decided to continue in experimental field by teaching this course in addition to the premedical course. Clark had a great desire to teach this course and felt as though this specific type of science was the foundation of true psychology. In 1929 he was called to the Institute of Psychology at Yale University as a research professor of psychology where he worked on the problems concerning systematic behavior theory. In 1930, he came to several conclusions about psychology: the first was that he believed that psychology is a true natural science. The second was that its primary laws are expressed quantitatively by moderate number equations and that all complex behavior or single individuals will be derived as second laws. The third was that the primary laws with the behavior (based on the condition) can also be derived as quantitative laws from the same primary equation. he and other psychologists (Neal E. Miller, John Dollard, and O.H Mower) looked into these ideas more, they sought to understand what underlined conditioned reflex and behavior while also seeking to understand Freud and others like him. This eventually led to his work that he is primarily known for: "Principles of Behavior".
A Treatise of Human Nature
Contemporary philosophers have written of Hume that "no man has influenced the history of philosophy to a deeper or more disturbing degree", and that Hume's Treatise is "the founding document of cognitive science" and the "most important philosophical work written in English." However, the public in Britain at the time did not agree, nor in the end did Hume himself agree, reworking the material in "An Enquiry Concerning Human Understanding" (1748) and "An Enquiry Concerning the Principles of Morals" (1751). In the Author's introduction to the former, Hume wrote:
“Most of the principles, and reasonings, contained in this volume, were published in a work in three volumes, called A Treatise of Human Nature: a work which the Author had projected before he left College, and which he wrote and published not long after. But not finding it successful, he was sensible of his error in going to the press too early, and he cast the whole anew in the following pieces, where some negligences in his former reasoning and more in the expression, are, he hopes, corrected. Yet several writers who have honoured the Author’s Philosophy with answers, have taken care to direct all their batteries against that juvenile work, which the author never acknowledged, and have affected to triumph in any advantages, which, they imagined, they had obtained over it: A practice very contrary to all rules of candour and fair-dealing, and a strong instance of those polemical artifices which a bigotted zeal thinks itself authorized to employ. Henceforth, the Author desires, that the following Pieces may alone be regarded as containing his philosophical sentiments and principles.”
Regarding "An Enquiry Concerning the Principles of Morals", Hume said: "of all my writings, historical, philosophical, or literary, incomparably the best."
John Dewey
By 1894, Dewey had joined Tufts, with whom he would later write "Ethics" (1908) at the recently founded University of Chicago and invited Mead and Angell to follow him, the four men forming the basis of the so-called "Chicago group" of psychology.
The Principles of Psychology
The Principles of Psychology is an 1890 book about psychology by William James, an American philosopher and psychologist who trained to be a physician before going into psychology. There are four methods from James' book: stream of consciousness (James' most famous psychological metaphor); emotion (later known as the James–Lange theory); habit (human habits are constantly formed to achieve certain results); and will (through James' personal experiences in life).
Gregory Pence
His textbook, "Medical Ethics",is one of the field's standards, was 28 years old in 2018 in its 8th edition and will be in its 9th edition in 2020. At UAB, he won major teaching awards, including the Ingall's and President's. In 2010, he coached the UAB team that won the national championship of the Intercollegiate Ethics Bowl. He also coached the UAB team that won the national championship of the Bioethics Bowl in 2011 at the National Undergraduate Bioethics Conference (NUBC) at Duke University and his team won the Bioethics Bowl again at NUBC in 2015 at Florida State University.
American Psychological Association
In February 2010, the APA's Council of Representatives voted to amend the association's Ethics Code to make clear that its standards can never be interpreted to justify or defend violating human rights. Following are the two relevant ethical standards from the Ethics Code, with the newly adopted language shown in bold:
APA Ethics Code
The current version of the code was developed in 2002, became effective in 2003, and was amended in 2010. Amendments were made to the Introduction and Applicability Sections along with Standard 1.02 Conflicts Between Ethics and Law, Regulations, or Other Governing Legal Authority and Standard 1.03 Conflicts Between Ethics and Organizational Demands.
Atkinson &amp; Hilgard's Introduction to Psychology
Atkinson & Hilgard's Introduction to Psychology is an introductory textbook on psychology written originally by Ernest Hilgard, Richard C. Atkinson and Rita L. Atkinson and edited and revised by Edward E. Smith, Daryl J. Bem, Susan Nolen-Hoeksema, Barbara L. Fredrickson, Geoff R. Loftus and Willem A. Wagenaar. Sixteen editions of "Introduction to Psychology" have been published between 1953 and 2014. The text is organized around the major discoveries of psychology research and is strongly biological in its approach to psychology. Eventually the book was translated into French, German, Hebrew, Italian, Portuguese, Spanish, Czech, Persian, Chinese and Japanese
Moral psychology
Moral psychology began with early philosophers such as Aristotle, Plato, and Socrates. They believed that "to know the good is to do the good". They analyzed the ways in which people make decisions with regards to moral identity. As the field of psychology began to divide away from philosophy, moral psychology expanded to include risk perception and moralization, morality with regards to medical practices, concepts of self-worth, and the role of emotions when analyzing one's moral identity. In most introductory psychology courses, students learn about moral psychology by studying the psychologist Lawrence Kohlberg, who introduced the moral development theory in 1969. This theory was built on Piaget's observation that children develop intuitions about justice that they can later articulate. The increasing sophistication of articulation of reasoning is a sign of development. Moral cognitive development centered around justice and guided moral action increase with development, resulting in a postconventional thinker that can "do no other" than what is reasoned to be the most moral action. But researchers using the Kohlberg model found a gap between what people said was most moral and actions they took. Today, some psychologists and students alike rely on Augusto Blasi's self-model that link ideas of moral judgment and action through moral commitment. Those with moral goals central to the self-concept are more likely to take moral action, as they feel a greater obligation to do so. Those who are motivated will attain a unique moral identity.
Australian Psychological Society
All APS members are bound by the Society's Code of Ethics, the most recent version of which was adopted in 2007, and also by the 28 Ethical Guidelines that explore the principles within specific contexts encountered in practice. Guidance is also provided through position statements that are adopted by the Society at Annual General Meetings. For example, on the subject of sexual orientation change efforts and conversion therapy, the Society has joined major medical bodies like the Royal Australian and New Zealand College of Psychiatrists in adopting a position of blanket prohibition. Its most recent comment was issued in 2015 under the heading "APS Position Statement on the use of psychological practices that attempt to change sexual orientation". The statement declares (emphases in original) that the "APS strongly opposes any approach to psychological practice or research that treats lesbians, gay men, and bisexual people as disordered. The APS also strongly opposes any approach to psychological practice or research that attempts to change an individual's sexual orientation." The Position Statement supports this position by reference to the ethical principles relating to the rights and dignity of individuals, whereby psychologists are required to "avoid discriminating unfairly against people on the basis of age, religion, sexuality, ethnicity, gender, disability, or any other basis proscribed by law" and mandates that they
The Position Statement explicitly states that this ethical "requirement not to discriminate and to respect clients' moral rights does not equate to a justification to treat homosexuality or bisexuality as a disorder requiring treatment," relying on the Code of Ethics' section on propriety: "psychologists only provide psychological services within the boundaries of their professional competence [which] includes but is not restricted to ... basing their service on established knowledge of the discipline and profession of psychology". Regarding the knowledge base relating to conversion therapy, the statement is unequivocal: "There is no peer-reviewed empirical psychological research objectively documenting the ability to 'change' an individual’s sexual orientation. Furthermore, there is no peer-reviewed empirical psychological research demonstrating that homosexuality or bisexuality constitutes a disorder. In addition to the lack of empirical support for the claim that sexual orientation can be changed, empirical evidence indicates that attempts at changing sexual orientation can be harmful." The Society's position concludes by noting that it "is, of course, appropriate for psychologists to provide clinical services to clients who experience distress in regards to their sexual orientation ... [but this practice] should seek to understand "the reasons for" distress and how it may be alleviated. Evidence-based strategies to alleviate distress do not include attempts at changing sexual orientation, but could include challenging negative stereotypes, seeking social support, and self-acceptance, among others."
Clinical psychology
The field of clinical psychology in most countries is strongly regulated by a code of ethics. In the U.S., professional ethics are largely defined by the APA "Code of Conduct", which is often used by states to define licensing requirements. The APA Code generally sets a higher standard than that which is required by law as it is designed to guide responsible behavior, the protection of clients, and the improvement of individuals, organizations, and society. The Code is applicable to all psychologists in both research and applied fields.
Medical Code of Ethics
Medical Code of Ethics this document establishing the ethical rules of behaviour of physicians and dental practitioners, defining the priorities of their professional work, showing the principles in the relations with patients, other physicians and the rest of community.
The greatest ethical imperative for the physician is the welfare of the patient.
Etyka
Etyka (Polish for "ethics") is a peer-reviewed academic journal covering moral philosophy, published by the Institute of Philosophy (University of Warsaw). It was established in 1966, but publication was interrupted between 1990 and 1993. "Etyka" publishes articles on ethics, applied ethics, history of ethics, psychology and sociology of morality, ethical education, and texts concerning current ethical controversies. Editors-in-chief have been Marek Fritzhand (1966-1967), Henryk Jankowski (1968-1992), and Barbara Skarga (1993-2006). Since 2006, the editor-in-chief is Paweł Łuków.
Celia Fisher
Fisher is past chair of the Environmental Protection Agency’s Human Studies Review Board, a past member of the DHHS Secretary’s Advisory Committee on Human Research Protections (SACHRP; and co-chair of the SACHRP Subcommittee on Children’s Research) and a founding editor of the journal "Applied Developmental Science". She chaired the American Psychological Association’s Ethics Code Task Force and the New York State Licensing Board for Psychology, and served on the National Institute of Mental Health Data Safety and Monitoring Board, and the Institute of Medicine’s Committee on Clinical Research Involving Children. She is author of "Decoding the Ethics Code: A Practical Guide for Psychologists"; co-editor of eight books, including "The Handbook of Ethical Research with Ethnocultural Populations and Communities" and "Research with High-Risk Populations: Balancing Science, Ethics, and Law"; and author of over 100 theoretical and empirical publications in the areas of ethics in medical and social science research and practice and life-span development.
The Elements of Moral Philosophy
James Rachels wrote the first edition in 1986. He revised the book three times, adding a chapter on "The Ethics of Virtue" in 1993 and a chapter on "Feminism and the Ethics of Care" in 1999. The fourth edition appeared in 2003, the year Rachels died. Since then, his son Stuart has written the fifth edition and the sixth edition, which was released in April 2009. An 8th edition was released in October 2014. The book has been translated into Italian, Portuguese, Chinese, Indonesian, Korean, Spanish, Norwegian, Swedish, Persian and Albanian. It is known for its accessibility to a wide readership.
Psychology
The word "psychology" derives from Greek roots meaning study of the psyche, or soul (ψυχή "psychē", "breath, spirit, soul" and -λογία "-logia", "study of" or "research"). The Latin word "psychologia" was first used by the Croatian humanist and Latinist Marko Marulić in his book, "Psichiologia de ratione animae humanae" in the late 15th century or early 16th century. The earliest known reference to the word "psychology" in English was by Steven Blankaart in 1694 in "The Physical Dictionary" which refers to "Anatomy, which treats the Body, and Psychology, which treats of the Soul."
Maurice Craig (psychiatrist)
In 1905, the first edition of his ground-breaking reference work "Psychological Medicine: A Manual on Mental Diseases for Practitioners and Students" was published and, in 1922, he founded the National Council for Mental Hygiene. In 1930, he was appointed Vice-Chairman of the International Committee for Mental Hygiene.
Ethical Code of Practice for the Norwegian Press
It was first written in 1936. In 1956 it was rewritten for the first time, with important contributions from "Verdens Gang" editor Christian A. R. Christensen. Later revisions came in 1966, 1975, 1987, 1989, 1990, 1994, 2001, 2005 and 2007.
Psychological contract
Although Rousseau's 1989 article as highlighted by Coyle-Shapiro "was very influential in guiding contemporary research", the concept of psychological contract was first introduced by Argyris (1960)—"Since the foremen realize the employees in this system will tend to produce optimally under passive leadership, and since the employees agree, a relationship may be hypothesized to evolve between the employees and the foremen which might be called the "psychological work contract". The employee will maintain the high production, low grievances, etc., if the foremen guarantee and respect the norms of the employee informal culture (i.e., let the employees alone, make certain they make adequate wages, and have secure jobs)".
Medical ethics
Historically, Western medical ethics may be traced to guidelines on the duty of physicians in antiquity, such as the Hippocratic Oath, and early Christian teachings. The first code of medical ethics, "Formula Comitis Archiatrorum", was published in the 5th century, during the reign of the Ostrogothic king Theodoric the Great. In the medieval and early modern period, the field is indebted to Islamic scholarship such as Ishaq ibn Ali al-Ruhawi (who wrote the "Conduct of a Physician", the first book dedicated to medical ethics), Avicenna's Canon of Medicine and Muhammad ibn Zakariya ar-Razi (known as Rhazes in the West), Jewish thinkers such as Maimonides, Roman Catholic scholastic thinkers such as Thomas Aquinas, and the case-oriented analysis (casuistry) of Catholic moral theology. These intellectual traditions continue in Catholic, Islamic and Jewish medical ethics.
Computer ethics
Three years later, in 1995, Krystyna Górniak-Kocikowska, a Professor of Philosophy at Southern Connecticut State University, Coordinator of the Religious Studies Program, as well as a Senior Research Associate in the Research Center on Computing and Society, came up with the idea that computer ethics will eventually become a global ethical system and soon after, computer ethics would replace ethics altogether as it would become the standard ethics of the information age.
Public Relations Society of America
The Public Relations Society of America publishes a code of ethics. Members that violate the code may have their membership revoked, usually under its mandate that members "not engage in any practice which tends to corrupt the integrity of channels of public communication" and that members act "in accord with public welfare." The code also expects PRSA members to identify the source of their communications, avoid derogatory methods and avoid abusing insider information. According to the code of conduct, members should "protect and advance the free flow of accurate and truthful information; foster informed decision-making through open communication... and work to strengthen the public's trust in the profession." The code states that members "adhere to the highest standards of accuracy and truth." A story in CBS criticized the code: "Show me a PR person who is 'accurate' and 'truthful,' and I'll show you a PR person who is unemployed." The code of ethics has been revised in 1954, 1959, 1963, 1977, 1983, 1988 and 2000.
History of psychology
In 1889, Binet and his colleague Henri Beaunis (1830–1921) co-founded, at the Sorbonne, the first experimental psychology laboratory in France. Just five years later, in 1894, Beaunis, Binet, and a third colleague, Victor Henri (1872–1940), co-founded the first French journal dedicated to experimental psychology, . In the first years of the 20th century, Binet was requested by the French government to develop a method for the newly founded universal public education system to identify students who would require extra assistance to master the standardized curriculum. In response, with his collaborator Théodore Simon (1873–1961), he developed the , first published in 1905 (revised in 1908 and 1911).
Although the test was used to effect in France, it would find its greatest success (and controversy) in the United States, where it was translated into English by Henry H. Goddard (1866–1957), the director of the Training School for the Feebleminded in Vineland, New Jersey, and his assistant, Elizabeth Kite (a translation of the 1905 edition appeared in the Vineland "Bulletin" in 1908, but much better known was Kite's 1916 translation of the 1908 edition, which appeared in book form). The translated test was used by Goddard to advance his eugenics agenda with respect to those he deemed congenitally feeble-minded, especially immigrants from non-Western European countries. Binet's test was revised by Stanford professor Lewis M. Terman (1877–1956) into the Stanford-Binet IQ test in 1916.
With Binet's death in 1911, the Sorbonne laboratory and fell to Henri Piéron (1881–1964). Piéron's orientation was more physiological that Binet's had been.
An Enquiry Concerning the Principles of Morals
"An Enquiry Concerning the Principles of Morals" is the enquiry subsequent to the "Enquiry Concerning Human Understanding" ("EHU"). Thus, it is often referred to as "the second Enquiry". It was originally published in 1751, three years after the first Enquiry. Hume first discusses ethics in "A Treatise of Human Nature" (in Book 3 - "Of Morals"). He later extracted and expounded upon the ideas he proposed there in his second Enquiry. In his short autobiographical work, "My Own Life" (1776), Hume states that his second Enquiry is "of all my writings, historical, philosophical, or literary, incomparably the best."
Ethics committee
One of the most fundamental ethical principles in human experimentation is that the experimenter should not subject the participants in the experiment to any procedure they would not be willing to undertake themselves. This idea was first codified in the Nuremberg Code in 1947, which was a result of the trials of Nazi doctors at the Nuremberg trials accused of murdering and torturing victims in valueless experiments. Several of these doctors were hanged. Point five of the Nuremberg Code requires that no experiment should be conducted that is dangerous to the subjects unless the experimenters themselves also take part. The Nuremberg Code has influenced medical experiment codes of practice around the world, as has the exposure of experiments that have since failed to follow it such as the notorious Tuskegee syphilis experiment.
APA Ethics Code
The education and training standard of the APA ethical standards is designed to help psychologists create high-quality programmes that train future psychologists with appropriate knowledge and practice. Psychologists creating education and training programmes are responsible for presenting clear descriptions of the programmes, including the pre-requirements for acceptance and the requirements for completion of the programme. Psychologists are expected to teach accurate and current material supported by scientific evidence. Psychologists should not require students to disclose any personal information, unless it is listed as a programme requirement, or to evaluate whether such experiences are negatively impacting a student's performance. If individual or group therapy is a requirement of the programme, the psychologists are responsible for allowing students to attend individual or group therapy outside of the programme. Furthermore, faculty members are not allowed to provide therapy services to the students. Supervisors are required to provide timely feedback to the students and supervisees based on their performance and the requirements of the programme. Psychologists involved in the programme are prohibited from engaging in sexual relationships with students and supervisees.
History of psychology
In 1864 Wundt took up a professorship in Zürich, where he published his landmark textbook, "Grundzüge der physiologischen Psychologie" ("Principles of Physiological Psychology", 1874). Moving to a more prestigious professorship in Leipzig in 1875, Wundt founded a laboratory specifically dedicated to original research in experimental psychology in 1879, the first laboratory of its kind in the world. In 1883, he launched a journal in which to publish the results of his, and his students', research, "Philosophische Studien" ("Philosophical Studies") (For more on Wundt, see, e.g., Bringmann & Tweney, 1980; Rieber & Robinson, 2001). Wundt attracted a large number of students not only from Germany, but also from abroad. Among his most influential American students were G. Stanley Hall (who had already obtained a PhD from Harvard under the supervision of William James), James McKeen Cattell (who was Wundt's first assistant), and Frank Angell (who founded laboratories at both Cornell and Stanford). The most influential British student was Edward Bradford Titchener (who later became professor at Cornell).
Medical ethics
By the 18th and 19th centuries, medical ethics emerged as a more self-conscious discourse. In England, Thomas Percival, a physician and author, crafted the first modern code of medical ethics. He drew up a pamphlet with the code in 1794 and wrote an expanded version in 1803, in which he coined the expressions "medical ethics" and "medical jurisprudence". However, there are some who see Percival's guidelines that relate to physician consultations as being excessively protective of the home physician's reputation. Jeffrey Berlant is one such critic who considers Percival's codes of physician consultations as being an early example of the anti-competitive, "guild"-like nature of the physician community.
United Nations Principles of Medical Ethics
The UN Principles of Medical Ethics is a code of medical ethics relating to the "roles of health personnel in the protection of persons against torture and other cruel, inhuman or degrading treatment or punishment.", adopted by the United Nations on 18 December 1982 at the 111th plenary meeting of the United Nations General Assembly.
APA Ethics Code
The first version was published by the APA in 1953. The need for such a document came after psychologists were taking on more professional and public roles post-World War II. A committee was developed and reviewed situations submitted by psychologists in the field who felt they had encountered ethical dilemmas. The committee organized these situations into themes and included them in the first document which was 170 pages in length. Over the years, a distinction was made between aspirational principles and enforceable standards. Since, there have been nine revisions with the most recent published in 2002 and amended in 2010.
APA Ethics Code
The first committee on Ethical Standards for Psychologists was developed in 1947 and chaired by Edward Tolman. The committee was created because psychologists were becoming more involved in professional activities and public works during and following World War II. To gain insight on what to include, the committee sought information from psychologists in the field. Psychologists discussed situations in which they felt they encountered ethical dilemmas.
Health education
The Health Education Code of Ethics has been a work in progress since approximately 1976, begun by the Society of Public Health Education (SOPHE). Various Public Health and Health Education organizations such as the American Association of Health Education (AAHE), the Coalition of National Health Education Organizations (CNHEO), SOPHE, and others collaborated year after year to devise a unified standard of ethics that health educators would be held accountable to professionally. In 1995, the National Commission for Health Education Credentialing, Inc. (NCHEC) proposed a profession-wide standard at the conference: Health Education Profession in the Twenty-First Century: Setting the Stage. Post-conference, an ethics task force was developed with the purpose of solidifying and unifying proposed ethical standards. The document was eventually unanimously approved and ratified by all involved organizations in November 1999 and has since then been used as the standard for practicing health educators.
Psychological Medicine
The journal was established by Michael Shepherd in 1969 and he remained its editor until 1993. Shepherd favoured the term "Psychological Medicine" over "Psychiatry" and he attached great importance to the title which he resurrected from the ""Journal of Psychological Medicine"", first conceived by Forbes Benignus Winslow. He defined psychological medicine as including not only psychiatry, but also the study of abnormal behaviour. He concentrated on original high-quality works across the wide spectrum of both psychiatry and its allied disciplines. Shepherd contributed extensively himself, investing much time and care towards the journal's success. According to his successor, "Psychological Medicine" was to become perhaps Shepherd's greatest and most enduring creation set in an already highly distinguished academic and research career.
Lawrence Kohlberg
Lawrence Kohlberg (; October 25, 1927 – January 19, 1987) was an American psychologist best known for his theory of stages of moral development. He served as a professor in the Psychology Department at the University of Chicago and at the Graduate School of Education at Harvard University. Even though it was considered unusual in his era, he decided to study the topic of moral judgment, extending Jean Piaget's account of children's moral development from twenty-five years earlier. In fact, it took Kohlberg five years before he was able to publish an article based on his views. Kohlberg's work reflected and extended not only Piaget's findings but also the theories of philosophers George Herbert Mead and James Mark Baldwin. At the same time he was creating a new field within psychology: "moral development". In an empirical study using six criteria, such as citations and recognition, Kohlberg was found to be the 30th most eminent psychologist of the 20th century.
Walter Samuel Hunter
During his time at the University of Kansas in 1919, he produced his first textbook, entitled "General Psychology". While at Clark University, Hunter was the editor of the Psychological Index. He also wrote a second textbook entitled Human Behavior, established Psychological Abstracts, and served as president of the American Psychological Association from 1930 to 1931. During his time at Clark he also published 21 experimental papers, five theoretical studies, and four book chapters. While he was American Psychological Association President, he delivered an address on the Psychological Study of Behavior. In 1933, Hunter was elected to the American Academy of Arts and Sciences, and in 1935, he was elected to the National Academy of Sciences. In 1936, Hunter became the chairman of the Department of Psychology at Brown University.
APA Ethics Code
The competence section of the APA Ethical Standards is designed to guide psychologists in how to define their own competence and how to approach clients or patients that might fall outside of that area of expertise. This ethical standard begins by helping psychologists define the boundaries of their own competence. The different types of mental health related problems and potential treatments are highly varied. It is impossible for a psychologists to be competent in all areas, and in fact, unethical to attempt to portray themselves in such a way. If a psychologist feels that he/she has not been trained to ensure competence in a specific area to treat a client, he/she should make an appropriate referral. This ethical standard also provides psychologists with guidelines on providing services in emergency situations. Although psychologists should refrain from providing service outside of their area of competence, in times of emergency the psychologist is obligated to help where possible. Psychologists are also required to maintain competence. This is usually done through the completion of continuing education credits. This standard also provides the psychologist with a bases from which to make scientific and professional judgment in an ethically consistent manner. Outlines are also provided for delegating work to others and resolving personal problems and conflicts.
Criminal justice ethics
The Code of Ethics was developed and written by Captain Gene Muehleisen of San Diego PD as chairman of the Professional Committee of the Peace Officers Research Association of California (PORAC).
APA Ethics Code
Revisions to the 1953 version continued over the decades until the most recent version which was published in 2002 and amended in 2010. Each revision has been guided by a set of objectives put forth by Hobbs in 1948: "to express the best ethical practices in the field as judged by a large representative sample of members of the APA; to reflect an explicit value system as well as clearly articulated decisional and behavioral rules; to be applicable to the full range of activities and role relationships encountered in the work of psychologists; to have the broadest possible participation among psychologists in its development and revisions; and to influence the ethical conduct of psychologists by meriting widespread identification and acceptance among members of the discipline".
Psychology
Psychology was a popular topic in Enlightenment Europe. In Germany, Gottfried Wilhelm Leibniz (1646–1716) applied his principles of calculus to the mind, arguing that mental activity took place on an indivisible continuum—most notably, that among an infinity of human perceptions and desires, the difference between conscious and unconscious awareness is only a matter of degree. Christian Wolff identified psychology as its own science, writing "Psychologia empirica" in 1732 and "Psychologia rationalis" in 1734. This notion advanced further under Immanuel Kant, who established the idea of anthropology, with psychology as an important subdivision. However, Kant explicitly and notoriously rejected the idea of experimental psychology, writing that "the empirical doctrine of the soul can also never approach chemistry even as a systematic art of analysis or experimental doctrine, for in it the manifold of inner observation can be separated only by mere division in thought, and cannot then be held separate and recombined at will (but still less does another thinking subject suffer himself to be experimented upon to suit our purpose), and even observation by itself already changes and displaces the state of the observed object." Having consulted philosophers Hegel and Herbart, in 1825 the Prussian state established psychology as a mandatory discipline in its rapidly expanding and highly influential educational system. However, this discipline did not yet embrace experimentation. In England, early psychology involved phrenology and the response to social problems including alcoholism, violence, and the country's well-populated mental asylums.
Psychology
The most important contemporary standards are informed and voluntary consent. After World War II, the Nuremberg Code was established because of Nazi abuses of experimental subjects. Later, most countries (and scientific journals) adopted the Declaration of Helsinki. In the U.S., the National Institutes of Health established the Institutional Review Board in 1966, and in 1974 adopted the National Research Act (HR 7724). All of these measures encouraged researchers to obtain informed consent from human participants in experimental studies. A number of influential studies led to the establishment of this rule; such studies included the MIT and Fernald School radioisotope studies, the Thalidomide tragedy, the Willowbrook hepatitis study, and Stanley Milgram's studies of obedience to authority.
Rorschach test
The American Psychological Association (APA) has a code of ethics that supports "freedom of inquiry and expression" and helping "the public in developing informed judgments".
It claims that its goals include "the welfare and protection of the individuals and groups with whom psychologists work", and it requires that psychologists "make reasonable efforts to maintain the integrity and security of test materials". The APA has also raised concerns that the dissemination of test materials might impose "very concrete harm to the general public". It has not taken a position on publication of the Rorschach plates but noted "there are a limited number of standardized psychological tests considered appropriate for a given purpose". A public statement by the British Psychological Society expresses similar concerns about psychological tests (without mentioning any test by name) and considers the "release of [test] materials to unqualified individuals" to be misuse if it is against the wishes of the test publisher.
In his 1998 book "Ethics in Psychology", Gerald Koocher notes that some believe "reprinting copies of the Rorschach plates ... and listing common responses represents a serious unethical act" for psychologists and is indicative of "questionable professional judgment".
Other professional associations, such as the Italian Association of Strategic Psychotherapy, recommend that even information about the purpose of the test or any detail of its administration should be kept from the public, even though "cheating" the test is held to be practically impossible.
APA Ethics Code
The record keeping and fees standard of the APA ethical standards is developed to guide psychologists in maintaining records of professional and scientific work in confidentiality. This standard states that maintaining records allow professionals to share information with other professionals if needed, help replicate research findings, and abide by the requirements of the institution and the law. In an event of an emergency, psychologists are not allowed to withhold records of clients who have failed to make payments. Psychologists are expected to arrange fees and financial arrangements in compliance with the law and accept barter only in situations that doing so, does not negatively impact the treatment. Psychologists are also expected to maintain and provide accurate reports of treatment, funding, and diagnostic details. This standard also emphasizes that psychologists should receive payment based on the services provided rather than the referral.
Turkish Psychological Association
The Turkish Psychological Association follows several main objectives:
Their Code of Ethics was adopted in 2004. It was created by Yesim Korkut (PhD), Serra Muderrisoglu (PhD), and Melis Tanik (PsyD) in Istanbul.
Edwin Boring
Edwin Garrigues (Gary) Boring (23 October 1886 – 1 July 1968) was an American experimental psychologist, Professor of Psychology at Clark University and at Harvard University, who later became one of the first historians of psychology. A "Review of General Psychology" survey, published in 2002, ranked Boring as the 93rd most cited psychologist of the 20th century, tied with John Dewey, Amos Tversky, and Wilhelm Wundt.
Placebo-controlled study
From the time of the Hippocratic Oath questions of the ethics of medical practice have been widely discussed, and codes of practice have been gradually developed as a response to advances in scientific medicine.
The Nuremberg Code, which was issued in August 1947, as a consequence of the so-called Doctors' Trial which examined the human experimentation conducted by Nazi doctors during World War II, offers ten principles for legitimate medical research, including informed consent, absence of coercion, and beneficence towards experiment participants.
APA Ethics Code
The privacy and confidentiality section of the APA Ethical Standards is written to help provide psychologists with guidelines for maintaining appropriate confidentiality and respecting the privacy of the clients and patients under their care. Specific guidelines are provided for maintaining confidentiality for the psychologist's patients as well as discussing the limits of confidentiality with them. In certain situations where the safety of the patient or others is at risk, confidentiality must be broken as law enforcement needs to be motivated. Guidelines are also provided for how to ethically record therapy sessions for various reasons including training. Steps are covered for the psychologist to minimize intrusions on privacy for patients. Sections on disclosures and consultations provide guidance on how and when psychologists should disclose information and how to ethically consult with other professionals while maintaining appropriate levels of confidentiality. Lastly, this section guides psychologists on how and when to use confidential information for didactic or other purposes while protecting confidentiality of the client.
Computer ethics
During the same year, Deborah Johnson, Professor of Applied Ethics and Chair of the Department of Science, Technology, and Society in the School of Engineering and Applied Sciences of the University of Virginia, got the first major computer ethics textbook published. Johnson's textbook identified major issues for research in computer ethics for more than 10 years after publication of the first edition.
Early Childhood Australia
The Early Childhood Australia "Code of Ethics" was first developed in 1990 by a national working party, with considerable input from the early childhood field. The 2003-06 Code of Ethics Agenda resulted in a new "Code of Ethics", which was endorsed at Early Childhood Australia's National Council meeting in September 2006. The ECA Code of Ethics was again revised in consultation with the sector and the latest version updated in 2016. It is available at ECA Code of Ethics
Psychology
Gustav Fechner began conducting psychophysics research in Leipzig in the 1830s, articulating the principle (Weber–Fechner law) that human perception of a stimulus varies logarithmically according to its intensity. Fechner's 1860 "Elements of Psychophysics" challenged Kant's stricture against quantitative study of the mind. In Heidelberg, Hermann von Helmholtz conducted parallel research on sensory perception, and trained physiologist Wilhelm Wundt. Wundt, in turn, came to Leipzig University, establishing the psychological laboratory which brought experimental psychology to the world. Wundt focused on breaking down mental processes into the most basic components, motivated in part by an analogy to recent advances in chemistry, and its successful investigation of the elements and structure of material. Paul Flechsig and Emil Kraepelin soon created another influential psychology laboratory at Leipzig, this one focused on more on experimental psychiatry.
Psychology
Psychological testing has ancient origins, such as examinations for the Chinese civil service dating back to 2200 BC. Written exams began during the Han dynasty (202 BC – AD 200). By 1370, the Chinese system required a stratified series of tests, involving essay writing and knowledge of diverse topics. The system was ended in 1906. In Europe, mental assessment took a more physiological approach, with theories of physiognomy—judgment of character based on the face—described by Aristotle in 4th century BC Greece. Physiognomy remained current through the Enlightenment, and added the doctrine of phrenology: a study of mind and intelligence based on simple assessment of neuroanatomy.
Mental age
The modern theories of intelligence began to emerge along with experimental psychology. This is when much of psychology
was moving from philosophical to more biology and medical science basis. In 1890, James Cattell published what some 
consider the first "mental test". Cattell was more focused on heredity rather than environment. This spurs much
of the debate about the nature of intelligence. 
Mental age was first defined by the French psychologist Alfred Binet, who introduced the intelligence test in 1905, with the assistance of Theodore Simon. Binet's experiments on French schoolchildren laid the framework for future experiments into the mind throughout the Twentieth Century. He created an experiment that was designed as a test to be completed quickly and was taken by various ages of children. As was expected, the older children performed better on these tests. However, the younger children who had exceeded the average of their peers were said to have a higher "mental age" and those who performed below average were deemed to have a lower mental age. Binet's theories suggested that while mental age was a useful indicator, it was by no means permanently affixed and individual growth or decline could be attributed to changes in teaching methods and experiences.