Who coined the term "marianismo"?
Marianismo
""Marianismo"" originally referred to the devotion to Mary (). The term was first used by political scientist Evelyn Stevens in her 1973 essay ""Marianismo": The Other Face of "Machismo"". It was in direct response to the male word "machismo" and was meant to explain the phenomenon in Latin America in which women were either "saints or whores". It is the supposed ideal of true femininity that women are supposed to live up to—i.e. being modest, virtuous, and sexually abstinent until marriage—and then being faithful and subordinate to their husbands. In essence, marianismo is the female counterpart to machismo, and as such, probably originated during the time of the Spanish colonization of the Americas.
Christianity in the 19th century
Popes have always highlighted the inner link between the Virgin Mary as Mother of God and the full acceptance of Jesus Christ as Son of God.
Since the 19th century, they were highly important for the development of mariology to explain the veneration of Mary through their decisions not only in the area of Marian beliefs (Mariology) but also Marian practices and devotions. Before the 19th century, popes promulgated Marian veneration by authorizing new Marian feast days, prayers, initiatives, and the acceptance and support of Marian congregations. Since the 19th century, popes began to use encyclicals more frequently. Thus Leo XIII, the Rosary Pope, issued eleven Marian encyclicals. Recent popes promulgated the veneration of the Blessed Virgin with two dogmas: Pius IX with the Immaculate Conception in 1854, and the Assumption of Mary in 1950 by Pope Pius XII. Pius IX, Pius XI, and Pius XII facilitated the veneration of Marian apparitions such as in Lourdes and Fátima. The Second Vatican Council highlighted the importance of Marian veneration in "Lumen gentium". During the Council, Paul VI proclaimed Mary to be the Mother of the Church.
Pauline Christianity
It is a not, however, a new idea – Marxist writer Antonio Gramsci (1891-1937), who stressed the similarities between Primitive Christianity and Marxism, used the phrase 'Christo-Paulinism' not only to indicate Paul's greater importance, but also to distinguish between theological and ideological beliefs and the organization of the institutional Church.
Marian art in the Catholic Church
An example of the interaction of Marian art, culture and churches is Salus Populi Romani, a key Marian icon in Rome at Santa Maria Maggiore, the earliest Marian church in Rome. The practice of crowning the images of Mary started at Santa Maria Maggiore in Rome by Pope Clement VIII in the 17th century. In 1899 Eugenio Pacelli (later Pope Pius XII) said his first Holy Mass in front of it at the Santa Maria Maggiore. Fifty years later, he physically crowned this picture as part of the first Marian year in Church history, as he proclaimed the Queenship of Mary. The image was carried from Santa Maria Maggiore around Rome as part of the celebration of the Marian year and the proclamation of the Queenship of Mary.
Marxism–Leninism
As revolutionary praxis, Maoism is the ideology of communist parties philosophically akin to the CPC. Since the death of Mao Zedong, in 1976, the Shining Path ("Sendero Luminoso") Communist Party of Peru coined the term "Marxism–Leninism–Maoism" to identify the contemporary Marxism that is readily adaptable to local conditions in the countries of Third-world South America.
Futurism
Futurism is an avant-garde movement founded in Milan in 1909 by the Italian poet Filippo Tommaso Marinetti. Marinetti launched the movement in his "Manifesto of Futurism", which he published for the first time on 5 February 1909 in "La gazzetta dell'Emilia", an article then reproduced in the French daily newspaper "Le Figaro" on Saturday 20 February 1909. He was soon joined by the painters Umberto Boccioni, Carlo Carrà, Giacomo Balla, Gino Severini and the composer Luigi Russolo. Marinetti expressed a passionate loathing of everything old, especially political and artistic tradition. "We want no part of it, the past", he wrote, "we the young and strong "Futurists!"" The Futurists admired speed, technology, youth and violence, the car, the airplane and the industrial city, all that represented the technological triumph of humanity over nature, and they were passionate nationalists. They repudiated the cult of the past and all imitation, praised originality, "however daring, however violent", bore proudly "the smear of madness", dismissed art critics as useless, rebelled against harmony and good taste, swept away all the themes and subjects of all previous art, and gloried in science.
Franz Roh
Roh is perhaps best remembered as the critic who coined the term magic realism. But, though the lineage is direct, his magic realism has a very different meaning from the one used to describe the work of writers such as Gabriel Garcia Marquez and Isabel Allende that dominates our current understanding of the term.
Servite Order
In 1939 Father Gabriel Roschini OSM founded the journal "Marianum" and directed it for thirty years. In 1950, he founded the Marianum Theological Faculty, which, on 8 December 1955, became a Pontifical faculty by Decree Coelesti Honorandae Reginae of the Sacred Congregation of Seminaries and Universities under the authority of Pope Pius XII.
Leo Scheffczyk
Scheffczyk was a Mariologist of vast scope, and shown in his role as co-editor and major contributor to the "Marienlexikon", a work which totals some 4000 pages. In his article on Mariology at the Second Vatican Council, he asserts that in pursuing the goal of unity among Christians, though this was legitimate, nevertheless Marian beliefs and devotions had been understated by some representatives of the Catholic Church. In his view this was the case with the final chapter of the Vatican II Dogmatic Constitution "Lumen gentium", dealing with the Virgin Mary. For Scheffczyk, in this Marian chapter: "The coldness and reserve of this document can be explained, as it is openly admitted, by its showing consideration for ecumenical dialogues especially with Protestants. Though justifiable, this method's success should not be overrated and does not prevent theology from saying more." He disagreed with those who considered the document as failing to satisfy conservatives, liberals, Orthodox and Protestants, stating that the document contains tangible elements for a mariological bridging of positions, though he concludes that such as result had to date not been achieved. He regretted, however, that: 
The decisive fundamental affirmations (on Mary) are compromises, which narrow the richness of the existing faith and open the way to divergent interpretations, such as the accusation that the Council eliminated the Mediatrix teachings.
Martian poetry
The term Martianism has also been applied more widely to include fiction as well as to poetry. The word "martianism" is, coincidentally, an anagram of one of its principal exponents, Martin Amis, who promoted the work of both Raine and Reid in the "Times Literary Supplement" and the "New Statesman".
Catholic Mariology
In the 20th century, Pope Pius XII, "the most Marian Pope in Church history" warned against both exuberant exaggerations and timid minimalism in the presentation of Mary. The Vatican II dogmatic constitution "Lumen gentium" was specifically written in 1964 to avoid both Marian maximalism and minimalism. Pope John Paul II was also careful to avoid both maximalism and minimalism in his Mariology and avoided taking personal positions on issues which were subject to theological debate.
Enrique Márquez Jaramillo
Influenced by Márquez' writing about the history of 19th-century Mexican social liberalism, Carlos Salinas de Gortari labeled his neoliberal project social liberalism. In his book, "The National Disagreement", Manuel Camacho Solís wrote: "Carlos Salinas would name his neoliberal project as Social Liberalism in a speech pronounced at the PRI (Institutional Revolutionary Party; March 4, 1992) based on writings by Enrique Márquez. Enrique, who was my adviser in Mexico City, knew and admired the thinking of the great liberal of the nineteenth century, Ponciano Arriaga, whose complete work he compiled and published in five volumes in that year. That was where the term used by Carlos Salinas came from, although its content had nothing to do with its original author, who fought until the end of his life in favor of justice and freedom".
Mannerism
The word "mannerism" derives from the Italian "maniera", meaning "style" or "manner". Like the English word "style", "maniera" can either indicate a specific type of style (a beautiful style, an abrasive style) or indicate an absolute that needs no qualification (someone "has style"). In the second edition of his "Lives of the Most Excellent Painters, Sculptors, and Architects" (1568), Giorgio Vasari used "maniera" in three different contexts: to discuss an artist's manner or method of working; to describe a personal or group style, such as the term "maniera greca" to refer to the Byzantine style or simply to the "maniera" of Michelangelo; and to affirm a positive judgment of artistic quality. Vasari was also a Mannerist artist, and he described the period in which he worked as "la maniera moderna", or the "modern style". James V. Mirollo describes how "bella maniera" poets attempted to surpass in virtuosity the sonnets of Petrarch. This notion of "bella maniera" suggests that artists who were thus inspired looked to copying and bettering their predecessors, rather than confronting nature directly. In essence, "bella maniera" utilized the best from a number of source materials, synthesizing it into something new.
Mariology of the popes
In his encyclical on the fiftieth anniversary of the Dogma of the Immaculate Conception, Pope Leo XIII stresses Mary's role in the redemption of humanity. His mariology was greatly influenced by Thomas Aquinas, especially his view of Mary's role in the Annunciation. Leo's emphasis on the path "through Mary to Christ" has been a key direction in Roman Catholic Mariology, with Mariology viewed as inherent in Christology, and the rosary paving that path.
Pope Leo XIII (1878–1903) issued a record number of encyclicals on the rosary, instituted the Catholic custom of daily rosary prayer during the month of October, and created in 1883 the Feast of "Queen of the Holy Rosary". Leo XIII promulgated Marian devotions via eleven encyclicals on the rosary. A centennial after his death, Leo XIII is often quoted, most recently by Pope Benedict XVI and John Paul II.
Marianismo
The ideas within "marianismo" include those of feminine passivity and sexual purity. In "marianismo", power that is granted to women stems from the female ability to produce life.
History of Catholic Mariology
Francis of Assisi is credited with setting up the first known "presepio" or crèche (Nativity scene). He was also particularly devoted to Christ's passion and crucifixion. The influence of the Franciscans gave rise to a more affective spirituality. Pope Sixtus IV, a Franciscan, greatly increased the prominence given to Mary, introducing the Presentation of Mary as a feast for the entire church (1472), extending the Feast of the Visitation to the whole church (1475), and introducing the Feast of the Immaculate Conception, observed by the Franciscans since 1263 but strenuously opposed by the Dominicans and still highly-controversial in the fifteenth century. Around the time of the Fall of Constantinople in 1453 many Orthodox monks fled to the West, bringing with them traditions of iconography. Depictions of the Madonna and Child can be traced to the Eastern "Theotokos". In the Western tradition, depictions of the Madonna were greatly diversified by Renaissance masters such as Duccio, Leonardo da Vinci, Michelangelo, Raphael, Giovanni Bellini, Caravaggio and Rubens. The early Renaissance saw an increased emphasis on Christ crucified and therefore Mary as the Sorrowful Mother, an object of compassionate devotion. Artists such as Titian depicted Mary as the Mater Dolorosa.
Mariano de la Bárcena
Mariano Santiago de Jesús de la Bárcena y Ramos was born to Don José María de la Bárcena y Villaseñor of Ameca and his third wife Doña María Candelaria Ramos y Célis of Zacoalco.
From early youth he devoted himself to study and research in natural sciences. Many of his works were translated into German and French. Bárcena is a member of several European and American scientific associations, and was director of the meteorological observatory of Mexico. He discovered and classified many Mexican plants, and published a book on the natural products of the state of Jalisco, and a treatise on geology. Bárcena represented his nation at the New Orleans exhibition in 1885.
Marinism
The following discussion is based on Mirollo's analysis.
The Marinist poet never hesitated to embark on a long string of comparisons with nature, most of them couched as metaphor rather than simile because this allowed for more striking statements. "There was hardly an area of human experience that could not be pressed into service for a comparison." Nevertheless, Marino leans heavily on both classical mythology and Christian imagery, adapting it freely to create a huge number of memorable word-pictures: "gems, minerals, and precious metals [...] flowers (especially the rose and the lily), birds, fire, snow, the seasons, the sea, and, above all, sun and stars [...] milk, ivory, parturition, the arts and sciences, and a variety of actions and emotions useful for personification."
Mario Santiago Papasquiaro
His first reading was in 1973 at the Museo Nacional de San Carlos. In 1976 he founded the Infrarrealismo (Infrarealism) movement along with Roberto Bolaño, Cuauhtémoc Méndez Estrada, Ramon Méndez Estrada, Bruno Montané, Rubén Medina, Juan Esteban Harrington, Oscar Altamirano, Jose Peguero, Guadalupe Ochoa, Jose Vicente Anaya, Edgar Altamirano, Pedro Damián Bautista and Mara Larrosa. Infrarealism was a vanguard literary movement representing a rupture with the Mexican literary establishment; Santiago is considered by many to be the principal exponent and purest stylistic representative of the movement. His poems are complex, erudite, and highly metaphorical. Santiago sought an aesthetic of signs, much like the calligrams of Guillaume Apollinaire. The majority of his work is still unpublished.
Machismo
During the women's liberation movement of the 1960s and 1970s, the term began to be used by Latin American feminists to describe male aggression and violence. The term was used by Latina feminists and scholars to criticize the patriarchal structure of gendered relations in Latino communities. Their goal was to describe a particular Latin American brand of patriarchy.
Latin American literature
In the late 19th century, "modernismo" emerged, a poetic movement whose founding text was the Nicaraguan Rubén Darío's "Azul" (1888). This was the first Latin American literary movement to influence literary culture outside of the region, and was also the first truly Latin American literature, in that national differences were no longer as much of an issue and authors sought to establish Latin American connections. José Martí, for instance, though a Cuban patriot, also lived in Mexico and the United States and wrote for journals in Argentina and elsewhere. In 1900 the Uruguayan José Enrique Rodó wrote what became read as a manifesto for the region's cultural awakening, "Ariel". Delmira Agustini, one of the female figures of modernismo, wrote poetry that both utilized typical modernist images (such as swans) and adapted them with feminist messages and erotic themes, as critic Sylvia Molloy describes.
José Carlos Mariátegui
Mariátegui's ideas have recently seen a major revival due to the rise of leftist governments all over South America, in particular in Bolivia where in 2005 Evo Morales became that country's first ever indigenous president since the Conquest 500 years earlier (following Mexico's Benito Juárez). The rise of popular indigenous movements in Ecuador and Peru have also sparked a renewed interest in Mariátegui's writings concerning the role of indigenous peoples in a Latin American revolution. The current ruling party in Peru, the Peruvian Nationalist Party, claims Mariátegui as one of its ideological founders.Mariátegui is also responsible for coining the phrase, in reference to Marxism, "sendero luminoso al futuro" ("the Shining Path to the future"). This phrase later became the name of the Shining Path Maoist terrorist organization in Peru as a means of differentiating them from other Communist groups (they preferred to be called the Communist Party of Peru).
Charles Balic
With Father Gabriel Roschini he was a represented of the “maximalists”. Balić and Roschini’s dream of having the mediation of Mary proclaimed shattered the conciliar halls. Recalling the strenuous battle conducted during the Council in defense of the Marian privileges, Father Balić, eyes bright with pain, said to Piolanti one day: “It was there that all my work was wrecked”.
The attack against the maximalists was the publication of the book "La question mariale", by Laurentin, in which the “Marian movement” was presented as “a problem”. Laurentin’s book was refuted by a great mariologist, the jesuit Father De Aldama, at the request of Father Balić and Father Roschini, who in turn intervened in the polemics with a booklet called “The so-called Marian question”.
History of Catholic Mariology
This popularity was at times accompanied with Marian excesses and alleged revelations of the Virgin Mary to individuals like María de Ágreda Many of the baroque authors defended Marian spirituality and Mariology. In France, the often anti-Marian Jansenists were combated by John Eudes and Louis de Montfort, canonized by Pope Pius XII
Theology of Pope Leo XIII
The Mariology of Pope Leo XIII continued the work of Pope Pius IX in emphasizing the important of marian devotion in Catholic teaching and practice. Leo XIII, in light of his unprecedented promulgation of the rosary in eleven encyclicals, was called Rosary Pope. In eleven encyclicals on the rosary he promulgates Marian devotion. In his encyclical on the fiftieth anniversary of the Dogma of the Immaculate Conception, he stresses her role in the redemption of humanity, mentioning Mary as Mediatrix and Co-Redemptrix.
Existentialism
The term "existentialism" (French: "L'existentialisme") was coined by the French Catholic philosopher Gabriel Marcel in the mid-1940s. At first, when Marcel applied the term to him at a colloquium in 1945, Jean-Paul Sartre rejected it. Sartre subsequently changed his mind and, on October 29, 1945, publicly adopted the existentialist label in a lecture to the "Club Maintenant" in Paris. The lecture was published as "L'existentialisme est un humanisme" ("Existentialism is a Humanism"), a short book that did much to popularize existentialist thought. Marcel later came to reject the label himself in favour of the term Neo-Socratic, in honor of Kierkegaard's essay "On The Concept of Irony".
Utilitarianism
Benthamism, the utilitarian philosophy founded by Jeremy Bentham, was substantially modified by his successor John Stuart Mill, who popularized the word 'Utilitarianism'. In 1861, Mill acknowledged in a footnote that, though "believing himself to be the first person who brought the word 'utilitarian' into use, he did not invent it. Rather, he adopted it from a passing expression in" John Galt's 1821 novel "Annals of the Parish". Mill seems to have been unaware that Bentham had used the term 'utilitarian' in his 1781 letter to George Wilson and his 1802 letter to Étienne Dumont.
Carlo Maria Mariani
In the United States his works were called postmodernism; the American art critic Hal Foster made a distinction between postmodernisms rooted in "reaction" and "resistance", and placed Mariani with his shameless use of "worn-out" styles in the former category. William Wilson of the "Los Angeles Times" described a Mariani exhibition in Los Angeles in 1992 as "an extraordinarily complex, beautifully executed attempt to make classical drawing and painting meaningful again."
Darwinism
English biologist Thomas Henry Huxley coined the term "Darwinism" in April 1860. It was used to describe evolutionary concepts in general, including earlier concepts published by English philosopher Herbert Spencer. Many of the proponents of Darwinism at that time, including Huxley, had reservations about the significance of natural selection, and Darwin himself gave credence to what was later called Lamarckism. The strict neo-Darwinism of German evolutionary biologist August Weismann gained few supporters in the late 19th century. During the approximate period of the 1880s to about 1920, sometimes called "the eclipse of Darwinism", scientists proposed various alternative evolutionary mechanisms which eventually proved untenable. The development of the modern synthesis in the early 20th century, incorporating natural selection with population genetics and Mendelian genetics, revived Darwinism in an updated form.
Ludovico Ariosto
Ariosto also coined the term "humanism" (in Italian, umanesimo) for choosing to focus upon the strengths and potential of humanity, rather than only upon its role as subordinate to God. This led to Renaissance humanism.
José Pascual de Liñán y Eguizábal
Already in the mid-1890s Doña Marina forged close relationship with the new party political leader and chief architect of the activist strategy, marqués de Cerralbo. Both shared not only the Madrid residence but also aristocratic standing, interest in history and archeology, penchant for letters, passion for collecting art and generally a refined intellectual format. More importantly, they shared the vision of Carlism as a "party of order". Doña Marina was among chief exponents of the new slogan, "carlismo es una esperanza, no un temor", intended to change popular perception of the movement from a bunch of fanatic troublemakers to a respected established party. His booklet designed to demonstrate the thesis got internal awards of the Madrid Círculo. He was also active in anti-duel campaign, a rather unusual stand for member of the group typically perceived as backwater trigger-happy rednecks.
Machismo
The English word "machismo" derives from the identical Spanish and Portuguese word. Portuguese and Spanish machismo refers to the assumption that masculinity is superior to femininity in males, a concept similar to R. W. Connell's hegemonic masculinity. Gender roles make an important part of human identity as we conduct our identities through our historical and current social actions. Machismo's attitudes and behaviours may be frowned upon or encouraged at various degrees in various societies or subcultures – albeit it is frequently associated with more patriarchial undertones, primarily in present views on the past.
Italian art
Futurism was first announced on Feb. 20, 1909, when the Paris newspaper "Le Figaro" published a manifesto by the Italian poet and editor Filippo Tommaso Marinetti. (See the Manifesto of Futurism.) Marinetti coined the word Futurism to reflect his goal of discarding the art of the past and celebrating change, originality, and innovation in culture and society. Marinetti's manifesto glorified the new technology of the automobile and the beauty of its speed, power, and movement. Exalting violence and conflict, he called for the sweeping repudiation of traditional values and the destruction of cultural institutions such as museums and libraries. The manifesto's rhetoric was passionately bombastic; its aggressive tone was purposely intended to inspire public anger and arouse controversy.
Latin American literature
Resistance against colonialism, a trend that emerged earlier in the nineteenth century, was also extremely important in modernismo. This resistance literature was promoted by prominent modernists including the aforementioned José Martí (1853-1895) and Rubén Darío (1867-1916). Martí warned readers about the imperialistic tendencies of the United States and described how Latin America should avoid allowing the United States to intervene in their affairs. A prime example example of this sort of message is found in Martí's "Our America", published in 1892. Darío also worked to highlight the threat of American Imperialism, which can be seen in his poem "To Roosevelt", as well as his other works "Cake-Walk: El Baile de Moda". Many of his works were published in "La Revista Moderna de Mexico", a modernist magazine of the time.
Mariology of the saints
One of the earliest images of Mary in Christian tradition is that of the "New Eve". Irenaeus of Lyons (circa 140–202) is perhaps the earliest of the Church Fathers to develop a thorough Mariology. In his youth he had met Polycarp and other Christians who had been in direct contact with the Apostles. Following Romans 5, his analysis is both scriptural and Christological. presenting Christ as the "New Adam". Irenaeus expands upon the thought of Justin Martyr (100–165), and illustrates the distinction between Eve and Mary in both "Adversus haereses" (Against Heresies) and in "Demonstratio Apostolicae Praedicationis" (Proof of the Apostolic Preaching).
Marianismo
The concept of family is considered so important to marianismo women that those who attempt to intervene in situations of partner violence in marianismos are encouraged to view autonomy and independence as very westernized concepts, and are told to instead focus on listening and aiding women in the goals they create to avoid violence, in order to avoid alienating women. Many of the goals stated by those interviewed were, rather than leaving a relationship with an abusive husband, to stop the violence, improve relationships with their partners, help their partners learn to be more supportive husbands and fathers.
Angelo Mai
Angelo Mai ("Latin" Angelus Maius; March 7, 1782September 8, 1854) was an Italian Cardinal and philologist. He won a European reputation for publishing for the first time a series of previously unknown ancient texts. These he was able to discover and publish, first while in charge of the Ambrosian library in Milan and then in the same role at the Vatican Library. The texts were often in parchment manuscripts that had been washed off and reused; he was able to read the lower text using chemicals. In particular he was able to locate a substantial portion of the much sought-after "De republica" of Cicero and the complete works of Virgilius Maro Grammaticus.
Giambattista Marino
The "Cambridge History of Italian Literature" thought him to be "one of the greatest Italian poets of all time". He is considered the founder of the school of Marinism, later known as "Secentismo" (17th century) or "Marinismo" (19th century), characterised by its use of extravagant and excessive conceits. Marino's conception of poetry, which exaggerated the artificiality of Mannerism, was based on an extensive use of antithesis and a whole range of wordplay, on lavish descriptions and a sensuous musicality of the verse, and enjoyed immense success in his time, comparable to that of Petrarch before him.
Nicaraguan literature
The Modernismo literary movement was a Spanish-American literary movement, best exemplified by Nicaraguan Rubén Darío, who is respectfully referred to as the "Father of Modernism". In the late 19th century, "Modernismo" emerged, a poetic movement whose recapitulation was a blending of three European currents: Romanticism, Symbolism and especially Parnassianism. Inner passions, visions, harmonies and rhythms are expressed in a rich, highly stylized verbal music. This movement was of great influence in the whole Spanish-speaking world (including the Philippines), finding a temporary vogue also among the Generación del 98 in Spain, which posited various reactions to its perceived aestheticism.
Marino Marini (musician)
Marino Marini (11 May 1924 – 20 March 1997) was an Italian musician who achieved international success in the 1950s and 1960s.
Maurrassisme
Maurrassisme is a political doctrine originated by Charles Maurras (1868–1952), most closely associated with the "Action française" movement. "Maurassisme" advocates absolute integral nationalism, monarchism, corporatism, alliance with revolutionary syndicalism, and opposition to democracy, liberalism, and capitalism.
Machismo
The power difference in the relationship between a man and a woman not only creates the social norm of machismo, but by consequence also creates the social concept of marianismo. which is the idea that women are meant to be pure and wholesome. Marianismo derives its origins from Spanish Colonization, as many social constructs from Latin America do. It emphasizes the perfect femininity of a woman and her virginity. One could argue that in the similar manner of Patriarchy, the man is the head of the household while the "fragile" woman is submissive and tends to remain behind the scenes. This brings to focus the idea that women are inferior and are thus dependent on their husbands. As a result, they not only rely on their husbands for financial support, but in the social realm are put at the same level as "children under age 12, mentally ill persons, and spendthrifts" (265). By way of tradition, not only are women given limited opportunities in what they are able to do and to be, but they are also viewed as people that cannot even take care of themselves. Getting married provides a woman with security under her husband's success, but also entails a lifelong commitment towards serving her husband and her children.
Mariano
Mariano, as a surname, is of Italian, Spanish and Portuguese origin from the personal name "Mariano", from the Latin family name "Marianus" (a derivative of the ancient personal name "Marius", of Etruscan origin). In the early Christian era it came to be taken as an adjective derived from "Maria", and was associated with the cult of the Virgin Mary. It was borne by various early saints, including a 3rd-century martyr in Numibia and a 5th-century hermit of Berry, France. It is also a Sephardic Jewish surname derived from the term Merano. The term, which is frequently derived from the New Testament phrase "maran atha" ("our Lord hath come"), denotes in Spanish "damned," "accursed," "banned"; also "hog," and in Portuguese it is used as an opprobrious epithet of the Jews because they do not eat pork. The name was applied to the Spanish Jews who, through compulsion or for form's sake, became converted to Christianity in consequence of the cruel persecutions of 1391 and of Vicente Ferrer's missionary sermons. These "conversos" (converts), as they were called in Spain, or "Christãos Novos" (Neo-Christians) in Portugal, or "Chuetas" in the Balearic Isles, or "Anusim" (constrained) in Hebrew, numbered more than 100,000. With them the history of the Pyrenean Peninsula, and indirectly that of the Jews also, enters upon a new phase; for they were the immediate cause both of the introduction of the Inquisition into Spain and of the expulsion of the Jews from that country.
Gabriel Roschini
Gabriel Maria Roschini, O.S.M. (1900–1977), was a Roman Catholic Italian priest and professor of Mariology, who published over 900 titles on the subject. During the pontificate of Pope Pius XII, he worked closely with the Vatican on Marian publications.
Marianum
The Marianum is both the name of a Pontifical institute for the study of Mariology and the name of a prestigious journal of Marian theology. The school and the journal share the same name since their formation was based on the work of Father Gabriel Roschini, who founded both the journal and the modern educational institute.
Ideological diversionism
After Raul Castro's speech in 1972, many State intellectuals conceptualized and redefined the term of ideological diversionism as a concept to put into use in the "struggle" against imperialist heterodox social norms. In 1974, one of Cuba most important Marxist cultural critics, Jose Antonio Portuondo, delivered the lecture "Martí y el Diversionismo Ideologico", where he extended Castro's theoretical argument by offering a national genealogy of the concept, tracing it to the history of patriot and national independence martyr José Martí [3]. According to Portuondo, it was Jose Marti, a nationalist and exiled Cuban, well before Raul Castro, who first attacked "ideological diversionism" as a way to unmask those who fought against independence and in favor of the division within nationalist forces of the nation. In Portuondo's reading, Martí becomes the symbolic figure in which ideological diversionism is neutralized and contained, since there is never a possibility to diverge from what is in the interest of the Nation.
Gabriel Marcel
Gabriel Honoré Marcel (1889–1973) was a French philosopher, playwright, music critic and leading Christian existentialist. The author of over a dozen books and at least thirty plays, Marcel's work focused on the modern individual's struggle in a technologically dehumanizing society. Though often regarded as the first French existentialist, he dissociated himself from figures such as Jean-Paul Sartre, preferring the term "philosophy of existence" or "neo-Socrateanism" to define his own thought. "The Mystery of Being" is a well-known two-volume work authored by Marcel.
Marianismo
According to Marianismo beliefs, women are expected to be naïve about sex, which means that many girls and women are not taught about the spread of HIV. Women receive social status when they maintain the appearance that they know little about sex, including the extramarital affairs of their husbands. Many husbands have extramarital affairs as a way to prove their machismo, both with women and men. Men who have sex with men (MSM) often do not identify as gay, and in Peru, one study found that 47% of MSM reported to have had sex with a woman in the previous year, often without condoms, and many were married to a woman. This behavior, combined with the willing ignorance from wives of these affairs, puts women at risk of HIV contraction. Most women in Latin American cultures with HIV contracted it from their sole sex partner, their husband. Regardless of the sexual monogamy associated with Marianismo purity a woman adheres to, her status as HIV-positive threatens the identity she wants to associate with.
Maximilien Rubel
In his encounters with Marxist members of the resistance movement in this milieu Rubel was reputedly astonished by the incoherence and confusion that surrounded Karl Marx and so-called "scientific" socialism. In difficult circumstances Rubel then set to work to gain a thorough understanding of Marx's life and work. It was Rubel who originally coined the term ""marxologie"" to refer to a systematic scholarly approach to the understanding of Marx and Marxism, which he saw as quite distinct.
Modernism
Surrealism, which originated in the early 1920s, came to be regarded by the public as the most extreme form of modernism, or "the avant-garde of Modernism". The word "surrealist" was coined by Guillaume Apollinaire and first appeared in the preface to his play "Les Mamelles de Tirésias", which was written in 1903 and first performed in 1917. Major surrealists include Paul Éluard, Robert Desnos, Max Ernst, Hans Arp, Antonin Artaud, Raymond Queneau, Joan Miró, and Marcel Duchamp.
Matteo Maria Boiardo
Matteo Maria Boiardo (; 144019/20 December 1494) was an Italian Renaissance poet, best known for his epic poem "Orlando innamorato".
Mariano Brull
Mariano Brull Caballero (February 24, 1891 – June 8, 1956) was a Cuban poet usually associated with the French Symbolist movement. Two Symbolists who strongly influenced him were Stéphane Mallarmé and Paul Valéry. Among Cuban poets of the first half of the 20th century he was the most outstanding of those who wrote poetry for poetry's sake, as opposed to poetry that addressed social issues or poetry that was inspired by the culture of Cubans of African descent. Because of his interest in the sounds of words, he is known for a type of poetry called "jitanjáfora" in which the words are virtually meaningless, their sounds all-important. A diplomat by profession, he lived many years in various countries of Europe and the Americas.
Brull was born in Camagüey, in eastern Cuba, where his father, Miguel Brull, a Spanish army officer, was stationed. His mother, Celia Caballero, was descended from a family that had resided in Cuba for many generations.
Mariano Álvarez
Mariano Álvarez ( : March 15, 1818 – August 25, 1924) was a Filipino revolutionary and statesman.
Verdadism
Verdadism is the word created by artist, designer and writer, Soraida Martinez, to describe her art. The word is a combination of the Spanish word for truth (Verdad) and the English suffix for theory (ism). This contemporary art style, created in 1992, juxtaposes figurative abstract paintings with written social commentaries. The technique used is mixed media, with oil or acrylic on canvas paintings with written social commentaries. The commentaries are based on the artist's personal life experiences or observations and address issues affecting American society from the late 20th century to the present. Racism, sexism, stereotyping, abortion, feminism, alienation, ethnocentrism and relationships are common themes.
Maurism
The 1913 refusal by Antonio Maura to accept the terms of the "turno pacífico" (the alternation in government between the two major parties in the Restoration two-party system) and assume the presidency of the Council of Ministers led to a schism in the Conservative Party between idóneos (supporters of Eduardo Dato and dynastic normality) and the followers of Maura, leading to the establishment of a new movement, "maurismo". In October 1913 a seminal speech by Ángel Ossorio y Gallardo delivered in Zaragoza gave birth to the so-called "maurismo callejero" ('street Maurism'). This side of Maurism became active in street politics using popular agitation, even physical violence.
Modernismo
Modernismo is a distinct literary movement that can be identified through its characteristics. The main characteristics of Modernismo are: Rubén Darío was the father of Modernismo as he trailblazed the path for future poets. Darío’s idea of modernistic poems were rejected by poets following World War I because many considered it outdated and too heavy in rhetoric. He developed the idea of modernism after following Spanish poets and being influenced by them heavily. Darío created a rhythm within his poetry to represent the idea of modernism. This changed the metric of Spanish literature. His use of the french method, "Alexandrine verses", changed and enhanced the literary movement. "Modernismo" literary works also tend to include a type of vocabulary that many can see as lyrical. Modernistic vocabulary wielded many semantic fields to impart a different meaning behind different words within his literary work. Examples of this vocabulary that convey different meanings within his literary work would be items such as flowers, technology, jewelry, diamonds, luxury items, etc. This vocabulary often stemmed from, if not from the language itself, Greek and Latin terms. Darío often mentions the 'swan' in his literary works to observe the idea of beauty and perfection within his writing. This is a major characteristic of "Modernismo" as it provides the idea of beauty and perfection within the idea of the poetry. In his poem "El Cisne" , he wrote:
Machismo
There is controversy surrounding the concept of machismo as originally from Spanish and Portuguese descent. The use of Spanish and Portuguese produces historical colonial connotations through its promotion of Spanish and Portuguese masculine social construction, when the term should be used to describe specific Latin American historical masculinities. However, the word "machismo" does resemble words in Spanish and Portuguese language which is the cause why it is often associated with Spain and Portugal. In addition, by identifying machismo as a form of Europeanness, it offers legitimacy to the concept of a wicked formed of the same Western hypermasculinity known to Protestant Reforme-derived cultures and subjugates Latin America's understanding of itself and its cultural history and peculiarities.
History of Catholic Mariology
Major Italian artist with Marian motifs include: Fra Angelico, Donatello, Sandro Botticelli, Masaccio, Filippo Lippi, Piero di Cosimo Paolo Uccello Antonello da Messina Andrea Mantegna, Piero della Francesca and Carlo Crivelli. Dutch and German artists with Marian paintings include: Jean Bellegambe, Hieronymus Bosch, Petrus Christus, Gerard David (c.1455–1523), Hubert van Eyck, Geertgen tot Sint Jans, Quentin Matsys, Rogier van der Weyden, Albrecht Altdorfer, Hans Baldung and Albrecht Dürer. French and Spanish artists with Marian paintings include: Jean Fouquet, Jean Clouet, François Clouet, Barthélemy d'Eyck, Jean Hey (formerly known as the Master of Moulins), Bartolomé Bermejo, Ayne Bru, Juan de Flandes, Jaume Huguet, Paolo da San Leocadio.
Rubén Darío
Félix Rubén García Sarmiento (January 18, 1867 – February 6, 1916), known as Rubén Darío (), was a Nicaraguan poet who initiated the Spanish-American literary movement known as "modernismo" (modernism) that flourished at the end of the 19th century. Darío has had a great and lasting influence on 20th-century Spanish literature and journalism. He has been praised as the "Prince of Castilian Letters" and undisputed father of the "modernismo" literary movement.
Existentialism
Gabriel Marcel, long before coining the term "existentialism", introduced important existentialist themes to a French audience in his early essay "Existence and Objectivity" (1925) and in his "Metaphysical Journal" (1927). A dramatist as well as a philosopher, Marcel found his philosophical starting point in a condition of metaphysical alienation: the human individual searching for harmony in a transient life. Harmony, for Marcel, was to be sought through "secondary reflection", a "dialogical" rather than "dialectical" approach to the world, characterized by "wonder and astonishment" and open to the "presence" of other people and of God rather than merely to "information" about them. For Marcel, such presence implied more than simply being there (as one thing might be in the presence of another thing); it connoted "extravagant" availability, and the willingness to put oneself at the disposal of the other.
Aleardo Aleardi
Aleardo Aleardi - whose name was Gaetano Maria, then he turned into Aleardo - was born in Verona in 1812 by Maria Channels and Count Giorgio Aleardi. After studying law at the University of Padua together with friends John Meadows and Arnaldo Fusinato, he returned to Verona, interest in poetry and art criticism.
Among his earliest compositions there are Marriage (1842), an exaltation of marriage as an expression of civilization, and the Arnalda Roca, in 1844, a poem that has historical protagonist a young woman who dies defending his honor: there is already in it the search for scenic effects and dramatic color that is typical of the entire production next dell'Aleardi.
The first success was achieved in 1846 with the two Letters to Mary, in verse, in which the poet turns to friend proposing a platonic love: it is an opportunity to express his belief in the immortality of the soul and pour out his emotional suffering in a spirit of romanticism way.
History of Catholic Mariology
The baroque literature on Mary experienced unforeseen growth with over 500 pages of Mariological writings during the 17th century alone. The Jesuit Francisco Suárez (1548-1617) was the first theologian, who used the thomist method on Mariology and is considered the father of systematic Mariology. Other well known contributors to baroque Mariology are Lawrence of Brindisi, Robert Bellarmine, Francis of Sales. After 1650, the Immaculate Conception is the subject of over 300 publications from Jesuit authors alone.
Catholic Mariology
The title "Mother of the Church" (in Latin "Mater Ecclesiae") was officially given to the Virgin Mary during the Second Vatican Council by Pope Paul VI. This title goes back to St. Ambrose of Milan in the 4th century, but this use was not known until its 1944 rediscovery by Hugo Rahner. Rahner's Mariology, following Ambrose, saw Mary in her role within the Church, his interpretation being based solely on Ambrose and the early Fathers.
Purismo
The group's ideals were iterated in their manifesto "Del purismo nelle arti", in 1842–43 which was written by Antonio Bianchini and co-signed by Tommaso Minardi (1787–1871), the major proponent of Purismo, Nazarene co-founder Friedrich Overbeck and Pietro Tenerani.
Giambattista Marino
Marino was famous in his time and acclaimed by his contemporaries as the successor and moderniser of Tasso. His influence on Italian and other literature in the 17th century was immense. In fact he was the representative of a Europe-wide movement which included "préciosité" in France, Euphuism in England and culteranismo in Spain.
Barry Ulanov
Ulanov converted to Catholicism in 1951 and was one of the sponsors at the baptism of the jazz pianist and composer Mary Lou Williams in 1957. After his conversion he began to write more on the subjects of religion and psychology. He was the president of the Catholic Renascence Society and founder of the Thomas More Society; he and his wife, Joan Bel Geddes (daughter of Norman Bel Geddes), translated many essays and books on Catholicism. He served on the council for Vatican II, advocating for use of the vernacular in the Mass. He advocated the use of amplified music in church, including rock music.
Marianismo
When Spanish colonists brought Catholicism to what is now modern-day Mexico, a Native American man, who took the name Juan Diego, saw a vision of the "Most Holy Mother of God" on a mound in Tepeyac, north of what is now Mexico City. Before Christianity was introduced to the continent, Native Americans in the region believed the mound to be a sacred place to worship the goddess Tonantzin, or "Our Mother". The vision Diego saw was eventually deemed "Our Lady of Guadalupe" and patroness of Mexico by Pope Benedict XIV in 1756. Our Lady of Guadalupe quickly gained prestige in Latin America. Father Hidalgo lead rebels with the famous Grito de Dolores in 1810: "Viva Nuestra Señora de Guadalupe, muera el mal gobierno, mueran loas gachupines!" (English: "Long live our Lady of Guadalupe, down with bad government, down with the spurred ones" (or Spanish Mexicans))
Eaismo
Eaismo (atomic era-ism) was a 20th-century avant-garde movement born in Italy in 1948, founded by the painter, Voltolino Fontani, who was the main representative of it, with the poet Marcello Landi, the literary critic Guido Favati and the painters Angelo Sirio Pellegrini and Aldo Neri.
Martinism
The term "Martinism" applies to both this particular doctrine and the teachings of the reorganized "Martinist Order" founded in 1886 by Augustin Chaboseau and Gérard Encausse (aka Papus). It was not used at the tradition's inception in the 18th century. This confusing disambiguation has been a problem since the late 18th century, where the term "Martinism" was already used interchangeably between the teachings of Louis-Claude de Saint-Martin and Martinez de Pasqually, and the works of the first being attributed to the latter. Regular transmission of Martinism to Augustin Chaboseau and Gérard Encausse still has to be documented.
Catholic Mariology
Mariology is a field in which deeply felt pious beliefs of the faithful and hagiography may conflict with theological and critical historical reviews of beliefs and practices. This conflict was recognized as early as the year 1300 by William of Ware who described the tendency of some believers to attribute almost everything to Mary. Bonaventura warned against Marian maximalism. "One has to be careful as to not to minimize the honour of our Lord, Jesus Christ." Both minimalist and maximalist have always seen in Mary a sign of the Church and viewed her as a model for all Catholics.
Marianismo
Marianismo is an aspect of the female gender role in the "machismo" of Hispanic American folk culture. It is the veneration for feminine virtues like purity and "moral" strength (with "morality" defined by the Vatican). For example, it represents the "virgin" aspect of the dichotomy.
Evelyn Stevens states:
Society of Mary (Marists)
Marist spirituality is largely based on the vision of Jean-Claude Colin. A phrase that was central to his understanding of religious life was ""Ignoti et quasi occulti in hoc mundo"", unknown and partially hidden in this world. For Colin this sentence is exemplary for the way Mary lived the Gospel in a humble, modest, and simple way. The Marists are called to imitate Mary in this way of life and ministry. Colin said Marists must ""think as Mary, judge as Mary, feel and act as Mary in all things.""
Pandeism
In "", Moncure Daniel Conway stated that the term, "Pandeism" is "an unscholarly combination". Ottmar Hegemann described the "New Catholicism" of Franz Mach as actually a form of pandeism, in 1905, a few years before Weinstein's own extensive review was published, in 1910. A critique of Pandeism similar to Conway's, as an 'unsightly' combination of Greek and Latin, was made in a review of Weinstein's discussion of Pandeism. The reviewer further criticises Weinstein's broad assertions that Scotus Eriugena, Anselm of Canterbury, Nicholas of Cusa, Giordano Bruno, Mendelssohn, and Lessing all were Pandeists or leaned towards Pandeism. Towards the beginning of World War I, an article in the "Yale Sheffield Monthly" published by the Yale University Sheffield Scientific School commented on speculation that the war "means the death of Christianity and an era of Pandeism or perhaps even the destruction of all which we call modern civilization and culture." The following year, early 19th-century German philosopher Paul Friedrich Köhler wrote that Pantheism, Pandeism, Monism and Dualism all refer to the same God illuminated in different ways, and that whatever the label, the human soul emanates from this God.
Pandeism was noted by literary critic Martin Lüdke as a philosophy expressed by early Twentieth-Century Portuguese poet Fernando Pessoa, especially as to those writings made under the pseudonym of Alberto Caeiro. Pandeism was likewise noted by authors like Brazilian journalist and writer Otávio de Faria, and British scholar and translator of Portuguese fiction Giovanni Pontiero, among others, to be an influence on the writings of noted mid-Twentieth-Century Brazilian poet Carlos Nejar, of whom de Faria wrote that "the pandeism of Nejar is one of the strongest poetic ideas that we have reached in the world of poetry."
Mariology of the saints
Saint Petrus Canisius (1521–1597), of the Society of Jesus, taught that while there are many roads leading to Jesus Christ, Marian veneration is the best. Canisius tried to show a practical rationale for Marian devotion and defended it against opposing Protestant arguments. His lasting contribution to this "applied mariology" are his three catechisms, which he published in Latin and German, and which became widespread and popular in Catholic regions. Under the heading "prayer" he explains the Ave Maria, (Hail Mary), as the basis for Catholic Marian piety. Less known are his Marian books, in which he published prayers and contemplative texts.
Joan Miró
Joan Miró was among the first artists to develop automatic drawing as a way to undo previous established techniques in painting, and thus, with André Masson, represented the beginning of Surrealism as an art movement. However, Miró chose not to become an official member of the Surrealists in order to be free to experiment with other artistic styles without compromising his position within the group. He pursued his own interests in the art world, ranging from automatic drawing and surrealism, to expressionism, Lyrical Abstraction, and Color Field painting. Four-dimensional painting was a theoretical type of painting Miró proposed in which painting would transcend its two-dimensionality and even the three-dimensionality of sculpture.
Modernismo
His contributions to the movement of "Modernismo" created an opportunity for poets to use their words with meaning behind them within their poems. The swan represents perfection and, according to Darío in his poem, the swan had the power to revive someone from the dead and there was no flaw in the swan. This represents the "Modernismo" movement within literary works.
José Julián Martí y Pérez was born on January 28th, 1853 in Havana, Cuba- died May 19th, 1895. He was a poet, essayist, and a martyr for Cuban independence from Spain. His dedication to see a free Cuba made him a symbol of Cuba’s struggle for independence from Spain. He organized and unified the movement for Cuban independence and died on the battlefield fighting for it. Martí used his power if writing as well to fight for the independence. By the age of 15 he had published several of his poems and by the age of 16 he founded a newspaper "La Patria Libre". This was during a revolutionary uprising that broke out in 1868 because he sympathized with the patriots. He was sentenced to six months of hard labor. Martí would continue to use his talent of writing bring to attention the problems of Latin America. He is considered one of the fathers of "Modernismo".
Enrique González Martínez was born April 13th 1871 in Guadalajara, Jalisco, Mexico. He died on February 19th, 1952 in Mexico City, Mexico. Martínez is considered one of the last great "Modernismo" poets. While others consider him to be the first "post-modernismo" poet, he never completely abandoned his "Modernismo" characteristics in his work. For the first time in Latin American literature, there was more of a local concern in literature through his works. He was a medical doctor, professor and diplomat to Chile (1920-1922), Argentina (1922-24), Spain, and Portugal (1924-1931). One of his poems called "Tuércele el cuello al cisne" (Twist the Swan’s Neck) has often been seen as his anti-modernismo manifesto. However, this is far from the truth. For the rest of his life Enrique González Martínez continued to be a modernismo poet for the rest of his life. "Tuércele el cuello al cisne" is not a rejection of the "Modernismo movement" but should be seen as a rejection of surface rhetorical devices and frivolity and not as a rejection of the whole movement.
Mariology of the popes
Pope Benedict XV (1914–1922) was an ardent mariologist, devoted to Marian veneration and open new theological perspectives. He personally addressed in numerous letters the pilgrims at Marian sanctuaries. He named Mary, the Patron of Bavaria and permitted in Mexico the Feast of the IC of Guadaloupe. To underline his support for the mediatrix theology, he authorized the Feast of Mary Mediator of all Graces. He condemned the misuse of Marian statues and pictures, dressed in priestly robes, which he outlawed April 4, 1916.
Marianismo
Two researchers with experience as therapists for Latin Americans, Rosa Maria Gil and Carmen Inoa Vasquez, present the beliefs they observed many of their patients holding as ten commandments in marianismo. They argue that marianismo demands the following beliefs be held by women:“Don’t forget the place of the woman; don’t give up your traditions; don’t be an old maid, independent, or have your own opinions; don’t put your needs first; don’t wish anything but to be a housewife; don’t forget sex is to make babies, not pleasure; don’t be unhappy with your man, no matter what he does to you; don’t ask for help; don’t discuss your personal problems outside the house; and don’t change”
Antonio Tebaldeo
He wrote verse in both Latin and Italian. His Italian verse is remarkable for diction and style rather than for any poetical excellence. With his artificial manner, his abuse of metaphor, and his studied imagery he was a forerunner of those extravagant versifiers who, in the seventeenth century, developed the movement called Marinism or Secentismo.
Carlo Maria Maggi
Carlo Maria Maggi (Milan, 1630 – Milan, 1699) was an Italian scholar, writer and poet. Despite being an Accademia della Crusca affiliate, he gained his fame as an author of "dialectal" works (poems and plays) in Milanese language, for which he is considered the father of Milanese literature. Maggi's work was a major inspiration source for later Milanese scholars such as Carlo Porta and Giuseppe Parini.
His prominent works belong to the commedia dell'arte theatrical genre. Some of Maggi's most famous plays in Milanese are "Il manco male" (1695), "Il Barone di Birbanza" (1696), "I consigli di Meneghino" (1697), "Il falso filosofo" (1698), and "Concorso de' Meneghini" (1699). This last work may be considered as a sort of manifesto of dialectal poetry, as it explicitly celebrates the virtues of the Milanese language: "che apposta la pär fä / par dì la veritä" ("which seems as if it was specifically designed to tell the truth"). This equation between the Milanese language (and people) and sincerity is clearly embodied in the "commedia" character of Meneghino, which is supposedly Maggi's creation, and was later developed by other authors (most notably Carlo Porta) to eventually become a prominent symbol of Milan and the Milanese for antonomasia. Another recurring theme of Milanese literature first established by Maggi's works is the celebration of the "verzee" (Milan's vegetable market) as the place where the spirit of the city was most genuinely expressed.
Marianismo
Very few studies on the role of "marianismo" in the media have been conducted. However, in more recent years, researchers are beginning to explore this cultural phenomenon. Researchers Jorge Villegas, Jennifer Lemanski and Carlos Valdez conducted a study on the portrayal of women in Mexican television commercials. Often women are portrayed as either those who adhere to the feminine ideal, and those who do not. These women are then categorized as good women and bad women, respectively. These "good women" are seen as nurturing, family-oriented, soft-spoken, even-tempered and sexually naïve, whereas the "bad women" are often the sexual targets of men. Another dichotomy presented by this study is dependent women versus independent women. The researchers found that "dependent women tended to display characteristics perceived as positive in marianismo (helpful, rewarded by their family) whereas independent women were more sexualized". A similar study by Rocío Rivadeneyra examined the gender portrayals in telenovelas. Her research found that in comparison to their male counterparts, women were seen as spending more time with children and were either homemakers or unemployed. Both studies, however, noted that women and men were portrayed with equal frequency in the media.
Machismo
Machismo (; ; (from Spanish and Portuguese ""macho"", male) is the sense of being 'manly' and self-reliant, the concept associated with "a strong sense of masculine pride: an exaggerated masculinity." It is associated with "a man's responsibility to provide for, protect, and defend his family." In American political usage, William Safire said that it refers to the... "condescension of the swaggering male; the trappings of manliness used to dominate women and keep them 'in their place...'"
Mariology
Some prominent theologians, such as Karl Barth and Karl Rahner in the 20th century, viewed Mariology only as a part of Christology. But differences exist even within families, e.g. Hugo Rahner, the brother of Karl Rahner, disagreed and developed a Mariology based on the writers of the early Church, such as Ambrose of Milan, Augustine of Hippo, and others. He viewed Mary as the mother and model for the Church, a view later highlighted by Popes Paul VI through Benedict XVI.
Nuagisme
Nuagisme (literally "cloudism") is a French art-critical term that was advanced in the 1950s by art critic Julien Alvard (1916-1974).
Marcantonio Flaminio
Marcantonio Flaminio (winter 1497/98 – February 1550), also known as Marcus Antonius Flaminius, was an Italian humanist poet, known for his Neo-Latin works. During his life, he toured the courts and literary centers of Italy. His editing of the popular devotional work, the "Beneficio di Cristo" illustrated a hope that the Catholic church would move closer to some of the thinking of the protestant reformers.
Filippo Tommaso Marinetti
Filippo Tommaso Emilio Marinetti (; 22 December 1876 – 2 December 1944) was an Italian poet, editor, art theorist, and founder of the Futurist movement. He was associated with the utopian and Symbolist artistic and literary community Abbaye de Créteil between 1907 and 1908. Marinetti is best known as the author of the first "Futurist Manifesto", which was written and published in 1909; and also of the Fascist Manifesto.
Mariana (poem)
"Mariana" is a poem by Alfred, Lord Tennyson, published in 1830. The poem follows a common theme in much of Tennyson's work—that of despondent isolation. The subject of "Mariana" is a woman who continuously laments her lack of connection with society. The isolation defines her existence, and her longing for a connection leaves her wishing for death at the end of every stanza. The premise of "Mariana" originates in William Shakespeare's "Measure for Measure", but the poem ends before Mariana's lover returns. Tennyson's version was adapted by others, including John Everett Millais and Elizabeth Gaskell, for use in their own works. The poem was well received by critics, and it is described by critics as an example of Tennyson's skill at poetry.
History of Catholic Mariology
The majority of Western Marian writers during this period belonged to the monastic tradition, particularly the Benedictines. The twelfth and thirteenth centuries saw an extraordinary growth of the cult of the Virgin in western Europe, in part inspired by the writings of theologians such as Saint Bernard of Clairvaux (1090–1153). Bernard of Clairvaux was one of the most influential churchmen of his time. In the "Sermon on the Sunday in the Octave of the Assumption" he described Mary's participation in redemption. Bernard's "Praises on the Virgin Mother" was a small but complete treatise on Mariology. Pope Pius XII's 1953 encyclical "Doctor Mellifluus", issued in commemoration of the eighth centenary of Bernard's death, quotes extensively from Bernard's sermon on Mary as "Our Lady, Star of the Sea".
Romanism (painting)
The term Romanist was coined by 19th-century art historians such as Alfred Michiels and Eugène Fromentin who had noticed a significant shift in the style of Northern painting in the 16th century. They attributed the shift to the influence of artists who had visited Italy, an in particular Rome, and called them Romanists.
Mario de Maria
Mario or Marius de Maria (9 September 1852 – 1924) was an Italian painter, known for depicting nocturnal landscapes, and gaining the label by the contemporary poet Gabriele D’Annunzio, as the "painter of moons".
Marcel Janco
His work with masks became especially influential, opening up a new field of theatrical exploration for the Dadaists (as the Cabaret Voltaire crew began calling themselves), and earning special praise from Ball. Contrary to Ball's later claim of authorship, Janco is also credited with having tailored the "bishop dress", another one of the iconic products of early Dadaism. The actual birth of "Dadaism", at an unknown date, later formed the basis of disputes between Tzara, Ball, and Huelsenbeck. In this context, Janco is cited as a source for the story according to which the invention of the term "Dada" belonged exclusively to Tzara. Janco also circulated stories according to which their shows were attended for informative purposes by communist theorist Vladimir Lenin and psychiatrist Carl Jung.
Valentin Voloshinov
Written in the late 1920s in the USSR, Voloshinov's "Marxism and the Philosophy of Language" (tr.: "Marksizm i Filosofiya Yazyka") attempts to incorporate the field of linguistics into Marxism. The book's main inspiration does not come from previous Marxists, whom Voloshinov saw as largely indifferent towards the study of language. Voloshinov's theories are instead built on critical engagement with Wilhelm von Humboldt's concept of language as a continuous creative or "generative" process, and with the view of language as a sign-system posited by Ferdinand de Saussure. To some extent, Voloshinov's linguistic thought is also mediated by the analyses of his Soviet contemporary Nicholas Marr.
Mannerism
As a stylistic label, "Mannerism" is not easily defined. It was used by Swiss historian Jacob Burckhardt and popularized by German art historians in the early 20th century to categorize the seemingly uncategorizable art of the Italian 16th century — art that was no longer found to exhibit the harmonious and rational approaches associated with the High Renaissance. “High Renaissance” connoted a period distinguished by harmony, grandeur and the revival of classical antiquity. The term Mannerist was redefined in 1967 by John Shearman following the exhibition of Mannerist paintings organised by Fritz Grossmann at Manchester City Art Gallery in 1965. The label “Mannerism” was used during the 16th century to comment on social behaviour and to convey a refined virtuoso quality or to signify a certain technique.
However, for later writers, such as the 17th-century Gian Pietro Bellori, "la maniera" was a derogatory term for the perceived decline of art after Raphael, especially in the 1530s and 1540s. From the late 19th century on, art historians have commonly used the term to describe art that follows Renaissance classicism and precedes the Baroque.
Anarchism
In Europe, the main propagandist of free love within individualist anarchism was Emile Armand. He proposed the concept of "la camaraderie amoureuse" to speak of free love as the possibility of voluntary sexual encounter between consenting adults. He was also a consistent proponent of [[polyamory]]. In Germany, the [[Stirnerism|Stirnerists]] Adolf Brand and John Henry Mackay were pioneering campaigners for the acceptance of male [[bisexuality]] and [[homosexuality]]. [[Mujeres Libres]] was an anarchist women's organisation in Spain that aimed to empower working class women. It was founded in 1936 by [[Lucía Sánchez Saornil]], Mercedes Comaposada and [[Amparo Poch y Gascón]] and had approximately 30,000 members. The organisation was based on the idea of a "double struggle" for [[Feminist movement|women's liberation]] and social revolution and argued that the two objectives were equally important and should be pursued in parallel. In order to gain mutual support, they created networks of women anarchists. Lucía Sánchez Saornil was a main founder of the Spanish anarcha-feminist federation Mujeres Libres who was open about her [[lesbian]]ism. She was published in a variety of literary journals while working under a male pen name, she was able to explore lesbian themes at a time when homosexuality was criminalised and subject to [[censorship]] and punishment.
Libertarian Marxism
Autonomism refers to a set of left-wing political and social movements and theories close to the socialist movement. As an identifiable theoretical system, it first emerged in Italy in the 1960s from workerist ("operaismo") communism. Later, post-Marxist and anarchist tendencies became significant after influence from the Situationists, the failure of Italian far-left movements in the 1970s and the emergence of a number of important theorists including Antonio Negri, who had contributed to the 1969 founding of "Potere Operaio", Mario Tronti and Paolo Virno.
Mare Nostrum
The rise of Italian nationalism during the "Scramble for Africa" of the 1880s led to calls for the establishment of an Italian colonial empire. The phrase was first revived by the Italian poet Gabriele d'Annunzio.
Veneration of Mary in the Catholic Church
The development of this approach continued into the 20th century. In his 1946 publication "Compendium Mariologiae", Mariologist Gabriel Roschini explained that Mary not only participated in the birth of the physical Jesus, but, with conception, she entered with him into a spiritual union. The divine salvation plan, being not only material, includes a permanent spiritual unity with Christ. Joseph Cardinal Ratzinger (later Pope Benedict XVI) wrote: "It is necessary to go back to Mary if we want to return to that 'truth about Jesus Christ,' 'truth about the Church' and 'truth about man' that John Paul II proposed as a program to all of Christianity," in order to ensure an authentic approach to Christology via a return to the "whole truth about Mary".
Carlo Maria Mariani
Carlo Maria Mariani (born 25 July 1931) is an Italian painter. His paintings are rooted both in neoclassicist theory and modernism. In the 1970s he defended his choice of medium from attacks by art critics by making parallels between the melancholy for the past of neoclassicism and the then trendy conceptual art. He received international attention in the 1980s with what was called "pittura colta" ("cultivated painting") and "la Nuova Maniera" ("The New Style") in Italy, in which he employed old subjects and styles. Among other things he depicted Andy Warhol as Napoleon and made "improved" and "corrected" versions of works by Leonardo da Vinci and Raphael.
History of socialism
François Marie Charles Fourier (1772–1837) was a French utopian socialist and philosopher. Modern scholars credit Fourier with having originated the word "féminisme" in 1837. As early as 1808, he had argued in the "Theory of the Four Movements" that the extension of the liberty of women was the general principle of all social progress, though he disdained any attachment to a discourse of "equal rights". Fourier inspired the founding of the communist community called La Reunion near present-day Dallas, Texas as well as several other communities within the United States, such as the North American Phalanx in New Jersey and Community Place and five others in New York State. Fourierism manifested itself "in the middle of the 19th century (where) literally hundreds of communes (phalansteries) were founded on fourierist principles in France, N. America, Mexico, S. America, Algeria, Yugoslavia, "etc"".
History of Catholic Mariology
In 1904, in the first year of his pontificate, Pope Pius X celebrated the previous century's proclamation of the dogma of Immaculate Conception with the encyclical "Ad diem illum". In 1950, the dogma of the Assumption was defined by Pope Pius XII. The Second Vatican Council spoke of Mary as "Mother of the Church". Fifteen hundred years after the Council of Ephesus, Pope Pius XI issued the encyclical "Lux Veritatis", reminding the Orthodox Christians of the common faith. He presided over a Mariological congress in 1931.
Giulio Romano
Giulio Romano, also known as "Giulio Pippi", (c. 1499 – 1 November 1546) was an Italian painter and architect. A pupil of Raphael, his stylistic deviations from high Renaissance classicism help define the 16th-century style known as Mannerism. Giulio's drawings have long been treasured by collectors; contemporary prints of them engraved by Marcantonio Raimondi were a significant contribution to the spread of 16th-century Italian style throughout Europe.