Genetika
Genetika muncul sebagai ilmu terapan yang dapat digunakan bersama dengan teori-teori matematika untuk mengekspresikan satuan unit gen dalam frekuensi kemunculannya, korelasi genotip dengan fenotip, dan sebagainya.
Charles Darwin
. Geneticists studied human heredity as Mendelian inheritance, while eugenics movements sought to manage society, with a focus on social class in the United Kingdom, and on disability and ethnicity in the United States, leading to geneticists seeing this as impractical pseudoscience. A shift from voluntary arrangements to "negative" eugenics included compulsory sterilisation laws in the United States, copied by Nazi Germany as the basis for Nazi eugenics based on virulent racism and "racial hygiene".()