Generating metaphors is a challenging task as it requires a proper understanding of abstract concepts, making connections between unrelated concepts, and deviating from the literal meaning. In this paper, we aim to generate a metaphoric sentence given a literal expression by replacing relevant verbs. Based on a theoretically-grounded connection between metaphors and symbols, we propose a method to automatically construct a parallel corpus by transforming a large number of metaphorical sentences from the Gutenberg Poetry corpus (Jacobs, 2018) to their literal counterpart using recent advances in masked language modeling coupled with commonsense inference. For the generation task, we incorporate a metaphor discriminator to guide the decoding of a sequence to sequence model fine-tuned on our parallel data to generate high quality metaphors. Human evaluation on an independent test set of literal statements shows that our best model generates metaphors better than three well-crafted baselines 66% of the time on average. Moreover, a task-based evaluation shows that human-written poems enhanced with metaphors proposed by our model are preferred 68% of the time compared to poems without metaphors. Metaphors allow us to communicate not just information, but also feelings and complex attitudes (Veale et al., 2016). While most computational work has focused on metaphor detection (Gao et al., 2018; Stowe et al., 2019; Shutova et al., 2010; Tsvetkov et al., 2014; Veale et al., 2016; Stowe and Palmer, 2018), research on metaphor generation is  Work down when the author is interning at UCLA. Literal Input1 The wildfire spread through the forest at an amazing speed. GenMetaphor1 The wildfire danced through the forest at an amazing speed. Literal Input2 The window panes were rattling as the wind blew through them GenMetaphor2 The window panes were trembling as the wind blew through them Table 1: Examples of two generated metaphors GenMetaphor1 and GenMetaphor2 by our best model MERMAID from their literal inputs. under-explored (Yu and Wan, 2019; Stowe et al., 2020). Generating metaphors could impact many downstream applications such as creative writing assistance, literary or poetic content creation. Relevant statistics demonstrate that the most frequent type of metaphor is expressed by verbs (Steen, 2010; Martin, 2006). We therefore focus on the task of generating a metaphor starting from a literal utterance (Stowe et al., 2020), where we transform a literal verb to a metaphorical verb. Table 1 shows examples of literal sentences and the generated metaphors. To tackle the metaphor generation problem we need to address three challenges: 1) the lack of training data that consists of pairs of literal utterances and their equivalent metaphorical version in order to train a supervised model; 2) ensuring that amongst the seemingly endless variety of metaphoric expressions the generated metaphor can fairly consistently capture the same general meaning as the literal one, with a wide variety of lexical variation; and 3) computationally overcome the innate tendency of generative language models to produce literal text over metaphorical one. In an attempt to address all these challenges, we introduce our approach for metaphor generation called MERMAID (MEtaphor geneRation with syMbolism And dIscriminative Decoding), making the following contributions:  A method to automatically construct a corpus that contains 93,498 parallel [literal sentence, metaphorical sentence] pairs by leveraging the theoretically-grounded relation between metaphor and symbols . Barsalou et al. (1999) showed how perceptual symbols arising from perception are used in conceptual tasks such as representing propositions and abstract concepts. Philosopher Susanne Langer in her essay Expressiveness and Symbolism stated A metaphor is not language, it is an idea expressed by language, an idea that in its turn functions as a symbol to express something. Our approach has two steps: 1) identify a set of sentences that contains metaphorical verbs from an online poetry corpus; 2) convert these metaphorical sentences to their literal versions using Masked Language Models and structured common sense knowledge achieved from COMET (Bosselut et al., 2019), a language model fine-tuned on ConceptNet (Speer et al., 2017). For the later, we exploit the SymbolOf relation to make sure the generated sentence that contains the literal sense of the verb has the same symbol as the metaphorical sentence. For example, for the metaphorical sentence The turbulent feelings that surged through his soul" our method will generate The turbulent feelings that continued through his soul" maintaining the common symbolic meaning of (love, loss, despair, sorrow, loneliness) between the two (Section 2).  A metaphor discriminator that guides the decoding of a sequence-to-sequence model fine-tuned on our parallel data to generate high quality metaphors. Our system MERMAID , fine-tunes BART (Lewis et al., 2019)  a state of the art pre-trained denoising autoencoder built with a sequence to sequence model, on our automatically collected parallel corpus of [literal sentence, metaphorical sentence] pairs (Sec. 3.1) to generate metaphors. A discriminative model trained in identifying metaphors is further used to complement our generator and guide the decoding process to improve the generated output (Sec. 3.2). Human evaluations show that this approach generates metaphors that are better than two literary experts 21% of the time on average, better 81% of the time than two well-crafted baselines, and better 36% of the time than fine-tuned BART (Lewis et al., 2019) (Section 5).  A task-based evaluation to improve the quality of human written poems using metaphorical rewriting. Evaluation via Amazon Mechanical Turk shows that poems enhanced with metaphors generated by MERMAID are preferred by Turkers 68% of the times compared to poems without metaphors, which are preferred 32% of the times (Section 6). 1 2 Dataset Creation with Symbolism Datasets for metaphors are scarce. To our knowledge, there is no large scale parallel corpora containing literal and metaphoric paraphrases. The closest and most useful work is that of Mohammad et al. (2016). However the size of this data-set is small: 171 instances, which is not sufficient to train deep learning models. Recently, Stowe et al. (2020) rely on available metaphor detection datasets to generate metaphors by a metaphor-masking framework, where they replace metaphoric words in the input texts with metaphor masks (a unique metaphor token), hiding the lexical item. This creates artificial parallel training data: the input is the masked text, with the hidden metaphorical word, and the output is the original text (e.g., The war [MASK] many people  The war uprooted many people). The major issue with such masking strategy is that it ignores the semantic mapping between the literal verb and the metaphorical verb. Moreover, there are only 11,593 such parallel instances, still too small to train a neural model. The lack of semantic mapping between the artificial parallel training data samples, coupled with limited size thus affects the lexical diversity and meaning preservation of generated metaphors at test time. In light of these challenges, we propose to compose a large-scale parallel corpora with literal and metaphorical sentence pairs to learn the semantic mappings. We start with collecting a large-scale corpora of metaphorical sentences (Sec-tion 2.1) and leverage masked language model and symbolism-relevant common sense knowledge to create literal version for each metaphorical sentence (Section 2.2). Metaphors are frequently used in Poetry to explain and elucidate emotions, feelings, relationships and The tax cut will help the economy Black desert covered in iron silences The tax cut will stimulate the economy Black desert gripped in iron silences BART DISCRIMANTORSOURCE Figure 1: A schematic illustration of our system, which shows the data creation and training process where we use MLM along with COMET to transform an original metaphorical input to a literal output evoking similar symbolic meaning and use them to fine-tune BART. other elements that could not be described in ordinary language. We use this intuition to identify a naturally occurring poetry corpus that contains metaphors called Gutenberg Poetry Corpus (Jacobs, 2018). 2 The corpus contains 3,085,117 lines of poetry extracted from hundreds of books. Not every sentence in the corpus contains a metaphorical verb. So as a first step, we identify and filter sentences containing a metaphorical verb. We build a classifier by fine-tuning BERT (De-vlin et al., 2018) on a metaphor detection corpus VU AMSTERDAM (Steen, 2010). Since our work is focused on verbs, we only do token classification and calculate loss for verbs. Figure 2 illustrates the BERT-based token-level classifier. The classification accuracy on test set is 74.7%, which is on par with most state of art methods. Using the metaphor detection model, we identify 622,248 ( 20 . 2% ) sentences predicted by our model as containing a metaphoric verb. Considering the classifier can introduce noise as the accuracy of the metaphor detection model is far from oracle 100% , we only retain sentences which are predicted by our model with a confidence score of 95% (i.e., prediction probability 0.95). This results in a total number of 518,865 ( 16 . 8% ) metaphorical sentences. After identifying high quality metaphorical sentences, we want to obtain their literal counterparts to create a parallel training data. Masked language models like BERT (Devlin et al., 2018), or roBERTa (Liu et al., 2019) can be used for fill-in-the-blank tasks, where the model uses the context words surrounding a masked token to predict the masked word. We borrow this framework to mask 2 https://github.com/aparrish/ gutenberg-poetry-corpus BERT [CLS] Linear + Softmax w 1 v 1 w 2 w 3 w 4 v 2 [SEP] M L Figure 2: BERT-base-cased model to identify metaphoric verbs, where v 1 and v 2 represent the verbs in a sentence. the metaphorical verb (Table 2 Row1 vs Row2) from a sentence and use BERT-base-cased model to obtain the top 200 candidate verbs to replace the metaphorical one to generate literal sentences (Ta-ble 2 Row3). There are two main issues in solely relying on MLM predicted verbs: 1) they are not necessarily literal in nature; 2) after replacing the default MLM predicted verb, the metaphorical sentence and the new sentence with the replaced verb might be semantically dissimilar. Even though our inductive biases tell us that the chance of a predicted token having a literal sense is higher than having a metaphorical one, this cannot be assumed. To filter only literal candidate verbs we re-rank the MLM predicted mask tokens based on literal scores obtained from 2.1 since the model can predict the softmax probability of a verb in a sentence being either literal or metaphorical (Table 2 Row 4). While we can potentially pair the sentence with the top most literal ranked verb with the input sentence containing the metaphorical verb, they might symbolically or semantically represent different abstract concepts. For example, in Table 3, after replacing the metaphorical verb surge" with the top most literal verb eased", the sentence The turbulent feelings that eased through his soul" evoke a different symbolic meaning of peace,love,happiness,joy & hope in comparison to the input containing the metaphorical verb, which evokes a symbolic meaning of love, loss, despair, sorrow & loneliness . To tackle this problem we ensure that the transformed literal output represents the same symbolic meaning as the metaphorical input. To generate the common sense SYMBOL that is implied by the literal or metaphorical sentences, we feed the sentences as input to COMET (Bosse-lut et al., 2019) and restrict it to return top-5 beams. COMET is an adapted knowledge model pre-trained on ConceptNet. 3 Our work only leverages the SymbolOf relation from COMET. 3 https://mosaickg.apps.allenai.org/ comet_conceptnet We now need a method to combine information from MLM and symbolic knowledge obtained from COMET described above. To do this, we filter candidates from MLM token predictions based on the symbolic meaning overlap between the metaphorical input and literal output first. To ensure that the quality is high, we put a strict requirement that all the 5 symbolic beams (typically words or short phrases) for the input metaphorical sentence should match all the 5 symbolic beams for the output literal sentence. Between multiple literal candidates all having beam overlap of 5, they are further ranked by reverse metaphoricity (i.e., literal) scores. The top most candidate is returned thereafter. We fi-nally end up with 90,000 pairs for training and 3,498 pairs for validation. 3 Metaphor Generation Our goal of generating metaphors can be broken down into two primary tasks: 1) generating the appropriate substitutions for the literal verb while being pertinent to the context; 2) ensuring that the generated utterances are actually metaphorical. 3.1 Transfer Learning from BART To achieve the first goal, we fine-tune BART (Lewis et al., 2019), a pre-trained conditional language model that combines bidirectional and autoregressive transformers, on the collected parallel corpora. Specifically, we fine-tune BART by treating the literal input as encoder source and the metaphorical output as the the decoder target (Fig-ure 1). One issue of the pre-trained language models is that they have a tendency to generate literal tokens over metaphorical ones. To overcome this, we introduce a rescoring model during the decoding process to favor more metaphorical verbs. The rescoring model is inspired by Holtzman et al. (2018); Goldfarb-Tarrant et al. (2020) and detailed in the next section. 3.2 Discriminative Decoding We have a base metaphor generation model p ( z | x ) which is learned by fine-tuning BART (Lewis et al., 2019) on pairs of literal ( x ) and metaphorical ( z ) sentences. We propose to modify the decoding objective to incorporate a Metaphor detection rescoring model a and re-rank the base, or naive" BART generated hypotheses, bringing the metaphoric representation closer to the rescoring model's specialty That wounded forehead dashed with blood and wine To heal and raise from death my heart That wounded forehead covered with blood and wine To heal and help from death my heart BARTDECODERTARGET ENCODERTARGET The tax cut will help the economy Black desert covered in iron silences The tax cut will stimulate the economy Black desert gripped in iron silences BARTMLM COMETDISCRIMANTORSOURCE Figure 3: Schematic showing the decoding step where we use fine-tuned BART along with a metaphor detecting discriminator to generate a metaphorical sentence conditioned on a literal input and desirable attribute. The modified decoding objective becomes: f  ( x , z ) = m (cid:88) i  log p ( z | z < i, x ) + a ( x , z i...m ) (1) where  is a weight of the score given by a . Implementation Details We use top-k sampling strategy (Fan et al., 2018) (k=5) to generate metaphors conditioned on a literal input. Our rescoring model a is a RoBERTa model fine-tuned on a combined dataset of (Steen, 2010; Beigman Klebanov et al., 2018) to classify sentences as literal or metaphorical based on whether there exists a metaphorical verb. It is a sentence level task where the model predicts a sentence as literal or metaphorical. We down-sample the data to maintain a ratio of ( 1 : 1 ) between two classes and use 90% of the data to train and 10% for validation. We achieve a considerably decent validation accuracy of 83% . We manually tune  using grid search on a small subset of 3,498 validation samples from our parallel automatic data and choose the best value. Figure 3 shows the process of re-ranking BART hypothesis using the discriminator described above to generate novel metaphorical replacements for literal verbs. All the hyper-parameters for data creation, fine-tuning and discriminative decoding are exactly the same as mentioned in Appendix A . The reason to use a separate discriminator for decoding instead of using the same BERT based classifier used for parallel data creation, was to avoid introducing dataset biases or spurious correlations. The BERT-based classifier used for automatically creating the parallel dataset ideally has already picked up salient metaphorical phenomena in the VUA dataset. To further guide the decoding process, we hypothesize that a model trained on datasets not seen during training would lead to better generalization. We experimented with using the BERT model trained on VUA for rescoring, but the results were not better. 4 Experimental Setup To compare the quality of the generated metaphors, we benchmark our MERMAID model against human performance (i.e., the two creative writing experts HUMAN1 (a novelist) & HUMAN2 (a poet) who are not the authors of the paper) (Section 4.2) and three baseline systems described below. 4.1 Baseline Systems Lexical Replacement (LEXREP) : We use the same idea as our data creation process (Section 2.2). We use our model described in Section 2.1 to re-rank the predicted tokens from a mask language model based on metaphoricity scores. We filter the top 25 ranked metaphorical candidates and further rerank them based on symbolic meaning overlap with the literal meaning using COMET (Bosselut et al., 2019) and replace the literal verb with the top scoring candidate. Metaphor Masking (META_M) : We use the metaphor masking model proposed by Stowe et al. (2020) where the language model learns to replace a masked verb with a metaphor. They train a seq2seq model with the encoder input of the format (The tax cut [MASK] the economy) and the decoder output being the actual metaphorical sentence (The tax cut lifted the economy). During inference, they mask the literal verb and expect the language model to infill a metaphorical verb. BART : We use generations from a BART model fine-tuned on our automatically created data without the discriminative decoding. This helps us gauge the effect of transfer learning from a large generative pre-trained model, which also accounts for context unlike the retrieval based methods. 4.2 Test Data To measure the effectiveness of our approach, we need to evaluate our model on a dataset that is independent of our automatically created parallel data and that is diverse across various domains, genres and types. Hence we rely on test data from multiple sources. As our first source, we randomly sample literal and metaphorical sentences with high confidence ( > 0 . 7 ) and unique verbs from the existing dataset introduced by Mohammad et al. (2016). For the metaphorical sentences from Mohammad et al. (2016) we convert them to their literal equivalent the same way as discussed in Section 2.2 without the use of COMET as we do not need it. To ensure diversity in genre, as our second source we scrape WRITINGPROMPT and OCPOETRY subreddits for sentences with length up to 12 words, which are literal in nature based on prediction from our model described in Section 2.1. We collate 500 such sentences combined from all sources and randomly sample 150 literal utterance for evaluation. We use two literary experts (not authors of this paper)  a student in computer science who is also a poet, and a student in comparative literature who is the author of a novel  to write corresponding metaphors for each of these 150 inputs for evaluation and comparison. 4.3 Evaluation Criteria Automatic evaluation. One important aspect in evaluating the quality of the generated metaphors is whether they are faithful to the input: while we change literal sentences to metaphorical ones, it should still maintain the same denotation as the input. To this end, we calculate the Semantic Similarity between the metaphorical output and the input using sentence-BERT (SBERT) (Reimers and Gurevych, 2019). We also calculate corpus-level BLEU-2 (Papineni et al., 2002) and BERTScore (Zhang et al., 2019) with human written references. Human evaluation. Since automatic evaluation is known to have significant limitations for creative generation (Novikova et al., 2017), we further conduct human evaluation on a total of 900 utterances, 600 generated from 4 systems and 300 generated by the two human experts. We propose a set of four criteria to evaluate the generated output: (1) Fluency (Flu) (How fluent, grammatical, well formed and easy to understand are the generated ut-terances?), (2) Meaning (Mea) (Are the input and the output referring or meaning the same thing?") (3) Creativity (Crea) (How creative are the generated utterances?), and (4) Metaphoricity (Meta) (How metaphoric are the generated utterances). The human evaluation is done on the Amazon Mechanical Turk platform. Each Turker was given a literal input and 6 metaphorical outputs (4 from system outputs  3 baselines and our proposed system MERMAID , and 2 from humans) at a time, with the metaphorical outputs randomly shuffled to avoid potential biases. Turkers were instructed to evaluate the quality of the metaphorical sentences with respect to the input and not in isolation. As we System Similarity  BLEU-2  BertScore  LEXREP 79.6 68.7 0.56 META_M 73.2 61.0 0.62 BART 83.6 65.0 0.65 MERMAID 85.0 66.7 0.71 HUMAN1 86.6 -HUMAN2 84.2 -Table 4: Automatic evaluation results on test set where MERMAID significantly outperforms other automatic methods for 2 out of 3 metrics ( p < . 001) according to approximate randomization test). evaluate on four dimensions for 900 utterances, we have a total of 3600 evaluations. Each criteria was rated on a likert scale from 1 (not at all) to 5 (very). Each group of utterances was rated by three separate Turkers, resulted in 42, 48, 44 and 53 Turkers for the four evaluation tasks respectively. We pay them at a rate of $15 per hour. Based on the semantic similarity metric shown in column 1 of Table 4, our system MERMAID is better in preserving the meaning of the input than the other baselines. As mentioned, we calculate BLEU-2 and BERTScore between system outputs and human references. MERMAID is better than the other baselines according to BERTScore. In terms of BLEU-2, MERMAID is second best. Table 5 shows the average scores for the human evaluation on four metaphor quality criteria for MERMAID , the baselines, and human written metaphors on the test set. The inter-annotator agreements computed using Krippendorff's alpha for Creativity, Meaning, Fluency and Metaphoricity are 0.44, 0.42, 0.68, 0.52 respectively. The results demonstrate that MERMAID is significantly better Literal System Metaphor Flu Mea Crea Meta The scream filled the night HUMAN1 The scream pierced the night 4.3 5.0 3.7 4.0 HUMAN2 The scream covered the night 2.7 4.0 3.0 3.0 LEXREP The scream held the night 1.7 3.7 2.0 1.7 META_M The scream opened the night 1.0 1.0 1.0 1.0 BART The scream filled the night 2.3 1.0 2.3 1.0 MERMAID The scream pierced the night 4.3 5.0 3.7 4.0 The wildfire spread through the forest at an amazing speed HUMAN1 The wildfire ravaged through the forest at an amazing speed 4.7 4.3 4.0 3.0 HUMAN2 The wildfire leapt through the forest at an amazing speed 3.7 3.0 5.0 3.7 LEXREP The wildfire saw through the forest at an amazing speed 1.3 1.0 2.7 3.3 META_M The wildfire grows through the forest at an amazing speed 3.7 2.7 2.7 4.0 BART The wildfire swept through the forest at an amazing speed 4.0 3.7 4.7 4.0 MERMAID The wildfire danced through the forest at an amazing speed 3.0 4.0 4.0 3.7 My heart beats when he walks in the room HUMAN1 My heart skips when he walks in the room 4.7 5.0 4.0 4.3 HUMAN2 My heart sings when he walks in the room 5.0 4.3 3.7 3.3 LEXREP My heart made when he walks in the room 1.0 1.0 1.0 1.0 META_M My heart came when he walks in the room 1.7 1.0 1.3 1.3 BART My heart sings when he walks in the room 5.0 4.3 3.7 3.7 MERMAID My heart jumps when he walks in the room 4.7 4.7 4.3 4.0 After a glass of wine, he relaxed up a bit HUMAN1 After a glass of wine, he loosened up a bit 4.7 5.0 5.0 4.0 HUMAN2 After a glass of wine, he unfurled up a bit 2.0 5.0 2.0 3.7 LEXREP After a glass of wine, he followed up a bit 3.7 1.0 2.7 1.7 META_M After a glass of he touched up a bit 1.3 1.0 1.7 2.0 BART After a glass of wine, he dried up a bit 2.7 1.0 2.3 2.0 MERMAID After a glass of wine, he loosened up a bit 4.3 5.0 5.0 3.7 The tax cut will help the economy HUMAN1 The tax cut will uplift the economy 4.7 5.0 4.7 4.0 HUMAN2 The tax cut will fertilize the economy 4.0 4.3 4.3 3.7 LEXREP The tax cut will bring the economy 1.7 3.0 2.7 1.7 META_M The tax cut will prevent the economy 1.7 1.0 2.0 1.0 BART The tax cut will strengthen the economy 5.0 5.0 4.3 3.7 MERMAID The tax cut will stimulate the economy 5.0 4.7 3.7 4.0 I tried to resolve things over between them HUMAN1 I tried to tide things over between them 4.3 3.0 3.7 4.3 HUMAN2 I tried to patch things over between them 4.7 4.7 5.0 2.0 LEXREP I tried to push things over between them 3.3 1.0 2.3 2.0 META_M I tried to make things over between them 4.0 1.0 2.7 2.7 BART I tried to put things over between them 4.7 2.0 3.0 2.7 MERMAIDI tried to smooth things over between them 4.7 4.7 5.0 4.0 Table 6: Examples of generated outputs from different systems (with human written metaphors as references). than the baselines on all four criteria ( p < . 001 according to approximate randomization test). Table 6 presents several generation outputs from different systems along with human judgements on individual criteria. We observe that incorporating a discriminator often guides our model to generate better metaphors than the already strong baseline using BART. Finally, incorporating symbolic meaning in data creation step helps our model to maintain the same meaning as the input. Metaphors are frequently used by creative writing practitioners, in particular poets, to embellish their work. We posit that MERMAID can be used to edit literal sentences in poems to further enhance creativity. To test this hypothesis, we first crawl origi-Figure 4: Percentage of Preference of Original Quatrains vs Quatrains rewritten by MERMAID nal poems submitted by authors from the sub-reddit OCPOETRY . The poems are of variable lengths, so to ensure parity we break them into Quatrains (four sentence stanza). We randomly sample 50 such Quatrains containing at least one sentence with a And the hills have a shimmer of light between, And the valleys are covered with misty veils, And ........., We then select a sentence containing a literal verb from each Quatrain and use MERMAID to re-write it so that the resulting output is metaphorical. We ignore common verbs like is,was,are,were,have,had . If there are more than one sentence in Quatrain with literal verbs, we choose the sentence with a literal verb that has the highest probability for being literal. For sentences with multiple literal verbs, we choose the verb with highest literal probability. Our goal is to see if re-written poems are qualitatively better than the original forms. To do this, we hire Turkers from Amazon Mechanical Turk and present them with hits where the task is to choose the better version between the original Quatrain and the re-written version. 15 Turkers were recruited for the task. Each Quatrain was evaluated by 3 distinct Turkers. Table 7 shows metaphorical transformations by a MERMAID Figure 4 shows that poems rewritten by MERMAID were considered better by the Turkers. Most researchers focused on identification and interpretation of metaphor, while metaphor generation is relatively under-studied. For metaphor detection, researchers focused on variety of features, including unigrams, imageabil-ity, sensory features, WordNet, bag-of-words features (Klebanov et al., 2014; Tsvetkov et al., 2014; Shutova et al., 2016; Tekiroglu et al., 2015; Hovy et al., 2013; Kper and im Walde, 2016). With advent of deep learning approaches, Gao et al. (2018) used BiLSTM models based on GloVe (Pennington et al., 2014) and ELMo word vectors (Peters et al., 2018) to detect metaphoric verbs. Inspired by the linguistic theories, MIP (Semino et al., 2007; Steen, 2010) and SPV (Wilks, 1975, 1978), Mao et al. (2019) proposed two detection models consisting of BiLSTM with attention mechanisms that relied on GloVe and ELMo embeddings. Recent work on metaphor detection have also used pretrained language models (Su et al., 2020; Gong et al., 2020). While we focus on metaphor generation , we use (Devlin et al., 2018) to detect metaphoric verbs to create parallel data and (Liu et al., 2019) to rescore our generated hypothesis during decoding. Some early works made contributions to use template and heuristic-based methods (Abe et al., 2006; Terai and Nakagawa, 2010) to generate A is like B sentences, more popularly referred to as similes . Chakrabarty et al. (2020) concentrated on simile generation, applying seq2seq model to paraphrase a literal sentence into a simile. Other attempts learned from the mappings of different domains and generated conceptual metaphors of pattern A is B (Hervs et al., 2007; Mason, 2004; Gero and Chilton, 2019). These works paid attention to the relationship between nouns and concepts to create elementary figurative expressions. Recent metaphor generation works focus mainly on verbs. Yu and Wan (2019) proposed an unsupervised metaphor extraction method, and developed a neural generation model to generate metaphorical sentences from literal-metaphorical verb pairs. They however do not focus on literal to metaphorical sentence transfer , but generate a sentence given a metaphorical fit word. The closest to our work is that of Stowe et al. (2020), who focus on building a seq2seq model, using a special mask token to mask the metaphorical verbs as input, and the original metaphorical sentences as output. However, this model face challenges in transferring the literal sentences to metaphorical ones, while maintaining the same meaning. We, on the contrary, focus on maintaining the same meaning through parallel data creation focusing on symbolism. Additionally, we incorporate a metaphor detection model as a discriminator to improve decoding during generation. We show how to transform literal sentences to metaphorical ones. We propose a novel way of creating parallel corpora and an approach for generating metaphors that benefits from transfer learning and discriminative decoding. Human and automatic evaluations show that our best model is successful at generating metaphors. We further show that leveraging symbolic meanings helps us learn better abstract representations and better preservation of the denotative meaning of the input. Future directions include learning diverse conceptual metaphoric mapping using our parallel data and constraining our metaphoric generations based on particular mapping. Our data is collected from Reddit and we understand and respect user privacy. Our models are fine-tuned on sentence level data obtained from user posts. These do not contain any explicit detail which leaks information about a users name, health, negative financial status, racial or ethnic origin, religious or philosophical affiliation or beliefs, sexual orientation, trade union membership, alleged or actual commission of crime. Second, although we use language models trained on data collected from the Web, which have been shown to have issues with bias and abusive language (Sheng et al., 2019; Wallace et al., 2019), the inductive bias of our models should limit inadvertent negative impacts. Unlike model variants such as GPT, BART is a conditional language model, which provides more control of the generated output. Furthermore, we specifically encode writing style from a poetic corpus in our models and train on parallel data in the direction of literal to metaphorical style. Open-sourcing this technology will help to generate metaphoric text assisting creative writing practitioners or non native language speakers to improve their writing. We do not envision any dual-use that can cause harm for the use of our the metaphor generation system. This work was supported in part by the MCS program under Cooperative Agreement N66001-19-2-4032, and the CwC program under Contract W911NF-15-1-0543 with the US Defense Advanced Research Projects Agency (DARPA). The views expressed are those of the authors and do not reflect the official policy or position of the Department of Defense or the U.S. Government. The authors would like to thank the members of PLUS-Lab at the University of California Los Angeles and University of Southern California and the anonymous reviewers for helpful comments.
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