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  The ancient Egyptian civilization can be traced back to approximately 3000 BC and it lasted until 30 BC when it became part of the Roman Empire. Its long duration shows that the civilization was provided with all necessities, such as a good natural environment including water, fish, fertile soil and plants, but also with rich architecture as seen in the
  pyramids which required the use of accurate measurements and mathematics, and durable materials. When we speak about Egypt, many things could come to mind: the beauty of Cleopatra , or maybe the glorious mask of Tutankhamun. Some of you may also think about the pictorial writing system known as hieroglyphics, which were found carved and written on many different surfaces such as papyrus, stone, and wood. So as you can see, for many years, the ancient Egyptians thrived. Let’s have a look at some of the main ancient Egyptian inventions that people are most curious about:
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  The introduction of writing in Egypt in the predynastic period (c. 3000 BCE) brought with it the formation of a special class of literate professionals, the scribes . By virtue of their writing skills, the scribes took on all the duties of a civil service: record keeping, tax accounting, the management of public works (building projects and the like), even the prosecution of war through overseeing military supplies and payrolls. Young men enrolled in scribal schools to learn the essentials of the trade, which included not only reading and writing but also the basics of mathematics.
  In history books, the Greeks often take the credit for inventing mathematics. They were skilled in mathematics and astronomy, but the truth is, they learned it from the Egyptians. The main difference is that Egyptian geometry and arithmetic were primarily used for practical applications: measurements, business transactions, how to construct pyramids, and cut rocks. Mathematics was not seen as a theoretical science.
  In Egyptian schools, the curriculum included sports but for those intending to pursue further education, the emphasis was placed on writing (to train the character) and mathematics. It is thought that the Egyptians introduced the earliest basic numeration system of 10 numbers as early as 2700 BC and maybe even before. The oldest mathematical text from ancient Egypt is the Moscow Papyrus, discovered around 2000 BC. The ancient Greeks later developed and improved upon what the Egyptians had invented.
  9. Calendar and Clock
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  The Egyptians divide time into three main periods: the inundation season (akhet), which lasted for one-third of the year; the sowing and progression of the crops (perit); and the produce (shemu). These three seasons each one consisted of 120 time and completed up one calendar year. To sign the inauguration of every year, they chose the rising of the afflict Star, detectable to the naked eye. After a number of time, it became evident that the calendar was short, but the jump of the civil day coincided with the opening of the agricultural year.
  The Egyptians were together with the elementary to allot their time into parts. Obelisks – slender, four-sided monuments – were second-hand as sun clocks from 3500 BC and their pathetic darkness enabled inhabitants to break free the day into parts, initial at noon. shortly on, they make-believe the to begin with portable shadow meter which was consequently unimportant that population may well have available it with them. A pole was noticeable with 12 sections and a shadow of the fishing rod would report you pardon? time it was. In addition, account and chronological credentials were kept back of all king’s reign.
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  The government of ancient Egypt was a theocratic monarchy as the king ruled by a mandate from the gods, initially was seen as an intermediary between human beings and the divine, and was supposed to represent the gods' will through the laws passed and policies approved. A central government in Egypt is evident by c. 3150 BCE when King
  Narmer unified the country, but some form of government existed prior to this date. The Scorpion Kings of the Predynastic Period in Egypt (c. 6000-3150 BCE) obviously had a form of monarchial government, but exactly how it operated is not known.
  Egyptologists of the 19th century CE divided the country's history into periods in order to clarify and manage their field of study. Periods in which there was a strong central government are called 'kingdoms' while those in which there was disunity or no central government are called 'intermediate periods.' In examining Egyptian history one needs to understand that these are modern designations; the ancient Egyptians did not recognize any demarcations between time periods by these terms. Scribes of the Middle Kingdom of Egypt (c. 2040-1782 BCE) might look back on the time of the First Intermediate Period (2181-2040 BCE) as a "time of woe" but the period had no official name.
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  Ancient Egypt is well known as the country which housed the most famous library of antiquity, the library of Alexandria. The details surrounding the foundation of this institution remain unclear. The idea may have originated with Ptolemy I, but the available sources indicate that actual construction did not take place until the reign of Ptolemy II and the credit is perhaps entirely his. Much is known about the wide range of scholarly activities and groundbreaking achievements of the library of Alexandria. But the possibility that any aspect of contemporary Egyptian culture may have played a part in the decision to create this institution has been given little if any serious consideration. The inspiration for its creation is usually sought in the Greek world and there alone. There is, however, very limited evidence of institutional libraries in the Greek world before the Hellenistic era. By contrast, Egypt had a millennia-long tradition of temple libraries, and one that is well documented. At least a part of the activities for which the library in Alexandria would become famous, had long been the stock in trade of these libraries. This tradition is largely unknown outside a relatively small group of Egyptological specialists because it has received limited attention and general studies are not readily accessible. Yet substantial source material is available. In marked contrast to the situation with Greek and Roman libraries, for which we rely almost exclusively on secondary literary sources and the architecture of monumental buildings, the Egyptian material largely consists of contemporary and primary evidence in the form of actual writings from the libraries along with the titles and biographical statements of the people associated with them. The possibility that the large-scale, systematic collections of religious, scientific and historical writings kept at the temple libraries may have played a part in inspiring the creation of the library of Alexandria should, in my opinion, be given serious consideration.
  Wine, the premier fermented beverage of Mediterranean and Near Eastern civilizations, was likely discovered and enjoyed early in human prehistory. Although the organic evidence of these unique beverages, with their special dietary benefits and psychotropic effects, has largely disappeared, highly sensitive techniques now make it possible to identify chemical compounds that are specific to wine. Our earliest finding is that the Neolithic villagers of the northern Zagros mountains of Iran were making wine and storing wine in some of the earliest pottery jars from the Middle East, ca. 5400 B.C. Terebinth tree resin was added to the wine, much like modern-day retsina, probably as a preservative and to cover up any off-tastes or odors. The pharmacopeiae of later literate societies are dominated by this resinated wine, whose origins can now be traced back to the first period of permanent human habitation.
  WINES OF ANCIENT EGYPT
  Before a royal winemaking industry was established in the Nile Delta, ca. 3000 B.C., the first pharaohs imported wine from the Levant, and soon developed a taste for it. During Dynasty 0, around 3150 B.C., one of the first kings of Egypt, Scorpion I, was buried in a magnificent “funerary house” in the desert at Abydos on the middle Nile River. The German Institute of Archaeology in Cairo excavated Scorpion’s tomb in all its splendor, with ivory scepter and supplies of food and drink to carry with him into the afterlife. What was most astounding was that 700 jars containing some 4500 liters of resinated wine, according to our chemical analyses, were deposited in these three rooms, which was then covered over by a roof and mound of earth.
  Besides being resinated wine with terebinth tree resin to which fresh fruit (grapes and figs) had been added, the Scorpion wine had also been laced with a variety of herbs–mint, coriander and sage–according to our re-analysis of the jar residues, using state-of-the-art techniques in collaboration with the U.S. Government Tax and Trade Commission Laboratory.
  We have also demonstrated that the liquid in the jars had indeed been fermented, according DNA analysis in collaboration with the University of Florence. The residues revealed fragments of wine yeast DNA, Saccharomyces cerevisiae, the earliest ever recovered and the likely precursor of the bread and beer yeasts.
  Once the beverage had established an economic foothold, usually being incorporated into religious ritual and social custom as well, the next logical step was to transplant the grapevine itself, and begin producing wine locally to assure a more steady supply, at a lower cost and tailored to local tastes. The Nile Delta with its extensive tracts of irrigated land, sunny days and short rainy season was ideal, and became the focus of a royal wine industry in the first two dynasties.
  Soon, burials were not considered to be adequately prepared for the afterlife unless the five canonical wines from different estates in the Delta were deposited or illustrated in them. The 26 wine amphoras of the boy-king Tutankhamun that were buried with him in his famous tomb around 1330 B.C during the heyday of the New Kingdom were produced in the wineries in the Nile Delta.
  The ancient Egyptians fascinate us. Our modern culture devotes museums, books and movies to the study and celebration of Egyptian society and traditions. From King Tut mania to Elizabeth Taylor's Cleopatra, we're obsessed. This is likely because they left behind so many well-preserved artifacts and we have so much to sift through and admire.
  One facet of the ancient Egyptian culture we find particularly interesting is their use of makeup. Even for the afterlife, the Egyptians found cosmetics important. It's not uncommon for archaeologists to find small clay pots of makeup in even the most humble tombs. Yes, beauty was important to the Egyptians, but makeup served another purpose. Some of their beautification rituals also helped protect them from the elements -- repelling insects or warding off the sun's burning rays. Many times, the application of makeup also served as a ritual to honor their gods or goddesses.
  4. Mummification View pictures in App save up to 80% data.
  The methods of embalming, or treating the dead body, that the ancient Egyptians used is called mummification. Using special processes, the Egyptians removed all moisture from the body, leaving only a dried form that would not easily decay. It was important in their religion to preserve the dead body in as life-like a manner as possible. So successful were they that today we can view the mummified body of an Egyptian and have a good idea of what he or she looked like in life, 3000 years ago.
  Mummification was practiced throughout most of early Egyptian history. The earliest mummies from prehistoric times probably were accidental. By chance, dry sand and air (since Egypt has almost no measurable rainfall) preserved some bodies buried in shallow pits dug into the sand. About 2600 B.C., during the Fourth and Fifth Dynasties, Egyptians probably began to mummify the dead intentionally. The practice continued and developed for well over 2,000 years, into the Roman Period (ca. 30 B.C.–A.D. 364). Within any one period the quality of the mummification varied, depending on the price paid for it. The best prepared and preserved mummies are from the Eighteenth through the Twentieth Dynasties of the New Kingdom (ca. 1570–1075 B.C.) and include those of Tutankhamen and other well-known pharaohs. It is the general process of this period that shall be described here.
  The mummification process took seventy days. Special priests worked as embalmers, treating and wrapping the body. Beyond knowing the correct rituals and prayers to be performed at various stages, the priests also needed a detailed knowledge of human anatomy. The first step in the process was the removal of all internal parts that might decay rapidly. The brain was removed by carefully inserting special hooked instruments up through the nostrils in order to pull out bits of brain tissue. It was a delicate operation, one which could easily disfigure the face. The embalmers then removed the organs of the abdomen and chest through a cut usually made on the left side of the abdomen. They left only the heart in place, believing it to be the center of a person's being and intelligence. The other organs were preserved separately, with the stomach, liver, lungs, and intestines placed in special boxes or jars today called canopic jars. These were buried with the mummy. In later mummies, the organs were treated, wrapped, and replaced within the body. Even so, unused canopic jars continued to be part of the burial ritual.
  The embalmers next removed all moisture from the body. This they did by covering the body with natron, a type of salt which has great drying properties, and by placing additional natron packets inside the body. When the body had dried out completely, embalmers removed the internal packets and lightly washed the natron off the body. The result was a very dried-out but recognizable human form. To make the mummy seem even more life-like, sunken areas of the body were filled out with linen and other materials and false eyes were added.
  Next the wrapping began. Each mummy needed hundreds of yards of linen. The priests carefully wound the long strips of linen around the body, sometimes even wrapping each finger and toe separately before wrapping the entire hand or foot. In order to protect the dead from mishap, amulets were placed among the wrappings and prayers and magical words written on some of the linen strips. Often the priests placed a mask of the person's face between the layers of head bandages. At several stages the form was coated with warm resin and the wrapping resumed once again. At last the priests wrapped the final cloth or shroud in place and secured it with linen strips. The mummy was complete.
  The priests preparing the mummy were not the only ones busy during this time. Although the tomb preparation usually had begun long before the person's actual death, now there was a deadline, and craftsmen, workers, and artists worked quickly. There was much to be placed in the tomb that a person would need in the Afterlife. Furniture and statuettes were readied; wall paintings of religious or daily scenes were prepared; and lists of food or prayers finished. Through a magical process, these models, pictures, and lists would become the real thing when needed in the Afterlife. Everything was now ready for the funeral.
  As part of the funeral, priests performed special religious rites at the tomb's entrance. The most important part of the ceremony was called the "Opening of the Mouth". A priest touched various parts of the mummy with a special instrument to "open" those parts of the body to the senses enjoyed in life and needed in the Afterlife. By touching the instrument to the mouth, the dead person could now speak and eat. He was now ready for his journey to the Afterlife. The mummy was placed in his coffin, or coffins, in the burial chamber and the entrance sealed up.
  Such elaborate burial practices might suggest that the Egyptians were preoccupied with thoughts of death. On the contrary, they began early to make plans for their death because of their great love of life. They could think of no life better than the present, and they wanted to be sure it would continue after death.
  But why preserve the body? The Egyptians believed that the mummified body was the home for this soul or spirit. If the body was destroyed, the spirit might be lost. The idea of "spirit" was complex involving really three spirits: the ka, ba, and akh. The ka, a "double" of the person, would remain in the tomb and needed the offerings and objects there. The ba, or "soul", was free to fly out of the tomb and return to it. And it was the akh, perhaps translated as "spirit", which had to travel through the Underworld to the Final Judgment and entrance to the Afterlife. To the Egyptian, all three were essential.
  Medical practice in ancient Egypt was so advanced that many of their observations, policies, and commonplace procedures would not be surpassed in the west for centuries after the fall of Rome and their practices would inform both Greek and
  Roman medicine . They understood that disease could be treated by pharmaceuticals, recognized the healing potential in massage and aromas, had male and female doctors who specialized in certain specific areas, and understood the importance of cleanliness in treating patients.
  In the modern day it is recognized that disease and infection can be caused by germs and one might think people have always believed so but this is a relatively late innovation in human understanding. It was not until the 19th century CE that the germ theory of disease was confirmed by Louis Pasteur and proven by the work of British surgeon Joseph Lister.
  Before either of them, the Hungarian physician Ignaz Semmelweis (1818-1865 CE) offered the then outlandish proposal to the medical community that they could cut mortality rates in their practices simply by washing their hands. He was mocked by doctors, who saw no reason to wash their hands before even the most invasive surgical procedures, and grew increasingly frustrated and bitter. Semmelweis was committed to a mental institution in 1865 CE where he died, after being severely beaten by guards, for suggesting a practice recognized as common sense today.
  The ancient Egyptians would have accepted Semmelweis' proposal without hesitation; not because they understood the concept of germs, but because they valued cleanliness. The mortality rate following medical procedures in ancient Egypt was probably less than that of any European hospital in the Christian era until the mid-20th century CE when personal cleanliness and the sterilization of instruments became common practice.
  Egyptologist Barbara Watterson notes that "medicine in ancient Egypt was relatively advanced and Egyptian doctors, who were all, with one or two exceptions, male, were skilled (46). Even so, for a civilization which regularly dissected the dead for embalming, doctors had little understanding of how most of the internal organs worked and blamed disease on supernatural forces.
  The Egyptian hieroglyphic script was one of the
  writing systems used by ancient Egyptians to represent their language. Because of their pictorial elegance, Herodotus and other important Greeks believed that Egyptian hieroglyphs were something sacred, so they referred to them as ‘holy writing’. Thus, the word hieroglyph comes from the Greek
  hiero ‘holy’ and glypho ‘writing’. In the ancient Egyptian language, hieroglyphs were called medu netjer, ‘the gods’ words’ as it was believed that writing was an invention of the gods.
  The script was composed of three basic types of signs: logograms, representing words; phonograms, representing sounds; and determinatives, placed at the end of the word to help clarify its meaning. As a result, the number of signs used by the Egyptians was much higher compared to alphabetical systems, with over a thousand different hieroglyphs in use initially and later reduced to about 750 during the Middle Kingdom (2055-1650 BCE). In the 1820s CE, Frenchman Jean-François Champollion famously deciphered hieroglyphs using the 2nd century BCE
  Rosetta Stone with its triple text of Hieroglyphic, Demotic and Greek. Egyptian hieroglyphs are read either in columns from top to bottom or in rows from the right or from the left.
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  The ancient pyramids are definitely at the top of the list of ancient Egyptian inventions. They are among the most astonishing structures in the world and are solid geometrical shapes with a square base and four equal triangular sides. They were built primarily as tombs for the kings and religious temples. They were located away from major cities and took decades to build.
  The Great Pyramid of Giza, built around 2600 BC, is also known as the Pyramid of Khufu, or the Tomb of Queen Hetepheres, and is the largest existing pyramid. The primary burial chamber (the King’s Chamber) contained the sarcophagus that held Khufu’s body, and the walls were covered with hieroglyphs depicting various aspects of Egyptian life as decoration. There were also weight-relieving chambers to prevent the pyramid from collapsing, a gallery with large passageways connecting the chambers, and air shafts which also served as exits.