Mens rea - wikipedia Mens rea Jump to : navigation , search Criminal law Elements Actus reus Mens rea Causation Concurrence Scope of criminal liability Complicity Corporate Vicarious Severity of offense Felony Infraction ( also called violation ) Misdemeanor Inchoate offenses Attempt Conspiracy Incitement Solicitation Offence against the person Assassination Assault Battery Bigamy Criminal negligence False imprisonment Home invasion Homicide Kidnapping Manslaughter ( corporate ) Mayhem Murder corporate Negligent homicide Public indecency Rape Robbery Sexual assault Crimes against property Arson Blackmail Bribery Burglary Embezzlement Extortion False pretenses Fraud Larceny Payola Pickpocketing Possessing stolen property Robbery Smuggling Tax evasion Theft Crimes against justice Compounding Malfeasance in office Miscarriage of justice Misprision Obstruction Perjury Perverting the course of justice Victimless crimes Adultery Apostasy Buggery Providing contraception information ( Comstock law ) Dueling Fornication Gambling Incest Lewd and lascivious behavior Exhibitionism Creation of obscenity Prostitution Recreational drug use ( including alcohol , when prohibited ) Sodomy Suicide Crimes against animals Cruelty to animals Wildlife smuggling Bestiality Defences to liability Automatism Consent Defence of property Diminished responsibility Duress Entrapment Ignorantia juris non excusat Infancy Insanity Justification Mistake ( of law ) Necessity Provocation Self - defence Other common - law areas Contracts Evidence Property Torts Wills , trusts and estates Portals Criminal justice Law Mens rea ( / ˈmɛnz ˈriːə / ; Law Latin for `` guilty mind '' ) is the mental element of a person 's intention to commit a crime ; or knowledge that one 's action or lack of action would cause a crime to be committed . It is a necessary element of many crimes . The standard common law test of criminal liability is expressed in the Latin phrase actus reus non facit reum nisi mens sit rea , i.e. `` the act is not culpable unless the mind is guilty '' . In jurisdictions with due process , there must be both actus reus ( `` guilty act '' ) and mens rea for a defendant to be guilty of a crime ( see concurrence ) . As a general rule , someone who acted without mental fault is not liable in criminal law . Exceptions are known as strict liability crimes . In civil law , it is usually not necessary to prove a subjective mental element to establish liability for breach of contract or tort , for example . But if a tort is intentionally committed or a contract is intentionally breached , such intent may increase the scope of liability and the damages payable to the plaintiff . In some jurisdictions , the terms mens rea and actus reus have been replaced by alternative terminology . In Australia , mens rea is now called `` fault elements '' or `` mental elements '' and actus reus is now called `` physical elements '' or `` external elements '' . The point of the changes was to replace Latin with plain English . Contents ( hide ) 1 Levels of mens rea 2 Modes of culpability 2.1 England and Wales 2.2 Scotland 2.3 United States 2.3. 1 State criminal law 2.3. 1.1 Model Penal Code 2.3. 2 Federal criminal law 2.4 Canada 2.5 Australia 2.6 India 3 Ignorance of the law and mens rea 4 Subjective and objective tests 5 Relevance of motive 6 Intention 7 Recklessness ( United States : `` willful blindness '' ) 8 Criminal negligence 9 See also 10 References 11 Further reading 12 External links Levels of mens rea ( edit ) Under the traditional common law , the guilt or innocence of a person relied upon whether he had committed the crime ( actus reus ) , and whether he intended to commit the crime ( mens rea ) . However , many modern penal codes have created levels of mens rea called modes of culpability , which depend on the surrounding elements of the crime : the conduct , the circumstances , and the result , or what the Model Penal Code calls CAR ( conduct , attendant circumstances , result ) . The definition of a crime is thus constructed using only these elements rather than the colorful language of mens rea : Murder is the unlawful killing of a human being with malice aforethought . -- 18 U.S.C. § 1111 ( traditional common law ) A person commits an offense if he : ( 1 ) intentionally or knowingly causes the death of an individual -- portion of Texas Penal Code § 19.02 ( modern offense element ) The traditional common law definitions and the modern definitions approach the crime from different angles . In the traditional common law approach , the definition includes : actus reus : unlawful killing of a human being ; mens rea : malice aforethought . Modern law approaches the analysis somewhat differently . Homicide is a `` results '' crime in that it forbids any `` intentional '' or `` knowing '' conduct that results in the death of another human being . `` Intentional '' in this sense means the actor possessed a `` purpose '' or `` desire '' that his or her objective ( i.e. death of another human being ) be achieved . `` Knowing '' means that the actor was aware or practically certain that the death would result . Thus , the actus reus and mens rea of homicide in a modern criminal statute can be considered as follows : actus reus : any conduct resulting in the death of another individual ; mens rea : intent or knowledge that the conduct would result in the death . In the modern approach , the attendant circumstances tend to replace the traditional mens rea , indicating the level of culpability as well as other circumstances . For example , the crime of theft of government property would include as an attendant circumstance that the property belong to the government . Modes of culpability ( edit ) The levels of mens rea and the distinction between them vary between jurisdictions . Although common law originated from England , the common law of each jurisdiction with regard to culpability varies as precedents and statutes vary . England and wales ( edit ) Direct intention : the actor has a clear foresight of the consequences of his actions , and desires those consequences to occur . It 's his aim or purpose to achieve this consequence ( death ) . Oblique intention : the result is a virtually certain consequence or a ' virtual certainty ' of the defendant 's actions , and that the defendant appreciates that such was the case . Knowingly : the actor knows , or should know , that the results of his conduct are reasonably certain to occur . Recklessness : the actor foresees that particular consequences may occur and proceeds with the given conduct , not caring whether those consequences actually occur or not . Criminal negligence : the actor did not actually foresee that the particular consequences would flow from his actions , but a reasonable person , in the same circumstances , would have foreseen those consequences . Scotland ( edit ) Intention : the accused willingly committed a criminal act entirely aware of his actions and their consequences . Necessary for murder and for assault . Recklessness : the accused was aware the criminal act could be potentially dangerous but did not give a second thought to its consequences , for example involuntary culpable homicide . United states ( edit ) State criminal law ( edit ) The vast majority of criminal prosecutions in the United States are carried out by the component states in accordance with the laws of the state in question . Historically , the states ( with the partial exception of civil - law Louisiana ) applied common law rules of mens rea similar to those extant in England , but over time American understandings of common law mens rea terms diverged from those of English law and from each other . By the late 1950s to early 1960s , the common law of mens rea was widely acknowledged to be a slippery , vague , and confused mess . This was one of several factors that led to the development of the Model Penal Code . Model Penal Code ( edit ) Since its publication in 1957 , the formulation of mens rea set forth in the Model Penal Code has been highly influential throughout the US in clarifying the discussion of the different modes of culpability . The following levels of mens rea are found in the MPC : Strict liability : the actor engaged in conduct and his mental state is irrelevant . Under Model Penal Code Section 2.05 , this mens rea may only be applied where the forbidden conduct is a mere violation , i.e. a civil infraction . Negligently : a `` reasonable person '' would be aware of a `` substantial and unjustifiable risk '' that his conduct is of a prohibited nature , will lead to a prohibited result , and / or is under prohibited attendant circumstances , and the actor was not so aware but should have been . Recklessly : the actor consciously disregards a `` substantial and unjustifiable risk '' that his conduct is of a prohibited nature , will lead to a prohibited result , and / or is of a prohibited nature . Knowingly : the actor is practically certain that his conduct will lead to the result , or is aware to a high probability that his conduct is of a prohibited nature , or is aware to a high probability that the attendant circumstances exist . Purposefully : the actor has the `` conscious object '' of engaging in conduct and believes or hopes that the attendant circumstances exist . Except for strict liability , these classes of mens rea are defined in Section 2.02 ( 2 ) of the MPC . Federal criminal law ( edit ) Since the federal government of the United States does not have a generalized police power like that of the states , the scope of its criminal statutes is necessarily circumscribed . Ordinary prosecutions are the province of the states , and only crimes of special federal import are pursued by the federal government . Consequently , Title 18 of the United States Code does not use the aforementioned culpability scheme but relies instead on more traditional definitions of crimes taken from common law . For example , malice aforethought is used as a requirement for committing capital murder . Canada ( edit ) The Supreme Court of Canada has found that the Canadian Charter of Rights and Freedoms guarantees a minimum requirement for the mental state of various crimes . For example , the crime of murder must include a mental requirement of at least subjective foresight of death . For crimes where imprisonment is a sanction , there is a requirement of at least a defence of due diligence . Australia ( edit ) Mens rea needs to be proved by prosecution from offence to offence . If it is a common law offence , mens rea is found out by relevant precedent ( DPP v Morgan ( 1976 ) AC 182 ) . Where the offence is in legislation , the requisite mens rea is found by interpreting the intention of the legislation . They must intend to commit the full offence . India ( edit ) Mens Rea in the Indian Penal Code 1860 sets out the definition of offences , the general conditions of liability , the conditions of exemptions from liability and punishments for the respective offences . Legislatures had not used the common law doctrine of mens rea in defining these crimes . However , they preferred to import it by using different terms indicating the required evil intent or mens rea as an essence of a particular offence . Guilt in respect to almost all offences created under the IPC is fastened either on the ground of intention , knowledge or reason to believe . Almost all the offences under the IPC are qualified by one or other words such as ' wrongful gain or loss ' , ' dishonesty ' , ' fraudulently ' , ' reason to believe ' , ' criminal knowledge or intention ' , ' intentional cooperation ' , ' voluntarily ' , ' malignantly ' , ' wantonly ' , ' maliciously ' . All these words indicate the blameworthy mental condition required at the time of commission of the offence , nowhere found in the IPC , its essence is reflected in almost all the provisions of the Indian Penal Code 1860 . Every offence created under the IPC virtually imports the idea of criminal intent or mens rea in some form or other . Ignorance of the law and mens rea ( edit ) The general rule under common law is that `` ignorance of the law or a mistake of law is no defense to criminal prosecution . '' In some cases , courts have held if knowledge of a law , or the intent to break a law , is a material element of an offense a defendant may use ignorance as a defense to willfulness if his misunderstanding is in good faith : The proliferation of statutes and regulations has sometimes made it difficult for the average citizen to know and comprehend the extent of the duties and obligations imposed by the tax laws ... ( T ) he Court almost 60 years ago interpreted the statutory term `` willfully '' as used in federal criminal tax statutes as carving out an exception to the traditional rule . '' Crimes like tax evasion are specific intent crimes and require intent to violate the law as an element of the offense . In R. v. Klundert , for example , the Ontario Court of Appeal found as follows : `` ( 55 ) Section 239 ( 1 ) ( d ) is part of an Act which is necessarily and notoriously complex . It is subject to ongoing revision . No lay person is expected to know all the complexities of the tax laws . It is accepted that people will act on the advice of professionals and that the advice will often turn on the meanings to be given to provisions in the Act that are open to various interpretations . Furthermore , it is accepted that one may legitimately structure one 's affairs so as to minimize tax liability . Considered in this legislative context , I have no difficulty in holding that a mistake or ignorance as to one 's liability to pay tax under the Act may negate the fault requirement in the provision , regardless of whether it is a factual mistake , a legal mistake , or a combination of both . '' Not all offenses require specific intent , and a misreading , even in good faith , may not excuse the criminal conduct . A good - faith belief that a law is unjust or unconstitutional is no excuse , but `` reasonable compliance upon an official statement of law , afterward determined to be invalid or erroneous '' does not constitute a criminal act . However , a law must be worded as such , that it affords that a reasonable person who is not an attorney is able to comprehend the specific acts that the law prohibits . Otherwise , the statute may be struck down as unconstitutional pursuant to the Vagueness doctrine . Subjective and objective tests ( edit ) The test for the existence of mens rea may be : ( a ) subjective , where the court must be satisfied that the accused actually had the requisite mental element present in his or her mind at the relevant time ( for purposely , knowingly , recklessly etc ) ( see concurrence ) ; ( b ) objective , where the requisite mens rea element is imputed to the accused , on the basis that a reasonable person would have had the mental element in the same circumstances ( for negligence ) ; or ( c ) hybrid , where the test is both subjective and objective . The court will have little difficulty in establishing mens rea if there is actual evidence -- for instance , if the accused made an admissible admission . This would satisfy a subjective test . But a significant proportion of those accused of crimes make no such admissions . Hence , some degree of objectivity must be brought to bear as the basis upon which to impute the necessary component ( s ) . It is always reasonable to assume that people of ordinary intelligence are aware of their physical surroundings and of the ordinary laws of cause and effect ( see causation ) . Thus , when a person plans what to do and what not to do , he will understand the range of likely outcomes from given behaviour on a sliding scale from `` inevitable '' to `` probable '' to `` possible '' to `` improbable '' . The more an outcome shades towards the `` inevitable '' end of the scale , the more likely it is that the accused both foresaw and desired it , and , therefore , the safer it is to impute intention . If there is clear subjective evidence that the accused did not have foresight , but a reasonable person would have , the hybrid test may find criminal negligence . In terms of the burden of proof , the requirement is that a jury must have a high degree of certainty before convicting , defined as `` beyond a reasonable doubt '' in the United States and `` sure '' in the United Kingdom . It is this reasoning that justifies the defenses of infancy , and of lack of mental capacity under the M'Naghten Rules , an alternate common law rule ( e.g. , Durham test ) , and one of various statutes defining mental illness as an excuse . Moreover , if there is an irrebuttable presumption of doli incapax - that is , that the accused did not have sufficient understanding of the nature and quality of his actions -- then the requisite mens rea is absent no matter what degree of probability might otherwise have been present . For these purposes , therefore , where the relevant statutes are silent and it is for the common law to form the basis of potential liability , the reasonable person must be endowed with the same intellectual and physical qualities as the accused , and the test must be whether an accused with these specific attributes would have had the requisite foresight and desire . In English law , s8 Criminal Justice Act 1967 provides a statutory framework within which mens rea is assessed . It states : A court or jury , in determining whether a person has committed an offense , ( a ) shall not be bound in law to infer that he intended or foresaw a result of his actions by reasons only of its being a natural and probable consequence of those actions ; but ( b ) shall decide whether he did intend or foresee that result by reference to all the evidence , drawing such inferences from the evidence as appear proper in the circumstances . Under s8 ( b ) therefore , the jury is allowed a wide latitude in applying a hybrid test to impute intention or foresight ( for the purposes of recklessness ) on the basis of all the evidence . Relevance of motive ( edit ) This section does not cite any sources . Please help improve this section by adding citations to reliable sources . Unsourced material may be challenged and removed . ( July 2008 ) ( Learn how and when to remove this template message ) One of the mental components often raised in issue is that of motive . If the accused admits to having a motive consistent with the elements of foresight and desire , this will add to the level of probability that the actual outcome was intended ( it makes the prosecution case more credible ) . But if there is clear evidence that the accused had a different motive , this may decrease the probability that he or she desired the actual outcome . In such a situation , the motive may become subjective evidence that the accused did not intend , but was reckless or willfully blind . Motive can not be a defense . If , for example , a person breaks into a laboratory used for the testing of pharmaceuticals on animals , the question of guilt is determined by the presence of an actus reus , i.e. entry without consent and damage to property , and a mens rea , i.e. intention to enter and cause the damage . That the person might have had a clearly articulated political motive to protest such testing does not affect liability . If motive has any relevance , this may be addressed in the sentencing part of the trial , when the court considers what punishment , if any , is appropriate . Intention ( edit ) Main article : Intention ( criminal law ) Recklessness ( United states : `` willful blindness '' ) ( edit ) Main articles : Recklessness ( law ) and Willful blindness In such cases , there is clear subjective evidence that the accused foresaw but did not desire the particular outcome . When the accused failed to stop the given behavior , he took the risk of causing the given loss or damage . There is always some degree of intention subsumed within recklessness . During the course of the conduct , the accused foresees that he may be putting another at risk of injury : A choice must be made at that point in time . By deciding to proceed , the accused actually intends the other to be exposed to the risk of that injury . The greater the probability of that risk maturing into the foreseen injury , the greater the degree of recklessness and , subsequently , sentence rendered . For example , at common law , an unlawful homicide committed recklessly would ordinarily constitute the crime of voluntary manslaughter . One committed with `` extreme '' or `` gross '' recklessness as to human life would constitute murder , sometimes defined as `` depraved heart '' or `` abandoned and malignant heart '' murder . Criminal negligence ( edit ) Main article : Criminal negligence Here , the test is both subjective and objective . There is credible subjective evidence that the particular accused neither foresaw nor desired the particular outcome , thus potentially excluding both intention and recklessness . But a reasonable person with the same abilities and skills as the accused would have foreseen and taken precautions to prevent the loss and damage being sustained . Only a small percentage of offences are defined with this mens rea requirement . Most legislatures prefer to base liability on either intention or recklessness and , faced with the need to establish recklessness as the default mens rea for guilt , those practising in most legal systems rely heavily on objective tests to establish the minimum requirement of foresight for recklessness . See also ( edit ) Actus reus Animus nocendi Command responsibility Henry de Bracton Morissette v. United States ( 1952 ) Flores - Figueroa v. United States ( 2009 ) Voluntas necandi References ( edit ) Jump up ^ Elizabeth A. Martin , ed. ( 2003 ) . Oxford Dictionary of Law . Oxford : Oxford University Press . ISBN 0 - 19 - 860756 - 3 . Jump up ^ Black 's Law Dictionary , p. 889 ( 5th ed. 1979 ) . Jump up ^ Barron 's Law Dictionary , p. 289 ( 2d ed. 1984 ) . Jump up ^ Brent Fisse , `` Howard 's Criminal Law '' ( 1990 ) 12 - 13 . Jump up ^ Meyers v R ( 1997 ) HCA 43 , High Court ( Australia ) . ^ Jump up to : Dubber ( 2002 ) , p. 46 . Jump up ^ R v Nedrick ( 1986 ) 1 WLR 1025 Jump up ^ R v Woollin ( 1998 ) Jump up ^ R v Matthews & Alleyne ( 2004 ) Jump up ^ R v Cunningham ( 1957 ) Jump up ^ R v G & R ( 2003 ) Jump up ^ R v Caldwell ( 1982 ) ^ Jump up to : Dubber ( 2002 ) , pp. 60 - 80 . Jump up ^ Dubber ( 2002 ) , p. 55 . Jump up ^ He Kaw Teh v R ( 1985 ) HCA 43 , ( 1985 ) 157 CLR 523 ( 11 July 1985 ) , High Court ( Australia ) . Jump up ^ CTM v R ( 2008 ) HCA 25 , ( 2008 ) 236 CLR 440 , High Court ( Australia ) . Jump up ^ Knight v R ( 1992 ) HCA 56 , ( 1992 ) 175 CLR 495 , High Court ( Australia ) . Jump up ^ `` INDIAN PENAL CODE '' ( PDF ) . Human Resource Development Institute . Jump up ^ `` 12_CHAPTER v '' ( PDF ) . Shodhganga : a reservoir of Indian theses @ INFLIBNET . Jump up ^ Cheek v. United States , 498 U.S. 192 ( 1991 ) Jump up ^ Ostrowski v Palmer ( 2004 ) HCA 30 Jump up ^ Cheek , at 199 - 200 Jump up ^ Cheek , at 194 Jump up ^ People v. Marrero , 507 N.E. 2d 1068 ( N.Y. 1987 ) Jump up ^ Cheek , at 205 - 7 Jump up ^ State v. Godwin , 31 S.E. 221 ( N.C. 1898 ) Jump up ^ In re Winship , 397 U.S. 358 ( 1970 ) Jump up ^ R v Majid ( 2009 ) EWCA Crim 2563 Jump up ^ Crown Bench Book : Directing the Jury . Judicial Studies Board . 2010 . Jump up ^ In re Devon T. , 584 A. 2d 1287 ( Md . Court App . 1991 ) Jump up ^ Criminal Justice Act 1967 ( c. 80 ) Jump up ^ Hessick , Carrisa ( 2006 ) . `` Motive 's Role in Criminal Punishment '' . Southern California Law Review . Retrieved October 8 , 2015 . Jump up ^ California Penal Code § § 188 - 199 Further reading ( edit ) Dubber , Markus D. ( 2002 ) . Criminal Law : Model Penal Code . Foundation Press . External links ( edit ) Criminal Responsibility and Intent Mens Rea : The Need for a Meaningful Intent Requirement in Federal Criminal Law : Hearing before the Over-Criminalization Task Force of 2013 of the Committee on the Judiciary , House of Representatives , One Hundred Thirteenth Congress , First Session , July 19 , 2013 . ( hide ) English criminal law Classes of crimes Common law Indictable Either way Summary Regulatory Lesser included Elements of crimes Actus reus Causation Mens rea Intention ( criminal law ) Intention in English law Recklessness Criminal negligence Corporate / Vicarious / Strict liability Omissions Concurrence Ignorantia juris non excusat Inchoate offences Encouraging or assisting a crime Conspiracy Accessory Attempt Common purpose Defences Self - defence Duress Necessity Marital coercion Consent Medical procedure Prevention of crime Participation in a sporting event Lawful excuse Insanity Diminished responsibility Intoxication Category : Criminal defences Offences against the person Homicide ( Murder / Manslaughter / Corporate manslaughter / Infanticide ) Manslaughter in English law Unlawful killing Mayhem Concealing birth Child destruction Wounding or causing grievous bodily harm Assault occasioning actual bodily harm Common assault Attempting to choke , &c. in order to commit any indictable offence Assault with intent to rob Robbery Assault with intent to rape Assault with intent to commit felony , or on peace officers Assault with intent to resist lawful apprehension Buggery Battery Kidnapping Child abduction False imprisonment Harassment Offences Against the Person Act 1861 Sexual offences Rape Sexual assault Sexual Offences Act 2003 Public order offences Riot Violent disorder Affray Unlawful assembly Fear or provocation of violence Intentional harassment , alarm or distress Harassment , alarm or distress Public Order Act 1986 Incitement to ethnic or racial hatred Challenging to a fight Nuisance Causing Public nuisance Outraging public decency Effecting a public mischief Keeping a disorderly house Preventing the lawful burial of a body Breach of the peace Treason High treason Common scold Nightwalker statute Rout Forcible entry Accessory ( legal term ) Misconduct in a public office Misfeasance in public office Abuse of authority Perjury of oath Dereliction of duty Offences against property Arson Dishonesty Cheating ( law ) Burglary Robbery Theft Larceny Criminal damage Squatting Trespass Taking without owner 's consent Deception Handling stolen goods Misappropriation of funds Blackmail Extortion Cybercrime Theft Act 1968 Theft Act 1978 Fraud Act 2006 Fraud by abuse of position Conspiracy to defraud Fare evasion Webcam blackmail Forgery , personation and cheating Forgery Cheating the public revenue Uttering Offences against justice Bribery Perjury Offences Akin to Perjury Perverting the course of justice Misrepresentation as to identity Embracery Witness intimidation Witness tampering Harming People who have Assisted the Police / Given Evidence / Been a Juror Misprision of treason Misprision of felony Compounding a felony Jury tampering Assault with intent to resist lawful apprehension Assisting an offender Harboring a fugitive Encouraging or assisting a crime Escape from lawful custody Obstruction of justice Obstruction of a police officer Wasting police time Refusing to assist a constable Sedition Espionage Contempt of the sovereign Contempt of court Fabrication of false evidence Breach of prison / breaking prison Rescuing a prisoner Other common law areas Contract Tort Property Wills Trusts and estates Evidence Criminal procedure History Law of England and Wales portal Criminal Justice portal Retrieved from `` https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Mens_rea&oldid=838406017 '' Categories : Criminal law Elements of crime Forensic psychology Latin legal terminology Mental health law Latin words and phrases Intention Hidden categories : Articles needing additional references from July 2008 All articles needing additional references All articles with unsourced statements Articles with unsourced statements from February 2008 Talk Contents About Wikipedia Čeština Deutsch Español فارسی Français 한국어 हिन्दी Italiano עברית Македонски Bahasa Melayu 日本 語 ਪੰਜਾਬੀ Русский Slovenčina Svenska Türkçe Українська 中文 11 more Edit links This page was last edited on 26 April 2018 , at 20 : 07 . 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a wrongful or guilty mental state includes the categories of all of the following except
Criminal law Elements Actus reus Mens rea Causation Concurrence Scope of criminal liability Complicity Corporate Vicarious Severity of offense Felony Infraction ( also called violation ) Misdemeanor Inchoate offenses Attempt Conspiracy Incitement Solicitation Offence against the person Assassination Assault Battery Bigamy Criminal negligence False imprisonment Home invasion Homicide Kidnapping Manslaughter ( corporate ) Mayhem Murder corporate Negligent homicide Public indecency Rape Robbery Sexual assault Crimes against property Arson Blackmail Bribery Burglary Embezzlement Extortion False pretenses Fraud Larceny Payola Pickpocketing Possessing stolen property Robbery Smuggling Tax evasion Theft Crimes against justice Compounding Malfeasance in office Miscarriage of justice Misprision Obstruction Perjury Perverting the course of justice Victimless crimes Adultery Apostasy Buggery Providing contraception information ( Comstock law ) Dueling Fornication Gambling Incest Lewd and lascivious behavior Exhibitionism Creation of obscenity Prostitution Recreational drug use ( including alcohol , when prohibited ) Sodomy Suicide Crimes against animals Cruelty to animals Wildlife smuggling Bestiality Defences to liability Automatism Consent Defence of property Diminished responsibility Duress Entrapment Ignorantia juris non excusat Infancy Insanity Justification Mistake ( of law ) Necessity Provocation Self - defence Other common - law areas Contracts Evidence Property Torts Wills , trusts and estates Portals Criminal justice Law Criminal law Elements Actus reus Mens rea Causation Concurrence Actus reus Mens rea Causation Concurrence Scope of criminal liability Complicity Corporate Vicarious Complicity Corporate Vicarious Severity of offense Felony Infraction ( also called violation ) Misdemeanor Felony Infraction ( also called violation ) Misdemeanor Infraction ( also called violation ) Inchoate offenses Attempt Conspiracy Incitement Solicitation Attempt Conspiracy Incitement Solicitation Offence against the person Assassination Assault Battery Bigamy Criminal negligence False imprisonment Home invasion Homicide Kidnapping Manslaughter ( corporate ) Mayhem Murder corporate Negligent homicide Public indecency Rape Robbery Sexual assault Assassination Assault Battery Bigamy Criminal negligence False imprisonment Home invasion Homicide Kidnapping Manslaughter ( corporate ) Mayhem Murder corporate Negligent homicide Public indecency Rape Robbery Sexual assault Assassination Assault Battery Bigamy Criminal negligence False imprisonment Home invasion Homicide Kidnapping Manslaughter ( corporate ) Mayhem Murder corporate Negligent homicide Public indecency Rape Robbery Sexual assault Assassination Assault Battery Bigamy Criminal negligence False imprisonment Home invasion Homicide Kidnapping Manslaughter ( corporate ) Mayhem Murder corporate Negligent homicide Public indecency Rape Robbery Sexual assault Manslaughter ( corporate ) Murder corporate corporate Crimes against property Arson Blackmail Bribery Burglary Embezzlement Extortion False pretenses Fraud Larceny Payola Pickpocketing Possessing stolen property Robbery Smuggling Tax evasion Theft Arson Blackmail Bribery Burglary Embezzlement Extortion False pretenses Fraud Larceny Payola Pickpocketing Possessing stolen property Robbery Smuggling Tax evasion Theft Possessing stolen property Crimes against justice Compounding Malfeasance in office Miscarriage of justice Misprision Obstruction Perjury Perverting the course of justice Compounding Malfeasance in office Miscarriage of justice Misprision Obstruction Perjury Perverting the course of justice Malfeasance in office Miscarriage of justice Perverting the course of justice Victimless crimes Adultery Apostasy Buggery Providing contraception information ( Comstock law ) Dueling Fornication Gambling Incest Lewd and lascivious behavior Exhibitionism Creation of obscenity Prostitution Recreational drug use ( including alcohol , when prohibited ) Sodomy Suicide Adultery Apostasy Buggery Providing contraception information ( Comstock law ) Dueling Fornication Gambling Incest Lewd and lascivious behavior Exhibitionism Creation of obscenity Prostitution Recreational drug use ( including alcohol , when prohibited ) Sodomy Suicide Providing contraception information ( Comstock law ) Lewd and lascivious behavior Creation of obscenity Recreational drug use ( including alcohol , when prohibited ) Crimes against animals Cruelty to animals Wildlife smuggling Bestiality Cruelty to animals Wildlife smuggling Bestiality Cruelty to animals Defences to liability Automatism Consent Defence of property Diminished responsibility Duress Entrapment Ignorantia juris non excusat Infancy Insanity Justification Mistake ( of law ) Necessity Provocation Self - defence Automatism Consent Defence of property Diminished responsibility Duress Entrapment Ignorantia juris non excusat Infancy Insanity Justification Mistake ( of law ) Necessity Provocation Self - defence Defence of property Ignorantia juris non excusat Mistake ( of law ) Self - defence Other common - law areas Contracts Evidence Property Torts Wills , trusts and estates Contracts Evidence Property Torts Wills , trusts and estates Wills , trusts and estates Portals Criminal justice Law Criminal justice Law Mens rea ( / ˈmɛnz ˈriːə / ; Law Latin for `` guilty mind '' ) is the mental element of a person 's intention to commit a crime ; or knowledge that one 's action or lack of action would cause a crime to be committed . It is a necessary element of many crimes . The standard common law test of criminal liability is expressed in the Latin phrase actus reus non facit reum nisi mens sit rea , i.e. `` the act is not culpable unless the mind is guilty '' . In jurisdictions with due process , there must be both actus reus ( `` guilty act '' ) and mens rea for a defendant to be guilty of a crime ( see concurrence ) . As a general rule , someone who acted without mental fault is not liable in criminal law . Exceptions are known as strict liability crimes . In civil law , it is usually not necessary to prove a subjective mental element to establish liability for breach of contract or tort , for example . But if a tort is intentionally committed or a contract is intentionally breached , such intent may increase the scope of liability and the damages payable to the plaintiff . In some jurisdictions , the terms mens rea and actus reus have been replaced by alternative terminology . In Australia , mens rea is now called `` fault elements '' or `` mental elements '' and actus reus is now called `` physical elements '' or `` external elements '' . The point of the changes was to replace Latin with plain English . Under the traditional common law , the guilt or innocence of a person relied upon whether he had committed the crime ( actus reus ) , and whether he intended to commit the crime ( mens rea ) . However , many modern penal codes have created levels of mens rea called modes of culpability , which depend on the surrounding elements of the crime : the conduct , the circumstances , and the result , or what the Model Penal Code calls CAR ( conduct , attendant circumstances , result ) . The definition of a crime is thus constructed using only these elements rather than the colorful language of mens rea : Murder is the unlawful killing of a human being with malice aforethought . A person commits an offense if he : ( 1 ) intentionally or knowingly causes the death of an individual The traditional common law definitions and the modern definitions approach the crime from different angles . In the traditional common law approach , the definition includes : actus reus : unlawful killing of a human being ; mens rea : malice aforethought . actus reus : unlawful killing of a human being ; mens rea : malice aforethought . Modern law approaches the analysis somewhat differently . Homicide is a `` results '' crime in that it forbids any `` intentional '' or `` knowing '' conduct that results in the death of another human being . `` Intentional '' in this sense means the actor possessed a `` purpose '' or `` desire '' that his or her objective ( i.e. death of another human being ) be achieved . `` Knowing '' means that the actor was aware or practically certain that the death would result . Thus , the actus reus and mens rea of homicide in a modern criminal statute can be considered as follows : actus reus : any conduct resulting in the death of another individual ; mens rea : intent or knowledge that the conduct would result in the death . actus reus : any conduct resulting in the death of another individual ; mens rea : intent or knowledge that the conduct would result in the death . In the modern approach , the attendant circumstances tend to replace the traditional mens rea , indicating the level of culpability as well as other circumstances . For example , the crime of theft of government property would include as an attendant circumstance that the property belong to the government . The levels of mens rea and the distinction between them vary between jurisdictions . Although common law originated from England , the common law of each jurisdiction with regard to culpability varies as precedents and statutes vary . Direct intention : the actor has a clear foresight of the consequences of his actions , and desires those consequences to occur . It 's his aim or purpose to achieve this consequence ( death ) . Oblique intention : the result is a virtually certain consequence or a ' virtual certainty ' of the defendant 's actions , and that the defendant appreciates that such was the case . Knowingly : the actor knows , or should know , that the results of his conduct are reasonably certain to occur . Recklessness : the actor foresees that particular consequences may occur and proceeds with the given conduct , not caring whether those consequences actually occur or not . Criminal negligence : the actor did not actually foresee that the particular consequences would flow from his actions , but a reasonable person , in the same circumstances , would have foreseen those consequences . Direct intention : the actor has a clear foresight of the consequences of his actions , and desires those consequences to occur . It 's his aim or purpose to achieve this consequence ( death ) . Oblique intention : the result is a virtually certain consequence or a ' virtual certainty ' of the defendant 's actions , and that the defendant appreciates that such was the case . Knowingly : the actor knows , or should know , that the results of his conduct are reasonably certain to occur . Recklessness : the actor foresees that particular consequences may occur and proceeds with the given conduct , not caring whether those consequences actually occur or not . Criminal negligence : the actor did not actually foresee that the particular consequences would flow from his actions , but a reasonable person , in the same circumstances , would have foreseen those consequences . Intention : the accused willingly committed a criminal act entirely aware of his actions and their consequences . Necessary for murder and for assault . Recklessness : the accused was aware the criminal act could be potentially dangerous but did not give a second thought to its consequences , for example involuntary culpable homicide . Intention : the accused willingly committed a criminal act entirely aware of his actions and their consequences . Necessary for murder and for assault . Recklessness : the accused was aware the criminal act could be potentially dangerous but did not give a second thought to its consequences , for example involuntary culpable homicide . The vast majority of criminal prosecutions in the United States are carried out by the component states in accordance with the laws of the state in question . Historically , the states ( with the partial exception of civil - law Louisiana ) applied common law rules of mens rea similar to those extant in England , but over time American understandings of common law mens rea terms diverged from those of English law and from each other . By the late 1950s to early 1960s , the common law of mens rea was widely acknowledged to be a slippery , vague , and confused mess . This was one of several factors that led to the development of the Model Penal Code . Since its publication in 1957 , the formulation of mens rea set forth in the Model Penal Code has been highly influential throughout the US in clarifying the discussion of the different modes of culpability . The following levels of mens rea are found in the MPC : Strict liability : the actor engaged in conduct and his mental state is irrelevant . Under Model Penal Code Section 2.05 , this mens rea may only be applied where the forbidden conduct is a mere violation , i.e. a civil infraction . Negligently : a `` reasonable person '' would be aware of a `` substantial and unjustifiable risk '' that his conduct is of a prohibited nature , will lead to a prohibited result , and / or is under prohibited attendant circumstances , and the actor was not so aware but should have been . Recklessly : the actor consciously disregards a `` substantial and unjustifiable risk '' that his conduct is of a prohibited nature , will lead to a prohibited result , and / or is of a prohibited nature . Knowingly : the actor is practically certain that his conduct will lead to the result , or is aware to a high probability that his conduct is of a prohibited nature , or is aware to a high probability that the attendant circumstances exist . Purposefully : the actor has the `` conscious object '' of engaging in conduct and believes or hopes that the attendant circumstances exist . Strict liability : the actor engaged in conduct and his mental state is irrelevant . Under Model Penal Code Section 2.05 , this mens rea may only be applied where the forbidden conduct is a mere violation , i.e. a civil infraction . Negligently : a `` reasonable person '' would be aware of a `` substantial and unjustifiable risk '' that his conduct is of a prohibited nature , will lead to a prohibited result , and / or is under prohibited attendant circumstances , and the actor was not so aware but should have been . Recklessly : the actor consciously disregards a `` substantial and unjustifiable risk '' that his conduct is of a prohibited nature , will lead to a prohibited result , and / or is of a prohibited nature . Knowingly : the actor is practically certain that his conduct will lead to the result , or is aware to a high probability that his conduct is of a prohibited nature , or is aware to a high probability that the attendant circumstances exist . Purposefully : the actor has the `` conscious object '' of engaging in conduct and believes or hopes that the attendant circumstances exist . Except for strict liability , these classes of mens rea are defined in Section 2.02 ( 2 ) of the MPC . Since the federal government of the United States does not have a generalized police power like that of the states , the scope of its criminal statutes is necessarily circumscribed . Ordinary prosecutions are the province of the states , and only crimes of special federal import are pursued by the federal government . Consequently , Title 18 of the United States Code does not use the aforementioned culpability scheme but relies instead on more traditional definitions of crimes taken from common law . For example , malice aforethought is used as a requirement for committing capital murder . The Supreme Court of Canada has found that the Canadian Charter of Rights and Freedoms guarantees a minimum requirement for the mental state of various crimes . For example , the crime of murder must include a mental requirement of at least subjective foresight of death . For crimes where imprisonment is a sanction , there is a requirement of at least a defence of due diligence . Mens rea needs to be proved by prosecution from offence to offence . If it is a common law offence , mens rea is found out by relevant precedent ( DPP v Morgan ( 1976 ) AC 182 ) . Where the offence is in legislation , the requisite mens rea is found by interpreting the intention of the legislation . They must intend to commit the full offence . Mens Rea in the Indian Penal Code 1860 sets out the definition of offences , the general conditions of liability , the conditions of exemptions from liability and punishments for the respective offences . Legislatures had not used the common law doctrine of mens rea in defining these crimes . However , they preferred to import it by using different terms indicating the required evil intent or mens rea as an essence of a particular offence . Guilt in respect to almost all offences created under the IPC is fastened either on the ground of intention , knowledge or reason to believe . Almost all the offences under the IPC are qualified by one or other words such as ' wrongful gain or loss ' , ' dishonesty ' , ' fraudulently ' , ' reason to believe ' , ' criminal knowledge or intention ' , ' intentional cooperation ' , ' voluntarily ' , ' malignantly ' , ' wantonly ' , ' maliciously ' . All these words indicate the blameworthy mental condition required at the time of commission of the offence , nowhere found in the IPC , its essence is reflected in almost all the provisions of the Indian Penal Code 1860 . Every offence created under the IPC virtually imports the idea of criminal intent or mens rea in some form or other . The general rule under common law is that `` ignorance of the law or a mistake of law is no defense to criminal prosecution . '' In some cases , courts have held if knowledge of a law , or the intent to break a law , is a material element of an offense a defendant may use ignorance as a defense to willfulness if his misunderstanding is in good faith : The proliferation of statutes and regulations has sometimes made it difficult for the average citizen to know and comprehend the extent of the duties and obligations imposed by the tax laws ... ( T ) he Court almost 60 years ago interpreted the statutory term `` willfully '' as used in federal criminal tax statutes as carving out an exception to the traditional rule . '' Crimes like tax evasion are specific intent crimes and require intent to violate the law as an element of the offense . In R. v. Klundert , for example , the Ontario Court of Appeal found as follows : `` ( 55 ) Section 239 ( 1 ) ( d ) is part of an Act which is necessarily and notoriously complex . It is subject to ongoing revision . No lay person is expected to know all the complexities of the tax laws . It is accepted that people will act on the advice of professionals and that the advice will often turn on the meanings to be given to provisions in the Act that are open to various interpretations . Furthermore , it is accepted that one may legitimately structure one 's affairs so as to minimize tax liability . Considered in this legislative context , I have no difficulty in holding that a mistake or ignorance as to one 's liability to pay tax under the Act may negate the fault requirement in the provision , regardless of whether it is a factual mistake , a legal mistake , or a combination of both . '' `` ( 55 ) Section 239 ( 1 ) ( d ) is part of an Act which is necessarily and notoriously complex . It is subject to ongoing revision . No lay person is expected to know all the complexities of the tax laws . It is accepted that people will act on the advice of professionals and that the advice will often turn on the meanings to be given to provisions in the Act that are open to various interpretations . Furthermore , it is accepted that one may legitimately structure one 's affairs so as to minimize tax liability . Considered in this legislative context , I have no difficulty in holding that a mistake or ignorance as to one 's liability to pay tax under the Act may negate the fault requirement in the provision , regardless of whether it is a factual mistake , a legal mistake , or a combination of both . '' Not all offenses require specific intent , and a misreading , even in good faith , may not excuse the criminal conduct . A good - faith belief that a law is unjust or unconstitutional is no excuse , but `` reasonable compliance upon an official statement of law , afterward determined to be invalid or erroneous '' does not constitute a criminal act . However , a law must be worded as such , that it affords that a reasonable person who is not an attorney is able to comprehend the specific acts that the law prohibits . Otherwise , the statute may be struck down as unconstitutional pursuant to the Vagueness doctrine . The test for the existence of mens rea may be : ( a ) subjective , where the court must be satisfied that the accused actually had the requisite mental element present in his or her mind at the relevant time ( for purposely , knowingly , recklessly etc ) ( see concurrence ) ; ( b ) objective , where the requisite mens rea element is imputed to the accused , on the basis that a reasonable person would have had the mental element in the same circumstances ( for negligence ) ; or ( c ) hybrid , where the test is both subjective and objective . ( a ) subjective , where the court must be satisfied that the accused actually had the requisite mental element present in his or her mind at the relevant time ( for purposely , knowingly , recklessly etc ) ( see concurrence ) ; ( b ) objective , where the requisite mens rea element is imputed to the accused , on the basis that a reasonable person would have had the mental element in the same circumstances ( for negligence ) ; or ( c ) hybrid , where the test is both subjective and objective . The court will have little difficulty in establishing mens rea if there is actual evidence -- for instance , if the accused made an admissible admission . This would satisfy a subjective test . But a significant proportion of those accused of crimes make no such admissions . Hence , some degree of objectivity must be brought to bear as the basis upon which to impute the necessary component ( s ) . It is always reasonable to assume that people of ordinary intelligence are aware of their physical surroundings and of the ordinary laws of cause and effect ( see causation ) . Thus , when a person plans what to do and what not to do , he will understand the range of likely outcomes from given behaviour on a sliding scale from `` inevitable '' to `` probable '' to `` possible '' to `` improbable '' . The more an outcome shades towards the `` inevitable '' end of the scale , the more likely it is that the accused both foresaw and desired it , and , therefore , the safer it is to impute intention . If there is clear subjective evidence that the accused did not have foresight , but a reasonable person would have , the hybrid test may find criminal negligence . In terms of the burden of proof , the requirement is that a jury must have a high degree of certainty before convicting , defined as `` beyond a reasonable doubt '' in the United States and `` sure '' in the United Kingdom . It is this reasoning that justifies the defenses of infancy , and of lack of mental capacity under the M'Naghten Rules , an alternate common law rule ( e.g. , Durham test ) , and one of various statutes defining mental illness as an excuse . Moreover , if there is an irrebuttable presumption of doli incapax - that is , that the accused did not have sufficient understanding of the nature and quality of his actions -- then the requisite mens rea is absent no matter what degree of probability might otherwise have been present . For these purposes , therefore , where the relevant statutes are silent and it is for the common law to form the basis of potential liability , the reasonable person must be endowed with the same intellectual and physical qualities as the accused , and the test must be whether an accused with these specific attributes would have had the requisite foresight and desire . In English law , s8 Criminal Justice Act 1967 provides a statutory framework within which mens rea is assessed . It states : A court or jury , in determining whether a person has committed an offense , ( a ) shall not be bound in law to infer that he intended or foresaw a result of his actions by reasons only of its being a natural and probable consequence of those actions ; but ( b ) shall decide whether he did intend or foresee that result by reference to all the evidence , drawing such inferences from the evidence as appear proper in the circumstances . A court or jury , in determining whether a person has committed an offense , ( a ) shall not be bound in law to infer that he intended or foresaw a result of his actions by reasons only of its being a natural and probable consequence of those actions ; but ( b ) shall decide whether he did intend or foresee that result by reference to all the evidence , drawing such inferences from the evidence as appear proper in the circumstances . ( a ) shall not be bound in law to infer that he intended or foresaw a result of his actions by reasons only of its being a natural and probable consequence of those actions ; but ( b ) shall decide whether he did intend or foresee that result by reference to all the evidence , drawing such inferences from the evidence as appear proper in the circumstances . ( a ) shall not be bound in law to infer that he intended or foresaw a result of his actions by reasons only of its being a natural and probable consequence of those actions ; but ( b ) shall decide whether he did intend or foresee that result by reference to all the evidence , drawing such inferences from the evidence as appear proper in the circumstances . Under s8 ( b ) therefore , the jury is allowed a wide latitude in applying a hybrid test to impute intention or foresight ( for the purposes of recklessness ) on the basis of all the evidence . This section does not cite any sources . Please help improve this section by adding citations to reliable sources . Unsourced material may be challenged and removed . ( July 2008 ) ( Learn how and when to remove this template message ) This section does not cite any sources . Please help improve this section by adding citations to reliable sources . Unsourced material may be challenged and removed . ( July 2008 ) ( Learn how and when to remove this template message ) One of the mental components often raised in issue is that of motive . If the accused admits to having a motive consistent with the elements of foresight and desire , this will add to the level of probability that the actual outcome was intended ( it makes the prosecution case more credible ) . But if there is clear evidence that the accused had a different motive , this may decrease the probability that he or she desired the actual outcome . In such a situation , the motive may become subjective evidence that the accused did not intend , but was reckless or willfully blind . Motive can not be a defense . If , for example , a person breaks into a laboratory used for the testing of pharmaceuticals on animals , the question of guilt is determined by the presence of an actus reus , i.e. entry without consent and damage to property , and a mens rea , i.e. intention to enter and cause the damage . That the person might have had a clearly articulated political motive to protest such testing does not affect liability . If motive has any relevance , this may be addressed in the sentencing part of the trial , when the court considers what punishment , if any , is appropriate . In such cases , there is clear subjective evidence that the accused foresaw but did not desire the particular outcome . When the accused failed to stop the given behavior , he took the risk of causing the given loss or damage . There is always some degree of intention subsumed within recklessness . During the course of the conduct , the accused foresees that he may be putting another at risk of injury : A choice must be made at that point in time . By deciding to proceed , the accused actually intends the other to be exposed to the risk of that injury . The greater the probability of that risk maturing into the foreseen injury , the greater the degree of recklessness and , subsequently , sentence rendered . For example , at common law , an unlawful homicide committed recklessly would ordinarily constitute the crime of voluntary manslaughter . One committed with `` extreme '' or `` gross '' recklessness as to human life would constitute murder , sometimes defined as `` depraved heart '' or `` abandoned and malignant heart '' murder . Here , the test is both subjective and objective . There is credible subjective evidence that the particular accused neither foresaw nor desired the particular outcome , thus potentially excluding both intention and recklessness . But a reasonable person with the same abilities and skills as the accused would have foreseen and taken precautions to prevent the loss and damage being sustained . Only a small percentage of offences are defined with this mens rea requirement . Most legislatures prefer to base liability on either intention or recklessness and , faced with the need to establish recklessness as the default mens rea for guilt , those practising in most legal systems rely heavily on objective tests to establish the minimum requirement of foresight for recklessness .